mm l?!w!-;;v r^ I ■/ Class T4 5 Book._JlAi Copyriglit}]" COPYRIGHT DEPOSm EVERETT'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE By MARSHALL EVERETT The Great Descriptive Writer and Historian A Complete Library of Universal Knowledge Condensed into One Volume The Culmination of Centuries of Human Efforts Showing the Newest and Most Wonderful Inventions and The World's Great Progress in Science and Commerce The Great Industries of the World Photographed and Explained Showing the Wonderful Mechanical Methods of this Century Including a Complete Index and A Valuable List of Review Questions for Home Study Superbly Illustrated with a Vast Number of Engravings Made from Photographs. Explaining and Beautifying the Text. Copyright igoj by HENRY NEIL THE BIBLE HOUSE 323 DEARBORN ST. CHICAGO, ILL. ^V5 u\ JUL 20 ly^^ PREFACE OF all the books ever made I believe this one contains by far the greatest amount of Practical Knowledge ever condensed into one volume. No busy man, woman or child can look at a single page without finding something that will both interest and instruct. Here are the Wonderful Inven- tions and Strange Devices of Mankind Explained and Photographed so that any one will understand at a glance. No field of modern research has been left untouched, no arena of activity has been neglected, no portion of the globe has been overlooked or forgotten when gathering facts for this, the most concise and yet comprehensive work ever offered to the public. It sets before the reader in a nutshell all the important and wonderful inven- tions of all people and all the great discoveries of all nations. In the shop, on the railroad, in the store, on the farm, in the factory, in the home, in the school, and amid the whirl of mighty machinery, questions constantly confront us, all of which are answered in this volume and the answers can readily be found by the complete index. I have never seen such a wealth of useful pictures in one volume before — the publishers have certainly gone to an unusual large expense in making illus- trations. The publishers of this magnificent volume have spared no expense to present to the intelhgent reading public a comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date ency- clopaedia of the latest inventions and improvements in the scientific and mechani- cal world ; the work is primarily intended for busy people who desire facts, yet who wish to be spared the labor of long and unsatisfactory researches through libraries, museums, and histories. In the space allotted to science in this delightful book are described the latest marvels : liquid air, the wireless telegraph, the new uses of the X Ray, the ad- vance in experiments toward the perfect air ship, telegraphing pictures, and many other wonderful feats never before dreamed of. There are a large number of very interesting accounts of inventions along the mechanical line, many partake of the nature of the scientific. Here the reader learns that the dreams of Jules Verne have come true, and that man may now safely travel the bottom of the sea. Besides submarine boats, there are here treated such subjects as battleships and modern war engines, moving pictures, great engineering feats, automobiles, bridges, canals, monster printing presses, type-setting machines, iron and steel mills and foundries and stereotyping pro- cesses. I believe this volume will be of great practical benefit to all who use it. MARSHALI. EVERKTT, INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY AN EASV METHOD OF "POSTING" ON ANV GIVEN SUBJECT THE following series of questions pertaining to the subjects treated in this volume is intended as a key to help unlock the great fund of information stored within its pages and to impress that information upon the mind. The list contains inquiries which point toward every quarter of human research and human achievement. It covers the universe, and touches all things which are wont to attract the attention and engross the minds of readers and thinkers. As we stated in the Introduction, the book itself is a compendium of knowl- edge prepared for the twentieth-century man or woman who is too busy to wade through dense volumes, in order to obtain facts and figures that are here pre- sented in a nutshell. In daily business and social intercourse, all persons are at times confronted by problems requiring immediate solution. To aid in readily solving them, these questions are formulated and the responses indicated. They will be found to meet the constantly recurring needs of men and women in every vocation, serving as a medium of ready reference, not only to the student and the teacher, but to the mechanic, the farmer, the artist, the railroader, the clerk, the housekeeper, the sportsman, the speculator, the clergyman, the inventor, and all seekers for useful knowledge. The asking and answering of these questions will be a benefit to all members around the evening fireside, and prove a welcome and unique entertainment at social gatherings, where knowledge as well as pleasure is the object in view. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. AIRSHIPS. Questions Ansiccrs Questions Ans'a'crs Page Page Of what is the aeroplane made? 45 Who made a trip in an airship across the How long did the trip in the flying ma- English Channel ? lOO chine take? 45 Why was the airship of great use to the Who is the great inventor of the airship ? . 86 Japanese ? ,.167 Can persons be made comfortable in the What country is ahead in aerial naviga- airship ? 86 tion ? 282 xvii. XVlll INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. AUTOMOBILES. Questions Answers Page Where is the only motor street sprinkler in use ? 38 Will the motor sprinkler come into practi- cal use ? 38 What is the automatic journey recorder ?.. 130 In what country do horses ride in autos?..i45 What is taking the place of pneumatic tires ? 189 How is the spring wheel constructed? 189 Where is there an automobile school for Questions Answers Page horses ? 255 Who owns the first auto' built in the United States ? 256 How can an automobilist secure a light without matches ? 267 Where did an auto replace a mule? 286 Where was an auto used for a plow? 289 How are are lamps trimmed by autos? 294 Where is there a windmill automobile?. .. .299 Where is there a gearless automobile?. .. .306 BATTLESHIPS. How could a battleship be converted into How can a boat be protected against tor- a hotel? 84 pedo attacks? 214 What was the greatest naval battle of mod- How are wounded men transported on Ger- ern times ? 120 man vessels ? 225 What are the fear of ships of underwater What is the new ship for training Ameri- attacks? 213 canjackies? .■ 233 BOATS. How are boats built by paper patterns?. . . .103 How are the ribs of a boat bent ? 103 How can the wood of a boat be made dark? .103 How long is the Vraad ? i33 Do the crew of the Vraad ever come on deck? 133 Of what is the mast on the Vraad made?. .133 How can sails be hoisted from the deck?. .168 Is yachting in ice boats becoming popular?. 169 Of what is the unsinkable life boat made?. .205 Is it right for the United States to make submarines and sell them to foreign na- tions ? 220 Where is there a motor house boat? 224 How is the motor house boat run? 224 Where is the largest fire boat ever built in England ? 226 How large should motor boats be for ocean races ? 227 Where is there a floating church? 305 Has motor boating become popular? 317 Are the English yachting festivals gay?. . . .^27 How can a house boat be built? 330 BRIDGES. Where is the highest bridge in the world being built ? 46 What is the safety motor cradle which hangs from this bridge ? • 46 How were the 'men who were to work on the bridge sent across the gorge? 47 How much did the thousand foot long bridge cost ? 53 How was the draw bridge of the Bastile discovered ? 96 Where is there a remarkable rolling bridge ? 159 Where is the only aerial ferry in America?. 204 What is the signal for broken bridges?. . .217 What are the difficulties of bridge building in the Philippines ? 234 What was the cost of the St. Paul bridge?. 321 INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HLOME STUDY. XIX CONSTRUCTION. Questions Answers Page Where is a warehouse being built of con- crete ? 45 What is taking the place of wooden posts?. 52 What are iron band pavements ? 64 Where is there to be a new dam built ? 70 In whose control will the new dam be ? . . . . 70 How are concrete blocks tested ? 149 Does concrete preserve metals from rust?. 153 What city is going to erect a mausoleum like that of Westminster ? 154 Questions Anszvers Page Can concrete be used for street paving?.. 156 Where is the largest dam in the world?.. 159 Where is there a light house made of beton and steel ? 253 What are some of the signs used by foreign draftsmen? 288 How are deep water excavations possible?. 304 What is the present appearance of the fa- mous Culebra cut ? 314 What became of the abandoned derricks on the Panama canal ? 316 DISCOVERIES. Can gold be extracted from sea water?. . . .128 What is second in hardness to a diamond?. 133 Did the Romans know how to make wire rope? 238 How old is the wire rope found in the ruins of Pompeii? 238 DISINFECTANTS. How long does it take the disinfecting ma- chine to disinfect everything? 52 Where is the disinfecting machine used?. . . 52 What is now used for disinfecting in a hos- pital? 91 What is used for killing insects on fruit trees in California ? i^ What is the cost for an outfit for killing insects ? if ELECTRICITY. How do electric meters work? 94 Where is there an electric bakery? 151 How is the electric bakery worked? 151 What new method is now used to protect electricians ? 162 How is an electric heater made ? 163 What is now replacing the old horse-drawn fire engines, in England ? 166 Of what use is the bullet-proof motor?. . . .179 Where is the bullet-proof motor used? 179 Is California noted for its electrical engi- neering? 184 Are electric fans of any use during winter ? 198 What is of great importance in a fort?... 270 Where was there a brilliant electrical dis- play? 281 How could weeds be taken from a ship's bottom by electricity ? 303 EXPLOSIVES. What is the new use for calcium carbide?. 39 How can wood be set on fire by steam?.. 157 How is calcium carbide used as an ex- ^j^^^ j^ ^^^^ „^^^ explosive? 219 plosive ? 40 ^r 1 . • ,1 J 1 -J Q What substance of Mitchellite was found Oi what IS the new gunpowder van made.'^. 02 How are bombs sent to royalty? 97 • to do the work of three pounds of dyna- Are the bomb experts well paid? 97 mite? 219 XX INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. EXPERIMENTS. Questions Answers Questions Ansivers Page Page What was Peter Nissen's great experi- When did he make his last and ill-fated ment ? 203 trip ? 203 What great feat did Nissen successfully What was the size and general appearance perform ? 203 of the Foolkiller ? 203 GAS ENGINES. How is the uiack smoke utilized in Bel- gium ? 43 From what can fluid gas be made? 86 How many types of gas meters are in use?. 94 How do gas meters work ? 94 Where is the largest gas engine power plant How many gasoline engines are used on a well boring machine ? 190 How many cubic feet of gas does the larg- est plant in the world produce in 20 hours ? 191 What is a good substitute for gasoline?. . .229 in the world? 184 How is city water run by alcohol motor?. .321 H'IGH PLACES. Where is the highest bridge in the world burns out ? 126 being built? 46 How is a very high steeple climbed ? 182 Where is there a chimney 125 feet high?. . . 70 Where is the only aerial ferry in America ?.204 What is done in Wales when a chimney INDUSTRIES. What is the new process for making bricks in England ? 38 Copper can be made hard enough for what use? 71 How is cotton underwear now made ? . . . . 74 Where is the potter's wheel still used for shaping porcelain ? 78 What is the new way of drying tea? 118 How long does it take to pack a no lb. chest of tea ? 119 In any other country is the fish culture as great as in the United States? 123 How is salmon hatched? 124 How is fish sent out on boats ? 125 What are the best months for cutting ice?. 136 Do ice houses with ice in them ever bum?. 137 How are glass bath tubs made ? 183 What is the automatic sculptor? 224 How are mirrors made? zzy Where is the most quicksilver produced?. .228 What is a bucket tramway? 249 What do many fishermen use for polishing their lines ? 254 How is corn cob meal made ? 269 What is the price of crude rubber? 294 How do the Mexicans tell where there is water? 318 Of what are rain-proof hats made? 2,22 INVENTIONS. Who was the man who invented the ma- chine so a person can sign a check a thousand miles away? 63 How is the long-distance writing machine operated ? 64 What is the stenophile ? 85 INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. xxi INVENTIONS.— Continued. Questions Ansivers Page What will soon be the companion of the typewriter ? 85 How is the machine for short-hand used ? . 85 What is the Tantalum lamp? 130 Who is the designer of the machine that predicts the tides ? 209 Questions Ansivcrs Page Of what is the new automatic fire alarm made ? 23 1 Where is there a coaster clock? 287 Who is the inventor of the seeing wire?.. 293 Where is there a ten-hour clock? 318 LUMBERING. When was the first saw mill erected in this country ? 33 Of what did the machinery in the first saw mill consist ? 33 About how many feet of open cut timber does California, Washington and Oregon contain ? 34 On what woods is the fir most valuable?.. 34 Who says what trees are to be cut? 34 Is the work of lumbering carried on with factory-like system ? 35 How is the lumber drawn to the yarding ground ? 35 MACHINERY. What is the only kind of machinery said to be safe in mining ? 53 Where is the best machine for manufactur- ing pins ? 58 Where is the largest pin factory in the world ? 58 Where were fine files formerly made ? 60 Where are fine files made now ? 60 In how many sections is the face of each die? 61 Why are some files made by hand? 61 When is the makers' name stamped on the file? 62 What is used to lift piles of pig-iron?... 65 Has any human hand touched the pile of pig-iron ? 65 What is the motive power for hoisting the pile? 65 How is gravel elevated and screened?.... 86 How is Portland cement manufactured?.. 87 What is done at the chalk grinding house?. 88 From the chalk house where does the ce- ment go ? 89 What is the electric coal shovel ?. 113 On what river is the Shawinigan power house ? 134 What was recently placed in the power house at Shawinigan Falls, Canada? 134 Has Japan its own foundries ? 144 How are emery wheels made ? 160 How is crude oil transmitted by pipe ? . . . . 167 What are * the portable water distilling plants? 207 What is the clam shell bucket? 210 How many tons will the clam shell bucket unload at a single operation? 210 How can water power be multiplied? 232 How are sunken treasures to be raised?.. 237 From what is the word telpherage de- rived ? 243 Of what does the telpher line consist ?... .243 What is the Porcupine ? 278 How is the Porcupine used ? 278 Who made the machine to do embossing?. .284 What is the automatic meal scoop? 292 What is a hydraulic lift lock? 295 How many men does the operation of the hydraulic lift lock require? 297 What was the cost of the hydraulic lift lock ? 297 xxii ~ INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. Questions Answers Questions Answers Page Page What was recently invented for the injured tion ? 193 in the navy? 49 Why is it so many men die while inside a What surgeon has served as the President's caisson? 252 physician ? 51 What is the new invention which is most Why are dentists now put on ocean liners?. 55 useful to surgeons? 257 For what is compressed air used in den- What city is to have the greatest hospital tistry? 59 in the world? 297 How can a person be revived from suffoca- MINING. What is the new way of mining coal?.... 69 What is the great difficulty in deep min- How can the range of a mountain be found ing? 216 by one man ? 100 How is coal and ore handled at important Are mining experts in great demand?. .. .216 lake ports? 261 MISCELLANEOUS. How can sand be blown out of wells?.... 48 What is the new way of watering cut flow- ers and vegetables in a greenhouse?.... 55 How is water pumped in Mexico? 57 Where are Japanese jinrickshas built?.... 70 How can a rusty screw be loosened ? 86 How can putty be softened ? 86 Why are oak boxes placed on some tombs in Paris ? 92 How is Dakota irrigated ? 93 How can a room be ventilated during a storm ? 93 What is the art of nail driving? . .106 What is the weight of the earth? 116 What was the oil combat in Kansas? 120 What is the largest diamond in the world?. 145 How can a refrigerator be kept cool with- out ice ? 148 How are sewers cleaned? 150 What is a simple tempering recipe? 179 Where is the smallest restaurant in the world? 182 How long and how wide is the smallest restaurant ? 182 How is a snare drum tightened? 187 How can lime be removed in water jacket?. 190 What is the latest way of opening and clos- ing windows ? 195 What is a good shellac varnish? 195 How can iron and steel be protected from corrosion ? 195 , How can a good black board paint be made ? 196 How are ostrichs selected for the market?. 197 How can paper be straightened? 225 How were log water mains made? 232 Who is the only woman sword fisher? 240 How can bank vaults be opened in an emergency ? 248 How can a child's desk be made at home?. .254 What is the new brush for washing win- dows ? 260 Where are a great many of England's horse shoes made ? 276 How can bicycle tires be kept from creep- ing? 289 Where is there a portable steel cage for convicts ? 307 How much water is wasted in Chicago an- nually? 319 What is the amount of soda water Ameri- cans drink? t,2t, What kind of target practice is held in Germany? 331 Who lived in the water for fifteen days?.. 332 INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS EOR HOME STUDY. xxiii PHOTOGRAPHY. Questions Anst^ How do the Japanese lay mines ? 326 What were the supplies captured at Port How many Russian soldiers will wear bul- Arthur ? 114- let-proof garments ? t,t,2 SCIENCE. What was Prof. Loeb's experiment? 106 What is a precaution against malarial What is frazil ice ? 108 fever ? 194 What are some of the cures with electric How is milk pasteurized ? 331 light? 15-2 STEAMBOATS. What are the dimensions of the Dakota, the new ocean liner ? 58 What is now the largest vessel in the world? 71 Plow many people will the Caronia carry?. 71 How many tons of steel were used in the construction of the Caronia? 72 What river boat made a thousand mile 93 ocean voyage Qe ? What was done to accelerate the speed of ships ? I TO How is a sunken vessel raised? 126 Where is there a floating light house? 147 What is the length of the new pilot ship Eraser ? 189 What is the largest troop ship in the world ? 202 Where was the largest troop ship launched ? 202 How is the speed of a ship told before it is built? 239 Where was the Victoria launched? 277 What is the largest steamship ever built?.. 300 What steamer sails on Infty mountains?. . .335 INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR HOME STUDY. STEAAI ENGINES. XXV Questions Aiiszccrs Page Why do contractors find a portable pump- ing engine very convenient? ^7 Why is the machinery built low in a pump- ing engine ? :iy Of what is the London steam motor fire en- gine made ? 39 Is the American engineer comfortable in his cab ? 78 Of what is the new helmet for firemen made ? 113 What is the warming booth for firemen?.. 114 What country is first in fire departments?. .145 Questions Answers Page Where was a freak engine used? 148 What is a substitute for coal and wood for locomotive fuel ? 152 What is the Kerr compound steam turbine?. 155 What is the new type of German locomo- tive ? 187 How is fire hose dried by electricity? 267 Who was the founder of the Baldwin loco- motive works ? 272 What is the diiTerence in firemen? 279 How does a traction engine travel in the air? 309 TELEGRAPH. Is the United States in need of night sig- House ? » 283 nals ? 138 How many different codes are used in the What is the Coston system ? 138 White House ? 2S3 Is there a telegraph station in the White TELEPHONES. What is the movable telephone ? 64 Of what use was the telephone in the Jap- anese army ? 68 How should one talk through a telephone?. 146 What was the old way of erecting tele- phone poles ? 265 What is the new way ? 265 How are messages timed? 290 TRANSPORTATION. How are parcels carried in [Manchester, England ? 71 How is mail collected in Australia? 74 In what country is the bicycle most popu- lar? 126 How was a brick house moved down the river a distance of five miles? 131 How long will it take mail to go through a pneumatic tube from Chicago to Milwau- kee ? 176 What is the rural free mail delivery? 178 How are cannons hauled ? 183 Where are there electric mail wagons?. .. .217 Are asphalt roads bad for horses? 225 How is the mail carried in Thibet? 233 During August, 1904, how many pieces of baggage were handled at the Union Sta- tion at St. Louis? 281 TUNNELS. How long is the Simplon tunnel ? in tunnel ? 112 For what purpose was the Simplon tunnel What will be the cost of the Simplnn tun- built? TIT nel? ^ 112 How long did it take to build the Simplon xxvi INDEX AND REVIEW QUESTIONS EOR HOME STUDY. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Questions Anszvers Questions Answers Page ■ Page Was the wireless message sent from Chi- telegraphy? 171 cago to Key West a success? 98 How is the receiving instrument put on How does London keep in touch with its the tree ? 175 government in India? 109 Where is there a new system of wireles" Has the United States any wireless teleg- telegraph being tried? 312 raphy stations ? no Where is the largest wireless telegraph sta- How are trees of great use in wireless tion ? 2)2Z s^ Harvesting the Forests by Machinery Conditions Presented hy NortH\irestern Forests Made CKan^e in L^aborious MetHods Imperative In no other industry of such great com- mercial importance and rank as lumbering have the primitive methods of labor ob- tained for so many years. In 1634 the first sawmill in this country was erected on the falls of the Piscataqua on the bound- ary line between Maine and New Hamp- shire. The machinery consisted of a saw S'tretched upon a huge gate or frame, run- peculiar buzz of the perfect saws which turn out train loads of lumber daily in one of our modern sawmills. But, strangely enough, the old methods of logging, until very re- cently, underwent no relative improvement. The trees were felled and loaded on sleds and conveyed to some water course to wait for the spring freshets' to carry them .down to the sawmills— the whole process being Log^inig L^ocomotive and Woods* Creiv, Includinsf tl\e CooK and His Boxes of Provisions ning in wooden slides on ponderous side posts and having the pitman connected di- rect to an overshot wheel. The changes from that time to this in sawmill equipment need only be suggested. Nearly everyone is' familiar with the whirr of the mighty machinery and the 33 carried on by man and horse labor and the work only lasting through the winter months when the snow was sufficient for .sledding. Maine saw her forests of pine and spruce depleted and wasted by unscien- tific methods, and still no change; the mid- dle west began to offer up her primeval 34 E N C Y C L P J'J D I A stores, and yet no great inventive econo- mist rose to stay the improvident liand. Then across' the continent tow^ard tlie Pacific and the Oregon crept the destructive caravan, hewing its path into a wilderness of sncli magnificent growth as only those who have seen can realize. Here grew the California redwood, the Washington fir, the Oregon pine— a vast wealth, undespoiled. Here, how- ever, the old methods of logging did not apply; the trees Avere of such huge growth and the little snow that fell during the rainy season so quickly turned to slush in that salubrious clime. Thus it remained for the Great Northwest to apply the long de- layed "American method." In time the steel rail threaded the forests, machinery replaced many men and horses masts of ships. It is used exclusively in the construction of all the war vessels of the United States navy, excepting for interior decoration, for the masts and spars of rac- ing yachts and for flag poles to fly the colors of almost every nation in the world. In the grey dawn— or earlier— the woods' crew turn out of their bunks, which rise tier upon tier along the walls of the log house, and after a hearty breakfast in the cook-house are off to their work in the woods. The trees to be felled are marked by experts Avho know exactly what trees to choose in order to facilitate the worlv. The direction the tree should fall is indicated by cutting a notch in that side. No sooner do tlie markers leave a tree than the fellers are there with their saw and sharp two- IvOifs Yarded Near and power was applied wherever possible. The work, too, Avas apportioned and sys- tematized, each man having skill in his pe- culiar task, and the operations being con- ducted on a huge scale throughout the yeax". For instance, take a lumber company pos- sessing 1,000,000 acres of timber land— not an unusual number— it will likely employ 500 men and use 100 horses, 25 donkey en- gines, 10 log loaders and will have built up- wards of 100 miles of railway. It is esti- mated tliat California, Washington and Ore- gon contain 840,000,000,000 ft. of uncut tim- ber! Of the Northwestern woods the fir is the most valuable. It attains a height of 300 ft, is straight-grained and suitable for the a BrancH R.ailtvay edged axes. Spring boards are stuck in notches cut in the tree and on these the fellers stand while sawing. The saw, ordi- narily, is from eight to ten ft. long, hav- ing a handle at each end and is operated by two men. Sometimes a tree is so large that two saws must be spliced together. The first cut is made on the side of the fall six or eight ft. above the ground, to avoid the heavy sap and hard grain at the base, at right angles to the line of direction of the fall, and one-third way through the trunk. The sharp two-edged axes are then used to make an undercut and then the fellers begin sawing from the other side. While thej^ work the saw is kept free of resin by E N CYCLOP E L) I A 35 means of a bottle of petroleum hung against the tree. So skillful are the fellers that in the final operation of inserting wedges in the last cut made, they can calculate the fall within a few inches. The tree falls with a crash that shakes the earth and rever- berates through the dim forest, but the fel- lers do not pause to regard the fallen mon- arch. The work is carried on with factory- like system and they are off to another marked tree almost immediately. Likewise the fallen tree has hardly settled into place before it is marked off into the required lengths— from 28 to 40 ft. Men called ''buck- ers" saw up the logs as marked, using a stiff saw having but one handle. The bark is cut from the side of the log on which it is to be dragged, by "barkers." This saves friction in passing over the rough ground. In the meantime the path of the log to the "yarding" point has been cleared of un- derbrush and other obstacles by "swamp- ers." The "yarding" place is some conven- ient central point where the logs are col- lected until such time as they shall be sent to the banks of a stream or to a branch railway to be loaded on flat cars. Where a company has many miles of track threading its acreage the yarding may be done imme- Sboiiv^in^ DonKey Engine and Cable THe Fellers ivitH Tbeir Sa'w and Tivo«£d^ed Axes diately alongside a railway. In conveying "yarded" logs to the railway or stream two donkey engines are used. These engines have reels wound with steel wire cable, from 500 to 3,000 ft. of % to 1-in. wire to a reel, and the two engines are stationed the length of the cable apart. The hook tender then fastens a heavy chain, which is attached to the cable, to the log by means of gripping hooks and the yarding engine drags the logs to the main skid road. The log is then gripped by the hooks on the ca- ble of the other engine, and it is dragged rapidly over the road to the point desired, nothing interrupting its passage, save a break in the cable or some accident to the engine. To make a turn the cable is run over blocks fastened to trees and stumps and, at a signal from the hook tender when the turn is reached, the engine is stopped till the block is removed. A smaller cable trails after the log as it is dragged along and by this the yarding engine draws l)ack the cable from the landing engine. Time was Avhen these same engines were used for loading the cars, but now the ideal loader runs on the railway track and the loading is accomplished much more rapidly. This engine is self-propelling and the larg- est size will handle logs sealing up to 2,000 36 ENCYCLOPEDIA Lroadin^ Flat Cars ft. and not longer than 60 ft. Its power ap- paratus consists of a double cylinder hoisting engine with two friction drums and ample boiler capacity. The hoisting gear includes a heavy swiveled boom block with attach- ments, %-in. steel wire guy lines, 150 ft. %- in. steel wire hoisting rope fitted with hook, pull-down ropes, crotch lines and bunch chains. The loader iS' constructed to allow empty cars to pass under it. Each axle is hung in a frame which supports the car and this frame-support is hinged at the top on a large shaft attached to the under side of the deck. The frames may be swung outward and up by means of wire cables ex- tending over wheels at the end of the plat- form. The car settles on shoes at the base of corner legs and the track beneath it is clear. In loading ears the loader pulls a train of "empties" to the first skidway, the wheels of the machine are swung up, the spotting cable is run under the engine back to the second car and they are all pulled forward until the first car is in position un- der the boom. When loading regular fiats, after the front end is loaded the car is hauled forward so that the rear end may be loaded, and so on through the whole string of cars. Logs may be dragged from each side of the loader at the same time, often from a distance of 1,000 ft. They are skidded right up to the car and then the skidding tongs are transferred to the center of the log, or if there are two pair, a pair to each end, which plan holds the log much steadier and makes it easier to place it in position. Tlio great improvement in method is shown in an instance where a log scaling 2,000 ft. was skidded by the loader over 500 ft. of rougli ground and loaded on a car in just 15 minutes. The same task Avould have given men and horses five or six hours hard labor to accomplish. Steam is the power on both donkey en- gines and loader and a pack horse is usually kept busy all day carrying water. The average daily record for the loader is from 100,000 to 125,000 ft. It's operation requires an engineer, a top loader and two hook or ground men. Logs can be loaded from the Avater, from a high bank, or from a ditch. The load is fastened on the car by chains and at last the long train of loaded cars is ready to be hauled to a main line — the load requiring a good strong locomotive. The logging locomotive is to the woods' A. Hti^e I«o^ Felled in the NorthM^estern Forests ENCYCLOPEDIA 37 is used for draining cellars and pumping out sewers and street excavations. With an electric motor directly connected to the pump, in place of the engine and boiler, the apparatus becomes even more ef- ficient, and where an electric current is available the motor is frequently substituted The machinery is arranged low and built especially strong, so that transportation over rough ground is rendered safe. HOW INVALIDS TRAVEL ABROAD. English and German Lines Provide for Their Comfort. Invalid compartments for fast passenger trains is one of the features of transporta- tion- that is receiving considerable attention abroad. English coaches are now provided LrO^ Held Steady "While Loading by Ton^s at EacH End crew what the private carriage is to the citizen. It frequently carries him to and from his business; it conveys the camp cook and provisions, and it is fired by the ever- abundant fuel— wood, which, if necessary, may be replenished at almost any point on the line. A PORTABLE PUMPING ENGINE. The portable pumping engine shown in the illustration has entered upon a wide field of usefulness. Contractors find it espe- cially convenient in pumping water out of excavations and it has become an essential feature of the equipment of the fire and street departments of many cities, where it For Ptimping Out l^xcavations Compartment for Invalids on Ger> man Railivas'S with a special hammock which is kept in the guard's van and may be swung at a moment's notice in case of accident or ill- ness. One German line has provided a more elaborate system and has introduced forty special carriages, which resemble ordinary carriages, except that two com- partments are arranged with a cot and a shelf for medicine, water, etc. The doors are wider, also, so that the bed may be ad- mitted through them. Specially qualified attendants are engaged for these compart- ments. 38 ENCYCLOPEDIA MOTOR STREET SPRINKLER SUPPLANTS FOUR HORSES. Along with the motor fire engine, motor police patrol, motor disinfecting machine, etc., comes the motor street sprinkler, the first one now being in regular service at Hartford, Conn., and already acnredited Avith a promising degree of success In general style the sprinkler resembles the ordinary build of the horse-drawn sprinkler. The iron water tank is of the usual boiler pattern and has a capacity of 600 gallons. This tank is mounted on a medium-weight truck chassis, power being derived from an underslung Exide battery of 44 cells. There are two motors, normally disposing of their horses and horse-draAvn carts immediately. The cost of maintenance will be watched very closely and compared with the old figures; on this basis the actual efficiency of the motor sprinkler will be determined. NEW PROCESS FOR MAKING BRICK. An English gas light and coke company have invented a process utilizing two of their by-products, clinkers from the furnaces and spent lime from the purifiers, in making brick, reports United States Consul Stephens, of Plymouth, England. The proportions of the materials used are Motor Car THat SprinKles rated at from eight to ten horsepower, and the normal speed is six miles per hour. The machine covers from 30 to 40 miles daily in actual use, or about twice the mileage of a two-horse sprinkler with one change of horses; in other words, the machine does about double the work of four horses. It is in the elimiiaation of the horse that the motor sprinkler obtains its greatest advan- tage. At times when the sprinkler cannot be used on account of the season or wet weather the owner is not obliged to main- tain horses in idleness, thus deriving no profit from his expense, as he would in the case of the old vehicle. For use on the paved streets of the city motor vehicles are admirably adapted and it is now but a matter of a short time until they shall be installed for many forms of municipal service. The results with the electric street sprinkler, however, it is said, do not warrant the sprinkling company's Courte'T 01 The Electric Vehicle Co. 40 Miles of Road Per Day about one-fourth lime to one of clinker, and the two are mixed and then raised into a calcining tower and converted into carbonate and silicate of calcium. It is then slaked with water and two more parts of clinker to one of calcium material is added. The proper amount of water is added and the mixture is passed through a tempering mill. After that it is carried to a platform and delivered to a toggle press, out of which the brick is turned in soft form. The bricks are then placed on Avagons and run into an "auto clave," a large tubular vessel, having capacity for 7,000 brick, in which they are subjected to 110-lb. pressure for 12 hours, after which thej' are stacked ready for sale. The resisting strength of these bricks is 350 tons to the 'sqiiare foot and the absorp- tion of Avater is very small— about 414 or 5 per cent. They have successfully with- stood tests of alternate freezing and thaw- ing and also acid tests. ENCYCLOPEDIA 39 MOTOR STEAM FIRE ENGINE FOR LON- DON FIRE BRIGADE. The Loudon fire brigade has just beeu provided with a motor steam fire engine of 50 hp. capable of throwing 500 gal. of water per minute to a height of 150 ft., and the most powerful of its kind in that city. The boiler of the engine is fitted with a petroleum burner of new pattern and pro- duces steam very quickly. A pair of in- verted steam cylinders driving two direct and double-acting pumps comprise the ma- large hose-box and the machine will carry eight firemen and an engineer. The road wheels are of the artillery pattern, with steel rims and solid rubber tires. Engines of similar type have been in- stalled in many of the important English cities. ACETYLENE USED FOR BLASTING. Acetylene has not met expectations for lighting purposes in Germany, according to leading papers there. U. S. Consul -General THe Poiverful Motor Fire Engine of the I^ondon Fire Briiiade chinery, which is placed vertically between the frames in front of the boiler. The poAver for propulsion is taken from a crank- shaft on this engine, says Technics, London, by putting a counter-shaft into gear, from which the road wheels are driven by a pair of steel roller chains running over sprocket wheels. Only one set of machinery is re- quired for propelling and pumping, as it is possible to connect or disconnect the pump pistons from the engines in a few seconds. A hand- wheel with irreversible gear is used for steering and levers for steam, reverse and brakes control the engine. There is a Guenther, at Frankfort, announces a new use for calcium carbide. It can be used as an explosive, the process being a very sim- ple one. By means of an air mixture explosive force is obtained which can compete with that of powder and dynamite. The explo- sion takes place in an air chamber and is caused by an electric spark. For this pur- pose carbide of calcium is reduced to small particles and put into a cartridge, consist- ing of a tin box. In this the carbide lies at the bottom and above it is a partition filled with water. Above this is a vacant space 40 ENCYCLOPEDIA with the electric percussion device. On the side of the cartridge is an iron pin by means of which the partition between the carbide and the water can be perforated. After the drill hole has been completed the cartridge is placed in it and the hole is closed with a wooden stopper. Then the protruding iron pin is dealt a blow, by which the partition is perforated and the water is caused to come in contact with the carbide, whereby acetylene gas" is generated. This mixes with the air of the drill hole. After fiYG minutes the gas is ignited by an electric spark. By this method of blasting the rock is said to be not thrown out, but rent with in- numerable cracks, so that it can be easily removed afterwards. About 1.7 ounces of carbide, which produce about 16 quarts of acetylene gas, are used for each cartridge. TKe Electric Ftineral Car Hats Many .Advantag The electric funeral car is the latest de- parture in street railway equipment, and affords many advantages over the old meth- od of traveling to the cemetery in carriages. The car is run to a point convenient to the house, at a pre-arranged time. The privacy, speed, and AAarmth in winter of the con- veyance combine to relieve what is often a trip dangerous to health, especially of peo- ple advanced in years. The expens'e also is es Over tKe Old "Way mourners. The other compartment is ar- ranged similar to the regular passenger car with cross seats capable of holding thirty- five persons. The casket receptacle is 8% feet long and 32 inches wide, and the top comes to the level of the window rail, leaving plenty of space above for floral" contributions. Access to the casket compartment is had through a door from the outside, hinged at the bottom Electric Funeral Car Used in Buffalo said to be less, placing the conveyance with- in reach of a large number of persons. The International Railway Company of Buffalo, N. Y., at the request of undertakers and the public generally has constructed a car of special design for the sole purpose of carrying funeral parties to cemeteries in the neighboi'hood of Buffalo and surrounding cities. The car was built in the shops of the company, and as' it now stands is divided into two separate compartments. The front and smaller of these contains the casket compartment, which is accessible only from the outside of the cai', and a long- itudinal .seat for the pall-bearers and chief as may be seen in the illustration. In plac- ing the casket in the car the door iS' let down, a sliding shelf is drawn out and the casket laid upon it; after being fastened by several pegs the shelf is pushed back again and the door is locked. The exterior and interior of the car is fin- ished in a dark green with heavy draperies at the windows and doors. A charge of from $25.00 to $35.00 is made for the use of the car, and, says the Street Eailway Journal, the greater comfort, privacy and convenience of the funeral car as compared with horse-dra\vu coaches seem to be ap- preciated by the public. ENCYCLOPEDIA 41 Mexico to Compete ^witH Panama Canal IstKinus R-ailviray SHortens Haul 1,000 Miles or More--Saves Four Days* Time— Cargoes Must be Transferred Immense Electric Crane Used in Building tHe Breakivater Mexico will compete witli the Panama Canal, not with a water route, but with a steam railroad. President Diaz is the mov- ing spirit and is pushing the work with re- lentless energy. Already the track work is completed, and the terminal harbors are be- ing constructed to equal any in the world. The road is 125 miles long, connecting Coatzaeoalcos on the Atlantic side with Salina Cruz, the Pacific port. At both places enormous breakwaters are being built far out into the ocean, and great wharves, some of stone and others of steel are nearing completion. When the plans are worked out a great fleet of the largest ocean-going steamers can tie up and all unload at the same time. It has remained for the present adminis- tration to execute a very old idea. As long ago as the sixteenth century a survey for an isthmu.s canal was made over the route of the present railroad, and from time to time during the succeeding years new plans and re-surveys have been made. Wars and changes in administration have always pre- vented the completion of any of them. Mexicans, Englishmen and Americans have in turn been granted concessions, all of M^hich resulted in failure. In 1881 .James B. Eads, the great Ameri- can engineer, planned a ship railway by means of which loaded vessels were to be floated into a great cradle resting on wheels, and to be drawn by locomotives across the isthmus on a railway of several rails, and again floated at the farther ter- minal. This would have obviated the trans- fer of the cargo as will now be done. Eads was very sanguine of success from an en- gineering standpoint, and was granted a concession. The magnitude and cost of the undertaking, however, discouraged 42 ENCYCLOPEDIA Terminal Harbor Under Constrtxction at Coatzacoalcos to Be One of tHe Finest in tHe World financiers, and this plan, too, was finally isthmns railwaj^ as compared with the abandoned after considerable money had Panama Canal, is stated by Modern Mexico been spent in preliminary work. to be: The concession nnder which the present New York to San Francisco (miles) 1,182 construction has been done, Avas executed ^^'^ ^^^'^^ ^° Sitka " l,2ns May 31. 1904, with the English firm of S. .JJ-! ™^ ^ J^^^-y — ::: L' ]'^ Pearson & Son. This concern took over the New Orleans to San Francisco.... ' 1,854 railway already in operation, completed the Liverpool to San Francisco " 797 gap necessary to finish the line, and began Liverpool to Plonolulu " SQZ the harbor work, which is already well ^^ ^he average freight steamer makes 250 along toward completion. The working "^^^^^ ^ ^^'^^ there is about four days' dif- agreement runs for 51 years, during Avhich Terence in favor of the isthmus railway, al- the net profits are divided between the gov- lowing tAVO days for unloading and re-load- ernment and the Pearsons. For the first 36 ^^S on the railway and one day for pas- years the government receives 65 per cent, ^^^e of steamer through the Panama Canal, the contractors 35 per cent. Thereafter by ^^ course there are many cargoes Avhich it periods of 5 years the government receives ^^'0"1<1 be impractical to transfer, and it is more until during the last 5 years it is to assumed there will always be a waiting have 76y> per cent. steamer at the farther terminal to receive The track is of standard gage, of 80 lb. ^he goods, and destined to the port of de- rail, laid on creosoted pine, native hard- ^^^^ry. In the case of getting a warship woods and California redwood ties. The o^' other vessel across the isthmus of course bridges are steel, the grades and curves ^^^ canal Avould be the only way. easy the highest point is only 760 ft. above ^^ is estimated the cost of canal tolls, say. sea level. The road is very picturesque in $2,000, and four days' sailing, say, $8,000. places, winding through lofty canons Avhich ^or a 5,000-ton cargo would about equal the rise abruptly for 5,000 feet.' transfer and freight charges via the rail- , The road 'is the first in Mexico to burn ^^''^J'' ^^^t there would still be the saving of oil in its locomotives. This oil comes in ^^^^' days time. tank steamers from Beaumont, Texas, and is President Diaz recently completed a tour 30 per cent cheaper than other obtainable of inspection of the railway and harbor fuel. Storage tanks at the Atlantic terminal works, and Avas well satisfied with results constantly contain 1,500,000 gallons; local '^^'eady accomplished and progress being supply stations along the line are kept made. _^^^^^ filled. Oil has been found on the isthmus, * ' * and is expected in the near future to furnish PANAMA CANAL CONSTRUCTION. the supply. Native oil is already sufficient to run the company's machine shops. Construction work on the Panama canal Immense electric cranes are now being ^^H ^^ actively pushed on the same business erected for discharging and loading vessels principles which characterize railroad opera- in the quickest possible time. These cranes ^ions. The President has reorganized the will transfer direct from the ship's hold to canal board and placed in charge an experi- cars, or through hatches in the roof into the cnced railroad man, Theodore P. Shonts, Avho warehouses. The terminal yards are very says "Direct business methods, publicity, and complete; in fact everything has been absolutely no politics— this is the keynote of planned v.'ith the main object of saving time. the policy of the Panama canal commission. The saving in sea travel by using the We are al! pitching in with our coats off, and ENCYCLOPEDIA 43 there Avill be no time lost either now or in the future." As a graceful compliment the govern- ment has sent an invitation to England, France and Germany to furnish each three GOGGLES FOR LOCOMOTIVE DRIVERS. Theodore P. SKonts engineers to assist our own engineering partment in an advisory capacity. de- TO AVOID RISK OF ACETYLENE EXPLO- SIONS. There are a few facts concerning acety- lene gas, Avhich if borne constantly in mind and properly regarded will greatly eliminate the dangers of explosion with this gas. Acetylene gas is of the same weight as at- mospheric air, consequently it cannot be removed from a <'e<"eptacle by merely open- ing the receptacle, nor even by forcing air into it, but the gas and air combine to form an explosive. For this reason a light should never be brought near acetylene apparatus which is being cleaned; repairs of a vessel that has held acetylene until it has been filled with water should not be made with a soldering iron or flame. A person smoking tobacco should not approach the acetylene. Acetylene gas apparatus should not be made of zinc, as this metal is especially subject to the action of the gas, and two years is sufficient to disintegrate it and leave it full of small holes. Galvanized iron, or black iron galvanized after it has been made up. is advised as a suitable metal, and the apparatus should be most carefully test- ed, as the lowest explosive limit of this gas is 3 per cent acetylene and 97 per cent aii*. Engineers on the Chicago and Alton Rail- road sj'stem now protect their eyes by the use of automobile goggles. The goggles were first tried by Engineer Frank Benja- min, driver of the fast passenger train run- ning between Chicago and St. Louis and known as the "Hummer." The engine is a monster, with driving wheels 7 ft. 2 in. in diameter and capable of making a speed of 70 miles an hour under ordinary pressure. At the top of a certain grade on the line Avhere the highway runs parallel with the track, automobilists often wait for the fast train and race with it. It was at this time Benjamin realized that the automobilists had one point of advantage— their goggles- while his eyes were filled with dust. The next run when Benjamin poked his head Engineer Benjamin 'Wearing His Gog'^les out of the cab window, he also wore a pair. The goggles are an important innovation among the engineers on the Alton, and when they come in from a run with grimj- hands and faces, the clear white disk around the eyes testifies to the protection afforded by their use. UTILIZING BLACK SMOKE. Black smoke is utilized in many Belgian factories instead of being allowed to pass off into the open air, says the Journal of Gas and Sanitary Engineering, London. Fans drive the smoke into a porous recep- tacle, over Avhich flows a stream of petrol- eum or other liquid and the smoke is con- verted into gas. This gas gives a high heat and is used for running gas engines. 44 ENCYCLOPEDIA HOW TO TAKE MICROPHOTOGRAPHS. Any photographer can take up the branch of microphotography without putting a large sum into special apparatus. Ordinarily the photographer considers that this branch in- volves an outlay of about $300 and then a year's time spent in learning to run the ma- pensed with. microscope as nearly as possible. An image can be secured without either camera lens or microscope eyepiece, or without both, but more satisfactory results are secured with these lenses in place. Cover the juncture of the camera and the microscope with black cloth. This too can, on occasion, be dis- Arran^ement of Camera and Microscope chinery successfully. He is deluded! Mi- crophotographs can be made with an ordi- nary camera — any camera which has a ground glass for focusing will serve. Mount the object to be photographed and place it in a compound microscope in the usual way. Bring down the microscope tube till its axis is horizontal and place the sub- stage reflector so as to throw a strong light through the section. Then place the camera directly back of the microscope, so that the camera lens is within a half inch of the microscope eyepiece, the axis of the camera lens coinciding with the lens in the Section of Pluan Graft To locate and focus the image on the ground glass, the substage reflector must be adjusted so that it gives a strong and even illumination all over the fleld and both mi- croscope and camera must be focused. These last tv/o operations can be combined at times, to an extent, and after a little prac- tice exact focusing becomes an acquired habit, and with the naked eye a minute dif- ference in microscope focus can be dis- cerned. Anything that can be seen in the micro- scope can be photographed on the plate in this way, and sometimes- the effect in the photograph is better that that which was impressed on the vision. The quality of the Avork is equal to that produced with expen- sive machinery. The illustration gives an example of the results obtained with this apparatus. The subject is an indifferent sec- tion of wood tissue, unstained, and prepared not at all. It is magnified 1,000 diameters and the pitted wood cells of the ducts are plainly visible. ♦ » » During a recent voyage when a heavy fog had shut down and rendered navigation perilous, the liners "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and the "Teutonic" were warned of the latitude and longitude of many huge icebergs by means of wireless telegraph messages sent from the Cunarder "Caronia." Wireless telegraphy is destined to find its most im- portant field in rendering the navigation of the seas less perilous. ENCYCLOPEDIA 45 Plunges Into Space 4»000 Feet Above tHe EartK Most Daring Test of Fly^ing-MacKine Ever Made— Machine veith Operator To'wed tip by a Balloon and Cut Loose 'Cut Lfoose from a Balloon 4OOO Feet in tHe Air** Cut loose from a balloon 4,000 ft. in the air and under the guidance of a skillful aeronaut, Professor John J. Montgomery's birdlike aeroplane made a successful and spectacular flight at Santa Clara College, California, a few days ago. The machine which weighs but 42 lb. disported itself with something of the grace and buoyancy of a wild bird, though its wings sustained the weight of a 142-lb. man. The aeroplane consists of four wings, hav- ing a spread of 22 ft. and built of spruce ribs with light cross ribs of hickory, upon which canvas is stretched. Each of these wings is rigid at the front, and a series of guy wires which are controlled by the aero- naut run from the frame to which they are attached to points along their sides. When the aeronaut pulls the wires one wing curves downward while the opposite wing relaxes. The four wings are operated as but two. The machine is steered by a tail which the aeronaut raises or lowers at will. When it is tilted upward the machine raises in front, or to dip downward, the tail is lowered. To alight the aeronaut raises the tail at the close of the descent and the machine as- sumes a horizontal position and the aeronaut may step off. Such was the machine on which the flight was made— probably the nearest approach to flying man has ever achieved. The as- cent was made by means of a huge egg- shaped balloon, which broke away from its moorings just before the appointed time and carried the aeronaut up sooner than he had intended. A great altitude was attained with startling rapidity, and at a height of something more than 4,000 ft. the aeroplane was cut loose from the balloon. It instantly settled on its wings while the performer directed it in circles, or caused it to mount or dip. Then he began steering downward, and lighted without the suggestion of a shock on a spot previously selected. The flight occupied just fifteen minutes and was carried out in every particular just as pre- viously arranged. CONCRETE BEAMS 102 FEET LONG. Eight huge concrete beams 102 ft. high support the roof of a concrete warehouse now under construction in Los Angeles, Cal. These beams are the largest ever made of concrete, 52 ft. being the nearest approach. The building in which these huge sup- ports are being used is being built entirely of concrete for experimental purposes. The walls and roof are of concrete blocks and while the front is built up of compressed brick, it is coated over with a layer of the concrete. The last beam finished supports the middle arch of the warehouse and for all its great length is less than 2 ft. thick. Iron hooks were imbedded in the huge beams before the concrete set and it is in- tended to attach a suspended gallery to them. It is said that when the supports were removed from the beams they had settled but sixty-eight-hundredths of an inch.— Contributed by R. W. Elliott, Los Angeles, Cal. 46 EN C Y C LO P K I) I A Building tKe Highest Bridge in the World "WorK Proceeds 4OO Feet Above tKe Zambezi's Boilins' Pot— Hovr tHe TelepHone Furtbered Constrtxction At a point on the Zambezi river, just be- low the magnificent Victoria Falls and where the river disappears into a deep can- on, in the midst of the most luxm'iaut growth and beautiful scenery to be found in Africa, the construction of the highest bridge in the world is proceeding to a suc- cessful completion. In the vast solitude of abysmal deep and link the shores of that smiling land. Just below the precipitous banks strike sheerly down 400 feet to the deep river and the "Boiling Pot" that marks its entrance to the 20-mile canon. Above the river, in mid-air, and suspended from the approach spans by wire ropes, swings' thb groat traveling safety-net or ' Suspended From the ApproacH Spans S'win^s tbe Great Traveling Safet>' Net or Cradle'* an untamed country the bustling camps of workmen with their modern engineering devices have been established for some time, and already the approach spans reach out from either side like two huge arms which would fain clasp hands across the cradle, which is to catch Avorkmen and tools sliould either fall from that giddy height above. The erection of the mighty span is unique in the annals of bridge construction. Ow- ing to the conditions presented by the deep ENvJ YCLOPK I) LA 47 Crossing tHe Gorge in a Slin^ gorge it was impossible to erect scaffolding and the structure, which is built on the cantilever principle, has been entirely self- supporting. The first means of crossing the gorge employed was by firing across a rock- et to which a slender cord was attached. Then a stouter cord was drawn across, and finally a telephone wire, and telephone communication was immediately set up. The distance straight across the gorge at the point selected is only 600 ft., but the tele- phone saved the engineers traveling a dis- tance of ten miles around After the tele- phone wire, came a marked steel wire on which a strain was put. A spring balance which computed the sag of the wire was the means of measuring the strain. For a time workmen and tools swung out across the gorge on a strong steel cable,- later an aerial electric cableway 900 ft. long and capable of carrying ten tons was provided. One of the illustrations shows the aerial car passing along this cable way. The total length of the Victoria bridge, which will form an important link in the Cape to Cairo railroad, is to be 650 ft., com- prising three spans*. The northern approach span will be 6214 ft. long, the southern 8714 ft long and the main span 500 ft. The dis- tance from rail level to low water level is .lust 420 ft. to high water level, 380 ft. In design, the bridge is intended to en- hance rather than detract from the gran- deur of the spot. All that appears above the tracki? is a simple iron railing. There are no concrete piers or unsightly towers; very little masonry is visible; the structure appears but a lattice work of graceful gird- ers. A huge hotel is being constructed near by and an area of six miles on each side of the river is to be reserved as a public park. It is expected that the place will be- come a point of great interest to tourists. The Cape to Cairo route will not be a continuous trunk line, but will comprise 4,000 miles of railroad and 2,000 miles of waterway on lakes and the Nile river. ♦-•-e> NEW TOY FOR THE FOURTH OF JULY. The small boy may yet be able to cele- brate the glorious Fourth after his heart's desires and without danger to himself, de- spite all that has been said about a "blood- less Fourth." A member of the Lehigh Uni- versity, it is said, has invented a toy can- non which makes a loud report and a bright flash, but cannot explode nor burn, and shoots corks only. In this toy an electric spark ignites gas and air, which causes the report and flash and shoots the cork. The flame emitted is of such low temperature that it will not scorch tissue paper. The cost of 5,000 shots by the cannon will not be more than. 5 cents. The Aerial £lec«ric Cable M^hich Noiv Spans tHe Gor^e 48 ENCYCLOPEDIA BLOWING SAND OUT OF WELLS BY COM- PRESSED AIR. High Pressure Creates Artificial Geysers— Ma- terial Spurts 75 Feet Into the Air For removing sand, from wells the com- pressed air method recently experimented with may prove to be superior to the sand- pump, though the method has not as yet • 1 m 1 1 .^ Ki ^^tl^ '• ,. , . ...^^:v:.:p^^^,, ■■•,:,,'' '"WitH Geyser-I^ike CfTect tHe Ma- terial SHot 75 Feet Into tHe Air" been tried under wholly favorable condi- tions. The process consists in pumping up a high pressure in the receiver and discharg- ing it through a small pipe put down into the well. By this means the sand is stirred up and carried off by the large flow of water due to the action of the air-lift. This ac- tion is so violent that any rust on the per- forations is knocked off and blown out also. Three wells of different depths and pre- senting different conditions were experi- mented with In one Avaier and sand shot into the air to a height of 75 ft., making a roaring noise as it came, but despite the amount of material discharged, the flow of the water remained about the same. In another having a 6-in. wooden casing fine sand poured in as rapicjly as it was pumped out. Several important facts were decided, however, says Compresred Air. To obtain good results with the air lift the well must be able to furnish enough water to carry off the sand, rust, etc., in the discharge; it is sometimes better to pump the well stead- ily rather than to use the discharge from the receiver. Sudden diminution of pres- sure on the inside of the casing is caused by a discharge from the receiver, and if the casing is old and the well's water sup- ply small, the casing may collapse. It is not always necessary to put the end of the air pipe at the bottom of the well. With a careful study of these deductions, excellent results may yet be attained by this means. » ♦» SHOOTING THE CHUTE ON BOARD A CRUSIER. At a children's party given on board an English cruiser in the Bosphorus strait re- cently a canvas chute sloping from the up- per bridge down to the deck was rigged up, and was the most popular amusement ar- ranged for the children. As will be noted SHootin^ tHe CHute from the illustration the canvas was se- cured with strong ropes to the guard-rail, and then to test its safety reveral of the heaviest officers made preliminary slides. ENCYCLOPEDIA 4.0 THe Apron StretcHer in Naval Surgery Stirs'eon Ltin^, of the American Navy, Invents a Life-Saving StretcHer. Injured Sailor Bein^ I^et Do>vn From Fi^Htin^ Top. The most important auxiliary to the worli of the surgeon on board a man-of-war, which has appeared in many years has been invented and tested by Dr. George A Lung, chief surgeon on the battleship "Kentucliy," United States Navy. The doctor has named his device tlie "Apron Stretcher"; it is to be used on all the vessels of our navy, and will save not only untold tortures to many a brave sailor, but many lives. It is some- thing which has long been needed, for nowhere are accidents more likely to occur, even in times of peace, than on a modern man-of-war. Owing to the crowding of men in relative- ly small places, the employment of complex 50 ENCYCLOPEDIA Manner of R.etnoval From Turret. mechanical contrivances, and the hazards of nnnsual occupations, many accidents are not uncommon. These conditions that pre- vail in times of peace are aggravated a hnn- dred-fold during an engagement. Then the hurry and excitement, the dangers incident to handling explosives and ammunition, and the firing of various weapons of war, to say nothing of the countless dangers imposed by the enemy, multiply the chances for in- jury innumerably. The character of the in- juries will vary from slight contusions to complete destruction of the body. In a battle on land the fighting line will probably shift its position leaving the wounded in a zone of comparative safety, but on the battleship the removal of the injured is full of peril to both the hospital corps and the wounded. Unless one has been on a modern man-of- war and examined its interior construction he can have no adequate conception of what the naval surgeon has to contend with in his care of the injured. With its mass of machinery, its tangle of pipes, conduits, wires, rods and hoists, its labyrinths of compartments, its maze of long narrow and often tortuous passages, its hatchways leading down to depths or open- ing lip to lofty elevations, it is confusing in the extreme. The structure is as com- plex as the human anatomy. The multiplic- ity of barriers are as embarrassing as those artificial obstructions one encounters in an obstacle race. Even for a healthy sound man to move about within a man-of-war, such as we have in mind, calls for almost the constant use of both hands and feet, and more than ordinary agility. There are coal bunkers into which men go, work and are sometimes injured, the only exit from which is through a circular opening twenty inches in diameter. There are military tops many feet from the deck in Avhich men are stationed in time of battle, and while there they may be severely wounded. Access to and from these tops is through a small aperture in their floors and down many feet by perpendicular ladders, and over bridges and various platforms. There are fire rooms, whose only means of egress, especially during an engagement is a perpendicular ladder twenty or more feet in heiglit. And so one might go on naming manjf similar difficulties encountered in go- ing from one part of a ship to another. Ob- viously the patient cannot be treated where he is injured; the problem has always been how to remove him to another part of the ship, or to another ship. Suppose, for in- stance, a man has his leg broken while in the upper forwai'd fighting top of such a ship as the "Kentucky." A healthy agile man, free handed and free footed, would come down climbing over the following struc- tures: — Through the lubbers hole in the floor of the top, down by a ladder let in the side of the mast to the loAver fighting top, tlience through a similar lubber hole, and down a similar ladder to the searchlight platform, thence to the bridge on top of the pilot house, thence down a narrow stairway to the forward bridge, thence down another ladder to the fore and aft bridge, thence down another ladder to the upper deck, thence forward twenty or thirty feet to an- other ladder to the main deck, thence down Ready to Carry* ENCYCLOPEDIA 51 Descending Steep Stairs still another ladder to the berth deck on which the sick bay is located. Excepting the ladders on the side of the steel mast, all the other so-called ladders are really flights of stairs made of steel and inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees, and about twenty inches wide from side to side. Their sides are protected by hand ropes, that is a single rope on which one ordinarily holds in going up or down. The average man would almost prefer death to the suffering entailed in being carried down in the arms of his mates, as fireman rescue people from burning buildings. With all these conditions in mind Dr. Lung set to work, to invent something practical, and he succeeded. His apron stretcher con- sists of a frame of ash, 6 ft. 4 in. long, with canvas handles on the ends and sides. The frame is covered with canvas, Avith a fiap ex- tending along each side which spreads out like the leaves of an open book. The patient is placed at full length in the stretcher, then the side flaps are laid over the body and fastened securely with hooks and lac- ing through holes in the canvas flaps. When the lacing is done the man is held as firmly as a corset holds the body, and he can be carried in any desired position, let down with a rope, or hauled up as the case may be. The stretcher incloses the entire body very much as a broken arm or leg is held in a splint. The canvas can be fastened loosely over the injured part, and the plac- ing of the patient is the work of only a few moments. The stretcher is equally valu- able for police ambulances and other outside hospital work. Dr. Lung is a genuine fighting surgeon. In April, 1899, he accompanied a detachment of 60 American officers and men, who left Apia, Samoa, with a detachment of British marines for the purpose of breaking up a camp of rebellious Mataafa natives. The party was ambuslied and all the officers killed, leaving the command in the hands of Dr. Lung. He fought his way desperately to the American consulate, which was only reached after many hours of great danger. The doctor also took part in the Boxer trouble and marched with our forces to Pekin. Later he had entire medical charge of the province of Cavite, in the Philippines, during the plague, and cleaned the towns, streets and houses as they had never before been cleaned. He holds rank as lieutenant, and has served as the President's physician. WOOD-OIL- -CHINESE PRODUCT- MANY USES. PUT TO Wood-oil— produced from the nuts of the wood-oil tree of China— has found such a good market in this country for the past six years that the cultivation of the trees from which it IS extracted is being experimented with here. There are three grades of the oil, light- yellow, brownish, and black, the first being the grade used most. For polishing unpaint- ed boats it gives the wood a bright, clean, light-yellow appearance, acts as a preserv- ative and makes the craft impervious to moisture. Mixed with quicklime it makes a good glazier's putty. It is, also, a good dressing for leather, and makes an excel- lent varnish for fine furniture. It is used in soap-making also. In this country the trees would not bear nuts farther north than Georgia or Alabama, but might be grown for shade trees and their wood in colder climes. The trees av- erage about 20 feet in height and from 7 to 10 inches in diameter. They are very stately, with smooth green bark and spreading branches. The nuts on the tree are about the size of a small orange, and have seg- mented shells which burst open when the fruit is ripe. These shells contain three tri- angular seeds resembling Brazil nuts in taste and shape. ENCYCLOPEDIA DISINFECTING MACHINE MAKES SHORT WORK OF GERMS. MAKING CEMENT POSTS. The health boards of a number of large cities are watching with interest the results produced by a novel germ killing machine recently added to the equipment of the San Francisco Health Department. The machine whicn is self-propelled, is called the "Steri- lizer," and whenever there is a call from an infected house, it lumbers away at the rate Farmers all over the country are learning that the cement post is the proper substi- tute for the old wooden ones Avhich have always caused considerable trouble, rotting, blowing down, or being rubbed down by stock. Many farmers are now making their own cement posts. A correspondent of the Rural New Yorker, who did this, tells how he went about it. He says: Disix^fectin^ MacHine in Use irk. San Francisco of six miles an hour to render clean and sanitary the disease-infested habitation. Bedding, carpets, clothing and other arti- cles where the germs are apt to linger are loaded into a cylinder, 5 by 7 ft. in dimen- sions, located at the rear of the machine and then the air-tight door is swung to and se- cured. All the air is then drawn from the cylinder by means of a vacuum pump and steam at a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch is turned in. By reason of the absence of air and the high pressure, the steam pene- trates between every fiber of the carpets, and through the thick mattresses, doing its purifying process in a thorough manner. At the end of 30 minutes the steam is turned ofC, every germ having been destroyed, it is said. When fine fabrics, such as silks and tapes- tries, are to be disinfected formalin is used instead of steam. A half pint of formalin placed in the cylinder forms a deadly gas Avhich kills the bacteria in a few minutes, without injuring the articles. The first step is to make a mold in which the post is to be cast. This mold is nothing more than a wooden box without lid, and made in the shape you want your post. A common form is that of the old- time sawed post, tapering from the bottom to top. The sides of the mold should be on hinges, so that when the post is made they can be dropped in order to facilitate the removal of the post. The mold can be held together by means of clamps or hooks. To prepare the cement have a strong mix- ing box, and into this put cement and a sharp sand in the proportion of one part of cement to five of sand. Some finely crushed stone may be used with the sand. Some use one part cement to six of sand, but the less sand you use the stronger your post will be up to about half and half. Mix cement and sand thoroughly dry, and then add water until you have the mixture in the shape of soft mortar. Lay mold down on a couple of blocks near mortar box, and in it place three or four strands ENCYCLOPEDIA 53 of barbed wire, bent and curved so they will run all through the post. Then fill up mold with "grout" (or sand and cement), smoothing off the top with a trowel. If you want eyes in posts to fasten fence to, take a heavy Avire or small rod and make some staples which may be inserted in the post while the cement is still soft. If you do not care to wait for the cement to set it is not a bad plan to have two molds, so that one post will set or harden while the other is being made. The cement post will break TRANSPORTER BRIDGE 1,000 FEET LONG. An aerial ferry or transporter bridge, 1,000 feet long in the clear, and spanning the Mer- sey has been opened to service connecting Widnes and Runcorn. The bridge has the longest span of any bridge in the United Ivingdom designed for road traffic. The over- head truss-work is liung from two cables each containing 2,413 wires and weighing 243 tons. The truss is 18 ft. high by 35 ft. wide and allows a clearance of 82 ft. above Axk .Aerial Ferry 1,000 Feet L>on^ off sometimes unless there is a rod or wire cast inside to give it strength. An ordinary- sized cement post will cost from 30 to 40 cents, according to price of material used in its construction. SPARKLESS MOTORS FOR MINING OPE- RATIONS. Sparkless ?nachinery is said to be the only safe apparatus in guarding against ex- plosions in mines. All gases will permeate throughout the most minute openings and hence it is impossible to make an enclosed motor absolutely gas proof. The Electrical Review, London, advises the use of the semi-enclosed motor as safest, that is, mo- tors having the openings entirely closed over by a fine gauze network, rendering them dust proof, but not gas proof. It says that motors without sparking commutators are preferable and would advocate the use of induction motors for mining operations, as they are free from sparking and also stronger to bear the rough usage given them in mines. liigh water, and is fixed to vertical rockers at each end to provide for expansion and contraction. Tlie towers are of steel, 190 ft. high and rest on eight cast iron cylinders 9 ft. in diameter which are anchored to the solid rock. The transporter car is 55 ft. long by 24 ft. wide suspended by cables from an overhead trolley 77 ft. long and running on 16 wheels. Four electric motors propel the car, power being generated by gas engines in one of the towers. Four loaded wagons and 300 passengers can be taken across on each trip which occupies 2Vi minutes in crossing. The bottom of the car is 12 ft. above the watei". The bridge cost $650,000. HOW TO DARKEN OAK. Oak may be immediately and easily dark- ened by laying on liquid ammonia evenly \\ith a rag or brush. The effect produced is just the sfi.me as is produced naturally by age and color will not fade. 54 ENCYCLOPEDIA RADICAL CHANGE IN GREAT LAKES FREIGHTERS. New conditions growing out of improved mechanical appliances for unloading ore, coal and grain cargoes have resulted in a Copyright w fawcett. Type of LraKe Freig^hter 'wHicb is to Supplant Old Car^o Vessels NATURAL COLD STORAGE. Nature has provided persons in the vicin- ity of Pineville, Mo., with a perfect cold storage plant. Perishable products, such as apples, potatoes, etc., placed in the entrance of a cave there, it is said, are kept in a state of perfect preservation. The entrance which is 21/2 by 8 ft, extends back 75 ft. into a room 24 ft. wide and 180 ft. long, whence a draft of cool air is always pouring through the entrance. There are many such caves in this country. In some of which ice forms throughout the summer season. radical change in the construction of the mammoth steam freighters on the Great Lakes. A few years ago when the whale- backs came into service they displaced hun- dreds of sailing vessels, and now the whale- backs are to be sent to the Atlantic coast trade. The development and general erection of the clam-shell bucket hoisting system and the unloading ports, has brought about the change in the carrying craft, just as heavier engines forced railroads to rebuild bridges and tracks. The new vessels are already nearly 600 'WorHia^ In tl&e Hoia of tHe New lO.OOO-Ton LalCe SHip ENCYCLOPEDIA 55 ft. long, with one large compartment usually 400 ft. in length for the cargo. This space is clear of posts and braces, the floor and deck construction being such as to avoid these obstructions and still retain the nec- essary strength. Space beneath the floor leaves ample room for water ballast. The interior construction is illustrated, although the small braces shown are only temporary to support platforms for the workmen. When completed the cargo space is clear from end to end. The boilers and machinery are placed at the stern. One of these boats will carry 10,000 tons. MecHanical Watering Device for GreenHouses Section SHowin^ Pipe, Nozzle, Valve and Swivel Handle In many vegetable houses, particularly those where lettuce is grown, irrigation is ac- complished by means of a mechanical water- ing device, says the Florist's Review. The device consists of a line of pipe, or if the house is large, two lines, having small nozzles with spray caps inserted about three feet apart. The pipe turns on a swivel which has a handle for the convenience of the operator and the spray may be directed as pleased, or made to cover a large radius if desired. When the water is under high pressure the stream is brolven up into a fine mist which would not beat down the most delicate plant, nor bruise tlie smallest petal of a flower. The water is thoroughly aerated, also, it is said, and this too is an advantage. The device may be operated nicely witli a pressure not under 40 lb. but is more satisfactory where a gasoline pumping en- gine is installed. An engine having a capac- ity of 20 gal. per minute and capable of working against a pressure of 90 lb. per square inch, pumping directly into the pipe line, will supply 150 spray nozzles, and will consume two gallons of gasoline in one day's run. The device is soon to be tested for watering cut flowers and in plant houses. » ♦ » DENTISTS ON OCEAN VESSELS. Ocean-going passenger steamers may in the future be provided with modernly equipped dental parlors under charge of a competent ship's dentist. The American Shipbuilder suggests the great comfort this innovation would often afford passengers, officers and crew. Without it, an entire voyage might be rendered miserable by a single aching tooth. Also many persons would find themselves at greater leisure to have their dental worlc attended to on board ship than on shore, and the chairs would be filled from port to port. 56 ENCYCLOPEDIA ENCYCLOPEDIA 57 PUMPING WATER IN MEXICO. ^NOVEL CONTEST OF ICEMEN. Primitive Devices that Have Remained in Use Even to the 20th Century Mexico, so near to and yet so far from the United States and our progressive cities and farmlands, only within recent years is beginning- to feel the iron grip of prog- ress struggling with her shackles and seek- ing to strike them away. Among the an- cient and picturesque devices still in gen- eral use in that country are the "pumping engines" for elevating water. Some of these machines are shown in the accompanying illustrations. In the first one it will be noticed that but one man is re- quired to keep the wheel with its continu- ous chain of buckets in motion, and the work is not so strenuous but that he can bear the warmth of full garb, while in an- other two men clinging to a sapling placed above the wheel are required to generate the power, and are working without shirts. The fact that one is subjected to the glare of the sun, while the others are protected from it by trees may account for this dif- ference in the amount of clothing worn, however. The other devices are so famil- iar in one form or another to everyone that a glance explains them. Modern type irrigation i^umps of the tur- bine pattern are now rapidly replacing these quaint devices. Power is cheaply de- veloped by utilizing the many mountain streams for generating electric current, and then distributing it over the vast agricul- tural areas lying between the mountain chains. ■♦ « » THE FINEST FIRE DEPARTMENT IN THE WORLD TO INSTALL MOTOR FIRE ENGINES. The fire service department of Vienna, Austria, long held up as a model on the European continent, has taken one of the most important steps in the history of fire- protection service— i. e., the installation of self-propelled fire engines. The municipal authorities have ordered 53 motor chemical engines— the beginning • of a sweeping cliange which is to re-equip both the city's professional fire brigade and the auxiliary suburban volunteer fire brigades. The change will cost the city about $180,000, it is estimated, but will effect a saving of more than $15,000. The machines are to be of the latest improved type. One Prize Winner Carried a Load of 405 Pounds The Ice Producers' Association of the Mid- dle States held its annual convention re- cently at Cleveland, 0. The reading of pa- pers was varied by a most original and in- teresting contest, in which a large number of employes of ice companies took part. Manv of the delegates brought one of their Courtesy Ice and Refrigeration Delivering a 400«L>b. Cake of Ice star wagon men along. Some of the con- tests, and winners, Avere as follows: Loading three tons of manufactured ice in blocks weighing 300 lbs. each, into a cov- ered wagon. Won by Wm. Diller, Cincinnati; time 4 minutes, 58% seconds. Lifting a block of ice weighing 150 lbs. from the ground to the shoulder, and carry- ing the load 300 ft. and return. Won by John Dallcher, Cleveland; time 25 seconds. Cutting a 400-lb. block into 40 equal parts. Won by H. Luth, Cleveland; time 2 min- utes, 14 seconds. Ice carrying contest; won by Chas. Che- vanki, who carried a block of ice weighing 405 lbs. The contest was the first of its kind and was witnessed by a large crowd in addition to the convention delegates. 58 ENCYCLOPEDIA THREE HUNDRED PINS PER MINUTE. A machine lias recently been perfected at Springfield, Mass., by means of which three hundred pins can be manufactured in one minute, this being five times the capacity of the machines now in use. Not only this, but an auxiliary machine is said to have been designed which will insert the pins in paper thirty at a time, when the present equipment allows onlj^ one at a time to be inserted. This will mean an enormous in- crease in the daily output of the factories, which even now is exceedingly large. The output of the largest pin manufactory in the THE "DAKOTA" FOR PACIFIC TRADE A MONSTER. The huge twin-screw steel steamship "Dakota," together with her sister ship the "Minnesota," built for the Orient freight and passenger trade are wholly products of American designers and Avorkmen, and as such are commanding the admiration and, we may add, due respect, of all the world. The ves'sels are the largest and fastest ships which will engage in the Pacific trade, and will remain so for many years, says the American Shipbuilder. The two vessels are the investment of James J. Hill, and to- Tl&e "DaKota** Carries world, at Birmingham, England, is 37,000,000 for every working day, and the total produc- tion in Europe is 602,000,000 a week. In the United States also the daily protUict figures into the millions. And of all these thou- sands of tons of pins, only about one per cent are worn out or broken, the other nine- ty-nine per cent are lost or thrown away. It is stated by the London county high- ways committee that in England the cost of running motor omnibuses carrying 34 passengers is from 22 to 24 cents per car mile, while for electric tramcars which carry from 50 to 70 passengers it is only 10 to 12 cents. The tramways pay rates and maintain 18-in. carriage way on either side of the line. 21,000 Tons of Cargo. gether cost $6,000,000, on which the owner expects to realize a goodly profit. The dimensions of the "Dakota," which is just completed, are as follows: Length, 630 ft.; beam, 73 ft. 6 in.; depth, 56 ft; draft loaded, 38 ft.; gross tons, 21,000; net tons, 13,500; displacement, 37,500 Avhen loaded to the Plimsoll mark. She has ac- commodations for 206 first and 66 intermedi- ate class, and 720 steerage passengers, and 21,000 tons of cargo. As a troop ship she could carry 1,200 troops, with their baggage and full equipment, besides a large cargo. Her officers and crew number about 450. The motive power of the vessel is said to be one of the finest jobs ever turned out by an American concern, and is the most interesting feature of her construction. The ENCYCLOPEDIA 59 main engines consist of two sets of tliree- cylinder vertical, inverted, direct- acting, triple expansion engines, with cylinders 29, 51 and 89 in. in diam- eter t»y 57 in. stroke, de- signed for 78 revolutions per minute, and to develop about 4,800 hp. each with a steam pressure at the engine of 230 lbs., driving the ship at 14 knots' speed The boilers are of the Xiclausse wa- ter-tube type. The entire construction of the vessel, or vessels— for it is but natural to speak of the "Minnesota" in the same connection— reflects high credit upon American skill and ability. M- #■ ^i ^1 '""^\ 1 ^ 1 h 1 1*' "^ m t ' ]^^Ll!n A y P J ^^Br'ijEij L nft 1 1 "''' * S mm Ml 1 m K K« si 1. 'Built in A.nie«>ica.' Compressed Air in Dentistry Nowadays no dentist's office is modernly equipped without a compressed-air outfit, and the number of uses for the air-blast found in dentistry is astonishing. Not only does it make the dentist's work easier, but it also renders it less painful to the patient. In a paper read before the Michigan State Den- tal Association at Lansing recently. Dr. George Zederbaum enumerates the uses he has found for compressed air in his own office. There are two outfits practical for the same purpose. One consists of a small pump connected by a pulley to an electric motor. When the motor is set in motion the pump compresses the air into a storage tank which, by means of an air gauge, accur- ately registers' the pressure of air stored. From the storage tank leads the outlet pipe guarded by a suitable valve. This, of course, requires an electric current. The other outfit is in reach of all those in small towns as it depends on a water supplj% no very high pressure being necessary. The air pump iS' attached to the city water-sup- ply pipe which keeps the desired pressure of air in the storage tank automatically. Either apparatus described may be had for $25 or $30. The compressed air is used for drying cavities, which are to be filled, a current of air applied for two minutes being suffi- cient for cooling compounds used in taking impressions and bites, such as wax and gutta-percha, and which, because of their plasticity, must be applied warm; in treat- ing injuries which are hard to reach and see, using either liquid applied by means of a pointed atomizer tube and the air, or powder applied by means of a glass pipe. In preparing cavities it is frequently nec- essary to blow out the chips and uncomfort- able heat is generated by the revolving bur. The point of operation may be kept free from chips and the bur be prevented from heating by wiring a small rubber tube around the engine cable down to the hand- piece and turning on the air pressure. The opening in the tube need not be larger than one-thirty-second of an inch. F'or deodorizing malodorous mouths, spray- ing a solution of lavender or other perfume about the room to rid it of disagreeable odors, drying up the mouth in bridge or crown work, or for connecting to the blow- pipe in soldering, the air-current will be found equally efficient. By turning it squarely into the face of a patient who has taken an anesthetic, or one who has fainted after an extraction, the patient may be quickly re- vided— a pleasanter means than putting water on the face. 60 ENCYCLOPEDIA Ho\ir Fine Tool-Makers' Files are Manufactured For many years there has existed an in- herent superstition that the fine files manu- factured in Switzerland by a laborious hand process could not be successfully competed with in this country by the application of the speedier American methods. The de- mand, both in tliis country and to an ex- is of uniform hardness throughout all the various lots of files in process of manufac- ture. The heat applied is gas, generated from naphtha and used in burners. Naphtha is best for the purpose because all the sub- stances it contains can bo atomized by mod- erate force or vaporized under a tempera- Fi^. 1. Gas For^e in Use tent in foreign countries, for the larger, heavier and coarser grades of files used by machinists was supplied with the American product, l)ut the fine file industry in Switz- erland was created of necessity in the man- ufacture of Swiss watches and bade fair to remain there -exclusively. Now, however, the ture below 80 degrees. Also, it contains no sulphur or other , element which might in- jure the steel and the stock may be sub- jected to direct heat at the proper tempera- ture. Forging the blanks is the first step in the process of manufacture. This is done by Fi^. 2. THree Sets of Dies for ToT^ixtg tHe BlanKs successful manufacture of these fine files in this country by machinery which puts out an enormous product in much less time has introduced a new regime in file-making and demonstrated that there is no inherent merit in hand-cut files. In manufacturing the files the heat treat- ment of the steel is most important, as it must be done in such a way that the stock the use of a gas forge and a Bradley ham- mer. (See Fig. 1.) The die used determines the rapidity with which the blanks are shaped. Three pairs of the dies are shown in Fig. 2. The pair at the left is for forg- ing the blanks for warding files, the center pair is used for half-round files and the other pair is ysed in a drop-hammer only, for finishing the blanks of half round files. ENCYCLOPEDIA 61 The face of each die is in three sections, the section on one side being used for breaking down the edge of the stock and the one on the other side for bringing the edge of the stock to about the right dimensions, -while the central section is used for forming the flat sides or faces of the blanks. All special sliapes are finished by drop forging. Brad- ley hammers are used for ordinary shapes. After the blanks are forged they are ready for the annealing process. This is done in a gas furnace, the files being placed tangs outward so that the delicate and use- ful tips will not be subjected to injurious heat. The heating process occupies from four to five hours, depending on the size of the blanks, the files are then allowed to cool for twelve or fifteen hours. The blanks' the file that no machine work can produce. The next operation is the one that has de- stroyed the ancient belief in hand-cut files. The essential points in cutting a file prop- erly are that the blank be of uniform hard- ness throughout, the cutter of proper shape and adjustment, and the machine adjusted to strike a blow of sufficient intensity to produce a sharp tooth at the pitch at which the file is being cut. Fig. 4 shows the meth- od of cutting files by hand, while in Fig. 5 is shown a row of machines now used for the purpose. The blows are delivered at the rate of 2,000 or 3,000 per minute, so that the cutting is very rapid. When one side of the file is cut the blank is turned over and the other side is cut. To avoid injuring the teeth during the cutting, the blanks rest Fie*. 4. Cutting by Hand are straightened after being annealed by holding for a second over a gas flame and subjecting them to a slight pressure in the direction required at the same time. In grinding the blanks for cutting special machines are used. The files are clamped to a flat plate which is locked in position in a holder in which it fits. "This holder," says Machinery, "reciprocates in a vertical direction and moves the faces of the files up and down against the surface of the ro- tating grindstone, the stone at the same time having a longitudinal motion crosswise of the files." The blanks are next finished by draw- filing, or "stripping." (Fig. 3.) This is a hand process and gives a superior finish to Fig. 3. "Stripping" Tile BlanlCs on a strip of sheet lead. The work of file- cutting is such that hand labor must fre- quently supplement the machine work, but the quantity of output is remarkably in- creased. A method called etching is used for forming the teeth of files with very fine cuts. This is a hand process in which the finished product resembles knurled work done on an engine lathe. Minute teeth are knurled or milled on the three edges of tlie cutting tool— a long triangular bar— used. These teeth are of the depth and shape of the file teeth to be cut. The file blank is clamped in position, or, in the case of round flies', is rotated gradually, and the cutting tool is passed over the blank in a manner similar to the movement of a file when (V. E N c; Y C T. O P E n I A draw-filing. The process is' one requiring considerable skill. In the hands of a skil- ful workman the knurling tool can be given exactly the right angle and the right pres- sure, securing teeth of absolute regularity. After the cutting px'ocess the number and the maker's name are stamped on the file and it is sent to the hardening room, where it is heated in a gas furnace and cooled in brine. Before it is quite cool it is straight- ened and is then cleaned by the sandblast, in which fine clay powder, which will not injure the teeth of the file, is used. The product is finally inspected, oiled and packed ready for delivery to the customer. Our il- lustrations are by courtesy of Machinery. Fi^. 5. A R.01V of File-Cuttin^ MacHines LOCATING MANHOLE COVERS WITH A COMPASS NEEDLE. When the iron covers of man-holes are covered with ice so that it is difficult to locate them, if one knows the approximate position of the cover he can soon settle the point by means of a compass needle, says the American Telephone Journal. First hold the needle four or five feet above the ground and note the direction in which it points— always toward the north. Then hold the compass close to the ground, walk a few paces from east to west parallel with the curb and near the spot where the manhole is believed to be. Retrace your steps and again retrace, get- ting a little farther away from the curb each successive time. When you are with- in two feet of the manhole the needle will begin to deviate from the northward direc- tion. The deflection of the needle will in- dicate the size of the manhole and help make sure that it is the right one before proceeding to dig it out of the ice. The needle will work just as well on streets where there are trolley lines, but if the manhole is near an iron pillar of an ele- vated structure, some difficulty may be ex- perienced. If one is mistaken as to the location of the manhole, it may be necessary to take a new starting point and try again. A one-cent telephone call rate has been inaugurated by a telephone company in Sandusky, Ohio. The rate has made the system very popular and a great many slot machines are being Installed. Facsimile Writing at Long Distance Neiv FrencK Apparatus 'WHicK MaKes It Possible to Sign CKecK THotisands of Miles Distant llia mtrv'ement of ti)« baiicil A forvJc\rd or bovt K Urobeis trje Ho<{ B vV^'l t«\nsmits H\« current brofiiiis H,e Rpot D * K''':Ktro\n6'7,.Vs tl,t curre,r Hiroii^l, E. L#on^ Distance Blectric Writing MacHine A man can sit in his room in a hotel in San Francisco and sign a checli in New York, which the cashier of the bank there will iionor, when the new device for long distance facsimile writing comes into gen- eral use. Not only can one send his own signature as rapidly as lightning flashes, but he can transmit an entire letter or legal document, all in his own unmistakable penmanship. All the eccentricities of his handwriting, the peculiar formation of cer- tain letters^ his special habit of dotting "i's" and crossing ''t's" will appear with perfect accuracy at the further end of the line Pic- tures also may be transmitted in the same way, and the escape of criminals will become more diflieult than ever before. This remai'k- able instrument is the invention of a French 63 64 ENCYCLOPEDIA scientist, Professor Cerebotani. It will copy exactly the writing, drawing or marks made by a person holding the pencil of the trans- mitter. This wonderful instrument produces its complicated movements with only one wire. Any curve may be drawn by the two movements made by the sender shown in Fig. 1. If the pencil A is moved, either backward or forward, it propels the rod B, wliich transmits the current tlirough C, this constitutes one movement. The other is the lateral movement which propels the rod D and sends the current through E. A hand operating the pencil is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 2 shows the receiver and its connec- tion with Fig. 1, the sender. The current from E, Fig. 1, produced by the lateral move- ment is transmitted to the clockwork, M, which propels the rod N and so moves the board, O, in a lateral position. In like man- ner the current, from C, Fig. 1, produced by a backward or forward movement is trans- mitted to the clockwork L, Fig. 2, and so produces the same movement there. The inventor is now working on an apparatus which can be used either as a sender or a receiver. ♦ * » HOW TO TELEPHONE FROM EVERY ROOM IN A RESIDENCE. In a number of business places and some residences telephone connections making it possible to telephone from every room by the use of only two telephones have been established. In the walls of each room plugs connecting with the lead from the exchange to the residence are placed. A fixed tele- phone does the ringing for the whole house and another 'phone is carried by the occu- pants of the building to whatever part of the house they are engaged in. When the bell rings, tlie plug of the movable 'phone is placed in the one in the wall and the person talks just as well as if he had run down a flight of stairs or two. IRON-BAND PAVEMENTS. A new kind of pavement being tried in Germany is called "iron-band pavement," and consists of artificial stoi^es of concrete held together by iron bands. Where there are street car lines, joining stones are laid along the rails^ which insure less deteriora- tion of the rails and easier motion of wheels of vehicles. The pavement is said to be very durable, cheap, easily made, free from dust and can be used again when torn up. WIRELESS TELE- GRAPH POLE 212 FEET HIGH. Los Angeles has a wireless telegraph pole which lifts its slender spire 212 ft. into the air, just 100 ft. higher than any other pole in the city. The tall pole has been a matter of popular interest' and during its erection crowds gathered daily to watch the progress of the guying and tlie painting; the steeple- jack who did the paint- ing, appearing very small, like a crawling insect, to the people watching below. This pole is a part of the first station of a wireless line to be es- tablished between Los Angeles and Puget Sound. ^ * » PERILOUS PLACE TO SLEEP. Tramps are not the only ones, it appears, who ride in dangerous places, out of sight un- der cars. Many theatri- cal companies traveling in their own cars, have been using the "tool boxes" suspended be- neath the floor of the car as sleeping bunks for the stage hands and roiistabouts. In these dangerous, cramped and coffin-like boxes', little more than a foot above the rails, the men spend a dusty, uncomfortable niglit. In case of a wreck their location means almost certain death. Some railroads are now refusing to haul ears used in this manner. E N C Y <;; L O P E D I A Hft Hoisting Heavy Loads WitK Magnets Mystezious Operation of An Invisible Po'wer alGreat Time Saver A pile of pig iron lay rusting in the back yard of a great iron works. There were tons upon tons, each block of iron weighing several hundred pounds. Suddenly, and without any apparent reason, the arm of a crane swings over the mass, and a plain block of steel descends until it rests upon the top of the heap. In an instant, like a sleeping army called to arms, the inert iron bars awake from their lethargy, and climbing over one an- other, each endeavoring to be first, cling to the steel block until there is no longer room for any more. No human hand has touched the pile; no human form is visible; no explosion or earthquake has occurred to explain this strange behavior. It is all simply the result of touching an electric button which set in operation the wierd, mysterious workings of a magnetic crane. Could the intelligent workman of an hun- dred years ago have witnessed the scene, he would have had little choice between an exhibition of the supernatural and the be- lief that he had lost his mind. And yet the scene described is rapidly becoming a familiar one in our large indus- trial iron worlcs. in many of which not one, but a score of lifting magnets are in con- stant daily use. The operation, moreover, like many another wonder-producing effect, is extremely simple and easy to under- stand. The block of steel which constitutes the SHeet Iron Goin^ "Up I^iftin^ Baled Tin magnet is suspended from the hook of the crane, and becomes magnetic or loses Its power, when a direct current of electricity is allowed to energize the magnet, or is cut off. A flexible twin conductor cable is used to convey the current to the magnet and a small switch operated by the crane man is usually the only additional apparatus nec- essary. The amount of current used is small, being from one to twelve amperes, according to the service for which the mag- net is designed. In operation, the magnet is lowered upon the material to be lifted, and the switch closed, thus causing- the magnet to attract and hold the material, which may then be hoisted by the crane and transported to the desired point. By simply opening the switch the current is cut off, the lifting block loses its attracting power, and the material is in- stantly released, being deposited where the operator desires. The magnet will support its load in mid air for hours, and days and even endless years, if only the electric cur- rent continues to flow through the two small wires. Comparing this method of operation with the common methods of connecting the load to the hook of the crane, with chains, hooks or clamps, the saving in both labor and time is apparent. The attachment of the magnet to the load, as well as the I'elease of the load, may be accomplished by the crane operator without assistance, thus saving the labor of one or more men for prying up the material, attaching the hooks and chains m K N (' V (' LC) 1' K 1) I A E nm; yclope di a 67 at the point of loading- and additional men at the point of delivery for unhooking the load from the crane. Magnets can be so quickly attached to and detached from a load that by their use the work which may be done by a given crane is greatly increased, in some cases more than doubled. It frequently occurs that the attachment of lifting magnets to existing cranes so increases their capacity for handling material that the purchase of additional cranes for handling an increased output is rendered unnecessary. Again, lifting magnets require much less head-room than hooks or chains for lifting material of considerable width such as plates. Therefore, by the use of magnets materials can be conveniently piled to a greater height in the storage space under a given crane than is possible when chains are used, thus increasing the capacity of a given storage space without altering the crane runway or increasing the size of the building. Lifting magnets may be used to great advantage in handling pig iron, scrap, riv- ets, bolts, great sheets of steel, and count- less metal articles of similar character. In the illustrations are shown a few of the many operations of the lifting magnets. In one pig iron is being raised, in another scraps of tin. in others scrap iron and sim- ilar material. A single design of magnet is not adapted to handling the full range of material above mentioned, on the contrary the magnet must in every case be designed to meet the form of material to be handled. For instance, there is a wide difference in the design of a magnet for lifting ingots or blooms and one adapted to the handling of thin plate. A magnet which would handle five tons in the form of an ingot might not handle five hun- dred pounds in the form of thin plates. It is therefore necessary to understand in each case the operating conditions with spe- cial reference to the form and range of ma- terial to be handled. Magnets are always built and tested to from four to five times the specified load, special testing machines being employed by the makers for the purpose. There are some forty types of magnets built for as many different kinds of work. The rapidity of the operation may be understood from a few sample tests. A magnet built to lift 800 lbs. of pig iron at one time performed the operations of lowering the magnet, at- taching the load, raising, transferring and depositing it at the rate of one ton in three minutes. For "skull-cracker" work, which consists in raising a ball weighing from one to six tons and dropping it upon iron castings which are to be broken, the magnet system is a great saver of time, and the ball can be dropped with the same accuracy as an expert gunner on a battleship places his sliot in a nearby target. The evolution from the little red horse- shoe magnet of childhood to the great silent- Iviftin^ Small Scrap Iron ly working hoisting magnets which deal in tons, forms another example of how mod- ern industries have adapted and and put to practical use principles which only a few years ago were confined to child's play or merely interesting experiments on a very small scale in the college lecture room. Russia's sunken warships will be raised from the deep by three salvage steamers chartered at Antwerp by Japan. The steam- ers are equipped complete with modern wrecking machinery. 68 ENCYCLOPEDIA HOW TELEPHONES HELPED THE JAPA- NESE. During the present war the attention of the world has been called to the remark- able ingenuity of the Japanese in adapting modern devices to their own particular needs. Among others the introduction of the telephone on to the field of battle is most noteworthy, as it has enabled a rul- ing head to control the movements of each division of an army when scattered over Japanese Field TelepHone at tHe Front on tKe ShaKo many miles of territory. Hitherto in war- fare the general plan of attack was prear- ranged at a conference of the commander and chief with his subordinates. This plan they endeavored to carry out to the best of their ability, but oftentimes unforeseen cir- cumstances would arise which rendered an immediate change of tactics necessary, and aid-de-camps and couriers were attached to the general's staff whose duty it was to con- vey his ordei's to one division or another whenever he deemed a change of plan ad- visable. In cases where the different com- mands were in close proximity this method was fairly satisfactory, but otherwise it was a slow and most dangerous practice, and is quite inadequate to the requirements of tnodern Avarfare. The Japanese army in its operations around Mukden was often distributed over many miles, and in some of the recent en- gagements their fighting line has extended to the extraordinary length of an hundred miles. Regardless of this their unity of ac- tion and concentration of efforts have been most conspicuous and they were possible only through their ingenious use of portable telephone apparatus. Whenever a detach- ment of the army entrenched the engineers followed, and setting up an instrument soon had instantaneous communication with headquarters. By this means Field Mar- shal Oyama seated at the temporary "Cen- tral," was enabled to direct the movements of each division of his 450,000 men, dis- tributed as they were, with quickness and precision. There could be no blundering on the part of incompetent subordinates acting on their own responsibilities through lack of definite orders. Oyama, so to speak, had them at his fingers' ends. Did a regiment need reinforcements to complete an opera- tion; was it advisable to concentrate the strength of the army at a certain point in the enemy's line, the necessary commands were telephoned to the respective parties and the maneuvers quickly made. Con- trast this with the want of unity among the Russian leaders and we need seek no fur- ther for an explanation of the present stat- us of the war. ♦-•-•■ ANCIENT ROMANS DETERMINED OUR STANDARD RAILWAY GAUGE Many persons no doubt have stood and looked down a railroad track and wondered how such an out of the way measurement as 4 ft. 8^2 in. came to be adopted as our standard railway gauge. It would seem that the responsibility for the choice of this measurement rests with George Ste- phenson, of locomotive fame. AVhile in- specting some portions of the Roman wall through which chariots used to be driven, he discovered that deep ruts had been worn in the stone. Upon measuring the distance between them he found it to be in the neighborhood of 4 ft. 8^^ in., and not doubt- ing that the Romans had adopted this gauge only after much experience, he determined to use it as a standard in the construction of his railroads. From that time on this measurement has been the standard gauge in England and the United States. ENCYCLOPEDIA 69 Mining Coal With Compressed Air New Radial MacHine \irHicH "Will Cut a CKannel Ia Axky Direction Courtesy Ingetsoll-Sergesmt Drill Co. THe Radial Coal Cutter Seated comfortably on a low stool, and directing its operations very much as the sighter directs those of a Gattling gun, the operator of the latest type of pneumatic coal cutter accomplishes the work of many men, without any weariness whatever to himself. There is as much difference be- tween the old, painful way of excavating with a pick a seam of coal until ready for a "fall," and the machine work with com- pressed air as power, as there is between the efforts of the ordinary citizen k-ying to set up a stove pipe or having it done by a furnace man. The machine coal cutter is a small engine which can be set in any position desired, using air instead of steam, and which drives a drill or cbisel-shaped tool into the coal at the rate of several hundred blows per minute. As an undercutting machine it is adapted for undercutting headings to any desired depth at a single setting. It will also shear either one or both of the sides of an entry, from the floor of the mine to the roof, to any desired depth at one setting. The cut made is 8 ft. in depth and diminishes from a width of 4% in. at the face to about 2 in. at the bottom. In the illustration the ma- chine is cutting a vertical shear, the point where the drill strikes being frequently changed by turning the small crank shown. The hose-pipe conveys the supply of com- pressed air which comes from a compressor. The workman at the right is cleaning out an undercut. ♦ *» Thirty-one of England's old battleships, the original cost of which was $15,000,000, have been sold at auction for $680,000. The vessels cannot be sold to a foreign power, according to the terms of the sale. 70 ENCYCLOPEDIA CHIMNEY BUILDING FROM A DERRICK IN CANADA. The accompanying engraving is from a pliotograpli of a bricli cliimney erected by R. Corrick & Sons, for the new plant of the Sarnia Gas and Electric Light Co. The chimney is of red brick, built on a concrete foundation 9 ft. deep by 17 ft. square, and is 12 ft. 6 in. square at the base and con- tinues the same form and dimension to a height of 28 ft. Above that it is of octagonal form 97 ft. high, vidth an outside diameter at the top of 11 ft. and finished with a cement cap, making the total height from foundation, 125 ft. It is provided with a double wall to the height of 74 ft. 10 in.; 28 ft. of which is of fire brick, and the bal- ance of ordinary brick, between which and the outside wall there is ample air space. The inside diameter is practically 6^/^ ft. throughout the entire height. The derrick, as seen in the photograph, was built its entire height before the chimne3- was com- menced, and all material was hoisted up inside it. It is one of the largest chimneys of its kind in Western Ontario.— Contributed by A. E. Kaiser, Sarnia, Canada. ^^»^ WILL THE MISSISSIPPI BE HARNESSED? A bill has been introduced into Congress granting a franchise by which a company will have the power to do with the Missis- sippi what has already been done at Niagara. Should this bill pass it is the intention of the men interested to build a large dam across that river between Keokuk, Iowa and Hamilton, 111., and construct an enormous power plant which will develop a much larger horsepower than that obtained from the present plant at Niagara Falls. This plant with the dam is expected to cost in the neighborhood of $6,000,000 and will provide power for all towns within a radius of sixty miles. The dam, when built, will be nearly 5,000 ft. long and 35 ft. high and will be in complete control of the United States gov- ernment. ^-»~^ JAPANESE JINRICKSHAS MADE IN AMERICA. iBuildin^ a CHiinnes' From a PerricK It is not generally known that the .iinrick- sha, the national vehicle of Japan, is manu- factured in the United States and shipped in large quantities to the East. But so it is, and by constant redesigning and the appli- cation of various modern improvements the jinricksha has become in detail at least more American than Japanese. The vehicles are very light, being made for the most part of wood with wheels of steel tubing, manj^ of which are equipped with rubber tires. Jin- rickshas, though generally considered pecul- iarly a Japanese carriage, are also used in somewhat modified forms in China, South Africa and the Philippine Islands. ENCYCLOPEDIA 71 RAZORS MADE OF COPPER. PARCELS CARRIED BY STREET CARS. The remarkable claim is made of tlie dis- covery by a Xova Scotia blacksmith, of a process for hardening copper to such a de- gree that It will take an edge suflBcient to be used as a razor. American Consul Halloway, at Halifax, writes: "A razor has been made of the hardened copper with which one can shave. Having been made in a blacksmith shop the razor is necessarily crude, but the blade is hard and carries a sufficiently sharp edge to remove superfluous hair The inventor says he can harden copper to any desired degree of hardness " Parcels are carried on the street cars in Manchester, England. The district covered has been divided into two districts, an inside zone including the city of Manchester, and an outside area including the suburbs; and parcels are delivered to all parts of the dis- trict covered at intervals not longer than 15 minutes The charges are as follows: Inside area, parcels not exceeding 14 lb., 4 cents; 28 lb., 6 cents; 56 lb., 8 cents; 112 lb., 12 cents For the outside area the prices for the same weights are, respectively, 6, 8, 12 and 16 cents. The ''inside area" has a population of 800,000 people. THe "Caronia" No\ir tHe Largest Vessel in tHe World Si S. "Caronia" L>eavin]g Standards of size in the big liners that jtly the seas change rapidly. But a short time ago the "Baltic" was announced as the '•largest vessel in the world;" before the "Baltic" the "Cedrie" and the "Celtic" to- gether held the palm; now all of these are eclipsed in size by the huge Cunarder "Caronia," which has recently made her maiden trip across the Atlantic from Liver- pool to New York. Port on ber First Trip The "Caronia" is a twin-screw vessel 675 ft. long, 72 ft. 6 in. breadth, of 30,000 tons displacement and having a speed of 19 knots— two knots speedier than the "Baltic." She has eight continuous decks, on six of which passengers are carried. The vessel is handsomely fitted up and has accommoda- tions for 2,650 passengers, which, with a crew of 450, make a total of 3,100 persons she is able to carry. 72 ENCYCLOPEDIA S. S. "Caronia*'»DecK Rises Upon DecK In the construction of the vessel 12,000 tons of steel were usedj a great number of the plates being 1% in. thick, 32 ft. long and 5% ft. wide and riveted with 1% in. rivets, the riveting being done with hy- draulic pressure. In all, 1,800,000 rivets were used. The reciprocating engines' used in the ves- sel are of great size and strength. The total height from the center of the shafts is 30 ft., and from the base of the bed plate 36 ft. The diameters of the respective cylin- ders are 39 in., 541/2 in., 77 in. and 110 in. The latter, with one exception, is the larg- est cylinder yet adopted for vertical en- gines. The stroke is 5 ft. 6 in., and the length of the connecting rods iS' 12 ft. be- tween centers. The two engines are separated by no longitudinal bulkhead and make an impres- sive appearance when running at 90 revolu- tions. THE CAPE COD CANAL. The building of the canal from Buzzards Bay to Massachusetts Bay wnll soon be under way. This canal will traverse a distance of 7 1-3 miles together with approaches aggre- gating 41/^' miles and will occupy more than three years in building. It will be construct- ed by the Boston, Cape Cod & New York Canal Company. HOW TO REPRODUCE PHOTOGRAPHS IN WATCH CASES. Any workman accustomed to enameling can reproduce photographs on watch cases by following carefully the outlines of the process as given here. Prepare the cap by coating with trans- parent frit so that it appears as if coated with transparent lacquer. The picture is produced by the "dusting in" or "powder" process. Take a good negative, the actual size the picture on the watch case is to be, and provide a piece of plate glass of suit- able size. Rub the surface of the glass with powdered talc, but leave none of the pow^- der on the glass. Prepare a solution com- posed of 60 gr. of pure, clean bits of gum arable; 45 gr. glucose; 10 mm. glycerine; 30 gr. bichromate of potash; 2 oz. distilled water. Mix, warm and filter through mus- lin. Flow a film of this mixture evenly over the plate glass and dry it in the dark. Ex- pose the film-covered surface of the glass under the negative for a length of time Avhich must be ascertained by experiment. Then carefully protect the coated glass from the action of light and take it to a cellar or some other place where the air is moist and it can absorb moisture in proportion to the action of the light. All portions screened from the light receive the most moisture, and these portions will best take and hold any dry powder brushed over the surface. ENC YCLOPEDIA 7J LfiK* tKe Stories of a Great Ofiice Building No dust will adhere where the light has acted in full force. For the dust use dial painter's black. This is intensely black glass ground to a powder so fine it is impalpable. Brush it dry over the face of the print with a camel's hair brush. Remove all particles except those which are held by the tacky surface. Very beautiful and perfect positive pictures are produced in this way. To transfer the picture to the cap of the watch flow a coating of tough collodion over the picture on the glass and allow it to dry. Then separate the collodion film from the glass and wash away the coat of gum and dextrine. Place the positive pic- ture, collodion side out, on the watch case and heat the cap in a muffle. The collodion will burn away and the black enamel pig- ment will fuse and incorporate itself with the transparent glaze on the watch cap. TORPEDO-BOAT DESTROYERS. The torpedo-boat destroyer has made a great record in the present war. The Japan Times says; "The great service rendered by our torpedo-boat destroyers in the pres- ent war is almost incomparable, the suc- cesses attained in robbing the enemy of fully half of his moral and material strength in the very first engagement, in taking the principal part in the work of maintaining the blockade, and in making themselves the ears and eyes, hands and feet of the great fleet, in carrying out the reconnoissances, orderly and intelligence services— all these being placed to their credit." The Asahi says: "The destroyer is a par- ent-excelling child born of the torpedo-gun- boat as father and the torpedo-boat as mother, and as a late comer in the field she has yet had no opportunity of showing her worth until the present war, which has proved her wonderful capacities." TRAMWAY TRACKS 2,500 YEARS AGO. The first railroad track was constructed by the Greeks as far back as 600 B. C, or 2,500 years ago. The tracks were construct- ed through the mountains on the road to the temple at Delphos and were to guide the wheels of the wagons bearing sacrifices and sacred vessels thither. Had an accident happened to the wagons en route it would have been an ill omen and a sign of the gods' displeasure, hence the tracks. These tracks were two parallel grooves about 3 in. deep and 4 ft. 9 in. apart. The cart wheels traveled in the grooves which were cut with great precision. Parts of these tracks may still be seen in various localities in Greece, 74 ENCYCLOPEDIA MOTORCYCLES FOR MAIL COLLECTION IN BUDAPESTH. HOW COTTON UNDERWEAR IS KNIT. Mail collection by motorcycle is declared by the Austrian minister of posts and tele- graphs to be a success both as to time and money-saving. The motorcycle shown in the engraving- has a hood to protect the mail from the Courtesy Austrian Kialster of Posts. Postal Motor Tricycle weather and as it is in tricycle form it is easily managed by one man. These vehicles, of whicli twenty-two were first installed, cost $380 each. The twenty- two tricycles make about 93,205 miles a year. The cost, as compared to the method- of horse and wagon collection, shows a marked saving, and tlie gain in time is considerable. The ministry lias decided to further en- large the service by increasing the number of both tricj'cle and quadricycle machines. The collectors are required to clean their own machines, but repairs are conducted by skilled men employed by the department. ALL NIGHT DINING CAR. The railroads are constantly studying to devise new things with which to please their patrons. The very latest is the all night dining car which the Illinois Central has put on its midnight trains between Chi- cago and St. Louis. If you wake up in the night and feel the gnawings of hunger all one need do is press the button and forth- with be fed, Modern machinery nowadays enters into nearly every department of the making of cotton underwear, from the winding of the 3'arn upon cones to the actual knitting of the goods and the cutting of the finished cloth. The j^arn arrives at the knitting mills in car loads and is stored in a house built especially for the purpose. If not already on cones it is taken to the large winding machines and placed in charge of an operator who is capa- ble of handling forty cones. The j^arn is then ready for the knitting machines, one operator being in charge of four machines. These knifing machines are almost human in their activities, 800 to 1,000 needles work- ing at once from eight to sixteen bobbins and automatically changing the style of the work as it knits a cuff and then the full width of the sleeve. It is a system of both horizontal and perpendicular needles. Some of the machines are used for the knitting of sleeves and others knit the cloth for the body of the garment. The machines can be so adjusted as to Ivuit either union suits or separate piece suits and the same machines are gauged to the many different sizes of all IVHere Parts of Garments are As- sembled and Seamed ENCYCLOPEDIA 75 Automatic Kn garments. The cloth comes from these ma- chines in a long seamless webb. In one of the accompanying photographs fifty knitting machines are shown. After the cloth comes from these machines it next goes to a reversing machine at which the long strips are turned inside out ready for the fleece lining process, which is accom- plished by means of two kinds of rollers alternated, one of wires laid slanting and others standing straight. Some of the finer grades of goods are not fleeced. There is a reversing machine for the sleeves and another for the body of tlie garment. The long webbs of cloth are next cut up into the parts for separate garments by means of an electrical machine which will cut twenty-four thicknesses at one time. There are some kinds of garments, however, which have to be cut by hand. Once cut in- to the desired lengths they go to the sewing- machine girls who put them togethei', after which the seams are smoothed out by ma- chinery. The garment is now ready for the finishing touches such as the crocheting of the edges, the making of the button holes and the sewing on of tlie buttons. The sub- sequent operation of pressing is done upon a large machine equipped with successive iron plates which in some instances are heat- ed and in others are not. ^ « » A telegra.m from New York to Chicago travels over 24,000 miles of wire. ittin^ Machines FRENCH CRANE AND LADLE. A French builder has constructed a new type of combined locomotive, crane and ladle for use in a Bessemer plant. The power is steam generated in two upright boilers on the car. One set of cylinders L>aille Crane for Steel "WorKs propel the car: another set work the crane through the medium of hydraulic power. Two men are necessarj- to the operation of the machine, one to run the car and one to operate the crane and ladle. Diamonds, a great wealth of them, may l)e hidden in that part of Canada between the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay, declares Dr. Ami of the Canadian geological survey. Surveying parties and explorers are in- structed to be on the look-out for any traces of the gems. 7fi ENCYCLOPEDIA KITE FLYING FOR BUSINESS, PLEASURE AND LIFE-SAVING. Day and Night'Sky Signs— Handbills Distributed in Mid-Air— Progress of the Art By Edward E. Harbert Kite flying is no longer boy's play; it is a business; and a business in wbich ttie com- pensation is not only dollars, but precious human lives. I was an electrician in Chicago at the time I first began to study Idtes and their opera- tion, and was led to do so on account of the numerous skyscrapers. For many years I ran wires for telegraph and other purposes in all parts of the business district. It was hard enough work at any time, but when Harbert and His Kite the fifteen and twenty-story skyscrapers sprung up, our difficulties were immediately multiplied. One day after all other means had failed to get a wire between two very inaccessible points, I rigged a kite and in a few minutes accomplished what ten hours hard and extremely dangerous work had failed to accomplish. After that I used kites right along, and became so interested in their possibilities I finally devoted my entire time to tlie work. The kite subject commanded almost as mucli interest at the St. Louis fair as the balloons although the press of the country paid little attention to the contests. In tliis connection it is interesting to note that the first and second cash prizes for kite work were awarded to one other mechanic and myself against the "professonal" kite fliers, men whose names are well known in this and other aerial work. In one of my demon- strations there I maintained for longer than the specified time, a kite at an angle of 43 deg., with 1,500 feet elevation. After experimenting with all the many types of kites I prefer a flat Ivite, something like the Malay, of a size 6 ft. high and 6 ft. wide, and without a tail. This shape kite can be worked tailless by making two pock- ets witli holes in each, and placing one on both sides of the backbone and al)ove the cross-sticlc. The covering I prefer is nearsilk, but any similar material will answer. Tlie kite complete, including the two sticks, weigiis only 1 lb., and is col- lapsible, folding into a space 3 ft. long and 3 ft. wide. One of these kites Avill, in only a light wind, carry up a ball of strong cord 1,500 ft. long, whicli can be dropped at any desired moment over a point 2,000 ft. distant from the Ivite operator. I have repeatedly demonstrated the effectiveness of this de- vice (see Fig. 1) as a means of carrying a line from a la lie steamer to the shore. For heavier work fly your kites in tandem at distances of 500 ft. apart. With five such lutes in tandem, and using a correspondingly heavy kite line, a body weigliing 60 lbs. can be carried to a height of one mile and main- tained there as long as the Avind holds. For this work a securely anchored windlass is necessary to let out and take in the kite line Avhicli must be tlie size of a small clothes line. I believe the time will come when every vessel and every life-saving station will be supplied with a kite outfit for passing a line between the shore and stranded vessel. Usu- ally in near shore wrecks the wind is toward the land, making it very easy to carry a cord to shore, wliich establishes connection be- tween the two. A lieavier line and finally a life line can then be drawn to the vessel. If the wind is off shore the same resu:lt can be had, but requires a little more time, as a vessel a half-mile out is a comparatively small mark in a gale; but it can be done. The commercial side of the work lies at present more in the nature of sky signs, which are becoming more general each year. A briglit banner 30 to 50 feet long, floated a thousand feet or more above a place of busi- ness, and announcing special sales, openings, etc., never fails to attract attention. The air is free, there is abundance of room, and the expense is not great. In some cities E .\ C Y C LOPE 1) I A professional kite fliers are making time con- tracts for this work, tlie charges being so much per hour while the banner is in sus- pension. For night work specially built .•searchlights are used to "spot" tlie banners, thus bringing the words out in bold relief. A recent novelty is the wholesale distribu- tion of hand bills or circulars which are sent Fi^. laaTivo Views : Upper Closed ; L>o^vex> Open and Ball R.eleased. Device is Fastened on I^ine Near Kite. up and released where and as often as de- sired. The distance these announcements will travel when dropped from a height of a thousand or more feet is surprising. The same apparatus by which this is done can be used to work the shutter of a camera. The device is very simple and will, I think, be understood from the illustration, and can easily be made by anyone. There are two ways to release in mid-air. In Fig. 1 two views are shown of the same device. The upper view shows a device to be fastened to the kite by giving the kite line a turn around the two buttons. The device should be attached when say from 200 to 500 ft. of the kite line has been let out. The sketch shows the manner of at- taching something to be released later on. A ball of twine for instance, such as would be used in flying a line from ship to shore. In the sketch the size of the ball is made very much smaller in proportion in order to leave room to show the arrangement. In the lower part of Fig. 1, the wire has been re- leased, the ball has dropped, unwinding as it fell, and one end remains fastened to the device which is in turn fastened on the kite line. Instead of a ball of twine a package of bills could be hung and released in the' same way The release is effected by a "traveller" or Fi^. 2>*Xrippin^ MecHax\ism o£ tKe er.** Tikis is a Part of the Device ( out tHe "W^in^s) Shoivn in Fi^. 3. Fi^. 3— TKe "Traveler.** IVlngs as Open to Ascend ox^ Kite L>ine ; IVin^s as Closed to Returix to Op« erator. trolley shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, which runs on the kite line suspended from the two small grooved wheels shown in Fig. 2. The two wings carry the traveller up until it strikes the trip in Fig. 1, when it releases the burden carried by Fig. 1, and at the same time works the trip in Fig. 2. This allows Fig. 2 to drop anything which it may carry, and also lets the two wings close on their hinges, when the traveler, no longer offering any resistance to the wind, slides down the kite line to the operator. It can then be loaded and sent aloft, the op- eration being repeated indefi- nitely. The traveler as well as the device shown in Fig. 1 is made of light wood and pieces of or- dinarily stiff steel wire which anyone can bend with a pair of pincers. As an outdoor recreation, kite flying is one of the most fascinating and inexpensive of sports, and when once a per- son takes it up he is sui'prised to find how much there is to it and how great are its possi bilities. Travel- but -writlk- 78 E N C Y L O P K I) I A THE ENGINEER'S CAB ON SOME EURO- PEAN RAILWAY LINES. The American engineer in liis cosy cab, protected from tlie fierce elements and suffi- ciently comfortable that his mind need not dwell on the requirements of his body, but *'£n^ii\eer and Stoker are Exposed to tHe Lashing Rain" is free to concentrate itself on the control of liis iron steed, the perspective of glimmering- rails ahead, and the signals' he must watch for, is far better off tlian many of his brother engineers on European lines. The illustra- tion shows the cab of a locomotive which hauls a fast express between Calais and Paris, France. Only in recent years lias the protection for stoker and engineer been even so much as shown. As it is thej'' are exposed to the lashing rain and sleet. The other occupants of the cab are Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, and M. Morizot, the chief engineer of the line. The potter's wheel is probably the most ancient of mechanical devices. In China and Japan a simple form, differing but little from that used in Egypt 4,000 years ago, is still used for shaping porcelain ware. ■♦ • » NEW FRENCH CRUISER OF 40,000 HORSE- POWER. There will soon be launched in the ship- yards at St. Nazaire, France, the French ar- mored cruiser "Ernest Renan." Though the length and displacement of this vessel is but little in excess of many of the cruiser type now being built here and abroad, its horsepower is enormous, indicating 40,000. The ship is 515 ft. long, 72-ft. beam, with a draught of 27 ft. and a displacement of 13,644 tons. The armor belt is 12i/4 ft. wide and 6% in. in tliickness, and the ship is designed for a coal capacity of 2,300 tons. A comparison with our own cruiser Wash- ington, the keel of which was laid in 1903, will be instructive. Tliis vessel is 502 ft. in length, 73-ft. beam, with a drauglit of 26 14 ft., and a displacement of 14,500 tons, but its coal capacity will not exceed two thousand tons and it will indicate only 23,000 horsepower. THis Cruiser Has 40,000 Horsepoinrer ENCYCLOPEDIA I'Srl Motor Iceboatin^ THe Coming Winter Sport S]»e«cl of lOO Miles and More an IIotir>>Ne\ir and Kxcitin^ Sport for ^^inter MontHs to R,eplace Autos and LratincHes TKis Boat Made Over 40 Miles an Hour Over the frozen waters of the lake it speeds— the v,'onderful iceboat of the winter of 1905-06. It started from the shore with a careful calculating motion, as though it would measure the course whereon its pow- ers were to be displayed. With a gliding spring it rose easily over the bumps and ridges of ice near the shore and then, with a sudden acceleration of speed, made its way out on the glittering, fascinating sea of glass. Faster and faster it goes, and its course is as steady as the flight of a homing dove. A giddy ice-yacht with a cumbersome spread of sails is just ahead, and its course is uncertain, depending on the fi-eak of the vrind, but the iceboat, under perfect control, steers clear of the yacht, and flies past like a meteor impelled of some celestial sphere. The occupants of the two vessels call out a gay greeting, but the iceboat is gone so quickly that only the wind catches the full intent of the words. From a speed of 40 miles the number has in- creased to 50— 75— and even 90 miles an hour. The eyes of the driver are fixed on the little mechanism that records the speed. Steadily— surely— it increases, until at last the little indicator has reached the 100-mile point and remains there without a flicker. Undoubtedly, iceboating is the coming winter sport. During the past winter hard- ly a man or boy, near a frozen body of water of any size, in either this country or Canada, who did not try to rig up and use some form of ice-craft. Many of these were successful, and the records made on the northern lakes and rivers with ice-yachts were surprising. Now, however, comes the motor iceboat, the invention of F. M. Un- derwood, of Toledo, Ohio, and promises to eclipse all precedent in the sport. The ex- periments were taken up too late to be car- ried out entire during the past winter, but the first boat successfully constructed made a speed of 40 miles an hour, demonstrating that the principles were alright and that, with some changes and greater -power, a boat capable of making 100 miles an hour was easily possible. The craft illustrated was not completed until late this spring and only a few oppor- tunities to use it were possible before the ice on Lake Erie became unsafe. This was a great disappointment and Commodore 80 ENCYCLOPEDIA Underwood (for he is commodore of the Toledo Yacht Club) is impatiently waiting the return of another winter. The boat is 12 ft. long, 40 in, wide at the bow, tapering to a sharp point at the stern. The runners are sheet steel. The steering runner io controlled by a tiller and works the same as on a sail boat. The sheet steel or dash- board is to protect the machinery and pas- sengers from deadly blows from pieces of ice which fly up from time to time, for meeting a nice bright chunk of ice at 40 miles an hour is not at all desirable. The engine is set cross-wise in the boat instead of the line shaft running fore and aft as in a propeller launch. The driving wheel is of steel, 36 in. in diameter, with 12 spokes, the face of the wheel being 2 in., set with 96 sharp pointed spikes 1 in. high. These spikes are not placed directly opposite each other, but are "staggered," which gives a better hold. The driving wheel is hung in a V-shaped frame, the two open ends being hinged securely at a point opposite the en- gine shaft. The other ends unite and are fastened to a strong vertical spring which holds the wheel firmly to the ice, but at the same time is sufficiently yielding to al- low the driver to ride over reasonably large obstructions without danger of breaking it or upsetting the boat. The locking lever operates a clutch^ which throws the driving chain in and out of action at will. The entire construction will be so readily understood from the above description and the illustration that our readers will have no difficulty in constructing a motor ice- boat in good season for next winter, and those Avho already own either an auto or a small launch can remove their engines from the summer service and install the same power in a winter craft . The new boat now under construction will differ from the other in that it will have two drive wheels, one on each side, and be equipped with a four-cylinder 10-h.p. gaso- line engine. Power will be transmitted by a regular automobile chain and an auto- matic spring on the runners will cause them to raise, should the boat strike an open sheet of water or weak ice, without the at- tention of the driver. The boat will thus ride over the spot without injury to either machine or occupants. Gravel Pumped LiKe Water THis Plant IViU I^ift lOO Yards of Gravel a Day Pumping gravel like water through a large iron pipe may seem a strange and unique proceeding, but this is what is actually be- ing done in certain districts in Indiana. Great difficulty has always been experienced in road building, but the new method prom- ises to put an end to this. A six-inch pump is used, driven by a 15 h. p. engine, and three men are necessary for its operation. A plant of this kind has a capacity of lift- in obtaining gravel from river beds for use ing over 100 yards of gravel a day. ENCYCLOPEDIA 8] Remarkable Success of tKe Cleveland Roll- ing( R.oad A moving roadway ascending a steep liill at ttie rate of four miles an liour and bear- ing witti it heavily laden teams and vehi- cles of all kinds, is the sight which now greets the astonished visitor to Cleveland, Ohio. Moving sidewalks have been much talked of and experimented with, but it has remained for engineers of that city to successfully, apply the principles of their construction to a roadway and put it into every day use. This rolling road, as it is called, is 420 ft. long and rises 65 ft. in that distance, the ground traversed being a steep incline in Factory street hitherto shunned by all teamsters because of the difficulties of its ascent. But these have now been overcome by this novel invention. The heaviest loads are driven on to the rolling road at its lower end, the huge belt is set in motion, and in three minutes the team has reached the top of the hill without any effort on the part of the horses. The roadway consists of a long moving platform eight feet wide made up of heavy boards arranged crosswise and divided into trucks of two boards each to give pliability to the structure. These boards are metal bound and are fastened together with metal links. The belt so formed is extremely heavy, weighing 99 tons, and turns upon a drum at each end rotated by means of chains and sprockets, there being several idlers to support the roadway as it returns on the underside. Two safety cables ex- tend the entire length of the belt and at short intervals links pass up through the road from them to which the wagons are clamped to prevent their slipping. The road is operated by four electric motors controlled from a cabin at the summit. The rolling road is equipped with suffi- cient power to carry all the wagons which can be driven upon it at one time and its average daily capacity is estimated at 600 vehicles per day. The charge for trans- portation varies from ten to twenty-five cents per trip, depending upon the kind of vehicle and the loading, and as the use of the road means a saving of fully fifty min- utes in time to the teams of the surround- ing warehouses it will not want for patron- age. Passengers are also carried at the rate of two cents per person. This roadway has proved so great a sue- Easy to Mount tHe Steep Orade cess that Col. Isaac Smead is now engaged in designing a more elaborate structure which will be operated over a viaduct spe- cially constructed for the purpose in an- other hilly street in Cleveland. An electric elevator is soon to be installed in the grand Cathedral at Berlin, for the ex- (iusive use of the German emperor. An ele- vator in a church !s quite unusual, but a private elevator is even more of a novelty. ENCYCLOPEDIA GUNPOWDER VAN USED IN ENGLAND. SELF-PROPELLED RAILWAY PASSENGER COACHES. In conveying gunpowder and other ex- plosives the great rislv assumed by the rail- way makes it imperative that the means of conveying it be perfectly adapted to the purpose. Our illustration shows a 7-ton gun- powder van, which the Locomotive Maga- zine, London, says is used on the North British Kailway. For Cox&veyin^ GunpO'Wiler The inside dimensions of the car are length, 15 ft. 8 in.; width, 7 ft. I1/2 in.; height 6 ft. 3% in.; the wheelbase is 9 ft. and the distance from the rails to bodj^ is 3 ft. 1 in. The underframe and axles are of steel, the wheels of wrought-iron and the body and roof are built of mild steel plates, angles and tees. Inside, the body is wood, cased with yellow pine boards. These are secured with brass screws with- out projections. To a height of 2 ft. above the floor the doors, sides and ends are lined with lead sheets fastened with flat-headed copper nails to the wood casing, all joints being soldered. The locks, hinges and bottom fastenings of the doors ai'e of brass and tlie hinges and socket for the top door fastening are secured with brass bolts. Thus no iron or steel part comes in contact with any other part made of these metals and wherever iron or steel work comes in contact with wood it is well coated with white lead oil paint. Thus there is hardly a chance by which a spark of fire could be emitted by friction. The van is painted vermilion, A'arnished, has no A'entilators and is abso- lutely dust-proof. Single passenger coaches speeding across our prairies and hills, from city to city and supplanting the arrogant locomotive almost entirely for local passenger service, may be the next great innovation in rail- way motive power departments. Railway engineers all over the country are turning their attention to the possibilities of the internal combustion motor for directly driv- ing passenger coaches and thus doing away with locomotive, smoke and dirty coal ten- der, and meaning as well a reduction in labor. A passenger coach designed along these lines and directly driven by a gasoline motor has been built at the Omaha shops of the Union Pacific railroad and will be used for local passenger service at Portland, Ore. This is the first serious test of the kind The coach, which lias seating capacity for 25 persons, is mounted on specially designed trucks, liaving 42-in. wheels and the con- struction of the whole is very strong. The roof is fitted with ventilators and the floor is watertight, so that it can be flooded and cleaned readily. Acetylene gas is used for illumination, and an acetylene headlight is R.ecttxires No Locomotive mounted at the front of the car. The coach is shaped to offer the least resistance pos- sible. The car is heated by a system of piping Avhich is arranged to cool the jacket water of the motor also. The motor sup- plies power for a speed of 40 miles an hour. Compressed air is used for starting the car, liandling the brakes, opening and shutting the doors and lowering ^and raising the step from the driver's compartment. This s;tep aiTangement keeps passengers from alighting before the car has stopped and so prevents accidents. ENCYCLOPEDIA 83 "AfixetopHone" Makes Open-Air Concerts WitH tHe GramopKone Possible Before the summer is over, the people who throng to our parks and summer pleas- ure resorts of evenings may be privileged to hear the voices of all the great singers of the world and the finest orchestral pio- ductions, as well as the voices and words of many great and distinguished persons they may never chance to see. All this is to be brought about— not by the much maligned magnet as indicated, is connected directly with the gridiron, and so the air emission varies with the vibration the gridiron re- ceives from the contact of the needle on the record. The apparatus is very simple and, it is said, wholly successful. A library of the voices of famous people is being made up by the controlling company and will be offered to the British Museum. 'THis Attachment Enables tbe GramopHone to Sound as LrOtid as a Full Brass Bana." phonograph— but by the gramophone fitted up with a special attachment called an "auxetophone" which increases the volume of the gramophone and enables it to sound as loud as a full brass band in the open air, says the Illustrated London News. Tlie auxetophone is the invention of the Hon. Charles Parsons and consists of a "grid- iron" or "comb" which is attached at the small end of the tapered arm of the trum- pet. Air is forced by a pump or motor through an open tube, A, extending from the gridiron and passes through some wadding. The emission of this air from the gridiron 'r, controlled by a row of slots exactly in front of which the gridiron is placed. The needle, C, which is held In place by a HOW SPIRIT PORTRAITS ARE PAINTED BY GHOSTS. A recent expose of fraudulent spiritual- istic mediums brought out the interesting details of the process by which "ghosts" paint "spirit portraits." The patron or "sitter" who desires to hare painted the portrait of a departed friend is received in tlie sitting room on an upper floor; on the floor below is stationed the ghost— an expert photographer. A photo- graph of the dead person is given by the sitter to the first medium, who wraps it in several folds of tissue paper— so there will be no chance of fraud— and passes it over her brow. As she does so a series of raps 84 ENCYCLOPEDIA begins to sound on the table near the second medium. Tliese raps are made by the thumb nail of the second medium, but the sitter cannot detect it. Naturally the sitter turns to No. 2, who declares she is in communica- tion with the spirit and tells the sitter to put his hands on the table to establish the current. The duty of No. 2 now is to hold the sitter's attention. While No. 2 is thus engaged No. 1 drops the photograph through a slit in the floor near her, to the "ghost" below. The "ghost" makes a negative of the photo, rewraps it in the tissue and passes it back to the medium. It is done in less than two minutes. There are more messages and finally the spirit— the model of the painting— is there. Through the medium the spirit bids, the sitter come again Thurs- day as he cannot get into communication at the present time. In the interval between the next sitting the "ghost" makes an enlargement of the photograph on sensitized canvas, paints it over and also makes ready a blank canvas exactly like the canvas on which the por- trait is made. When the sitter comes back communica- tion with the spirit is again established. The blank canvas wrapped in tissue paper Is set up in the window. Medium No. 2 again holds the emitter's attention with fraud messages, and while she does No. 1 substitutes the com- pleted portrait for the blank canvas. When the sitter turns the painting shows dimly through the folds of tissue. Again and again No. 2 holds his attention by conversing with the spirit— and each time lie turns the pic- ture shows brighter— successive layers of tissue having been torn off in the meantime by No. 1. At last all the remaining paper is torn off and there is revealed a perfect por- trait of a spirit painted by a spirit. Of course the sitter is willing enough to pay a good price for such a wonderful manifestation. WarsKips Converted Into Gay Floating Hotels ''n t The Transformed BattlesHips VTould I^ooK I^iKe This Floating hotels— a whole flotilla of them— decked with gay streamers, fitted up with every accommodation that would appeal to lovers of the deep and anchored in the beautiful Kyles of Bute. This is the picture conjured up by an English artist who has suggested to the British admiralty the plan of converting their disabled battleships into floating hotels, and so create a new, and in all probability, profitable source of revenue, instead of selling the ships for a nominal sum. The artist suggests converting the fighting- top into a band stand, training vines up the masts and many other attractive features. The plan would afford a delightful means of spending a summer outing and would doubtless be highly popular. ENCYCLOPEDIA MacHine for Writing SHortKand 85 Frencb Invention IVhicH May^ Revolutionize Present System of L>eam- in^ SHortHand Shorthand cau now be written on a ma- chine. For many years there have been at- tempts made to construct a machine for this purpose, and while several inventions have been made and put upon trial they have not come into general use. However, a French- man, M. Bivort by name, has recently brought out a machine which he calls the steuophile and which promises to be of the greatest value, inasmuch as it is capable of practical use for all business purposes and is quali- fied to supplant the present method of writ- ing shorthand by hand. Recognizing the necessity of having a ra- tional alphabet which would contain the greatest number of sounds in the fewest signs, M. Bivort has' designed an alphabet in which all similar consonant sounds are consolidated, and has constructed a system of syllabic writing by means of which tlie operator is enabled to attain the speed of shorthand Avriters of to-day. Following the phonetic principles used in present systems he has combined several of the consonants, such as B and P, F' and V, T and D, etc., tht!S reducing the number of keys necessary to twenty, ten for each hand. There are two intermediate keys, one for the aspirate H, while the other moves the paper forward. An accessory key moves the carriage for the writing of numbers and signs much on the order of the upper case key in the single key- board typewriters. In appearance and gen- eral plan of construction the stenophile is very similar to a small typewriter, but the arrangement for holding and feeding the paper is manifestly different, it being placed on the machine in a large roll and gradually unwound from one spool to another. The speed of the machine rests, of course, upon the skill of the operator, but however rapid the action the legibility of the writing is unimpaired. It is claimed that with a week's practice an average pupil can write fifty words a minute from dictation, and that at the end of two or three months he will easily attain a speed of from 125 to 150 words a minute, tlie speed of the com- petent business stenographer of to-day. One of the greatest difficulties with short- hand as now written is that the writer is usually the only one capable of reading his notes, and if he is hard pressed the rapidity of his writing distorts the characters so much that lie himself often experiences dif- ficulty in their transcription. By the use of the stenophile this difficulty is removed. The characters as written are constant in form and are easily transcribed by all who understand the basis of the system, so that one person may be emploj^ed in doing noth- TaKin^ Notes in Sbortl^and by- Machine ing but taking speeches or letters, as the case may be, and others in transcribing them. The stenophile so far has only been ap- plied to the French language, but it is eas- ily applicable to all others, and we may expect to see it introduced into business houses all over the world as a companion to the typewriter in the near future. REMOVING GLASS STOPPERS. C41ass stoppers sometimes occasion even more difficulty than coi'ks iti their removal. An almost infallible cure for a fixed stop- per is to grasp the bottle in the left hand, and with the thumb press against the offending stepper, while with the right hand T'cntly tap against this pressure, using the handle of a knife or other hard instrument. In this way gradually work round the stop- per, which will quickly become loose enough to be extracted. 86 ENCYCLOPEDIA GRAVEL ELEVATING AND MACHINE. SCREENING AERIAL YACHT DUMONT'S LATEST. For handling gravel the outfit shown in the illustration is most efficient. It digs the sand and gravel from the loose bank, elevates and screens it so as to give two products, casting all large stones or tailings off on the ground beside it. The outfit consists of an elevator and Elevates and Screens Gravel revolving screen mounted on a flat car. The elevator is composed of buckets mount- ed on an endless chain. It is placed to one side of the car and extends 2 in. below the track level and projects 6 in. in front of the car. In operation the car is run directly to the face of the bank and a man stationed at the top of the bank can easily keep the elevator supplied with the loose material. The gravel is spouted from the elevator to the revolving screen in the center of the car, where the smallest of it falls through a fine wire screen, thus sepa- rating the sand. This screen is set at an angle and all that. will not pass through it falls by gravity to a second wire screen of larger mesh. The gravel passes through this screen and the tailings fall over the end and are spouted to the ground. The sand and gravel are discharged by belt conveyers from the machine into two dump cars placed ajongside. The machine is driven by steam power generated on the car. # « » A German chemist has invented a method of manufacturing fluid gas from the residuum of petroleum and heavy mineral oils. The inventor claims it can be manu- factured cheaply Avhore there is an abun- dance of petroleum and can be transported in cylinders. "My aerial yacht," says Santos-Dumont, "will soon start on its first cruise. Beneath the egg-shaped balloon, slightly less elon- gated than my No. 9, will be seen hanging what looks like a little house with a balcony AvindoAV running half its length on each side. The balcony window will be the observation room of the floating house, and in it the motor will have place. Behind it is a closed sleeping room, while in front you will see an open platform holding the steam produc- ing boiler. Steam can also be led by means of a pipe to the open room for cooking and the closed room for heating purposes. "As the floating house is designed to re- main for days at a time in the air, protection from cold may become important; therefore the closed room can be made quite tight to retain tlie heat. It is like a whole car com- posed of a framework of pipe, aluminum and wire tightly covered with varnished bal- loon silk of manjr thicknesses. It will con- tain two cot beds, in which my guests may remain at ease." Santos-Dumont foretells that the airshii) Avill be a successful opponent of the subma- rine boat. TO LOOSEN RUSTY SCREW. One of the simplest and readiest ways of loosening a rusted screw is simply to apply heat to the head of the screw. A small bar or rod of iron, flat vt the end, if reddened in the fire and applied for two or three minutes to the head of a rusty screw, will, as soon as it heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy Avith the screAvdriver as if it were only a recently inserted screw. This is not particularly novel, but is Avorth knowing. HOW TO SOFTEN PUTTY. Putty which has become hardened by ex- posure, as around window sash, may be softened and readily removed by the use of the following mixture: Slake three pounds of quickstone lime in water and add one pound of pearlash, mak- ing the whole of about the conisistency of paint. Apply to both sides the glass and let it remain for 12 hours. At the end of that time the putty will be sufficiently soft so the glass can be lifted out of the frame. ENCYCLOPEDIA 87 How Portland Cement is Manufactured Huge Rolls CrusK 5-Ton RocRs— Rotary Kilns 150 Feet Long- Hoiv tlie Fuel is Pulverized A large plant for the manufacture of Port- land cement lias recently been completed and put in operation at Hull, P. Q., Canada, just opposite Ottawa, where, there is abundance of the necessary raw materials. The plant has a capacity for 2,500 bbl. of cement per day, and involves a number of new features. An electric cableway, with a 1,200 ft. span, is used for conveying the raw materials from the quarry to the crushing house, and the machinery throughout the plant is elec- trically driven by powerfiil motors. The pro- cess of manufacture employed is known as the dry process, and involves the use of huge rotary kilns for burning the cement. Each of these kilns, in this ins'tance, weighs 150 tons. The stone crushers of the plant will crush about 175 tons per hour. The process through which the raw ma- terials, commonly cement rock and lime- stone, ijass in the manufacture of Portland cement in a large modern plant, is unique and interesting in the extreme. The two materials are found close together and loosened largely by blasting, though much of the material is so soft it can be shoveled out by steam shovels working on a railway. From the electric cableway the loaded skip is lowered into the crushing house to a plat- form, 50 ft. or more above the floor and op- posite the mouth of the hopper, above the main crushing roll. The contents of the skip are discharged into the hopper by elec- tric power, and the empty skip returned to the quarry. In one typical plant of the kind the first pair of crushing rolls are 5 ft in diameter and 5 ft. long, and have crusher faces of cast-iron plates covered with projecting lugs. These rolls are capable of crushing a single rocic weighing five tons. The speed of the crushers is about 250 revolutions per minute. One of tHe 150-Ton Kilns Loaded on Flat Cars ENCYCLOPEDIA. Tbe Electric Cable^vay From these huge rolls the crushed rock drops into a 10-ton hopper below, whence it is fed through three sets of 36 in. rolls and passes through the last set reduced to % in. and less in size. On being screened all tailings from the crushed rock are returned to the crushing house and recrushed. From the lowest set of rails the crushed rock drops through a chute upon a 24-in. belt conveyor, which carries it upward, at a speed of 500 ft. per minute (the speed of all the conveyors at this plant), to the top of what is called the "drier house." Here the material falls by gravity over screens of V2 in. mesh. All that will not pass through— the "spalls"— is recrushed and re- turned to the drier house. Material passing through the screens falls to the drier. This drier consists of a cast-iron box 40 ft. high, 8 ft. square and filled with baflfle plates. The fall from the last screen to the bottom of the drier occupies just 25 seconds. The capacity is 3,000 tons per day. An 80-in. exhaust fan driven by a 60-hp. motor draws out the gases at the top of the stack and in the way of economy these are passed through the dust-settling chamber, thence to the atmosphere. By this drier process the percentage of moisture in the crushed rock is reduced to about one per cent from the original four or five per cent. The gases on emerging from the stack have a tem- perature scarcely above 212 deg. F. From the bottom of the drier stack the crushed stone is carried by a belt conveyer up an incline to the transfer tower and is delivered to another belt conveyer, and an automatic sampler draws samples as the rock passes from the one conveyer to the other. This sampler is a most ingenious piece of mechanism. It is a broad plate hinged something like a damper, and at stated intervals it is thrust forward into tlie material taking a 1-lb. sample at each thrust. It is withdrawn by means of a weight. It acts in accordance with the speed of the con- veyor as it is only thrust forward in re- sponse to an escapement mechanism belted to the conveyor shaft. On the second 24-in. conveyor the rock is carried down the full length of the stock- house cupola and by means of a self-pro- pelled tripper deposits its load in bins, a number for each of the two materials, and an extra bin for mixing. Cement rock and limestone are mixed bj' discharging the con- tents of these bins upon belt conveyors run- ning in a tunnel beneath. From the stock- house the tunnel conveyors bring the crushed rock to the first dump at the upper part of a weighing house where there are two 300- ton bins, one for cement rock and one for limestone, and a 10 -ton weighing bin beneath each of these, in which the proper propor- tions of the materials are secured. At what is known as the "chalk" grinding house, material is ground between sets of rolls to an exceeding fineness. These rolls have a compression of 1500 lbs. per square inch and handle about 300 bbls. ot material per hour and about 86 per Ball Mills For Grinilini£ Clinker ENCYCLOPEDIA 89 Installinst R.otary Kilns at tHe Neiv Cement Plant at Hull, Canadi cent of the ground material passes tbrongli a sieve having 200 meshes per linear inch. The ground material is conveyed to a blower house, where the finer is separated from the coarser. Entering at the top of the blower house, the belt conveyor passes two stationary trippers, each of which takes off its proportion of the load and re- places the rest. The material they take is supplied to the discharge pipes of sixteen fan blowers. The material, falling through a system of baffles and transversely through the current of air maintained by the blowers, the finely ground is carried into the settling room where it settles into bins but the coarse falls by gravity through the current of air, instead of being conveyed by it, and is sent back to the grinding house. From the set- tling room bins the chalk is conveyed to the chalk storehouse. The walls of the settling chamber are of coarse gunny sack, and much of the machinery throughout the plant is protected Avith this material. From the chalk stockhouse, which is of 1,000 tons' capacity, the chalk is conveyed by a long screw conveyor to a belt which leads to the kiln house. The burning of material in the huge rotary kiln is the most interesting process involved in the manufacture. The kilns used nowa- days exceed in size anything that was seen four or five years ago. Time was when a steel kiln 6 ft. in diameter and 60 ft. long was considered a monster, but this large plant uses cast-iron kilns 150 ft. long and 9 ft. in diameter. These kilns, of which there are sixteen in the plant we are describing, are supported on 30 wheels, called "idlers," at 15 points of their length and revolve at a speed of about one revolution in 45 seconds. Power is supplied by geared motors midway of the kilns. The rotaries are inclined and are held in place by two thrust wheels bear- ing against turned rings encircling the shell. The output of each kiln is about 750 bbls. per day of 24 hours, and less than 75 lbs. of fuel is used per barrel of product. The fuel used is XJulverized soft coal which must be- especially prepared for the purpose. It is first put through what is called a "grizzly" in which the larger pieces are crushed, it then goes to a drier house where steam colls drive heated air through the drier stack at the rate of 30,500 cu. ft. per minute. From the drier the coal falls into a storage hopper and is taken by a screw conveyor to the coal grinding house. Here it passes through a tube mill and comes out in a finely pulver- ized state and is conveyed to a fine coal storehouse near the roaster. This fine coal is fed into the lower end of each kiln by means of compressed air. 90 ENCYCLOPEDIA The chalk as it descends through the kihi reaches the stage of incipient vitrification and forms clinker, the heat to which it is Section of Ball Mill subjected being most intense. Sometimes it becomes wliolly vitrified and collects in rings and obstructs the flow. A peculiar means is taken to again open the kiln. A naval gun operated by compressed air is loaded with a ready-made cement slug about 1% in. diam- eter and 15 in. long and discharged into the kiln, breaking up the rings of glass within. At the lower end of the kiln the clinker drops out into a cylindrical revolving cooler. Air drawn through the cooler serves to cool the clinker, and as it passes over the hot clinker is heated, and this warm air is admitted to the kiln. The cooler rotates just as the kiln does; it is, however, set at a greater inclination and the clinker passes through more rapidly. From the cooler the clinker drops into a bucket conveyor from which it is spouted to what is called the "bad clinker" elevator and which discharges upon the pavement outside the roaster house. The clinker is then conveyed to the grinding house where it is first reduced in size by ball mills and then pulverized by tube mills. The proper amount of plaster of paris not exceeding two per cent is added after the crushing in the ball mill. This is to retard the setting of the cement. The ball mill grinds it by means of loose tumbling balls of steel carried in a rapidly revolving drum. The tube mill reduces the clinker to the market fineness of which 92 per cent must pass through a 100-mesh sieve. The tube mill consists of a steel plate cylinder, pro-, vided with a driving gear and lined with hard iron, silex or porcelain bricks. For CrtisHi^ii Coal Material is fed at one end through a hollow trunnion and discharged at the other end. The mill is filled to a point a little above its axis with material and pebbles and made to revolve, causing the mass of pebbles and material to tumble about, upon and over each other with wave-like undulations, pro- ducing an enormous grinding surface' capa- ble of reducing to any desired fineness with- out screening any dry material subjected to its action. The pulverized cement is finally put through a second blower house which sepa- rates all coarse particles from the fine and is then stored until such time as it shall be put on the market. R-otary Drier ENCYCLOPEDIA 91 DISINFECTING FILTER FOR HOSPITAL SEWAGE. ENGLISH STEAM OMNIBUS. By Dr. Maurice Budwig Sewage from hospitals, carrying witli it germs of all manner of contagious and in- fectious diseases, is a menace to the public health and may at some far removed spot, contaminate whole communities. Germs of many diseases live through all extremes of weather, some of them for years, as in the case of the typhoid germ. The only precaution against diseases being Filter for Hospital Seiva^e carried in this manner from hospitals is the thorough disinfection of sewage. My ap- paratus for this purpose consists of a cop- per tank into which the vessel containing sewage is placed and the tank filled with water. A powerful gas burner is arranged beneath the tank and brings the water to a temperature of 212 degrees F. The water is allowed to boil one minute and both ves- sel and contents are thus thoroughly disin- fected. A 2-in. valve at the outlet of the tank al- lows the contents to escape through a trap into the sewer, so that there is no chance of further infection. By turning the water valve the tank and vessel are cleansed. ^—¥ An excellent quality of soft coal is found in the Indian 'Territory. The 116 mines pro- duced 3,320,057 tons last year. The four coking plants coked 50,000 tons. The latest steam omnibus has been built for the London Road Car Co. It is of 32 hp. London Steam *Bus and kerosene is used for fuel. The vehicle seats 34 passengers and is of the double deck type. A car door fell from a freight train o)i the Southern Ry. so that it rested on botli rails. The locomotive of a passenger struck it and the locomotive and tender were thrown down an embankment, killing the engineer, fireman and a flagn.an. NEW SUBMARINE TELESCOPE. RT? It is believed that in many cases a sub- marine telescope would avoid the necessity of a diver going down. Where a search is to be made, or where the diver must first locate an object before going to work up- on it, the sub- marine telescope is calculated to save a great deal of time. It can 'be used at any depth to which a diver can safely descend. The viewing tube is made in sections which are added as the lower end of the tube, which con- tains the lens, is let down. In order to secure sufficient light at the bottom an elec- tric lamp securely inclosed in a strong glass case is attached. When the light is turned on the water is illuminated and easily ex- plored. 92 ENCYCLOPEDIA "Woiiderful Discovery in Pliotography Portraits in Colors by a Purely^ PKoto^rapHic Process— Nega- tive Partly Developed Under Stinli^Kt Among all of the investigations and dis- coveries that have recently been made rela- tive to the phenomena of light in connec- tion vfith photography, the experiments of Mr. J. Ellsworth Hare, a Chicago photo- grapher, are 'showing some of the most promising practical results. While photog- raphers all over the world have been at- tempting to discover methods of photograph- ing in colors or of producing colored photo- graphs by one process or another, this young man has actually succeeded in producing portraits in colors by a purely photographic process. These portraits bear a distinctive- ly poster character in appearance and, al- though the process has only been perfected within the past few weeks, the new style colored photographs are already command- ing high prices among the members of Chi- cago's four hundred. The process of maldng the "poster por- traits in colors," as the inventor calls them, is a printing process, the result being brought about by a double exposure to the light and a triple manipulation of the chemi- cals. The photograph is made on a thin metallic plate, very light in weight, which is prepared by a complicated system of coat- ing before it is ready for printing. The first coat is of a collodion nature, containing the double salts of silver. After this coating has been allowed to dry over night in a dark room, it is recoated with a heavy coat of specially prepared and sen- sitized bicromate solution, in which enougli black carbon pigment has been added to make the solution perfectly opaque. The plate, when thoroughly dry, is ready for printing. An ordinary portrait negative such as is used by all photographers is used to print from. Although the operation of placing the sensitized metallic plate in contact with the negative must be done in the dark room, the printing is done in the sunlight. The first exposure is determined by time. After the first exposure has been made the plate is removed to the dark room, where it undergoes a process of washing in hot water. This removes the opaque substance, or outer coating, from the high light part of the photograph, leaving the high lights and half- tone portion of the underneath coating free to the action of light for the next exposure and the shadows remaining perfectly blank. The plate should then be thoroughly dried, when it is ready for the second exposure. This exposure is made by artificial light, the time of which can only be determined by the printer's judgment. The plate is then ready for the toning bath, which is to pro- duce the desired color. The different colors are produced by the use of a series of ton- ing baths, the chemical combinations of which are a secret of the inventor. Tlius a variety of shades from bright red to pink and from pale green to deep yellow are ob- tained in the high lights and throughout the half tones. This leaves a striking photo- graph in two colors, the high lights standing out from the blaclc with marvelous effect, which makes the person photographed ap- pear to be seated in a dark room with a flood of strongly colored light of the se- lected tint falling upon him. Photographs of even greater effectiveness than those already mentioned are obtained in tliree colors by the same process, with the exception that colored carbon pigment is used in the bicromate solution in place of the black employed in the original process. This gives the shadow in one color, the high light in another and the half tones in a third color, which is produced by the presence of one color overlj'ing another. The metallic plate is used for two reasons. First, it acts as an opaque backing, which prevents tlie action of light on the inner or first coating from the back. Secondly and most important of all, the plate, having a hard surface, prevents the coatings from sinking in as is the case with photographs made on paper. This produces a photograph of a luminous quality. The latter effect con- stitutes one of the chief beauties of the new style of color photography and is a distinct innoA^ation in the photographer's art. The discoverer of the process explains his invention as an inspiration wliich came to him after dreaming over an idea and ruining scores of plates while experimenting during the past four years. Little oak boxes are placed on some of the tombstones in Paris, and their purpose is for receiving the cards of those who visit tlie graves, that the friends of the deceased may know whom else holds the departed in loving remembrance. ENCYCLOPEDIA C)3 River Boat Made 1,000-Mile Ocean Voyage TKe "H. C. Grady" on The Tempestuous Pacific When the "H. C. Grady," a river steam- boat formerly navigating the Columbia river, was sent down the Pacific coast to San Francisco bay last season, in response to a demand for flat-bottomed river steamers, seamen along the coast prophesied she would never make her destination in safety and the chances against it were so great that her crew deserted. The river boat in construc- tion is not at all adapted to ocean naviga- tion. The "H. C. Grady," a staunchly-built little craft 125 ft. long, 26 ft. beam and 26 in. draft, looked entirely out of place on the tempestuous Pacific. The guards of the craft were scarcely three feet out of the water, and the flat bottom somewhat less under water. The cabins and pilot house lowered high in the air and offered a fine broadside to squalls. The stern wheel enhanced the difficulties, as when the bow dipped the stern flew up and increased the strain on the en- gines. Nevertheless, with a crew of landlubbers under command of Captain Denny, the boat made the 1,000-mile ocean voyage in just five days without disaster. DAKOTA LIGNITE FOR IRRIGATING WORK. The production in great tracts of North Dakota land can be increased ten fold by means of irrigation. The U. S. Geological Survey, in a comprehensive report, recom- mends a plan for doing this. Great beds of lignite are near the surface, and crop out from hillsides. With suitable pumping ma- chinery water from rivers and creeks can be raised 100 or more feet and easily distributed over the level plains. The lignite is very easily mined. •♦ « » HOW TO MAKE A STORM VENTILATOR. The ventilation of a room in stormy weath- er in stich manner rain or cannot ■ in and curtains carpets be effected by a very simple means, says the Physical Culture Magazine. that snow blow spoil and may Build a box with one end and one side open, using 'i^-in. boards (preferably matched), and making it n'ust large enough to fit the sides of the window frame close- Exterior Vie-w Iz^terior Vie-w ly. The box may be of any depth desired, 18 in. is a good average. Paint, cover or stain the box to make it sightly and then adjust in the window as shown in the illustrations. The box need only be used in stormy Aveather, being removed entirely during fair weathex'. The current of air it admits to the room m'^y be increased or decreased by al- lowing it to extend farther out on the out- side, or by drawing it farther into the room. 94 ENCYCLOPEDIA Hour Gas and Electric Meters Work One of £acK Type Bxjtlained "Will Make Others Easily X7nclerstoopd«> Many Very Ingenious Two types of gas meters are in use, the wet meter and the dry meter. Figs. 1 and 2 show the most important parts of a dry meter. In Fig. 1 is represented a cross-sec- tion of the tinned case having apartments 0, D, E, and F. In apartments C and D are ^isks fastened together by flexible leather, L, forming a sort of bellows as in an accor- deon. Piston and valves are represented at ]Sr. Suppose gas to enter at H, Fig. 2. Its pressure opens valves into Q which expands, driving the gas out of the chambers C and D into the consumer's pipe. As the bellows empty, the chambers refill. The amount Q will hold is known. Keferring to Fig. 2, end view, N transmits the motion of the bellows to the shaft, S, which in turn moves the dial gear wheels, causing the hands to regis- ter the amount of gas passed in. B is a chamber containing levers and the dial mechanism. Figs. 3 and 4 refer to a wet meter, Fig. 3 showing a front view and Fig. 4 the in- terior arrangement at the back. W repre- sents the water level, water being put in at U. Too much water will overflow through V. A is a sheet metal cylinder. Within this revolves another cylinder on an axis. This cylinder is divided into four chambers. A, G, J, and K, having four outlets, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Gas enters around the axis and flows up through the tube T which reaches above the water line, W, into the chamber K. Its lightness causes the inner cylinder to revolve in the direction of the hands of a clock. The chamber K fills, revolves, then empties through 4, just as G is doing through 1. This rotation is transferred by tV:. axis to a gear wheel, X, Fig. 3, and by the shaft, S, to the dial wheels, and is registered, the capacity of each chamber being known. This continues until the consumer's pressure is equal to that of the gas main, when the meter stops until the pressure again lessens in the consumer's pipe. Too high or too low water causes a float, G, to rise or fall, thus shutting off the gas until the meter is ad- justed to read correctly. Wet meters freeze and require more at- tention than dry meters and are less used. Dry meters should be frequently examined, as the leather will become hard and brittle with age. To read the register. Fig. ^, of a gas meter, proceed as follows: Dial "A" reads "6" because it has not yet reached "7." Dial "B" reads "7" for a like reason, and dial "C" reads "7." Put down Fi^. 1. Dry Gas Meter Tig, 9 ENCYCLOPEDIA Fig. 3 -Wet Gas Meter Fig. A. these figures, namely, 677, and add two ci- phers, because the lowest, "C," dial repre- sents hundreds. Thus you have 67,700 cubic feet. Subtract from this the figures of the last month's reading, ending say 65,000, and you have what you must now pay for, 2,700 cubic feet. An electric recording wattmeter is really A B C Fig. 5— Gas Meter Dials an electric motor. To understand how it works, let us suppose a current of electricity to flow in a wire, F'ig. 6, in the direction of the arrow. Experiment has shown that this wire will then be surrounded by a force which electricians call a field, or "lines of force," sometimes likened to rubber bands. This same strange force appears between the opposite poles of two magnets, as in Fig. 7, and in order to talk about it we will use the terms "field" or "lines of force." Sup- pose in Fig. 7 we are looking at the end of two wires, A and B, joined at the other end. The lines of force will run straight across from S to N if undisturbed. But send a current in at A and out through B and a field, rubber bands if you wish, forms, turn- ing in the direction indicated by the respect- ive arrows. These two fields tend to bend the lines of force running from S to N in the manner shown. At the same time, the S N lines try, like stretched rubber, to re- main straight, lifting B up and pushing A down. Fasten these two wires to a center and we have the armature of a motor. In the wattmeter instead of one loop of wire, the armature is made up of a number of loops of fine wire which are wound length- wise of a spool on the shaft. In place of the S and N poles of magnets, the watt- meter has two fixed loops or coils of heavy Fig. 6 wire. Fig. 8, and through these the current (amperes) to the consumer passes, making many, few, or no lines of force according as he uses much, little, or no current; and making the armature turn slow or fast as did A and B, Fig. 7. The armature is con- nected across the circuit coming into the con- sumer's house to get the effect of the electric pressure (volts). Combining the effect from the current coils, and that from the arma- ture, the wattmeter reads amperes x volts = watts. 96 E N C Y C L O P K 1 ) I A An additional loop of wire called a shunt, Fig. S, is wound on the current coils to give enough added lines of force to make up for friction. Friction is slight, the shaft be- ing set in jewelled bearings as in a watch. Sometimes too much current flows through the armature, even with no load. This makes the armature turn and is termed "creeping." SHU/VT CO/L TO L//ve Fig. 8 It can be stopped by taking some of the wire out of the shunt coil. As the shaft revolves a set of gear wheels are turned, registering on the dial the num- ber of watt hours (watts x hours.) A watt- meter is tested by putting It on the same cir- cuit with a reliable instrument, or on a known load. If it runs too fast the poles of the magnet, which act as a drag on a copper or aluminum disk, are brought far- ther from the axis, giving more leverage; if too slow they are moved toward the axis. Wattmeters read either in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours. Referring to the register, Fig. 9, dial A has not registered; dial B reads "5" because it has not reached "6;" dial C reads "4;" dial D reads "2;" and dial E Fii(. lO. Watt Metev reads "7." Putting down these figures gives 5, 6, 4, 2, 7 watt-hours, or dividing by 1,000, gives 56.427 kilowatt-hours. Take from this the figures of the last reading paid for, say 46.427, and you now pay for 10.000 kilowatt- hours. The hands on the adjoining dials revolve in opposite directions, hence a reading should always be verified, as it is easy to mistake the direction of rotation. ^ * » While excavating for the new Pr-ris sub- way, the main postern and drawbridge of the Bastile was discovered. The gate is to be reconstructed on the Avenue Henri IV., where part of one of the towers of the fam- ous prison fortress has been set up for a number of years. toooo /ooo 100 J OOOOC Fi^. Q. Hoiv to Read tHe Dials of a 'W^atttneter Examining Bombs by X-I^ays Perilous Occupation Uses Science to Save L/ife< Experts Work in Underground R.ooins Not alone as a means of examining the interior anatomy of naan is ttie X-ray a life saver; it is now employed to show what is inside the most dangerous and deadly bombs. On the continent of Europe the po- lice department of all the large cities has one or more experts whose hazardous busi- ness it is to open and examine the bombs which are from time to time sent to mem- bers of the royal families and high officials. to resemble a book, for instance, and so con- structed as to explode when the package is opened. These are the most dreaded, for it is not easy to hurl a contact bomb with- out being seen; and the intended victim may as likely as not be elsewhere when the clockwork machine is due to explode; but the package sent by mail or express will do its work weeks and even months after it has been closed and delivered. Entrance to Underground Chamber These infernal machines are of all de- scriptions, some being designed to explode by any sudden jar, others operated by clock- work mechanism which if not interi*upted will cause an explosion at a pre-determined moment; while still others are inclosed in th& most innocent looking packages madte The bomb experts are among the highest paid members of the force, and their iden- tity and work is guarded with great se- crecy. When one of them pays the penalty with his life the event is often never knoyyn outside of a few trusted oflScials of tfee' -de- partment. 97 98 E N C YCT. () P H: I) I A Fig. 1 — Interior of Infernal Machine containing bomb sent by mail to Russian Ambassador. Paris, as revealed by the X-ray. Short black lines are nails Mith which the box was made. Fig. 2— Photograph of exterior of Box. The invention of the X-ray was a boon to tlie bomb expert. By its aid he is able to look into the most cleverly constructed infernal machine without even tearing off the wrapper inclosing the package. The illustrations show the deadly contents of two examples. One is a bomb, the other an infernal machine. The first will explode by slicckj the other upon the opening of the lid of the box which was sent by mail. The expert's work is done in a remote, carefully guarded place, and within ease- mates. No one except the guard is allowed to approach, and the casemate is deeply im- bedded in earth to reduce the damage from a possible explosion as much as possible. Every time the expert enters to examine Some new device he has no assurance he will ever come out alive and whole; he may be blown to atoms any moment. It is de- sirable, however, to open and examine these engines of death, because in that way clues are often discovered which connect one case with another. On January 30 a bomb, in a grey paper package, was discovered near the residence of Prince Troubetzkoi, military attache of the Russian embassy in Paris. The same day a similar bomb exploded in the Avenue Interior of Underground ^VorK* sHop IVbere Bombs Are Examined Fig. 1— Photograph of Concussion Bomb. Fig. 2 — X-ray picture of contents. Note large stick of Dynamite, large shot, nails and sharp frag- ments of iron. Very Deadly. de la Republique, and injured several peo- ple. The bomb discovered by Prince Trou- betzkoi was examined by the authorities, who found that it was filled with nails of various sizes, buckshot, cartridges, and fragments of iron. The other bomb, which was similar in construction, hurled its con- tents to a distance of thirty yards. WIRELESS MESSAGE PASSES THROUGH MANY TEMPERATURES. A wireless telegraph message was recently sent from Chicago to Key West, Fla. The message had to pass through many tem- peratures and varied weather conditions in the trip from the Lake Michigan locality to the Gulf Stream city, but the apparatus worked perfectly. ENCYCLOPEDIA 99 All-Steel Cars as LigHt as Wooden Ones The great objection to the all-steel car as urged by many builders has been on the score of weight. Prominent engineers, how- ever, declared that this objection was only a temporary one and that in a short time an all-steel car would be designed for a construction as light as the old wooden cars. The Metropolitan Elevated Railway Com- pany, of Chicago, has recently put into ser- vice an all-steel car but little heavier than so as to form a plate girder along each side of the car. The cross sills are 6-in. I-beams. On these cross sills rests the sheet steel bot- tom, which is of 3-16-in. sheet steel in the center of the car between the bolsters, and 5-16-in. from the bolsters to the ends of the car. On the interior %-in. stiffening plates or braces, which are covered by the backs of the seats, are used. Between posts on the inside of the car, wood furring faced with steel is placed. The roof is of wood, Framingi of the All-Steel Car the wooden ones of the same pattern, that is 48,000 lb. without motors. The sides of this car from the window sills down to the bot- tom of the side sills are covered with i/i-in. steel plate, continuous from end to end of the car. This plate is riveted to a 6-in. channel-bai% which forms the side sill at the bottom, and to an angle iron at the top, covered with canvas, as usual in car con- struction. The seat frames are of pressed steel. On top of the steel bottom is first a layer of mineral wool and upon this, wood- en flooring. The only wood used in the en- tire construction is the flooring, the roof, the window sills and frames and a feAV minor details. Courtesy of the American Car & Foundry Co. All-steel Car Complete LoFC. 100 UN (J Y (J LOPE I) I A THE ONE-MAN RANGE FINDER. The establishment of the correct range is one of the important things where any fightinc; is to be done. The old-fashioned Fi^. 1— THe Old 'WTay way is shown in Fig. 1, where two officers are endeavoring to get the range of the sum- mit of the distant hill from the bluff above the river. By measuring the angles at the ends of the base line they will be able to calculate what would otherwise be a very difficult range to estimate. The new way — the Jap way — for the enter- prising Japs have found it out, requires only one man, and he can work in safety behind a tree if one happens to be handy. The in- strument can be used in a horizontal or vertical position. At each end of the tube is an object glass which reflects the view to the middle of the tube where there is an eye-piece. The calculation is made in very much the same way as by the older method. The International Commission awarded England $375,000 in settlement of the North Sea incident in which the Russian fleet fired on English fishing boats. ♦ « » BALLOON BEATS FAST BOAT The aeronauts Faure (left) and Latham (right) ascended in their balloon at a quar- ter before seven on the evening of Febru- ary 11 and the wind being favorable crossed the English Channel and landed safely at one o'clock the next morning. The ascent After the Voyage was from the Crystal Palace, London, and the landing at St. Denis, Paris. The time made beat the fastest boat-train by three- quarters of an hour. ♦ * » WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY FOR THE POPU- LACE. Fi^. 2— THe Nemr "Way In England anyone can go to a telegraph office and send a telegram to friends or other persons at sea on a transatlantic liner at a cost of only 13 cents per word, all telegrams, however, to amount to at least $1.60. The postoffiee recently completed negotiations with the Marconi International Marine Com- munication Company by which communica- tion between all telegraph offices and the wireless telegraph stations on the coast was established. The patronage will consist chiefly of business messages. ENCYCLOPEDIA 101 Btiilding Boats from Paper Patterns Easier to Build a Boat TKan to MaKe a Suit of ClotHes By C. C. Brooks, President Brooks Boat Mfg. Co. In the days when your mother made your clothes what would she have done without the paper pattern? What the paper pattern is to the housewife cutting out a dress op garment, the paper boat patterns are to the inexperienced builder. In fact the average young man will now experience much less difficulty in constructing a 20-ft. launch than in making himself a suit of clothes. From printed directions you select certain kinds of wood of suitable size, lay the pattern on, draw the lines and go ahead with saw aiad chisel. No difficult calculations, and guess- ing at curved lines, with vexatious blun- ders and doing it over a second time. Economy of time and labor for builders of small boats, whether the builder is an amateur workman or one regularly engaged in the business is gained by the use of the paper pattern system. These patterns are printed the exact size of every piece of timber entering into the construction of a boat from the keel pieces and the molds to the last streak of planking and all the little details required to complete the craft, inside and out. They are printed for every style of pleas- ure craft from a canoe to a cruising launch and come as a pleasing surprise to those who have given up cherished projects of building their own boats after considering the time and skill required to lay down the lines of a proposed craft on the shop floor and take off frorh them, by tedious measure- ments, the shapes of molds, planking, etc. This work is, in fact, almost out of the question except to one skilled in boat build- ing and the inexperienced man who under- takes the job usually either throws it up in disgust or comes out with a craft of such ugly proportions as to make it a laughing stock among his nautical friends. But with the paper patterns all the preliminary work is done for him. All he has to do is to cut out his timber as directed and fit it together and he produces duplicates of boats built by skillful craftsmen on lines which are known to combine beauty, speed and safety. In using the patterns their lines are trans- ferred to the necessai'y timber or planking by tacking the pattern in place, punching awl holes along the lines, close together where the curves are sharp and farther 102 ENCYCLOPEDIA AlETHOO OF puTT/NO PLflNK. 'hcTKOooFCLOsme stnna Two Stages of Construction««Motor I^aunch apart wbere the lines are straight or nearly so; the patterns are then removed, nails driven lightly into each awl hole and then by bending thin, flexible strips of wood up to the nails the lines can be marked out on the timber exactly as they appear in the pattern. In building a boat the keel, stem and stern pieces, which form the backbone of the craft, are usually constructed of oak and vary in number and shape according to whether the craft is of the popular torpedo stern design, a variation of the same known as the compromise stern, or the older styles of transom and fantail sterns. Fig. 1 shows the shape of these pieces in a transom stern boat and Fig. 2 shows the keel put together, molds in place and rib-bands fastened on, ready for bending the ribs into place. In Fig. 3 is shown a detail of construction which the inexperienced builder might leave out. This is the use of stop-waters in the joints in the keel. These joints are difficult to calk in the usual manner, but are made Avater-tight after fastening together by bor- ing holes through the joints and driving in soft pine plugs freshly covered with white lead. The matter of steaming and bending ribs and planking is often thought to be trouble- some but it is really a simple affair. The EjKainples of "How to Buil4" ENCYCLOPEDIA 103 ribs are frequently the only parts of the boat which require steaming and a steam box can easily be constructed which will take its supply of steam from a tea-kettle or the necessary pliability can be obtained by soaking the timber in hot water. This also applies to the planking, when steaming ig required, as it is only at the ends that steam- ing has to be resorted to to secure the needed pliability. In building rowboats and the smaller N. STC1. f\. KEEL STOi>wATe»i P'iS' ^•^ sizes of launches there are two methods of fastening the planking; clinker or lap seam, and carvel, or smooth seam. The former is preferable as it gives added strength to the boat, but with the heavier planking of the larger craft this method cannot be fol- lowed. With printed instructions on how to proceed, and the use of patterns, almost any person, who has any Ivnack in the use of tools, can build a serviceable and sightly craft from a canoe to a launch. The satis- faction of sailing your own boat, and the experience of malving it, open up a new and intensely pleasurable line of work to the thousands who find their best recreation in "making something with their hands." DEAD BLACK STAIN FOR HARD OR SOFT WOODS. Apply one coat of hot logwood solution and allow it to dry, then apply a second coat. When the second coat is dry, apply "Sa-wred from Patterns'* a solution of acetate of iron, made by dis- solving iron filings in hot vinegar or In acetic acid. This has a chemical action on the logwood, says the Manual Training Magazine, and turns it black. Let it dry and finish by rubbing in a little raw linseed oil or finish with wax. Examples in Bending 104 ENCYCLOPEDIA Woman Makes Iron on tHe Stage. Dazzling experiments in tlie new science of alumino-tliermics have been conclucted by a lady on the English stage recently, says the Illustrated London News. This science Is astonisliing when one first sees this ex- periment. The apparatus and principle is just the same as in thermit weld- ing. The woman pours thermit (iron ox- ide and aluminum powder) and barium su- peroxide into her crucible and ignites the barium superoxide. A blinding ineandes'- cence results and in 30 seconds a lump of iron is formed. The temperature of the molten mass is A-ery high. The experiments in their order are as follows; 1. The iron is made in a small crucible and falls from it through 12 in. of water and burns a hole in an iron plate at the bot- tom. Temperature 5,200 degrees Fahr. 2. Temperature of 5,200 degrees Fahr. generated in a hat. 3. Molten iron from the crucible pierces a 2-in. iron plate. 4. A hole with clean edges bored through an iron plate by the molten metal, 5. Making iron for a horse shoe in 10 seconds. 6. An ingot of the iron beaten into a horse shoe in a few seconds by the lady performer, ENCYCLOPEDIA Rolled Steel Car WHeels 105 Latest Process One of Great Importance to Railroads and tHe Ptxblic "Ab the mighty oak had its origin in the small acorn, so the great railroad systems of to-day rest upon the stability of the flange of a car wheel. "Upon this small section of metal, about 1 1-4 inches square, depend the lives of the millions of passen- gers and the value of merchandise of incalculable price. Passengers amid the comforts and luxuries of our modern service hardly realize the vital importance of this piece of metal; but engineers and railroad managers do, and they have been directing their best endeavors to this most vital element of railroad equipment. " — Vauclain. The passenger about to start on a 4,000- mile journey across the United States is at- tracted by the ponderous size of the loco- motive which is to draw his train, and by the luxurious and substantial appearance of the palace sleeping and dining cars in which he is to live for the succeeding five days. But not one in a thousand gives a thought to the character and strength of the wheels which are to carry him through moun- tains, across deserts and over slender bridges hundreds of feet above seething tor- rents. And yet throughout all the long journey, from noon to midnight, there is not a moment of the time the train is in motion that a terrible accident is not possible should the tiny flange on any one of the hundred wheels under the train crack and break. The traveler almost never thinks of this, but railroad operators do constantly, and so care- ful and far-reaching is the construction and inspection of car wheels that this greatest possibility of danger is reduced to a cause so seldom occurring as to constitute a really marvelous fact. In the first days of railway cars the wheels were made of wooden spokes and rims cov- ered with a thin strap of iron. With heav- ier cars and faster trains the cast iron wheel came into general use; and a continued in- crease in speed and load resulted in the chilled-iron wheel, a distinctly American product, and the wheel is now in use all over the land. The infrequency of accident caused by the failure of this wheel is sufficient evidence of its excellence. The chilled- wheel (only the flange and that portion which comes in contact with the rail— the tread of the wheel— is chilled and hardened), however, is beginning to be taxed to its utmost on account of the big 50-ton cars which the railroads are now or- Fi^. 3.— After the Drop Test dering. To safely carry these great loads a demand exists for wheels with stronger flanges and longer wearing qualities. The weak point in the present wheel is the brit- tleness of the flange, and the tendency of the wheel to heat when the brakes are ap- plied. This has led to the production of a rolled-steel car wheel, the entire wheel be- ing rolled from a single piece of steel. Fig.l.->Steel In^ot for THree "Wheels 1'06 ENCYCLOPEDIA In an address before the Franklin Institute Samuel M. Vauclain, superintendent of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, describes how the new wheel is made. A steel ingot is first divided into sections, as shown in A, B, C, in Fi,g. 1. Each section weighs about 700 pounds. The section is brought to a white heat in a furnace, from which at the proper moment, it is removed by an almost human Fi^. 2. Diagram of R.olls mechanical device called the "mechanical man." This machine reaches into the fur- nace, picks up the section or "blank," carries it to a huge 5,000-ton hydraulic press and deposits it there. There it receives the form of a car wheel, but on emerging from the press is conveyed to the rolls, where it is subjected to enormous pressure and re- volved at a high rate of speed, emerging a perfect wheel. When cool the hub is bored out and the wheel is ready for the severest service. In order to determine the strength of the rolled steel wheel, some interesting tests were made. One test was to support the wheel horizontally upon a ring underneath the face of the tread and allowing a wei^t of 2,240 lbs. to fall upon it. It took thirteen blows to break a 36-in. wheel,, eight of the blows being from a height of 30 ft. Another wheel was tested in running position, and striking with a weight of 2,240 lbs., it took seventeen blows, nine of them being from 25 ft, to fracture the wheel from rim to hub. Fig. 3 shows the wheel after the test just described. A solid rolled-steel wheel has a first cost of $58.80, with a scrap value of $8.75, a life of 350,000 miles, or a cost of $1.43 per 10,000 miles. The chilled-iron wheel has a first cost of $19.40 with a scrap value of $5.80, a life of 80,000 miles, or a cost of $1.70 per 10,000 miles. PROF. LOEB'S EXPERIMENT. Prof. Jaques Loeb, of the Leland Stanford University, has performed a wonderful ex- periment, the result of several years' effort toward the creation of life. He has not, however, as the earlier newspaper accounts stated, actually caused a new life. He has taken the female eggs of the sea urchin and by chemical means fertilized the eggs and hatched them. But he has made noth- ing complete as yet. Without the eggs he could have done nothing. If the eggs even had been ground to powder, he could not at present have taken that crushed mass and hatched out a sea urchin. His experiment is intensely interesting; his result quite sur- prising; but without the mother sea urchin all the mysteries of a wonderful laboratory are powerless. In the matter of creation no one has as yet successfully improved upon the first chapter of Genesis. THE ART OF NAIL DRIVING Theories are very good in their place, re- marked the late F. J. Holloway, but they would not teach one how to drive a nail. Nothing but practice will do that, and even practice without thought will not accomplish it, says Locomotive Engineering. You must have both combined. When you drive a nail in a board, what do you do? Do you trust to luck that the swinging ham- mer above your head shall come down in the right place? Do you concentrate your thoughts on the hammer circling in the air? No. You concentrate your thoughts and eyes square on the head of the nail you want to hit, and no matter where your ham- mer is or what curves it describes in the air, if your intense thought is on the spot where the blow should fall, there it will fall. If your thoughts wabble and are un- certain you will miss the nail or drive it sidewise. ENCYCLOPEDIA 107 HOV^ HOT VkTATER CIRCULATES flxcerpts from address of J. S. Brennan before the American Society ot Heating and Ventilating Engineers at New York The first cause of circulation of water in a hot water heating system by the force of gravity is that the water becomes com- pact as it cools off, and it therefore out- weighs the warmer and lighter water and pushes it to the top of the apparatus. Hot water will move only when there is a heav- ier and cooler body of water to displace it and force it upward by means of its su- perior weight. The drawing force which propels the water in the risers and radiators is propor- tional to the difference in the mean tem- perature of tlie ascending and descending parts of the apparatus, and does not depend upon the actual quantity of water contained in those opposing parts of a system with a given difference in temperature; it is also proportional to the vertical height of the circuit. For example, in a circuit or riser 50 feet high the motive force would be twice as large as in one only 25 feet high. The force of the circulation through radi- □ -J Fi^. 1. Hot l^ater Heat ators with a given fall of temperature de- pends mostly upon the height of the return pipe, and is independent of the height of the riser pipe. Take for example, in Fig. 1, a radiator on the fourth floor. A, or 50 feet high, another radiator on the first floor, B, or 10 feet high, with both feed or riser pipes the same height. The circulation through the radiator on the fourth floor will be about three times as great as through the radiator on the first floor, notwithstand- ing the fact that the supply columns of both radiators are of equal height, because the return F is about three times as high as the returns E of the radiators on the first floor. The temperatures of the pipes C and D are nearly the same, consequently the water in D simply balances an equal height of pipe C, and fails to supply any force for circula- tion. The force for circulation in this cir- Fi^. 2. Poor Heat cuit therefore depends upon the preponder- ance of the weight of water in the return pipe E over the weight of that below the level of the radiator B. Fig. 2 is a fair illustration of a radiator with the usual style connections. The force of tlie circulation through the radiator de- pends upon the height of the return column. The return pipe having a strong pull on the radiator the current is along the lines in- dicated by the arrows, and the water in the radiator has but little circulation to it. The water rushes through the lower portion rapidly and the top of the radiator will be nearly cold while the lower part is hot. This gives poor heating results. Fig. 3 shows an improved connection to increase and improve the circulation in a hot water heating system, which has been successfully used by the writer on a great many hot water heating systems. The di- rection in which the arrows point shows the actual current within the radiator. The hot 108 ENCYCLOPEDIA water must pass directly to the top, dropping to the bottom as it cools off, returning to the return pipe. The circulation is positive and by actual tests 6 degrees hotter than Fi^/3. Good Heat the circulation the old way, and, further- more, the entire surface of the radiator is heated. ^—^ FRAZIL ICE. Did you ever hear of frazil ice? It is better known in Canada than in the United States, and forms under conditions quite similar to those which produce anchor ice. Many people think the two terms mean the same, but Professor Barnes of Magill Uni- versity says there is a difference. The To- ronto Engineers' Club defines frazil ice as "water at a temperature just ready to freeze, but prevented from so doing by motion; the action of freezing taking place when the degree of motion was lowered." "This is," Professor Barnes says, "contrary to all the known laws of ice formation. Motion is one of the essentials to the starting or production of the ice crystal of which frazil is but an ex- ample, the fineness of the crystal being deter- mined by the "degrees of motion." The whole question of the formation of frazil and anchor ice hinges on open water conditions, agita- tion, admixture and temperature of air, and to a certain extent on the clearness of the water and sljy. The same physical laws governing the change from the liquid to the solid state, wliich are known in the labora- tory, are operating on a large scale in our Canadian water-ways, and everywhere we witness the tremendous struggle going on in nature between ice and water. When such minute temperature conditions as a hundredth of a degree determine the im- mense formation of ice crystals in places too turbulent for surface ice to form, and render the effects of the ice disastrous to en- gineering works, we certainly witness a wonderful spectacle of the delicate poising of the foi'ces of nature." Anchor ice gathers in vast quantities at the intakes of water works and water power plants, and chokes the passage to an extent which entirely shuts off the flow of the water. In Chicago the water supply comes from cribs buried two, three and four miles out in the lake. During February and early March crews of men were kept work- ing night and day removing the anchor ice from the intakes. The w^ork is so exposed and exhausting that fifteen minutes at a time is the limit of endurance. DIVER'S INSULATED HELMET FOR ELEC- TRIC EELS , The story of the strength of the shock produced by an able-bodied electric eel has been taken by many people with a liberal degree of allowance. The submarine diver, however, who has to work in waters where the frisky eel is inclined to be friendly tells quite another tale. In proof of the shocking story a concern in New York, which malces diving suits for the Navy Department, an- nounces the completion of an insulated hel- met. The Marine Journal says; They recently made an insulated helmet which was to be used where electric eels were rather numerous, as the electric shock Avhich these eels are able to deliver to a diver is strong enough to make him insen- sible wlien it is transmitted to him through any exposed metal part of his armor, and for this reason it is unsafe to use an appara- tus unless perfect insulation can be insured. Although this insulating was a very difS cult matter, the experience of this old estab- lishment in making divers' outfits enabled them to do it so that the diver could be guaranteed perfect immunity from this an- noyance. ♦ *» PASTE FOR MOUNTING PHOTOS. A good mounting paste is made as follows: Mix well together 3 oz. dextrine, % oz. sugar, and 4 oz. water; heat until thoroughly dis- solved and let cool. Then add 50 minims carbolic acid. A drachm of glycerine may be substituted for the sugar with excellent results. E N Y C L O P E D i A lU*t Teleg^rapHin^ Direct From London to Persia 4>000 Miles Over Rivers, Mountains and Deserts j oo o oooo o oo o rooooooooooooooooooooo coooooooooo o oooo ooo ooo, oooooooooooooooooooo ooo o ooo oo o w H T Four hundred words per minute^ by tele- graph from Liverpool, Llauchester, or Lon- don direct to Telieran, Persia, are sent by the use of the system spelled in telegraphic language, Fig. 1, on a punched paper ribbon. It is by this long telegraph line that Lon- don keeps in touch with its Government in India. Teheran, in Persia, is the terminal station of the direct line, the messages from there being sent over various lines and ca- bles. To understand the working of the Wheat- stone system, suppose a clerk in the London office receives a message from Teheran. He seats himself before an instrument called a perforator, which has three keys. The number of holes punched by each of these keys, one, two and three, are shown in Fig. 2. The first rep- O O O O OO o Fi^. 2. resents a space, the second a dot, and the third a dash. Using these keys the clerk writes the message on a paper ribbon which looks, when ready to send, like Fig. 1. The ribbon containing the message is passed to the sending clerk, who, by means of clock-work, feeds it rap- idly into the transmitter, a toothed wheel catching in the middle line of holes. Pins on moving levers drop through the punched holes as they come along, making contact alternately with the positive and negative poles of a battery. A receiving instrument has on it an inked disk. As the current flows in one direction the disk touches the paper and draws a line representing a space, dot or dash, until a current in the oppo- site direction lifts the disk. These currents are just Avhat are produced by the contact through the punched paper in the trans- mitter at the sending station. At every relay station a Wheatstone re- ceiving apparatus is in circuit, and the clerk is able to see how the signals are leaving his station by starting the instrument and looking at his slip. If the signals registered are imperfect, and the station preceding him reports that they left him '0. K." he knows that if the line is in good electrical 5 7- O A/ £ condition, his regulation is at fault. By this means there is a check kept upon the work during the whole period of transmission. One clerk can send messages as fast as several can punch them. A single ribbon can be used several times to send the same message to different places. So much for the system. The line discussed starts at London, runs to the German coast, thence to the Russian frontier, thence to Warsaw, and Odessa, through the Steppes, Crimea, northeast of the Black Sea, through the mountains and forests to Tiflis then south over the deserts to Persia's old capital Tabriz, thence to Te- heran. Great difficulty attended the construction, and every year gangs of men are required to keep the line clear through the forests. Falling trees and flocks of wild geese some- times interrupt communication, but the greatest trouble is the severe hoar frost, called ''reifeis." This collects on the wires, sometimes forming a sheet of ice from one wire to the other, and when swinging is set vip by the wind, wires are broken and the iron posts bent over. Many remedies have been tried with a view to prevent this trou- ble. At first the binding wire used to attach the wires to the insulators was strengthened, but it was found that this caused even great- er difficulty. It was better that the wires should break away from the insulators than that the whole line should be destroyed. Later a large number of posts was added, and it was found that this additional strength materially improved matters, al- though interruptions still occurred. In Per- sia the insulators offer a fine mark for the rifles of the wandering tribes. This long line is only kept in good order by having a series of control stations along its entire length from the Russian frontier to Teheran; in a counti"y where the line is particularly liable to disturbance, these con- trol stations are 20 to 25 miles apart, and when a fault occurs the controllers of the two stations between which the fault is lo- cated are immediately ordered out to remove it. Interruptions are restricted by this means 110 E N (' V (• i.C) PET) I A to short intervals unless the line for some distance is completely wrecked by "reifeis," and this has occurred on more than one oc- casion. This line was first worlied by the Morse system, but so much time was lost in re- transmitting the message that the Wheat- stone automatic method was tried between Teheran and Odessa in 1897. It was so sat- isfactory that one after another of the re- transmission stations were cut out and the new system installed. It was not long before relay apparatus was introduced in the London office. Mes- sages to and from Manchester and Liverpool Avere tlieu exchanged by those places direct with Teheran, a distance of 4,000 miles, with 11 automatic relay staions. Not only has the time of transmission been reduced, one may say, almost to a minimum, but traffic is not affected nearly to the same extent as under the old system by short interruptions; messages continue to be punched up during these intervals, and are put through in large batches at great speed as soon as communication is restored. MARCONI the Hon. Beatrice O'Brien, a member of an aristocratic Irish family which has a his- tory of 400 years. C4uglieImo Marconi was born in Bologna, April 25th, 1875. He was educated in Leg- horn, under Professor Rosa, and, subsequent- ly, at the University of Bologna, in which citj' were carried out the first experiments in connection with his system of wireless teleg- raph}'. Marconi's invention was success- fully tested in England between Penarth and Weston, and later by the Italian Ministry of Marine at Spezia. Wireless telegraphic communications were established between France and England in 1899; two years later he was enabled to transmit signals across the Atlantic Ocean from Poldhu, Cornwall, to St. John's Newfoundland. In 1902, Mr. Marconi's system was installed on board the Italian crusier Carlo Alberto, and during her voyage from England to Russia, he received messages from Cornwall and transmitted them to the Tsar and the King of Italy at Kronstadt. Later on, in December of the same year, he Avas able to announce the es- tablishment of his system of wireless teleg- raphy between Canada and England. This was followed, a few weeks later, by the transmission of a message from the Presi- dent of the United States to the King of England, inaugurating wireless connection between Cape Cod and Cornwall. 4 , » TO ACCELERATE SPEED OF SHIPS. The above portrait is the latest picture of Marconi, who is shortly to be married to Prof. Carlo del Lungo, demonstrator in physics at the Royal Lycee of Spezzia, has invented and patented, both in Italy and in England, a device for pneumatically lubri- cating the hulls of ships. Professor Lungo, it is stated, pumps air into the water sur- rounding ships, thereby diminishing the density of the water, and it is held that the effect of pumped air is analogous to the lu- brication of machinery by oiL E N Y t' L O P E D 1 A 111 SWITZERLAND MTSJMPUON Mfi t-EPONTIN£ ALPS^ ITALY L, OAV/NO BRIGUE 1 Longest Ttiimel in IKe World Completed Ten TKousand I^aborers MTorRed NigKt and Day— Care of "WorKmen— International Bearing The boring of the Simplon tunnel, the greatest tunnel engineering feat of the age, was completed on February 24, when the two gangs of workojen, Swiss and Italian, who had been working towards each otlier for a period of six and one-half years, joined hands through the small gap which assured the ultimate success of the enterprise. The Simplon tunnel is I214 miles long, the longest of the four tunnels now piercing the Alps and, in proportion to its length, was constructed in less time than either of the others. The tunnel extends from Brigue, Switzerland, to Iselle, Italy, and its purpose is to enable tlie Jura-Simplon rail- way from Geneva up the Rhone valley to connect with the Italian road from Milan at Iselle, and so afford an all-rail route from Geneva to Milan, and also shorten the distance from Milan to Calais. The com- mercial advantage thus afforded Switzer- land, Germany and Italy is obvious. France, too, will be benefited. When the St. Goth- ard tunnel was opened she lost much of the international traffic that had theretofore passed over her raihvays. The Simplon tun- nel will restore a portion of this to her. Work on the Simplon tunnel started simul- taneously from tlie Swiss and Italian sides in August of 1898. 10,000 Italian workmen in all l)eing employed, 4,000 at Brigue, Switzerland, and 6.000 at Iselle, Italy. The men were not all employed at the same time, however, but the work was kept up night and day by 8- hour shifts. The tunnel consists of two dis- tinct bores, 56 feet apart, center to center. At the middle, for a space of 420 yards, the two become one tunnel to make room for sidings and cross-over tracks. The two tunnels are connected by transverse galler- ies every 650 feet. At first only the eastern tunnel will be used for a single track railway, the smaller or auxiliary tunnel act- ing as a ventilating shaft, until such time as the receipts of the first tunnel shall be suffi- cient to warrant its enlargement to the nor- mal section for a single track. The main tunnel is 19 feet wide and 19.3 feet high, the auxiliary tunnel is 6.5 feet wide and 10 feet high. This mode of construction has been of great advantage. The auxiliary bore was always kept ahead of the main gallery, and tracks were laid in the trans- verse galleries so that material from the forward headings could be removed without passing the men behind. The altitude is low- er than in any other Alpine tunnel, being only 2,310 feet above sea level. This is the S^viss Entrance and Tunnel Ma<> cbine SHops 112 ENCYCLOPEDIA reason for the greater lengtli which the engineers decided was prefei'able to so great a death from the pestilential at- mosphere. At the Simplon, large dressing halls are pro- Hot Sprinif gradient, which has been a drawback in the other tunnels. From the first, the construction work proceeded against many and unexpected ob- stacles. The high temperatures of the rock, at times as high as 130 degrees F., was a con- stant menace to the health of the laborers; on the Italian side numerous streams of water were tapped, most of these were small, but again the water would be of considerable volume and flood the workings. Hot springs, some discharging 750 gallons per minute, were continually breaking in, and it was necessary to work around them. The tool which most facilitated the work is known as the Brandt drill. This drill is 3 inches in diameter and rotates slowly, being kept at its work by hydraulic pres- sure of 1,500 pounds to the square inch, or 10 tons on the cutting faces of the drill. The waste water is discharged along the axis of the drill, keeping the tool cool and washing out the rock cut away. By means of this drill the galleries on the Swiss side were advanced 20 feet or more daily. At each end of the tunnel a permanent ventilating plant, consisting of two 200-hp. turbines running at 400 revolutions per minute and drivng two huge fans 12.3 feet in diameter, are installed. These plants at either end supply a maximum of 106,000 cubic feet of air per minute at a pressure of 10 inches of water per minute. The tunnel portals are closed by sail cloth curtains operated by electric motors. The fans may be used to draw out gases as well as for forcing fresh air into the tunnel. During construction there have been few- er accidents to laborers than in any other of the great tunnels. The St. Gothard tun- nel dealt death to 400 laborers, who were attacked by miner's worms and breathed THe Delude vided at either entrance, and the temperature is the same as Avithin the tunnels'. The men pass in through boarded platforms and re- main for a half hour until they are gradual- ly cooled off. The great danger is the lia- bility of contracting pneumonia by sudden changes of temperature. In these dressing halls there are baths, hot and cold douches, and usually the vv'oi'k garments are laid aside there and fresh raiment donned. The lodgings provided for workmen are perfectly sanitary, the food is of the very best in quality and the cost is nominal. There are also well equipped hospitals. Within the tunnel the tracks are laid on one side to afford room for pedestrians and the trains are run by schedule and pro- tected by signals. Thus has the loss of life been minimized. The men were provided with 58,000 cubic feet of air per minute. The cost of the great tunnel complete will approximate $15,054,000. ELEVATORS FOR STEAMSHIP ENGINEERS. The steamship engineer carries great re- sponsibility, and so much depends on him that any device that will facilitate his move- ments about the ship or aid him in his work is well worth installing. The American Ship- builder suggests the need of elevators for the personal convenience of engineers in descending or ascending the 30 or 40 feet to and from the engine room. The means of descent is ordinarily a slippery iron stair ease where a firm gi"ip, steady nerves and a sure foot are required to make it in safety. The ascent exhausts any man to a degree. The elevator would cost little as there is always plenty of steam or electricity at hand and plenty of room to spare. No elevator boy would be required as any engineer could operate the elevator himself. ENCYCLOPEDIA 113 ELECTRIC COAL SHOVEL. FIRE ENGINE THAT DOES THINGS. The filling of the retorts for making coal gas is hard and unhealthy work. The re- moval of the coke is even more so, for in addition to the heat there are deadly gases escaping which fill the lungs of the work- ers. Electricity and mechanics have joined in providing a remedy. By means of a most ingenious machine one man now does the work of twenty. A trolley car line is con- structed to run in front of and close to the retorts. When a retort is ready to fill the Remarkable English Machine Which Propels It- self, Pumps Air and Water, Makes Elec- tric Light and Has a Telephone' The most wonderful and cosmopolitan fire engine in tlie world has recently been put in service in Manchester, England. In the first place horses are discarded, and by a new and simple system of gearing the steamer propels itself at a higher rate of speed than previously attained by any self- Filling Retorts 'writH the Electric SHovel car is moved into position and the operator pulls a lever. Instantly a stream of coal is shot into the oven depositing at the farther end, which is usually 20 feet from the door. As the retort fills the lever is moved, reduc- ing the velocity with which the coal is thrown and thus depositing it nearer and nearer the front until the oven is filled. The operation has required just 10 seconds, during which 900 lbs. of coal has been uni- formly distributed. One 12-hp. and one 18- hp. motor have done the work. The door is then closed and sealed, and the nozzle of the distributing tube is raised, lowered or moved along to the next oven, as the case may be. All the operations of the charging car are controlled by one man using three levers. propeller. Fire engines that run with their own power are not unusual, but this ma- chine is a real power plant. An air pump is connected by gearing with the crank shaft of the engine, which furnishes air through a flexible metallic hose to firemen working in dense smoke, or placed where they are subject to gas or fumes of acids or other chemicals. This flexible hose is connected with a protective helmet worn by the fire- man, which is made of heavy leather, ex- tending down over the shoulders and sup- plied with an opening for the eyes and part of the face. The air enters at the back of the helmet and flows around the face, pass- ing out of this opening, keeping the eyes and nose free from smoke. The helmet contains a telephone receiver and transmitter whereby 114 ENCYCLOPEDIA communication can be maintained with tlie officer at the fire engine, and by means of a switchboard, if necessary, with a chief official. The engine has a small dynamo, located over the front wheels, and connected with the fly-wheel by means of a belt. This furnishes a current for eight 32-candle power incandescent lamps through a flexible cable, so that, provided with a hand lamp, a fireman can penetrate dark and smoky apart- ments, where it is necessary often to cut off gas or oil supply. The entire equipment, in- cluding the protective helmets for the fire- men, is stowed in the forward part of the fire engine, which is of the usual English pattern, and adds comparatively little to its weight. DINING CARS ON TROLLEY ROADS. Cooking Done in an Electric Kitchen What is said to be the first regular dining car service on trolley roads is now in opera- tion on the iuterurban line from Dayton, O., to Indianapolis. The trains are known as the inter- state limited. The kitchen is equipped with all the latest electric cooking utensils, and when the cook builds a fire in his stove he turns a button instead of split- ting kindling. Trollesr Dining> Car The Street Railway Journal says the time table is arranged so that people will take advantage of the buffet service and to make close connections witli limited cars on other roads. The cars stop only at stations in the larger towns, and a passenger is required to purchase a seat check before entering the car. Sales of seats are telephoned ahead and seats are reserved, and sales never ex- ceed the seating capacity of the car. The interurban linos have a more direct route between the terminals than the competing steam lines, and the running time is nearly as good. Including the excess of 50 cents for the through run, - or 25 cents between points on any one or two roads, the fare is considerably cheaper. The buffet service is claimed to be the first in regular service on an interurban road. The menu follows closely that used on regular Pullman buffet cars, and the prices are very reasonable. WARMING BOOTH FOR FIREMEN. The men in city fire departments are great sufferers from cold each winter. The more severe the weather the larger the number of fires. A newspaper man in Pennslvania has devised a portable warming booth which consists of a collapsible frame of iron pipe over which a canvas cover is drawn. Steam from the fire engine is passed through the pipe frame warming the booth which will accommodate three men standing at a time, ■♦ * » SUPPLIES CAPTURED AT PORT ARTHUR. The Japan Times, Tokio, February 11th, gives a list of supplies which were found in Port Arthur, and which became the property of the Japanese with the surrender. Shells, 82,670; rifle cartridges, 2,266,800; powder, 30 tons. The amount of the food supplies will cause surprise, and included 1,422,000 lbs. of flour; 4,400 lbs. of barley; 176,000 lbs. of crushed wheat, 2,970 lbs. of rice; 30,800 lbs. of mealie meal or maize; 132,000 lbs. of bis- cuit; 77,000 lbs. of corned beef, 770,000 lbs of salt; 44,000 lbs. of sugar; 1,375,000 lbs. of beans; 1,900 horses in fine condition, and 50,000 roubles in cash. In the naval depot were 500 tons of biscuits; 250 tons of new flour— brought one month before by the "King Arthur"— 400 tons of flour of earlier import; 40 tons of sugar; two tons of butter; some barrels of salt beef; 75,000 tons of Cardiff coal, 15,000 tons of briquette coal; and 55,000 tons of Japanese coal. There was an almost inexhaustible store of vodka, beer, cham- pagne and other wines — "too great a store," was the significant comment of a Russian admiral. Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes were in abundance. No private stores were com- ir.nncleered. ENCYCLOPEDIA CART FOR STEERING GEAR 115 Steering Disabled Auto -writH Sulllsr Shafts Wlien be ran into a fence at the bottom of a long bill, and smashed both front wheels and the steering gear, a man in Saliua, Kan- sas, made a valuable discovery. He bor- rowed a two-wheeled cart of a near-by farm- er. Then, says the Automobile Review, tak- ing two long hedge poles he ran them over the rear axle and under the front axle and then over the axle of the cart. This raised the front of the machine off the ground and he had the shafts of the cart to guide with. The progress he made was not quite so fast as he had been making, but he got home all right. The farmer had a ride to town. Gun Camera PHoto^rapHs Tarpon Kodak fiends love to tell of a "good shot," but here is a real genuine "shooter." The device was made specially to order and as shown in the illustration consists of a cam- era carried on a gun barrel. The apparatus was made for the special purpose of photo- graphing tarpon when leaping in the air and the March number of Outing, from which the illustration is taken, contains several re- markable pictures taken with this camera. The gun arrangement permits instant and accurate sight; a touch of the trigger and the picture is taken. The barrel is sighted as in firing a shot gun. Gt&n Camera for PhotoffrapHin^ Moving Birds and FisH 116 ENCYCLOPEDIA EVERLASTING STEEL BURIAL CASKETS. Steel burial caskets are now made which are absolutely air and water tight, and which are practically indestructible from the alements to which they are exposed. The Removinii from Galvanizing Kettle method of construction is simple but in- volves the use of enormously heavy ma- chinery. A sheet of heavy steel is placed in a pon- derous press 16 ft. long and which weighs 40 tons. Here the metal is subjected to a hydraulic pressure of 100 tons. When it has been shaped the casket is submerged in a great kettle holding 30 tons of molten metal, where it is galvanized. After gal- vanizing the finishing work consists in pro- ducing the effect of natural oak, white en- amel or whatever tint or finish is desired. j-^ ..mm ^j^., ^sk ^^^^^HBSi ■''^■-\^^^¥ 3 1 w ^p ? Q U w^^K^^sf^^ The steel case is intended to contain the wooden casket, and is made in sizes from 38 in. long, weighing 48 lbs., up to 89 in., weigh- ing 195 lbs. ♦ * » A railroad in Georgia is painting all its locomotives and tenders a brilliant red. As red is the universal danger signal it will be particularly unsafe to be run over by one of these "ruby rushers." PNEUMATIC TIRES IN 1845. Pneumatic tires are by no means the mod- ern invention we would suppose. At the recent motor car show in London there was displayed the first pneumatic tire ever made. The illustration gives an excellent idea of its appearance and construction. WHAT DOES THE EARTH WEIGH? TKe 40-Ton Press The scientists are doing great things out in California. While Prof. Loeb is hatching out fatherless sea urchins another has fin- ished weighing the earth. He says: Under standard gravity a cubic foot of earth weighs about five and a half times as much as a cubic foot of water. A cubic mile of earth then weighs 25,649,300,000 tons. The volume of the earth is 259,880,- 000.000 cubic miles. The weight of the world without its atmosphere is 6,666,250,000,000,- 000,000,000 tons. If we add to this the weight of the atmosphere given above vi'e get a grand total— 6,666,255,819, 600,000,000,- 000 tons." No wonder Atlas became round-should- ered! ENCYCLOPEDIA Ordered to tHe Scrap Heap 117 Xhe illustrations sHoiv a fe^v types of ivar vessels of ^vHicli £n^lanfl has ordered several score to tHe scrap pile. A.11 tHese boats virill be replaced by tbe most moderxk xkaval engines of 'war obtair&able, ai\d $200»000,000 a year 'will be spex\t ii:\ improviz^g be-r xxAvy. MODERN MACHINERY AT THE VATICAN. The Vatican at Rome, rich in antiquities, is soon to receive a number of innovations in the Avay of modern machinery. The Pope has ordered that tlie Vatican observatory be equipped with wireless telegrapliy, two lino- type machines be installed in the Vatican and a huge dynamo in the Church of St. Peter's for illuminating that magnificent structure, There is also some talk of in- stalling an electric elevator for carrying visitors to the dome of the church. Besides these, Pius X has ordered two of the latest type automobiles for personal use in the Vatican gardens. ♦ »» A new Atlantic cable will be laid during the coming summer. The cable will be of high speed and the latest improved type. ASSEMBLING MACHINERY BY PHONE. Machinery experts can locate many trou- bles in a machine by the unnatural sound it makes. Recently a Canadian firm had some difficulty with a machine of Boston manu- facture which they had tried to install them- selves. Finally, in despair they called up the Boston firm over the 'phone and were di- rected to run their telephone wires into the room where the machine was so that -an expert, who was at hand, could determine by the noise it made what was the trouble. The expert directed the Canadian people just where the receiver of the telephone should be placed and in a few seconds more he had told them what was the trouble, and how to remedy it. The change occupied but a few moments and in a short time everything was running smoothly. 118 ENCYCLOPEDIA Modern MetKods in Tea Manufacture Germs From Coolies' Feet Are No I^on^er Distillecl in tl&e Beverage-- no Pound Cbest PacKed in Two Minutes The manufacture of tea in the Orient, once carried on by the hand and foot labor of coolies, has undergone remarkable changes in the past few years by the intro- duction of western methods and machinery which have reduced the time and labor re- quired in tea manufacture to a minimum. The machinery is operated by native la- borers and the bustling scene on a large, Fig. 1— Boiling Machine well-equipped tea estate in India or Japan is unusual in the extreme for a country where the climate naturally induces languor and the desire of ease. The leaves of the tea-plant, plucked by native laborers and in a crisp and brittle condition are brought to the factory in baskets. Here they are carefully weighed and then spread out on shelves or racks in what are called withering lofts. These buildings are about 175 ft. long, 35 ft. wide and have six or eight lofts where the tea is spread. The sides of the loft are open; the floors are of timber. In the withering lofts the tea is reduced to a limp state, the vol- ume of air in the loft being controlled by fans which direct the current over the spread leaf. This withering is accomplished, no matter what the climatic condition, in from 12 to 16 hours. Without the fans, it would require from 48 to 60 hours, or even longer, says Page's Weekly. When the leaf is limp enough to take a twist without breaking, it is removed to a rolling machine (Fig. 1), where its cells are broken up before the fermenting process. The rolling machine consists of a hopper in which are fitted "ploughs," and is mounted on a table. It has a capacity for from 300 lb. to 350 lb. of withered leaf. By a movement of the table a strong lateral pres- sure is exerted and causes a boiling motion in the center of the mass of leaf and so gives it an equal and well-twisted rolling, also keeping it cool throughout. From the rolling machine the wet roll is passed through a rotary seive which breaks up any compacted masses of leaf and sepa- rates the finer tea from the coarser, so that the different classes may be fermented sep- arately. The finest qualities ferment fast- est and are dried off as soon as suflBciently fermented. One of the most important processes of the whole manufacture is the drying of the leaf after fermentation. Two types of dry- ing machines of from 40 to 350 lbs. capacity are manufactured for this purpose. What is known as the "downdraft" drying machine is shown in I^g. 2. The wet roll is spread on trays which are inserted in the drying chamber through the bottom trap port and which, as the drying progresses, are gradu- ally raised by a system of levers until they are opposite the top tray port, when they are withdrawn, the tea being fully dried. The hot air for drying is produced in the stove and drawn down through the trays by means of a centrifugal fan. A coolie oper- ates the apparatus. The other type of drying machine, shown Fi(r. 3— TTpdraft Drying llaoliln* ENCYCLOPEDIA 119 FlC. 4. TEA SORTING MACHINE. FIG. 5. TEA PACKER. in Fig. 3, is called the "updraft," and works with a self-acting upward current of heated air which passes through the tiers of trays in the drying-chamber where the leaf is spread. The air passes either into the fac- tory or into the chimney, as desired. The capacity is for 350 lb. of fully dried tea per nour and the operation requires but one attendant, for the dried tea is discharged automatically at the close of the process. Any kind of fuel is used in the stoves with the driers, from wood to oil fuel. The last process is the sorting, grading and packing of the tea. A sorting and grad- ing machine is shown in Fig. 4 and a pack- ing machine in Fig. 5. Of old the packing was effected by coolies trampling the tea into chutes with their bare feet. In using the packing machine, the chests are clamped in a vibrating table, which makes about 2,000 vibrations per minute, and so causes all the particles of tea to settle down closely in the chest. A 110-lb. chest of tea is packed in this manner in about two minutes. INSTALLING GASOLINE ENGINE IN SMALL BOAT. A reader requests instructions for prop- erly installing a gasoline engine in a small boat. Inasmuch as there is quite a differ- ence in the construction of the many ex- cellent gasoline marine engines it is imprac- tical to give details which will answer in each case; what would be advisable in one might be very undesirable in others. The better way is, having made your selection of the engine, to follow the directions which each engine builder furnishes with his ma- chine. These instructions are usually very explicit. The general rule, however, calls for an- choring the engine securely and setting it as low in the boat as possible. The engine should receive sufficient pitch of course to bring the screw propeller well under water, although the stern will naturally draw down into the water somewhat when the en- gine is running. 120 ENCYCLOPEDIA THE OIL COMBAT IN KANSAS. PORTABLE AIR-COMPRESSING OUTFIT. The controversy between the people of Kansas and the Standard Oil grew out of the sudden advance in freight rates on crude oil for which the Standard is blamed. Ci'ude oil which was selling at $1.38 per barrel was thus reduced to 70 cents per barrel. The Standard was practically the only pur- chaser. Hundreds of wells had been sunk owing to the attractive price. When the pro- ducers rebelled, the Standard retaliated by "Hoiv Careless" refusing to buy at any price. Complaint was also made that the Standard was charg- ing the public 20 cents a gallon for refined oil, or $10.50 per barrel, whereas the oil plus the cost of refining is claimed not to exceed $2 per barrel. The legislature then passed a bill entitled "A Bill to Provide Labor for Convicts," un- der which money was appropriated for the erection of oil refineries owned, controlled and operated by the state. The constitution- ality of the bill has been questioned; the courts will probably have to decide that point. The purpose of the state refineries is to afford an equalizing influence which will remove the present condition of monopoly. Some other states desiring to make an ex- pression of sentiment have voted loans to Kansas to aid in the work and several other oil states are agitating the question of state refineries. The Kansas legislature deny that the act is socialistic in spirit; but merely done for self preservation. The cartoon entitled "How Careless" is from the Chicago Chron- icle and shows the housewife "Kansas" lighting a fire in the stove with paper "So- cialism" and pouring "State Oil" on the flames. Portable power plants are increasing botL in number and favor as for many jobs noth- ing could be of greater convenience. Last month we described a portable electric pow- er plant complete in itself, while this month it is a portable air compressor outfit, which may be carried from one location to another and used for the operation of drills, chipping and riveting tools, sand-blasting and simi- lar purposes. The outfit is entirely self-contained, as the boiler, compressed air receiver, air compress- or, and circulating pump for cooling the air- cylinder jackets are all mounted on one truck. For riveting hammers the compressor is proportioned to deliver air at about 100 pounds pressure per square inch, while for sand blasting and stone tools, air is sup- plied at 70 pounds pressure. The receiver permits the storing of air so that a much larger number of tools may be operated than otherwise, since it is only occasionally that all tools are in operation at the same time. The pressure of the air is maintained by a pressure governor, while the compressor is prohibited from running away, in case of a Portable Air Compressor Outfit break on the air line, by a fly-ball speed governor, the two governors being so com- bined that they operate upon a common throttle valve. The compressor engine ex- hausts into the stack, thus increasing the draught. The air compressor cylinder walls are jacketed and are supplied with cooling water by a small duplex pump. The defeat of the Russians by the Jap- anese navy in the Sea of Japan was the greatest naval battle of modern times. ENCYCLOPEDIA 121 Four-Cylinder Balanced Compound Locomo- tives. The first locomotive of the four-cylinder balanced compound, ten-wheel type was built in January, 1902, for the Plant System of Eailroads, as the 20,000th built by the Baldwin Locomotive "N^'orks, after seventy 3'ears of operation. Since then the im- prove ments have been numerous and our i 1 1 u s t r ations show the construc- tion and arrange- ment of the cylin- ders of a simple compound locomo- tive of large size. A compound en- gine is one in which the same steam is made to do Avork in more than one cylin- der. In large marine engines the '"expan- sion" is carried through three or four cylinders. Such engines are called triple expansion or quadruple expansion. The high pressure cylinder, or the one which first receives the steam from the boiler is the smaller, Fxe*« and each successive expansion cylinder is larger than the one from which it receives its steam. In locomotive work the '"simple compound" type is used, consist- ing of one high pressure and one low pres- sure cylinder on each side. The main feat- ures of the engine on which the compound described is installed are as follows: Total weight of engine, 176,510 pounds; tender, 109,490 pounds; tank capacity, 7,000 gallons; working pressure of boiler, 200 pounds; fuel, soft coal; total heating surface, 2,793 Fi^. 1. Cylinder Saddle Fi^. 3. Valve BusHin^ 2. Piston Type Valve square feet, covering 3'41 15-foot 2-inch steel fire-tubes, and including 128 square feet in fire-box; grate area, 27 square feet; weight on driving wheels, 127,010 pounds. The low-pressure cylinders are placed out- side the engine frames, and connected to the driving wheels by crank pins, while at the same level inside are the high pressure cylinders with a crank-driving, axle connec- tion. The cylinder saddle. Fig. 1, is cast in two parts, then bolted together. Each part has a high and low pressure cylinder with steam admission controlled by one valve. The Stephenson valve motion is used as in single cylinder engines, and the piston type valve, Fig. 2, slides in a bushing, Fig. 3, forced into the cylinder saddle. Only one reverse lever in the cab is i-equired. Fig. 4 shows steam entering the H. P. 122 cylinder at the crank end, and the exhaust at the other port passing to the valve cavity which acts as a receiver, while the valve edges control the admission to the L. P. cylinder. Low pressure exhaust passes under the front and back cavities in the valve. The start- ing valve connects the two live steam ports of the H. P. cylinder to allow the steam to pass over the piston. The moving parts of the H. P. cylinder are going in one direction while those of the L. P. cylinder move in the opposite direction. Similar speed and weight of parts in each keep a balance. Two pis- tons on each side of the locomo- tive, traveling in opposite direc- tions, make strains equal and pre- vent "nosing." One illustration shows the dam- age done to rails by an ordinary Atlantic type unbalanced locomo- tive running 80 miles an hour over swampy land. A more compact foundation prevented the inner rail from looking like the outer one. Totalling the advantages of a balanced compound locomotive over simple engines, we have: a sav- ing in coal and water of 20 to 25 per cent per indicated horsepow- er; less steam used, hence higher ENCYCLOPEDIA STARTING VALVE Rail Depression Fiff. 4'' Steam Distribution in Balanced Compotxnd C>'linders boiler effi- ciency; lighter stack exhaust with more complete, slower c o m- bustion; high- er boiler pres- sure and diy- e r steam; greater range of expansion, divided be- tween the two c y 1 i n d e r s ; higher temper- ature of cylin- ders and con- sequent less cylinder con- den s a t i o n ; cost of repair same as in «•. ^ simple en- Caused by Imperfectly Balanced oinP« Lrocomotive t,iut:&. ENCYCLOPEDIA HutcHing FisH by Millions 123 Hoiv Uncle Sam Transports and Distributes Fish £^^s and FisH by I^and and Sea>«R.easons for FisH Ctilture-'Gov-erninent HatcHeries. In no other country is fish-culture con- ducted on so scientific a basis as in the United States. The first hatchery in this country was established at Caledonia, N. Y., in 1868, and as early as 1883, Prof. Huxley, at the International Fish Conference held in London, said that no nation comprehended dealing with fish so scientifically as we. Every year millions of fish are hatched at in a thousand of these eggs would be hatched. Many decay, thousands are not vitalized, some are covered with sediment and die from suffocation and great numbers are devoured, for all fish are fond of spawn. But even should the eggs lodge in a favor- able place, as just where a spring bubbles up and they are continually agitated by the waters, the first few days of each tiny croa- X7. S. FisH Commission Car No. 3, SHoM'^in^ SHippin^ Tanks. aur government hatcheries and the young fish distributed all over the country, to our lakes and rivers. Not only that, but millions are sent abroad, to every part of the globe, and the care of fish and eggs in transport is so well understood that they are sent thousands of miles without material loss. To appreciate the full value of this work, one must know something of the conditions surrounding eggs and young fish hatched in the natural place and way. Fish are ex- tremely prolific and the number of eggs left in a stream would mount into many mil- lions. Salmon produce 1,000 eggs to each pound of weight, shad 50,000 in all, herring 25,000, trout from 200 to 3,000, according to weight and size. Left alone perhaps one ture's life is fraught with peril. Nature has provided him with a nursin,g bottle larger than himself, which, while it nourishes him, is a great encumbrance and makes him un- able to protect himself and the chances are that he will be devoured by the larger fry before he has had time to absorb the yolk sac. In the spring this yolk sac is absorbed in a few days, but in the fall it takes from 30 to 40 days. This is due to difference in temperature of the water. When the eggs are collected and hatched under artificial conditions much of this loss is prevented, ofttimes for millions of eggs the loss being no more than two per cent. Government hatcheries are situated all over the country. Different species sometimes 124 ENCYCLOPEDIA require different treatment, but a tiatchery usually includes the same apparatus. The Spearfish station in South Dakota, for in- stance, is a frame building 32x62 ft., heated by steam, and including an office, reception room, boiler room and two bedrooms above for use of attendants. The hatching ap- uaratus comprises 32 troughs 13 ft. long by 12% in. wide. These are fitted with shallow trays for the eggs and are capable of han- dling 1,000,000 eggs. Water supply is brought by gravity from springs. There are also twelve rearing ponds 100 ft. by 8 ft; three spawning ponds 120 ft. by 20 ft, and two spawning ponds 84 ft. by 20 ft., all 3 ft. deep: three stock ponds aggregate 15,000 sq. ft. and there is an ice house 20 ft. by 14 ft. This is a typical hatchery, though many are on a larger scale and have more accessories. The salmon hatcheries on some of our western rivers represent one of our great Industries. Eetaining racks, 190 ft. long and resting on six piers 28 ft. apart made by bolting timbers together in the form of a triangle with the long angle upstream and the spaces filled with stone, are used. These have a number of traps which allow the fish to pass upstream but not return. The fish are dipped from the trap with soft net bags and assorted according to sex and con- dition. They are placed in woeden pens 12 ft. by 4 ft. and having grated sides and floors. They are then taken to the spawn- house where the eggs are stripped into tin pans, washed and vitalized and placed on shelves to stay until they can be taken to the hatchery. Each fish after undergoing this operation is weighed and measured and any unusual fact about it is recorded also. Buckets with capacity for about 50,000 eggs are used for carrying the eggs to the hatch- ery and they are carried with extreme care. At the hatchery the eggs are measured into shallow baskets by dippers holding 1,800 each. The water in the troughs is kept in circulation and the eggs are picked over every other day. The fifth day they are left until they can be handled. At a temper- ature of 50 deg. F. this will be about 15 days. When the eye spots appear the eggs are packed in shipping cases, with layers of carefully prepared moss, free from all in- sects and fungi, for transportation. The great quantities of white fish eggs and shad eggs to be handled made some device for hatching on a larger scale imperative for these species. Consequentlj^ automatic hatching jars were introduced for the pur- pose. These are cylindrical glass vessels of HatcHing SHad and %VHite FisH on a Larffe Scale. ENCYCLOPEDIA 125 Hatchery on a Fish Commissioik Vessel 7 qts. capacity Avith hemispherical bot- toms and supported by three glass legs. The top receives a screw cap closed by a metallic disk having two %-in. holes, one in the center for admitting a glass tube intro- ducing water into the jar, and the other at equal distances from the center and the edge of the metal plate, for the glass tube carrying waste water. The central tube is connected by a i/^-in. rubber tubing with the pet cock which regulates the water supply. The opening is arranged so it is sealed her- metically. When ready for work the jar is washed and filled with fresh water and a shallow tin funnel with perforated rim inserted just so the water stands as high in the throat of the funnel as possible. The eggs are then poured in by dipperfuls, 8,000 to 10,000 eggs per jar. The jar is closed in a manner which expels all air from the feed tube. A boiling motion is established in the mass of eggs and all dead eggs remain on top where they are easily accessible. By this means many more eggs can be hatched than where nec- essary to handle them, "feather" them over for dead eggs, etc. The government has provided vessels both for inland and coastal waters in connection with the work of the Fish Commission and besides these has cars specially fitted for transportation and distribution of eggs and fish. Fish Commission Car No. 3 is repre- sentative of this part of the work. This car is 60 ft. long (interior dimension), 9% ft. wide and 13 ft. 8 in. high. It has two large doors in the center from roof to floor to facilitate loading and unloading and is fin- ished in ash. It contains an office at one end and an ice box of 1% tons capacity and a pressure tank of 500 gallons. At the other end is the boiler room and kitchen. The boiler room is equipped with a 5 hp. boiler, a circulating water pump and air and feed pump. The tanks and cans for transporting fish are carried in two compartments along the side of the car between the office and boiler room. These compartments are 30 ft. long and 3 ft. wide and 25 in. deep. The hatching outfits carried are eight lead-lined boxes 6 in. high with six automatic hatch- ing jars in each, three on each side of an aquarium. These are lifted out in the day- time and wedged in trays on top of the com- partments. At night they are put back to allow the four berths above them to be lowered. There are chairs, also that can be raised and lowered and for dining a table is placed in the aisle. Under the car be- tween the trucks is a reservoir tank holding 600 gallons of water. The water is pumped from this into the pressure tank near the ll'6 ENCYCLOPEDIA office, passes from the pressure tank to the fish cars and tanks and back agahi to reser- voir. These cars travel thousands of miles every year, carrying millions of fish into the dis- tricts where there is a demand for them or where the waters need replenishing. The work thus done is of incalculable benefit both to the fish industry and to the people in keeping them supplied with an important food product. ♦ >» PONTOON METHOD OF RAISING SUNKEN VESSELS. Where conditions admit of its use the pon- toon is one of the easiest and quickest meth- ods of raising a sunken ship. The pontoons consist of strong steel tanks, which are ranged along both sides of the hull, and al- lowed to fill with water and sink. As they sink they are drawn in under the hull and ^O TONS EACH TRlANGLi POn TOON which empty the pontoons of water by fill- ing them with air. When the hull is floated it can be towed to a dry dock or beached where permanent repairs can be made. The illustration shows the pontoons employed in raising a small vessel of only 1,070 tons. If there are holes in the hull they are first closed if possible. These patches are made in various ways, frequently with strong oak plankin'i-. which is held in place by strong bolts. ENGLISH COAL FIELDS. Latest Examination Gives 435 Years Before Fields Will Be Exhausted The English coal commission has com- pleted a long and very thorough examina- tion of its coal fields, and reports that the supply will last 435 years. This is based on the expectation that mining can be car- ried on to depths of 4,000 feet. The amount in round numbers is 140,000 million tons, of which 4,000 million tons is in Wales. The present domestic heating system is most extravagant, the houses being warmed by means of open grates, which involves a yearly waste of 16,000,000 tons, which go up the chimneys in heat and soot. In this connection the regulation of the London Fire Department regarding chimneys burn- ing out is interesting. When a chimney burns out the Department responds, and the unfortunate householder has a fine of $25 to pay for his carelessness. End View of Section BICYCLE POPULAR IN DENMARK. divers go down and fasten the pontoons to- gether. Chains and hawsers are also passed around the hull to hold the pontoons in place and braces are also placed. Pontoons of about 25 tons lifting capacity each are most easily bandied, but larger ones of 100 tons capacity each are placed amidships. Powerful compressors are then set at work In no country is the bicycle so generally popular as in Denmark, where all classes use it for pleasure and business on the 4,000 miles of almost perfect roadways. The gov- ernment has taken off the mail coaches and is using automobiles, and small launches are found in abundance on sound, lakes and fiords. BOTTOM SAMO Anoj^OCfCS ^m^^^^:^^^ ENCYCLOPEDIA Stop Trains WitH Water 'A train of 400 tons moving lO miles an hour '«vas successfully stopped** The formidable conti'ivances shown in the cut are not a pair of torpedo gnus; they are "hydraulic buffers," which are being used experimentally on the Caledonian Railway, Scotland. "\Mien an incoming train strikes Uie piston rods the pistons are forced into the cylinders, which are filled with water. The blow opens a valve which allows the water to pass out at a rate which acts as a yielding cushion to the train. The pistons have a travel of seven feet, says the Ameri- can Inventor, and in a test a train of 400 tons moving at 10 miles an hour was suc- cessfully stopped. WIND PRESSURE ON HIGH BUILDINGS. Did you ever stand on the roof of an 18- story building when a great wind was blow- ing, or even on a building of lesser height? Doubtless you will recall your feelings on that occasion. How the huge structure seemed to sway back and forth bearing you, a mere atom, with it. Thousands of unutter- able thoughts surged through your mind in that brief space and some were great and noble, and all were vast. But at last, even though you were strong of nerve and could look down from the giddy height without a tremor, that sense of swaying, imagined or unimagined, threatening every instant to pitch you into the abysm of space, un- manned and sent you reeling back into safety. The sense of swaying is not imagined. Tall buildings do sway and how much they sway has been measured exactly, the dis- tance of the sway varying with the height of the structure and the velocity of the wind. Scientific "wind-bracing" of the present time goes far to" prevent this sway- ing and a building 200 ft. high withstands the force of a hurricane dashing against it with a force of 30 lb. on every square foot of its surface, swaying out of perpendicular probably no more than a quarter of an inch. Mathematics, the precise calculations of the mind which allow no "abouts" or "almosts," make possible the scientific con- struction of the slender shafts of steel cages which tower aloft in our great cities. Were it not for these careful computations of wind force and of the necessary resistance beginning at the upper stories and transmit- ted downward until it is distributed to every member of the steel frame and the whole strength from foundation to roof brought proportionately into play for the common defense, these buildings would soon be a mass of wreckage. The principle of this resistance is the same as a man's shoulder resists a push, the force of the push being distributed to every muscle and down to his feet, enabling him by the resistance of his whole body to stand firm. LEAD-LINED PIPE PROOF AGAINST SUL- PHURIC ACID. A jet of steam was introduced into a pipe carrying fumes from boiling sulphuric acid to a stack. It was thought the steam would condense the fumes, but instead it absorbed them and formed sulphuric acid which de- stroyed the heavy iron pipe in a few hours. A lead-lined pipe substituted for the cor- roded one was proof aginst the acid. 128 ENCYCLOPEDIA MANY RISK LIVES TO ENTERTAIN. That the public is best entertained by feats tliat involve great liazard to the per- formers is an old form of barbarism in a new guise. The rule that "the greater the hazard, the keener the interest," holds true in every case and works both ways. The day of the ,gladiatoi% of the fierce combat between man and beast, or beast and In England recently an inquest was held over a jockey who suffered a fatal accident while "circling the circ" in London's great Coliseum. "Circling the circ" is done either on horseback or on a bicycle, and is extreme- ly dangerous, as the rider depends on the speed to keep him in place on the sloping sides of the circle and is always riding at an angle. At the inquest mentioned, the chief of the general staff of the Coliseum Tviro Very Perilous Amtxsement Feats beast has long since passed in most coun- tries; the day of the prize-ring is rapidly waning, but an even more exciting form of amusement has taken the place of these. Anyone who has frequented the pleasure re- sorts of our cities cannot but have noticed the increasing number of mechanical devices by which the people are invited to race with death, or to watch others risk their lives. It is true that the lesser risks only are permit- ted the sensation-loving citizen and that the apparatus is made as "safe" as engineers can make it, but in every instance it is the hazard— the spice of danger— that baits the interest of the people. said that there was always an element of danger in such scenes. A few accidents more or less can only be expected. The revolving stage is dangerous to performers. The French are carrying dangerous amuse- ment feats to the extreme. One of the lat- est introduced in that country is called the "gyroscope." The gyroscope is a 13-foot wheel revolving around a horizontal and a vertical axis simultaneously. A bicycle track is on the inner rim of the wheel, and the trick cyclist mounted on his bicycle enters the track at a furious rate and so sets the gyroscope going. All at once he blocks his bicycle wheels, while the huge Avheel carries him up to quite a height. He repeats this performance several times until he is finally carried around with the wheel for six or seven revolutions. GOLD FROM SEA WATER. Tine "Gyroscope* London town for the past month has been considerably agitated by the brave assertion that a process for extracting gold from sea water at an expense of no more than $50 for every $500 value of gold produced has at last been perfected. The same idea was mocked at a few years ago and most people supposed it had been wholly abandoned, but the assertions haA^e at least received enough support to send the prices of the shares of stock up much higher than originally. ENCYCLOPEnrA 129 STAGE DRAGON CONTROLLED BY A TELE- PHONE. In the opera "Siegfried" a dragon is an important feature of the entertainment, says a New York publication. This opera was rendered at the Metropolitan Opera House here recently, says the American Telephone Journal. The insides of the dragon, which is made of canvas and papier-mache, consist of two small boys, who are supposed to guide the beast's movements in accordance with the music. They are rarely equal to doing that correctly, even after rehearsal. The performance the other night is said to have been given without a single stage re- hearsal, as no time could be found for the preparation of the opera. It was, therefore, more than ever necessary to have the oc- cupants of "Der Wurm's" inside kept up to their business. The stage manager decided to install a telephone in the beast. It con- nected with the opera house switchboard. On one end was Herr Greder, the stage manager, and at the other were two re- ceivers strapped to the heads of the two boys, who received momentarily directions as to what they should do. The dragon un- der the circumstances covered himself with credit. SUBSTITUTE FOR TIRES. An elastic wheel for automobiles, com- posed wholly of steel, is a recent French In- vention. It is reported to have success- fully passed severe tests and to have met all requirements. The illustration shows its construction. The rim is coated with a band of rubber, which the Automobile Review says "does not increase to any ex- tent the elasticity of the springs and is in- tended solely to lessen the noise of the run- ning car." ■»« » A NEW GAS METER. A small, inexpensive, and accurate gas meter, easily placed, is a new English inven- tion. It is called a "rotary meter" and works on the principle of a windmill. The gas operating on a set of blades turns a shaft, which transmits its motion to gear wheels, and they to a dial read as in the ordinary meter. The parts run with the R.otary Gas Meter least possible friction, and, there being no leather bellows or water, the gas pressure does not affect its working. It is invalu- able where the gas is dusty, being easily replaced by a clean one. Its low cost en- ables a consumer to place one on each sep- arate gas apparatus in the house, and thus determine how much gas is being used for various purposes. The one illustrated is three inches in diameter and three inches high, and is in place to measure gas sup- plying a fire. All-steel WHeel Corks boiled for some time in melted par- rafln are thus rendered impervious to air, acids and alkalies. Keep the cork beneath the surface of the paraffin, and heat and allow to cool a number of times. 130 ENCYCLOPEDIA THE TANTALUM LAMP. The tantalum electric lamp is a new type of incandescent lamp, and receives its name from the metal of which the filament is composed. Tantalum, though comparatively little known, exists in considerable quan- tities and its cost in the raw state is not great. When drawn into wire it is some- what darker than platinum, and has a hard- ness about equal to that of mild steel but with greater tensile strength. The filaments are not easily broken in shipment of the lamps, and have a much higher resist- ance than the carbon now generally used in incandescent lamps. The life of a tantalum lamp is believed to be much greater than one of carbon, and to yield a better light. Owing to the peculiar lacing of the filaments, the tantalum lamp may burn through several times before becom- ing useless. Often a light tap on the lamp will bring a broken filament in contact with its neighbor. A peculiarity of tantalum is that its resis- tance increases with increased temperature while carbon diminishes in resistance with heat. The Electrical Review sums up the main points as follows: 1. The tantalum lamp has a filament made of a metallic conductor and burns at once on being connected without any previ- ous heating. m 2. The light-giving wire is prepared by melting in a vacuum and drawing; it is tough even in the cold state, and can there- fore be coiled and fixed in the lamp when cold. 3. A relatively grtat length of wire can be placed in a simple manner within a bulb of ordinary dimensions. 4. Tantalum ore exists in considerable quantities and can be easily procured. 5. Similar principles of treatment can be adhibited to other metals of a very high melting point. The lamps are at present being made only in Berlin. AUTOMATIC JOURNEY RECORDER. The journey recorder is an automatic in- strument which can be attached to a motor vehicle and produces a record of the day's work of the vehicle showing when it was in motion and how long the stoppages were. A paper dial marked with the hours of the day is rotated by a clock, and a pencil, Filament Before and After iQoo Hours' Service. Filament Frame of New Lamp. RECORD OF THE DAY'S JOURNEY OF A VAN. Reading : Started out at 8.40 a.m. ; travelled 12 miles with 2 short stoppages, till 10.35 ; standing from 10.35 till 10.50 : (ravelled 3 miles, ill 11.15; standing, 11.15 lil| 12.35; standing, for dmner, from 12.50 to 2.25 (too long) ; travelled 14 miles, with 3 stops, and reached home at 5 p.m. ; the last 6 miles were done in 30 minutes, which is loo fast considering the length of the journey. ' actuated by the wheel of the vehicle, draws a short line for each mile travelled; on the completion of the mile the pencil is returned and the mile recorded. When the vehicle is standing the pencil marks a concentric line. The gear for actuating the pencil is very simple, being a scroll fixed on the nave of the wheel, and gearing into a star wheel attached to the axle or spring, and by a flexible shaft inside a protecting tube, trans- mitting the motion to the recording mechan- ism. Floated a Brick House Down tHe AllegKeny R-iver. Passed THroui^H Storm and Flood. Over I^ocks and Under 1,omv Bridges, but Fell Not. A two-story brick house, sixty years old and weighing over two hundred tons, was recently moved from Sharpsburg, Pa., a sub- urb of Pittsburg, down tlie Allegheny river for a distance of five miles to the plant of the H. J. Heinz Company at Pittsburg. Aside from the age and structure of the reached the movers heaved a sigh of relief, though the worst was yet before them. Before anything further could be done a severe flood rose and swept the country, dooming many buildings in its path. The old brick house was surrounded by seething, pounding waters to a depth half way to its Toivin** a BricK House Do'wn the Allegheny River house the moving was effected against seem- ingly insurmountable obstacles and Avas cer- tainly a feat of its kind. The house was lifted by means of jacks and placed on blocks and rollers. From the very outset great difficulties were encoun- tered. Between the house and the river was 800 feet of soft, marshy ground, appar- ently without bottom, and every moment it seemed that the old building would col- lapse. When the water's edge was at last second story, and stood midstream and al- most inaccessible. The blocking and rollers were weighted down with steel rails and im- mense beams to prevent its being washed away. At last the waters abated sufficiently to permit the work to proceed. The house was moved down the river bank and lowered upon a lauge coal barge. The barge was fifteen feet below the level of the bank upon which the house stood. lUi. 132 ENCYCLOPEDIA i i 1 R.eae PQwer Hqus9 ENCYCLOPEDIA 135 CourteBj of tha I. P. Jloms Co., Fhiladelpbla Erecting^ the 10,500 H. P. Turbine in the Shop phase, to 50,000 volts three phase. The ca- bles are carried, one on the pole, and two on southern pine cross-arms, the poles being of cedar. The caMes are fastened to insu- lators capable of standing 100.000 volts and are arranged in the form of an equal-sided triangle, each side being 60 inches. At Montreal from "step down" transformers the current goes to motor generators which change it from 30 cycles to 60 cycles. The loss in sending the current 84 miles when 8,000 horse power is delivered at Montreal, is a little less than 1-5 or 2,000 horse power. Another 10,000 horse power line to Montreal is being built and plans for a third are now being drawn. 136 ENCYCLOPEDIA HARVESTING ICE IN THE UNITED STATES. Millious of dollars are invested in equip- ment for cutting and storing natural ice, and the annual ice harvest is a crop of vital importance. The business is one about which the general public knows very little. The best cutting months are January and February, during which thousands of men and teams are very busy, even with the use of modern machinery, which has re- duced the work to a science. A thickness of 10 to 12 inches is preferred, and the best ice makes daring a con- tinued cold spell, when the freezing pro- ceeds evenly and produces clear ice free New York Tongs. Fhiladelphia Tongs from layers of snow or surface thawings. In many plants the actual cost of cutting and housing is less than 15 cents a ton. This does not include rentals of lakes or in- terest on anything; simply the getting a ton of ice out of the water into the store house. The crop which has just been gathered is one of the best in many years. Large com- panies always carry over from year to year a certain amount to insure against a poor crop, which must always be guarded against. In a Avell equipped establishment the out- fit is surprisingly large, including engines, hoisting machinery, electric light plant for all night work, commodious boarding hous- es, horses, and hundreds of tools of an end- less variety. It is possible here to show only one of a type: of tongs, for instance, there are more than fifty kinds. -O ThrecTintd Needle Bji «aAAAAAA/«^ Snoti Handk «Tin»d fork Bji Siarline Chisel Weslein faiiei Knob Handle SplilUiii! Fotk The first thing is to clear away the snow, if any. This is done with scrapers and horses. In extremely cold weather only so much surface is removed as can be imme- diately cut. The snow prevents too rapid freezing. Next the markers drawn by one horse each cut the lines of suitable width and depth— according to the thickness of the ice— until the field resembles a checker board. By means of augers a first hole is made for the saws, which are worked by ENCYCLOPEDIA 137 baud. An open place is made at the foot of the incline leading up into the house, and a channel opened extending out into the field, where the crop is being cut. The cakes are floated by men using "puller" or "shover" hooks attached to poles of suitable lengths up to 18 ft. Each man has his own special duty, and the work once started, progresses with a regularity and method of a factory. After the marker, follows the cutting plows, Avhich cut still deeper grooves, leav- ing only a few inches for the men to saw through by hand. When the ice is thin the hand sawing may sometimes be dispensed with and the cakes broken off by means of separating chisels, having a steel blade 4 in. wide, 16 in. long, firmly secured at the end of a wooden handle 4 ft. 6 in. in length. The illustrations are self-explanatory. Ice houses would seem to be immune from fire; but do, however, burn frequently, with a total loss of house and contents. The buildings seem good marks for lightning, and their location far from any fire depart- ment, renders difficult any effort to extin- guish the flames, which strangely burn with intense fury and rapidity. 138 ENCYCLOPEDIA NigKt Signals Used hty tKe United States No International Code of Ni^Ht Signals in Existence— SucH System VTotild Safeguard THousands of Lrives. It is a strange fact that in this humani- tarian era there is no international code of night signals for use on either land or sea in existence. Sti'anger yet, the merchant marine of the world has no established code: Each nation has its secret plan or chart and the code book of it is carefully guarded, and arrangements made for its destruction Igfnitin^ tbe Cartridg^e should there be danger of its falling into the hands of an enemy. On board a war vessel the code book has a piece of lead tied to its cover so that if need be to throw it overboard it will sink. There have been many attempts to estab- lish a simple international night signal sys- tem. Day signaling is provided for, mirror flash signals being used for long distances and flags, disks and semaphores for short distances. In 1873, when the White Star liner "Atlantic" displayed rockets and blue lights as a distress signal and they were mistaken as a salutation to a passing vessel and the "Atlantic" was lost, the great need for a distinguishing night signal sj^stem was felt. Most steamship lines now have such a system which is registered in the govern- ment bureau, and published in almanacs, The Coston system was arranged applic- able to Marryat's numeral code of flags then in use for day signaling and the system was adopted by the United States navy, green, red and white being the colors used. The signal has been greatly improved since first constructed in 1840. It then consisted of composition fires put up in waterproof boxes. When one was to be used, the cover of the box was removed, the box placed on a board and ignited by port fire, the dis- play being made from the surface or deck. Red, white and blue were used at that time, but after the 1859 patent, green was substi- tuted for blue, as it was more reliable as then produced. The color compounds were then put up in cartridge cases made of tin- foil and manila paper and a quick match at- tacked. In its next stage the cartridge was placed on a wooden handle by means of which it was held during the display and then, in 1863, it was constructed for use in the socket of a peculiarly made pistol and ignited by a percussion cap. The United States army used this apparatus and in 1877 the United States navy adopted the Coston aerial night signal invented by H. H. Coston, late captain of the United States Marine Corps. The navy also uses searchlights and the "Adoise system," opei'ated by a keyboard turning on and off red and white incandes- cent lights. Wm. F. Coston improved the Coston sig- nals by igniting them by means of a per- cussion cap and made a signal combining aerial and surface display. This was a great improvement and the signal was adopted by Coston Improved Holder but this is far from being a satisfactory dis- position of the matter. "Signals of one or more colors in the same cartridge burning in succession," says the American Shipbuilder, "do away with any chance of failure or misunderstanding." Among such signals, what is known as the "Coston night signals," invented by Benja- nnn Franklin Coston in 1840, leads. The in- vention was not completed at that time, but was patented by the widow of Benjamin Coston in 1859, the United States, France, Italy, Denmark, Holland and Brazil. The Coston signal is efficient in any kind of weather and can be displayed from any place, and is distinctly visible at distances of 15 to 20 miles. The United States pilot- call signal used along our coasts is white, red, white in succession, the distress signal red, white, red in succession. The Coston signals have warned hundreds of vessels and saved thousands of lives and millions of dollars worth of property. ENCYCLOPEDIA 139 THermit Welding, Its Principle and Execution. Process Has Made Practicable Longf L>en^tHs of Continuous Rail: Involves One of tHe Most Important Scientific Discoveries of tHe A.^e. Thermit welding, or properly speaking, the new science of aluminothermics, is now generally conceded to be one of the most important scientific developments of the times. As a science it involves the chemi- cal combination of oxygen and aluminum (two elements common to almost all parts of the globe) in such a manner as to pro- duce a temperature equal to that of the electric arc. Metallic aluminum combined under the proper conditions with many an- other metal and ignited will reduce the other metal from its compound to its simple form. For instance, if it is combined with oxide of iron and ignited the aluminum unites with the oxygen of the oxide and forms alumi- num oxide (commercial corundum) and leaves the iron free. The iron sinks to the bottom and the slag forms the upper layer. Thermit, by means of which thermit weld- ing is accomplished, is a patented product, obtained under this principle. The ther- mit so produced may be ignited in one spot and combustion will proceed throughout the whole mass, without any outside heat sup- ply and so generate a very high temper- ature. The application of the heat is usu- ally by using small crucibles for melting on the spot where the weldiug or repair is re- quired. The process is extremely simple and has reduced the time required for repairing fractures in large metal parts to a consider- able degree, as the fractured part, no mat- ter what its nature, may be repaired while in place. The most important application of ther- mit so far is for welding rail joints. In modern trollev road construction the continuous rail plays an important part, be- ing used as the path for the return current. By the use of thermit the rail ends may be welded quickly and cheaply. This work has been carried on to a great- er extent in Eui'ope than in America, but has been watched with great interest by engineers everywhere. One American ex- Fig' 1. Crucibles Fiif. 2. Tapping Arrangement pert recommended it for use on an important track in Singapore, and in 1903 native labor- ers welded 3,000 joints and 20,000 joints were made in 1904. The outfit for welding a joint includes a crucible, C, Fig. 1, consisting of a sheet-iron mantle, lined with magnesia. Many trolley companies using thermit for welding on a large scale manufacture their own crucibles. To do this the lining is tamped around a cone suspended in the middle of the mantle and the crucible, with the cone, is placed in a furnace for two hours and slowly brought to a glow heat. The bottom is formed by a hard magnesia stone, E, provided with an exchangeable outlet. Each crucible will stand about twenty-five re- actions of the thermit process. In welding, if a complete butt-weld of the head of the rail is required, rail-clamps are necessary. but not otherwise. The only other appara- tus necessary is a mould box, having two parts, one for each side of the rail, which firmly enclose and fit the rail, and pi-ovided with channels for the thermit iron to run through. The whole outfit can be moved on a hand truck. To weld a joint the rail ends are first cleaned of dirt and rust with a wire brush and slightly warmed; the mould is then 140 ENCYCLOPEDIA screwed to the rail and the rims touching the rail are smeared with clay. The crucible is placed on a tripod over the mould. The magnesia stone in the bottom of the crucible has an opening for the thermit when melted to run through. This is closed by a small Fi^. 3. IVeld in Side of Rail magnesia stone called a "thimble" (F, Fig. 1). A tapping pin is suspended by its scarfed end inside the thimble and the top of the thimble is closed, first with asbestos washers and then Avith a metal disk. This is rammed firmlj^ in place with a hammer handle and then covered with magnesite sand. This prevents the thermit running out too soon. The apparatus then appears in ai'rangement as in Fig. 2. All being in readiness, thermit in the proper quantity is poured into the crucible liquid steel sinks to the bottom of the cru- cible, a distinct layer of aluminum slag cov- ering its surface. The weight of the iron and this slag is the same, though the slag oc- cupies three times as much cubic space. The weight of the iron is half that of the thermit powder. As soon as the reaction is completed, the crucible is tapped— that is, the tapping pin is sharply knocked upward and the thermit iron, at a temperature of 5,400 degrees Fahrenheit, so released, runs through the thimble into the mould, around the web and foot of the rail, melting them and forming one mass with them. The liquid slag which follows the iron is diverted to the top of the rail and brings it to a welding heat. The heat is equal throughout. Three- quarters of an hour are required for one man to weld one joint without the use of clamps, and each weld requires from fifteen to twenty pounds of thermit. As soon as the molten iron solidifies around the rail the moulds are broken off and the weld is complete. Fig. 3 shows the side of a welded rail and Fig. 4 the operation of welding in actual process. The life of the track, it is said, depends upon the life of the joints and until recently joints were expensive, as the cheapest means of welding them required so much heavy apparatus— cupola, sand-blast ma- chine, clamps, dogs, moulds— all of which Fi^. 4. Welding VlTitHout Clamps so that its surface is level, and a pinch of ignition powder is placed in the middle of it and lighted by applying a Bengal storm match. Chemical reaction thus started is completed in a half minute, and a pure must be moved as the work progressed. Dr. Hans Goldschmidt, of Essen, Germany, who first brought the science of alumino- thermics to an applicable basis, says that for steam railroad practice it is safe to use ENCYCLOPEDIA Ul Fi^. 6. Repairing I^ocomotive Driv-in^^lVHeel 300 feet of continuous rail with the proper expansion joints between eacti section; tlaat for interurban lines 500 feet of continuous rails are practicable, and that in the paved area of a city, where the rails are pract- cally covered, the work can be carried on to much greater extent and the welded joint has an electrical conductivity greater than the rail itself. Aside from welding rails, thei'mit has been used in an unprecedented manner for re- pair work. In connection with marine en- gineering this is especially true. The stern- post of the Hamburg-American liner "Se- villa," 9,000 tons (Fig. 5), had a fracture measuring 20 inches by 8 inches. Under ordinary conditions a new stern-post would have been necessary, the steamer being laid up in dry dock for several weeks while the new part was being fitted in. The part was welded with thermit, a crucible six feet high being used and 700 pounds of thermit. The reaction required but little more time than for welding a rail joint. In another instance a crankshaft on board a Rhine steamer was repaired. The steamer arrived in port at five p. m. of one day, and departed at ten next morning. In the meantime the 10-inch fracture in the crankshaft was repaired with 250 pounds of thermit in one reaction. Thermit was used also by the Austrian State Railway for repairing the spokes of a locomotive driving-wheel (Fig. 6). Each of these repairs is notable, in that had it been made in any other known way it would have required much time and expense, while the fact that it is possible to make a reliable repair in a broken crankshaft or other important part in mid-ocean is of prime importance, both to the commercial world and the traveling public. Thermit is also used for welding third rails and for welding pipes while in position. Fig. 7 shows a pipe in vertical position ready for welding. Thermit itself is in the form of a powder, is non-explosive and Avill not burn if Fig. 5. "Welding Stem Post of tHe "Sevilla»» 142 K N C Y C L O P E D I A thrown on fire. It is only is^ited by means of the ignition powder provided with it. It only burns where it touches, but is so hot that it will burn a hole through an iron plate, the edges of the hole being perfectly clean. Workmen engaged in the use of ther- Fig'. 7. Pipes R.eaocatio>\ of Pipe Is being used on one of the lines running out of Chicago. The mixture is carried in tanks on the car and fed onto the rail through a i^-inch pipe. A gallon will cover a mile of rail. Very thin ice coating is en- tirely melted; heavier ice is softened so the sleet brushes clean it off. The Street Rail- way Journal says: "The corroding effect of calcium chloride on the copper is some- what in dispute, but by so distributing the solution that it does not reach the bond, any danger is, of course, avoided." HORSES RIDE IN AUTOS. When horses ride in automobiles the ta- bles may truly be said to have actually been turned. This very thing is actually being done in France. The vehicle is used for Palace Horse* Auto the transportation of valuable race horses when being taken from stable to depot, or to the race track. The entrance is at the rear, the door swinging down to make an incline. The interior is padded, and a par- tition can be inserted when occasion requires two passengers. A trap door gives the driv- er a chance to see that the horse is all right, and a feed box containing oats and another for hay make the trip a pleasant one. ■» * » DISCOVERING PEARLS BY X-RAY. In a series of experiments recently con- ducted in Ceylon, oysters were subjected to the X-raj' to distinguish between those con- taining pearls and those containing none. It is said the experiments were very satis- factory in results. ♦ * » GERMAN AUTOS UNDER $500. German automobile manufacturers are put- ting on the home and English market a 4- cylinder motor car, holding four persons, at a retail price of $486.65. If for only two persons the cost is $73 less. The machines are said to be of excellent construction and guaranteed to a reasonable extent. ♦ * » Admiral Togo in the great naval battle of May, 1905, had the sun and wijid in his favor. 146 ENCYCLOPEDIA Automobile Covers a Mile in 34 1-5 Seconds MacKine THat Brotte A.11 R.ecords A new world's record in automobiling was made on the Ormond-Daytona (Florida) beacli course on January 25tb, when a Bos- ton automobilist, H. L. Bowdin, covered a mile in 34 1-5 seconds, or at the rate of 105 miles an hour. The Mercedes car in which the run was made, known as the "Flying Dutchman II.," was equipped for the occasion with two 4- cylinder, 60-horsepower engines coupled tan- dem and the frame was lengthened by in- serting two steel plates 20 inches long in the center, says the Automobile. The vibration of the powerful machine thus fitted up is so great that before each trip it raust be gone over thoroughly and every bolt and nut made secure. Other notable runs were made by Louis S. Ross driving a freakish looking 20-horse- power steam car, called the "Teakettle," which made a mile in 38 seconds, and by Arthur McDonald, driving a 90-horsepower Napier a mile in 34 2-5 seconds, a close ap- proach to Bowdin's time. The aim of automobile drivers now is said to be two miles a minute. How to TelepHone Clear and Distinct Pronunciation Better XHan A Poiverftxl Voice** Germs On tbe Mouthpiece. There are various simple matters con- nected with the proper and improper use of the telephone, which, if generally understood and heeded, would make this very conven- ient instrument of communication, if not a thing of beauty and a joy forever, at least very much more satisfactory than many people now find it to be. One thing appears to be tolerably certain —that everyone does not know the way to get the best results. A common mistake by those who use the telephone is that they do not place the lips close enough to the instrument. This, perhaps, is due in many cases to the fact that the old style instru- ment was a very different thing from the present one. In the former case it was nec- essary to keep the lips some inches distant from the box and to speak across the open- ing and not into it. "Get further away from the 'phone" was a familiar command when the old style instrument was in use, and many old subscribers can't get over that "long distance habit," as the telephone par- lance has it, and the command to "talk louder" is often heard. Another reason for the failure to place the lips close to the transmitting mouthpiece is the fear of germs which, naturally enough, perhaps actuates many. "Public telephone users who know that it is necessary to get close to the 'phone," said an observing operator to me the other day, "and who object to the moist or pos- sibly unclean mouthpiece, often give the rubber piece a thorough wiping with a ENCYCLOPEDIA 147 Iiandkercliief before talking. Some go even further and form an auxiliary mouthpiece by circling the rubber one with their hands, tlius keeping the lips entirely away from it. You will hear people j'elling at the top of their voices, though that class is diminish- ing every day, for it is becoming better un- derstood that a moderately low tone with the lips close to the instrument secures the best results." The operating part of the telephone mech- anism, the diaphragm and the carbons, are in the disc back of the hard rubber mouth- piece, and it is absolutely impossible to get too close to it. The voice of the speaker has much to do with the distinctness of the message. The worst telephone voice is the basso prof undo; the man who in ordinary conversation can be heard like a megaphone above all others is usually asked to repeat. He could save himself a lot of trouble and his listener as much inconvenience if he would strike a higher key than is natural to him. As a rule women's voices are the best for ordi- nary telephone work, but not for long dis- tance service. Then a strong, clear voice is required. Having a good telephone voice, however, is not the whole thing. The good speaker must enunciate distinctly. The one who jumbles his words in ordinary conver- sation can be understood by the person in front of him notwithstanding his imperfect manner of talking, because the listener sees the speaker, and the eye assists the ear, but on the "phone it is quite different and "Can't understand you" is a frequent reply. Defective enunciation has caused many to believe that certain sounds will not carry in the telephone, like "s" and "th," etc., but these sounds will carry all right and be un- derstood if the person who utters them does so distinctly. Said an expert: "If I were to lay down a rule for telephoning, I should say, keep the chin Avell up and speak with a large amount of air in the chest, articulate slowly and distinctly and use the lips; that is, throw the voice in the front part of the mouth — and be courteous." B. ANOTHER METHOD OF LIFTING LOADED WAGON. A loaded wagon may be lifted easier by the method shown in the accompanying sketch, writes C. J. Case, of Troy, Pa., than by the method shown in our last issue and contributed by Lee K. Clarke, of Bozeman, Montana. By the method here shown the crib is built under the wagon to full height of the axle bottom and the pole is then adjusted on the crib. Stone is then placed under the rim of the wheel and stone or wood under the other end of the pole, and the horses started up. If the wagon and I«iftini^ a LfOaded Wa^on load weighs 8,000 lbs., of course, the actual weight lifted would be approximately one- fourth of 8,000 or 2,000 lbs., the weight on one wheel. Mr. Case says he frequently makes use of this means to oil the wagon with load on. ♦ « » UNIQUE FLOATING LIGHTHOUSE. . A new type of floating signal or buoy has been adopted by the English Lighthouse Board, and the one illustrated herewith has Lfi^Kt Burns 31 Das^s been placed outside the Portsmouth harbor. It can be seen a long distance in day time, and at night burns a powerful oil lamp, which requires filling only once in 31 days. 148 ENCYCLOPEDIA ICE BOX WITHOUT ICE. Miniature Refrigerating System for the Home. It is now possible to keep your ice box at a temperature of from 35 to 40 degrees throughout the year, without ever hanging out the ice sign or having the drain pipe stop up on you. Not only that, but no im- Cold Storage at Home pure ice can endanger tlie family's health, and the supply of cold never gives out. The above results are accomplished by a small portable refrigerating plant, either built into a box or applied to the one al- x'eady in use, and which is a miniature of the great ice-making and cold storage plants manufacturing artificial ice or cooling great buildings. The power to operate the cooling process may be either a small gasoline engine, or if the house is lighted with electricity a small electric motor is recommended. When started the machine runs continuously with very little attention. With the exception of filling the oil cups once or twice a week there is really nothing to do. The cooling liquid is forced through the refrigerator in pipes, and while it cools does not produce the moisture and consequent dampness occasioned by the use of ice. About one-half laorsepower is required for the work where it is desired to manufacture 20 pounds of ice per day for the table, and less power where the refrigerator is used as cold storage only. It is said the cost of operating the outfit is no more than is usu- ally paid for ice during a season. ♦*♦ FUNERAL SERMON PREACHED BY TELEPHONE. In Des Moines, Iowa, recently, the funeral services for a young girl who had died of diphtheria were conducted over the tele- phone, the minister preaching to two audi- ences, one at the house and one at the church. The girl had requested that the funeral sermon be preached at the house, and as friends could not attend because of the nature of the disease, this expedient was used. The minister preached at the church end of the line, with the aid of a megaphone. LOCOMOTIVE THAT EXHAUSTS DOWNWARD. A freak locomotive has been used in the construction of the New York subway. In order not to coat the white roof of the tun- nel with a liberal layer of soot and dirt. This engine does not absorb its own smoke, but does the next best thing, and by means of the curious stack extension shown in the illustration exhausts underneath itself and toward the rear. Locom.otive Engineering H ■I I^^H -'^^ma^^ '■' i9rl f" 'ig^Wn""".- :l^ ■ _.^^ w ' TKe Freak I«ocoinotive says: "When running forward this locomo- tive can do what few other locomotives can do— it can run over its own smoke." •♦ * » The value of the electrical manufactures in this country during 1904 is estimated at $230,500,000. Of this amount dynamos and motors of gjl kinds amounted to $51,000,000. ENCYCLOPEDIA 149 ICE PUNCH FOR HEAVY ICE. Users of water power, and not only the smaller ones, experience constant trouble with ice forming at the intake. Frequently it is no easy matter to get at the trouble, and a cor- respondent of the Ameri- can Miller sends a sketch of a home-made machine which is guaranteed to break holes every time. The drawings will give a very good idea of what is required. Old shafting, two inches or more in di- ameter and of any length, may be used, as required. Any old gear lying around the mill will do for the windlass. The only new part required will be a self - trip hook. The heavier the bar the better the punch. ice PuzxcH for Heavy Ice TESTING CONCRETE BLOCKS. Concrete blocks may be tested by means of a screw-jack and 5-ton platform scales in the manner shown in the sketch, says Henry W. Edwards of Grand Junction, Colo., and the test may be relied upon for all ordinary purposes. The mixture to be tested should be rammed in a wooden box 9 in. square by 30 in. long, inside measurement, and allowed to stand for several days or weeks until set. It is then subjected to pressure in the appa- ratus shown, and the moment cracks appear on either of the visible sides of the block being tested, the pressure exerted by the screw-jack should be read off on the scale beam. This is not the ultimate crushing strength of the block— that can rarely be ascertained— but affords a comparative test of the tensile strength of the block, which is sufficient for ordinary pui-poses. ■♦ « » DEAD BLACK COLORING FOR IRON. . For Testing Concrete BlocKa Clean all grease and dirt from the metal to be blackened, and apply, either with a brush or by dipping the article in the liquid, the following compound: One part bismuth chloride; 2 parts mercury bichlo- ride; 1 part copper chloride; 6 parts hydro- chloric acid; 5 parts alcoliol; 52 parts water, thoroughly mixed. After applying the liquid place the metal in boiling water and let it remain therein at that temperature for a half-hour. Re- peat this operation until the color is deep enough, and then fix the color by placing the article for a few minutes in a bath of boiling oil. After removing, heat until the oil is completely driven off. This method is recommended by the Blacksmith and ■Wheelwright. 150 ENCYCLOPEDIA TOOLS FOR CLEANING SEWERS. Sewers frequently get choked up and cause no end of trouble, but bow they are again put in service is something unknown to but few outside those who make a spe- cialty of such work. The tools required are ranch more numerous than might be sup- Operates Semrer Cleaning Tools posed, and many special instruments have to be kept on hand for use when ordinary means fail. The Municipal Engineer illus- trates some of the new "specials" which any expert sewer engineer will know how to make and use. No. 1 is a root cutter, which will prove a valuable aid to the many engineers and sew- er superintendents who have trouble with tree roots growing through defective pipe joints or open joints in small brick sewers. No. 2 is a scraper for removing deposits of the softer materials which are still too dense or too sticky for flushing out. No. 3 is a corkscrew which will penetrate any bundle of rags or paper and either pull it out or disintegrate it. No. 4 is a plunger which is of special value in conduits to remove roughness when they have not been thoroughly cleaned before laying. No. 5 is a chisel for use in breaking off hard cement left on unwiped joints, which projects and catches rags, papers, etc. It will also serve to cut off hard materials which have caught in open places in joints. A cor- set steel has been known to stop a pipe sewer by catching in such an opening in a joint and serving as a hook on which to hang a miscellaneous lot of obstructions that followed. No. 6 is a brush which easily removes the accumulations of grease on the walls of sewers near hotels, boarding houses and certain manufacturing plants. No. 7 is a claw which is sometimes needed in place of the scraper, No. 2, and may stir up such soft- but adhesive materials as do not yield readily to the scraper, when they may be flushed or scraped out. No. 8 is a scoop for rempving deposits of sand from sewers. It sometimes happens. Curious Special Tools Used in Cleaning Se'wrers ENCYCLOPEDIA 151 especially in new sewers, tliat a heavy rain- fall will wash deposits of sand, gravel or clay into a long line of pipe, practically fill- ing it. These deposits are hard to remove in pipe sewers and in the smallter brick sewers. The scoop can be operated for several hun- dred feet successfully, though slowly. All these tools are fitted with socliets for use Avith the Felton coupling for sewer rods, which permits any desired manipulation of the tool on the end of a string of rod sec- tions and at the same time makes easy the removal of the rod in sections at a manhole. The coupling is shown in the smaller of the accompanying cuts. It can be used also for pushing a lantern through a sewer for the discovery of leaks or surreptitious connec- tions, whether in pipe or brick sewers. An Electric Bakery- Niagara Falls has an electric bakery. Not only are the various machines for mixing the dough, rolling out and cutting into form, performed by machines operated by electric power, but an immense oven is heated by the electric current. No smell of smoke, no dust from ashes is known; when the baker wants to bake he simply touches a button and in a few moments the oven is in a glow. Electric current is cheap in Niagara, for thousands of horsepower are being con- stantly generated at practically no operating expense. Water that formerly went plung- ing over tlie Falls is now turned from its old course and sent through giant turbines which turn the generators and produce the electricity which operates all the industries of the town, and many others in Buffalo, 20 miles away, including all the street cars of that city. Broadly speaking, the cost to the ordinary consumer of electricity for cooking, ranges from eight cents to 15 cents per kilowatt- hour, says the Western Electrician. At Niagara Falls, however, the current is gen- erated so cheaply that it is supplied in some instances as low as four cents. It is not improbable that there are other places in this country where waterpower is available to operate generating units at such a low cost that current can be used in the vicinity for domestic purposes as well as for operat- ing machinery and illumination. Conse- quently we may first expect to see it used extensively in communities which are ad- jacent to such sources of power, THe £lectric BaKery at Nia^ar? 152 ENCYCLOPEDIA LIGNITE FOR LOCOMOTIVE FUEL. A substitute for coal and wood has long been sought, especially in countries far from coal deposits. Railroads in Colorado, Wyoming and the Southwest have experimented with lignite, a fuel half way between peat and coal in composition. Taking 100 parts, it is made up as follows: Carbon, 40 parts; easily eva- Spiral Corrugated Tube porated matter, 32 parts; water, 20 parts; ash, 8 parts. An attempt to partly dry and press into small bricks some Wyoming lignite, resulted in making it cost $1.60 per ton, while coal mined in the same region costs $1.10 per ton. Being light, lignite throws out many sparks when burned in locomotives. To pre- vent this, the old diamond stack with cone and netting in it is used, air openings in the grate are fine, and the ashpan is almost closed. This hinders the draft, so a small exhaust nozzle is used to produce it. Less- ened locomotive power results from the small amount of heat in the lignite, inability to force the fire, and back pressure in the cylinder. A Wooten boiler having a large grate has yielded good results, but the best have been obtained with locomotives having spirally corrugated boiler tubes. Instead of passing straight through the tubes and out, the sparks follow the spiral Grate for Stoves groove, and cool off. Advantages gained are: Freedom from spark danger, enlarged exhaust nozzle, ability to haul heavier loads and a higher speed. With this outlook, more locomotives are being fitted with corrugated tubes, and in time lignite may become an economical rail- road fuel. It is now possible to burn the lignite In stoves and house furnaces, but special grates have to be used. Lignite burns with a fine white ash, but requires a generous supply of air. » » » REIVLA-RKABLE CURES WITH ELECTRIC LIGHT. Apparatus by Which Four Patients are Treated at the Same Time No hospital in England or on the conti- nent is now considered up-to-date without an equipment of the Finsen light apparatus for the treatment of lupus. Dr. Finsen^ the inventor, died a few months ago, but the improvements he would have made, had he lived, are being effected by his enthusiastic followers. The illustration from the Electrical Re- view, London, shows the latest type of the apparatus by which four patients may re- ceive treatment at the same time. Sus- pended from a strong support is an arc lamp of extremely high candle-power, around which is suspended a heavy metal cylinder, serving to carry the telescopes and the nec- essary pipes and taps for the water-cooling of the telescopes and compressors, through which the rays pass before reaching the pa- tient. The telescopes are constructed of brass barrel, with rock crystal lenses to con- centrate the rays of the arc lamp. At the end of each telescope nearest the lamp a space is left between two of the lenses, which is filled with distilled water; around this a water jacket is fitted, to permit of the cir- culation of running water from the main supply, in order to keep it cool. The dis- tilled water fulfills the double purpose of eliminating some of the heat rays, and of preventing the top lens from cracking owing to its exposure to the great heat from the arc lamp. At the other end of the telescope, for a space of about 12 in., between two more lenses, is a column of distilled water, which absorbs further heat rays. Around the four telescopes are arranged couches on which the patients lie whilst under treat- ment; the part to be treated is brought to the point of convergence of the rays through the telescope, and compressors consisting of rock crystal lenses, between which a stream of water is continually circulating, are pressed firmly on the skin, in order to ren- der it anaemic, as the presence of red fluid would prevent the ultra-violet rays from properly penetrating. Here occurs the final ENCYCLOPEDIA 153 exclusion of the heat rays, and the chemical rays alone reach the patient. By an in- genious arrangement, the fullest use is made of the light from the lamp, so that the cur- rent consumption is about 50 amperes only, as against 70 or 80, or even more, in the older types. The worst skin diseases are cured by this treatment. EXPERIMENTS PROVE THAT CONCRETE PRESERVES METALS FROM RUST. That concrete preserves iron and steel and prevents it from rusting at all, even though it be partly rusted when imbedded in the concrete, is proven by two interesting ex- periments made by the Boston Transit Com- pany during the construction of the East Boston tunnel. Nine strips of sheet iron, 2 in. x 6 in., were cleaned till bright and free from rust and imbedded in a hollow cylinder of concrete, 14 in. by 20 in., outside dimensions, the walls being 3 in. thick. When hardened this cylin- der was kept filled with water and placed in the tunnel. For a while water percolated through the concrete readily, but at the end of two months it had become watertight. At the end of two years the nine strips were removed and found to be as free from rust and as bright as when placed in the con- crete cylinder. In the other experiment a badly rusted square plate was cleaned by filing so that its general surfaces were bright, but rust re- mained in many small pits. This was imbed- ded in a block of concrete, placed in water for two days and then dried in air several days. This wetting and di*ying process was kept up for two years, when the plate was removed. Its condition was the same as when placed in the concrete except that the composition of the old rust had changed some so that its color was yellow instead of reddish brown as formerly. 154 ENCYCLOPEDIA Po^verful Winter Car Ferries for Detroit River. LrauncKin^ the " Powerful car ferries at Detroit are tlie con- necting link between Canada and the United States for several important railways. The current in the Detroit river is very strong, and when great windrows of ice form ex- ceptionally strong vessels are necessary to combat these forces. The Michigan Central Railway system re- cently launched at Detroit a powerful new car ferry, christened ''Detroit of Detroit," and especially fitted for the hard winter Detroit of Detroit" work on the river. The boat measures 308 feet in length on deck, is of 64-foot beam and 191/^ feet deep. It has two propellers at each end, which are operated independently by means of compound engines, having cy- linders 24 and 48 inches in diameter by 33 inches stroke. The steam plant consists of two double-ended boilers, 13 feet by 12 feet, and two single-ended boilers, 13 feet by 11% feet. It is said these big ferries rarely fail to make the trip across the river. HANDS ENJOY NOON-DAY PERFORM- ANCES. Impromptu concerts and vaudeville per- formances is the means hy which employes of a Milwaukee ice-machine building plant begiiile their noon hour. The hands volun- teer to perform, and it is rare that some outside influence draws one away. The bit of noon-day pleasure relaxes tired bodies, employers say, and leaves the men in a happy and contented frame of mind. THE AUTOMOBILE SHOWS. The recent annual automobile shows in New York and Chicago attracted thousands of visitors to inspect larger exhibits than ever before. The motor launch is steadily grow- ing in popularity and is impi'oving in speed and comfort. The 1905 types of autos show a decided improvement in standards of workmanship. Experts estimate the proba- ble sales of automobiles during this year at about $30,000,000. There is a growing tendency to place the motor in an upright position in preference to the horizontal. ♦ • » HUGE MAUSOLEUM PLANNED FOR CHICAGO. A huge mausoleum with catacombs and crypts, patterned after that of AVestminster Abbey, and costing $150,000, is the project of the Montrose Cemetery Association of Chicago. The plan is unique in this country, though there are few American cities where, because of the nature of the earth and the presence of water at a short depth, burial above ground is practiced exclusively. This is true of New Orleans. The crypts in the Chicago mausoleum, it is said, will be sold at $1,000 each. There will be in all 108 indi- vidual catacombs. ENCYCLOPEDIA 155 THE KERR COMPOUND STEAM TURBINE. Drawings liere given show the interior plans of a recently invented 10,000 horse- power steam turbine, which uses Bclton buckets on the rim of a disk, against which steam from nozzles is directed. In a recent article Power says: "The tur- bine is made up of a number of chambers, in eaclj of which revolves one or more buck- et-bearing disks, the number being deter- mined by the amount of steam expansion for which the turbine is designed." The buckets. Fig. 1, are double, elliptical in shape, and sharply curved at the bottom. The steam from the nozzles is divided at the point of connection of the two buckets, which later are riveted, B, or dove tailed, A, to the disk. A nozzle, D, is provided for each stage of steam expansion, and steam admission is hand regulated. Six different expansions are arranged for in Figs. 2 and 3, the first two chambers hav- ing single disks, the next two, two disks, and the last two, three disks. Steam enters at E and passes to steam chest and through the nozzles to the buckets. Exhausting at F, it enters the next apartment, goes half round and again exhausts, so continuing to the final outlet. The disks are all of like diameters, hence the buckets all travel at the same speed. It is planned to have the speed one-half that of the steam jet flow- ing through the nozzle from one stage to the next. The areas of the jets and buckets are progressively increased to allow the en- tering steam to pass with this velocity. If this condition is maintained, the steam will be discharged from each set of buckets practically at rest, having delivered all its energy to the disk, and by dividing the tur- bine into a sufficient number of stages this velocity gan be kept within required limits. Fig. 1. Tbe Kerr Compound Steam Turbine BucKets In the turbine illustrated the bucket disks are 8 feet in diameter, the inlet pipe 8 inch- es and the exhaust 36 inches in diameter, designed to expand steam of 200 pounds pressure to an absolute pressure of two pounds. When a good razor paste is needed use the grit from a fine grindstone. Fig. «. Tig, a. 156 ENCYCLOPEDIA IGNITION FOR MULTIPLE CYLINDER ENGINES. The jump-spark systeai seems to have proved itself satisfactory to automobile builders, and a large number of the 1905 machines will use it. The magnetic spark plug has worked well on slow speed engines, but it is unsatisfac- tory on automobile and launch motors with l//bt, Fig. 1 fljiusttnent ^=-J To f Tiai 71 e- varying speed. A perfect make and break timing device is needed to make it a suc- cess on these latter. A well-known American automobile build- er will use the alternating magneto this year. This gives a timed jump-spark, but the trouble here lies in the fact that its magnets sometimes lose their magnetism and have to be remagnetized at the factory. In the Automobile Review, R. L. Hubler says that the ideal ignition outfit for multi- ple cylinder engines should consist of a stor- age battery for furnishing current to the coil, and a dynamo to recharge this battery. A storage battery gives a large, hot spark, but used alone, it must be recharged, whether convenient or not. 4 connection ju*njy s/>arJ^ coi-Zs, Fig. 2 Using the storage battery only to start the engine would cTd, if the voltage of the battery were always as high as that of the ■yniema iZynamc. lioor enS ^roitnae^' •>'«.?•» I eylinae>- 3. ffroundedf ipitcgS' yu,m/> sjaarA coit Fig. 3 dynamo. As, after use, it might not be, switching from one source of current to the other would cause trouble with the vibra- tors (Fig. 1). The best way seems to be to use the battery current for ignition, leaving the dynamo to charge the battery when necessary. Fig. 2 shows the wiring plan for a four- cylinder engine using four single coils. To- day, short circuit troubles may be banished by using well insulated timing devices. Fig. 3 shows wiring for a single coil on a four-cylinder engine. Apple's timing device, here used, distributes the current to the cylinders at the same time that it times the current from the battery. The cost is less and only one vibrator requires attention. The complete ignition outfit of this type, consisting of the ignition dynamo, six-volt storage battery, coil, timing device, switch and plugs costs about $60.00. The user need buy no primary batteries, he has a simple apparatus, and two sources from which to get a spark. CONCRETE FOR PAVING STREETS. Concrete street pavements are being test- ed in Bellefontaine, Ohio, and other cities, so far with satisfactory results. Asphalt, Avhich is generally regarded as the ideal paving is A^ery expensive, soon wears out, and has a tendency to get slippery when wet. Concrete is both artistic and economical. For a street pavement smooth cement sur- faces would not afford a good footing but the surfaces could be moulded with shallow corrugations and the result be a pavement adapted to all kinds of vehicles. Concrete is so easy to repair and so strong even if undermined that the idea seems a good one, but of course, like every other pavement ever laid, can only be properly tested by time and use. ENCYCLOPEDIA 157 HOW WOODWORK IS SET ON FIRE BY STEAM. PORTABLE ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS. Mysterious fires occur occasionally, when it seems impossible to trace their origin. A large and elegant dwelling house in New Yorlv was not long since burned, and it was found that the fire was caused by a steam drum in contact with wood, with which it was encased. The manner in which a heat of less than scorching intensity sets fire to woodwork is not generally known. The con- ditions to produce this are, first, a degree of heat not less than 212 degrees; second, the presence of wood in close proximity to A portable electric power plant with all its parts constructed to withstand the strain of hauling over rough roads from point to point as required, is a new and interesting development in this line. The plant is mounted on a steel truck, which is fitted with a top and curtains for protection against the elements and the whole appara- tus can be drawn by two horses. The outfit is efficiently used for operating electric tools, temporary electric lighting and like purposes. It consists of a 22-horsepow- er gasoline engine having no water pipes or Courtesy of the Foos Gas Engine Company Portable Electric Power Plant the iron steam pipes; third, the existence of scale or rust on the iron; fourth, varying temperature. The heat drives the oxygen from the iron rust, which then becomes what is known as reduced iron, a finely di- vided metallic powder of the natural color of iron. The heat necessary to ignite the wood, which is in a tinder-like condition, from its proximity to the hot pipe, is gen- erated in the rapid oxidation of the iron. It absorbs oxygen so rapidly under certain amospheric conditions of humidity and tem- perature as to glow for a few seconds, long enough to set the adjoining wood on fire. The greatest caution should be exercised in installing heating systems to allow ample space between steam heating pipes and ad- jacent woodwork. connections which are liable to freeze, but having a special design of cylinder and water jackets, which carry enough water to cool the cylinder. The water has a free passage to the air and maintains an even temperature. Water must be added to make up for loss by evaporation, but no other attention is required in this respect. A water glass in the cylinder gauges the height of the water. The gasoline engine is belted to a dynamo of the same capacity. » < » An electric railway to carry passengers up Mt. Blanc is the project of a Paris com- pany. The line will end at the Aiguilles du Gouter, 14,430 ft. above sea level. This will be the greatest enterprise of its kind. It is said there will be but one tunnel. 158 E N C: Y C L P E 1) I A ENCYCLOPEDIA 159 REMARKABLE ROLLING LIFT BRIDGE AT CLEVELAND. CONCRETE NOT PROOF AGAINST FUNGOID GROWTH. Longest Simple Truss Span Sherzer Bridge Ever Built. A new railroad bridge at Cleveland, Ohio, ha.s a movable span 160 feet in length from center to center of bearings. The bridge is a donble-track rolling lift structure and is built at an angle of 60 degrees 30 minutes 30 sec- onds in order to meet the requirements of the city of Cleveland and the War Depart- ment calling for a clear channel for naviga- tion 120 feet wide. The bridge is operated by two 50-horse- power continuous current motors and all operating machinery and motors are placed upon the movable span. The pinion at the center of the rolling segment, engages with the rack which is fixed and supported along- side the girder; this is said to simplify both machinery and operation and shorten the total length of bridge required. Despite the strong operating power provided, the bridge, in ordinary weather, is operated by less than 20 horsepower. When closed the tracks interlock with the mechanism for locking the bridge so that it cannot be operated before the proper signals are given. Derailing tracks also prevent the passage of trains. The structure is designed to carry two 1771/^-ton locomotives drawing a uniform load of 5,000 pounds per lineal foot on each track: the rails weigh 100 pounds per yard. The bridge is supported by Portland cement con- crete piers resting on piles. ♦-»-♦ STERLING SILVER FURNITURE FOR AN ORIENTAL PALACE. A suite of sterling silver furniture, com- prising two ordinary easy chairs, two couch- es, four tables, a dressing table and a large cabinet, all modeled and chased in the Louis period style, has recently been made in Lon- don for the palace of an Oriental magnate, says the Keystone. The pieces are upholstered in dark blue plush at present, but a rich silk brocade is to replace this. Several of the maker's best artists are now engaged in decorating a sterling silver bedstead, also. Four emble- matical figures, each 2 feet 9 inches high will surmount the pedestal at each cornei-, and the panels are decorated with studies after the pictures "Somnus" and -'Dancing Nymphs," by Albert Moore, E.. A. Rats cannot gnaw through concrete, but fungus can grow through it. There was a remarkable instance of this found in Ports- mouth, England, recently, where a fungoid Ftxn^tis Oroivini^ THrou^H Concrete growth forced its way through three inches of concrete and two inches of asphalt, thus showing the great leverage of growing plants. The fungus was a mass 30 inches in circumference and grew to a height of 9 inches. LARGEST DAM IN THE WORLD FINISHED. The huge Cornell dam, with the exception of the Egyptian pyramids, the largest piece of masonry in the world, is at last com- pleted. On Jan. 31 the flood gates were shut down for the first time. It will take two years for the reservoir to fill and it will form a lake 16 miles long, and the sites of several towns which were abandoned for it will be flooded. The dam has been under construction for 10 years and cost $9,000,000. The submarine boat "Simon Lake X." in submerging tests made at Newport News a few days ago, broke the record formerly held by the French tyv^ submarine. The ''Simon Lake X" was submerged 38 ft. and returned to the surface in just 30 seconds. 160 ENCYCLOPEDIA HoMT to Make Emmery WKeels We want first to observe the different forms of grinding by means of the emery wheel, and construct our wheel accordingly. There are flat surface grinding in which the emery wheel is utilized for general grinding, cylindrical grinding in which the wheel and the work are rotated, and com- mon tool grinding in which the processes ^ ^ ^ Fig. 6 of tool sharpening form the main work. It might be well to refer also to the smoothing of surfaces with grinding wheels of emery, as the emery wheel of modern times is used for this duty quite frequently. In fact, the modern emery wheel has supplanted many other forms of tools and devices in shops and mills for grinding purposes. For this reason,, it is a good idea for the technically inclined man to be familiar with the con- struction of the modern emery wheel. First of all, we want the substantial emery wheel, with the powerful frame, the necessary attachments, and the correct com- position. Such wheels are usually built up in the shop. There are several designs of the wheels possible to make and the at- tached illustrations are suggestions in this line. The composition of the body of the wheel may be wood, built up leather disks, or hard rubber, etc. The ingredients em- ployed are glue, litharge, silicate of soda, and celluloid. Fig. 1 shows the common piece of block, hardwood selected because it is well sea- soned, free from knots and flaws, excep- tionally tough in fiber and possesses other features that a reliable wood should have for an emery wheel base. The tougher the fiber, the better. The wheel may be turned down in circular form by means of the lathe and the disk used entire. In some places, however, the disk is made up by using separate V-shaped pieces, one of which is shown in Fig. 2. This piece is in readiness for insertion in the general body forming the cylinder. Then when all of the pieces are joined on the common metal hub with its flanges, the flange bolts are put through and tightened and we have a body work as in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows the plan of the flange. There is one of these flanges for either side of the wood. This holds the separate wood pieces in line. Capped Journals. A good type of iron -capped journal to sustain the shaft of the wheel, so that the wheel may be put in position for covering with the emery is shown in Fig 5. These journals can be purchased from almost any machine builder. The arrangement of the journals on the stand of the emery wheel is shown in Fig. 6, the box bearings being marked B, B. The shaft is provided with a tight and a loose wheel at C and by the use of these wheels with proper belt and shifter, the emery wheel can be started and stopped at will. The emery wheel itself is marked A. Some of the wheels are first wound with textile fabric, such as strong duck, or sim- ilar cloth, about the cylinder, previous to applying the emery. The process of wind- ing a wheel with texture, paper, sheet rub- ber, or leather is shown in Fig. 7, Usually ENCYCLOPEDIA IGl the base of paper, cloth, rubber or leather is secured with cords wound on, and the cord-winding operation is conducted on practically the same lines of operation as the paper or cloth winding. The emery wheel proper is placed in its frame and set up as at D Fig. 7. Then a crank E is set- screwed or keyed to the emery wheel shaft and this crank is used to turn the wheel. Sometimes a pulley is fixed to the shaft in- stead of the crank and the wheel is operated with a belt. With the power belt, more strain can be secured on the winding parts and a better and tighter operation result. The line of the goods in process of winding from the rolls to the wheel is indicated at F, and at G. These rolls are properly "braked" so as to make the winding firm. Ready For The Emery. The next process involves the application of the emery. Fig. 8 is a cross sectional cut through the center of the wheel. The shaft is marked H and the wooden V-shaped pieces, which are held in position in disk form by the flanges are indicated J. The wound cords on the surface are marked K; the flanges, I, I; the stands for the bear- ings of the shaft, L, and the crank for turn- ing the affair is at M. The glutinous mat- ter on the rope surface for the purpose of retaining the emery may now be applied. There are men who manage to do good work with the common brush and common glue pot, while others need specially made devices. The common glue brush, however, can be made to do the work satisfactorily. Riggings of tanks and burners are some- times arranged, at considerable cost, to de- posit glue liquids over the turning cylinder below; this being followed by the applica- tion of the chosen emery. A good-sized glue pot with the usual means of keeping the contents at an even temperature is just as good. Apply the glue with a brush like the one shown in Fig. 10 and rub the surfaces with a scrub-brush similar to the one in Fig 11. For a distribution of the emery, a regular emery distributer may be purchased or a device like that in Fig. 9 may be made. This is simply a tank made of sheet metal, with parting walls between each of the gauges. The gauges are simply pieces of flat metal inside the reservoirs which may be tilted to the right or left by means of the wheels at N. By tilting one way or the other, the channels controlling the flow of emery are opened or closed and the flow of emery governed thereby. The flow of the emery is downward by gravitation through the nozzles P, to the revolving emery wheel surface a little below. Thus the scattering of the emery is accomplished. In regard to the grade of emery to select, the coarse No. 36, if for a rasp-like face, or the fine No. 120 emery, if for polishing and buffing purposes, will be required. No. 90 to No. 120 include the sizes most in demand for ordinary work. The numbers indicate the size of the grains of emery. No. 120 means Fig. 8 )Ki t rFig-9' fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 an emery ground so fine it will pass through a mesh or sieve having 120 wires to the square inch. The No. 36 is the size passing through a mesh formed by using 36 wires to the square inch. The dead smooth sizes can be made up for practical use as well as the exceedingly coarse numbers. But these extremes are not much used. As a rule the common bastard, second cut, smooth cut, etc., are in common use. It is not often that the dead smooth wheel can be used. 162 ENCYCLOPEDIA while one of the medium sizes is very fre- quently needed. Evening Off. One of the final operations is the evening off of the surfaces. This has been done very suceessfully with processes that in- volve the placing of the wheel in a lathe and turning it down with steel cutting tools. But this process requires an expert and the best of tools and contrivances. The ordinary machinist simply builds an evener similar to the one shown in Fig. 12. First construct a wooden frame about 2 ft. long and 10 in. wide. This is made of a piece of hardwood board, with two end pieces the same width as the board screwed on as shown. These end pieces form the support for the emery cloth, so called. This emery cloth is usually a leather base, on which the emery of de- sired fineness is scattered after the proper glue surfacing is made. This part is marked R. After a little use the constant pres- sure of the wheel on the leather causes the leather to assume the partly oval condition shown. There should be a wooden handle secured to the board top as shown, so that the user may have a good grip on the de- vice. The device is held in one hand against the revolving surface of the emery wheel and the necessary fineness of finish is ground on in 9 little while. All lumps and uneven places are ground off quite speedily. The emery wheel is then ready for use. METAL COSTUME PROTECTS AGAINST ELECTRIC SHOCK. A German inventor has produced a metal dress which is said to protect the human body against powerful electric currents. Hitherto rubber gloves have been the means of protection employed by electricians and the number of deaths resulting from acci- dental contact has been great. The new electricity resisting dress is de- signed on the principle that metal is a better conductor than the human body. It is made of woven metal, or fine wire gauze, and is so supple that the movements of the body are unrestricted. The garment is worn either underneath or over the clothing. In testing the device the inventor, clothed in the metal garb, received a shock of 150,000 volts, the current passing through the metal dress and not affecting its wearer. Fre- quently a 500-volt current will kill a human being. Electricians of several large German works have adopted the costume; but the IVoven Metal Costume for Elec- tricians. average American electrician will give one look at it and go on taking chances. ♦ » » FIRST TURBINE STEAMER TO MAKE LONG VOYAGE. Australia's first turbine steamer the "Loon- gana" was recently finished in England and covered the distance from the English dock to Australia in 32 days, 1 hour, 24 minutes (actual steaming time). The machinery worked without a hitch throughout. The first 3,300 miles were covered at a speed of 16 knots and 410 miles at a speed of 17 knots. The vessel is 300 feet long, 43-foot beam and 12 feet deep in the water. She is to be used for the speedy transit of malls up the Tamar river to Launceston, Tasmania. ♦ * » Admiral Rojestvensky lost the great naval battle by the inferiority of the Russian gunnery. ENCYCLOPEDIA 163 HoMT to Make a Portable Electric Heater By Harry H. Townsend. Anyone can make the portable electric heater described below, without the use of an ohmmeter or the necessary apparatus for finding the resistance of wire. The con- struction is very simple and the materials required few and inexpensive. Select tw^o boards 17% in. long by 6% in. wide by % in. thick; dress and sandpaper one side of the best of the two boards. These are for the top and bottom, and must be nice and smooth. Select four pieces 914 in. long, % in. thick and 1% in. wide; these pieces are for the standards that hold the top and bottom boards together. They must be set or screwed to the top and bottom boards, as indicated in Fig. 1. A, B, C and D are the four pieces for the uprights; these must be set perpendicular to the bottom board and must fit the top the same as the bottom. These pieces had best be put on with screws, so they will fit tightly. In Fig. 2 is shown their dimen- sions. These pieces must be placed so as to leave a margin of % in. on the sides and no margin on the ends, as per Fig. 1. When this is done we have a frame which has neither sides nor ends excepting the four uprights. We can now wind our coils for the heater. Cut 28 pieces 16 ft. long from a coil of broom wire; this wire is used in broom factories, and it is also used by tin- ners. It can be bought for 8 or 10 cents a pound, and 2% lbs. will be enough. The gauge is No. 19 B and S. Wind each one of these 16-ft. wires upon a i/^-in. iron rod; be sure and wind it close and tight, so that when you take it off the rod it will present a closed spring. After they are all wound (14 to each set), they must be joined together, as in Fig. 3. Fourteen of these coils must be made as if they were one coil, as per sketch, and 14 to make the other coil. We will then have two coils in the heater, and either or both of them can be turned on or off at once. These coils must now be put in the frame so that they will not touch any of the coils in either set. They can be fastened to the top and bottom boards with double-pointed tacks. Care should be taken about driving <- -- --/a > 5" 1 Fig. 2 1 4 <$>" ^ ■Pa'- -_1 the tacks in far enough, because if they are not they will break loose and make the sides of the coil springs touch each other. The free ends of each set of coils will be used for connecting up to the circuit, so that they will not be cut off. Cut two pieces of sheet iron 15% in. long, 9% in. wide; also two pieces 5% in. long by 9% in. wide for the ends. These pieces should be perforated with a %-in. punch. The maker can select some pretty design, so that the punchings will not look rough when done. Fig. 4 is a home-made fuse block, % In. X 2% in. X 6 in. Binding posts, 1 and 1', are 1 in. high and are larger than the other ones. The current comes in at 1 and 1' and passes by wires to 2 and 2', thence by fuse wire to 4 and 4', and then by wire to 3 and 3'. The only binding posts that we will use for the stove will be 4 and 4', 3 and 3', and for the current intake 1 and 1'. This block is made of poplar or any other kind of lumber, as it is thoroughly protected by the mica. It can be placed about 1^4 in. from one end of the heater and fastened there. After being fastened bore four small holes exactly beneath posts 4 and 4' and 3 KM ENC Y(!LOP KDI A and 3' and then make connections, as in Fig. 5. The switches can be placed on the top of the heatei', opposite the fuse block, and in HOW TO BUILD A CONCRETE-MIXER. 6 ^ the middle can be fastened a convenient handle. The top view will be like Fig. 6 when completed. Before the sheet-iron piece's are put in, the four standards should have some small strips put in between them at both top and bottom, so that the strips will not fall through, and also 16 holes should be bored in tlie bottom board in the center with a %-in. bit. The bottom boards should have a small leg, diameter, % in. x 1 in. long, 6 Q AAAAAAAAAAAAA/ so the cold air can circulate to the heating apartment. Then place the sheet-iron strips in and fasten them with little strips. The coils ai*e made for 104 volts, but if the wood gets too hot, paint it with fire- proof paint and it will be all right for 110 volts. Tlie cost of such a machine should not exceed 75 cents. \ 1 1 <\ - X i 14 ■ / Fig t> (/ / \ / \ The sheet-iron pieces should be made with as many holes in them as possible. ♦-«-* When through using a square wipe all perspiration marks from it, and occasionally put on a few drops of oil. Never use emery or sandpaper on nickel or black finished squares. To build the concrete-mixer shown in the illustration line a cubical wooden box with No. 10 sheet steel and arrange an iron man- hole at one corner. Mount the box on two corners or trunnions, one of which is a piece of 3-inch pipe, through which water is in- troduced and the other of which is connect- ed to a hand-crank by means of a gear-wheel and pinion. Turn the manhole up to receive the charge from the hopper and then fasten it down. Revolve tlie box a few times to dry mix the ingredients, then introduce the proper quan- tity of water by hose and nozzle through the hollow trunnion, and revolve the box as long as necessary. Home-Made Concrete Mixer To discharge the contents into a wheel- barrow to be transported to the work, re- move the manhole and rotate the box part way. Do not have the mixer placed so far away that a long trip on the wheelbarrow is necessitated, or the liquid will separate from the material and, if the wheelbarrow leaks, will run out and reworking the con- crete will be necessary. This apparatus was highly recommended by Henry W. Edwards of Grand Junction, Colo., in a paper read before the Atlantic City meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. ♦-•-♦ The following paste is good for keeping wood light: One-fourth pound beeswax scraped into one-half pint of turpentine. If it is wished to darken the wood add linseed oil. Electrifying a Big Bridge Superstructure 300 Feet I^ong Covers Manhattan Terminal VTHere TKere Are Five Cross-Overs and "WHere An Immense Number of Cars Are Switched. The electrifying of the new Williamsburg bridge connecting Manhattan and Brooklyn has recently been completed, and cars are now running over the structure. The overhead work is of unusually heavy special construction, and at the Manhattan end of the bridge consists of special steel lattice girders, supported on steel poles and switching so many cars at the terminals. Heavy mast-arms consisting of 2i/^-inch pipe, 18 feet long, are erected along both approaches to the bridge proper and extend over the double track. About 10,000 lineal feet of single troughing was used. For the positive feeders there were erected overhead eight miles of 782,000 circular mils TKe Ne-w Williamsburg Bridge Connecting Manhattan and BrooKlyn by attachment to the permanent bridge structure; is 300 feet long, and covers the five cross-overs at the terminal. Special hardwood oak troughing was used, having attached bar iron fittings on which the trol- ley wheel operates. The contact bar, Avhich is supported at frequent points by insulated hangers, is three-eighths inch by two and one-half inches. This construction is adapted to the lai-ge currents used for 165 stranded weatherproof aluminum cables, and along the track for negative returns, seven miles, making a total of 15 miles. On the Brooklyn approach near the bridge tower a special steel frame switch house covered with corrugated iron has been built. From this point the overhead and track return feeders are extended. On the Brooklyn plaza, heavy steel poles support the overhead work. 166 ENCYCLOPEDIA Motor Fire S^ngines Popular in England Motor five engines are rapidly replacing the old horse-drawn machines wherever practicable in England. So far, in America motor cars are only used in this department for hauling chiefs and fire marshals to the scene of the fire, but in England the whole equipment is gradually being readapted to the new means of propulsion. Gasoline motors are well adapted to the expanding into the inside of drums on the sprockets of the wheels, operated by the pedal lever and band brakes on drums of the wheel sprockets, operated by the side brake lever. The car is controlled by a throttle valve regulating the supply of gas to the motor, operated by a lever on the steering pillar and an auxiliary throttle on the brake pedaJ £>\^lisH Fiiremei% R-ide iz^ State fori of chemical fire engines shown in our Illustration. The apparatus is mounted on heavy wheels, the rear ones having addi- tional wire spokes and being shod with 3-inch solid buffer tires while the front ones are fitted with 3 ^/^ -inch tires of another make. Exceptionally heavy springs are used. The 24-horsepower engine is of the 4 -cyl- inder horizontal pattern in ordinary prac- tice. The speed gear is of dimensions which give strength for the heaviest work, the high speed gear being 25 miles an hour. Any steam generated by continued running on low gear passes through brass grids provid- ed on the top of the watertank which is located between a double dash board. Be- neath the driver's seat is placed the gasoline tank. There are two sets of powerful brakes fitted to the machine, cast-iron shoes, The car weighs a ton and will carry 2,500 pounds of fire appratus. A step at the back accommodates a fireman and two chemical cylinders; brackets are arranged for carry- ing two 9-foot ladders and the mechanism of the whole apparatus is protected from dirt by a shield slung underneath the car. — '■ *~»~¥ FIRE HOSE FOR INDOOR USE. Every large building (business house or dwelling) should have a reliable hose hung conveniently in reach for use in case of fire. Unlined linen hose is best for this purpose. This hose will leak Avhen the water is first turned on, but will soon swell and stop the leaks. It should be tested out of doors every six months and thoroughly dried be- fore replacing. ENCYCLOPEDIA 167 A JAPANESE MILITARY AIRSHIP IN USE. Tlie Japanese have made efficient and suc- cessful use of war balloons. The war bal- loons belonging to the 3rd Division of Gen- eral Nogi's army were of great assistance in Japanese Military Warship reconnoitering the approaches to Port Arthur, the observer in the balloon having communi- cation with the ground by telephone and from his high station directing the artillery fire. TRANSMITTING .CRUDE OIL BY PIPE LINES. Transmission of low gravity crude oil by pipe lines from the oil fields to the power market, so successfully effected in the east has not achieved the same result in the West. In Fresno county, California, a 6-inch pipe, 110 miles long is being laid for transmitting crude oil from the Coalinga oil fields to tide- water and thence by tank ships to San Fran- cisco and other coast markets. Such a pipe laid from Bakersfield, Cal., to Point Pachmond, Cal., for conveying Kern county oil was at first supplied with eight pumping stations of 160-horsepower capac- ity. The oil pumped was delivered to the pipe line at from 500 to 600 pounds pressure per square inch in summer and up to 1,000 pounds pressure in the winter time. By this arrangement it was not possible to get the oil to Point Richmond in commercial quan- tities. Then seven more pumping stations were added and yet unsatisfactory results. It is now reported that fifteen more pump- ing stations are to be added, a station for each 10 miles. The venture was practically a failure. MACHINE TO LEVEL "HUMPS" IN TRACK. Frequently during winter the snow and ice collects between the rails of street car tracks forming "humps." Sometimes the ice Ice Planer for StreetllVork ridges extend along the street between double tracks. To reduce these hard frozen masses of ice to the street level an eastern railway uses a row of cutting teeth fixed at intervals of 1% inches to an iron bar which is carried in front of the snow plows. The Street Railway Journal says the device is a success. The teeth are 6 by % inches each. For other portions of the street not reached by the snow plow the row of teeth are car- Knives Attached to Sno-w Ploiv ried on a pair of runners and drawn by four horses. After being loosened the ice is shov- eled up and carted away, or spread out even- ly over the pavement. In the naval battle of May, 1905, the Rus- sians wasted their poAvder and eventually ran short. 168 ENCYCLOPEDIA FURLING SAILS BY MACHINERY. Jack Tar may no longer have to risk his life at dizzy heights, amid freezing blasts or lightning's play, while he tries to reef the upper sails. A retired sea captain, Wil- liam Williams^ has invented a system by which the sails can be raised or reefed from the deck, without the use of steam power. The plan of working the sails is on the prin- ciple of a roller curtain, except that steel ropes worked by hand winches on the deck take the place of curtain springs. The sys- tem is applicable only to square-rigged vessels. Practically, Williams' device consists of a set of winches placed at the foot of each mast, whereby a single man by turning a crank can furl, unfurl or reef a sheet in one minute. To complete any three of these operations on the main yard, lower topsail yard, upper topsail yard, and lower and upper topsail yards, would require an able- THe Hoisting Gear bodied seaman but five minutes at the five winches. These winches are so arranged as to take up their own slack by reversing cogs. The sails themselves work on sleeves that en- circle the yards— the operation not being dissimilar to that of the common roller window curtain. By merely slipping a brake the sheets can be allowed to unfurl them- selves by a system of counterbalancing weights. The gearing of the winches gives great leverage, for a pressure of 55 pounds on the crank can hoist 2,000 pounds up among the rigging. The yards can be braced, eased away, or hauled around be- fore the wind by one seaman working a few minutes at a crank. The sails can be held to at any desired angle to the wind. The system of winches before the mast corresponds to the present complicated tangle of halyards, and, besides saving more than half the labor, is invaluable in cases where the wind takes the vessel hard aback. It is almost impossible to furl sails by the old system under these conditions. The number of sailors can be reduced one-half. If the system fulfills the expectations of several large shipping interests in San Francisco, it is destined to revolutionize the life of seamen before the mast. LENGTHENING THE LIFE OF TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE POLES. A few years longer life for telegraph and telephone poles would mean an enormous save in American forests. With the in- creasing network of wires reaching out in every direction uniting the country like so many live nerves, the demands on our for- ests are something tremendous, and in a few more years must mean serious deple- tion of large trees. Two large corporations have united with this government to experi- ment with preservatives for poles. The life of the pole depends on a very small por- tion of its length, namely, in a standing pole, the section extending six or eight inches above and below the ground. This is called the breaking point, and in order to have a large margin against decay at this point much larger poles are used than are actually necessary to bear the strain imposed upon them. The strain upon a pole is felt at the ground line. Decay also begins at the ground line, but does not extend far below because the supply of oxygen and heat de- creases, nor far above because the moisture is not sufficient. Thus the only serious con- sideration is to find some antiseptic to pro- tect this all-important section from fungus. In the experiments to be tried dead oil of coal tar will be forced through the butt of the pole and the creosote method will be used, but only for a distance of eight feet. The usual treatment of poles in this coun- try requires the use of an air-tight cylinder. ENCYCLOPEDIA 169 ICE-YACHTING-THRILLING SPORT ON NORTHERN LAKES. Ice-yachting, both in this country and in Canada, has increased in popularity with the present season. In fact, some of the yachts have reached such proportions, with a corre- sponding increase in sail area that their speed has at times become a menace and several serious collisions have occurred. The hull portion of most of these yachts is very simple, consisting only of a center tim- ber, running fore and aft, and the runner plank. The mast is stepped on the center- piece, the forward part constitutes the bow- sprit and the aft part carries the box and rudder part. The runners are attached to the runner plank which is a stout timber from 14 feet to 28 feet in length and taper- ing in thickness towards the ends. The largest of these yachts weigh 3,000 pounds and have 1,000 square feet of sail area. Record time so far in the numerous races is a mile in two minutes and twenty- eight seconds. ^ » » AUTO MAIL WAGONS IN PARIS. ferring the mails between the main office, substations and railway depots. The cars have a speed of 25 miles an hour and weigh 2% tons of which the storage batteries com- prise 1,320 pounds. The Electrical Review The postal service in Paris has received fifteen new electric motor vans for trans- £lectric Mail VTa^on says: "The batteries are charged daily be- tween 12 and 2 p. m. and for this pui-pose a model charging station has been installed in the central postoffice building." The use of motor wagons for mail service is becoming general in Europe. 'Tbe I^ar^est of these Yachts "Weigh S.OOO Pounds.' 170 ENCYCLOPEDIA TRAVELING HOTELS FOR TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION CREWS. A northern telephone company in con- structing lines through North Dakota and Minnesota met with some difficulty in secur- ing board and lodging for its crews of work- men. Often the country is sparsely settled and the distance between lodgings and working points great. To meet these conditions the construction wagons shown in our illustration were built. The wagons accommodate 16 men, one be- ing used for a dining room and kitchen, the other as sleeping quarters. They are each 8 feet wide, 26 feet long and 7 feet high and mounted on low trucks with wide tires, giving a large bearing surface to the road- way so that the power required to draw them over soft tracks is reduced to a mini- mum. The kitclien is 8 by 8 feet and located in the front end of the dining car, the rest of the space is used as a dining room. In the sleeping v/agon there are eight berths on each side arranged in tiers. On soft roads two teams are necessary for drawing each wagon, but over good roads only one team each is used. The wagons have proven a great convenience as the men are always on the ground for the work. Tents were formerly tried, but the wagons were an improvement. Some large telephone companies are now using automobiles for repair work along lines, some have supplied motorcycles for this purpose and yet others have a good horse always in readiness. We are indebted to General-Superintendent L. D. Richardson for our illustration. <» » » STEAM TURBINES CONTINUOUS RUN OF 3,962 HOURS. One of the most remarkable runs ever made by a steam engine was completed when the 600-horsepower steam turbine in Machinery building was shut down on De- cember 2, its work having been completed. This record of 3,962 hours continuous service breaks all steam turbine records. Piston engines have run for longer periods, but never under high speed; the turbine main- tained a speed of 3,600 revolutions per min- ute, or 855,792,000 revolutions during the term. The work was to supply light and current for the exhibit of the electrical con- cern which built it, and the load varied 50 per cent. An examination of the turbine is said to have shown it in perfect condition after its long run, the tool marks on the bearings still showing plainly. ENCYCLOPEDIA 171 Living Trees for Wireless Tele^rapK Stations startling Discovery of Major Squier, XJ. S. A..*«Alread3r Successful on SHort Distances'-Great Possibilities. Major George 0. Sqiiier of the Signal Corps, United States Army, has succeeded in sending and receiving wireless telegraph messages, using living eucalyptus trees in place of masts and towers. The branches and leaves served in place of the usual net- work of wires as antennae. Messages have already been transmitted by the new method between Ft. Mason and Yerba Buenna, a distance of three and three- quarters miles in a straight line. It is certainly significant that Nature having pro- vided unseen lines of com- miTuication in the ether should be found ready to still further supplement her bounty and furnish iu leaf and branch and trunk those media which man has been erecting at great pains and expense. The thought at once sug- gests the possibility of an hitherto undreamed o f ease and multiplication of exchange of words be- tween the dwellers in the rural districts, if every shade tree in the farmer's dooryard may become a speaking tube to friends and neighbors for miles around. Major Squier has found that a good live tree is the best sending station for wireless. Also that a good live tree is the best receiving station. It requires only fifteen minutes for him to attach the necessary sending apparatus to the first ti'ee. The mechanism that is affixed to the second, the 'receiving tree, can be so affixed in less time. It is so simple that it can be carried in a hand satchel. The perfection of the service rests upon the power of the instrument that emits the messages into the air and upon the delicacy of the detector that receives them. Major Squier believes that trees will come into general use as wireless telegraph sta- tions. In war times their utility would be of vast benefit to the army, the signal corps of which employed them. In times of peace their value in furnishing Maj. Geo. O. Squier, \J. S. A. facilities for telegraphing without wires and without the great expense attendant upon the apparatus now in use would com- mend them for some commercial purposes. Major Squier is so convinced of the possi- bilities of the method that he has conducted elaborate experiments with the trees. He decided, as Fleming and other investigators had decided before him, that the general function of the vertical receiving wire used in wireless telegraphy is to unite electrically the earth and space, by which union a suflBcient amount of the energy of the radiating waves is lo- calized to operate a suit- able receiving device. It occurred to him that although it is sometimes impossible, and always troublesome and more or less expensive to get the proper wire, there are many available trees. He knew that much better re- sults are obtained with the field telephone iu wooded territory when the receiving wire is grounded by attaching it to an iron nail driven into a tree than when a con- ducting plate is buried. It is possible to make a tree a telephone conductor even when this nail is driven into it thirty feet above the ground instead of a few inches, as is usually done. Deciding that the tree, so useful in mili- tary telephony, was also of benefit in wire- less telegraphj^ Squier affixed a receiving instrument to one of General MacArthur's pet trees. This instrument he made by filling a small ebonite tube with the regular sized spherical carbon granules used in tele- phone transmitters. He imbedded in them two steel needles as electrodes. These needles were close to- gether at the central part of the tube. A head telephone was used to convey to the ear of the receiving operator the messages conveyed through the steel needles. Yet, while the experiment showed that the electro-magnetic effects obtained were 17- ENCYCLOPEDIA sufficient to get signals, it was also shown that the tree had absorbed more electro- magnetism than the instrument used. With the improved wave detector operated by electrical energy, which instrument Major Squier wants to get, the efficiency of the system of telegraphing with trees will be much improved. Willow, pine, spruce and oak all make good receiving stations. They are useful for sending also. The power required for sending is secured from two small portable batteries of ten volts, each of which excites a large coil. The "grounding" essential to sending is secured through the roots of the tree. A wire is attached to a nail driven into the root. The trunk of the tree supports the sending apparatus. The only electrical con- nection between the two is at the root of the tree. Major Squier says: "I have simply scratched the surface of this absorbingly interesting topic. I have experimented for only three months. Ex- cellent results have been secured, and with better apparatus and more work I think we shall see that the possibilities of the subject are almost boundless. "Naturally I am most interested in the military side. I want the United States army to get what benefit there is to be secured from my experiments. That is why I have applied for patents upon the system of using trees as stations for the wireless telegraph. One of my applications has been favorably acted upon. I have hope that the others will be. I have no idea of going into business, and I want the patents as much for the government's protection as for any other reason. "The use to the army of trees as wireless stations is great. When a balloon is used to assist the wireless the enemy sees the bal- loon. Signal flags have been discarded be- cause they revealed the signalers' where- abouts to the enemy. But a tree gives no sign that it is being employed as a signal station. "Commercially the system has great possi- bilities. "We have successfully telegraphed with trees as stations at every distance we have attempted. We have proved that the prin- ciple is workable. Now all that remains to be done is to get the best wave detectors and stronger power. The extension of the distances over which tree telegraphy is practical is only a matter of power. "I see no reason that in the near future farmers, whose places are fortunately usually well provided with trees, cannot be able to communicate wirelessly for many- miles. "Anybody can see the importance of thus being able to get crop reports, weather bul- letins and items of particular or general in- formation. "The cost of the instruments will be slight. Any system of wireless telegraphy can be used in connection with the trees. The limits of the disiiovery are so broad that no one company can corner the idea. "But it is not only in space telegraphy that the trees are susceptible of great use- fulness. My experiments have shown to me that the weather bureau and the department of forestry can get good results from a close study of the trees. "The trees are not only helpful in that they conduct electricity to the earth, but they are good weather registers. Their field of usefulness in these directions has not as yet been thoroughly explored. "In time we shall learn just what trees to plant about our homes that we may be safe from lightning. We shall also learn much of the weather of the future from the trees." Extracts from Maj. Sauier's Report. The difficulty of transmitting electro- magnetic waves over land as compared to that over seawater, has been well estab- lished, and this difficvilty is attributed in a large measure to the general absorption of intervening I '-is, vegetation, buildings and conductors through which the wave trains must pass in reaching the receiving appa- ratus. However closely we may approximate in theory to the actual mechanism of electro- magnetic wave transmission, as used in wireless telegraph practice at present, it is now reasonably certain that both the earth itself and the space above the earth are essentially involved in the phenomena. Repeated experiment has shown the im- portance of good earth connections for both the transmitting and receiving antennae, and several letters patent, such as those of Lodge, Muirhead, Fessenden and Stone, pro- vide, in addition, for special conducting metallic nets or strips^ at the foot of the antennae, extending therefrom to a distance of a quarter wave length or more, whereby the efficiency is increased. The influence of the general condition of the earth around the foot of the antennae as to moisture, temperature and ingredients, has also been noted, and the effects of the capacity of the aerial itself, its height, and . of elevated capacity areas placed at or near the end of the vertical wire, have been in- vestigated in connection with the recent E N C Y (J li C) P 1-; 1) I A 173 great advance in syntonized systems. For best results, it bas been observed in general tbat tbe vertical wire or net should be carefully insulated from all supporting poles, guys, or indeed any electrical con- ductor connected to the earth, the object being to form an open vertical receiving circuit, insulated in the air. We may therefore, with advantage, as Fleming and others have done, regard the general function of the vertical receiving wire and its accessories as serving to unite vegetation, particularly in the form of high trees covered with green leaves. My attention was first attracted by learn- ing from Major General Arthur MacArthur, U. S. Army, of a successful experiment made in July, 1904, at the military maneu- vers of the Department of the Columbia, at American Lake, Washington, by Lieutenant William M. Goodale, of the U. S. Signal Corps, in which he found that in laying rapid telephone lines in a wooded country, for the field exercises of the Army, a much 'Wireless Tele^rapH Tree Station at; Ft. Mason electrically the eai*th and space effects above mentioned, by which, through the agency of one of the forms of wave detect- ors, a sufficient amount of the energy of the radiating waves is localized to operate a suitable receiving device. It was from a general survey of the above established facts regarding the re- ceiving conditions for successful wireless transmission of intelligence, that the writer was led recently to consider how far these conditions may be fulfilled by growing better ground could be obtained by attach- ing the earth side of the instrument to an iiron nail driven into the trunk of a tree or shrub, than by the ordinary and more la- borious method of burying a conducting plate, or by driving an iron spike into the earth itself. It is found that the conductivity of a growing tree in a healthy state, for tele- phonic currents, is such that the earth con- tact nail need not be at the root of the tree, but may be carried to a height up the 174 ENCYCLOPEDIA A.rmy Automobile Used in Tree Experiments tree of 30 feet or more, and the telephone used from that elevation with satisfactory results. Indeed, experiment shows that good communication can be maintained from one tree top to another with the trunks of both trees in the circuit. When the ope- rator holds the ground wire in the hand, and completes the circuit to earth by mere- ly touching a live twig or leaf, the trans- mission of speech is good. This permits the military scout to use the vantage point of the tree elevation for observing the enemy, while being screened from view by its foliage, and at the same time to trans- mit by telephone to the distant station the information thus obtained. In order to test other kinds of trees than those available at Fort Mason, California, a telegraph auto-car, recently purchased for the Signal Corps of the Army, was tempo- rarily fitted with the necessary transmit- ting apparatus, and a tour made through Santa Clara and Alameda counties, Califor- nia, installing and operating field sending and receiving stations at various points along the route. The electric power required was in the form of two. small portable storage batteries of ten volts each, which were used to ex- cite a large Apps coil. When a tree was used to support the sending aerial, the "earthing" was accom- plished through the root system of the tree itself, by attaching a wire to one or more iron nails driven into its base. The tree stem was utilized to support the aerial, the only electrical connection therewith being at its base. After a little practice two men, a ser- geant and corporal of the Signal Corps, one a good lineman, and the other the chauffeur of the machine, who also acted as telegraph operator, could install a sending station in ten to fifteen minutes. A receiving station is even less trouble to install, since there is nothing to transport except what can be carried in the hands. The experiments thus far have been main- ly qualitative, and the apparatus used, of marked simplicity. The transmitting apparatus at Fort Ma- son consists of a small Apps induction coil of about 4-in. spark, and a vertical antenna wire suspended from a 75-ft. pole situated on a bluff about 80 ft. above the sea level. This was one of the first wire- less stations installed in the United States. The detector used consists of a simple microphone made by partially filling a small ebonite tube with the regular sized spherical ENCYCLOPEDIA carbon grannies used in telephone trans- mitters, and by imbedding tlierein two steel needles as electrodes, so that they nearly touch each other at the central part of the tube. In Fig. 1 are shown three typical ar- rajigements of receiving circuits, which have been found efficient in practice. In this figure, a growing tree is represented by the double line. In Fig. 1 (a), N represents a point of electric contact with the tree, made in any convenient manner, such as by driving au ordinary iron nail or pin into the tree, pref- erably through the outer, living part there- of. The point G represents a conducting con- tact with the earth, made by driving a metallic pin therein. M is a microphone; T, a telephone; and B, a source of electro- was shifted up and down the tree, the effects being noted. In this experiment, the transmitting station remained unaltered as far as possible, sending a simple signal, such as the letter S. It was found that as soon as the distance PN became more than three or four feet, faint signals were heard, which in general increased in loud- ness with the distance between P and N, along the trunk or stem of the tree, up to the general region where the first branches began to diverge, beyond which a further increase could not be certainly noted. In order to insure that the effects ob- served were actually due to electromagnetic waves from the tree itself, and not to the short antenna wire represented by MN, in (a) and (b). Fig. 1, a careful exploration of the tree was made, using lead-covered insulated wire for the connections PM and (AJ (B) (€) ^^ EARTH LINE motive force. In Fig. 1 (b) and (c), the corresponding letters represent similar ap- paratus. The first experiments tried were with an arrangement of circuits indicated in Fig. 1 (b). The electrical contact with the tree at the point P, was made by driving a nail into the tree itself an inch or two above the earth line, so that the contact would be distinctly with the tree, and not with the earth. The whole apparatus used for these preliminary experiments was extremely sim- ple, consisting of a few feet of flexible lamp cord, a microphone, with three small dry cells, and a head telephone receiver, suitably mounted on a small board about 10x12 inches. With the electrical contact at the point P remaining stationary, the upper point N MN, the lead covering of this short antenna being carefully grounded, so that the actual wire used was incased throughout in an earth connected metallic conductor, which would effectually screen the electromagnetic waves from affecting the wire inside. With such a wire, with the point P remaining stationary, experiments were made, show- ing that as soon as the distance PN became more than about three feet for the particu- lar distance and apparatus used, faint sig- nals began to be heard. Upon removing the terminal an inch or two away from the tree, still keeping it at the same height above the earth, the signals disappeared en- tirely, returning again when electrical con- tact was restored. These effects increased in general, as the distance PN became greater. 176 ENCYCLOPEDIA Forty Minutes From CHicago to Mil^'atikee Mail and Express to be Htiried Tl&rou^K a Pneumatic Tube at T20 Miles an Hour From Chicago to Milwaukee in a straight line is 841/2 miles. The fastest trains con- sume two hours in making the trip. It is now proposed to transmit mail and express matter between the two cities in 40 minutes. A pneumatic tube, 18 inches in diameter. Vacuum Pumi> conveying loads up to 500 pounds, is to be constructed; should it prove successful one more means of rapid communication will be available, and other large cities connected. distant day. There are now in operation in the United States more than 300 tube plants accommodating 6,000 stations, requiring 3,600 horsepower, and operating at a cost of $36,- 000 per day. The longest of these is the plant serving the Chicago postoffice. This system is nine miles long, double tubed ail the way. It connects various railway and postal stations of Chicago with the old post- ofl&ce building and has a capacity for carry- ing 3,000 letters per minute each way. Its cost was $650,000. Until very recently, however, the practica- bility of tube systems connecting cities hun- dreds of miles apart was precluded by the enormous amount of power which would be required to operate such a system. It is now claimed that a new system has done away with this objection and that a line connect- ing Chicago and Milwaukee capable of carry- ing packages up to 500 pounds in weight is an assured enterprise. The distance between Chicago and Mil- waukee is 84.5 miles and the proposed sys- tem is to include pipes 18 inches in diameter for carriers conveying up to 500 pounds weight and a series of 3-inch tubes for spe- cial express messages and very small pack- ages. From the main terminal at either city, connections with all the big factories, and other business houses could be installed and thus the service be made to include a large territory. The installation cost of such a plant would be $5,000,000, but it is a feature •TEOMINAL DEVICE" " f ■ - BELAY DEVICE - Plan Section of R.elay System As yet no long-distance pneumatic tube systems are in operation but contracts for several are now pending and the work of in- stalling them will be taken up at no very of the system that the cost of operation and maintenance is so low that the company could make extraordinarily low rates, 500 pounds being carried for 15 cents. This is ENCYCLOPEDIA 177 an astonishing fact when it is considered that the package would cover the distance iu just 40 minutes. The two important features of the plan are, (1) the fact that instead of the carrier being forced througli the tubes by means of high pressure behind it, as in most systems, the air is partly exhausted in front of the carrier, and the carrier glides along sucked by the vacuum and seeking to demonstrate the old law expounded by Newton— '"Nature abhors a vacuum"; (2) the system of relays dividing long pipe lines into sections of from two to three miles each, and each section operating "o-holly independent of the others. Automatically with the entrance of the car- rier into a section power is cut off from the preceding section the instant the carrier leaves it. In this way the power required has been theoretieally reduced to a mini- mum; and it remains for the constructed line to demonstrate the power required in actual practice. The carriers do not travel on wheels or rollers, but are covered with block felt which is as liard as rock, and fastened with brass caps and screws. It is expected the felt will last several months. The carrier is very necessary to the safe conveyance of the con- tents. A few weeks ago by chance a leather pencil filled with mail fell into the tube at the Chicago postoflBce and when the poucli arrived at the other end of the tube it was torn and riddled. This illustrates the tre- mendous power exerted by the air pressure. Pipe lines are intended to be placed under- ground where storms and other disturbing accidents cannot affect the service. All tHe Parts of a Buggy PfOfi NUT COOSf ivfCM ^'■" "■•HDLt 178 ENCYCLOPEDIA RURAL FREE DELIVERY. Rural Free Delivery which corresponds to the free delivery system so long in force in cities, is now in operation in every state. Thirty thousand rural letter carriers make daily trips of from 20 to 30 miles each, serv- ing from 100 to 150 farmers' families on each route. These carriers are required to furnish at their own expense, the "outfits" consisting of mail wagon, harness, horses, etc. Many are obliged to keep four or five horses on account of bad roads or hills. They are paid from $600 to $720 a year, according to length of route, but have to spend one- half their salary for horse feed and other running expenses. The mail Avagons, which are miniature postoffices on wheels, cost from $60 to $75, besides the freight. These carriers perform nearly all the functions of a postmaster, selling stamps, registering let- ters and securing and cashing money orders. A farmer may thus in addition to receiving his mail every day in the year, except Sun- days, send or cash money orders right at his front gate. Each "patron," as the farmers served are called, must provide a mail box, and place it on the fence, a post or tree In front of his residence. Thousands of pa- trons, however, are served who live long dis- tances from the route, and hence at cross roads what is called a "nest of boxes" is often seen. The nest shown in the illustration contains 46 boxes, representing that many families some of whom live 10 miles away but who find it more convenient to get their mail in this way than to drive 15 or 20 miles to town. The boxes may be locked, but seldom are, and in thousands of cases no locks are ever used. As the theft of mail fr«m one of these boxes is severely punished by long terms in prison, such events are extremely rare. It is stated that there are now over 3,500,000 farmers' families being served by the rural free delivery, or a total population of more than 18,000,000 persons. The system is doing more to make farm life attractive to the young people than anything which has ever been done. Several thousand additional carriers will be appointed during the present year, and the service is eventually expected to require 50,000 carriers. These carriers must pass an examination and give bonds for $500. Each carrier has a substitute who carries the mail when the regular carrier is sick. The rural carriers have only one or two holidays during the entire year, and must go out in all kinds of weather. They are the poorest paid employes in the government service. The rural carrier has many thrilling ex- periences; at times he swims swollen rivers; rescues persons lost in snow storms; discov- ers and extinguishes fires where the family is away from home; and his arrival is the event of the day at the farm house. ENCYCLOPEDIA 179 BULLET-PROOF MILITARY MOTORS FOR RED CROSS SERVICE. A bullet-proof military motor having shields of the Paliser design of special qual- ity steel is an English invention which and lamps for affording electric light with- out glass, by means of the motor, to a field hospital tent are among the important de- vices in this line. In the lamp the carbons are placed low, and the radiance thus thrown upward to the large shade, whence Used as a SHield promises much toward reducing the terrors of warfare. The motors are designed for the use of officers and men in giving first aid to the wounded in the thick of a battle if necessary. The motors have three wheels, and the Ivamp for Operating at Ni^Ht bullet-proof shield may be extended wing fasliion for protection. They carry such restoratives, bandages and emergency sup- plies as may be required for immediate use. Mechanical appliances for army use are increasing. Portable ice-making machines Front Vie^iv of Motor it is reflected, and so affords a shadowless, diffused light for surgical work. ♦ » » GAS TANK FOR AUTOS AND LAUNCHES. Acetylene is a popular light for automo- biles and launches, and it is now possible to purchase the acetylene gas in small portable tanks, and avoid the generation of the gas. The tanks can be attached at any most con- venient place about the machine or boat, and piped to burn as many lights as needed and where wanted. When the tank runs low it is exchanged for another fully charged, with a supply to last from two to three luonths. Supply depots are located in all the large cities. A SIMPLE TEMPERING RECIPE. Dissolve a small quantity of sal-ammoniac in water, make the metal red hot, dip it in the mixture and leave enough heat in metal to draw it back a bit. If left to cool in the liquid tools will show too hard. 180 ENCYCLOPEDIA TIMING RACES AT THE FINEST TO- BOGGAN RUN IN THE WORLD. St. Moritz is a Switzerland village— one of tlie highest in the Engadine— having an alti- tude of 6,000 feet, and world-famous for its fine toboggan slide, the "Cresta." Here in March or April of each year gather tobog- ganing enthusiasts of many nationalties to compete in what might appropriately be called the "Derby" of this sport, though it is linown as the "Grand National." The toboggan course, with its high banlvs, forming sharp curves, and its steep gradient, START s X corT'o^^ }, TOBOCCAN track; FINISH V -""''"" cioseo CIRCUIT : Fig. 1. is much like other such courses, but is ex- ceptionally well located. As only one tobog- gan can occupy tbe track at a time and the races are all decided on a time basis, a very interesting and accurate electric apparatus is used for this purpose. Alongside the course are set poles carrying four overhead wires, the two upper ones of which connect to a telephone at each end of the course, putting officials at those points in communi- cation. At the starting point one overhead wire is connected through a battery of 10 cells to one terminal of a chronograph (see Fig. 1), and the other terminal of the chronograph is connected through a trigger switch X to the other overhead wire. The further ends of the overhead lines are connected at the finishing points to another trigger switch Y. Both switches, X and Y, are firmly fixed at the side of the course, r-- Fig. 2. and have each a strong cotton line attached, with one end to the trigger of the switch; the line is stretched across the track about 2% in. from the ground, and the other end is tied to a peg driven into the ground on the further side. The two switches are nearly identical. The Electrical Review, London, describes their mechanism as fol- lows: A circular wheel of brass, A, is mounted on bearings, and has a notch in its periphery in which the pawl, B, is placed when the trigger is set. To the wheel is fixed a radial arm, C, with heavy brass bob, which falls by gravity when the pawl is disengaged by the cotton being pulled. At the lower edge of the wheel. A, a piece of ebonite, D, is in- serted in slightly different positions in the two switches (Fig. 3); also a metallic spring contact, E, is pressed against the under side of the edge of A. As will be seen in Fig. 3, when the pawl is set in the notch in the two switches, the spring E in switch X will be pressing against the ebonite D and in switch Y, the spring E is making contact with the wheef A. Before the tobogganer starts, both switches are set w^th the pawls B in the notches of the wheel A and the cotton stretched from the trigger across the ti-ack at start and finishing points (Fig. 2). The signal is given and the tobogganer starts from a few yards behind the cotton; his toboggan striking the cotton, pulls and breaks it, disengaging the pawl; the arm. Fig. 3. C, drops at switch X, closing the circiiit^ which allows the current to flow through the electro-magnet of the chi-onograph, the ENCYCLOPEDIA 181 armature releasing the clockwork, which immediately starts and continues until the cotton attached to switch Y is pulled and broken by the toboggan at the finish of the course, when the arm of switch Y falling breaks the circuit and stops the chrono- graph; the time is then noted, and the ap- paratus re-set for the next tobogganer. The chronograph has a stop for re-setting the hand at zero, one complete revolution of the hand representing 30 seconds and these be- ing sub-divided into tenths. The Cresta is something over three-quar- ters of a mile in length, with a difference in elevation of 600 feet. The record time made so far is 61 6-10 seconds, an average rate of 60 miles an hour on the fastest parts. ♦ « » GASOLINE MOTOR CAR FOR ENGLISH RAILWAYS. The Great Xorthern Railway of England is experimenting witli a gasoline motor car, which, if successful will be used in subur- ban work. The Electrical Review, Loudon, says: The motive power is generated by two en- gines, which, however, are not connected in- dependently to the axles, although both axles are driven; under normal circumstances the engines drive on to a common longitudinal shaft, which is connected to the axles by beveled gearing. To overcome the difficulty of one axle over-running the other, owing to any possible inequality in the diameter of the wheels, a special form of differential gear is introduced, and combined with this special gear is the reversing mechanism. The engines are connected through independent clutches to a common change speed box, from which the power is transmitted, by means of the longitudinal driving shaft, to gear boxes suspended on each axle, and at this point the speed is reduced by means of single reduction gearing. The engines are of the standard Daimler type, each capable of developing 36 H. P. Gasoline Street Car when running at full speed. A separate petrol tank is provided for each engine, and the combined capacity of these is sufficient for 400 car-miles. The complete car weighs something under 16 tons, including its full complement of passengers, and although the normal speed for which it is designed is 30 miles per hour, it has on several occasions attained a speed considerably over 50 miles. The car is light- ed by electricity obtained from storage bat- teries, which also supply energy for ignition purposes and for the magnetic clutches. IRISHMAN SANG HIS OWN REQUIEM. A merchant of Cork, who greatly admired his own magnificent barytone voice, sang his own funeral mass over liis remains not long ago. This seemingly impossible feat was accomplished by means of a phonograph record prepared by the man in view of his death. The phonograph was placed on the coffin and the voice of the dead sang the mass. The record will be used for each anniversary mass. TrucU and Running Gear of English Ga soline Street Car 182 ENCYCLOPEDIA .SMALLEST RESTAURANT WORLD. IN THE HOW STEEPLE JACKS CLIMB TO DAN- GEROUS PLACES. What is claimed to be ttie smallest res- taurant in the world is in operation at Butte, Mont. It is never closed; when the place was opened the owners threw away the key and the door has never since been locked. It is between two large buildings and is only 3 feet wide and 13% feet long. Only four persons can be served at a time, and there is no standing room. tt vI^^^k' Wm ^^^wl^f^^MJ ^H ^Fi'^j II "Only THree Feet Wide.»» About half of the 13 feet is taken up by the kitchen, which contains a small refrig- erator, a gas range, a coffee urn and a cof- plete cupboard. The equipment is perfect in every respect, though in miniature. Every inch of available space is utilized. The one table is 18 inches wide and 3% feet long. There are four stationary chairs, which are in constant use. The owners of this world's smallest res- taurant are two chefs who run two 12-hour shifts. The two men do all the work. A great many visit the restaurant just out of mere curiosity. Several railway systems are considering the installation of a wireless telegraph sys- tem for communication between moving trains and stations located at large cities. A steeple jack tells how he succeeds in climbing to apparently' inaccessible places, and smiled as he remarked "It's easy — when you know how and have the nerve." All the same most people would rather look on from a safe distance than do the climbing. He says: "I know of no reason why a painter of ordinary nerve and a clear head cannot climb a pole a mile high if he desires to, and the pole is that high. Very often we see a weather vane perched on tlie top of a rod anywhere from six to sixteen feet in length above a church spire. It is necessary to take the vane down in order to regild it. "My way of doing it is this: Take an ordinary bos'n's chair, with a tail of suffi- cient length. Pass the tail around the spar or rod twice underneath its own part, then once around above, tucking the end under its own part, making what sailors call a roll- ing hitch. Place yourself in the cliair, take in all the slack you can get, raising your- self as high as possible, jamming your hitch tight. Now take a strap of sufficient length (I do not mean a leather strap; I mean a piece of rope with both ends spliced to- gether), pass it around your spar, one turn under and one turn over its own part, tuck- ing the end under, making what is called a clove hitch. This is put on about the height of your knees, leaving the loops of your strap hanging down. Place a foot in each loop and raise yourself up; pushing the hitch on your bos'n's chair up as high as you can reach, jam it tight; sit Arm in your chair and draw your feet up, strap and all, as high as you can; then raise up again, pushing your chair up as before, and thus proceed, hitchity-hitchity. Jack and the bean- stalk fashion, until you get there. "I have taken off and replaced church vanes in this way that were nine feet long, and weighed fifty pounds, and painted flag- staffs in the same manner. The bos'n's chair should be as snug to the hips as possible, in order to avoid all unnecessary play. In this way you are at your ease, and have your hands free to work with, obviating the necessity of hanging on with your eyebrows. Some years ago I saw a man make several attempts to shin a flagstaff about fifty feet high. When within a few feet of the top his strength would be exhausted and down he would come. With the chair and strap he could have remained there all day, and taken his dinner with him." The chief danger is the possibility of a sudden faintness. ENCYCLOPEDIA 183 STEAM MOTOR WAGON FOR HAULING CANNON. There lias recently been built in England, for the government, several steam motor wagons, constructed especially for the trans- port of artillery. Provision is made for two pieces of artillery on the motor wagon, while several more can be hauled on their own wheels, behind. The illustration ex- plains the method. AUTO TIRE FOR HEAVY TRUCKS. This tire is designed for motor trucks where the truck and load runs up into the tons. The accompanying illustration shows an Autraf tire on wheels designed for a 3- ton load each. They are of the cast rim and hub and wrought spoke type, common in farming and traction road engines, says Motor Age. The hubs are double and the spokes staggered. The rims are of 8-inch tread and 36-ineh diameter. Sixty cups 3 Rims are 8 « IncH Tread inches wide and 1 inch deep, with one-half the depth projecting beyond and one-half recessed into the rim are fastened on their circumference. A rubber cylinder 2% inches wide and about the same length, weighing 1 pound, is set in each cup and is held by a %-inch bolt, which passes through both rubber and wheel rim to the retaining nut. The rubber segments are readily reversible. The bolts have flat button heads, under which are washers nearly as wide as the rubber. These heads and washers take the road wear and make a flexible steel surface. It is said that the traction is effective. The empty machine used for a test readily shifts four loaded box cars, of an aggregate weight of 150 tons. BLOWING GLASS BATHTUBS. Interesting Process in Which Compressed Air Takes the Place of Man's Breath Glass bathtubs are the recent production of a German inventor, who has succeeded in making them commercially possible. These new tubs are much inferior in ap- pearance to the porcelain tubs so generally used, and in utility are nothing better, save in hospitals where medicated baths are oft- times given patients. The method of blow- ing them, however, is both unique and in- teresting. A thick cast-iron plate having an open- ing the exact shape the glass tub is to be, having a removable frame resting on its margin and held in position by locking le- vers, is mounted on a hollow shaft which is journaled in bearings and arranged to ro- tate. The removable frame holds the outer edge of the glass within the cast-iron plate. Compressed air is used for blowing such a large piece and is forced into the molten glass by means of the hollow shaft and the perforated cast-iron plate. A bedplate supports the apparatus. Sufficient molten glass is poured upon the iron plate from a ladle carried by a trav- eling crane. The glass spreads over the plate and under the frame, and rapidly cools at its outer edge. At this point plate, frame and glass are turned through a half circle so that the top frame is then underneath and the layer of hot, smooth glass hangs from the plate, supported by its chilled outer edge. The central part sinks uni- formly, the bedplate being brought into contact to secure this result, and the bot- tom of the tub is formed. The bedplate, falling slightly, pulls the glass down and so forms the walls, and then through the shaft and cast-iron plate compressed air is skilfully introduced into the tub so as to give the walls whatever inclination desired. This done, the blast is turned off, the lock- ing levers release the movable frame, and the tub, still hot, is rushed to the annealing oven, where it is carefully annealed, this operation being the most important of ali 184 ENCYCLOPEDIA LARGEST GAS ENGINE POWER PLANT IN THE WORLD. Will Furnish Current for All the Street Cars in San Francisco The electric street cars of San Francisco are to be propelled by power generated by the largest gas engine plant in the world. California already is world famous for notable feats of electrical engineering, and now adds one more laurel. The order has just been placed for the new gas engines, which will require several mouths to build. There will be at the start three 4,000 kw. capacity, 3-phase, 13,200- volt, 25-cycIe, 88- r. p. m. revolving field alternating current generators, to be driven by 5,400-horse- power gas engines. These generators are the largest in capacity in the world driven by gas engines. ♦ » » HOW TO VENTILATE A SCHOOL ROOM. The allotted time for contaminating the air in a school room where each pupil is allowed 130 cubic feet of space, is 8 min- \ \ Fi£f. l>>A.ir Movement Due to L/OC> catioik of Registers utes, according to E,. C. Carpenter, a recog- nized authority. A contributor to the Metal Worker describes different systems of ven- tilation showing the movement of air cur- rents. The system exemplified in Fig. 3, he says, works with admirable success in many of the metropolitan schools. He says: "If the ventilating register is placed near the ceiling, on the opposite side of the room, the movement of the air current will be that shown in Fig 1, none of the incoming air reaching the lower part of the roum. If the outlet is placed at the bottom of the opposite side of the room, the movement will be as shown in Fig. 2, the incoming air again missing the lower portion of the room, except where the air enters and leaves the room. Now if the register through which the air enters is placed -' — 1 ,v ' r ri i ■J. ^'^-^ \ ^^^"^ ~" " ^ — 1 Fig'. 3— Diffusion of Aix> Through Best Lrocatioxx of Registers about 8 feet above the floor and the ven- tilating register at the floor on the same side of the room, the children sitting near the register will suffer no unpleasant effects from the incoming air, and the perfect cir- culation will take place as shown In Fig. 3." ^~*^ BIG MAILS FOR EUROPE. The holiday mails from this country to Europe were the largest ever carried. The mails are landed in tenders and the illustra- tion shows one of them unloading from the Fi£^. 2--Air Movement -writH Differ- ent I^ocation of R.e^isters Cbristmas Mails "Baltic." The load was so large the lower deck was piled full, and hundreds of sacks and bags were packed on the bridge. The Shipping World, London, says there was $3,000,000 in the registered letters alone. ♦-•-♦ Prussic acid is used in many localities in California for killing insects on fruit trees. One man's outfit for this work cost $10,000. Tents are placed around the trees and the fumes of the acid are liberated from a sau- cer at the roots of the tree. ENCYCLOPEDIA 185 PHoto^rapHing^ From a Captive Balloon MTitKin tKe R.eacK of Every- PHotograpHer, Amateur or Profes- sioiial»£xpense no Lron^er an Obstacle. It is quite possible to take plaotograplis from a captive balloon so small that the experiment is robbed of almost all of its expense and the apparatus is convenient to its owner on any fair day he may wish to use it. The balloon need not be of more than 500 cubic feet ca- pacity (simply large enough to carry the camera and- light attach- ments) and may be inflat- ed by running a tube from the ordinary household gas meter to the balloon. The balloon should be spherical in shape and made of some very light material of close texture. Light silk is one of the best materials for the purpose. Stitch the gores well together with strong, fine silk and coat the balloon with linseed oil varnish— a very thick coat. The neck of the balloon where Fig. 1 the gas is entered is commonly left open. The purpose in this is that on ascending, as the pressure of the external air dimin- ishes, the expansive force of the gas con- fined in the balloon greatly increases. For our purpose the balloon will not ascend to any great altitude, but were an ascent of several miles to be made, the expansive force of the gas would soon tear the silk envelope into shreds if there were not some means for a small amount of the gas to escape. Over the silk envelope place a network of light, strong cords hanging down to the lower half of the envelope, and having cords or leading lines attached for fasten- ing it to a hoop. A balloon of 500 cubic feet capacity can be inflated in about two hours. For taking the photographs a camera of box form with half- dark slides focused at infinity is most convenient. For attaching it to the balloon hoop use screw-clamped trunnions at its sides, mounted in triangu- lar side frames, so that it can be set at any angle desired.' This is clearly shown in Fig. 1. Fit to the lens of the camera a Bausch and Lomb shutter, as shown in Fig. 2, arranging a hook to hold it until it is time to remove the "hook and release the shutter, this operation being performed by an eleoti-omagnct connected with a battery, Avhich arrangement will be described fur- ther. The length of the captive line may vary. Excellent photographs may be taken at au elevation of 150 feet and good ones at 500 feet. We would recommend the use of a long line, as there is a pleasure in experi- menting with altitudes and comparing effects and results. The captive line should be 186 ENCYCLOPEDIA Fi^. 3.— Broomivater Creek, England, PHoto^rapHed at an £le-v-ation of 160 Feet. both light and strong and wound into a sin- gle cable with a double-strand flexible In- sulated conductor, such as is used in mak- ing telephone connections. In Fig. 5 is shown a reel for winding and unwinding this three-strand cable. The reel runs on ball bearings and the Inner ends of the two wires are connected with a plug terminal on the reel, so that a terminal battery may be connected at the moment the electric current is desired. The relation Fig. 5. of the battery to the reel is also shown in Fig. 5. The battery has an electric switch for controlling the time of transmission of the current which releases the shutter cov- ering the lens. With this much of the apparatus prepared the rest is a matter of little time and trouble. Inflate your balloon, tie a string around its neck until you are ready to send it up, and tie bags of sand to the leading strings to hold it down, should there be any delay in proceedings. If the frame for the camera is ready, tie the leading strings to the hoop, being careful to tie them securely and at equal lengths. Insert the swing frame of the camera in the hoop, connecting it firmly by two long bolts. Pass the loose ends of the wires into the front partition of the camera and fasten them to the ter- minal screws of the electromagnet. Insert the dark slide and remove its front; set the shutter and adjust the hook for holding it in place. If a true plan view is wanted, set the camera on its trunnions, with the lens pointing downwards. Release the reel and let the balloon carry the camera up— 100 ft, 200 ft, or farther, according to your length of line and your wishes in regard to alti- tude. When it has ascended as far as de- sired apply a brake to the reel, insert the connection plug, press the button and send the current up the conductor, both that on the reel and that in the air, until it releases the shutter by means of the electromag- net lifting the hook and so effecting the ex- posure. The current may then be turned off and the balloon hauled down. To take another view, reset the shutter, change the plate and run the balloon up again. The captive balloon is held very steady by this method, whereas did the photographer himself ascend to take his views, the aerial craft would be susceptible to the least change in ballast. One aeronaut tells of sudden change in elevation of 20 or 30 feet ENCYCLOPEDIA 187 NEW GERMAN LOCOMOTIVE ATTAINS A HIGH SPEED. A new type of locomotive for express pur- poses is being tested in Germany. The locomotive and tender are entirely cased in a metal sheathing which is keel-shaped in front to give the least air resistance pos- sible, and in this one point it is expected that from 250 to 300 horsepower will be saved. the weight of the tender 64 tons. The ten- der carries 7 tons of coal. The locomotive is constructed for a speed of 80 miles an hour. ♦ » » HOW TO TIGHTEN UP A SNARE DRUM. The snare drum gets its name from the four or six small twisted rawhide cords stretched across the lower drum head. When the top head is struck these cords or New Type of German Locomotive Has Engineer's Cab in Front — Attains Eigli Speed. The engine-driver's place is in a cab situ- ated in the front of the pointed part of the engine. There is also in the cab a second or assistant driver, who also assists the stoker in his work. For running the engine back- wards, which is found necessary in railway stations, the assistant-driver looks after the brake and whistle at the back of the tender. From here and also from the stoker's place, verbal messages can be sent to the driver's cab. In order to facilitate communications on the engines, there are passages on the right and left within the steel sheathing. At the back of the tender there is the usual passage to the train, so that it is possible to keep up communication throughout the whole length of the train, from the engine- driver in the front part to the guard at the end. All the wheels of the tenders and loco- motive are provided with air brakes, which exceed in power any other in use. The length of the locomotive alone is 38 feet. Its weight fully equipped is 94 tons, and snares snap sharply against the lower head and greatly increase the resonance of the drum. It is interesting to watch a drummer tighten up the snare drum heads so as to produce an even tension of the parchments, says Railway and Locomotive Engineering. He first grasps the two press hoops with clamps united by steel rods with a small thumb nut on top of each. These clamps are placed at intervals all around the drum. Let us suppose that a clock dial plate rep- resents the drum head and the figures on the dial indicate the position of the clamps. The order of tightening the clamps would be much as follows: First the XII, IV and VIII, then X. II and VI and lastly XI, III and VII. Thus an even tension is obtained and the drum gives a sharper and better tone. ■» » » The great Simplon tunnel under the Alpn and 12 Mi hiiles long is completed. It wa« begun in 1898. 188 ENCYCLOPEDIA WONDERFUL REVOLVING STAGE. A group of sprinters stripped for work, and running at full speed on the stage of a theater, but constantly in sight of the audi- ence was the novel sight recently witnessed at the London Coliseum. That a man should run and not progress would be a paradox but for the fact that the runners were on a circular platform whicli was made to re- volve as rapidly as they ran, and thus the performers did not pass from view. The mechanical arrangement is quite like that employed in the movable sidewalk. The construction consists of three con- centric platforms which are revolved by means of fourteen small electric motors. In Fig. 4, at A, B, C and D is shown the ENCYCLOPEDIA 189 arrangement of the dials by which the speeds desired are telegraphed to the operator, Tvho is located in the gallery above. One of the dials is shown in detail in Fig. 3 and in Fig. 2 the speed required is being telegraphed by means of a dial. A general view of the revolving stage arrangement is shown in Fig. 4, a foot-race being in prog- ress on the revolving tables. ♦-*-♦ PILOT SHIP "FRASER" FOR CALCUTTA A new pilot ship, the "Frasei*," has been built in England and is on her way to India, where she will be stationed at Calcutta. The ship is 281 feet long, 35 feet beam, and built Indiax\ Pilot SHip to keep the sea in all weathers. Twin-screw propellers and ample boiler capacity enable a speed of 15 knots per hour over long dis- tances. ^~—* ENGLISH SPRING WHEEL FOR AUTOS. Spring wheels as a substitute for pneu- matic tires are attracting attention in Eng- Auto Soring "WHeel land as well as in this country. The inven- tion illustrated has a pair of pointed star- shaped steel plates secured to each hub, and connected by a pin at each point of the star. Each pin carries a pair of triangular equalizing pieces between the plates, and a pair of triangular levers outside. Between the equalizing pieces are a pair of rollers, the rollers on adjacent triangles being con- nected by a series of plate- springs, the cen- ters of which are attached to the star-plates by means of bolts passing freely through distance-pieces between the plates. Each bolt is also connected by pin joints to one pair of corners of the triangular levers al- ready mentioned, the remaining pair of cor- ners being jointed to the center of a pair of segments having rollers at the extremities which bear against the inner side of the rim of the wheel. It will be seen that anj' pres- sure on the rim of the wheel is transmitted from the plate-spring immediately opposite the point of application to the whole of the springs round the wheel by the agency of the equalizing pieces, and, further, that these springs are protected from any oblique strains by the triangular levers. ^~»~¥' DEVICE TO INDICATE POLARITY OF ELECTRIC CURRENT. A simple instrument is now procurable for determining the poles of a battery. A galvanometer is perfectly well adapted for the purpose, but is not very practical, says Polarity Indicator Scientific American. The trouble with pole- paper and common blue-print paper is thai both have to be moistened. A simple pole- tester, which can be had from any good electrical supply house, is shown in the il- lustration above. It consists of a glass tube closed at the two ends by a metal cap which is provided with a binding screw and a short internal metal rod. I'or the determination of polarity, the apparatus is put in circuit, and the liquid that it contains immediately becomes red at the negative pole. After the operation is finished, the tube is shaken to cause the color to disappear. 190 ENCYCLOPEDIA ONLY ENGINE OF ITS TYPE EVER BUILT. A most unusual engine was recently in- stalled on a scow in New York harbor, where it is operating a circular saw which cuts off piling at a depth of 30 ft. below the surface of the water. The saw is mounted on a vertical shaft and driven by Courtesy of the Buffalo Forge Co. Cuts Off Piling 30 Feet BeneatH tHe "Urater a 10-in. belt, which, from the peculiar con- struction of the engine has a quarter-turn in it. The engine is the only one of its type ever constructed. It is of the enclosed type with a vertical shaft having two double- acting cylinders, made of close-grained charcoal iron, 10 In. in diameter with a 10-in. stroke. Steam is admitted by a sin- gle piston valve controlled by one governor located in the flywheel of the engine and supported on a steel plate attached to the arms of the wheel. A thrust-bearing situated at the top of the shaft, directly under the flywheel, car- ries the weight of the main shaft, flywheel, governor and part of the connecting rods — a total of 1,750 lbs. distributed over 4,791 sq. in., a maximum pressure per square inch of 40 lbs. The shoe of the crosshead, which is of the locomotive type, completely surrounds the guide-bar. The ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the stroke is a little over two. The engine is provided with a flywheel 5 ft. in diameter, and 13 in. in breadth, hav- ing a flange turned on one side. The crown of the wheel is only 5% in. from the top of the wheel, so the belt tends to run above the flange and not wear its edge by contact with the flange. One of the especial features of the en- gine is the lubricating system. All the oil is taken from a central reservoir and fed to the bearings by tubes, each tube having a sight-feed arrangement in connection. 4 * » A MOTOR WELL-BORING MACHINE. A motor well-boring machine in which one gasoline engine is used both for pro- pelling the apparatus from one place to an- other and for operating the boring machin- ery, also, is the invention of J. Ai Yates, of Alturas, Cal. The machine is adapted to speeds of one and one-half, three and six miles per hour. Because of the very bad roads to be traveled the rear wheels are fitted with steel tires 5 in. wide with %-in. "grousers" riveted on to give a grip where traction is poor. When the wheels cannot get grip enough to move the machine out of a bad place an 800-ft. steel cable is reeled out, secured to a tree or rock, and the motor thrown into gear with the cable drimi, thus pulling the car out. The frame of the machine, construct- ed of steel of I-section with channel steel cross members, is very strong. Motor "Well-Boring Macbine Mr. Yates, in testing this novel apparatus, found it capable of climbing any hill having a road of any kind. The gasoline engine weighs 720 lbs., and the machine complate weighs 4,559 lbs. REMOVING LIME IN WATER JACKET. The removal of lime incrustation is al- ways a moi-e or less difficult job. Muriatic acid, of course, cuts the lime and dissolves it, but it is liable to cut quite deep into the iron as well and leave it rusted, says Gas Power. A small amount of common wash- ing soda used in water after you have washed out the acid will neutralize the acid. ENCYCLOPEDIA 191 Larggest Gas Generator Unit in tKe World Produces 3,000,000 Ctxbic Feet of Gas Bvery 20 IIours«i«In Operation at OaKland. Cal. What is believed to be the largest single unit illuminating gas generator in the world is producing 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas every 20 hours in Oakland, Cal. The scarcity of coal and the abundance of oil has driven every coal gas plant but one in the state to the use of oil, and the former high price of gas has dropped to that pre- vailing in eastern states. The mammoth the generator is eleven feet four inches, the neck piece at the toi3 of the combustion chamber is drawn in to six feet. On the top of the corbel work, wbich forms the dome of the combustion chamber, there is a shelf nearly three feet wide encircling the gener- ator, and on this shelf checker brick are laid to a point reaching the bottom of the flue connecting the two shells. The superheat is Tbis MacHine ivith One Man Produces 150,000 Cubic Feet of Gas Per Hour gas-from-oil generator is described in the Purifier. The set comprises two steel shells, cylin- drical in shape, sixteen feet in diameter and twenty-eight feet high, one being used as a generator, while the other is a superheater. These shells are connected at the top by a flue box, so arranged as to provide the larg- est possible opening for the flow of gas. Unlike other oil gas generators, this one con- tains no arches, and the oil is treated by heat radiated from checker brick and the walls of the lining, instead of by direct con- tact. The bottom portion of the generator is an open combustion chamber, drawn in at the top in a manner similar to the dome of a cupola, and while the inside diameter of filled with checker brick, laid in the ordinary manner, with vertical flues of large area. The generator is connected by two 33- inch outlet pipes to a wash box pro- vided with a seal and acting as a hydraulic main, and from this box the gas passes through a scrubber 12 feet by 30 feet, and two scrubbers 10 feet by 30 feet. The wash- ing of the gas is done by means of sea water, as this gas does not seem to be as sensitive as coal gas for Vv^hich fresh water must be used. This machine which produces 150,000 cubic feet of gas per hour is handled by the labor of one man. There is no shoveling of coal and the most difficult work the gas maker does is to open and close a valve. 192 ENCYCLOPEDIA Fins for Propelling Submarines S^irims I^iKe a FisK— Safety CKamber Permits £scape SKould tKe Boat SinK. Fins for propelling, impelling, directing and controlling submarine vessels is the es- sential feature of a new system of under- water navigation invented by a Mr. Middle- ton, of England. One of the important re- submarine vessel should be capable of mov- ing in a vertical plane even better than in a horizontal plane. The tins are driven by electric motors and the screw propeller provided, in addition suits accomplished by these fins is to enable to the fins, but its purpose is merely to Fi^* 1— Interior SHo-win^ Safety CHamber the vessel to be navigated in three direc- tions, instead of two, as in the case of the screw-propeller. That is^ the submarine vessel equipped with the fins is able to be controlled in a vertical plane, instead of making alterations in its buoyancy to ac- complish this end. This is most important, says the Illustrated London News, as the fc-S S-ON rtcvesses Pur& »=umc» Ml pal WtM EC3 12^31' ii^j I0I ■■ ■■ i MoTon of RUO OCR, Key Board mtKIcH Does THin^s simplify the mechanism for impressing the motion on the fins. The Middleton vessel, it is claimed, can be navigated and fought by the remarkably small crew of three men. Six men may be carried where a change of watch is required. The keyboard places all the parts under control of one officer, who by its manipulation may fire the guns, con- trol the inclhiation of the fins, set the fin- motion going, reverse the electro-motor, con- trol rudder motor, control the rudder, put pump in gear, control screw, and discharge topedoes. In Fig. 1, A and B show the fins fiexed for raising the boat. A fin in detail is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 1 shows the in- ternal arrangement of a 300-ton submarine. The action of the fins is patterned after those of a fish, which by an almost imper- ceptible movement of its fins can place its body at any angle or poise. Still another valuable feature of the Mid- dleton boat is the automatic pump, which acts when the boat has descended to a depth that is dangerous, and which instant- ly changes the course of the vessel. Another most interesting and novel feature of the craft is the safety chamber, by means ENCYCLOPEDIA 19? of which the crew can be liberated and escape to the surface in case of accident to the submarine. Had tliis device been sup- plied in the ill-fated English submarine her crew could have escaped. The safety cham- ber is shown in the cut, and consists of a strong steel tank entered from the bottom. After the crew are in, the opening is closed and the tank released, rising quickly to the surface by its own buoyancy. On reaching the surface a cover can be removed from the top and the crew display distress signals. Fi^. 3.— Detail of Fin: Pump kVHicH Prevents Descent to Dangerous EeptK. TO REVIVE FROM SUFFOCATION. By inhalation of poisonous gases, vapors', such as illuminating gas, charcoal vapor, gas in wells, sewer gas, coal gas, mine gas, etc. Remove the patient to open air and send for a physician. In rescuing, avoid risks. If in a room, open and close the door rapidly to fan and force air into it; break out windows. Do not take a light into a cellar, mine, well, apartment, or any place where gas has escaped. Tie a rope around the waist of rescuer; cover his mouth and nose with a handkerchief wet with vinegar and water. Get the patient to fresh air. Dash cold water on his face and chest. Use artiflciat respiration the same as in drowning. Apply hot bottles to body; put mustard plasters to heart, soles of feet and wrists; when re- covering, mild stimulants may be used. 194 ENCY(!LOPEDIA GRADING COUNTRY ROADS WITH A TRACTION ENGINE. In the vicinity of Duraut, la., horses are used no more in grading the country roads, for it was found that a traction engine could draw two graders and talie the place of 12 good horses, with an engineer to take care of the engine and one man to handle each road grader. Does tHe Work of 12 Good Horses The engine used was a double cylinder weighing about 2C,000 pounds, having 61/^-inch cylinder bore, 12-Jnch stroke, 200 revolutions per minute, and of about 125 pounds steam pressure. The graders are coupled to the tender, which is just behind the engine, and which carries a half-ton of coal and eight barrels of water. A team hauls an additional supply of water and coal enough to keep the machines going all day. The road graders do not follow the same track, but go side by side, one a little behind the other. The engine travels on the road about as fast as a team walks or- dinarily. MOSQUITO NETTING INSTEAD OF MEDICINE. "I should have no fear of catching fever in the heart of a swamp if I had a proper sleeping place," declares Mr. A. W. Bayly, owner of the Gold Fields News, Barberton, Portuguese East Africa, and what Mr. Bayly considers a proper sleeping place is a place enclosed with mosquito netting or iron wire netting. To substantiate his statement Mr, Bayly relates personal experience. After an absence he returned to his home to find that his eldest son had suffered from five successive attacks of malarial fe- ver in one season, and he determined to try some preventive measures. The only gauze he could obtain at the place was a painted cotton fabric at 18 cents a square yard. With strips of old bamboo blind and small staples he fastened netting on the outside of all sash frames in such a man- ner that the windows could be opened readily. At French casements the gauze was fastened to the outside Venetian sun shutters; where there were no shutters it was fastened to the door or window frame itself. Outside doors were protected by light-framed porches. With a little care about closing doors or windows quickly the plan worked admirably. Mr. Bayly states that with this protection they have had no eases of fever for three years, though sometimes members of the family have been in unprotected houses for the night. There is only one species of mos- quito—the Anopheles— which carries infec- tion, and it only works at night and is in- nocuous during the daytime. It is slug- gish and less industrious than the other species— tlie Culex— and therefore is not so apt to get in, but once in, its presence is not detected easily, for, unlike the Culex, it does not hum. Later v\^ire gauze was obtainable, but on the whole was not so satisfactory as the cotton gauze. The wire gauze has a nicer appearance and does not collect dust, as does the cotton, but the sea air causes it to oxidize and drop to pieces. During some experiments as to the effi- ciency of this metliod, the camps of some railway construction gangs in Italy were protected with gauze and the men cau- tioned to be indoors between sunset and sunrise. An equal number were left un- protected, but dosed with quinine and other preventives. On the sections protected with screens the percentage of fever cases was but 5 per cent, while on the unpro- tected sections it was 95 per cent. It is stated by United States Consul Hol- lis, Lourenco Marquez, Portuguese East Africa, that where wire netting, of English manufacture, has been used for this pur- pose, it is falling to pieces after a year's use, and that the only mosquito net- tings that will stand the climate are the different galvanized and composition net- tings made in the United States, and there- fore firms in this country are receiving large orders. » » » Nikola Tesla has announced the-invention of a "telautomatic" torpedo which, if adopt- ed by the governments will stop the building of battleships and make forts needless. He says this new torpedo can be directed and submerged at will with a greater range than the largest gun; that its precision is unerr- ing and its effect wholly destructive. ENCYCLOPEDIA 195 SUSPENSION BRIDGE FERRY AT NEW- GALVANIZING BY THE "SHERARDIZING" PORT. PROCESS. An aerial ferry is being built at Newport, England, over the river Usk. Instead of a steel girder construction as in the bridge ferry at Duluth, described in full on page 204, this one is hung from a suspension bridge consisting of sixteen steel cables each 2% inches diameter. The span is 645 feet, and the towers 241 feet high are guyed by 32 steel ropes carried back 520 feet. The Shipping World says: The platform carrying the traveling frame from which the car will be suspend- ed will have two service foot-ways, and its total weight will be 539 tons. The travelins' frame will be fur- nished with sixty cast steel wheels, carried in steel brackets secured to the longitudinal members of the frame, and will be 104 feet in length over all. The car will be attached to the traveling frame by thirty suspension ropes, which will be so fixed as to prevent any swag- ing motion during high winds. It will be divided into a central road- way space, and two roofed-in foot- ways and a pilot house or motor- man's cabin will be erected on one side to contain the controlling ap- paratus. The car will be 33 feet in length and 40 feet in width, and in itself will weigh SV/^ tons. It is designed for a proof load of 66 tons in addition to Its own weight. The frame and car will be propelled by steel wire ropes wound on a drum worked by electric motors erected at one end of the bridge platform, the actual control being from the car itself. The rate of travel will be 10 feet per second. New and Simple Method by Which Iron and Steel Are Protected from Corrosion. — Low Temperature Required. Hitherto electro-zincing, or cold-galvaniz- ing, and hot galvanizing have been the twc. methods used in coating iron and steel with zinc as a protection against corrosion. Both of these methods have great disadvantages. "Sherardizing," a new process lately em- ployed for this purpose, combines the good OPENS WINDOWS WITH COMPRESSED AIR. Opening and closing windows is the latest application of compressed air. An ordinary water motor or small electric motor in the basement does the compressing and the air is conducted through small pipes to one cylinder for each window. Two small valves control the action of the piston, one for rais- ing, the other to lower the sash. The device moves noiselessly and is said to be inex- pensive. A good shellac varnish is made of 3Vv> pounds orange shellac thoroughly dissolved in 1 gallon of wood alcohol. F. ii. 1. Sherardizing Drum for iStnal] VTorK. points of the two other methods and fur- ther recommends itself on the quality of simplicity, the coating of zinc being af lied at a temperature several hundred de ees lower than the melting point of zinc. Articles to be Sherardized are first freed of scale and oxide by dipping in an acid so- lution or by sandblasting. Zinc dust, ob- tained during the process of distilling zinc from its ores, is used for coating the metal. The zinc dust costs about $97 per ton. It cannot be smelted or reduced to a metallic form under ordinary conditions, even by very high temperatures, it is, therefore, es- pecially adapted to a process of dry gal- vanizing as the zinc will not melt when the furnaces are overheated. Articles to be Sherardized are placed in airtight recep- tacles charged with zinc dust. The inside of the receptacle is coated with plumbago or black lead to prevent it becoming coated with zinc. Articles coated with grease take a better coating of zinc than those free from grease. The type of furnace generally used for 196 E N C Y f ; L P E D I A Fi^. 2. Controlling Valves .to Fur« naces. small work has a cylindrical closed iron chamber which is rotated on an axis. The chamber has a side door of iron, if to be used for small articles, such as bolts, small castings, nuts, etc., or an end door if for tubes and other oblong articles. The con- struction differs a little in these two cases, in order to insure the articles being turned over so they will receive a uniform coat- Fi^. 3. Gas Burner and Drum, ing. In such a furnace one of the trunnions is made hollow so that a pyrometer may be inserted to register the temperature. Bun- sen gas burners are arranged below the fur- nace for heating the drum and the whole is enclosed in a cast-iron shell lined with fire-brick. The drum may be geared to ro- tate constantly, or may be turned intermit- tently by hand. (Fig. 1.) In one big Sherardizing plant where four furnaces capable of taking drums 8 inches by 2 inches, with a capacity of two tons of material per charge, are in use, the fur- naces are heated by gas led by iron pipes to the back of the furnaces. The supply is controlled by iron cocks and the gas is con- ducted through brick channels, having in- lets (A, Fig. 2), through which the air is drawn. The gas is burnt through cast-iron burners (A, Fig. 3.) To charge the drum it is placed on a truck, which is run on to a table (Fig. 4); one end is lowered by gearing and the zinc dust is charged into the tilted end from an upper floor through a chute (F, Fig. 5.) A drum being u'scharged over an iron grating which allows the zinc dust to fall into a chamber below, from which it is raised by a chain elevator is shown at G, Fig. 5. When charged with the zinc dust the drum is brought to a horizontal position, the air is exhausted and the truck run on tracks to the furnace; it is then lifted on to a furnace truck, which economizes heat. The drum is pushed into the furnace, the door is closed and the furnace heated to the temperature required, or from 500 degrees to 600 degrees F. When it has been in the furnace a suffi- cient length of time the door is raised and the drum and carriage drawn out into an open yard. Here it is allowed to cool until it can be easily handled. Sherardizing forms a more lustrous and metallic coating than does cold galvanizing and a more uniform deposit than any other process. "Articles can be Sherardized at a few hours' notice," says The Electrical Maga- zine, London, "starting all cold." The tem- perature required is so low that the mini- mum of fuel is consumed; the articles do not require so much cleansing as in other processes, making the labor less and the economy more. ♦-•-♦ To make a good blackboard paint moisten 4 oz. lampblack with alcohol; rub out with a spatula, and gradually add 1 qt. shellac. Stir in 3 oz. flour of pumice and 3 oz. pul- verized rottenstone. Strain carefully; apply quickly and evenly; let stand two days and apply another coat. ENCYCLOPEDIA 197 OSTRICH RACING Fi^. 4'.— Placing Drtxm on tHe Table for Cliar^in^i When a dealer goes to an os- trich farm to buy a bird or two he selects the ones he wants by racing them. He chooses two or three he likes and these are ranged in line and shown a bunch of figs. Then the man with the figs goes a quarter of a mile away and the ostriches are started. It is quite thrilling to see them with their long bony legs cover- ing the ground at an amazing rate. The one who wins seems to enjoy his victory and if he is much ahead of the others eases up towards the last and reaches the goal at a walk, perhaps. The dealer buys the winner, as the fastest is also the strongest. NEW EXCURSION BOAT REGU- LATIONS RIGID. Fi^. 5*— Drtxm in Position for Char^in^ New government regulations for excursion boats require that loose or compressed cork life preservers shall be abolished and the attaching of preservers to racks by wires, also. A preserv- er must be provided for every passenger and member of the crew. All steamboats must be provid- ed with fire buckets, barrels, axes and steam fire pumps capa- ble of throwing a stream from two nozzles on each deck, at least fifty feet. Taking Instantaneous PHoto^rapHs By f^lectric LigHt. Instantaneous photographs may now be taken by electric light. A French photog- rapher has devised an apparatus by which he can control perfectly the quality and amount of illumination and take photographs instantaneously at the moment of the sub- ject's best pose. A large parabolic reflector of aluminum has placed on its inner edge a series of in- candescent lamps shaded with ground-glass sci-eens. These light up the subject so that the photographer can secure the pose and determine the instant for the real exposure. An arc light with three carbons is in the center of the aluminum reflector, one car- bon being fixed, the others movable. To take a photograph, the subject is ar- ranged, the sensitive plate exposed, and the instant the pose is best the photographer presses a rubber bulb which draws the two movable carbons across the fixed one, form- ing a brilliant arc. The movable carbons are drawn away from the fixed one by an electromagnet the moment the current passes through the lamp, thus extiug'uish- ing the arc. The time of exposure is about one-fiftieth second and the results are said to be most satisfactory. 198 ENCYCLOPEDIA CONICAL WIND MOTORS USED IN CON- NECTION WITH STEAM ENGINES. The Danish government, which has de- voted more study to windmills than any- other nation, announces tlie result of sev- eral years' experiments and declares in favor of the conical type of air motor. The experiments were conducted by Prof. La Cour, near the town of Ascov. Conical 'Wind Motor 'viritK 'W^in^s Open Some time ago a great storm shattered four of the 10 sails of a windmill, but the motor showed greater power than before. This fact showed that the ancient principle according to whicli the amount of power gained would be the higher the greater the surface, was false, and further experiments by Prof. La Couv go to bear out this con- clusion. The Electrical Review, London, says: That the wind acts on a perforated surface with a power much greater than in the case of an equal surface closed throughout, is borne out by the following experiment: Two plank fences of the same thickness and height, one of which had intervals between the planks, while the other was compact, were submitted to the action of the wind, when the open fence was thrown down, though the compact fence obviously opposed the greater surface to the wind. A further fact known in this connection is that per- forated sails will work more satisfactorily than those free from any holes, and this has been utilized in a recent Italian invention. Conical wind motors are in many cases used in the place of a steam engine. Pumps, wood and iron-working shops, and agricul- tural and milling plants may be operated by these wind motors, which do not require any appreciable amount of supervision; they may also be used for generating electricity. For the latter purpose, the firm of Theodor Renter & Schumann, of Kiel, Germany, who are the manufacturers of the motors, have designed a very simple apparatus for regu- lating the speed of the gearing driven from the wind motor with absolute accuracy, as required by a dynamo. Another device en- ables a wind motor and a steam engine to work jointly on the same transmission, when the wind motor serves to relieve the steam engines, thus securing a considerable saving of coal. In the event of the intensity of the wind decreasing so that the wind motor cannot keep up to the speed of the Conical "Wind Motor -witlx "Wing^s Closed steam engine, another device will throw it out automatically during the time of low wind intensity; the steam engine never has to turn the wind motor round. ELECTRIC FANS IN WINTER. Electric fans may be used to advantage even in winter. Placed iu show windows they will prevent frost forming on the glass except in the very coldest weather, and when set upon a steam radiator they will drive the warm air to any part of the room desired. Flat steel scrapers are the best tools for removing polish from flat surfaces, Locomotive Without Fire or Water Would MaKe Crossing the Continent "WitKout Stop- ping Possible. A locomotive without water, fire or smoke, unencumbered by the five tons of coal and 7,000 gallons of water usually car- ried by the steam engine; drawing no ten- der, but provided instead with an engine for generating electricity: a clean, strong pow- erful engine drawing a 2,000-ton train and energy produced passes up the smokestack, 4 per cent goes to the boilers, and 2% per cent only to the driving wheels. A writer in one of our daily papers states: "Driving wheels can be made just so large and no larger. Connecting rods can be made .iust so long and no longer. If the t-uurtesy uf Ihe .^ianufa.-tuxer'g liecord THe Dream of Modern Tractiona«SKovirii\£i Interior of Lrocomotive. speeding across the continent ffortn^ew York to San Francisco, without stop or de- lay, and at the average rate of 100 miles per hour — this is a dream of modern trac- tion, worked out theoretically with mathe- matical precision, now being constructed for the Southern Pacific Railroad and soon to be put to the practical test of a long trial run. It is generally accepted by railroad man- agers that the limit has been reached in sfiam locomotive construction. One axiom in this line has been "a pound of weight to carry a pound of weight." Locomotives have gained 100,000 pounds in weight in the last five years, and tender capacity has been in- creased accordingly. Of the fuel consumed by the steam locomotive 96 per cent of the driving wheels are giant affairs it means a tremendous weight to the machine that must come on the tracks in a comparatively small space. There is one way to 'spread the weight,' and that is to have longer con- necting rods. But here a difficulty is en- countered. Tractive power necessary for high speed or great draught cannot be ob- tained if the rods are much over 12Vj feet. This fact has put steam locomotive builders between the devil of big wheels and the deep sea of the short connecting rod. If the steam locomotive could be made more com- pact, greater power could be obtained, but, on the other hand, the weight would be so concentrated that there is not a curve in the roadbed or a bridge on the line that could stand the strain," 99 200 ENCYCLOPEDIA ENCYCLOPEDIA 201 In the proposed new locomotive an in- ternal combustion engine, which heretofore has been applied to stationary engine work only, will be used to drive a dynamo provid- ing electric power for the locomotive. The internal combustion engine has a thermal efficiency of 38 per cent. There is a loss in the transfer to the generator and armatures, but 28.35 per cent of the energy "gets on to the motor and axles." In other words, the new locomotive is expected to save more than eleven times as much energy as the steam locomotive. The principle of the new engine is summed up as follows: "Its action is on what is known as the four-stroke cycle. There is a compressed air reservoir, from which the power is ob- tained for starting. This gives the piston its first stroke when it takes in air— air alone at atmospheric pressure and tempera- ture. The second stroke compresses this air to a high pressure and to a temperature of about 1,000° F. The third stroke is what is known as the working stroke. At this point oil is sprayed into this hot incandes- cent air— one can hardly imagine Avhat 1,000° F. means. The amount of oil that is sprayed in is regulated by governors. Dur- ing the first part of this stroke the combus- tion of this oil is carried on at a constant pressure for a period which is regulated by the amount of oil sprayed in. The second part of the stroke is practically an expan- sion without transference of heat. The fourth stroke exhausts the gases. "The only fuel used is the crude oil that costs from three to five cents a gallon. Petroleum or any kind of crude oil can be employed. The cost per horsepower hour is said to be less than half that for steam." POWERFUL HOISTING ENGINE USED IN A DEEP MINE. A 5.000-horsepower hoisting engine in- tended for lifting a load of something over 41,000 pounds from a depth of 6,000 feet at the rate of 5,000 feet per minute has recently been installed by the Tamarack Mining Co., of Calumet, Mich. The total weight of this powerful machine, which is of the direct acting reversible type, with a drum keyed on the main shaft, is 1,200,000 pounds and the huge drum, which has a capacity for 6,000 feet of l^i-inch rope, with its shaft weighs 300,000 pounds. Some of the leading dimensions of the engine are: Steam cylinders (four), 34x60 inches; main bearing, 24x42 inches; crank- pins, 12x15 Inches; crosshead pins, 6%xl2i^ inches; diameter of rope drum, 25 feet; length of drum, 24 feet 6 inches. The cages used are double decked balanced cages, the empty one descending while the loaded cage is being hoisted. In this operation the load the engine would ordinarily handle consists of 21,000 pounds of rope; cage, 4,200 pounds; two cars, 4,000 pounds; rock, 12,000 pounds, a total of 41,200 pounds. The engine frames are of the hollow girder type, and rest on large cast-iron sub-bases, the whole being fastened to the foundations by rods. Rope Drum 25 Feet Longf The throttles, reversing gears, cut-off gear and brake are all operated from the plat- form on which the operator sits, as shown in the illustration. Here also is located the "miniatures" which indicate at all times the position of the cars and from which the safety stop is operated. By means of this safety stop the motion can be arrested and reversed whenever the cages are in danger. There are two sets of powerful brakes, one on each end of the drum. The engine may be run from one turn per minute to 54 turns per minute with an action equally smooth and perfectly controlled. 202 ENCYCLOPEDIA MODEL OF VERY LARGE LOCOMOTIVE. One of our readers, who is a railroad offi- cial, sends a photograpli of a model of a very large "Columbia" type passenger loco- motive. The model is made almost entirely of wood, and as shown in the illustration is a very handsome piece of work. In tliese days of mammoth locomotives the work is extremely interesting as showing the propor- tions which a machine built on the lines shown would look like. The builder says: "It is built on a scale of 30 inches to the inch, and although I realize it would not be practicable to build a machine of this size, wheel base driving, 8 ft. 6 in.; wheel base rigid, 18 ft. 5 in.; wheel base, total engine, 29 ft. 4 in.; wheel base, engine and tender, 51 ft. 6 in.; tank capacity, 6,000 gal.; coal capacity, 12 tons. THE LARGEST TROOPSHIP IN THE WORLD. The "Dufferin," the largest troopship in the world, was recently launched at Barrow, England. The vessel will accommodate 1,520 persons and in equipment is equal to a first-class liner. Sanitary and ventilating 'WHat the Real THin^ Actually I^ooks I^iKeV I take delight in showing some of the would- be big engine advocates what the real thing actually looks like." The bigness of the thing is better com- prehended in the driving wheels, which are 7 feet 10 inches high, and the height to top of boiler, 15 feet 3 inches. To save height the stack is only 1 foot high, and the bell is hung- below the boiler. The main dimen- sions are: Cylinders, 26 x 30 in.; boiler, diameter smallest ring, 84 in.; firebox, length, 70 in.; firebox, width, 90 in.; flues, 460; flues, length, 18 ft.; driving wheels, diameter, 94 in.; trailing wheels, diameter, 52 in.; pony truck wheels, diameter, 33 in.; weight on driving wheels, 145,000 lbs.; weight, total engine, 225,000 lbs.; weight total engine and tender, 340,000 lbs.; height center boiler, 11 ft. 9 in.; height top boiler, 15 ft 3 in.; height top stack, 16 ft. 3 in.; arrangements have been most carefully made and all that would tend toward the comfort and health of the soldiers has been provided, the vessel being model in this re- spect. The ship is of the spar deck type, length over all, 453 feet; breadth, 52 feet, 6 inches; moulded depth, 39 feet. It has four com- plete decks and a boat deck about half its length amidships. It can be made practi- cally unsinkable in a few seconds by closing the water-tight compartments into which it is divided under the main deck. These are controlled from the bridge. The propelling machinery, says the Marine Engineer, con- sists of two sets of inverted, vertical, direct- acting, triple expansion engines, each set having three cylinders, working on separate cranks, and capable of developing 9,400 horsepower at 115 r. p. m. ENCYCLOPEDIA 203 TRAGIC FATE ENDS "FOOLKILLER NO. III." Nissen Crosses Lake Michigan in a Furious Storm at Night, but Finds Death on the Farther Shore. Peter Nissen has met the fate with which he has flirted for years; yet he should not be classed with the ordinary seelier after notoriety. The adventu r o u s blood of the old Norsemen coursed through his viens and im- pelled him to deeds which other men shuddered to even contem- plate. On Nissen's first voyage in "Foolkiller No. 1" there was no wind an^ therefore it was only a short trip and uneventful. This craft was a mammoth canvas ball 22 feet in diameter and 32 feet long, inflated by "means of an air pump. A shaft extended through the center from end to end and from this suspended a swinging cradle in which Nis- sen sat or reclined. His expectation in event of a successful voyage across Lake Michigan was to con- struct a much larger ball, 75 feet in diam- eter and 115 feet long, which was to be taken to the extreme limit of northern Peter Missex^ travel, and then used in rolling to the North Pole. His theory was that the lightness of the craft when driven by the wind would cause it to go bounding over obstructions many feet high, precisely as a thistledown travels. Nissen, wlio was a frequent visitor at this oflBce, called the afternoon before his fatal trip, but it was characteristic of the mod- esty of the man that he made no mention of the coming trial. Ever since his remark- able trip through the rapids at Niagara he has been offered large sums from amuse- ment managers, but the idea was very re- pugnant to him, notwithstanding his need of money for experiments. He was a college graduate with honors. The ill-fated trip was made on November 29, during a furious winter gale blowing from the west. The storm was so severe that steamers due to leave this port dared not venture out. He entered the ball about 4 o'clock just as dusk came on. The open- ing was sealed to make it air tight, and at the word from within the ball was released and rolled rapidly down the sea wall and in a few minutes was well out at sea. Nis- sen carried provisions fbr two days, but re- moved his overcoat as he entered the ball. He declined assistance from a passing tug two miles out. At midnight the gale was blowing nearly 50 miles an hour and the cold was intense. Two days later the frozen body of Nissen and the remains of the ball were found toss- ing in the surf of the east shore 100 miles from Chicago. He had evidently made the crossing in safety, but the ball had failed to roll out of the water up on to the shore, and the intrepid inventor after cutting his way out of the balloon and in an exhausted con- dition had been unable to stand against the breakers, and so perished in the surf. To provide for the natural deflation of the ball through leakage, and also to supply fniiS picture Showa the Start of the Jaly Trip of Niaaen— Leaving Chicago Harbor — It waa in the Some Ball tbat Nigaen Loat Hia Ziifs 204 ENCYCLOPEDIA fresh air to breathe after 15 hours' occupa- tion, an air pump was attached within the ball connected through a small hose to the outside. Something happened to the hose, for in his pocket was found a card on which were written the words "Air hose has bro- ken. N." It is believed the reason the ball failed to roll out of the lake onto land was on account of its being deflated to perhaps one- half its normal size. The funeral, in Chi- cago, was attended by 4,000 persons. DULUTH AERIAL FERRY. Only One in America— One of Five in the World- Suspended Ferry Carries Street Cars, Vehicles and Pedestrians. The great aerial ferry in Duluth is now in operation. Nearly a year has been spent in construction and erection. It is the only structure of its kind in America, and one of only five in the world. The others are at Newport, England; Rouen, France; Bizerte, Tunis, and at Nantes, France, over the Loire. The purpose of the aerial ferry is to af- ford nearly all the advantages of a bridge without any of its disadvantages to ship- ping. This ferry crosses the Duluth ship canal, where a center pier swing bridge would impede navigation. In the aerial ferry a huge steel trussed superstructure spans the channel, the distance between the towers being 393 feet. Tracks are laid on the bridge span on which run trucks from which depend lV2-inch steel cables, which in turn suspend the car or ferry. The dis- tance from water line to the lower beam of the span is 185 feet, which enables ves- sels to pass below with clearance for their main masts. The only false Avork used is the support under the first section of the towers, The car or ferry is moved from tower to tower by electric motors in the trucks run- ning on the overhead tracks, but controlled by an operator on the ferry below. The ferry swings clear of the water and a few feet above, and the floor is on a level with the city streets. Space is provided for several wagons or vehicles, or one double- truck street car, and cabins at each side are fitted with seats for passengers. The ferry car will carry 300 persons. The ferry is at all times under the control of the ope- rator by means of a controller similar to that used on street cars. The trip is made at a speed of about four miles an hour, and a load up to 50 tons can be carried. The bridge is built to withstand a wind velocity of 70 miles an hour, and cost $100,000. Sbips Pass Vnder tbe Ferry "Witbout Delay ENCYCLOPEDIA 20' MEASURED SERVICE METERS FOR TELE PHONE PATRONS. Individual measured- service meters for teleplione users are becoming quite popular tlie meter being always an arbiter of peace, and settling all disputes in a manner satis- factory to both parties. Our illustration shows the simple apparatus which is placed in the subscriber's station and which registers each call as it is made. The de- vice works as follows: When a connection is made, the sub- scriber calling pulls a lever which throws a buzz over the wire and notifies the operator of the call. The call is also shown on the face of the meter. The record of the meter is read at the end of a stated period. To do this the cen- tral office places its machine in connection with the subscriber's meter and the sub- scriber is called and asked to turn a crank. This operation takes a statement of the THe Patron's Instrument number of calls since last reading on a tape by Morse code at the central office. The whole apparatus is completely under con- trol of the telephone company and can be attached without extra wiring. The main- tenance cost, says the Western Electrician, is very slight and one portable statement- taker will do the work for an entire ex- change. UNSINKABLE LIFE-BOATS. An unsinkable life-boat, unsinkable even though seriously damaged, is the product of a Danish inventor, and several important features are claimed for the new craft. This life-boat consists of a boat-shaped pontoon of wood or iron, strongly con- structed, and filled with kapok, a product of plants growing in Java and Sumatra, said to combine the greatest floating capac- ity with the least weight and able to sus- tain thirty-five times its weight in water. The kapok is contained in water-tight cush- ions which in turn are placed in water-tight compartments. Upon this bouyant layer is mounted a superstructure which can be folded down or erected. This is surrounded by a fender filled with kapok in water- tight cushions. In extending the boat, cross VnsinHable I^ifeboat Extended for Use beams are lifted in and the oars are re- leased, an oval-shaped thwart with cross- thwarts slides into position, and stanchions and other parts drop into their places auto- matically, making a reliable boat contain- ing bread and water-tanks. Exhaustive tests have been made of the Englehardt unsinkable life-boat, as it is called, and it has stood successfully every one. It is compact for carrying on vessels, where space occupied is an import- ant consideration, and if a ship were to sink suddenly these boats would only need be cut from their lashings and would be The Boat Folded. found floating after such disaster, still fit for use and easily accessible by those in danger of perishing. The boats can, more- over, be readily transported to any part of a ship and launched without davits. The ordinary lifeboats take up so much deck space that it is impossible to carry enough for passengers and crew, and as a consequence the boats are apt to be over- crowded and swamped. e06 E N C Y C T. O P E D I A CONSTRUCTING A TALL STEEL SMOKE- STEEL TIRES AND SPRING WHEELS FOR STACK. AUTOMOBILES. In our illustration is shown an exciting stage in the construction of a tall steel stack —the erection of the last section. This The Critical Moment. stack is on the power house of the Fond du lac-Oshkosh Interurban Railway and is 140 feet high and eight feet in diameter. The brick stack near it is 120 feet high and seven feet in diameter. The solution of punctured rubber auto- mobile tires is announced by an invention which replaces rubber tires with steel, and provides the same resiliency by means of coil springs at the hub. The hubs of the new wheels are made of cast steel, with hickory spokes and white oak felloes. The inner hub has a wide pro- jecting flange whicli runs into the outer hub and is held in place by a screwed steel ring, this makes a running fit to the metal flange and prevents all side thrust. Fastened to the outer hub are six square bolts the threaded ends of which, with their nuts, hold steel saddles in position. On the outer side of the spokes these saddles carry two spiral springs whose opposite ends are fastened to the inner hub. The springs are held at both ends by lugs and if a spring breaks the nuts may be taken off and the spring readily replaced, the cost of a new spring being about 15 cents. Steel tires are very durable and economical, but make consider- able noise. Wheels may be equipped in- stead with channel iron in which is laid %-inch hj'draulie packing. Such a tire is Hub Sprinifs Replacin£f R.ubl>er Tires. noiseless, has great adhesion and the cost is^ less than that of solid rubber. The firm making these wheels guarantees them to be as resilient as any wheel with a pneumatic tire. If the new wheels stand the test of time and use, automobiling will be relieved of a few of its difficulties. The number of telegrams sent daily throughout the world reaches the enor- mous total of 14,000,000, not including 36,- 000 cable messages, according to George Johnson, official Canadian statistician. ENCYCLOPEDIA 207 PORTABLE WATER DISTILLING PLANTS. The most important requirement for pre- serving the health of the human body is a sufficient supply of pure water for drinking and cooking purposes. Especially is this true in arid regions or in low swamp coun- try where one is apt to drink death with a cup of such water as is obtainable there. Often in these places large gangs of men are employed, the labor of every one of whom is indispensable. This is the field into which the invention shown in our illus- tration will enter and be found most wel- come. discharged from the separator of the first vessel into tubes of the second, owing to the difference in pressure in the two vessels or effects. The steam from this last effect, along with the drip-water from the second shell, passes direct to the condenser, and is discharged as pure distilled water. If the local water is unfit for boiler feed purposes the drip-water — or "boiler steam condensed" — from the first shell after passing through the feed heater, discharges into the boiler- feed tank, and is pumped back into the boiler. If fit for boiler-feed purposes the drip from the first shell is used for heating in the second shell and goes to further in- Prodtxces 65 Gallons of Pure Distilled VTater Per Hour This plant will convert undriukable brine or any other impure water into the health- giving fluid at a rate of 65 gallons pure product per hour, not including the con- densed "boiler steam" or "drip" from first shell. The apparatus while working requires very little attention. The process is much as follows: The impure feed- water (drawn from the condensed overflow) is pumped through a feed-heater, and is heated by the drip-water from shell of first vessel, on its way to the latter, where it passes through a series of tubes exposed on the outside to steam from the boiler. The steam rising from the im- pure water passes from the separator to the second shell where it heats the impure wa- ter contained in the tubes of the second ves- sel—this impure water being continuously crease the quantity of distilled water. The steam boiler, which is of the port- able, "loco-tubular" type, is suitable for a working pressure of 80 to 100 pounds per square inch. The fire box is extra large, suitable for burning wood, which would be, in many localities, the only fuel avail- able, or at any rate, the most convenient fuel. This type of distiller is made in three sizes— 28, 47 and 65 gallons of pure dis- tilled water per hour. It is securely mounted on a strong carriage, constructed of light steel framing and suitable for an- imal haulage. Page's Weekly, London, says the type was especially designed for the use of prospecting and exploring parties, temporary hospitals, and for visiting and supplying fresh water to small mining sta- tions. 208 ENCYCT. OPEDTA ENCYCLOPEDIA 209 Wonderful Instrument WHicH Predicts Tides Built by tKe Government, It Performs Calculations of the Most Intricate Nature '^^itK A.ccuracy and DespatcK The Secretary of the Navy desires to or- der a battleship into a certain harbor on our coast, at a particular hour some day next week. The harbor is entered only by cross- ing a bar at its mouth where the water is none too deep. He wants to know how many fathoms of water will be on that bar at the time the ship will cross it. There is a machine that can tell him in a feAv minutes, and whose calculations are absolutely accurate. There is being built in the instrument shop of the Coast and Geodetic Survey Building in Washington a most intricate and wonderful machine, something that will ap- poach "thinking mechanism" nearer than any other apparatus owned by the Govern- meat. This wonder is a tide-predicting ma- chine, and is a great improvement — made by Mr. E. G. Fischer, chief of the instrument division of the survey— on the original one now in use for this purpose. It already dis- plays a wilderness of wheels, slides, cranks, pins, chains, etc.; is composed of brass (the framework), and weighs several hundred pounds. Before saying more about this it is best to tell something about tides. In forecasting tides it is necessary first to gather data upon which to work. This is done by observations at tidal stations on coast, lake, river and other shores. By long series of observations of rise and fall of tides, weather conditions and laud con- figurations, the action of the tides is re- solved into fairly constant factors for each tidal station. Long series of such observa- tions are necessary because the tides are vei'y complex phenomena, being modified by all influences acting upon the earth from without, as well as by those arising upon the earth itself (such as winds, earth- quakes and variations of the atmospheric pressui'e), by irregalarities in the coast line, by the eccentric distribution of the land masses, and by the varying depth of the sea. With this data taken in connec- tion with astronomical conditions— particu- larly of the sun and moon— it is possible to predict the future condition of the tides. But this involves a tedious process in hand-work mathematical calculations, which, by the elimination of certain factors governing tides and adoption of other (con- stant) ones, can be avoided, when a tide- predicting machine is employed. The ma- chine used by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey has nineteen dials on its back, which have to do with as many tidal fac- tors; the latter are indicated on the dials by means of setting pointers, and when an at- tached crank handle is turned, indicators on five dials on the front of the machine point out the information desired. Of course, the machine is set for each tidal station, and gives high and low water time, height and depth of tides, etc., for dates far ahead. All this is done by the many wheels and shafts of the machine operated by a steel chain that runs upon the pulley at the end of each shaft, also operating simultaneously the pointer-shafts of the front dials. This machine does the work of forty computers. It costs $3,500. The new tide-predicting machine will be far superior to the one described. It will have to do with thirty-nine factors of a tide instead of nineteen, giving besides time of high and low tides and their depth and height, the state of the tide at any hour. In addition to increased advantage in the sight-reading dials the new machine will plot the tidal curves on paper, and in time it is possible that added mechanism will au- tomatically turn out printed tidal informa- tion. As above mentioned the tide-predict- ing machine is operated by means of a cranlc- hand-power. The new machine will be run by clock-work. The chain and pulley feature will be much the same in both the mechanical predictors. It is rather a wonderful machine which takes facts and figures on its back and dis- plays the solved problems on its front faces. The new mechanical wonder will do more. It will accomplish several things at one time— carry on two summations— one of which, at any instant, will denote the height of the tide or surface of the water, while the other will determine the time of high or low water and trace tidal curves. In other words, by looking at the face of the machine at any particular time the true height of the tide can be read off at once and times of high and low water will be given as they occur. The tracing of the tidal curves while the predictions are going on will be a valuable feature of the ma- chine's work, for if any peculiarities or un- certainties are involved in the tide the rec- ord can be cousulted. 210 ENCYCLOPEDIA Ore Unloaded Automatically tug Clam-SHell BucKets Unload Ten Tons at a Single Operation—MaKe Big Reduction in Cost of Handling Ore Clasn«SHell Bucket Open A few years ago had that mon- strous fresh-water vessel, the "Au- gustus B. Wolvin," been in exist- ence and landed at any lake port with a full cargo of bulk material, it would have required a period of time to unload the vessel entirely disproportionate to the admirable mechanical equipment of that Great Lakes' pride. For the cubical ca- pacity of the "A. B. Wolvin" is about 500,000 cubic feet, equal to 401,000 bushels of grain or 12,500 tons of coal. The "A. B. Wolvin" is almost au- tomatic in every feature and yet the ponderous new machine which unloaded her cargo at Conneaut, Ohio, a short time ago is even more wonderful than the new ship. From the moment at which the steel plate sliding hatch covers, operated by steam engines and shafting, with which the big vessel is fitted, slid back so that the queer clam-shell bucket of the auto- matic ore unloader might be lowered into the hold, until the moment when the last ton of a cargo of 7,257 gross tons of iron ore was transferred to the railroad cars on shore ready to be carried to the iron-making plants of Pennsylvania, was ex- actly four and one-half hours— a rate of 1,613 tons unloaded per hour. The "A. B. Wolvin" is, however, especially adapted in construction to the use of the ore unloader, and such speedy handling as that men- tioned could hardly be maintained with a vessel of different construc- tion. The hold of this vessel is hopper-shaped, that is, with slant- ing sides, so that the ore to the last ton by the force of gravity is always so disposed within the hold that the clam-shell buckets can readily handle it. For many years inventors, en- gineers and .experts strove to de- vise a means by which ore which was conveyed from the mines and loaded on the vessel in a minimum Clam-SHell BucKet Closed of time could be unloaded in a proportionate time. The ore unloader which was finally successful was the invention of Mr. George H. Hulett, and while others had previously worked along the same lines as those he persisted in, they finally abandoned the idea which he brought to a triumphant success. ENCYCLOPEDIA 211 TKe Bucket L>e^ ivitH Bucket Open and Ready to be Ivowered into Vessel's Hold Howr tKe Bucket is L>OMrered into tHe Hold— SHowin^ tbe Operation ox tbe ^Valkin^-Beam 212 ENCYCLOPEDIA The first ore unloader of this kind was installed on the docks of the United States Steel Corporation at Conneaut, Ohio. A foun- dation trestle, which is mounted upon wheels, may be moved bodily along the dock to any point required. Its forward end travels on rails which are at the water's edge of the dock. A heavy walk- ing-beam supported on a movable trolley moves backward and fei'ward on the par- allel girders of this foundation span and at right angles to the dock. To the end of this walking-beam, which is designed to extend over the vessel to be unloaded, is a depending leg to which is attaclied the clam-shell bucket which unloads the ore, and which is always kept in a vertical posi- tion by the parallel motion. According as tlie back end of tliis walk- THe ClanfShell BucKet Scooping its Lroad in tHe Hold of tHe "A.u^ustus B. 'W^olviii**— SHoAvingf Hopper- SHaped Hold ing-beam is pulled down or released, so is the front end raised or lowered, thus raising and lowering the bucket-leg in and out of the hatches of the vessel. The bucket-leg can, of course, be lowered into any hatch of the vessel and tlie bucket can be rotated in a complete circle. The operator who con- trols all the operations of the bucket is sta- tioned in the mast or leg just over the big clam-shell. The bucket is carried bacli and forth, along the girders of the foundation, out over the boat for a load, or baclv again to deposit it in the empty cars. Large hy- draulic cylinders carrying 1,000 pounds water pressure perform all the operations of the macliine, except the travel along the dock. The clam-shell bucket has a spread of 18 feet and usually descends into the hold of the vessel half-closed, though in some special cases it is entered open. When spread out below deck its big jaws have a scope one would hardly expect, reaching from the center of one hatch to the center of the other. It can be rotated within the hold, so that practically all the material to be unloaded is within its reach. Suppose a vessel were, in port to be un- loaded, the big machine is first moved oppo- site a hatch and the walking-beam and trol- ley are run forward so that they reach out over the boat. By slacking off the hoist cables at the rear end of the wallving-beara the bucket is lowered until it comes in con- tact with the ore. After the bucket has secured its load it is then closed by hy- draulic power, not only liaving bored its way into the ore but closing while em- bedded in it. The back end of the walking- beam is then pulled down again, thus lifting the front end with its load. The trolley runs back, carrying the huge beam up the dock to the waiting cars, into which the ore is discharged, or the ore may be dumped on stock piles at the dock. All these operations have been under the direct control of the man in the mast, where are grouped all the operating levers. The bucket carries abovit 10 tons of ore at each grab, and under the least favorable condi- tions the machine can unload 2,000 tons per day. The macliine, which is a heavy steel structure, the principal members being of plat and girder construction, stands 55 feet in height and weighs 400 tons. It is moved along the dock from hatch to hatch of a vessel, or from vessel to vessel by a pair of engines which are geared to the wheels on each main leg of the struct- ure. It greatly decreases the cost of hand- ling ore, the cost being about nine-tenths less than with hand labor. •*•*- BELGIAN GOVERNMENT BUILDS TUR- BINE STEAMER FOR MAIL SERVICE. The Belgian government is building a tur- bine steamer for the Dover-Ostend mail service. The vessel is designed for a speed of 23 knots and will be driven by three Parsons turbines developing 12,000 horse- power. The Marconi system of wireless telegraphy will be installed and will be at the service of the traveling public as well as for official use. The dimensions of the vessel are: Length over all, 357 feet; length between perpendiculars, 344 feet; beam, 40 feet; depth from promenade deck to keel, 2314 feet; draught, 9% feet. ENCYCLOPEDIA 213 Under- Water Armor for BattlesHips Protection Against Submarine AttacRs A Momentous Problem Submarine weapons of destruction to- gether with accurate long-range gunfire are rapidly dispelling the fond conviction that battleships need no protection below the waterline, the water itself being their best safeguard. In the present war be- tween Russia and Japan it has been ob- served with a marked uneasiness that the Japanese seriously injured several of the Russian vessels at or below the waterline in long-range firing. The fact is signifi- cant. In the great game of nations it is impossible that warships can long retain a single A'ulnerable point with any degree of safety. Someone will find a means of striking at that spot and striking hard. Al- ready range-finders of a reliable character are making gunfire effective just below the. armor plating. There are many instances where the un- armored bottom of tlie vessel may be ex- posed. A vessel having six feet of armor belt extending below the water would be exposed at the unarmored portion of the bottom by a very small angle of inclina- tion in still water, if her stores, ammuni- tion or coals were expended. Rolling and pitching or even a seaway of moderate rise and fall may serve to expose her. Sir William White in the Naval Annual de- clares that it would be folly to regard the unarmored portions of the bottoms of ships as safe from all attack of gunfire. If it is folly now when there is no gun in exist- ence which can send a projectile any dis- tance under water before it ricochets and goes bounding along the surface with its force expended, how much will that dan- ger be increased if ever the need expressed not long since by a noted admiral be filled: "We want howitzers firing shell at an ele- vated trajectory, Avhich will explode at a given depth beneath the water." The dangers from gunfire below water- line are, of course, slight when compared with the dangers from under-water at- tacks by torpedoes, and it is protection of the submerged parts of the vessel from these attacks that is now claiming the most serious attention. Gunfire is less effective against sub- marines than it is against battleships below waterline. It may carry away the submarine's periscope so that observations can no longer be made from the little craft, but it cannot damage the boat's power of maneuvering under water. In an essay Commander Murray F. Seuter of the English navy points out just what war vessels have to fear from under-water de- structive forces and relates some of the methods of protecting the vessel from these forces. BattlesHip in Dry DocK, SHoivin^ Hull The defects of present submarines are low speed, small radius of action, limited range of vision and enervating effect on crews, but with all these defects they are the greatest menace to the war vessel. "When the submarine must come to the sur- face to take bearings, rapid gunfire from a battleship would soon destroy it, but the submarines now in use do not come to the surface. The torpedo boat destroyer is at a disadvantage against the submarine because it offers a large target both to under-water and surface vessels and is soon put out of action by gunfire and the crew are unpro- tected The method of dealing with the submarine most commonly used is to at- tach a spar of gun-cotton charge to the quarter of a destroyer, which chases the 214 ENCYCLOPEDIA Submarine Boats* the Battleship's Greatest Foest Maneuvering Before the Kin^ at Portsmouth, £n^land submarine as soon as it is sighted. The spar is swung out and when over the sub- marine it is detonated. This method is only effectual when the submarine is seen. En- tanglements by nets or hawsers; injury from a gun-cotton charge; exhaustion of electric batteries; defects to internal mechanism; defects to external gear of diving rudders; bad fumes, producing the collapse of the crcAv; or a porpoise-like rise and dive to obtain bearings when the periscope has been shot away, these are named as causes for the submarine rising to the surface where it is possible to injure her. Protection against torpedo attack has be- come an important consideration in the construction of the war vessel. Numerous methods have been tried to render the ves- sel proof against a torpedo explosion sev- eral feet below the waterline. The British navy now has a 3,000-yard torpedo; the Austrian Government have been experi- menting with one having a 3,800-yard range. The torpedo has become the most deadly weapon of warfare. The strongest searchlights have a range of about 2,000 yards; a destroyer 1,800 or even 1,000 yards outside this range has the best of the chances for discharging its torpedo. Com- mander Seuter declares that "rigid armor plates, with many butting joints and armor bolts, are no defense against the shattering effect of a torpedo." Wing bulkheads, that is, armored inner bottoms fitted a few feet inside the outer skins, which are of thin steel plating, have been tried on some of the modern war vessels , notably the "Cesarevitch," seriously damaged in a Jap- anese attack on Port Arthur, but this pro- tection is decried because of the danger of water-logging of spaces outside the armor protection, but inside the ship, resulting in serious heeling of the vessel, or, possibly, in absolute instability. Recently the old British battleship "Belle- isle" was sunk in Portsmouth harbor by the explosion of a torpedo under her hull, and so disastrous was the effect of the explosion that it took a month to get the vessel afloat again, although she was only in shal- low water. The object of the torpedo ex- periment was to ascertain whether cellulose material made of corn pith could be relied upon to prevent the inrush of water when a ship had a big hole knocked in her bottom. Accordingly on "Belleisle's" hull, ten feet be- low waterline, a section had been constructed representing the double bottom of a modern battleship, and this was packed with cellu- lose. The "Belleisle" was towed to Farehani ENCYCLOPEDIA 215 creek, in Portsmouth harbor, and a torpedo warhead charged with guncotton exploded under the false bottom by oflBcers of his majesty's ship "Vernon" at the Portsmouth torpedo school. Not only was the false bot- tom blown to pieces and the cellulose sent high up into the ^ir with the volume of water that followed the explosion, but a big hole was also made in the ship's bottom. The Liverpool Salvage Company undertook to raise her, but the task has been a diflBcult one, owing to the soft nature of the bottom. As fast as the mud was cleared away to enable the divers to work up the rent, the next tide would bring more mud back. At length a cofferdam was constructed inside the ship, and eight pumps, each capable of discharging great volumes of water, Avere kept at work, with the result that the old battleship was floated and placed in dry dock. It was evident that she had sustained serious damage, for the vessel had a big list to port as she was being towed across the. harbor, and two pumps were discharging an immense volume of water out of her. ^/\ hen the dock had been cleai'ed of water the damaged part of the "Belleisle's" hull was carefully covered up with canvas, so as to prevent unauthor- ized persons from becoming acquainted with the extent of her injuries. Water or compressed air protection are recommended by Commander Sueter as the best agents for minimizing the effects of an explosion. He says: "All compartments should be flooded, and subjected to a severer water pressure test before launching than that now customary. Each compartment should be tested like a tank to resist a water pressure varying from 40 pounds to 50 pounds on the square inch, without undue weeping of rivets. If the design allowed for spaces over the vital parts being filled with water or compressed air when in the vicinity of a coast where danger from submarines or torpedo-boats may be expected, the ship would then suf- fer the minimum damage by a successful torpedo attack. Ordinarily the compart- ments would be left empty. The ship would then have a higher freeboard and a higher gun platform for fighting in the open sea. A saving of weight might be obtained by doing away with ammunition passages, water-tight doors and fittings, substituting a tank system of cellular compartments, any one of which could be flooded easily and rapidly, or filled with compressed air by air compressors. "The interior of a ship having such a tank system should be built in the form of an internal ship, quite 10 to 15 feet from the outer skin, so that the inner skin could not more than slightly be pierced by an ex- plosion. The amount of the water cushion or compressed air protection round the sides of a ship would, of course, have to be calculated so as to allow of a maximum space outside the engines and magazine. "Battleships and cruisers should be mod- ified and split up into cellular compart- ments. The center of gravity of each cellular space can be calculated from the designs, and if several compartments on one side of Hole Made at Waterline by a Japai\ese SHell the ship were injured and filled with watei-, their opposite compensating compartments would be brought into use, and there would still be an ample margin of buoyancy. If large emergency Kingston doors were fit- ted so that abundant volumes of water could at once be let into special compart- ments to compensate, however large an in- jury were made, an even keel could be kept if the compensating compartments were at once flooded. "No communication should be allowed from one compartment to another, except through manholes (not doors), which can be closed with great rapidity from below and on deck. If doors cannot be eliminated there should be as few as possible, and nearly all communication should be from the upper deck, for every door and hole in a water-tight bulkhead is a grave weak- ness. Fire mains, electric wires and steam pipes are indiscriminately run through the 216 ENCYCLOPEDIA DEMAND FOR EXPERT MINING ENGINEERS. XHe Formidable Ram-Stem bulkheads, and are often not quite water- tight. All barbettes and similar parts of tlie ship sliould be made more water-tight than at present." It is probable that in the future the ram- stem in battleships will be abolished. Naval authorities argue that were one of our high-speed modern war vessels, while go- ing at a good rate, to ram another ship with intent to sink it, the attacking vessel would herself suffer terrible damage; that guns would be dismounted, rivets loosened and boilers would burst. In short, the vessel would be totally disabled. The ram was first fitted to vessels of the "Hotspur" class, but since that time, there have been such rapid changes both in speed of warships and in projectiles that the con- ditions are now entirely different. BIG RAILWAY CAR-BUILDING PLANT FOR MONTREAL. Montreal is to have a new car plant rep- resenting $3,000,000 capital and with a capacity for turning out 25 wooden cars, 15 steel cars and 15 passenger coaches a day. The works will also have a capacity for steel underframes for 25 cars a day and 30 or 40 steel-truck frames. From 1,500 to 2,000 men will be employed, with a pay roll of from $75,000 to $125,000 per month, and between 500 and 600 tons of material will be handled per day. Mining engineering offers an attractive field to the young engineer, not only in op- portunities to rise in his profession, but in the financial returns. At the annual meet- ing of the South Staffordshire (England) Institute of Mining Engineers, the president, Prof. Redmayne, pronounced the problem of deep mining, one which will demand the increasing attention of the profession. He stated that tapered ropes are not neces- sary down to 5,000 feet; that compressed air can be vised where electric coal cutters are dangerous, but the compressors may be operated by electric motors. That the difficult problems in deep mining are heat, ventilation and crush due to pressure. He said: "I know of no other calling, unless it be that of a medical practitioner, which makes so many and great demands upon one's in- telligence, physical endurance, and moral strength, as that of mining engineer; foi*, besides being an all-round miner, he has to have more than an elementary acquaint- ance of the allied sciences and their appli- cations, and being in daily contact with large bodies of workmen, has to learn to feel for them while working with them. Indeed, he has to be possessed in no small degree of that estimable quality which we name tactfulness; and few men have to be more resourceful in dangerous emergen- cies." ♦ » » ELECTRIC RAILWAY POWER FROM GAS ENGINES. A somewhat unique departure from es- tablished methods in electric traction has recently been undertaken at Warren, Pa. The Warren & Jamestown Street. Railway Company is eqiiipping an alternating cur- rent single-phase electric railway system to operate between Warren, Pa., and James- town, N. Y., for which power will be sup- plied by gas engines operating upon na- tural gas. The equipment now being constructed will include two gas engines of 500-horsepower each, direct connected to two 260 k. w. generators. Five transformer substations will receive the high tension current from the transmission line and re- duce the voltage for use in single-phase motors. The company has operated a por- tion of its lines for three j'ears with current generated by a gas engine. ENCYCLOPEDIA 217 AUTOMATIC DANGER SIGNAL FOR COMBINED MUFFLER AND WHISTLE FOR BROKEN BRIDGES. GAS ENGINES. An automatic signal for broken bridges, which will display the danger sign at both sides of the structure and far enough away Danger Signal for Broken Bridges. to enable even the fastest trains to stop iu time is suggested in the Locomotive En- gineer. The method proposed is a system of electric wires extending along all the principal girders and beams of the entire structure. If any one of these is harmed the wires would break and instantly cause electric danger signals to show at what- ever distance and at such points as de- sired. HEAT FROM FIREPLACE LIGHT. WITHOUT To warm a room from a fireplace and at the same time ■ keep the room dark, have a tinner construct a black sheet-iron box or screen, as shown in the cut. The bottom Heat From a Fireplace Without Light. and side of the box next the fire should be left out. Punch holes around the bottom to admit air to the fire. Nearly as much heat will result, and the smoke and light of the fire will be shut in. A combined muffler and whistle for gas engines is being placed on the market. The head is not rigidly secured to the body, but is held in place by a stiff coiled spring. If an explosion occurs iu the muffler the head will be forced out of place sufficiently to permit the excess pressure to escape without doing any damage, and will reseat itself. A chime whistle is placed in the head and sounded by the pressure of the Combined Muffler and Whistle for Gas Engines. exhaust, and by turning the head on its axis a sort of butterfly valve cut-out is opened. The device can easily be attached by anyone familiar with the use of gasoline motors. ELECTRIC MAIL WAGONS IN PARIS. Many of the mail wagons in Paris are now electric-propelled vehicles, weighing 4,200 pounds, and carry a load of 1,100 pounds of mail. Storage batteries weighing Electric Cars in Postal Service. 1,320 pounds furnish current sufficient to last for a 37-mile trip. The Motor Age says the new wagons carry twice as much mail as the former horse-drawn vehicles and travel much faster. 218 ENCYCLOPEDIA HOW TO PRODUCE COLORED PHOTO- GRAPHS OF FERN LEAVES. A correspondent in the Photo Beacon gives the following details of how to ar- range leaves and produce pictures of Nature's coloring; From my collection of leaves, I select those combining beauty of form with transparency, and arrange them in designs according to taste, fixing them with gum on very thin paper. When dry, I wash off with a small brush and cold water any gum that may appear on the surface. To give the paper- a rich appear- ance and make it transparent, I coat the back of the design with a solution— castor oil, methylated spirit and sulphuric ether, in equal proportions. I then press the de- sign between two pieces of blotting-paper. When thoroughly dry, 1 place it in a photo- graphic printing frame (to which glass is fitted), with the leaves uppermost. On the leaves, I place a sheet of printing-out paper, with, of course, the sensitized side to the leaves, close the frame and expose to the light. Leaves take two or three days to print unless the sun is strong. They should re- main apparently overprinted. When I think the photograph of the design is ready, I take it out of the frame and put it in a bath of hypo for 10 or 15 minutes. This bath soon disposes of the overprinting to which I have referred. No toning is necessary, but after the hypo bath the photograph must be well washed in cold, running water for at least an hour. No camera is required. The first photo produced will be a negative. A positive may be had by using the negative in exactly the same way as the design was used. <» « » HOW TO MEND CRACKED NEGATIVES. Cracks in negatives, says a writer in Der Amateur Photograph, in which the film has not been damaged, need not be re- paired by floating off the film, but can be mended as follows: Over the glass side of the negative a mixture of one part of turpentine and one part of Canada balsam is poured so that it will penetrate into the crack. The surplus is removed by a rag dipped in benzine. In copying, the crack, it is said, will be absolutely Invisible. The difficulty of handling such a negative may be overcome by binding it to another plate in lantern slide fashion. ENCYCLOPEDIA 219 Mitcliellitey tHe Ne^r Smokeless Explosive. Six Times as Strong as Dynamite, but Blasts Otxt RocK in Any Desired SHape—Safe to Handle— Freezes at 45° Belovr Zero— Produces No Gas. Experiments made recently with a new explosive known as "Mitehellite" indicate tlie discovery of a substance wliich is liliely to revolutionize one of the most important branches of mechanics. The tests were made on November 24th and 25th at the Jol- iet quarries of the Western Stone company, under the auspices of the directors of a powder company, the owner of the new ex- plosive, and the expert employed for such tests by the stone company. Results of the tests showed some interesting features con- nected with "Mitchellite." A number of blasts were made with dif- ferent sized charges of the new material and it was found to be possible to loosen tlie stone in any desired size of blocks ac- cording to the number and position of the holes drilled in the stone, the size and char- acter of the cutting being completely con- trolled by the explosion according to the desire of the experimenters. This is said to be impossible with any other explosive hitherto invented. A tree three feet in di- ameter was blown out of the ground by the explosion of one half pound of the sub- stance, leaving a hole twenty feet deep and twelve feet across where the tree had stood. The explosion of "Mitchellite" produces no generation of noxious gases whatever and operators are thus enabled to enter mines or tunnels immediately after a blast has been fired. In using any otlier kind of ex« plosive in a confined space it is found nec- essary to suspend operations after a blast for from twenty-five to thirty minutes in order to give the atmosphere a chance to clear. Used in cartridges "Mitchellite" shows a maximum of penetrative power Avith a min- imum of recoil. A steel bullet fired out of a rifle by means of the substance penetrated a steel rail one half inch in diameter; an- other was forced entirely through a tree three feet thick and eighteen inches into another placed next to it. The new explosive resembles coral in ap- pearance, being white and pink in color. It is considerably lighter than dynamite. In the crude state it appears in lumps but in use it is in granulated form somewhat coarser than granulated sugar. It can be fired only by an electric spark with a per- cussion cap and is thus perfectly safe to handle. When ignited it burns slowly like red fire. It freezes at a temperature of 45 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. (Dynamite and nitro glycerine freeze at 40 degrees above zero Fahrenheit.) Its use, therefore, obviates the neces.sity and danger of thaw- ing out the explosive in case of freezing. It can be exploded in water as well as dry. Holes in 1>2 incH Steel Plate, made by Bullets Fired by "Mitcbellite" One half pound of the substance Avas found to do the work of three pounds of dynamite, showing that it is six times as strong as the latter explosive. Owing to the destructive effect of the use of dynamite in macerating the underlying strata and thus rendering it useless for fu- ture blasting the stone company has aban- doned its use, preferring ordinary gunpow- der. This objection does not obtain in the use of "Mitchellite," the underlying strata being practically unaffected. At the conclu- sion of the experiments made at the quarry the company's expert stated that the tests were perfectly satisfactory and that, in his opinion, there was a fortune in the new ex- plosive. The substance is named after its inventor, a Mr. Mitchell. It was first produced about a year ago and is already on the market at a retail price of twelve cents a pound (four cents cheaper than dynamite.) Analysis failed to fully determine the composition of the material and the secret remains with the inventor. 220 ENCYCLOPEDIA Novel Double Deck Street Car. THis Car VTill Seat 48 People on the Upper DecK. An open summer car, placed on top of a standard closed street car, is the latest type of double-deckers. Such cars are in use in Minneapolis. Tiie open car portion is thus really a street car without wlieels. Tlie upper deck is reached by spiral stair- ways placed at each eud of the closed car. In the winter the upper, or open car, is re- moved and the ordinary closed car is left. The Street Railway Journal says: "This car will seat 48 people on the upper deck, in addition to the capacity be- low of 51 seated and 65 standing. This is a remarkable achievement for a 45-foot car. The entire weight of the car and equipment is only about 26 tons. SELLING SUBMARINES TO BELLIG- ERENTS. It is common knowledge that several pri- vate shipyards in this country have ac- cepted and fulfilled large contracts for sub- marine boats for both Japan and Russia. This has brought up the question as to whether such contracts are a breach of neu- trality on the part of the government of the United States. In this regard a reliable authority on international law says: "It is fully recognized that a vessel com- pletely armed and in every respect fitted, the moment it receives its crew, to act as a man-of-war, is a proper subject of com- merce. There is nothing to prevent its neu- tral possessor from selling it and under- taking to deliver it in the neutral port or in that of the purchaser, subject to the right of the belligerent to seize it as con- traband if he meets it on the high seas or within his enemy's waters. 'There is noth- ing,' says Mr. Justice Story, delivering tho opinion of the United States Supreme Court in the case of Sautissima Trinidad, 'in the law of nations that forbids our citizens from sending armed vessels as well as munitions of war to foreign ports for sale. It is a commercial adventure which no nation is bound to prohibit.' If the neutral may sell his vessel when built, he may build it to order, and it must be permissible, as be- tween the belligerent and the neutral state, to give the order which it is permissible to execute. It Avould appear, therefore, argu- ing from general principles alone, that a vessel of war may be built, armed and fur- nished with a minimum navigating crew, and that in this state, provided it has not received a commission, it may clear from p. neutral harbor on a confessed voyage to a belhgercnt port without any infraction of neutrality having been committed." This is the view repeated in sense by sev- eral other authorities. Since the Civil War armed ships, constructed in this country and supplied to foreign countries while in a state of belligerency, have been a common incident of our industrial condition and one to which no exception has been officially taken by any country. ENCYCLOPEDIA 221 WHere Millions of Dollars are Made. THe Great Press Room at tHe Bureau of En^ravin^ and Printing, IVasKin^ton, D. C. The heavy silvor and gleaming gold an- nually converted into the coin of the realm at the government mints, represent but a fraction of tlie total value in currency, rev- enue and postage stamps, notes, bonds and other securities which during the year go througli the presses of that leviathan insti- tution, the government printing olRce. Into the numerous buildings, wareliouses and of- fices required to accommodate the Bureau of Printing and Engraving every week-day morning troop thousands of employes, men and women, young, middle-aged, old and aged, people of every degree, cluaracter and type up io the number of 3,691. Here they grind out the reports of committees, execu- tives, departments, consuls, in short, all the credentials a great nation presents to the people Avhose money it expends. Here some- times, when the stress of national affairs de- mands it, will be found another gigantic force toiling away the still hours of the night. Last year there was appropriated for the use of the Bureau, $6,000,000, and now the government is preparing to expend a quarter of a million in enlarging an institution that already includes large stables where are carefully sheltered and cared for the horses used in connection with the printing estab- lishment, printing papers warehouse, whence are issued daily thousands of reams of pa- per and where is stored with jealous care the paper upon which United States cur- rency is printed and no paper is given out of this warehouse without a certified order; binders' warehouse, where are stored the supplies required in the bindery; a huge foundry, where is plated hundreds of thou- sands of quarto and octavo pages, and huge vaults for the storing of such plates as are for preservation. These usually include re- ports of scientific and educational nature, such reports as are apt to be called for a second time. Many plates are remelted af- ter the required number of copies have been printed from them. Tlie vaults have a ca- pacity for upwards of 4,000,000 plates. Of all the people employed in the gov- ernment printing offices "2,920 are at work 222 E N C Y C L O P E D I A _ ^ m l^jljjo^ B J^H^^M j^^l 1 w^^ ^^1 Counting Currency. making United States notes, bonds, internal revenue stamps, postage stamps, custom G camps, etc. Naturally the product of such employes is watched and safeguarded hy every means possible. All the printing is cone on old-fashioned hand presses, each of which requires two operatives. Currency is printed on-sbeots each of which contain four or five bins, while postage stamps are struck off in sheets ol four hundred. The Bureau has many unique machines that almost think. One of these is the wonderful geo- metrical lathe v.hich makes the intricate de- signs on the back of bank notes and an- other is a numbering machine which auto- matically numbers currency from 1 to 1.000,000,000. The operations of the Bureau are surrounded with every precaution and the newly made money is counted fifty-four times during its transit through the insti- tution. In 1902 new designs for both the backs and faces for notes of the denominations of five, ten, fifteen, twenty, fifty and one hundred were engraved and this required that a gigantic force be kept busy day and night. On regular time $3,704,491.65 are paid out annually in salaries to the printing office employes. Much of the printed matter is now regarded as so much unnecessary ex- pense and, probably, its volume will soon be greatly reduced. A large reserve of United States notes and silver certificates is always kept in the Treasury vaults. Officials are always glad to see this reserve increase, as it gives the certificates time to become well seasoned and adds to their appearance and wearing qualities. HEAT WITHOUT FUEL. A colored man of St. Joseph, Mo., has in- vented an apparatus which he believes will in time do away with combustion for all purposes, except, possibly, foundry furnaces or similar cases where great heat is re- quired. Friction is the agency which the inventor proposes to use for producing heat and he has built a working model about three feet in length to demonstrate his idea. It con- sists of a steel tube surrounded by a jacket and inside of the tube a wooden roller cut into four triangular sections and arranged about a steel shaft. The wooden roller is five inches in diameter and the inside of the tube in which it runs is six inches in diam- eter. The water chamber outside of the tube is ten inches in diameter, leaving four inches in the water chamber. WATCH INSPECTION FOR BIG RAILWAY SYSTEMS. £n|fravin^ Postage Stamps* The duties of a traveliug watch inspector for a big railway system are much more arduous than one might imagine. One sys- tem pays $18,000 per year for this purpose only. It takes the assistant inspector two years to visit all the inspection points on the lines and each test of a watch lasts 72 hours. If it varies six seconds in that time, it is rejected. ENCYCLOPEDIA PRIVATE ELECTRIC FIRE APPARATUS. Many property owners in the business dis- tricts of large cities are taliiug warning fi'om the Baltimore and the Toronto fires and installing private fire protection appa- ■ ratus. The Baltimore Fire Department ad- mits that many buildings on the immediate margin of .the devastated tract Avere saved only by tlie effective work of private ap- paratus. These buildings were supplied apparatus in Baltimore were valued at $5,- 000,000, and at Toronto the saving from private protection was similar in extent. The advantage is that the apparatus is on the ground in position and ready for ac- tion, whereas a fire is usually well under ■way before the city fire companies can ar- rive, arrange their hose lines and make nec- essary couplings and connections. A drench- ing of the entire building is then often re- quired, Avhile a comparatively small amount Electric Fire Protection Apparatus — Always Ready. with either stand pipes or pumps connected with wet-pipe interior sprinklers and dry- pipe sprinklers for protection from outside fires, storage tanks holding from 1,500 to 15,000 gallons being placed on the roofs. Besides saving the buildings in which they were located these equipments stopped the advance of the fire, and undoubtedly many more buildings would have been destroyed in the absence of their efficient service. The buildings and contents protected by private of water Avould have put out the fire in the first place. A very interesting installation of private fire protection apparatus was recently made in a big Chicago department store. The ap- paratus is operated by electric power which is always available in a city and causes the least delay possible. The outfit consists of a duplex pump connected by single-reduc- tion gearing to a water-proof electric motor. The pump cylinders are 8 inches in diameter 224 ENCYCLOPEDIA by 12 inches stroke, having a theoretical ca- pacity of 700 gallons per minute at 600 R. P. M. against 140 pounds water pressure. The illustration gives a good general idea of the pump, showing the special attach- ments and the large pressure and vacuum chambers I'equired by insurance companies. The pump is thoroughlj^ rust-proof in all moving or wearing parts, insuring prompt and smooth running when occasion arises. The motor is shunt wound for 220 R. P. M. at 230 volts and is enclosed, all connections being carried through pipes screwed into the frame, so that the device may be flooded without affecting its action. The fields and armature coils are cooled by fans on the armature shaft, the ventilator intake and outlet being visible in the photograph. With such an apparatus hardly an emer- gency covild arise in which it could not be relied upon. The use of electric power is more economical than steam in that there is no stand-by or maintenance expense. ♦-»♦ FLOATING MOTOR HOUSEBOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI. Among all the queer craft that have navi- gated the Mississippi in the vicinity of St. Louis this year, none has attracted more attention than a houseboat which appears to be fitted with a huge paddle wheel almost as large again as the boat, and which is, in fact, a paddle wheel and motor drum combined. "The Qreat Wheel is Almost as Iiarge Again as the Boat' This wheel is 12 feet in diameter, 5i^ feet wide and its outer circumference is cov- ered in checkerboard effect with buckets, 3 inches deep, four rows of 32 buckets each extending entirely around the wheel. The boat and the wheel each floats on its own keel. The wheel rests in the water at the center of a catamaran boat platform. The paddle-wheel-motor-drum is open in the center of each side and in one side has a door through which "Nig.," the motor, is admitted. "Nig" is a pony who treads the great wheel and causes it to revolve, thus propelling the boat. He is hitched in a pair of shafts, and climbs the wheel as a squir- rel does in a revolving cage. "Nig" is considered a character among Mississippi rivermen, who all know him. The inventor of the houseboat, Charles Mar- tell, a French Canadian carpenter, believes old wheels of river boats can be utilized in this manner and that such craft will some day cause the Mississippi to teem again witli traffic. ♦ * » AUTOMATIC SCULPTORS. A Berlin inventor has succeeded in per- fecting a new automatic sculptor which copies models in every particular just like the originals. This is the second invention of this nature, but the first works horizon- tally while this works vertically. The oper- ation of the machine is as follows: The statue-Copying Machine in Operation. operator swings down the delicately-poised frame on to the dummy; the pointer is hover- ing over the model to be copied, and in- stantly the revolving drills cut into the rough blocks of wood or stone, shaping them speedily as the point is moved to and fro. According to the capacity of the ma- chine from two to eight copies may be made of any model in relief or intaglio. The largest machine can do the work of twenty-six highly-paid craftsmen. E N C Y ( ' T. O r E D I A 22.') ASPHALT PAVING HEATS HORSES' SHOES. A horse shod with metal shoes should not be driven rapidly on an asphalt pave- ment. The heat produced will not onlj^ be painful to the horse, but may seriously in- jure him. One of our subscribers recently called to relate his experience in driving on asphalt pavement. He was riding horse- back in company with a friend, when the two engaged in a friendly race. After they had gone about a mile, his friend's horse threw a shoe. Going back to the place the rider dismounted and picked up the shoe, which was so hot it not only severely blis- tered his hand, but did not cool so it could be taken up for several minutes. At each step the horse slips a little, and this con- stant rapid sliding of the metal shoe, under weight, upon the sand contained in the pavement, generated a high degree of heat. TRANSPORTING THE WOUNDED ON GERMAN WAR VESSELS. The German navy has adopted a method of transferring sick or wounded men from one vessel to another or sending them ashore, which is claimed to be very com- fortable for the patient and a most con- Lacing the Patient in the Canvas Shroud. venient way of handling helpless bodies. The device is at least unique. The sick man is first laced up in a stout canvas shroud and, after this operation, looks as though he might have been re- moved from some ancient Egyptian tomb. The back is stiffened so there is no possi- bility of the patient's bending, and the sides are provided with strong rope handles. The upper rings of the canvas casing are then bent on to the raising tackle, and the sick man is sent up a steel chute in the twink- ling of an eye. Sending the Patient up a Steel Chute. HOW TO STRAIGHTEN PAPER. Who has not been annoyed by blue prints, drawings or other papers which, having been rolled for some time, ■•efused to lie flat when in use? And yet it is a very simple matter to straighten the paper so that it will give no more trouble. Hold the paper l)y the corners or by the ends and draw down over the sharp corner of the drawing board or table, or else lay the hand on the sheet at the table edge and draw the sheet through with the other. In this way it can be easilv straightened. 226 ENCYCLOPEDIA NEW FIRE BOAT FOR MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL. A new fire boat, the "Firefly," has been built for the Manchester, England, Ship Canal. It is the largest ever built in Eng- land, and cost $50,000. It is 90 feet long The "Firefly," Fire and Salvage Steamer for Use on the Manchester Ship Canal. by 23 feet beam, but only draws 3 feet; speed 8 Ivuots; propellers, twin screw type. Two pumps have a capacity of 2,000 gal- Ions, and two salvage pumps, centrifugal type, deliver 2,500 gallons per minute. Two 31/4-inch streams were thrown to a height of 100 feet. ♦ • » THE HYDROVOLVE, A NEW FORM OF WATER WHEEL. A new water wheel of a construction com- bining features of both the overshot wheel and the turbine has recently been patented in several countries. The important feature of this new wheel, which is called the Diacn^m of Hydrovalve. hydrovolve, is the peculiar construction of the buckets which carry the water to the point of exit, where a reactionary effect which utilizes all the remaining force of the water takes place as it leaves the buckets, so that the water in the tail is al- most quiet instead of, as with many older types of wheels and with turbines, whirl- ing and swirling, full of unused energy. The construction of the hydrovolve is shown in the sketch. It consists of a hor- izontal axis, a, a closed shrouding, b, and a partially closed paddle box, thus forming a circular channel bent around a central point opening out. The paddles and cells, c, within this circular channel are of peculiar construction. There are two rows of buck- ets, the first of Avhich form cells with the shrouding itself, and the second row be- ing cells of which the inner rims are lower than the outer ones, the walls of the inside circle of buckets forming outlets for this second row. When a pair of these upper cells are filled the water flows over inside the wheel to the next pair of cells and so on through all the pairs of cells in turn to the point of exit. This loads the rim of the wheel to the full half of its periphery and gives a very great starting power. The re- actionary effect at the exit is caused by the water passing from the inside over the outer buckets to escape. The wheel in the sketch is drawn to a scale of 1:40 and is adapted to a fall of 7 feet 2% inches with a flow of 122,044 cujbic inches per second. The dimensions of this wheel are as follows: diameter, 67 inches; depth, 19% inches; width, 9 feet 10 inches. The wheel develops 54 effective horsepower. ♦-•-♦ FIRST GASOLINE ROAD ROLLER IN ENG- LAND. The illustration shows the first gasoline road roller which was recently built in England. The machine weighs 16 tons, has a 25-horsepower engine, which consumes 8 gallons per day. The rear wheels are the drivers, and reverse is secured through a double friction clutch. The cooling wa- ter is carried in the lower tank shown, and circiilation effected by a pump. The First aasoUne Bead Boiler ENCYCLOPEDIA 227 MOTOR BOATS FOR OCEAN RACES. HOW MIRRORS ARE MADE. Motor boats for crossing the ocean in the contemplated competition should be nearer 400 feet than 40 feet, declares Mr. W. E. H. Humphries, an Englishman and a practical motorist of wide experience. He says: "The conditions of the race are that the boats shall be able to travel at a speed of at least 15 knots, shall carry all their own fuel, lubricating oil, and spare parts, and shall start with at least six persons on Silver has Taken the Place of Mercury The making of modern mirrors consists first in ridding the glass to be used of all defects and then silvering. If the mirror is to be beveled, additional operations of beveling and preparing the glass precede the silvering. Nowadays silver has, to quite an extent, taken the place of mercury in this industry. Inhere tHe Silverizk^ is Done board. This rules out of the contest all small racing craft. The normal consumption of a petrol engine may be regarded as 1 pint per horsepower per hour, which means that for every 100 horsepower of the engine there is consumed approximately 300 gal- tons per day. With a 15-knot boat the pass- age from Havre to New York might be ex- pected to occupy from twelve to fifteen days. Hence for every 100 horsepower of the engine it will be necessary to carry 4,500 gallons of fuel, occupying approxi- mately 723 cubic feet of space and weigh- ing 15 tons, or more, if fuels heavier and less efficient than petrol be employed. To complete the absurdity, the Calais-Dover racer would require, to enable it to cross the Atlantic, a bulk of petrol of greater weight and greater displacement than the boat itself. In selecting glass suitable for mirrors, the experienced workman, by placing a piece of black cloth behind the glass, and looking through at an angle, quickly discovers all defects. Even the scratches and stains must be removed in the making of a really good mirror. Scratches are removed by holding the glass upon an upright buffing wheel cov- ered with felt. The stains are removed by a device known as a "blocking machine." Unless it is to be beveled a glass free from stains and scratches is ready for silvering. For beveled mirrors, plate glass is used. The bevel is obtained by holding the glass against a horizontal roughing wheel, sand and water also playing an important part in the operation. The bevel, like the sur- face, must also be polished. An emery wheel is used to remove the sand and clean the surface. Then after being held against a 228 E N C Y (' T. O P E D J A Buffing the Beveled Qlass. horizontal gnndstone, a polishing wheel with pumice stone is used. To brighten the glass, a buffing wheel with rouge upon it is emploj^ed. At least three things are claimed for silver in place of mercury in the making of mir- rors. In the first place, that it reflects more light; secondly, that mirrors can be turned out in less time, and, in the third place, that the work is made more healthy for the employes. In silvering a modern mirror, after the glass has been freed from defects and sufficiently polished and washed, a preparation that will hold the silver is poured on. Next the glass is removed to a perfectly smooth table which is heated by steam. As the silver solution is poured upon this table a goodly per cent of it at once begins to adhere, the remainder later being drained off. Over the back, shellac is then applied to keep out the moisture. In the earlier days of mirror- making, sheets of tin foil were first placed upon the surface of the glass and pressed closely to it, after which it was covered with quick- silver, the quicksilver at once forming an amalgam with the tin. Various methods are employed in making mirrors where quick- silver is used. GAIN IN QUICKSILVER PRODUCTION IN 1903. An official report says that the production of quicksilver in the United States during 1903 amounted to 35,620 flasks of 76% pounds each, valued at $1,544,934, an in- crease in quantity of 1,329 flasks and in value of $77,086 over 1902. California and Texas mines are the largest producers of the metal. Holding the Glass Upon the Horizontal Smoothing Wheels. ENCYCLOPEDIA LoMT Tide in tKe Harbor of Panama. 229 Courtesy tf SmiLhS-i JPcene at Lcvir Tide in tHe Harbor of Panama. In the illustration is shown a most un- usual scene characteristic of the harbor of Panama at low tide. Across the little isth- mus on the Atlantic side at Colon the range of tide is only one foot, but on the Pacific side it is 20 feet. During low tide the ships rest on the beach where the loading and unloading is carried on quite as though the place were never covered with deep water. Wagons and horses, native laborers, sailors, boxes and casks crowd the shores. High tide finds them all removed, and the crews and cargoes aboard the vessels ready to be floated again upon the accommodating deep. NAPHTHALINE AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR GASOLINE. In countries not so rich as ours in nat- ural supplies of petroleum, a great deal of experimenting is done in an effort to find a substitute for gasoline as fuel in Internal combustion motors. As a result, in France automobiles using alcohol as fuel are in competition with those using gasoline and in England, where alcohol is heavily taxed, there is one car in which kerosene has been successfully substituted. Two French engineers, however, have produced the best substitute yet tried, hav- ing perfected a method of using solid fuel- naphthaline. In this system a reservoir con- tains the fuel which is liquefied and sprayed into the engine cylinder and carries with it enough air to insure proper combustion. The one drawback to this system is that to secure the high temperature required for the vaporization of the solid fuel the pre- liminary use of gasoline is involved. Naphthaline is an inexpensive coal tar by- product and is familiar to every one in the form of moth balls. ♦ •» The ordinary watch cannot be used on submarine boats, but a special Avatch, the construction of whicli conforms with the conditions within the underwater craft, is necessary. These watches cost from $75 to $100. None is manufactured in the United States as yet for watchmakers are loth to invest for the first order of them. 230 ENCYCLOPEDIA CONSTRUCTION OF A GAS TURBINE- ENGLISH INSTITUTE PRONOUNCES UNFAVORABLY. The success of the steam turbine is stim- ulating builders of gas engines to perfect a gas turbine. Such a machine in small pow- ers would be welcomed by automobile and launch owners. A 200-horsepower gas tur- bine is being built by the Stolze Gasturbine Company, of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Ger- many, to which we are indebted for the particulars given below: In this engine atmospheric air is com- pressed to a moderate tension, say 1^^ atmos. above atmospheric pressure, and heated afterwards so as to assume a 2 or 21/4 fold volume at the same tension, after which the air is allowed to expand down again to atmospheric pressure. The excess of work performed over the absorbed energy is thus due to the increase in volume re- sulting from the heating. Two sets of turbines of different design are mounted on a common axle. One of these serves as air compressor, while the other drives the shaft by means of the heated air. Either set consists of several rows of guiding vanes, fitted to the engine casing and of several rows of running vanes of a corresponding design, being fitted to a common rotating cone which turns round along with the shaft. Now, one of these turbine systems sucks in the fresh air, com- pressing it to a given tension through a preheater (heated with exhaust gases) and driving the greater part of it into a chamber lined with fireproof material. The smaller part is conveyed beneath the grate of a pro- ducer where it serves to gasefy a conven- ient fuel. The gas thus formed penetrates into the chamber alluded to, to be burnt there by the compressed air in suitable burners to carbonic acid and water vapor, while evolving large amounts of heat. These gases next penetrate into the second turbine system, where they are allowed to expand in traversing the various steps, thus yield- ing useful work. The process is thus analogous to the cycle performed in all combustion engines, con- sisting of a suction of air, that is followed by the compression of the same, the mixing with fuel, combustion, expansion and sub- sequent discharge. A distinguishing feat- ure is, however, that the mixing takes place after compression and the combustion at constant pressure. On the other hand the Institute of Me- chanical Engineers (England), at its Octo- ber session, expressed its belief that "a gas turbine is, for the time being, at all events, mechanically impossible." The Engineer, London, says editorially: "There is not in existence, and possibly never can be, a commercial gas turbine; and the main value of the discussion. lies in its power to serve as a guide, and prevent the waste of money on impossible combina- tions of mechanism. The paramount diffi- culty lies in the circumstance that the moving gas has to be admitted to the tur- bine at a temperature which would at once raise the blades to a bright red heat. As the gas must contain free oxygen the steel blades would be "burned" in a few hours. It is true that suggestions were made for the cooling of the blades by water, but we must take account with centrifugal force; and it is very far from easy to see how Avater could be used without upsetting the very delicate balance of the wheel. So great is the temperature difficulty that we might almost leave the discussion of the questions raised here; but even about im- possible engines there are points worth dis- cussing, and it is indisputable that much ingenuity has been manifested by Mr. Par- sons and others in trying to devise methods of keeping the wheels cool. For example, the hot gas jet acts at one diameter of the wheel while a cold-water jet is projected on it at another. "The first condition of success Is, of course, that gas shall be available to work the turbine. Now, in a reciprocating en- gine the gas is fired in a cylinder, behind a piston, and produces driving pressure. Nothing of this kind can take place in the turbine. The only conceivable turbine, we think, driven by gas must be one working on the De Laval principle, because in it a wheel might run red hot, being as it is, so to speak, free 'in the open'; but the mate- rial has yet to be found which would endure the centrifugal effort at the temperature. But let it be supposed that all mechanical difficulties were overcome, and that a fire- clay turbine were possible, actuated by gas in the condition of a white-hot flame. What would be gained, and how much better would the new machine be than the recip- I'ocating gas engine or the steam turbine?" ♦*» Last year the prodiiction of asbestos in the United States was 874 tons, compared with 1,005 tons in 1902. ENCYCLOPEDIA 231 Conning Tourer— Brain of tHe BattlesKip* THe Conning To'wrer is tHe Brain of tHe BattlesHip. From tHis center of intense acti'vity communication leads to ev^ery^ ^workin^ member of tHe sHip. THe en^inest rudder, turrets, pumps, ^uns, torpedoes, si^nals-«all tHese tHin^s are directed from tHe Conning Xo-wrer i>\ time of actioxk. E^irery part of tHe sHip is made respondent to tHe totxcH of a buttozk, tHe movemex&t of a small lever, or verbal ii&» structioxk tbrougfH a perfect system of telepHoxxe coi^z^ection. THe "AutopyropHon," a Neur Automatic Fire Alarm. The "autopyrophon" is a small glass tube bent in the shape of a capital U, one-half of which is filled with mercury and the other with some highly volatile liquid, sul- phuric ether, for instance. The ends of the tube are closed and one of the upper parts is surrounded by a cover of some non-heat conducting material; both parts are fitted with an electric wire melted into the glass. This little appartus, which measures 3.94 inches in height, 2.76 inches in width, and .78 inches in depth, is placed at any con- venient point in a room. If the tempera- ture of the room rises evenly the mercury in the tube stands at equal heights in both ends and the apparatus is not affected, but should a fire break out and the tempera- ture in the room be suddenly raised the ether above the mercury in the glass tube, which is unprotected, evaporates, the pres- sure of the generated vapors causes the mer- cury to sinlc in the tube and rise in the other part completing the electric circuit and electric alarms at any and as many points as desired are set in motion. The appartus acts for an indefinite length of time and it is not necessary to renew the sub- stances. W. F. Wright, United States Consul-Geu- eral at Munich, Germany, who reports this invention, was present at a demonstration in which a fire from a small pile of shav- ings in an ordinary-sized room acted on the apparatus in eight seconds. 232 ENCYCLOPEDIA BORING HOLES IN LOG WATER MAINS. An Eye Witness Tells How It Was ?"Done a Generation Ago. On page 256 appears a description and illustration of an old log water main used in New York City 107 years ago and recently unearthed there. Many were the surmises as to how the hole through the center of the large log had been bored. W. E. Dale, 9f Atlanta, Ga., whose father had charge of the plant for boring holes in the logs used in the first waterworks system of Augusta, Ga., sends us some very interesting informa- tion on this point. Boring the holes was accomplished in a lathe-like machine in which the log was made to revolve instead of the boring tool. This machine was in the shape of a half cylinder, tapering to and having a gimlet point at its axis on one end. At the other end a yoke terminated in a shank that bolted on to the tool rod. The boring tool was some 10 or 12 in. long and from 3 to 4 in. in diameter. A cutting edge extended from the base of the gimlet point tlie entire length of the tool, against which the wood revolved and was cut away and smoothed. Two double flanged, 2-sectioned cast- iron pulleys, with openings in the hub large enough to girdle the log, rested on a casting having a half-circle concavity with same radius as the pulley face and same width as the face; while the flanges, one of which was tootlied, prevented the pulleys from getting out of place. To operate, the half of each pulley was removed, leaving one-half each on the bed casting. A log was then rolled into them and the other halves put on and bolted to- gether. The log was then centered and se- cured by wedging inside the hubs; a pinion, working the toothed flange already men- tioned, imparted motion to the log. The rear end of the tool or carrier-rod was fast- ened to a movable frame working on guide rails set so as to guide the tool along the axis of the revolving log. The operator Avould first start the tool in while standing near the end of the log, so as to have it enter at the axis, he would then go back and push the tool through by shoving on the frame running on the guide rails. The manner of coupling the wooden pipes together when putting them down was very simple and effectual. The couplings were of cast iron, some 14 to 16 i-J.. in length, of same calibre as the log pipe, about % in. thick at each end and gradually increasing in thickness from each end to the center, where they were about 1 in. thick and rein- forced by a bead. The logs had been counter-bored for a sliort distance at each end so as to com- pensate for the thickness of the cast-iron coupling. In coupling together the last log put down would be forced by levers or jackscrews against the coupling until it had become wedged sulRciently to form a water- tight joint. The hydrants were formed by cutting off n piece of the bored log long enough to come 2 or 3 ft. above ground, its lower end con- necting with a tee coupling; top end plugged; a hole bored into the center and a spigot driven in. The pipes were all made from soft yellow pine, 12 to 16 in. diameter, and the springs from which the water came were about three miles from farthest end of the sys- tem. The logs were not peeled or otherwise prepared, except as mentioned, before put- ting down. This system was in use as late as the '70's as an auxiliary to the more mod- ern system. MULTIPLYING WATER POWER. Tlie annexed sketch shows how a Ger- man inventor proposes to make the most possible use of flowing water. The plan consists in making tlie stream operate a series of undershot wheels simultaneously. As these are coupled together, the total power can be collected and transmitted to a shaft or other device. Multiplies IVater Poiver The power of the waterfall multiplied into the number of wheels will be that which drives the machinery. In the sketch the wheels are connected together by means of a chain or belting, and one of them transmits the power to a shaft furnished with a flywheel. ENCYCLOPEDIA 233 TKe "Cumberland" — New Training SHip for American Jackies L>ata.x\chin|^ tHe "Cumberland'* at tHe Boston Navy Yard One of the new additions to the United States navy is the "Cumberland," recently launched at the government navy yards at Boston, Mass. This vessel, which is a steel sailing ship with a length over all of 210 feet 6 inches, draught of 16 feet 5 inches, and a displacement of 1,800 tons, will be used strictly as a training ship to teach young "jackies" how to sail a ship and shoot a gun. The only machinery on board are four engines for auxiliary purposes, such as hoisting, lighting and water con- densing. Accommodations have been provided for 16 commissioned and warrant officers and 320 enlisted men. The battery consists of six 4-inch rapid- fire guns, four 6-pounders, two 1-pounders, and two Colt automatic guns, calibre 30. The cost will be about $370,000. THe "Overland" Mail in THibet Ho-w tHe Mail Ba^s of tHe BritisH Mission to THibet Are Carried BacK to India The bags are carried on rude ekka carts command of the native attendants accom- drawn by yaks. A British soldier is in panying the carts. 234 ENCYCLOPEDIA Bridge Building in tl\e PHilippines The construction of bridges in the Philippines is attended with a good many difficulties, not the least being that the tall trees of from three to fiA^e feet in diameter which are used nearlj- always have bees' nests in their tops and running when the trees fall does not save the men from stings. Moreover, the engineers and native workmen must be at- tended by soldiers to protect them from attacks by Moro war- riors. The trees are felled with tiny axes and then there is neither saw mill or power plant to cut the timber; the work is done with hatchets and axes. The huge, tough roots of the trees are used for pinning the logs to- gether, big bridges often being built without even an iron spike in the whole structure. The bridges are immense pyramids of heavy hardwood logs, with a for weight. Great timbers are Buildin*' a Bridge in tlie PHilippines rock filling laid across the supports and these are covered with a flooring of lumber. The bridge must be heavy to hold against swift currents. ROAD LOCOMOTIVES Road locomotive is the name which is now properly applied to the monster ma- chines wliich are the outgrowtli of the little traction engine of a few years ago. The size, weight and power of the road locomo- tive has increased with the rapidly increas- ing uses to which it is now applied. One of the latest types of road locomo- tives; a machine 25 feet in length, 10 feet wide and measuring 13 feet in height. The rear wheels are 96 inches diameter, 30-incli face; front wheels 54 inches, 14-inch face. The fire box is 58 by 39 by 45 inches; 93 boil- er tubes, 2 inches diameter, 108 inches long; the grate area is 15 square feet, and the en- tire heating surface is 508 square feet. The boiler pressure is 160 pounds; engine speed, 200 revolutions per minute. Tlie tender is of steel and will carry 520 gallons of water, sufficient for three bours, and 1,200 pounds of coal, which will run five hours on ordinary roads. The locomotive has a speed ranging from 2.64 miles to 5.69 miles per hour; the speed being regulated through gearing. Tliis machine is capable of drawing from 40 to 50 tons up grades from 5 to 10 per cent. The levers are all placed on one side for easy control from the engineer's seat. When the good roads movement has se- cured really good roads throughout the coun- try, the movement of farm produce in wagon trains drawn by road locomotives will be a common sight, and will enable tne farmer to choose his line for shipment of freight without regard to his nearest railroad sta- tion. »>» TAKING OUT BRUISES IN FURNITURE. If the bruise is very small all that is nec- essary is to soalt it Avith warm Avater and apply a red-hot poker near the surface, keeping the spot continually wet until the bruise disappears, which will occur in a few moments. For larger bruises or dents Avet the part with Avarm water and double a piece of brown paper five or six times, soak it, lay on the bruise, and then apply on top of the Avetted paper a hot flatiron until the mois- ture has all eA-aporated. Keep this process up until the surface is level. ENCYCLOPEDIA '235 Meteor Aiito» a FrencH Amusement A French pleasure resort has installed the most thrilling loop-the-loop device of any yet in operation. The apparatus is not so far open to the use of the public, which is continually demanding madder sensations, but, strangely enough, a woman, Madame Mauricia de Tiers, takes the seemingly perilous flight night after night, and the sight comes near affording sen- sation enough for even the most daring. The apparatus would, of course, perform the same wonderful feat without an oc- cupant for the little carriage which makes the .iourney, but the insatiable public demands that a human being sliall take the ride with all its risks, though the occupant in. nowise controls the vehicle. At the beginning of the dar- ing feat Madame de Tiers seats herself in the little carriage, which weighs about 882 pounds and is shaped much like an ordinary automobile. It is 3 feet 3 inches wide and 5 feet 2 inches long. The under side of this vehicle is provided with rollers, as shown in the cut, which hold the car on the rails of the track on which it travels. The start is made on a 45- degree incline, which, at a height of 42% feet above the ground, terminates in an arc of a circle, around which the vehicle dashes at a rate of nearly 40 miles an hour, and with a slight backward motion is carried by its momentum out across 33 feet of space, with Avlieels revolving, and is thus turned completely over and strikes a second incline, where the vehicle continues its course until terra firma is again reached. Fig. 1 shows the occupant on this second de- clivity as she always appears after the mad ride, smiling, serene, seemingly wholly un- affected by the perils through which she has just passed. The large view is from an in- stantaneous photograph made for La Nature. The steering wlieel on the auto does not guide the vehicle's movements, but is only for effect XHe Meteor Au.to>«A FrencH IvOO]>«tHe> Loop and I^eap-tHe-Gap Device PORTABLE FLOATING DOCK FOR BALTIC FLEET. A floating workshop is considered indis- pensable to the operations of a modern bat- tle fleet, but Admiral Rozhdestvensky has improved on this, and expects to be able to take a dock with the Baltic fleet out to the Far East. The admiral has given orders for a floating dock consisting of small sec- tions to be built at Odessa with the utmost dispatch. There are to be eighty separate sections, which can be connected up so as to form a dock of different lifting capaci- ties, with a depth over the keel blocks of from 26 feet to 27 feet. This would enable the dock to lift the cruisers of the squadron, although it would not admit some of the l)attleships which have mean draughts of from 26 feet to 29 feet. But as the dock is being built at Odessa, it is evidently in- tended to send it away by the cruiser de- tachment, which will go east by the Supz Canal- 236 ENCYCLOPEDIA u > > 6 o u (0 o S < o ;_, ^^ r/) 1 o C; a lO a y Tl CO CO 02 o O r« s ^ d o ft o o 'SS . o ^ P o ^ a >? IS ^ .S ;zl =w '' 0) ;::^ Oi •S "^ o p: OC 1. o o ^ bc-d r/l" -rt •l-l a a OJ -« a w 3 =^ 0) a a a 11 CD • r-l Ci ,3; c ^ -<*< ^ w f— 1 00 J cS t- CO ■5 ^ a -^ a ^ OJ " -^ -d ^ a 1^ Q^ C (^ T-H 03 n , W5 ^ S ra ^ "-^ a 't! o _ o ;: cj pi .a O 2 '7i a - .0 _; -^ HH =(-( . -d ^ 10 o .1:2 tj p "J a a o a P S o^ .H ^ §^ i oi a !C S « S 02 ^3 a « c r O . Ti a 11 fen 0) ,a s fl) -i-i +-' hr ^a •—I ^ ^< 03 ^ -a a t; a 51-1 P 3 03 0? -d 03 9 C3 i? OS 'r^ a 'a a 0) 03 a 0) a c3 _0! "m C3 ,a 0) -d 03 03 a a u m -a 0) 0) a p: g 0) =1-1 0) b/D a g a bJD 0) OJ 03 03 03 03 03 01 a a a .S 03" 03 O) C3 0) g ci >> -5 =3 H -i-j Cj a ^ ^ ;a H a> n a ^ •^ r-i =1-1 bfj rr Of cS 03 a 03 a 03 a; -d _OJJ bX) a 0) s a bX) +-' 0) 0) "SJD .2 0) H S g -d a; 03 03 _aj 'd 5 0) 03 CS Hi -w cS a; 03 a « . a -3 5i-i 03 CD 0) '3 ,0 a a p Si 0) X 03 03 0) _Q3 0) 05 ci 03 a 0) 03 +-I a ,0 03 2 0: bJD .s 0^ "oj OJ % a a ci 03 s +-> r^ 0) '^ QJ 0) a p bi ci ci -M 0) 0) !t-i T-l m xn OJ 0) 00 O) CO 03 03 a 'bib -CD a a ,a a-a bX) ^ a 03 b« =1-1 P 0) ', 03 .i 03 03 ^ ^ Z; !^ Cd ^ +-■ 03 O -d P O) 03 0) a -^ ii * 03 a a=« 'd OJ feX) O! a « a ci 0^ bX) o) _c n a a -d a 03 .-> OJ .a bxi -^ 03 'd o 03 =t-i ^ s 03 a ii ^ H O) O S ,^ i; 03 a o a.t:; a '^ s a 'd -a .2 fi 3J ,2 5 ft o Oj 03 ^ 'a •42 -d 2 bt a 03 p a I' o ^ S O) ja ■S -d QJ ^ fe-^ -i30:4-i^-r: ac g « o o a '-'.art .2 "? -^ o f^ w a 0) c3 P r: " M g o -ij I— ! 03 :a g o ? o g '^ ■"■ o 5 "^J ~ O T 03 ^ ,a Jj 03 .a _£-, ;:i o a ;^ t:;* 03 a t, rt "d o c .a g a ^ '^« S 03 .a ja 03 Oj J S O +; bX) o ■*-• ■■^ O 2^ o.. J3 03 H ^ -d o OJ > a-^ O 03 SB +J ENCYCLOPEDIA 23: Stii&ken Treasure of Old SpanisK Galleons to be Raised by Compressed Air The sunken treasure ships of Spain are at last to yield their secrets and their treas- ure to the wondering eyes of men. For a period of 200 years they have rested under 90 feet of water on the bed of the Bay of Vigo, half buried by shifting clouds of sand poured upon them by two rivers which flow into the bay. The ships are supposed to contain $140,000,000 of treasure, but all ef- forts by divers to recover it hitherto have been fruitless because of the sand whicli prevented them seeing anything at that depth. Cavaliere Pino, a Spaniard, as his name Pig 1 — Water Telescope. Fig. 3 — Compressed Air Elevator. Fig. 2 — Guns Raised b.v Apparatus. Pig. 4 — Framework of Elevator. Fig. 5 — Inflating the Bags. 238 E N C Y f ' Ti O P K D [ A indicates, has invented an apparatus by wliicli tlie recovering of the sunlien treasure is now assured. It consists of a water-tele- scope, tlie like of Avliich was never before used for wreck-raising purposes. From a steel platform buoyed up by a mass of cork depends a strong steel tube large enough for a man to descend its full length on the steps within. The bottom of the tube is open and through it plays a strong current of compressed air to keep out the water. At the lower end of the tube is a huge camera having 12 powerful lenses which Avere specially constructed by Saint Goubin of Paris, and through which the man within the tube can view the wreckage to his heart's content and the tube can be slowly moved so that he can handle and examine any particular object (Fig. 1). The tube, which is now in the course of construction, will be telescopic and capable of being elongated to meet the I'equirements of depth. It will be built in watertight compartments, lit by electric lamps and communication with the surface will be by telephone. The Spaniard's method of raising wreck- age is quite as unique and ingenious as his hydroscope. In Fig. 4 is shown the frame- work on which large flexible bags are ar- ranged and connected to the special plat- forms of the framewprk. In operation this apparatus is attached to the object or ob- jects to be raised and compressed air is pumped into the bags until the air pressure overcomes the resistance of the water and of the object and the compressed air eleva- tor rises to the surface with its load, as in Fig. 3, where it is bringing up old guns. The guns so raised are shown at Fig. 2, and at Fig. 5 is shown the method of in- flating the bags. ♦-•-♦ UNITED STATES BATTLESHIPS NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION WIRE ROPE MADE BY THE ROMANS 1,800 YEARS AGO. The two battleships "Connecticut" and "Louisiana" recently launched, each of 16,000 tons displacement, will be among the most powerful battleships in the world. Be- sides these the government now has under construction eight large armored cruisers, two of 14,500 tons, three of 14,000 tons, and three of 13,600 tons and eight other battle- ships, three of 15,000 tons, two of 14,600 tons, two of 13,000 tons and one of 12,500 tons. If all these are in commission by 1908 we will have 24 battleships and 10 armored cruisers in our navy. Nearly 2,000 years ago the Romans knew how to manufacture wire rope which closely resembled the wire rope in use at the pres- ent day. This astonishing fact was brought to light by the recent discovery of a coil of wire rope in the ruins of Pompeii. The rope is about 15 feet long and 1 inch in circumference. It is made of bronze wire 'NOTHING : HEW UNDER / ■ ■ .THE ■:;.;/.:; Coil of "Wire Rope, 1,825 Years Old and consists of three strands of spirally con- nected wire, each strand being made of 15 Avires twisted together. A most interesting fact is that the rope is stranded in accord- ance with lang lay, which is in general use today. It is believed that the rope was used as a crane rope, for pieces of cranes were found also. These cranes, it is generally believed, were worked by slaves who were placed in- side a large drum, which was turned in a tread-mill fashion and thus worked the small drum around which the rope was found. Pompeii was buried in A. D. 79, about 1,825 years ago. The coil of rope is now in the Musio Barbonico at Naples. At an expense of $30,000 the Pullman Company will establish laundries, where at the end of a run all its employes may have their clothes cleaned at the expense of the company. Each of thousands of employes will be given three complete uniforms. E i\ (■ V CT.O P E 1) I A 239 Forecasting SKip Speed and Action ffoiv tKe Governxnerxt Determines Precisely \^ha.t a Great BattlesHip "Will Do Before Even tlie Keel is I^aid There is at the Washington Navy Yard a peculiar and interesting factory, the like of which is not found elsewhere in this coun- try. It is a boat building factory, but the boats are not used for carrying people or things, nor are they toys. They are war- ships in miniature, the unequipped hulls, known as ship-models. "When the govern- ment desires a new warship, and Congress makes the necessary appropriation for it, the Construction Department of the Xavy makes These trials may prove satisfactory at first tests, but if not so the model's lines are changed until better results are secured. The model making factory is a large build- ing situated near the model testing tank, close to the Potomac River, and contains a number of electric motors that do all the power work, except in one particular, the use of hydraulic pressure for putting to- gether wooden blocks— "blocks of shape"— from which an initial model is made. These Testing TanK 'With Model Goin^ at Four Knots an Hour* or One>FourtH SHip Speed the detailed plans in drawings giving every portion of the proposed vessel. This is done for two purposes — for furnishing working plans for contractors or government em- ployed workmen, and for guides in making a model of the ship. The Department de- sires to know as far as possible what the speed and action of the designed ship will be at sea; and to find this a model of the vessel is constructed, run through the water of the testing tank and its actions noted. blocks are worked down to conform to the drawn ship plans, until an approximate hull-frame is obtained; over this, small half- round strips, making a corrugated appear- ance, are placed, and then plaster of Paris is put on and manipulated until the surface lines laid down in the plans are obtained. After the bottom of the initial model is smoothed down it is taken to a reciprocat- ing lathe, a machine about 40 feet long, op- erated by means of eight 5-horsepower 240 ENC YCLOP RDl A Side View of Model "Under Ftxll Steam* electric motors, and consisting principally of saws, planes and a guiding arm mounted on sliding carriages. While the first model is being made, a second, the real representation of the big ship, is in part constructed; thick strips of planking about three inches wide are glued together forming a rough shape of the true model needed. The initial model is now placed on the lower platform of the reciprocating machine and the true model placed above where it can be engaged by the shaping tools. When the machinery is set in motion the guiding arm, having at its end a concave metal block, follows the shape of the under model, and reciprocating saws cut to depths representing the lat- ter's shape in the upper one. The model is now automatically planed down to the saw-cut shape, and is then Avorked over from measurements with hand tools until all the lines of the drawn plans are justified. Now the embrj^o ship is painted, weighed, furnished with mechanical attachments and taken to the model testing tank to prove its fitness for the work desired. The tank is in a brick building 500 feet long by about 50 feet wide. On both sides of this there is a railed track, extending nearly the whole length of the structure, upon which runs a towing-carriage; this spans the tank and is operated by means of direct-connected motors, each of 50-horsepower, one being carried on each of the four carriage trucks. The power required is obtained from a sep- arate electric plant in the Navy Yard, which also runs the model making shop. The model, usually about 20 feet in length, is put into the water directly beneath the towing carriage, to which it is movably attached by metal arms arranged at bow and stern. The model is also electrically connected with the carriage, which carries chronographic apparatus for measuring speed and force expended; also recording ac- tion of the miniature ship of war. Models are tested at various speeds and these differ according to ship lines and amount of resistance against the water. The speed runs as high as six knots, correspond- ing to 27 knots for the ship at sea; but the average is about four knots, about one- fourth of the speed of the ship. The car- riage runs very smoothly and can be speed- ed if necessary at the rate of 20 knots per hour. The value of the information obtained by the Government from model testing more than offsets the considerable expense thus incurred. By this work the Navy Depart- ment not only secures an excellent idea of the capabilities of the proposed new ship, but it can use this data to advantage in mak- ing contracts with ship builders in the par- ticular of required speed, etc. And with the builder there is no guess work; with the ship plans drawn to the smallest detail, and, if necessary, corrected from model tests, he follows instructions, and is carefully fol- lowed in his operations by the Government's expert who keeps track of every particular of the work. The only woman "sword fisher" known, is Mrs. Jno. Latham, of Noank, Conn., where she and her husband reside during the win- ter months. She saved the life of her hus- band recently when attacked by a monster sword fish. The Lathams have a sloop which is used for sword fishing only. ENCYCLOPEDIA 241 Liquid Fuel Pumped to BattlesKip While in Motion Pumping Oil to a Battlesbip Wbile ix\ Motion The English navy has been experiment- ing witli oiling battleships -svliile they are still maintaining their maximum speed. The tests were A-ery satisfactory, indeed. The battleship tooli the oil vessel in tow with a 6%-inch wire hawser. From a lighter wire was suspended 200 yards of 6-inch wire hose fastened to the wire every six feet. The hose was fixed to the net shelf and then taken to the connection on the ship's side. The battleships "Hannibal" and "Mars," with which the experiment was tried, each carry 190 tons of liquid fuel, and this amount was pumped in six hours, the speed of the vessel being retarded but one knot. Another great advantage of this arrangement is that it can be used in any and all kinds of weather. The German iieet is resorting to oil in in- creasing degi'ee for firing purposes, it is stated. All German battleships burn both oil and coal, and several oil-tank vessels have been ordered constructed for the use of the fleet, as their use is said to greatly fncilitate filling the war vessels' oil tanks, and to be more cleanly than coal bunkers. $10,000 FOR WINNER OF OCEAN RACE. There is soon to be a race across the Atlantic between motor launches, and the winner (if he succeeds in getting across alive) will receive a prize of $10,000 which has been offered by M. Charley, a rich French sportsman. The contesting launches will be 65 feet or less in length and driven by gasoline engines. The Shipping World, London, says: "M. Charley, in response to a wager from America, will himself compete with a 65- foot boat. It is interesting to note that Mr. Edge is experiencing in his 65-foot cruiser the same trouble as has been met in using turbines for naval propulsion. Like the tur- bine, the internal combustion engine must be driven at full power to work satisfac- torily. The consequence is that Mr. Edge's boat will have three shafts and three en- gines. The two outside shafts will each be provided with a 150 horsepower engine, and the center one will be driven by a 40 horse- power oil engine. The idea is that only the small engine should be used for slow speeds or going alongside, Avhilst for full speed the two larger engines would be used, and for an extra fast burst all three would be in operation. It seems rather a tall order to start off across the Atlantic in a 65-foot motor boat; of course the boats which have entered are not the racing freaks which came across the Channel a short time ago; but I should at any rate like to feel sure that, in the event of the engine stopping, the boat could be kept going along with a mast and sail." 242 ENCYCLOPEDIA INSTRUMENT PHOTOGRAPHS THE TERIOR OF THE HUMAN EYE. IN- Treatment of diseases of the human eye will be greatly facilitated by an instrument lately invented by Dr. Walther Thorner of the University Eye Clinic at the Royal A PHoto^rapK Made 'With the New Instrument Charite, in Berlin, by means of which good photographs may be secured of the inte- rior of the human eye. Hitlierto this had been impossible because of the difficulty in sufficiently illuminating the interior of the eye, the strong light and the din-ation of the exposure not being endurable by the pa- tient. All observations of this part of the eye vv^ere made by looking at it through the ophthalmoscope, invented by Helmholtz in 1850. The new instrument is a material im- provement of the ophthalmoscope. It vs^as first used in photographing the eyes of cats and then improved and reinforced • until adapted to the much darker interior of the human eye. By employing a soft light the eye is first focussed so that its back is clearly Imaged on a photographic plate. With the plate in, pressure on a special lever opens the camera and an electric spark gen- erated in a storage battery ignites a flash- light composition, thus lighting up the back- ground of the eye so that a good image is produced on the plate. The new instrument means that diseases encroaching upon the eye may be watched in each stage, that the progress of the dis- ease and the success or non-success of the treatment will be apparent at any and all times, and that physical differences in eyes will be plainly put before the oculist, wlio will thus be enabled to profit mankind by his observations. Any separate part of the interior of the eye may be photographed by the new apparatus. -*-»-¥■ AMERICAN-BUILT SUBMARINE BOATS FOR JAPAN. PHoto^rapHin^ tHe BacK|^rotind Of tHe £ye Five submarine boats, superior to those owned by any other nation, are now being built in this country for the government of Japan, though nominally, for the sake of neutrality, they are being built for the Hol- land Submarine Boat company. The boats are 58 feet 9 inches from stem to stern, with an extreme width of 11 feet, and have a guaranteed speed of from eight to ten knots. They have a number of fea- tures which make them decidedly superior to any others of these craft now in exist- ence. They are built of the best steel, rein- forced amidships by 10-foot strips of Tobin bronze plates l^alf an inch thick, making them far less vulnerable if sighted by the enemy when on the surface. They are equipped with bilge keels, which makes it possible for tliem to make long voyages and to accompany a fleet to sea without a tow. The "Moccasin" and the "Adder," the two finest submarine boats in the United States navy have a maximum speed of six knots; the new boats for Japan not only have a higher speed, but can maintain it at a depth of 120 feet. Few submarines formerly con- structed often dive deeper than 40 feet. The greater speed involves a secret method of using both electricity and gasoline for motor powers, while diving rudders of secret design secure the greater powers of sub- mersion. ENCYCLOPEDIA 243 Aerial Transportation Hoiv tt\e TelpHerage System Economizes for tKe Manufact- urer — Some Startling Facts and Figures The word telpherage, which is derived from two Greek words meaning far and to carry, has assumed a meaning not included in those two words since it has become a great, though not widely recognized factor in industrial economics. No other word comes nearer being synonymous with economy than does the word telpherage. It means economy of time, economy of labor, economy of money. And yet, embracing all these advantages— considerations the American manufacturer is eternally striv- ing for— this wonderfully effective electrical operation of the rest of the modernly equipped factory, is reduced to its proper ratio and fits into the system as nicely as the cogs of one wheel engage those of an- other. Over a distance of 1,000 feet of telpher way, a single telpherman with one machine and an assistant can convey 250 tons per day and should the system be out of commission for even an hour, the plant during that time is a non-consumer except in interest charges. Telpherage is best adapted to the action of the direct current as it is included in This load, with the five men, lifted 50 feet and conveyed 1,000 feet, showing massiveness of construction of the conveying and hoisting machinery, method of electrical control and brake wheel. agent is little appreciated by those it is calculated to most benefit. Perhaps the greatest claim that can be made for telpherage is that while yet em- bracing these three great economies, it is perfectly flexible, can be adapted to the most discouraging conditions without dim- inution of its efficiency. If the route of the telpher way is rough, and many obstruc- tions have been encountei'ed in its construc- tion this does not affect traflSc on the aerial line when once it is installed. With its use the bags, boxes, bales, or barrels which once consumed an amount of time, money and labor, disproportionate to the rapid the "intermittent control" type of electric propulsion. The telpher line consists of tracks of solid steel or steel cable built, usually, 20 feet or more above the ground. Where cables are used they are supported every 100 feet by means of poles or structures, if it is convenient to erect them, and with a solid track the supports are placed at from 16 to 20 feet apart. A telpherage plant usually consists of one or more telphers with or without trailers, but generally in combination with an electric hoist for lift- ing and depositing the load; a single or double trolley wire above the track for 244 ENCYCLOPEDIA conducting power to the telpher and hoist; one or more budgets or carriers for each telpher and the controlling switches, con- veniently located. The matei'ial to be car- ried is suspended underneath the track and the carrier may be a large cage of any kind, or a truck with wheels for rolling it around on the floor. In long spans over river gul- lies, canals, railway tracks, etc., steel cable is invariably used instead of the steel track. When this is the case C-shaped wroiight-iron hangers, having an upper supported every 15 to 25 feet, and the trol- ley wire, which is above the tracks on the outside, is inclosed in a conduit to guard against fire and runs alongside the track on the inside. The telpher is, in other terms, an electric locomotive of the very simplest construc- tion. If the load is of such nature that all its weight is pendant from one point as in conveying coal, a follow wheel is at- tached to the telpher frame and for distrib- uted loads a two-wheel trailer is attached Taking- freight from or lowering to fhe side ports of a steamboat. In unloading, the material i.'? raised and then conveyed any rea- sonable distance. Load, 6.000 pounds; speed of hoisting, 60 feet; speed of travel, 1,000 feet per minute. Independent of fall of tide. Track can be extended so as to take load directly to or from barges or floats. In one telpherage installation one man replaces sixteen. grasp on a stout suspension cable and a lower clutch on a 3-foot beveled shield into which the running cable is sunk, support the running cable between posts. This tightens the suspension cable so that exces- sive sagging of the running cable under a load is prevented and also maintains the latter at a slight elevation so that the track is level when the telpher crosses the shields. This suspension is used in all cable in- stallations and over rivers oft-times triple or quadruple suspensions are required and high structural steel towers at either shore provide the necessary suspension dip. The tracks inside buildings are solid steel, by a connecting rod. The trailer is always used where a telpherman travels with the load. The hoist is suspended below the tel- pher, or sometimes from a trailer drawn by the telpher. Special attention has been paid in the later designs of hoists to use as little headroom as possible. Formerly the telpher and hoist were combined, but experience has shown that it is better to make the telpher and hoist two separate pieces of apparatus. It is composed of a double gear, a worm and drum, and comes very near being a direct-connected appli- ance when in position on the telpher. ENCYCLOPEDIA 245 There are three types of telpherage — au- tomatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. In automatic control of telpherage it is pos- sible for the operator to start the machine by means of its controller located at some fixed point and it will whizz along its track to the other end, automatically deposit its load, reverse its direction and return for another load. This is accomplished by the use of an electrically-operated switch work- ing in conjunction with the controller. In ordinary c'ectric railway practice four wires are required in reversing each motor, but only two trolley Avires are used in the en- tire operation described above. In the method of hoist operation each machine is The motor would be reversed by the cut-off, of course, but all that is necessary, should the operator wish the load to go higher, is simply to turn on the power again and again cut off, and when the power is again turned on the elevating is resumed. Thi;^ method is also used in operating the tel- pher and in the control of semi-automatic telpherage. The semi-automatic line may be controlled by a man in a small house on the trestle, Avho, when the buclvet is filled, throws on his hoist switch, and when the load is at the height desired opens the telpher switch and the machine runs down tlie line. Some- times such lines are automatic after the \^ If.,'. f-"' SI i jisEss' •*"*-''■• ^^',-,,, it(^4y ' ' * ■:.' ^^^^^pgJBJBHy^'^g^. : -^'t^^. '^^^^*^'#': The telpher crosses the river, 50 feet above it, on a steel bridge, and enters the mill at the third floor. supplied with a small cylinder switch which a solenoid, working against a spring, ma- nipulates. In lifting a load power is in- fused through a stationary switch located at any point on the line, thus energizing the solenoid of the automatic switch and putting a tension on the spring. The sole- noid is then de-energized, and the released spring rotates a cylinder which changes the various connections and so reA^erses the mo- tor. The operator can cut off the power at any point in the hoisting and so stop the load, for all breaking of the current is done at the stationary controller and never at the cylinder switch on the hoist. hoisting is accomplished, the telpher being started by the hoist clutch contact opening the switch, after which the automatic working is as previously described. The operator can stop the load at any point, and if an automatic device for dumping is supplied the load is dumped there. Of the three types of telpherage, how- ever, the non-automatic, where the telpher- man travels with his load, controlling every movement of the machine is much more commonly employed. In such case the telpherman may be his own loader, un- loader, bolster, conveyor and depositor at one or many points along a line, and can 246 ENCYCLOPEDIA keep intelligent account of his receipts and deliveries. Mr. C. J. Messer of the United Telpherage Company, describes such a tel- pherage installation in New England, where cases of goods are cai'ried between two buildings 1,200 feet apart. A pendant attachment permits the telpherman to lower himself 40 feet inside the building. Trap doors in floors permit his loading or un- The telpher with its load rounding a difficult curve. loading at any particular floor. If out of doors he loads and unloads from projecting platforms at each floor of the building. This transportation formerly kept three teams, and two men with each team em- ployed. The cases were conveyed from the ground floor to the place requii'ed by ele- vator, each round trip requiring 20 min- utes. The telpherman's trip takes but one minute. In regular service the speed of the tel- pher varies from 300 to 800 feet per minute up to 20 miles per hour, or even more, when required. The slower speeds are used when the lines are short and where there are many curves, particularly for factory and foundry work. Grades are easily surmounted, the highest grade met in actual practice thus far being a 12 per cent rise. To carry half a ton on a level track at a speed of six miles per hour, much loss? than a horsepower of en- ergy, including all losses, the actual figures being one-sixth horsepower, is required. This amount increases considerably with grades, and on very steep grades gears are used to avoid employing very heavy motors. Tlie number of telphers used may be increased indefinitely up to the full number the tracks will hold. At Milton, Mass., there was recently installed a telpher- age line a sixth of a mile long for conveying material from a railway storehouse to a mill. Before the telpher line was in operation all the raw stock had been trucked by teams to the works over a long, circuitous route and was then carried by eleva- tors to an upper floor of the mill. This involved a great deal of labor as well as a large number of teams and much time. The new tel- pherage plant takes the loads directly from the top floor of the railway storehouse and conveys them by the shortest possible route to the third floor of the mill. The construction of this line involved some very diffi- cult engineering. The only piece of level ground on the whole route was 60 feet be- yond the storehouse. The track then turns a 90° curve of 40-foot radius and passes along the side of a rocky, precipitous cliff at the foot of which is a swift running river. On the rocky ledge of the river bank it turns another 90° curve, this one of 20-foot radius, passing over the roof of a house in turning the curve. The track then crosses the river, 50 feet above it, on a steel bridge, and enters the mill at the third floor. The construction of the steel bridge over the river presented the most difficult conditions. On the level ground the track is sup- ported by A bents 35 feet above the ground, resting on concrete foundations'. Along the rocky cliffs huge supports of Georgia pine 14 inches square and from 30 to 40 ENCYCLOPEDIA 247 feet long were used, the foundations for which were cut out of the slanting side of the solid rock. These sup- ports are braced by heavy timbers in the shape of a figure 4, also anchored back in the solid rock. A single one of these posts weighs "over a ton and a half. The steel bridge which spans the river carrying the track beneath it rests at one end on a tower supported by con- crete foundation piers. The distance from this tower to the wall of the mill is 80 feet. The telpher, or electric lo- comotive in this plant, runs on top of the single overhead rail and is controlled by an operator, seated in an en- closed cab which is sus- pended from the telpher di- rectly underneath the track. The operator has his con- troller, which is exactly like the ordinary trolley car con- troller now being used on all electric cars at one hand, and Along the side of a rocky, precipitous cliff, at the foot of which is a swift river. at the other hand is a powerful brake wheel, which applies the brakes simultaneously to the telpher and all of the trailers which carry the trucks so suspended beneath them, so the whole train can be stopped within its own length. Current is supplied to the tel- pher through trolley wires, being taken off by a trolley pole. At the storehouse bags of raw material weighing 200 pounds each are loaded on trucks of 2,000 pounds capacity. The weight of the machine is 4,600 pounds, and with the three loaded trucks, the total mov- ing load on the structure is 12,000 pounds suspended .50 feet in the air along the rocky cliff and over the water. The train is 30 feet long and the average speed is about 700 feet per minute. The loaded trucks? are pushed underneath the machine and the hooks attached. The operator raises the trucks several inches clear of the floor, then starts the telpher with its load of three trucks of 2,000 pounds each, and in three-quarters of a minute has passed by the precipitous cliff and across the river, and has landed his load of 6,000 pounds(three tons)on the third floor of the mill. The three loaded trucks are unhooked from the machine and pushed out of the way and three empty ones are hooked on in their place in less than a minute's time, and the operator is on his way back to the storehouse, where three more loaded trucks are awaiting him. The round trip has not taken three minutes. By the use of this telpherway one man at $2.00 per day does in a day as much work as was formerly done by many men and teams. The cost of the power consumed by the telpher in operation for 10 hours does not amount to $1.00. Up to a 12-horse- power requirement, a gas engine consum- ing a few cents' worth of fuel per hour and a direct-connected generator will suf- fice for ordinary telpherage installations. Mr. Messer describes conditions which have come under his immediate observa- tion, and which telpherage is designed to economically replace. He says: "Recently I stood forty minutes to ob- serve the movement of five cases of fin- ished cloth from a packing-room to a store- house. In the operation six men and two horses were employed. Three men ended the cases upon a truck and wheeled them to the elevator; then a drop was made to 248 ENCYCLOPEDIA the ground floor. The combined effort of five men was used in getting the cases from the elevator to the platform of a dray. A driver handled the ribbons vrhile the load was moving the 600 feet to the storehouse, the five lumpers being part of the load; then, at the other end of the line, the six men were required in the unloading of the dray and the conveying to another elevator, which in two loads took the material to the second story of the storehouse, where men, not accounted for in the illustration, loaded it again and wheeled it to its resting-place. "It was rather a singular analogy that inside the buildings of the various depart- ments of the manufacturing plant expen- sive machinery was being driven to its ut- most capacity that the cost of production should be reduced, while here was at least 240 minutes of manual and animal labor expended in a simple problem of convey- ing. The cost of this operation, not includ- ing time of horse, interest on horse, wagon, harness, etc., was at least 60 cents. "I will tell you what that 240 minutes was worth to the manager of that manu- facturing plant and to his stockholders, if an equally careful surveillance had been ex- ercised in indoor and out-of-door economics. "Fifty cases of the same weight could have been transported between the same discharging and receiving points, the en- ergy employed being a telpher outfit, a tel- pherman and a helper, and the entire cost, reckoning interest on plant, depreciation, power and wages, would be less than $1. I would like some mathematician to figure the loss in capital energy by reason of the cited carelessness on the transportation side of production." In decided contrast to this Mr. Messer presents another picture: "A 10-horsepower gas engine is furnish- ing electric power for the lifting of a 3,000- pound telpherage load at a speed of 60 feet per minute, and a horizontal run at a rate of 1,000 feet per minute, at an ex- pense of 30 pounds of coal per lifting horse- power hour, and 12 pounds for the horizontal horsepower hour. During a recent test of eight and one-half hours' continual running in a ten-hour day, one-twelfth of the time was occupied in the lift, ten-twelfths in the horizontal run and a twelfth was lost in the changing of loads. The average per hour consumption of coal in the horse- power working hours involved in the prob- lem was 13 7-10 pounds, or an actual power expense of 30 cents for the day's work." In addition to the telpher lines we have already described there is what is called, technically, a space-covering tra«k. It is a section of track placed between two side tracks, much in the way of a crane, except that the telpher passes upon the side rails across this immovable track to the other side. This enables goods to be raised from any portion of a floor or yard without switches or a multiplicity of tracks. No other form of freight transportation is of more practical value to the manufac- turer than this, which no known power save electricity could have made possible. ♦-•-# OPENED A BANK VAULT BY ELEC- TRICITY. The combination of the vault of the Franklin Savings Bank, in Boston, refused to work a short time ago, and when every other means failed electricity was resorted to. The electrical experts were provided with a detailed plan of the bank and began operations during the night. They made an electrical connection be- tween a carbon and the wires of the power company outside the bui:ding, and with a 1,500-ampere current began to melt a hole through the door. The electricians were obliged to wear thick dark glasses because of the intense light made by the white hot carbon. Inside two and one-half hours a hole had been bored through the two and one-half inches of iron, when operations were suspended. Next morning the edge of a bolt on the inner surface of the door was chipped off by steel instruments and the door at last swung open. LATEST FOOTBALL ARMOR. Much like a knight of old now sallies forth the football player to battle for his college colors. The lat- est in this line is a patent football pants and suit. The garment is padded with felt at all points where protection is most needed. There are five grades ranging from army duck to ex- pensive moleskin of the best quality obtainable. The pants and jacket are connected by an elastic belt which permits of free movement of the body. The pads have a great advantage over the old style which had a tendency to move out of place just when they were most needed. ENCYCLOPEDIA 249 Bucket Tram^ray in Moimtains of WasKing(toii Unicfue Conveyor a Mile Loxi^— Descends Self-Propelling 1,700 Feet— l! If some of the wheat grown in our great western fields could tell the story of its journey from the field across the country, through the vortex of the Chicago market and on across the ocean to the masses in Europe whose food supply annually depends on the American product, no doubt some strange methods of transportation would go on record, but no chapter would be stranger than the method by which it was conveyed from the big warehouses built at the top of river bluffs down those bluffs to the vessels waiting below. AVhen one thinks of the enormous product, the words "bucket tramway" convey an idea of an apparatus wholly inadequate to handle any great proportion of that product, and yet, far from being an insignificant appara- tus, along the river bluffs of the great North- west these bucket tramways convey hun- dreds of thousands of bushels of wheat every grain season, saving the farmers far around miles of hauling over rugged roads and rolling country. One of these tramways is in operation at Wawawai. ^\'ashington, on tlie Snake river, carrying great quantities of grain down the steep bluffs of that river, a distance of 5.150 feet, from an altitude of 1,700 feet, to the warehouse and the steamers at the foot of the bluff. Two immense warehouses were construct- ed, one at the top of the bluff and one on the bank of the stream, and between these operates the tramway. It consists of a strong steel wire cable, capable of support- ing a very heavj' strain. This endless cable is nearly two miles long, and is supported at frequent intervals, each support having a lubricated iron pulley, over which the cable runs. Strung along the cable at inter- vening distances of 80 feet are carriers, each capable of holding a sack of wheat. There are 128 of these carriers, so that 64 are constantly descending to the lower warehouse loaded, while 64 others are as- cending to the upper warehouse to be re- loaded. This unique contrivance is operated by gravity, without the aid of any other power. At the upper terminal of the tramway is a large cast-iron wheel, 8 feet in diameter and supplied with a patent rachet grip, through which wheel the cable passes. A smooth band-iron grip-brake regulates the speed. Conveying Wheat Down The Mountain The construction at the lower terminal is the same. When in operation a man at the brake lever controls the entire tramway at all times. The sacks of grain are placed in the carriers as they pass, the loaded carriers 250 ENCYCLOPEDIA keeping the cable runninj?, and down the side of tlie rugged, towering blulifs are con- tinually passing the bags of good grain. The carriers are unloaded in the tower of the lower warehouse, and from thence the grain is carried in chutes to any section of the huge building desired, or, perchance, to the steamer in waiting. ■This tramway can easily convey 200 tons of grain in ten hours, and during a grain season frequently handles from 75,000 to 80,000 sacks of wheat. The farmers for miles around haul their grain there, as it saves them trips of from fifteen to twenty- five miles to the nearest railway station. COMBINATION LOCOMOTIVE CAR. Will Be Tested on the Glasgow & South- western Railroad With a view of securing more frequent service by running single cars instead of trains, James Manson, superintendent of the guard and driver. Hand and vacuum brakes, which can be operated from either end of the vehicle, are fitted to each bogie, and in addition the steam whistle can be sounded from the guard's compartment. ■» « » ELECTRIC VS. STEAM LOCOMOTIVE. Will the electric railway replace the steam locomotive? Perhaps the best answer is that its fu- ture is not in the wholesale destruction of existing great systems. It is in the develop- ment of a field of its own, with recognized limitations, but of vast possibilities. It will fill that field to the practical exclusion of all other methods of transmitting energy; it will operate all street railway systems, and elevated and underground roads; it will prove a valuable auxiliary to ti'unk sys- tems, but it has not yet sounded the death- knell of the locomotive any more than the dynamo has that of the stationary steam engine. Each has its own legitimate field, A A. « .4 «> «L A ® A « A ■mi ^ ."* „ . 1 1-i 1 g 1 ma^m ^^ a^^^ « ^, ■ Ii- 'K»f 5^1 .'^W •!| i f ;pf Bi ■f.- r "^^"TB 1 i ■ i m Pi i ^ F^ -— : __ — . — ... . - ^fffSM ■"^r^r-sS --j^ ^^1 MM ^jS««!*|f -^^^^m steam Motor Carriage for Local Traffic on the Glaegow and SontbweBtern Railway motive power on the Glasgow & Southwest- ern, has designed the novel combination shown in the illustration. Page's Weekly, Loiiflon, says: The car, which is 60 feet 8 inches long o^■er the buffers, is divided into three pas- senger compartments, and a special com- partment for the steam motor; the one at the rear is a guard's compartment, the two adjoining being reserved for passengers. At the guard's compartment, steps are pro- vided to enable passengers ^to enter from the road level, and these are so arranged that they can be brought into use by actu- ating a lever in the guard's compartment. Seating accommodation is provided for fifty passengers of one class, the seats being so arranged that there is a free passage from end to end- of the car. Electrical communi- cation is provided for the convenience of which will play its proper part in the needs of all civilization.— Frank J. Sprague, Inter- national Electrical Congress. "» * » OIL PRODUCTION THE PAST YEAR. The total value of raw petroleum pro- duced in the United States last year was $94,694,050. Ohio led with $23,515,140; West Virginia, Pennsylvania and Indiana followed in the order named. Texas and California each produced over $7,000,000. During the year 18,880 wells were drilled, of which 4,650 were dry; these wells cost $26,402,000. The exports of petroleum and its manufactured products were $72,628,- 539, an increase in value, but a decrease in quantity as compared with the preceding year. ENCYCLOPEDIA "Bends" or the Caisson Disease 251 Men Who MTorR in Compressed Air Suffer A.^oiiies— Many DeatKs Result— Science Investigates the Cause In sinking tlie foundations of bridges, or in any work which must be done on the bed of the sea or of a river, the men work in a caisson, or large steel cylinder, which is sunk in the water, the water being kept out of it by means of compressed air. The bottom of the caisson is open, but the top is closed and men and materials enter through an air-lock, a chamber in the top of the caisson, whicli is fitted with airtight doors and cocks. By means of these cocks the air in the caisson is compressed or decom- pressed as reciuired and at any rate desired. The large cock is used for rapid decompres- sion during the passage of materials, but witli men there is a deadly menace in rapid decompression, especially if they have been in the caisson some time or have been working under great pressure. Therefore a small coclv is provided for slowly decom- pressing humans, though often the work- men are in such a hurry to get home that they scorn the dangers and make use of the large cock in order to get out of the air-lock quickly. The men are never taken ill while under pressure, but often shortly after decom- pression some poor fellow is seized with terrible muscular pains, with cramps, his skin becomes icy cold and he breathes with difficulty; sometimes the pains in his limbs are sharp and shooting so that he is un- able to walk and suffers agonies. Such cases generally recover in a short time, though they are apt to suffer again in a similar manner if they go back to the caisson; in fact, in severe cases, the employers, fearing the employes will die in a second attack, dis- charge them. Again, a laborer who has been decompressed perhaps an hour before, suddenly falls unconscious and lies a cold, livid, inert mass. Some parts of his body are sure to be paralyzed, the pulse is irreg- ular, the heart-beats scarcelj^ audible, the pupils of the eyes do not move. Perhaps the attending physician tries bleeding the patient; his blood is black. Such a case is inevitably followed by death. This ter- rible disease, which men brave in order to earn bread for their families and them- selves, is known among workmen as the "bends" and among physicians and scien- tists as the "caisson disease." The construction of every bridge where the caisson is used for the foundation work adds to the list of those who die or suffer from tliis disease. At Brooklyn" Bridge there were 110 cases of illness with three deaths; while sinking the foundation of the Eads bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis, of 600 workmen there were 133 who suf- fered from bends in varying degree, of v/hom 14 died. Of 64 men employed in a caisson on the banks' of the Loire, 25 had bends, 16 having serious attacks and two dying. This latter instance occurred as far back as 1854, but time has not bettered con- ditions, nor removed the cause. The follow- ing paragraph which appeared in one of our reliable newspapers during the present year repeats the story: NEW YORK, —That fourteen men have been killed in the new Manhattan bridge caisson within fourteen da.ys was learned today during a discussion by several British engineers, who were inspecting the south tunnel under the Hudson river. The deaths have been kept quiet, as it is hard to get men to work in the caisson. Death in every ease was due to the caisson dis- ease, paralysis resulting from working in the high pressure chambers. These are terrible statistics for this day and age, and engineers, contractors, scien- tists, physicians, men of prominence every- where are taking note of the fact and in- vestigating it. Even the lawyers are inter- ested, as it presents opportunities for end- less litigation. For every 33 feet of depth that the cais- son is sunk in water, -flS pounds pressure to the square inch or +1 atmosphere is required to keep the water out of the cais- son. Therefore if the depth were 100 feet, the pressure would be 45 pounds to the square inch. The effects upon the system while under pressure are all of a minor character, more of the nature of inconven- ience than of injury. The pressure has no mechanical effect on the circulation. It causes pains in the tympanic membrane, which are relieved by opening the Eusta- chian tube, the pulse and the respiration are slower and there is a feeling of resistance to movement, due to the density of the atmos- phere. One cannot whisper under pressure, and if he whistles he can hear no sound. An old Scotchman who worked in one of the IBlackwall tunnel caissons where the 252 ENCYCLOPEDIA pressure was as high as 37 pounds to the square inch gives a graphic account of how he felt while inside the caisson: "We stayed in for eight hours at a shift. We had half an hour for dinner, but some of the men would not come out for it. They took it inside with them. Coming out again it was not so bad, but just chilly; bitter chilly, cold as charity. The pains would come on afterward, in an hour or so, or wlien you got into bed. Bends in the back, and the wrists, and the legs; just awful. Men would turn out in the middle of the night and come back to the works and get into the compressed air again in the medical locks. They had a full dose of it for a start, and let the pressure drop gradually. Then they went back home to bed. Do them any good? Eh, mon, it's no for me to say. They said so, but I thought it was only humbug, a faith dodge. When I had bends I just jumped about and took a drap of guid Avhuskey. "I never felt happier than when I was in the compressed air. Always happy, and on the cheery side. Why, laddie, I would get up in the morning feeling very dour and queer, and just go into the workings, and then whistle and sing all day long. Not that you could hear the whistling, at least a man with my lungs, when the pressiTre was over twenty-five. "The worst thing that could happen Avas for the electric light to fail. Then they burnt candles, and the mixture of smoke with the air gave them 'bends' of an ex- tra special vigor. You nodded and didn't care if you went to sleep forever, though it was all very nice and dreamy. When I was alone in that 'casoon' I had to rope myself up lest I should fall asleep and tumble to the bottom, 60 feet below. It was better under the river than in the 'casoons,' because under the river the air could escape into the Thames. Tobacco had no sting. The only stuff that had any flavor was four-ale. You weren't allowed to take it in, but you did. But jon had to take the cork out first. If you didn't the bottle would burst. The finest men in the tunnel were the first to be knocked out. The men of delicate appearance stood the pressure best." The results of a thorough investigation of this subject made by Leonard Hill, M. B., F. R. S., lecturer on physiology at the Lon- don Hospital, and J. J. R. Macleod, M. B., professor of physiology at the Western Re- serve University, Ohio, was re<;ently pub- lished in the Journal of Hygiene, These authorities declare that the cause of the caisson disease is the escape of gas bubbles in the blood vessels and tissue fluids on decompression. These air bubbles coalesce and increase in size and, flowing on with the blood, gather at all the high points, just as in a pipe system, and there remain until forced at a gulp toward the heart. If sufficient time is taken in decom- pressing the men thej^ do not suffer from bends, but the length of time of decompres- sion must vary with the length of the shift. The disease has a wide variety of symp- toms: pains in tlie limbs, vertigo, nose- bleed, embarrassed respiration, hemor- rhages, intense cold due to the expansion of the air, loss of muscular power, paralysis, some cases even have become disabled for life, amputations of limbs being necessary. Diver's sickness comes under the same class. Is it at all strange that caissoniers are hard to get? But there is a means of pre- venting this terrible disease that maims, dis- ables and destroys. The first step rests with the employer himself. Let him see that the airlocks on caissons have adjustable locked escape valves so that the men cannot get out in less than sufficient time for decom- pression. Let him see that the time of de- compression does vary with the depth of ex- cavation, and the pressure of air and let him make sure the shifts are not too long. Men not older than from 20 to 25, small, spare, and totally absteminous, should be employed. It is no place for old or fat men. After a test at low pressure all who suffer from symptoms should be discharged. The longer the shift, the greater is the satura- tion of the body fluids with gas, and the slower therefore should be the decompres- sion. The higher the pressure, the shorter should be the shift, and the longer the de- compression period. For a pressure of +2 or 30 pounds the shift should be four hours and the decompression period from 3'0 minutes to one liour; for a pressure of +6 to 7, or 90 to 105 pounds, about a 45-minute shift and a decompression period of two hours. The decompression chamber should be arti- ficially warmed and the temperature not al- lowed to fall below 60 degrees F.; ventila- tion should be thorough during decompres- sion. The caisson should also be freely ventilated and kept at a temperature of 60 degrees F. The men should remain quiet for an hour after decompression and if symptoms appear should be hurriedly re^ compressed- If t^iese v^les were followed strictly it is safe to say that there woul^ be f^W fatalities from this ^i^^^se. ENCYCLOPEDIA i>53 TALL BETON AND STEEL LIGHTHOUSE ERECTED BY RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT. A recent consular report declares that beton is believed by German contractors and manufacturers to be the coming build- ing material, in that it is cheap, durable and the least susceptible to fire of all build- ing materials now in use. Beton is not, how- ever, a new building material. It was in- vented by M. Coignet, a Frenchman, who spent many years experimenting with it, and some of the most interesting exhibits at the Paris Exposition in 1867 were of this artificial stone. It is so much lilce concrete that it is often confused with that stone. Beton, however, is composed of from four to five parts of clean silicons sand, neither too fine nor too coarse, one part of either common or hy- draulic lime and hydraulic cement, one- fourth to three-fourths of one part in vol- ume. These solids are thoroughly mixed v,'ith just enough water to convert them into a stiff, viscous paste, so that every grain of sand or gravel is coated with a thin film of paste, and is then rammed into moulds with heavy iron pestles. It is an artificial stone of great strength and hard- ness and has been in the past used exten- sively in submarine works. Its great prop- erty is that it successfully resists the sol- vent action of the salts and certain gases contained in sea water, and is not injured by climatic influences and changes. For instance, freezing serves only to detach a thin scale from its outer surfaces, leaving it slightly rough and somewhat unsightly, but otherwise perfectly capable of holding its own for long years against storm and tide. The first important lighthouse to be con- structed of beton and steel has just been completed by the Russian government at the entrance of the canal which connects the fort and naval base of Nikolaev with the Black sea. This lighthouse is 132 feet, 2 inches high above the ground, and one of the strongest in the world. It is parabo- loidal in form and rests upon a massive base of beton 19 feet, 8 inches in diameter, 7 feet, 2 inches high, encased in steel, cov- ered on the outside with beton and buried in the ground to a depth of 8 feet, 2 inches. At the base the lighthouse tower is 20 feet, 8 inches in diameter, and 6 feet, 6% inches in diameter at the crown. The coating of beton on the tower walls is comparatively thin, at the base being only 7% inches thick; at a height of 40 feet, 5% inches thick, and at the top 3% inches thick. The great strength of the tower depends not on the beton, but on the steel frame which the beton encases and protects from corrosion. This is composed of transverse and longitudinal steel bars Beton and Steel Iiighthouse Erected by Russia nearly an inch in diameter, the transverse bars being in circular sections and sunk into the beton to a depth of 1.18 inches. The bars are closer together towards the base than at the top; Figs. 3 and 4 show the manner in which they are joined. At the top of the tower there is a large room which serves as a storehouse and also for the keepers to keep watch from. Above this room is the lantern tower and the whole is surmounted by a cupola. The total weiglit of the lighthouse, in- cluding the filling of beton in the massive foundation is estimated at only 507 tons, its cost was but $6,270 and the time required for constructing but two months. The superiority of this construction for such purposes is being widely discussed. 254 ENCY(U. OPEDIA Beton is muc-h more generally used than hitherto for public buildings and even resi- dences. One of the most important works in ^Yhich it has been used is a section 37 miles long of the Vanne acqueduct for sup- plying water to Paris. This aqueduct passes through miles of the Fontainebleau forest and comprises from two and one-half to three miles of arches, some of which are 50 feet high; eleven miles of tunnels and eight or ten bridges of spans from 75 to 100 feet,, The cost of this artificial stone varies with the cost of lime, but all the substances used in it are so generally obtainable that iu almost any country it is comparatively ch^ap. » « » BEST FLOUR FROM MIXED WHEAT. A DESK FOR A CHILD. In flour mills one grade alone of wheat is seldom vised, but a process of what is termed blending is resorted to. This has heretofore been accomplished by elevating the various grades of grain into bins, from Avhich it runs down in spouts. By opening and closing these spouts the proportion of the several grades is secured. A machine Autcmatie Wheat Blender lias now been devised for blending which can be adjusted to a nicety. The machine is very simple iu construc- tion ana consists of a cylinder with com- partments of different sizes fed by drawing a slide over each. In this manner the flow of the grain is regulated and the amount going to each compartment can be accu- rately adjusted. It is operated by gravity.- Many fishermen are using graphite for polishing their lines. It renders the lines more impervious to water and greatly fa- cilitates the movement of a line in casting. The little desk shown in the illustration is just high enough for a child when seated in its chair to draw over its lap and rest slate or book upon. It is an exceedingly comfortable piece of furniture for the tot who has just started to school and spends ^ Child's Desk many minutes laboriously trying to write. All materials for such a desk could be found in most homes. It is made of three pieces of board, a molding for the front, and tlie top covered with cretonne put on with brass-headed tacks. The sides may be stained and so made much more at- tractive. ^ * » HIGH SPEED REQUIRES SINGLE CARS. German engineers liave decided that very high speed must be made by single cars; there is too much danger of the trailer jumping even a straight track. The power required makes the service expensive. Who would think that the soft balmy air of a June morning would alone offer a resistance requiring 1,100 horsepower in addition to the 200 horsepower necessary to propel one car when moving at 120 miles an hour. Such, however, is the carefully made record of the celebrated experiments with an elec- tric car at Zossen. A standard gauge elec- tric surface line is to be built connecting Berlin and Hamburg, a distance of 160 miles. Tlie trip will be made in two hours. The Wall Street Journal says: "There will continue to be a tendency toward heav- ier coaclies so long as trains run on present track. Tlie lateral oscillation of wheel flanges and tlie tendency to lift the train free of these flanges when passing over ir- regular track at great speed are objection- able." The Railway Age says: "As the schedule speed increases, the weight of train and tlie number of cars decrease, and it is not pos- sible to haul present trains of eight or ten ENCYCLOPEDIA 255 Pullman cars at sustained speeds of 65 or 70 miles per hour with either steam or elec- tric locomotives. Electric traction at a speed exceeding 100 miles per hour will probably be with a single car, and such a car with motors sufficient for the purpose, and capacity for the necessary number of passengers to make it profitable, will be heavy enough to hold itself down to the track of regular gauge, and it will not be necessary to resort to the more expensive construction required for the mono-rail." ENGLAND GOATS ON ARIZONA RANGES. Goat raising is on the increase on the ranges of Arizona, says a bulletin recently issued by the Bureau of Plant Industry. The carrying capacity of Arizona range lauds are stated to vary from one bovine to 50 acres to one to 100 acres. Goats on ENCOURAGES GROWING. COTTON England is making extraordinary efforts toward the promotion of cotton cultivation in the West Indies. Four thousand acres are to be planted with cotton in the Wind- ward and Leeward Islands and Barbados. Cottonseed is furnished free. The govern- ment is aiding in the establishment of fac- tories for ginning and baling. The first of these factories has just been completed at Bridgetown, Barbados; another is being built at Antigua and a third is to be built at St. Vincent. ♦ * » AUTOMOBILE SCHOOL FOR HORSES. It is not a difficult task to educate the average country horse to understand an auto will not harm him, if only one will Goats Feeding on Oak Brush on an Arizona Kange these ranges live upon oak brush princi- pally and from their hardy character they are better adapted to the arid country than most other domestic animals. Cattle fre- quently travel 10 miles from water to feed- ing grounds, making a distance of 20 miles between waterings, while sheep are often herded at a distance of six miles, making 12 miles' travel for them. Sometimes when the distance is too great, the ground near an arroyo will be thickly strewn with the carcasses and skeletons of dead cattle. take the pains to train him. The Motor Age describes such a school for horses which a lover of horses— and autos— conducted the past summer on Mt. Washington. The first lesson was to run the automobile into the stable containing more than 100 horses. At first there was a great commotion, some of the horses even laying down from sheer fright. Feeding sugar to the horses from an automobile was one of the alluring les- sons which worked well. One week's train- ing was sufficient in most cases. 256 ENCYCT.OPEDIA FIRST AUTOMOBILE IN THE UNITED STATES. What is claimed to be the first automobile built in the United States, is still in operation and is owned by Achille Philion, of Akron, Ohio. It AA'as foiu'teen years ago that he had the machine built un- der his direction. The picture af- fords a very fair idea of the con- struction. The motive power is steam; the upright boiler burns coal; the engine is one norsepow- er; and the wheels are wire-spoke with flat metal tire. The steering wheel is quite similar to present practice, while the whistle is some- thing of a novelty. Two persons find comfortable seats in front, and the rear seat is for the engi- neer who is also fireman, and who controls the operation of the en- gine. Claimed to Be tHe First Auto Piece of tKe Water Main Used in City 107 Years Ago New York While workmen were excavating in the New York subway, they came across a piece of wooden water pipe which had been laid in 1776 and which represents a part of the water system of that great city 107 years ago. The piece in the photograph is four feet long. The entire piece uncovered measured 20 feet in length. This was part of a main supply pipe. The diameter of the log is 30 inches and the diameter of the hole through the center of it is three inches. Just how this hole was bored through a 20-foot length would no doubt be interesting to know. This old pipe was un- earthed at a depth of 40 feet. It is in a good state of preservation. New York's water supply 107 years ago is said to have come from springs in the vicinity of Canal street. IVooaen "Water Main 107 Years Old E N C Y f ' L O P E D T A 257 Ttie Gas Eng^ine on tKe Farm That handy machine, the gas engine, which has filled so many niches and is adapted to so many requirements in the various crafts, is nowhere growing in favor more rapidly than on the farms of America, and in a short time undoubtedly will be classed as a necessity among the equip- ment of farm machinery. The farmer has learned many things since the telephone did the pioneer work and brought the rural districts into closer touch with metropoli- tan centers, and not the least of these is that he lias long been the slave of much needless drudgery. One of the great advantages afforded by the gas engine is that the man who has but a few acres to cultivate need not buy a powerful engine, but can secure one of just the horsepower that will do his work. If he has 80 acres a 214-horsepower engine will be amply capable, but if he owns a quarter-section, he will need not less than a 4-horsepower size. It is astonishing the amount of work the 4-horsepower engine can perform. It will operate the washing machine, the separator, the churn and the pump all at once, if desired, and with a great saving of human energy. In a single day it will shell seven or eight hundred bushels of corn; it will grind two bushels of corn an hour for each horse- power used, and in running the wood saw it will require three or four men to handle wood enough to keep it busy. On a great many large farms an 8-horse- power traction engine is used for drawing the binder and a gang plow and for run- ning the shredder, feed grinder, wood saw and ensilage cutter, while a 2-horsepower gas engine is used for the lighter work, such as running the grindstone, emery wheel and churn and for pumping water. In cold weather the water is pumped direct to the drinking tank and the stock accustom themselves to the drinking hour once or twice a day. The farmer with but 80 acres or so of land stands more in need of a gas engine, however, than does the operator with the larger farm who has his traction engines and other up-to-date appliances to fall back upon. A 214-horsepower engine will pump Fig. 2 the supply of water for the entire farm, the water being piped to house, barns and grounds as desired, and it will run the churn and the grindstone while pumping. A correspondent of the American Black- smith tells how he mounted such an engine on some 18-inch plow wheels which he pro- cured of a junk dealer and when shelling corn first located the sheller wherever he wanted it and then located the engine ac- cordingly. He says: "We use a two-hole sheller, wagon box elevator and wagon box cob carrier. It takes about half of its power to shell fifty bushels an hour; the engine is moved around as easily as an empty wagon. The feed grinder is a six-horse size; it will take all the work there is in the engine. It will grind from four to eight bushels an hour, according to condition of grain, the condi- tion of grinding buhrs, or the fineness ground; usually five bushels an hour, about two hours a week. The words 'no smoke, no ashes, no engineer' clearly express the facts, for once understood it is easily man- aged, and will run for hours without an attendant. A gallon of gasoline will run my engine for the pump about twelve hours; it costs less than one cent for gasoline to grind a bushel of grain. In the spring, when chicken feed is wanted, and in the fall, when new mush is wanted, I do grind- ing enough for others to buy my gasoline for most of the year; the expense is so small that it would not get an accident 158 ENCYCLOPEDIA policy on your life to climb a wind mill tower to oil it. One day when busking, a hydrant was left open. We came in from work at nigbt. There was no water, and no wind to run a wheel. The engine was started and in a few moments there was water for things, and by the time chores were done there was three or four days' supply of water on hand." In the accompanying sketches we show several methods of fitting up wood sawyer's outfits with the gas engine. The portable Fig. 3 outfits when fitted up with an engine of from 4 to 10-horsepower are suitable for sawing logs as well as cord wood and so are especially adapted for taking into the timber. On a great many farms much of the repair work is done in the farmer's own shop and in many of these shops the work is heavy enough to admit of the use of the gas engine. In Fig. 1 is shown a wood- sawing outfit geared to the engine which is stationed within the shop. The size of the circular saw of course varies with the size of the wood to be handled, and the size of the saw or wood determines tlie amount of power necessary to run the saw. With soggy wood greater power is required than with clear-grained wood. For handling cord wood a 22 or 24-inch circular saw with a heavy balance wheel of from 25 to 100 pounds and run by a 2 or 3-horsepower gas engine is large enough and will saw from 10 to 30 cords of wood per day, ac- cording to the amount of help engaged in handl'ng the wood. There should be one man to operate the saw and another to de- liver the sticks to the saw table. Larger saws require more power; for instance, four horsepower would be required for a 26 or 30-inch saw and, in fact, a 5 or 10- horsepower engine could be used advan- tageously with greater speed and more rapid M'ork. In the portable outfit, shown at Fig. 2, a 3-horsepower water-cooled engine is used. In the case of a water-cooled engine there is risk of the cylinder freezing in cold weather and tlierefore the water tank must be emptied Avlien shutting down and refilled when the engine is again started up. The tank holds but a couple of pailfuls of water, so the work of emptying and filling it is slight. The outfit shown at Fig. 3 has a 6- horsepower oil-cooled cylinder so that the trouble of emptying and refilling the cylin- der is done away with. The construction of each of the portable outfits is apparent in the illustrations and, of course, each is capable of being modified or changed ac- cording to individual circumstances. A search through the junk pile will probably yield all the materials required outside the saw and the engine, and witli the aid of a farm hand any farmer can fit up such an outfit in half a day's time. SURGEONS' ACETYLENE HEADLIGHT FOR OPERATING AT NIGHT. In the modern hospital the operating room is specially equipped to secure the greatest possible amount of light, both day and night. The walls are of the finest and whitest enameled brick obtainable, and a large skylight by day and innumerable elec- tric lights at night simply fill the room with a bright light. A skillful sur- g e n can, in emergency, get along without many of the most lielpful appli- ances, but he must have light. For the spe- cial assistance o f surgeons who are obliged to operate at night outside of the hospital. Dr. Kane has devised an acetylene light which throws an intensely bright light just where it is most needed. The burner and reflector are worn on the forehead of the operating surgeon, and the gas conducted through a small tube which runs down the doctor's back to a little generator fastened to a belt at the waist. Victoria's LrOng>est Train Consolidsttion Ty^pe Hauls 54 Cars ^VeigHing 781 Tons Over Heavx Oracles Governtnent Rail-vvays of Victoriia— Xest_Xraixk Fifty-four cars including a caboose, com- posed a test train liauled over the Govern- ment Railways of Victoria recently, between Xyora and ^Melbourne. The train, exclusive of engine and tendei*, weiglied 781 tons and is the heaviest train ever hauled in the col- ony of Victoria. The train was pulled by a consolidation locomotive of the Vaoelain compound sys- tem. The ruling gradient on the line was one in 75 or a raise of 70 feet per mile. So successful was the test that all the Govern- ment Railways are to be equipped with this 259 type of American-built locomotives in the future. American-built engines are found at the remotest corners of tlie globe, and it would be hard to convince the average American that any locomotive of foreign construction could surpass some of those put out by our renowned companies. In several re- cent constructions, however, foreign types have been adapted to American practice without departing from the symmetry and pleasing arrangement obtaining in Ameri- can types. 260 E N C Y C I. O P E i:) I A BABY AUTO FOR INFANTS. ELECTRIC HEATED RUGS. An automobile only 41/2 feet long and IV^ feet wide was a prize winner at a recent contest in England. The engines develop THe "Baby" Auto 2% horsepower, and the machine will travel 15 miles an hour. The 5-year-old operator with his little sister is seen in the cut, which we use by courtesy of the Motor News, Dublin. ^ *» METAL BRUSH FOR CAR WASHING. A metal brush which fastens to a pipe or hose, and throws a stream of water while in use, is a recent improvement for i ■ jPm rl - j ^^^Hj^i^-Z^^- "WTasKin^ Cars 'writH a Metal BrusH washing cars'. Wooden brushes swell and become worthless in a short time. The metal bi'ush lasts much longer. It is a big task to keep hundreds of car windows bright and any invention which saves time and labor in the work is always in demand by up-to-date railway companies. So many things are electric these days we have long since ceased to wonder at the constantly increasing list. The electric rug is the latest, or was a few days ago. The rug is made with a warp of fine copper wire covered with asbestos, with filling of wool. It has the appearance of any other well-made tufted rug; it is made as carefully, in fact, more carefully, than most rugs, and when charged with an elec- tric Wire attached to the ordinary electric fixtures of a dwelling it generates heat very rapidly and at little expense— for the small sized rugs something like a cent an hour. Now, the practical value of such a rug lies in its use by the bedside or in the bath- room. The floor partially or entirely cov- ered with a wire warp fabric which gen- erates a continuous heat will, to a great degree, prevent the colds and the discom- forts of the fall and spring time when the house is not always heated. A hardwood floor is at best a cheerless thing to step on in the chill dawn of the morning, or to kneel upon in the sad hours of the night. With a few rugs around a room all elee- tricallj' heated, the early riser can peram- bulate without chilling his pedal extremi- ties, and can indulge physical culture stunts as he leaps from rug to rug; there will be practical reasons, moreover, for the maiden's indulgence of that prehistoric habit of squatting "Injun-fashion" as she dons her shoes and stockings. The rug can be set "warming" by con- nection to any electric light Avail socket and turning on the current. There is no dan- ger of setting the house afire, as the heat is mild and the under side of the rug protects the floor. «♦ « » SAILORS ORDERED TO BLACK THEIR FACES. One of the most curious orders given in the English navy is "All hands black faces!" And in order that this may be adequately fulfilled each of its warships carries among its stores a supply of such pigment as is used for the same purpose on the stage. This order is only given during the maneu- vers, as a rule, for when a night surprise is intended it is not only the vessels that are made as little visible as possible, but the faces of the men must be blackened, for when powerful night glasses are used the showing of a white face is far more palpa- ble than any landsman would suppose. ENCYCLOPEDIA 261 Some R.einarKable Hoisting MacHinery Ho-vir Coal and Ore are Handled at I«nportant I^aKe Ports— Vast Amount of "WorK Done A.linost A.utoinatically One hundred years have indeed wrought nonderful changes in the machinery and methods used in every line of industry. Twenty years have wrought startling changes I Up in Minnesota they tell a story scene of the event, scraped its paint against the rocks in the sides of the last rock cut on the way to the mines, and those who re- call the event, declare they were barely able to get through, but the promise was re- of how twenty years ago the first carload deemed. THe Cou'v-eyor Lriftin^ a Tub--THe Ptisber PusKin^ a Car Into tHe Craaie Of iron ore ever mined in that state was loaded at the Breitung mine and shipped to Two Hai-bors. The owner of the mines sent his son in 1883 to assume charge of the Iron Range railroad and the opening of the mines. The son, now United States Ambas- sador at the court of Berlin, promised that the first ore should be shipped August 1, 1884. He did it, but by a close shave. The huge Baldwin engine that drew the special train carrying Mr. Tower and a party of friends from Two Harbors to Tower, the The party brought a carload of calico, beads, cheap jewelry, tobacco, pipes and fishing tackle for presents to the Indians, a large number of whom had been induced, to be present bj' this means and the prom- ise of plenty to eat. At sight of the plung- ing black monster with its escaping steam the red men fled precipitately to the woods and could not be prevailed upon to return for some time. Everyone present helped to load that first car of ore. Some carried chunks of it t« 262 ENCYCLOPEDIA Position of Car in tKe Cra«lle--Pu«b- er in the Center of XvacK Beloiv tbel^ev-el of tHe Rails so Next Car Can Pass Over It. the ear, while others wheeled a barrow full and no golden spike yet driven or ruddy wine splashed over a vessel's prow was ever the occasion of more merriment and felici- tation. No Minnesota Indian could be frightened by a locomotive nowadays, and her carloads of iron ore only attract atten- tion by their number and their value, but the incident shows what twenty years can do. In this modern era, when mechanics are receiving more attention than ever before, an appliance may seem to be absolutely per- fect for its purpose one day and on the next some great mechanical genius or expert may invent an appliance whicli will entirely do away Avith the old one, so great an improve- ment it is. Startling mechanical improve- ments are now wrought in a single day, oft- times. Rarely is it the mechanical genius, with all his natural proclivities, who works these great changes. More often it is the expert— the man, mayhap, who has spent years in hard study and daily experience of labor, who Is familiar with every mochanical principle and its application; who is blessed with no sudden inspiration, but who knows hoAv to apply his knowledge, and by the study carried on in overalls and with greasy hands and by exercising a clear insight and reasoning powers, knows how to put two and two together. Such men class as ex- perts and are employed by many large con- cerns simply to study the machinery em- ployed and see where it is susceptible to im- provement. To trace many of the important develop- ments in machinery would require several volumes. This article has to do only with some of the wonderful forms of hoisting- machinery found at the principal lake ports in the Union for the purpose of loading and unloading ore and coal. For handling coal from cars to vessels huge coal tipples are used in many places. The loaded car is first run into a cradle by means of a car pusher, a cylindrical affair having double-flanged wheels, traveling in the center of the track and drawn by means of a cable. When a car is in place in the cradle the pusher backs along its track and down a declivity in the center of the track Cradle Turning Car Bodily Over so tHat tHe Coal is Dumped THrou^H CHutes into TubSr ENCYCLOPEDIA 263 until its top is below the level of the rails on which the cars run. The next car then passes along the track and over the pusher which then travels behind that car in its turn and pushes it up the grade to the cradle. The frame of the cradle on one side of the car rises around the car like a huge crooked arm and holds at a slant above and a little to one side of it a row of chutes or With this system there is practically no breakage, which is of great importance when handling bituminous coal. Three of these tipples with conveyors have loaded easily 25,000 tons of coal in 22 working hours. Of all the ore handled at the various lake ports last year, 90 per cent was unloaded by what is known as the "Brownhoist Bridge Tramway." This consists of a series of bridges built up alQng the docks, each Position of Tubs BeneatH CHutes««PtisHer Behind I^oaded Car->One'Tub Bein^ Lrovirered by Con-veyor into tbe Hold of a Vessel pockets. The car is securely clamped in place by hydraulic clamps and is then lifted and turned bodily over, the coal, as the car turns, rolling into the chutes or pockets above it. These chutes, when the car is in the inverted position open inside of special tubs, and the cradle when righting leaves the coal in the tubs ready to be lowered in- to the steamer's hold. The loading is per- formed by means of conveyors which pick up these tubs and lower them into the hold, the bottoms of the tubs opening Avhen the tubs are in their lowest position in the hold. bridge resting on a front and rear pier and each operating independently of the others. The span between the two supports Is usu- ally about 180 feet and underneath it the space is used for storing coal or ore, as the case may be, with room for tracks next to the front pier. Beyond the back pier of each bridge is a cantilever extension 92 feet in length, and at the front, extending over the boat to be unloaded, is hinged to the bridge proper an apron which is capable of being raised as the boat enters or leavesj the dock. 264 ENCYCLOPEDIiV their entire output, which they toiled over with sweating brows and aching limbs; handles it with- out a groan, without a mishap, without a delaj^; every operation accurately timed. Perhaps the millennium will come when ingenious man has made every operation incidental to human existence automatic, and there is nothing left for him to work at or to contrive. ARTIFICIAL GUTTA-PERCHA. Span of tHe Bro-wrnHoist Bridge Tram-Mray, SHo'viring Stores of Coal and Ore and £inpty Cars Beneatlx The operation of each bridge is controlled by one man and operates with either steam or electric power. The bucket which is thrust down into the hold of the vessel for its load is carried by trolley and the load can be dumped at any point desired. Some- times the material is loaded di- rect into cars at the cantilever end. The bridge travels along the dock front so that it is not necessary to move the boat after it is once tied to the dock. In this manner coal and ore amounting up to thousands of tons are handled quickly and cheaply and what once would have re- quired a week's labor by many men can now be done in a day by the aid of a few. How remarkable the extent to which power— steam and electricity — have taken the place of human toil! What are those who delve in earth and rock? That vast throng that daily troops into the subterranean passages that honey- comb the interior of this bounteous country and by the lurid flare of lamps ply pick and shovel against want and famine and cold? This gigantic, ingenious device, this child of a cunning mind, operated by this wonderful force^ handles The demand for gutta-percha is so prone to exceed the supply that manufacturers are continually seeking a substitute for it. It is used for submarine cables, and for golf balls. In constructing cables it is used to insulate the conduct- ing wire from the exterior metal sheath. The German telegraph depart- ment has been testing some cables in which an artificial gutta-percha consisting of . a mixture of India rubber and palm wax, the melting point of which is the same as of rubber, was used. The cost of the artifical gutta-percha cable is fibout 35 per cent less than the ordinary cable, and its electrical properties are equal to those of the real thing. ^^ ^\ ll^P|!l^ i m J ^^ ■ S^^i^i^l^i^l^^ ^yj |m|j WB ^^^^^HpHHI |MifS gij^p M B ^SltB ^^^^^^HHRSSSaiHi MlpHP JUj^gnj Si JEm b3TI ^1 ^HIii^B^^HiHBr*~ "v ^HblH^ ZIZ^3| HI PHh mpt _^ ^^^WI^K^mKmm^ 1 ^A, K^p A.prons of BroivnHoist Bridge Xramway Extending Over Vessel«*Bucl£et ox^ One Ajtroxt ENCYCLOPEDIA HoMT TelepHone Poles Are Set 265 Four Men in Tivo Minutes Noiv Do WKat Formerly R.ectuired Tiventy Men The modern method of setting telephone poles is in striking contrast with the old method. Telephone builders were many years in finding a method of pole-setting which was neither slow nor expensive. Several years ago the only recognized way to set a pole was by "piking"— that filled the long-felt want in every particu- lar, and was so simple in operation that de- signers felt ashamed that they had not thought of it themselves. Mounted on a strong heavy wagon with one leg over each pair of wheels is an in- verted V about 28 feet high. Rigged to the "Several Years Ago tHeOnlx "Way to Set a Pole was by PiRi»g»» is, by lifting up the pole and then lifting it into place with long pike-poles, supporting it with a yoke when necessary to secure a new hold with the poles. This was hard labor for twenty-odd men and it was slow work. Of course it was realized that if a machine could be employed it would be a great saving in men, time and money. Sev- eral mechanical pole-setters of diflferent de- sign were constructed, none of which met with success. Finally the foreman of a construction gang invented a machine called a pole-derrick which satisfactorily peak of this is a duplicate block and tackle, the one of steel and the other of 1%-inc.h rope. On the bed of the wagon is another block which forms the combination with the upper one and through which the rope, to which the liorses are hitched, passes. The same team which pulls the Avagon does the hoisting. The derrick goes into action in a very interesting and effective way. As soon as a pole is set the horses are hitched to the wagon and it is moved on to the next pole. Often this moving is a very ticklish business. The country is 266 ENCYCLOPEDIA more often rough than smooth, and the four men who comprise the derrick gang have to be very careful in guying the swaying machine as it travels. Once ar- rived at the hole the derrick legs art- leaned to the proper pitch and strongly guyed to nearby trees or rocks. Then a logging chain is passed about the pole at a place well above the balance point. While this is being done the horses are attached to the pull rope. The pole is then shifted until the cross arms may be put on. As soon as these are bolted and spiked the BUTTER GLAZED TO KEEP IT FRESH. Nearly all the butter sold in forms in both England and Germany is glazed with a thin glass-like coating of sugar, says Con- sul-General Guenther, of Frankfort, Ger- many. The butter is first carefully kneaded and washed and then moulded in 1-pound forms and placed in a cool room. A hot sugar solution is painted over the surface to effect the glazing. A very soft brush is used and the painting done very rapidly. The hot solution melts the surface of the 'From the Time tHe Pole L^eaves tHe Ground to the Mt>tnentlt is Set is No More Than Tivo Minutes." foreman gives the word, the horses start in a steady even pull and the pole rises. Tn less than a minute it swings clear. The men guide the butt so that it is over the hole and the horses back. The pole drops into place and is ready for the filling gang, who straighten it up and pack down the earth and rocks to hold it. From the time the pole leaves the ground to the moment it is set is seldom more than two minuter, affording a decided contrast with the time required to place it in the old-fashioned, man-handled way. One of these derricks was used in con- structing a 60-wire line between New York and Boston, and it was found that this method of setting poles cost $20 less per day than the old way. butter, and the sugar and melted butter form a varnish which keeps the butter pure and fresh and protects it from all deterio- rating outside influences. THAWING THIRD RAILS. A system of thawing sleet and ice from third rail electric lines has been tested at Bridgeport, Conn. A steel Avire is carried under the head of the rail and insulated from it. The temperature of the rail was raised from 15 deg. F. to 34 deg. F. in 15 minutes. ♦ « » The Russians lost in battle because their men were not as Avell trained as the Jap- anese. ENCYCLOPEDIA 267 HOW TO SECURE A LIGHT WITHOUT MATCHES. Touring automobilists may sometimes find themselves without matches and requiring light. In such case it is well to know how to secure a light without matches. The Automobile tells how it may be done. If the car is fitted with jump spark igni- tion, disconnect one of the high tension wires from its plug; place the free end of this Avire in such a position that it lays about a quarter of an inch away from the cylinder casting. Saturate a small piece of cotton waste or a piece of paper with gaso- line and place over the free end of the ig- nition wire. Turn on the ignition switch and crank the motor. When the spark jumps from the free end of the disconnected wire to the cylinder casting, it will set the paper or waste on fire. Be careful not to allow the blazing waste or paper to fall into the "apron," under- neath the motor, if one is used. This "apron" is usually covered with grease and oil, and if it catches fire it may imperil the car. On machines having make and break igni- tion one wire should be disconnected from the insulated electrode in the cylinder. A piece of waste or paper saturated with gaso- line, as previously described, is then laid on the cylinder head. The motor is next started and allowed to run slowly — on three cylin- ders. If the wire which has been discon- nected from the sparker, as described, is now touched on and then removed from the cylinder casting or masse close to the waste, the spark resulting from the short circuit will ignite the waste or paper. DRYING FIRE HOSE BY ELECTRICITY. Does Away with the Old Hose Tower or Hose Rack in Engine Houses. Rotary fire hose driers run by an electric motor are now coming into use in up-to- date engine houses for drying hose. For- merly the hose was carried up into the tower, built in the engine house for the purpose, and there hung up to dry. The job of hanging it up and taking it down again was by no means a small one, but the task was not only hard on the firemen but was also a strain on the hose, which is an ex- pensive item in the station's equipment. The rotary fire hose drier winds and un- winds' the hose automatically and with less friction than in ordinary handling of it. Rotary Fire Hose Drier A.utotiiatic« ally TaKin^ in Hose.j The exterior of the drier is constructed of hard wood and the interior is of iron, steel and brass. The electric motor is placed wherever most convenient, on top being a good place. The coils of the hose, when wound on the cjiindrical racks, do not come in contact at any point. The drier is closed and as easily as you turn on an electric light, so easily is the machine started. Its rapid rotation gives it one means of drying, and at the bottom of the cylinder a large fan rapidly revolv- ing draws over the hose al)out 6,000 feet of air a minute. This carries off all the mois- ture and in a few hours the hose is per- fectly dry, without having been subjected to any strain. The drier occupies four square feet of floor space. Its speed can be regulated at will and one man can operate it, handling 500 feet of hose at one charge. 268 ENCYCLOPEDIA 'The Atito Dre-w tKe Car Alon^ at Its Usual Speed." AUTOMOBILE DRAWS STREET CAR. The owner of an auto in Detroit was boasting about the pulling abilities of his machine, and to malie good his claims hitched on to a street car that was" crowded with passengers. The auto turned out to be a first-class locomotive and drew the car along at its usual rate of speed. The illustration is used by courtesy of the Motor Age. CARD DISPLAY DEVICE FOR TELE- PHONES. FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS POPULAR PRICE FOR AUTOMOBILES. Where there is one person who can af- ford to pay $5,000 for a luxurious automo- bile there are fifty who cannot pay more than $500, and these are waiting for the manufacturers to bring their prices dow?"i. Thus far the demand for high-priced ma- chinos has been sufficient to keep the fac- tories busy on machines ranging from $700 up, but if autos drive horses from the streets it will be when present prices are very greatly reduced. That $500 is a popular price was demon- strated a few days' ago in this city. A dealer had a job lot to dispose of, and ad- vertised them at the usual price, $750. No sales resulting, he tried them at $700, then $600, but without satisfactory results. Then he came out with an offer to close them out at an even $500 each, and they were sold in no time. The masses want a safe, strong car, rea- sonably fast, and plain and simple in fin- ish, and with the least possible number of contraptions. Before many years such ma- chines will be available and will find ready buyers. A new telephone adjunct is a holder for cards bearing the names and telephone numbers and exchanges of firms and busi- A Handy Telephone Attachtiiei\t. ness houses with which frequent communi- cation is held. The cards, indexed in large red letters, radiate from the center of the holder and may be rapidly rotated until the desired name appears; a deflector holds them in position for ready reference. The device saves much time spent in looking up the same numbers again and again in the directory. ENCYCLOPEDIA >69 BritisH Iron SHipentine "California," the Last Sailing^SHip O-yvx^eA by tHe 'White Star I^ine, of Liverpool HOW CORN COB MEAL IS MADE. DIVING IN A MINE. Cob meal is used for stock food, but its manufacture Las been regarded as' a secret, and few people,- even millers, know bow it is made. An inspector for an insurance company gives the following account of the l)rocess : Cobs are conveyed from cob warehouse by belting to the grinding and cleaning department, where they pass through sep- arator, and all foreign material is removed and carried away. During this process all husks and chaff are removed by blower fan and passed to ironclad house on out- side through metal pipe. This light stuff is later baled and shipped as material for mattresses. Ine cobs are next conveyed by s'crew conveyor in metal trough to mill room, where they are elevated to third floor and passed to rolls' through tin-lined spouting. During the milling process all pith and bee wings are removed by blower fans, con- veyed to metal screw trough, where the heavier material drops to bottom and lighter is blown out to dust house. The heavier unsalable stuff is brought to boiler house and used for fuel. The only part of the cob used is the hard inner core, which is reduced to meal in the mill room, whence it goes to the large bins in the warehouse and packing room. Nervy 'Work in Absolute Darkness To don a diver's suit and plunge into water under the most favorable circum- stances requires pluck and a fearless will, but when the water is 50 feet deep and at the bottom of a mine 1,100 feet below the surface the conditions are by no means im- proved. Such a feat, however, was recently performed in a deep mine in the far West. An accident had happened to the big pump. The divers descended in absolute darkness, and made certain repairs by sense of touch and feeling that were necessary to start the pump, and it has been running since perfectly. The cost did not exceed $175, whereas, if a new pump had been pur- chased and put down it would have cost at least five times the expense incurred for the divers. It was a very unusual procedure, but a very successful one. ♦ * » Large gongs placed on poles at impor- tant street corners are used by the Colum- bus Railway & Light Company to notify in- spectors of breakdowns on any division of the line. The gongs are rung from the main office and the inspector communicates with the office by means of a telephone on the same pole as the gong, and is instructed where to go and what to do. 270 ENCYCLOPEDIA GatKerin^ tKe Cotton Crop The first lYosts' have reached the cotton belt aud already the bolls are bursting and opening- their treasures. Cotton picking is a busy time In the South, and for the next few weeks the pickers by thousands will be gathering, the gins will be piling up the Avhite stacks, and the balers, and teamsters', the steamboats aud railroads will be rushed to their full capacity. Already on the long wharves at the great export centers of the South lies heaped mil- lions of dollars of the wealth of these United States. Not, to be sure, in glistening heaps ports. Of cotton alone hundreds of thou- sands of bales are exported from this place every year and the sum total of Savannah's exportation amounts to many millions <>f dollars each year. A vast space on the wharves is given up to naval stores. ^—*- AMERICAN COASTS PROTECTED BY ELECTRICITY. Nowhere is the revolutionary change that electricity has wrought more marked than in the extent to which it has been put to Naval Stores and Iiumber Dooks at Savannah, Ga, Of coins or bundles of bills, but in that sub- stantial form which represents a rich and productive soil and healthful, soul-develop- ing human toil. Savannah, Ga., Is one of these representa- tive business centers of the South. Located as it is on the Savannah river where vessels of 14 feet draught and upward discharge, and load three miles below the harbor, and defended by Forts Pulaski and Jackson, its great wharves are scenes of teeming indus- try. Rice, cotton, lumber and many other important products are brought thither to be loaded on great vessels and carried to other use in our coast fortifications. No part of the equipment of the fortress is more im- portant, now that the electric installation involves so many features. Electric fans, electrically-operated ammu- nition hoists, telephones by which the whole system of fortifications, the commandants and subordinates are put into communica- tion, electric searchlights, telegraphs, sub- marine mineo electrically controlled, electric signaling lights, electric lights, electric clock circuits, all are in use, and in time, probably, among these will be numbered wireless telegraphy. ENCYCLOPEDIA 271 Baldwin Builds Six Locomotives a Day Story- of a. Great American Industry- £xnploys 15»800 Men»- Covers 37 A.cres The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadel- phia, was founded by Matthias W. Baldwin, Avhen in 1832 he built the "Old Ironsides." A whole year was spent in its construction, and $3,500 was the purchase price. It went into service on November 23 on the Phila- countered in building this first locomotive owing- to a lack of necessary tools. How- ever, she did good service for a number of years, and is now honored and cherished far above the successors of recent days. Thirty years passed, during which great Xhe First I^ocomotive, "01«1 Ironsides." 1832 THe l,OOOtH I^ocotnotive, 1861 delphia, Germantown & Norristown R. R., which was operating 6 miles by means of horses. "Old Ironsides" was a great event, weighing all of 5 tons, with driving wheels 54 inches in diameter and front wheels 45 inches, the wheels having wooden spokes and rims and wrought-iron tires. Her cylin- ders were 9V^-inch diameter with 18-inch stroke; the boiler was 30 inches in diameter and 7 feet long. Great difficulties were en- improvements and inventions had worked many changes in locomotive building, and Baldwin pointed proudly to locomotive No. 1,000. It was built for tlie Pennsylvania railroad and had two pair of driving wheels. It was intended for light passenger work, and dispensed with a tender by carrying its water in a tanlc over the boiler. This ma- chine weighed 23 tons. The next 10 years were busy ones, during 272 E N C Y T. O P E D I A which a thousand locomotives were built. No. 2,000 being completed October 30, 1869. It shows a much greater likeness to present day types and was delivered to the Penn- sylvania road. This was a soft coal burner, weighing 75,600 pounds, with 56,000 pounds on the driving wheels. The separate 8-wheel tender had a capacity of 2,400 gallons of water and i% tons of coal. Two hundred and fifty of these were built, and it hap- pened that No. 3,000, which was finished in December, 1872, was of the same typ? Tbe 2,OOOth Lrocomotive, 1869 Tbe 4,OOOtH Locomotive, 1S76 THe 5,OOOtH Lrocomotive, 1880 ENCYCLOPEDIA 273 und size. No. 4,000, October, 1876, was con- sidered liandsome in those days. It weiglied 35 tons, and sbows the change in staclv, but retains the low cab. No. 5,000 was an effort toward greater speed, which the better trades permitted and growing business interests demanded. It came out in March, 1880, and covered the The COOOtH Locomotive, 1882 ' ' ' ''JMMliJJA- The 7,OOOtH I\ face, but without breaking the pieces of crushed stone and to a depth which re- moves all ruts and permits of reforming the street. The machine weighs 4,000 pounds and, in the process of scarifying the road, is drawn by an eight or ten-ton steam roller to which it can be attached in a moment's time by means of a chain, and quite as easily ENCYCLOPEDIA 279 detached. The steam roller drawn the Por- cupine to the end of the length of street under repair, one man regulating its opera- tions. It does not jump or switch from side to side, but follows its course straight and true. If there are crossings to pass over its spikes are lifted until it has passed. When it has reached the end of the piece the roller laps over and draws the Porcu- pine back again, the machine scarifying each time for its full width and to any depth desired, the depth being regulated while the machine is in operation. After the scarifying process the road can be harrowed to form a crown, if desired. THE MAN BEHIND THE SHOVEL. Ihe way in which the man who shovels the coal into the furnace does his work has the effect of increasing or decreasing the cost of steam production, although it is hard to get mill owners to realize this' fact. Modern Machinery tells of a recent test which shows how different firemen work- ing under the same conditions will produce different results. Four good stokers were put to fire the same boilers, all conditions being similar. There was a difference be- tween the most and least expert of 23 per cent in capacity and 18 per cent in economy. The Porcupine in Position rolled down, stone and dust added as a top dressing and then sprinkled, making a fine new street, perfect in every way and re- paired at a minimum of expense. One Porcupine with the aid of one steam roller lias scarified a bloclv of the hardest city street to be found, and the surface was then shaped up and rolled down, the whole process being done, by the labor of four men, between the hours of 10 a. m. and 6 p. m. This is a fair example of the amount it can do. In other terms it may be stated as able to thoroughly loosen 4,000 square yards in ten hours. The machine will work close up to the curb and while moving in either direction. The raw material that passes through the hands of the fireman is one from which there is no by-product. As a rule, he does his best and maintains a fairly even steam pressure. He knows that the less coal he throws in the lighter is liis labor, but be- yond this he has no incentive to economy. Yet he is the one wlio can effect economies. Some of the larger plants have introduced a coal bonus, which is divided among the firemen who show best results. This plan might not be feasible in small plants where only one or two men are employed, but in such cases the manager can interest him- self to the extent of seeing that coal is used intelligently. 280 ENCYCLOPEDIA STUPENDOUS PROJECT OF BRITISH SCIENTISTS. Plan to Dig a Hole Twelve Miles Deep— To Cost $25,000,000— Time Required 85 Years. The British Scientific Association are seri- ously considering the plans for sinking a giant shaft many miles below the surface of the earth, and estimates of expert engi- neers place the cost of a 12-mile deep hole at $25,000,000, and allow 85 years for the completion of the undertaking. While the scheme may at first thought seem an insane one, is it really anj^ more so than the ever recurring attempts to reach tne North Pole? As a matter of fact the project is more likely to be productive in valuable knowledge, and there is even the possibility, though not the strong probabil ity, that rich minerals may be found to re ward the projectors, or their posterity. Two deep holes, each about one mile ii depth, have been sunk, one in Silesia and another in South Africa, but no one has ever previously planned to go down 10, 20, or 50 miles into the bowels of the eartli and diagnose the symptoms there prevail- ing. The plans and estimates of the work are already well started under the direc- tion of the Hon. Charles A. Parker, of the Engineering Sectioi: of the British Associa tion. The engineers assume that for the first four or five miles the temperature would not be unbearable, but below that point resort would be necessary, to air locks and a freezing process which would make the hole tenable to human existence. The experts have that all planned out, however, and the freezing system of M. Poesche, a noted Belgian engineer, is believed to an- swer all the requirements for the second 12 miles or so. Time in Temp, of Depth. Cost. years. Rock. 2 miles $2,500,000 10 122 deg. F. 4 miles 5.500,000 25 122 deg. F. 6 miles 8,000,000 40 182 deg. F. 8 miles 13.500,000 55 212 deg. F. 10 miles 18,500,000 70 242 deg. F. 12 miles 25.000,000 85 272 deg. F. The possibilities of a rich "find" are cer- tainly attractive: it may be a bed of dia- monds, or other precious stones. There may be strata of gold or silver as great as those of hard coal in Pennsylvania; or vast ledges of mercury or tin, or even the more common but still highly valuable deposits of lead, or copper, or zinc. In any event the geological disco\ej*ies could not fail to outrank many times any results possible to bring back ifrom either the South or North Pole. The more one reflects on the undertaking the greater the desire to know what is down below us, and whether a single rock stratum is miles in thickness. Canj^ons on the sur- face show frequently several strata. Then there is the possibility of tapping a great lake of oil which could not be ex- hausted in centuries; or some heat-giving center which might last for thousands of years. With electrical transmission per- fected to its fullness might it not be pos- sible to send to all parts of the world elec- trical energy for power; or for transfor- mation into heat that would temper the Arctic zone until the vines and fruits of Italy could bloom throughout the year. All this sounds chimerical: but is it? We know much; but not all knowledge will pass away with this generation. How long did Galileo contend for his the- ory? And to how many was it given to really believe that Columbus was other than an insane rover? The ancients did many things we are still vainly trying to imitate, and every little while evidence appears that some of our proudest achievements were practiced thou- sands of 3'ears ago. However, history in- clines to the belief that their efforts were directed toward raising lofty towers and rearing pyramids rather than digging holes in the ground. Have we then at last really discovered something new to do? If" so, let us all cheerfully chip in and put in operation at the earliest possible moment the deepest hole which has ever been dug by any world. » « » HOW TO MARK TITLES ON NEGATIVES. Marking titles on negatives so they print white on the picture is a very simple matter and may be done in either of two ways. Write the name backward on a corner of the negative where there is a shadow, using India ink, or write it upon the paper before printing, using India ink in that case, also. The ink will Avash off in the after-treatment and leave the title in white lettering, says the American Amateur Photographer. *-<-* It is rumored that two big American ship- building yards have taken contracts, one to build a fair- sized navy for Japan, and the other for 13 torpedo boats for Russia. The contract with Japan calls for 14 battleships and cruisers. At Lewis Nixon's ship yards at Perth Amboy the skeletons of 10 torpedo boats, each 100 feet long, have taken shape. The boats will be propelled by standard gas engines. ENCYCLOPEDIA 281 BRILLIANT ELECTRIC DISPLAY AT A SAN FRANCISCO EVENT. The electric illuminations on Market street, San Francisco, during tlie convention of tlie Knights Temphir recently held there will produce the power necessary for its propulsion. Therefore there must be other reasons than the expected economy in power production to warrant the adoption of elec- tricity on a trunk line railway unless it can be shown that the trains are frequent "The Street For Many BlocKs 'liVas Clothed in a Scintillating Effulgence of Electricity** was one of the most brilliant and beautiful displays of the kind ever made in this country. Thousands of lights with vari- hued globes were used in carrying out the elaborate decorative designs, and the street for many blocks was clothed in a scintillat- ing effulgence of electricity. We are indebted to W. L. Woodworth of San Francisco for the illustration. ELECTRICITY FOR STEAM ROADS. In an address before the Electrical Con- gress in St. Louis, B. J. Arnold said: "It may be taken as axiomatic that when investment is taken into consideration, power cannot be produced in a steam cen- tral station, under conditions that exist to- day, and transmitted any great distance to a single electrically propelled train, requir- ing from 1,000 to 2,000 horsepower to keep it in motion, as cheaply as a steam loco- motive, hitched directly in front of the train. enough to make the saving in the cost of producing power greater than the increased fixed charges made necessary by the in- creased investment due to the adoption of electricity. That electricity will be generally used on our main railway terminals, and untimately on our main through lines for passenger and freight service, I am convinced, but I do not anticipate that it will always be adopted on the grounds of economy in operation. Neither do I anticipate that it will come rapidly or through the voluntary acts of the owners of steam railroads, except in special instances. ♦ » » During August 8,649 pieces of baggage were handled daily at the Union station. St. Louis. This is nearly twice the amount handled during August of last year and 41,000 pieces over July. A remarkable fact is that trunks composed 94 per cent of the baggage handled. 282 ENCYCLOPEDIA FRENCH TEST NAVAL BALLOON. In aerial navigation tlie French are ahead of all other nations of the world. Even the wily Brazilian, Santos Dumont, claims it as the loved country of his adoption. Re- and can also be raised or lowered vertically according to the range. It is H-shaped, con- sisting of two uprights crossed by a thin bar. In order to get a correct alignment the cap- tain of the gun trains until the bar of the rear sight directs the "pea" for elevation, and until the "pea" is exactlj^ sideways be- tween the uprights for direction. Now very naturally the captain of the gun being used to this method of sightin:^' requires as close a representation of the bar and "pea" for his night sights, as possible, and a very good imitation is obtained by re- flecting the light of the rear sight in the form of a bright line, and that of the fore sight in the form of a bright spot. For this purpose a U-shaped piece is fitted on to the lantern immediately above the beam of light, and in the fore sight a tiny mirror of polished metal is let into the cen- ter of the inverted U frame at an angle of 45°, this reflects the light in the form of a small red speck. The rear sight has a slight depression in the center on either side of which a strip of polished metal inclined at Test of French Naval Balloon cently the French Navy has made thorough and severe tests of a balloon as a naval ad- junct. The French are sanguine of the ul- timate success of the balloon and the airship as important features of all great navies. ELECTRIC NIGHT SIGHTS. A ship engaged in a night attack is shrouded in complete darkness which is se- cured by closing all the dead-lights with which every scuttle is fitted, and switching off the dynamo from the incandescent lamp circuit. No lights of any description are allowed on the upper deck, and the conse- quence is that the guns have to be worked in complete darkness, this necessitates the use of "night sights." These consist of tiny lanterns containing very small glow lamps which are rendered incandescent by bat- teries. The lanterns are joined in fork to the battery, and are easily shipped on to the ordinary day sight. Now the form of sight used in daylight is as follows:— The fore- sight consists of a "pea" or bead mounted on a knife-edge, and is fixed— that is to say, it does not alter its position to allow for deflection or distance; the rear sight, on the other hand, may be screwed laterally along a scale to allow for deflection and windage, FORESIGHT REARSIGHT 45° reflects a line of light broken in the center where the depression is. The re- flection of the fore sight is red, and thus the captain of the gun trains until his red spoc is just filling the break formed by the de- pression, in the line of light that is visible as a broken white band upon his rear sight. The United States owns 1,200 steamships, while Great Britain has 8,500. ENCYCLOPEDIA 283 THE TELEPHONE IN THE WHITE HOUSE. Where and How the President of the United States Holds Telephonic Conferences and Sends Telegrams and Cablegrams One of the busiest spots at the White House is the Telegraph and Cipher Bureau, which is never closed, day or night, year In and year out^ and where hundreds of mes- sages dealing with vital affairs of state and having to do with the welfare of a great nation are received or sent daily. In all, 65 Avires converge in this room and, including the President's private code, telegrams and can talk with any government official in Washington without the message passing through the city central office. PROGRESS OF MARCONI SYSTEM. The Marconi system is now successfully transmitting messages 1,500 miles to sea, which leaves a gap of about 500 miles which is not positively covered. That is, a vessel sailing from Liverpool is in com- munication with the English station for the first 1,500 miles and is then without service for 500 miles, or until it enters the 1,500-mile zone served from the station on this side. Copyrighted by WaWon Fawcett Telegraph and Cipher Bureau at the White House cablegrams are sent in 10 different codes. President Roosevelt will not have a tele- phone instrment in his private office, but goes to the telegraph and telephone room in the White House, where he is frequently en- gaged in long-distance conversations for some time, as during the anthracite coal strike when he was thus engaged with the leaders of both sides, frequently for long interA'als. The central telephone station in this room is so arranged that the President Marconi having accomplished this, shall wo doubt his abilit.y to connect up the entire distance? His visit to America during Octo- ber was to arrange for greater power which he believes will solve the difficulty. While here he stated: "Though thus far the experiments have been imperfect, they have mainly failed because of lack of poAver. I purpose to increase that of the Cape Bi-eton station, and I have new appli- ances for a more perfect radiation for the 284 ENCYCLOPEDIA electric waves. I believe that I can over- come the long distance vrith more power. The Cunard steamships now get their bulle- tins readily and accurately when 1,500 miles from shore. With sufficient power the re- maining distanc<} across the sea can be overcome, I believe. Recent experiments in Italy developed curious phenomena which distance only cannot explain." foot. A strong pressure upon this pedal will stop the machine altogether when nec- essary. INGENIOUS EMBOSSING MACHINE. Decorations on metal vessels have been largely the result of hand woi-k, and con- sequently expensive. When these figures are raised the process is known as relief work; when they are indented, it is repousse. A German inventor has produced a machine which will do both processes, Embossing Machine which he accomplishes by small, pointed hammers — one outside and one working in- side the vessel. The Metal Worker do- scribes the process thus: In effect, the work is done as follows: The design is either drawn or stenciled upon the outside of the vessel to be dec- orated. The arm of the embossing ma- chine, upon the end of whicli a hammer is fixed, is introduced into the neck of the vessel, and is followed on the outside by a pointer, which shows exactly where the head of the hammer will come in contact with the metal within. The belt is then shifted and the machine is started. Three speeds are at the disposal of the operator; namely, 900, 1,200 or 1,600 taps of the ham- mer per minute. The pointer is held di- rectly above the point of attack, and, though out of sight, the hammer must strike directly under it. Variation in the force of the stroke is often desirable, and for this provision is made, the varying force being produced by a pedal placed within convenient reacli of the operator's THREE-PHASE STATIC GROUND DETEC- TOR. An instrument is now available for test- ing grounds on three-phase circuits of from 1,000 to 50,000 volts potential.- The previous method of combining two or three single-phase instruments has been unsatis- factory because slow. The diagram, from the Street Railway Journal, shows how the new device operates. It will be seen that each of the three fixed vanes is connected to a line of the three-phase circuit. The central movablt" vane is electrically connected to the case, which is grounded. When there is no ground upon the circuit the attraction or pull upon the central vane from each of three fixed vanes is balanced and it does not deflect from a central position. Should one of the lines become grounded, and the potential of that line become the same as that of the movable vane, there will be no pull in that direction, and the movable vane will be deflected away from the grounded line. The instrument is reliable m its indications and is not complicated. ocl£ from the Lo'wer R.eacH. Think of an elevator with the platform 140 feet long and 33 feet wide, lifting 1,300 tons 65 feet vertically; tliink again of the 1,300 tons including a good sized steamer, its load of freight and passengers and the necessary water to float it, all being lifted together and the entire operation performed in only four minutes, and you have a good idea of one of the latest and most remark- able feats in modern engineering. The Peterborough hydraulic lift lock, which has just been completed and opened for commerce, is the only lock of this kind in America and one of but four in the world of which it is very much the largest and most interesting as an example of hydraulic engineering. The Trent canal is not, in the most exact sense, wholly a canal, as almost the whole distance from Lake Huron to the St. Law- rence is through lakes and rivers or on flooded reaches. The length of the route from the Bay of Quinte to Lake Huron is about 200 miles. When completed it is expected that only about 20 miles of this dis- tance will be actual canal. Where canalling is necessary the prism of the canal has a width of 50 feet on the bottom with side slopes in earth of 2 to 1, and in rock % to 1. The slopes in the earth are protected by broken stone placed in a notch cut into the slope. • The standard size of the locks is 134 feet long, 33 feet wide, with 6 feet of water on the sills — though all the lands bought so far for canal purposes have been surveyed and laid out to allow eight feet of water on the sills of the locks. To make all the work.s so far constructed of the same capacity, would only mean holding the Avater two feet higher on the sills of the locks by means of extra stop logs placed in the dams, and a slight extra expenditure for the pur- pose of adapting the present works to the increased depth of water. The hydraulic lift lock at Peterborough was built to overcome the fall in the waters of the river Otonabee between the two 296 ENCYCLOPEDIA points, Nassau, about four miles nortli of the town, and Little Lake, a broadening of the river, opposite the town. The difference in elevation between the two points is 77 feet, the river having that fall in the dis- tance indicated. Above Nassau and up to Lakefield between which points the fall in the river is very pronounced, the river is canalized and made over into several stretches of still water, with locks of the ordinary type between the stretches. Of the difference in level referred to above Nassau and Little Lake, 65 feet is taken care of by the lift lock, the remaining 12 feet being overcome by a lock of the or- dinary type placed at the debouchure of the canal into the lake. The movement of the lock proper is based on principles long known and well estab- lished in the sciences of hydraulics and hydrostatics. Hydraulics relate to the water in motion. Hydrostatics to water at rest. If one takes a cube of iron, say four inches square each way, and drops it into a pail filled to overflowing with water, the piece of iron will sink and displace exactly as much water as will be equivalent to the bulk of the iron. If the iron were ham- mered or spun, into some form of vessel or dish that would float, then the piece of iron in its new form would displace water exactly equivalent to its weight. So that anything that sinks displaces its bulk of water and anything that floats displaces its weight of water. The application of this principle is seen in the filling of the cham- bers with water or with boat and water. Fill one chamber with water to the depth of 8 feet, in the other chamber place a barge and water to the same depth, and the load in both chambers will be exactly the same. Hence lockages may be effected with one barge or boat in a chamber, with barges in each chamber, or with the chambers containing water only. Calculation made of the cubical area of the chamber shows that the load of water is about 1,300 tons (about the equivalent of the weight of 13 of the heaviest loco- motives). The duty which the huge ram or piston is called on to perform exceeds this: There is the additional weight of the can- tilever or truss construction supporting the chamber, and the ram itself, in all about 1,700 tons. The special functions of the Peterborough lock are, first, to overcome the elevation; second, the time in which this duty is to be performed, third, the quantity for a given number of lockages or maximum number of tons handled, avoiding a con- gested traffic. The question for the depart- ment of railways and canals to decide was whether the lift rhould be overcome by locks of the ordinary type, or by such form of lock as that under construction. If of the ordinary type then at least five locks would be required. When these were in use, boats and barges would have to wait until the five lockages had been effected before gaining access. To avoid such de- lay the locks would have been built in pairs, as is the case at Lockport, on the Erie canal. The cost of these ten locks would have far exceeded the outlay for the hydraulic lock. The time of lockage would have been a serious hindrance to traffic, the attendance a very serious item and the service would have been slower, continually interrupted, and the capacity of the canal at this point restricted. Hj^draulic lift locks are planned and built to serve the future as well as the present and to provide for expansion. The operation of the lock requires three men— a lockmaster, and two assistants or gatemen. The lockmaster will be in charge. The gatemen will be required, one at the lower end and the other at the upper, to open and close the gates, to inflate or de- flate the seal tubes between the ends of the chambers and the reaches, and to operate the capstans. It is also necessary for the gatemen to take charge of vessels at a dis- tance of about 200 feet on either side of the lock. The_ lockmaster, during operations, will be required to stay in his cabin, on the top of the central tower, where he will have full view of all that transpires, and also be in communication with both his assistants by a simple signal system. The lockmaster will have the principal levers before him and through an interlocking system will I'egulate all the workings of the locks. The levers for controlling gate engines and cap- stans are situated on the wall immediately above the respective macnines, convenient of access to the gateman. The interlocking system is so arranged that the lockmaster must set his levers in the proper order, and these having been set neither he nor his gatemen can err by using their levers at the wrong time. It is intended that the actual time re- quired in raising the chamber through the whole elevation will be about three minutes. But this will depend upon the adjustment of the main glands, the nicety of the work- ing of the guides and the manipulation of the main valve in the hands of the lockmaster. ENCYCLOPEDIA 297 General View of tHe Lrock 'witH tHe Xrent R.iv^ex> Valley in the I>is^:is^Ce In the European locks this part of the lockage is readily performed iu three or four minutes. An ordinary lockage will be conducted in this manner: Suppose 100 tons of "surcharge"' has been found to give sufficient additional weight to the descend- ing chamber. The uppermost chamber will then be required to stop with its floor 8% inches lower than the bottom of the upper reach. On communication being established between it and the reach, it will receive from the reach 100 tons more than the lower claamber contains, assuming the depth In both reaches to be the same. The total operation to form the lockage, assum- ing that the gates adjoining the reaches are open and that the seal tubes between the chambers and reaches are inflated, will con- sist in hauling the vessel into the chamber and mooring her there securely, closing the gates, deflating the seal tubes, and opening the main valve between the presses. The heavier cliamlier will commence to descend, the motion being allowed to increase grad- ually by the gradual opening of the valve, until it reaches the maximum speed. At about three quarters of the stroke the main valve is slowly closed, communication be- tween the presses being entirely cut off when the end of the journey is reached. The change in elevation being made the seal tubes are inflated, the gates are opened and the vessel or vessels are free to go on their journey, after being towed out by the capstans. The surcharge contained in the descending chamber simply flows out into the lower reach, while a similar quan- tity to perform the next lockage is admitted into the chamber which has just reached the higher elevation. Statistics: Total height, 100 feet; height of lift, 65 feet; breast wall of lock, 40 feet thick, 80 feet high, and 126 feet long; weight of water in each chamber, 1,300 tons; depth of water in chamber, 8 feet; each chamber is 140 feet long, 33 feet wide, 9 feet 10 inches deep, steel; superstructure, concrete 26,000 cubic yards; pressure in operation, 600 pounds per square inch; ex- cavation commenced in 1896; concrete work commenced in 1900; cost, $500,000. The advantages claimed for the hydrau- lic lock over those of the ordinary type are saving of time, economy of water and in- creased capacity. With reference to capac- ity it will be noticed that vessels traveling in opposite directions may be locked through simultaneously. A "HOSPITAL TOWN." At a cost of approximately $8,000,000 Vienna is to have the greatest hospital iu the world. It will cover an area of 2,400,- 000 square feet, and will be in itself a small town having 40 separate buildings in all, 32 of these being clinics and hospitals and 8 offices and residences for the staff. There will be 18 complete and separate hospitals built on the pavilion or cottage plan and including sick wards, operating and lecture rooms. About 2,300 beds will be provided and each patient will have 1,030 square feet of space. The clinics will all have flat roofs with gardens, for the benefit of consumptives in particular. The operating rooms will be magnificent and of an entirely new type. In clinics for infec- tious diseases a glass partition will separate the jjatient from students and professor. 298 ENCYCLOPEDIA Motor Transfer Service Colonial Auto Bus A Pittsburg transfer company now have in use four big colo- nial 'busses for transferring passengers and baggage. Each of the cars accommodates fifteen passengers comfortably, and has two folding side racks which can be let down for carrying luggage, and a folding rack in front for mail pouches. By leav- ing off the racks the vehicle can be converted into a patrol Avagon. The machine has a wheel base of 96 inches, 56 inches gage, and weiglis, complete, 3,580 pounds. The wheels have solid 4-inch rubber tires. MILITARY EXPERIMENT COST $500,000. One of the most interesting and also most expensive military tests ever made recently took place in Germany. It consisted in the erection of a strong, wide bridge over the Elbe by three regiments of military railroad builders in a few days' time. The bridge was built in sections which could be quickly, and easily put together and was capable of bearing heavy artillery and army trans- port. If one section of such a bridge is destroyed by shells or fire another can be quickly substituted. The bridge can be adapted to streams of any width. Every precaution was taken to keep outsiders from viewing the bridge or photo- graphing it. The cost of material for the structure and the military experiment amounted to $500,000. LARGEST TELESCOPE IN THE WORLD. The largest efficient telescope in the world is to be added to the equipment of Harvard University. The new instrument is 27 feet in focal length and has a 5-foot aperture— nearly twice as large as the Lick observa- tory telescope, which has a 36-inch aperture. The telescope will be used chiefly for photo- graphic work. Fire Hose to Fit Amy Hydrant Our readers will remember the prediction made at the time of the Baltimore fire, when fire companies from other cities were unable to connect with the Baltimore hydrants, owing to their hose couplings being of a different size. Such necessities are not. long unprovided in these days, and the cut shows a device now available which permits of hose connection to any hydrant, larger or smaller. This makes "connections" of all cities and towns interchangeable, and an absolutely tight joint can be secured in from two to seven seconds. The price of the coupling is $10. Universal Hose Connection ENCYCLOPEDIA A 'Windmill Automobile. 299 Strange Craft tKat Sails Best A-gaitist tKe 'Wind— Only MacHine of Its Kind in tHe Country- Somewhat of a novelty in the way of windmills is a traction windmill, contrived by Geo. C. Phillips, of Webster, S. D. There is but one of these machines in this coun- try. The frame on which the tower is built is right sizes and kinds. At first the vane was used, but as this would not hold the wheel in the wind when it was pulling hard, the gear was attached in such a manner that now the wheel can be regulated with the left hand and the speed, also. There are a triangle, the center beam is a 2x6, 12 feet times when both hands are needed and so "THe MacHine is 12 Feet I«on^.* long, resting on the guide wheels at the front and on the axle at the rear. Two 2x4's extend from this beam at about half the distance to the outside of the rear. Ten inches in front of the axle is another 2x6 extending crosswise and resting on the beam and side bars thereby forming a tri- angle that will not rock. Two legs of the tower I'est on each beam. The wheel is an 8-foot steel pumper, re- modeled into a geared mill by using some old gear. The windmill is all built of old gear and it was quite a task to find the a screw is used for a steering device and it will stay where it is set. This machine runs best against the wind. Of course, it will move sidewise to the wind or with it, but ahvays the best against it. In a good wind it will move about three miles an hour and it could be made to run faster. The machine is 12 feet long, 9 feet wide and 12 feet high, weighing about 800 pounds. The inventor does not take the machine on the road often as it frightens horses. 300 ENCYCLOPEDIA STEAMSHIP EIGHT STORIES HIGH. MECHANICAL STENOGRAPHERS. A view of how the "Baltic," the largest vessel ever built, would look if cut in two, is given in the illustration which is taken from the American Machinist. The "Baltic" is 735 feet long, 75 feet wide, and is 35 feet longer and has 1,500 tons greater tonnage than the "Great Eastern." Her displacement is 40,000 tons; tonnage, 24,000 tons; can ac- commodate 3,000 passengers, and carries a crew of 350 persons. When at sea the ves- sel burns 235 tons of coal every 24 hours. When in the water the great depth of the ship is not apparent. The "Baltic" is ex- pected to earn 25 per cent on her cost. It is reported that a Cincinnati inventor has perfected a machine which reproduces in typewritten form the words spoken by a human voice into its receiver, including a vocabulary of 2,500 words and, if needed, can be adapted to the use of other words. The machine has a small copper disc for each of the 2,500 words and the spoken acts only on its particular disc, which, in turn, acts on the letters which || spell its word. Proper names must be spelled out. The machine is operated by electricity. word SUN DECK <^ lal Class Smoke Room and Libi-ary PROMENADE DECK iBt Class State Rooms 3ud Clafis Smoke Room and Libiur ^Ji-ew Forwai-d l8t & 2iid Class State Roomn l&t Cla^ Saloon Amidships 3i'd Cliisti Smoke Room Aft MIDDLE DECK and Class State Rooms and 3rd Class Mewi Room Amidships 3rd Cla% LOWER DECK Ueat Chambei-B & Cai-go Fo:'i Crew. and Coal Bunkera Amidships 3rd Class Aft ORLOP DECK - Medt Cliainbers & Cargo For Coal Bunkers Amidships Meat Chambers & Cargo Att LOWER ORLOP DECK Cargo Foi-ward Coal Amidships Ciigo and Meat Chambei-s Aft HOLDS Cargo and Deep Ballast Tanks Forwaiil Coal Engines i- Boilers ^mi'tsSips Deep BaJlast Tanks and Cargo Aft Cross Section of Steamship "Baltic ENCYCLOPEDIA 301 Meclianical Fig^ures Almost Htiman. TalK in Several Languages, WalK, R.ide BicxcleS;, 'Write and BreatHe— A.ppear to be A.live, and Do A,ltnost f^verytHing but TKinR. It was a dingy loft-like place, away back in the rear and at the top of an old build- ing in Chicago. The door was closed and locked and the big sign of "Positively No Admittance" was anything but encourag- ing. The first attempts at the little push button appaiently accomplished nothing but to sound a big bell somewhere. After awhile the door was opened, and a little old man in the most ancient straw hat and puffing vigorously at a cob pipe, stood be- fore me. My errand was quickly stated and after looking me over for fully half a min- ute, he evidently relented and bade me enter. Fortunately I had happened on one of the days when he was inclined to talk. I followed along, threading my way in the dim light between ghastly rows of half- formed men and women. A motley assort- ment of arms and legs were hanging from the walls, and heads in various degrees of construction lay on l)oxes or tables where they had been carelessly thrown, and in- terspersed were hands and ears, while a nose was stuck on a nail which protruded from a packing box. Then came the work l)enches and here were tools the shape and' purpose of which I could not guess. Above the benches, which were covered with all manner of materials, rose long shelves crowded with the most motley collection of brass rods, springs of every imaginable description, screws, wires, bunches of human hair, handfuls of glass eyes, bottles with strange smelling chemicals, magnets, electi'ic mo- tors, storage batteries and hundreds of things the purpose of which no man could imagine. It was the work shop of a genuine twentieth centurj' mechanical wizard. "So you want to see the 'figgers,' do you?'' said he, as we paused at the end of the room where a little better light was struggling through some very grimy win- dows. "Well, I'm pretty busy, so you just talk to this young lady here, and she can tell you all about it," and his eyes seemed to twinkle mischievously, which at that time I attributed to the smoke from his stalwart pipe. "Nellie, tiais is one of those editors, Mr. Marshall Everett; you just tell him all about how we make 'em." In every feature she was beautiful as she sat leaning back in an arm chair, gowned exquisitely in garments of the latest style and evidently of expensive material. "Must "Nellie> Exquisitely Go%vned, Sat L>eanix\^ BacU in an Arm. Chair" be the old man's daughter, but what a place for her here," I thought as she rose in a queenly manner and gracefully extended her hand. "I am very glad to meet you," she said in a rather captivating tone. "Won't you be seated?" Her large brown eyes looked steadily at me through a bit of lace veil that certainly was very f.etching, but the unexpected meeting, and an indescribable sen.se of hor- ror at taking her hand which was decidedly 302 ENCYCLOPEDIA clammy, combined to upset me somewhat, so I stammered out, "Yes, I guess so, thauk you," but remained standing. "Yes?" she remarked with a rising in- flection. "I came up to get acquainted with the figures, and learn something of their con- struction," I remarked. "It's a very pleasant day," she replied, with a suggestion of changing the subject. "And I am anxious to find out the me- chanical features of their construction—" "Are you fond of golf?" she interrupted. "And what motive power is employed, springs or electricity, or — " A burst of merry laughter, a coquettish toss of the head and a gesture which ap- parently dismissed the subject was my re- sponse. Then she swept majestically past me and stepping over to the window stopped and appeared to be looking out. "Well, how are you coming on?" said the old man who had returned. The young lady at this juncture turned and remarked — "I believe I would like to ride my wheel." "Crazy," I muttered, "and no wonder in such a crazy place as this." Her father cleared a space on the floor and bringing out a bicycle assisted her to mount, which she did in a rather amateur- ish manner, I thought. "All ready," he said, and thereupon the fair one began to circle the room, riding steadily and smoothly, but with increasing speed, until I trembled for her safety. Time and again she barely missed striking some obstruction, but each time flew past un- harmed. In about two minutes he reached out and brought the wheel to a standstill and assisted her to a chair. She appeared to be considerably out of breath from the violent exercise, and the gold locket on her bosom was rising and falling vigorously. "She took me two years, and cost $3,000," said he slapping me on the back, "but she's worth it." It was beginning to dawn upon me that this cheerful beauty with the highly in- formal manner was a mechanical creation of this strange genius. And so she was. Those work shops were a revelation. It seems impossible that a few inanimate ma- terials Could be made to assume so many of the human attitudes with such startling similarity to life. There were women in street, travelling and ballroom costumes, which, when touched by the 'wizard's hand cleverly imitated the manners of well-bred society, handling their fans with perfect ease and assuming the most natural atti- tudes. There were others who spoke in almost any language one might suggest. One woman chattered away as she perked her head first to one side and then the other, carefully applying a face cream to a com- plexion that was already without blemish, and actually breathed as regularly as though she were human. She will soon be seen in a store window and wondering crowds will block the sidewalks in front. In a comfortable chair in one corner of the room a man sat at ease and his gaze followed us as we moved about. He, too, was a talking figure. The figures have meant years of toil, a watchfulness of details almost too painstak- ing for even the twentieth century, and not only a great deal of mechanical ingenuity, but a thorough knowledge of anatomy, also. The result is most startling. The founda- tion of the figures is entirely of papier mache, making them durable and light, but the exposed parts of the body, arms, hands, shoulders and head are beautifully covered with wax, delicately and naturally tinted, as with the pink flush of good red blood. Natural eye brows, lashes and beautifully arranged hair add their part and then the figure is dressed with care and taste. For the talking figures small phonographs are placed within the chest and of course, records in any language, for any conversa- tion, song, speech, laughter or sound desired can be placed and replaced when wished. The talking mechanism is the least mar- velous feature of all. The details of construction and methods of joining the parts of the body, and es- pecially the application of equilibrium are carefully guarded secrets of the maker. Even if a skilled mechanic had a walking figure as a model it would be extremely difficult for him to make one just like it do the same movements. These secrets are the result of years of study and experiment. Some of the smallest details cost weeks of unbroken work, while others were the re- sult of scores of fruitless trials covering a period of years. This much I learned: The arms and legs are drawn up by specially constructed rubber cords which are set in action by the movement of a lever released by a magnet, all concealed within the limb. The extension or straightening out of the arm or leg is accomplished by wires moved by strong magnets connected to a light but ENCYCLOPEDIA 303 powerful battery placed in the trunk of the body. In the walking figures the equilib- rium is maintained by a tube of mercury which passes from the front to the back at the base of the trunk near its center. All the motions of the eyes, head and limbs are electrically operated or controlled from del- icate apparatus in the head. A comprehen- sive, detailed explanation of just how all this is done would require many pages and be understood only by an expert electrician. One of these figures, now on exhibition on the stage, deports Itself in such a nat- ural manner that many an audience be- lieved it was being made sport of by a hu- man being. To overcome this impression the figure is disjointed before the people; its wig removed and a small electric light inside the head turned on to show that the figure is run by springs and batteries instead of gray matter. This figure walks out on the stage and makes a speech; is then mounted on a bicycle having curved handle bars, its feet placed on the pedals and without further assistance or support rides around on the stage. When removed from the wheel it walks to a blackboard and writes its name, "Elmer Miller," in a hand sufficiently legible to be read by the audience. The idea of these figures is being used for other purposes than displays in shop windows. Very life-like pigs which squeal, grunt and root around is one of these and a big packer has ordered several thousand of them for advertising purposes. The work of perfectly imitating both hu- man and animal life is certainly an am- bitious one, and has been favored with a remarkable degree of success. ^—¥ KILLING WEEDS ON SHIPS' BOTTOMS WITH ELECTRICITY. The growth of weeds on the bottoms of ships and also the oxidation of the plates may some day be prevented by electrolysis. The plan is feasible in nearly every partic- ular save cost, and this may in time be decreased. The ship's plating is made the negative pole and insulated copper pieces the pos- itive pole of an electrolytic cell through which the current, generated by the ship's dynamo or a battery, is passed. Hydrogen, liberated from the sea water, prevents oxi- dation of the plates, whilst the resultant caustic soda kills all barnacles and weeds. The working cost, however, must be con- sidered. For a 300-foot ship, having 15,000 A Mecbanical Figure l^HicH "Speaks Six I^an^tia^es ritxe«\tly" square feet of wetted surface, three am- peres would be required to keep pace with the scouring effect of the ship's passage through the water. To be effective the work must go on all the time, both day and night at a cost of about $5 an hour or $120 per day, a considerable sum to add to a ship's working expense. It would also be necessary to carry a 225-kilowatt dynamo outfit. THE GREAT AIRSHIP RACE. Considering the wide publicity of the affaii", the outcome of the airship race from the Fair Grounds to the Washington Monu- ment falls nothing short of ridiculous. For the wonderful aerial craft were sub- stituted two balloons, such as feature every circus that strikes our villages. The first balloon, after remaining in the air two hours and a half, came down in a cornfield, and was shipped back to St. Louis. The other wandered at will until in the vicinity of Wyoming, 111., and then came down. 304 ENCYCLOPEDIA COFFERDAMS OF I-BEAMS. The New System of Interlocking Steel Sheeting A new system of building cofferdams, making deep water excavations or other deep excavations is being demonstrated in Chicago, and engineers everywhere are ask- ing themselves why someone did not do the work this way years ago. Like many an- other great thing, its simplicity is its most remarkable feature. The new system con- sists in bolting two channel irons together, forming a hollow iron tube, which is con- nected to the next tube by an I-beam of Cofferdain--CI\ica^o River standard size. The tubes and I-beams are driven by a pile driver, the same as piles. For this work nothing special is required. The I-beams are standard, 18 inches wide, and weigh 55 pounds to the foot; the chan- nels are 15-inch channels, weighing 33 pounds per foot. The illustration shows the manner of con- necting the sheeting, which may be extend- ed to any desired distance. At the corners an L is formed by riveting two I-beams together. There is no limit, within reason, of the height to which the steel sheeting r/f/!i/i/m//jf///K///r/?77r, .|.^^.>.^.^.^^■^'.'.^^^^'.'.'.^'.^^ is made. In practice here in Chicago as little as four feet in earth has answered to hold the sheeting for 19 feet above; probably six feet has been the average here. Where the excavation is deep or the work of retaining heavy, inside bracing of timber must be used. The sheeting has been spliced and driven here to a length of 40 feet. One highly desirable feature of the method is the comparative ease with which the sheeting can be pulled when its purpose is served. It can then be used again in- definitely. The channels, beams and balls are all standard, and can be bought in any large city out of stock. For work in water the sheeting is made practically water-tight by filling the columns with clay. Already in Chicago the new method has been used with great success in a coffer- dam in the Chicago river, where the water is 20 feet deep and the excavation within the dam was 31 feet deep; also in tunnel work on the lake front, and to retain the foundations and earth beneath, under one mMJ///j//^^/f/^//,>//7, '//fA//f/f//^/^//^f?/ Plan of Comer of the large pumps in the Chicago avenue city pumping station. At this place we made a careful examination and in spite of the constant operation of the immense pump, which is of the walking beam type, there appeared no settling or cracks after three ^^T??J^J//7JJ^///^^^///7/Jf?/'. S}SS.'^\\y.\\\\\\.\K\\\KKKy KS.WWNWNltl^^.SiZ^^ O' Plan Vie^v of Connecting SHeeting^ retaining wall can be carried. The wall is made by driving to a suitable depth; the bottom end is not sharpened, but will go through almost anything except, of course, stone. The nature of the soil has much to do with the length which must be left com- pletely in the ground after the excavation weeks' operation. The sheeting was driven within a few feet of the pump and an ex- cavation 40 feet square made to a depth of 20 feet. The new system, which is pa- tented, can be rented for periods of 90 days or moi'e and effects a great saving over the use of wooden piling. E N C Y C L O P E D 1 A _ 305 Floating CKtircl:! a Boon to Seamen. At the foot of Pike street, New York, not far from where all the great lines of the At- lantic land their mighty volume of traffic^ floats an unusual lit- tle craft which year in and year out never leaves its m 00 rings and "yet is most popular among thousands o f sailors. It is in fact a float- ing church built upon a scow 85 feet long and 45 feet wide. The. structure was completed in 1870 at a cost of $25,000 and since that time many are the seamen who have had reason to hless it. It is supported by the Protestant Episcopal Church Missionary So- ciety, of which notorious Bishop Interior of tKe Floating CHtxrch. Potter is president, and which also main- tains a reading room and gym- nasium for the sailors. Services- are held regu- larly in the lit- tle church and a steam launch 70 feet long with a carrying capacity of 50 persons brings the sailors from the vessels in the harbor to the church and returns them again. This mis- sion boat "Sen- tinel" also vis- outgoing ves- StAMEV'o ^/SSlO^ its incoming and sels and those in port as well and ministers to the needs of the seamen. The gymnasium and reading" room are to the sailor like a bit of the homelife he often longs for, but Floating ChurcH for Seamen, Nevr YorK. 306 ENCYCLOPEDIA qau rarely eDJoy. Last year 441 religious services were held in tbe floating church with a total attendance of 20,099 seamen. Missioix Soat **Sexktii\el" The good work of the society is especially apparent in the number of letters the sailors write to and receive from their families and friends and in tlie increased amount of money deposited for safe keeping. A Free Shipping Bureau obtains employment for sailors, and a Legal Aid Society investigates all complaints. ♦ * » GEARLESS AUTOMOBILE IN FRANCE. A firm of French builders have produced an electric automobile which is gearless. The armature of the motor has for its shaft the axle of the vehicle carrying the driving Avheels. At a recent test the machine ran on speeds ranging from 4^2 to 19 miles an hour. The machine is noiseless. Gearless motors were tried in the United States on street cars some years ago but were not an entire success and few if any are now in use. MANUFACTURES POLES So far as good straight poles are con- cerned, it will matter little hereafter if our forests deteriorate and the trees grow crookedly. A big factory, equipped with the finest machinery of its kind, for manufac- turing poles which are stronger than they were in the natural state, has just been es- tablished at Little Rock, Ark. The lathes take a 30-foot stick and if it is crooked it is straightened on the tenon and socliet plan. Each joint is straightened by an iron band imbedded in the wood around it. The poles can be built to lieights of 50 or 60 feet if desired and are shipped .in sections. They are built from any length of timber, yellow pine being used, but are not jointed under 30 feet. The base is made separately in the form of a sleeve into which the pole slips. The base is creosoted to preserve the wood and the entire pole is chemically treated and painted either rec* or green. In the United States 33,000 poles are used per day. — '■ ♦ * » AUTOMOBILES THAT RUN ON RAILROAI> TRACKS. The railroad companies are not likely tc look with special favor on the new steel- flanged wheels which are a recent English invention, and which enable an automobile fitted with them to travel safely and with great speed on a steam railroad track. Charles J. Glidden, who is attempting to encircle the globe in his auto, has received a set from London, and with permission al- ready obtained from the Canadian Pacific, will use that track across the continent, starting from Minneapolis. The auto will follow a passenger train at a respectful distance, and will be in charge of one of the company's conductors aL- long as it is on the road, which it will be for 2,000 miles. Train orders will issue the same as for any extra train, and it will run as a second sec- tion of a regular passenger train. The Automobile says: "This is the first "No Steeriii^ Necessary** occasion on Avhich a regular road touring car has been fitted with flanged wheels for railway travel. The wheels are stoutly made of ash and closely resemble the or- dinary automobile wheels, except for the rims. Each wheel weighs 250 pounds." Mr. Glidden has sent several barrels of gasoline ahead to insure a supply at places where autos are unknown, and expects to average 30 miles an hour while running. No steering will be necessary, as the wheels will follow the rail. ENCYCLOPEDIA 307 Portable Jails in WHicH Convicts are Caged at NigKt v\\ A. Portable Steel Convict Ca^e In many of the southern states convicts who work on the public roads by day, often some distance from the jail, are now caged for safe-keeping at night, instead of being returned several miles to the jail or placed under an expensive and uncertain guard. Portable steel cages are used for this pur- pose. Each cage is 14 feet long, 3 feet 6 inches wide and high enough at the en- trance for the prisoner to stand erect, while the ends which are equipped with four bunks each, are not so high. The floor, ceil- ings and ends of the cages ai"e made of heavy steel, while the sides are of 3/16x2- inch steel bars, set obliquely at right angles to each other and riveted together by %-inch rivets. Tlie cages are easily drawn by two horses. RAILWAY RUN OF 245% MILES MADE DAILY WITHOUT STOP. The longest non-stopping railway run is made twice daily in England between Pad- dington, a suburb of London, to Plymouth, Truro, Falmouth and Penzance down in the Devonshire and Cornwall district. To re- alize how great this distance to be made by established daily runs without stop one has but to take a map of England and trace the course of the Great Western road over which the run is made. The morning express leaves Paddington at 10:10. The average speed of the express is 55.6 miles an hour and this speed is main- tained despite the fact that thei'e are grades of 1 in 43 and 1 in 48; that through Bath and the five Dawlish tunnels the speed must slaclven to 15 miles, to 10 miles around Bris- tol and 5 miles through Exeter. The great- er portion of the distance is comparatively easy, however, and in places a speed of from 65 to 69 miles an hour is maintained. The I'oute passes through London, Reading, Bath, Bristol, Exeter and Plymouth, where the first stop is made; then on to Triu'o, F'almouth and Penzance. The corresponding return run is also made daily. No other road in the world has an estab- lished daily non-stopping run so long as this, though there are occasionally special runs made which are longer. 308 ENCYCLOPEDIA Adirondack Forest Fires Largely tKe Work of Incendiaries The report of the U. S. Bureau of Fores- try for 1903 states that the forest fires in the . Ailirondacks which destroyed about 600,000 acres of timber and were fought at an expense of $175,000, were in many in- stances started by patriotic New Yorlcers from various motives, usually personal greed. Prol)ably 75,000 acres were fire-swept by reason of fires deliberately started, in some instances they were started by men who found that fighting fires at $2.00- per day was more profitable than their usual employment; small boys who found pleasure in the excitement kindled others; hunters started fires in localities where they wished the green grass to attract the deer in the spring; berry pickers had found the fires favorable to the growth of berry bushes; ginseng gatherers' work was made easier thereby, and there was an instance where a fire was started without any apparent motive and where, had the wind veered, the incendiary would have suffered a loss. One- half of the fires due to carelessness were caught from locomotives. Spark arresters, such as were recently described in Popular Mechanics, would have prevented much of the loss. Of all the game which suffered, perhaps the trout fared the worst, several bushels of the dead fish being washed up in one place. Two boys waded into Boquet river and captured 92 brown trout which were hardly able to move. Usually the points to be protected were divided into districts, each under a deputy warden in charge of the men who fought the fires. The method of fighting surface fires was to clear a wide path of litter. If water could be obtained this path was wet down and shovelfuls of sand were thrown on burning wood. Young spruce or balsam were used to thrash out burning grass in the clearing. From the path so made the men fought the fire. Usually the presence of duff made trenches 1 to 4 feet wide neces- sary, sometimes such trenches completely encircled the fire. Back firing was necessary in cases where the fires were too hot for men to fight. Trenches were dug and along the side of the approaching fire another fire was started, burning away from the trench and meeting the coming fire at a distance great enough to rob its fury of some of the danger. There have been some prosecutions of in- cendiaries, one man was sent to the state penitentiary; he had started 24 fires. ELECTRIC DOUBLE WHIRL. The electric double whirl is a new feature for parks and pleasure resorts. It is operated by a 35-horsepower elec- tric motor and combines the forward motion of a merry-go-round with the rolling action of a Ferris wheel. There are six of the wheels each having six seats carrying two passen- gers. The sensation of the double motion, which is an unusual one, is said to be quite pleasing and the first machipe now in opera- 1 .'---£: ^^ : ^niiiii ^gugmgi^ THe "Double VI'Kirl," a Deli^Htftil Amusement Device tion in Chicago has become very popular, hundreds of electric lights which form a At night it is brightly illuminated with kaleidoscope of brilliant colors and forms. ENCYCLOPEDIA 309 Traction £ii^ine Travels in tHe Air Engineer Refuses to Leave His Post and Rides IVitK His MacKine Suspended by a little %-incli wire rope, so liigli in tlie air that it seemed a com- paratively small object, a huge traction en- gine, weighing six tons, crossed the Miami river at Dayton, 0., by cable to the second pier of the new Third street bridge now under course of construction. The engine was needed at the spot to pump the water to the progress of his strange load. The en- gineer of the traction refused to leave his post even during the trip, and so he made the passage high in air, standing on the footboard of his engine. Steam was on, and he was able to signal frequently to the men below, by means of the whistle on the en- gine. It was one of the most imusual trips Xrai&sportin^ a 6«Xon Traction £ngii\e by Cable from the cofferdam and the cable solved the problem for the bridge contractors, Hoglen & Kline. Two tall towers support the cables on which hang travelers used to transport all material to any spot where it is required. Back of each of the two towers is a double connected drum controlling the two wii*e ropes which hang under the cable. The top rope pulls the traveler block back and forth; the lower rope raises and lowers the hoisting block which hangs under the trav- eler block. A tackle was fastened to the engine and it was raised and transported on the little rope, which, however, has car- ried eight tons safely. The engineer, who ran the drum had the receiver of a telephone strapped to his ears enabling him to receive directions from the other end of the wire as ever made by a traction engine, but was ac- complished in safety. LIPTON AGAIN IN THE RACE. Sir Thomas Lipton has announced that it may be he is stubborn, but he cannot admit that he is beaten and will again challenge for the America's cup. Last year, after the third successive defeat in the international yacht race, Sir Thomas declared that it was his last attempt. This year he will build a new yacht, the Shamrock IV, for the oc- casion and declares that while his design- ers believe the new rules will add to his chances of success, he himself would pre- fer to race under the old and more stringent conditions. This would indeed make a more gratifying victory, but it is to be feared that Sir Thomas will never achieve It, 310 ENCYCLOPEDIA SAFETY DEVICE FOR MINERS. GEORGE WASHINGTON'S FIRE ENGINE. A recent French invention for use in mines subject to deadly gases, enables an inspector to walk fearlessly into chambers fllled with fumes one breath of which mean L/ife Saving Device instant death. The apparatus which is car- ried on the back, is set in action by press- ing a button and immediately begins to produce sufficient oxygen to supply the re- quirements. Rubber tubes conduct the gas to a rubber bag carried on the breast and which is. a part of a tight-fitting helmet much like that worn by a diver. The de- vice is also suitable for firemen working in dense smoke or rooms filled with the fumes of deadly chemicals. POLITENESS PAYS. It frequently happens that clerks, and some others also, in answering a business call over the telephone, fail to reply with the same politeness which they would had When Using This Telephone REMEMBER that a stranger is at the other end of the line. REMEMBER that the tone of your voice may make him a customer or drive him away. MAKE a customer of him and yoo increase your useful- ness to this office. THEfiEFORE, when using this telephone always be polite, agreeable, accomm xlating and patient. , ACT, whan you answer a call, as though it were the only bit of wjrk you are called upon to do aU day, and do it ia an absolutely perfect manner. the customer called in person. The accom- panying suggestion has been printed and distributed to its patrons by a telephone company in a western city. Up until the time George Washington left to take command of the Continental army he was a member of Friendship En- gine Co., of Alexandria, Va., which was organized in 1774. When he left he pre- sented the company with a fire engine which was still in use many years after Washington's death, says the Firemen's Herald. George had a reputation for prompt and efficient action, as we all know. In the last year of his life, 1799, there was a fire and this same engine was poorly manned, while many Idlers stood by, unwilling to soil their clothing. Gen'l Washington w^as there, too, and dismounting, rebuked the loafers, M^asbing'ton Seized the BraKe' and seizing the brake, helped work the en- gine. There was no lack of help after that. The illustration is taken from an old print made at the time of the incident. MOST ENORMOUS SCALES EVER USED- WEIGHED THE SUNS CORONA. Would you believe that 25,000,000 tons or 50,000,000,000 pounds could be a light weight for anything? Well, it is, or at least so de- clares the great Swedish astronomer. Pro- fessor August Svante Arrhenius, who has recently weighed the sun's corona, or the luminous field surrounding the sun, and who declares himself surprised that the weight is no greater. Professor Arrhenius made the atmosphere, the temperature and the telescope his scales and a mind long trained for solving solar problems did the rest. Professor Arrhenius lias settled severa' other light problems which had long puzzled astronomers. ENCYCLOPEDIA L/tincli Counter Car a Great Hit 311 Passengers on the Pere Marquette trains between Chicago and Mieliigan resorts have enjoyed a novel and happy feature of rail- way service the past summer. At the end of the week many business men rush from their offices just in time to catch the noon train and having no time for lunch before leaving the city. To meet the requirements of these hungry patrons would have neces- sitated the running of several dining cars to each train had not Mr. H. F. Moeller, general passenger agent at Detroit, evolved urns located centrally and overhead water- tanks at each end of the shelving. Under the counter are sinks with hot and cold Avater. Sixty people can stand at the counter, while the car will hold from 150 to 200 persons. There are no stools and no one is allowed to loiter. The platforms of the car are protected by railings and it can only be entered from other cars. Anything common to other lunch coun- ters may be had on the car; doughnuts, pie, sandwiches, ice cream, lemonade, milk, A LrtxncK Counter Car the brilliant idea of fitting up a lunch car Avhich would accommodate a goodly num- ber quickly, easily and at popular prices. An old parlor car was used for the pur- pose and a counter 3 feet 9 inches high, 16 inches wide and 42V2 feet long with exten- sions at the ends running to the side wall was built in it. This counter is of pine, stained and finished to match the car, and has a walnut top. At each end c^f the counter 6 feet of space is left and 3^ feet at the side. Behind the counter along the wall were built lockers, cupboards and shelving with steam heated tea and coffee coffee, etc., and each article is listed at 10 cents. To obtain the same heating value from wood and coal it takes two and one-half times as much wood in weight for each square foot of grate surface as it does of coal. In other words, the heating value of one pound of coal is equal to that of two and one-half pounds of pine wood. ♦-»-♦ A trolley dining car is a new institution on the Aurora, Elgin and Chicago third-rail interurban line. 312 ENCYCLOPEDIA COLD STORAGE PLANT ON RAILS. A portable cold storage plant is in opera- tion on the Trans-Siberian railroad. From the first impression of ice and cold that usually attaches to the very word "Siberia," anything to produce artificial cold would seem superfluous. Nor was the new method a war necessity, but rather a plain busi- Ice and Refrigeration says: "As the ears used for carrying the butter Avere on the ordinary freight car pattern, with doors on the sides, the brine pipe was necessarily placed beneath the roofs. The cars are in- sulated with double boards and paper be- tAA^een, in connection with mineral wool. The doors are not opened from the time of loading until the end of the trip." Side Elevation Refrigerating Car Caiin rn Machinut Plan of Refrigerating Car ness proposition to transport butter, eggs, poultry and other perishables over the thou- sands of miles which separate the termini of this road. The system is comparatively simple. The cooling plant occupies one car from which the cold brine is pumped through connecting pipes to the cars immediately ahead and behind. The plant, which is op- erated by a gas engine, is not unlike plants for similar purposes employed in cold stor- age warehouses. The machinery is kept in constant operation during the trip, main- taining a temperature in all the cars sup- plied with the service at from 35% to 39 degrees F. The ventilator is run only when the train stops and is for the purpose of cooling the condenser. A sleeping compart- ment is partitioned off at one end of the car where the two men in charge sleep. GOVERNMENT TRIES NEW SYSTEM OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. The first of a series of experiments with the American system of wireless telegraphy was made on the United States cruiser "To- peka" a few days ago, when it carried the delegates to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers up the Hudson river. The instruments for the system were in- vented by Professor Fessenden, of Washing- ton, and naval officers believe the system is superior to that now in use on American war ships. The "Topeka" was equipped with instruments and wireless stations were established at the navy yard and Navesink Highlands, N. J. The "Topeka" has been specially detailed to conduct these tests and will make a long-distance test of the ap- paratus, soon. ENCYCLOPEDIA 313 Preparatory Work on tKe Panama Canal TKe Boneyard of France to be R.eclainied — IVill R.ene° Commerce and Industries »£xp«cc xo MaKe HealtK Resort of a DeatK Bog' The great engineering feats of a nation are tlie athletics by which she renews and develops her strength. On such a course of training, which will probably cover a decade, the United States has just entered, the seat of action being the little isthmus of Panama. The first step was the summarizing of the conditions, chiefly climatic, to be dealt with. price of her failure. Altogether, France ex- pended $20,000,000 in machinery and appli- ances for digging the canal. There are 2,431 buildings on the isthmus but these would not house all the machinery sent there at the time. Many of these buildings were hospitals and executive quarters and will be used again by American engineers and officials, but of the machinery, that Old Dredges at tHe Pacific Terminus of the Panama Canal and for this purpose William Bartley Par- sons, one of our greatest engineers, made a thorough inspection of the canal zone. John Findley Wallace is to have the active super- intendence of construction. The second step, and this too is now under way, com- prises the specifications and plans for the construction of the big canal, beginning with the smallest appliance required and ending with the completed channel which at the spot where it severs two continents will also unite two mighty oceans and will divert the accustomed courses of the fleets of every nation. The canal zone in its present state is little more than a graveyard of French ambitions. Millions of dollars of the wealth of that nation are buried there and the graves of many of her most promising manhood tell better than words can how great was the which can be used will not exceed in value $2,000,000; the rest is a total loss to France. This is due partly to the fact that the ma- chinery is now out-of-date, but aside from that, France purchased lavishiy— extrava- gantly— machinery which was already out- of-date and which was not sufficieniiy power- ful to perform the work. But the greatest cause of the deterioi'ation has been the cli- mate. Iron and steel, unless the most care- ful precautions are taken, are no rcore proof against the hot, humid atmosphere of the isthmus than if they were the rrailest of substances. With the famous Cuiebra cut, France abandoned miles on mi\es of steel rails piled to a height of six feet; numer- ous rows of Belgian locomotives, too small for their purpose; acres of land set apart only as yards for hundreds of car wheels, huge buckets, scoops, engines, dredges an^ 314 ENCYCLOPEDIA appliances of every nature and description all subject to a common fate and few which will ever serve their original purpose. Many of these heavy articles are buried from five to seventeen feet in the soft silty soil in which they had sunk deeper every day. If unearthed, one might cut their outer sur- faces into small pieces like bits of rubber or cork. Some of the costly houses on the isthmus are built on foundations of $60,000 worth of machinery! Stable foundations for buildings are hard to get and what more natural than that the machinery strewn everywhere should be put to the only pur- pose it could serve? The moisture coats every bit of exposed metal deep with rust. Wherever a bit of earth is overturned or an excavation is made a white mist rises from the soil— a mist which bred disease and dealt death in the camps of the French and also wrought ruin to their costly equipment. A striking exception to this general ruin is one of the big machine shops found hid- den away in the brush near Bas Matachin. When the place was cleared sufficiently to allow an investigation it was found that the shop was complete and well equipped. It consisted of a machine shop, boiler shop. blacksmith shop, locomotive erecting shop, planing mill, car repair shop and foundry. The machinery and material in this instance, after having been stored away for more than 20 years, were still in average good condition and in the latter part of July the shop was in working order and the wheels began to roll. Machinery and material well housed in good shops are, of course, better protected from the elements than are huge derricks, piles of rails, scoops, dredges, locomotives, etc., for which no proper storage could be provided because of the lack of lumber. Twenty years in the open air during all kinds of weather in anj^ climate would have its effect on most machinery. The lack of lumber, the engineers declare, is their greatest handicap in the canal district Everything else is plentiful, but lumber is hard to get at any price. The methods of the United States will in nowise resemble those of France. The most startling change prpjected will be the trans- forming of this wild, enervating death bog into a habitable country which for several months of the year will be a popular health resort. Two great sanitary innovations Present Appearance of the Famous Ctilebra Cut ENCYCLOPEDIA 315 Cxcavatinfi MacHinery and Old Railways on tHe Route of the Canal will aceomplisli this result, it is believed. Such an elaborate and carefully planned system of sewers will be laid as no city of our New "World can boast, and also miles on miles of iron piping for carrying an abundant water supply. On these matters more than on anything else depends the success of the Panama canal. Add to tuis an active war for the extermination of the mosquito which will be waged at any cost. It is now established that the human body is infected with yeJlow fever only through mosquito bites and this fact alone makes the mosquito war important. The governor- general of the canal zone has called on the canal commission for 100,000 yards of gal- A-anized steel wire gauze, not coarser than 17 meshes to the square inch, to be used as a protection against the mosquitoes. The De Lesseps houses at Cristobal will require 2,000 yards, 20,000 yards will be used to en- close hospitals and 75,000 yards for houses along the canal zone. Some of the swamps, which are breeding places of the insects, will be drained, others will be treated with chemicals and in still other localiites the water level will be raised by the Bohio dam. Numerous new electrical devices will also be experimented with. The most pronounced marks of modern methods will be found in the fact that wherever feasible and practicable electrical machinery will be used. Compressed air and steam will be employed to an extent but the electrical devices will far outnumber these. Fully a year's time will be required for selecting and designing the machinery to be used. This work will be so complete that the whole force on the canal can work in- dependent of the rest of the world for a number of years. Numerous repair shops will be established, equipped in every par- ticular. Duplicate parts of much of the machinery will be provided and in many in- stances where the wear and strain are great the entire machine will be sent in duplicate. Plants where the engineering corps can forge parts Avill also be installed, so that no delay can possibly occur in the work which at best will cover a number of years. The whole outfit will be figured out accurately before it is shipped. Fuel will be one of the prime factors in determining the nature of the machinery in every case. Wood is out of the question as an exclusive power-pro- ducing fuel; coal is too high-priced in Pana- ma and water-power is to no great degree available. Liquid fuel, it is estimated, will 316 ENCYCLOPEDIA be the cheapest and best, it being possible to deliver Texas oil at the isthmus at about a dollar a barrel. The old French dredges and steam shovels will be used for secondary work, the new dredges and shovels will be twice as large as the old ones. Cable ways extending from steel towers will stretcli across the canal at frequent intervals. These cables will be wonderful affairs irrespective of anything else. The motor that operates the hoist Avill convey 90 cubic feet of excavated material at the rate of 1,000 feet per minute. Roughly estimated, there are 45,000,000 cubic yards of material to be excavated. Steam dredges and shovels by dozens, and steam and electric derricks and cranes will be employed. Solid rock will be cut through by means of compressed air and electric drills, and electric batteries will set otf dynamite cartridges for exploding rock. Spe- cial processes for rendering all the metal Old Abandoned DerricKs on tHe Panama Canal be located on a platform on one of the tow- ers, and ofttimes the man who operates the dump will be a quarter of a mile away from the excavating place. The hoist can be operated to fulfill any need. It can be ele- vated to any height desired and run to any part of tlie line wished. The whole corps will be kept in tovich by means of electric signals and telephonic connections between the entire system of cables will be estab- lished. The skip on most of the cables will parts of this vast amount of machinery rust- proof and moisture-proof will be employed. In such a climate the electrical machinery has proven more serviceable than steam and it is believed that electrical markets all over the country Avill receive a great stimulus. The time it will require to finish the canal is estimated at from six to twelve years, but these estimates are uncertain. John Findley Wallace says it depends not on the amount of material to be excavated, but on ENCYCLOPEDIA 317 the amount of work men can do in that climate. Negroes will be the chief laborers, and fully 20,000 will be required whereas there are now about 1,000 available. The laborers will be clad in the fewest garments consistent witli decency and even then many of tliem will die of heat and exhaus- tion. So far as cost is concerned the coun- try is assuming a burden which will not, for a generation at least, be self-sustaining though many indirect pi'ofits will accrue. Most of the estimates place tlie total cost at approximately $200,000,000, but no one counts the cost and no one thinks of failure. In the next few years this great project may bring financial wreck to many; Panama may be tlie last resting place of some of the briglitest and bravest of our laud and many anxious eyes will be turned thither for long days and nights, but all these are for the country's good. Panama will be a school where many valuable lessons will be learned and undoubtedly many valuable inventions be given to the world. The canal will be an advertisement for American machinery and South America, tliat Eldorado of the manu- facturer, will be affected. The saving in the route from New Yorli to Australia and east- ern Asia will be so great tliat whereas the European countries now have the advan- tage over us, we will tlien have the advan- tage. But greater than all these financial benefits, it is conceded, is the sentimental aspect of the case. The two shores of our broad land will be united by a direct water- way, and in times of war the advantage is obvious. In fact, it was tlie dashing trip made by the "Oregon" during the war with Spain which made the need of a shorter water route so apparent. These, ratlier than any pecuniary considerations, are tlie mighty issues and near interests that have inspired the Aniei'ican people to talvo up with glad heai'ts the burden of the Panama canal. Motor Boats Race Across Kn^lisH CHannel The "Mereedes IV" Under Pull Headway Motor boat racing is quite the fad now on the other side, and is already dividing honors with the automobile contests. On August 8 there was a spirited race across the English Channel, which was won by the "Mercedes IV." This boat made the trip from Calais to Dover, a distance of 22 nau- tical miles, in one hour, seven and two-' fifths seconds, a record never beaten but once, and that was by tlie 9,000-horsepower turbine steamer "Queen." The "Mercedes IV." has a 90-horsepower Mercedes motorand the machinery was protected from splash- ing water. She carried a crew of three. 5l8 E N C; Y C L O P E D I A A TEN-HOUR CLOCK. Labor-Saving Device for Computing Time This 10-lioiU' clock saves time and labor in computing the time of the employes in a Philadelphia factory. It was made from an ordinary time-keeper, the only difference Iteing' the new dial. Avhicli was painted on white paper and pasted over the one al- ready there, and the year ratio between the Ten-Hour Clock hour and minute hands changed from 12 to 10. The clock then read in hours and tenths of hours. When work starts in the morning (in this shop it is 7 o'clock) both hands point straight up at "0." When the whistle blows the clock is started by pull- ing on the rope, shown in the cut. At noon, when the whistle blows, the clock is stopped with the hands pointing at 5 o'clock. The special function is the ease with wliicli the time spent on any job can be figured. Railway and Locomotive Engi- neering says: -'Under the time-keeping system employed the men are instructed to enter on their time cards the number past which the short hand stands, and to the right of this, the number past which the long hand stands. These numbers, side by side, are entered on a time card when a job is be- gun, and immediately above them two other numbers are placed when the job is finished. For example, a job is begun at 8:15 a. m, 'i'he time entered as sliown by the ten hour cloclv is 1, 2, and if the job be completed at 3:45 p. m. the time as shown by the clock is 8, 0. The difference between these is 6, 8 or 6 ■ hours and eight-tenths, or 6.8 hours. This time paid for at 2m> cents per hour, gives the simple operation in multi- plication 6.8x.275==$1.87. "The clock can be used as it stands for any length of hours or length of shifts. It is possible to arrange the starting and stop- ping mechanism of the clock so that the act of blowing whistle will start and stop the clock. The use of this device simplifies the time-keeper's work and eliminates much of the liability to error which exists with methods usually employed." HOW MEXICANS PROSPECT FOR WATER. In the semi-arid regions of northern Mexi- co and the southwestern part of the United States the hunt for water is carried on with great perseverence and varjang success, says Modern Mexico. Tlie "vaqueros" and "pas- tores" (cowboys and shepherds) of Sonora, Chihuahua and Coahuila have certain tests which they claim are even more certain than the witch hazel switch of the water witch. The following are some of them: Where it is suspected that water maj' be found in a well of reasonable depth, extend a sheep's pelt with the wool up. In the middle place a fresh egg. Cover by an earthen jar glazed inside when the earth is perfectly dry and the day warm, clear and without wind. At sunrise, on the next day, lift the jar, and if the egg and the wool near it are covered with dew, water will be found at a slight depth. If the egg is dry and the avooI damp, water will be found at a greater depth, but if there is no dew either on the egg or the wool there is no water to be found in that vicinity. Another receipt is: Grind 60 grains of quicklime and mix it with an equal quantity of paris green and sulphur. Put the mixture in a new jar with twenty grams of unwashed wool. The mouth of the jar should be sealed with an earthenware stopper of the same material as the jar it- self. Then weigh it, and when the atmo- sphere is perfectly dry bury it about eight inches below the surface of the ground and cover it up, beating down the earth. Dig up the jar 24 hours afterwards and weigh it. If the weight has increased in the meantime water may be found by digging, but if it weighs less there is no water in the vicinity. ENCYCLOPEDIA BlO WKere "Warring^ Nations Meet on Neutral Ground Wtkeve Russian and Japanese Officers Meet Daily and Salute. Not far from Xewcliwang and yet located on the neutral ground of Northern China is a station where Russian and Japanese offi- cers meet daily and salute each other with cold, contemptuous civility. The place, known as Shan-hai-kwan, is one of the rail- way stations where everj' nation keeps a force large enough to guard its interests and this atmosphere of internationalism is enough to hold the bitterest foes subdued. Chinese military police, creatures who resemble withered hags, keei) order in the place. In the illustration the Chinese wall is sliown in the distance on the mountain. In Shan-hai-kwan the Japanese and Rus- sian railway officials try to outdo each other in the thoroughness with which they do their work, look after baggage, travelers, etc. The situation is most unique, for doubtless a murderous hate lurks in the hearts of natives of the opposed nations as they meet day after day. CHICAGO'S WATER WASTE IS 4,000,000- 000 GALLONS ANNUALLY. Recent investigation has revealed the fact that Chicago loses $390,000 annually in water waste! This means that a great per- cent of the "pumped" water slips back into Lake Michigan and never reaches the water mains of Chicago. Engineers declare that all pumping sta- tions lose about three per cent of the total amount which is assumed to be pumped, but by the figures recently given out Chicago is burning tons upon tons of coal uselessly and her citizens are not enjoying the water supply they should have. To leaking pistons in the pumping engines is ascribed this annual 4,000,000,000-gallon loss of water. In one station the propor- tion lost was 10 per cent; at this ratio in all the stations it would amount to 13,000,- 000,000 gallons yearly, but it is not believed to be so great at other stations. The pitometers used to detect the amount of waste are rarely accurate, city engineers say, and any figures gained in this way cannot be depended upon. 320 ENCYCLOPEDIA POUNDING THE SOLID CHOKE. How the New Boy in the Flour Mill is Initiated Every trade has its time-honored jokes which, year after year, are played upon the ever new crop of beginners. This one is a flour mill story contributed to the American Miller: Being behind on orders we ran 15 liours, then 18. Orders continued to come until we were compelled to run day and night. "Pound Her, BiU." This caused the writer to begin his day at noon and end it at midnight, when his sec- ond would relieve him. The best help is generally given the sec- ond, while the head miller must get along with any old thing. Following this rule the sweepei", who for the present I will call Bill, was assigned to me as oiler and sweeper. Now Bill—, but I will not try to describe him beyond saying tliat he was a wild and woolly sort of fellow; a big duffer, but harmless. One night about 10 o'clock I was going over the mill examining the stock as usual. This time Bill went with me. It seemed strange to him that I must look into almost every spout. We were in the basement. Bill thought I was looking for a choke-up and wanted to assist me by telling me where it was. "Never mind, Bill, I'll find it," said I, "and when I do it will be a bad one." Going up to the next floor I shouted: "Come, Bill! Come on, quick!" Well, Bill did not see the stair steps at all. He grabbed the mallet, on the run. "Here it is," I said; "pound this spout till I tell you to quit. It's choked solid." I went up to the next floor and stopped. Well, I laughed until I almost went straight up. I went back to see how Bill was get- ting along. "Pound her. Bill. She's solid," I said. I stepped into the dark, where the rest of the boys were standing watching Bill pound the 4x4 brace till he wore out one mallet. He sailed up to the next floor after another mallet and pounded the 4x4 until I went to him and said: "All right, Bill, she's 0. K. Come now, let us go down to the boiler room and talk about the choke." Laugh? Well,* I guess yes. I laughed more that night than ever since. Bill did not know till tlie next day that the spout was really solid. There is a bruised spot on that 4x4 yet. NO PLUSH CAR SEATS IN KENTUCKY. It has remained for the Kentucky state board of health to take the first step against the use of plush car seats which collect and hold disease germs until the next passenger comes along to receive them into Iiis sys- tem. The board will indict every railway oflicial in the state whom it can reach who is responsible for the use of seats uphol- stered with heavy plush. Leather or cane for both sleepers and day coaches are the substitutes the board will permit, and of the two, cane is preferable, for the leather seats are hot and uncom- fortable. Linen malves a good seat cover- ing, as it can be I'emoved and laundered frequently. The effects of this initiative move may extend to other states until all our railway systems will have sanitary car seats. ♦ » ♦■ An important step toward uniting the ice- bound country of Alaska with the outer world has lately been completed: the new government cable connecting that territory with American lines having been spliced by the cable ship "Burnside" in Puget Sound. ENCYCLOPEDIA HigH Bridge at St. Paul Wrecked 321 "It Reaches a Hei^Ht of 200 Feet." The terrific cyclone which swept down the Mississippi valley in Sept., 1904, and did more than a million dollars' damage in the Twin Cities numbered among its playthings the huge structure known throughout the Northwest as the High Bridge. This bridge which spans the Mississippi at St. Paul is famous for the same thing that high bridges throughout the world are noted for— a jump- ing-off place. The bridge which has a total length of 2,770 feet starts from the west bank of the river at an elevation of 90 feet above low water and ascends with a grade of 4 per cent until on the opposite shore it reaches a height of 200 feet. It has a 24-foot roadway and two 8-foot sidewalks and was built in 1889 at a cost of $479,878. The cyclone carried away two 60-foot plate girder spans, one 170-foot span, a trestle tower carrying a 50-foot span, and one 250-foot span. Iron was twisted in all shapes and 2-inch bolts were broken. Altogether 500 tons of iron fell, 267 tons lodging in the river. The wreckage is being cleared away and the bridge will be reconstructed. L. W. Rundlett, Commissioner of Public Works, St. Paul, kindly furnished us with the photo- graph of the bridge and the facts. CITY WATER WORKS RUN BY ALCOHOL MOTOR. At Matanzas, a Cuban city of 40,000 in- habitants, the city water works are run by an alcohol motor pump of German manu- facture, reports U. S. Minister Squiers at Habana, Cuba. The installation cost $6,000, and the 45-horsepower motor pump is ope- rated at a fuel cost of $4 per 10-hour day and pumps 1,000,000 gallons of water. 322 ENCYCLOPEDIA OUTWITTING SATAN Many of us might have reason to be thankful could we rid ourselves of the at- tentions of His Satanic Majesty so easily Kid of the Devil for Another Year. as do the peasants of Val di Rose. These superstitious people are troubled by the arch-fiend but once a year, and that occa- sion is always followed by great merrj'- making and rejoicing. Every year on the first day of August all the people of Val di Rose gather in a great square, which is the public threshing floor, also. The ludicrous ceremony which then occurs is presided over by the most intel- lectual man in the community. "With a sol- emnity, such as graces all acts of mighty import, this man attaches a very realistic puppet representing the devil to a small fire balloon, which he then liberates. And all the people rejoice, for they believe tuat their dreams will be peaceful and their vintage uninjured for another year. ♦ « » RAIN-PROOF HATS. Rrain-proof hats, which can be worn in the lieaviest downpour and yet retain all their delicate tintings, exquisite style and original shapes unimpaired, is the latest Parisian fad. The hats are made of celluloid especially prepared for the purpose so that it can be woven into imitations of the finest straw. It is also modeled into flowers for trimming tlie hats. The hats are beauti- ful, for the celluloid is susceptible to the most delicate tints. So long as the hats are a fad they will meet with feminine favor, but after that they will spoil the necessi- ties for new bonnets too often to suit most women. <♦ * » FISH LADDERS FOR MINNESOTA DAMS. The Fish Commissioners of Minnesota have ordered fish ladders placed on every dam in the state. These ladders must be three feet in length for each foot of height. The crib or bulkhead is constructed of oak, using 6x6 material land the corners being mitred and bolted. It is filled with rock for anchorage. The top of the crib stands out of the water about a foot higher than the main chute, which extends from the crib to the water below the dam. The chute is constructed of 2-incli mate- rial. It extends to within two feet of the bottom of the river and into the pool be- low the dam. It is placed in the channel of the stream, and when the greatest depth of water is found the clmte is supported from the bottom of the stream by '"horses" or similar supports. Fiah Ladder Adopted in Minnesota. ENCYCLOPEDIA 323 £i:i§»lai:id Suffers From tHe Cotton Famine England's greatest industry is tlie cotton industry and in certain localities whole towns are given up to the huge mills where every man, woman and child earns its daily bread, often whole families being em- the employes form an unpieasing contrast to those found in our own busy factories. Where our laborers are bright with interest and many tokens of active intellect, these have dull, heavy countenances which seem Tsrpical Scene in £n£flisH Cotton Mill. ployed. The world's cotton output has not kept pace with its population and now there is a shortage of cotton and the poor people of Lancashire ai'e working short hours, barely earning enough to sustain life. The short time, however, was neces- sary to keep the price of cotton from ris- ing and thus bringing on a greater evil, financial panic. The crisis is said to be the severest since the cotton famine during the Civil War in this country. England hopes, by furthering in every way possible, the cultivation of cotton in her African colonies to be able to meet such conditions in the future. How much the welfare of her people depend upon it is apparent at a glance into one of her busy cotton mills, teeming with life and labor. The winding frames with their innumer- able spindles and bobbins of fleecy cotton and the never ceasing whirr of the wind- ing is especially interesting. The faces of as though they could look no farther than each dav's grinding round in the cotton mill. AMERICANS DRINK 910,000,000 GLASSES OF SODA WATER. The soda water season is closing. A simple statement, but few know all that it means, or how great a commercial feature the soda water season is. In the United States alone, says the Soda Fountain, 75,000 merchants sell soda water, averaging sales ol $730 a year, or a total of $54,750,000 per annum. The average price of drinks is six cents, giving the number of drinks as 910,- 000,000. Could the glasses required to serve this many drinks be placed side by side they would reach to within a day's travel of once around the world. These figures do not include pop, ginger ale, root beer, etc., but only sales made at the fountain. 324 ENCYCLOPEDIA THe Street Paving' Problem [Extracted from the Report of John W. Alvord, Chicago.] At the beginning of the 20tb century 24,- 000,000 of the population of the United States living in cities of 8,000 and over had invested approximately $850,000,000 in im- proving their streets with curbing, paving, grading, and sidewalks. Each year a further improvement of over seventy million four hundred fifty thousand dollars for such im- provements and their care and renewal is made, and the amount is constantly increas- ing. But one other class of engineering works exceeds this in magnitude, that of the steam railway system of the United States. One would suppose that this vast output of human energy would be the occasion of the most critical investigation and scientific research, but it is safe to say that in no other branch of civil engineering is there expended so large an amount of money in so unsystematic a manner, and generally with such unsatisfactory results. iron that enters into their composition. They can tell you to several places of decimals the cost of moving a ton-mile of freight and the transportation of a passenger. In France, where road- building is a science, the practice during the last twen- ty-five years has tended more and more to lessen the first cost of the national roads by decreasing the thickness of foundations and increasing the annual expenditure for maintenance. There are over $24,000,000 expended annually on 22,000 miles of national roads in France, equal to an ASPHALT lOO BRICK. lOO RECTANGULAR WOODBLOCK. lOO GRANITE BLOCK. ISO BELGIAN BLOCK. 160 COBBLESTONE 400 Showing Relative Amounts of Labor Necessary to Clean Various Pavements Pavements are primarily designed to ac- commodate travel, but scarcely any one in this country thinks of investigating the travel of a city systematically and thor- oughly before proceeding to lay down pave- ments. Pavements have been a necessity of civil- ization since Rome was mistress of the world, but cities are still experimenting with the subject without general and well- defined policies. Community after com- munity repeats the fundamental experi- ments, and copies without reflection or study what they see being done elsewhere. The railways of the country know to a penny the cost in life service arid the com- parative utility of every bolt and r^crap of average of $225.00 per mile per annum for repairs aloire on country roads. A report from 135 American cities from 1890 to 1901 show that of new pavements the following percentages were laid: Asphalt 33 per cent Brick 25 per cent Macadam 23 per cent Granite 8 per cent Wood 7 per cent Miscellaneons 4 per cent Residence streets should not be paved wider than 18 feet, which allows three vehi- cles to stand side by side, and turning points can be established in the middle of long blocks, if necessary. The tonnage of the traffic in some of the business portions or Chicago rises to 15,000 tons per day, and is ENCYCLOPEDIA 325 accommodated in some places on a 30-foot roadway, but there is hardly a residence street in which the traffic exceeds ten tons in this same time, and yet with this tre- mendous difference in traffic, we find but little allowance for difference of width. Asphalt itself is a variable material, the only reliable test of which is its action in the pavement. Such pavements have fre- quenty failed, but it is to be remembered that the industrj' is new and has been rapid- ly developed in less than thirty years to the point where there are now about 2,000 miles of street, representing an investment of over $100,000,000, in this country alone. The wearing surface of asphalt pavement is composed of ninety pe- cent of sand or mineral matter, the . .phalt being the cement that binds it into a tenacious and elastic coating. If, for any reason, such as improper preparation, age, or volatilization, the cementing quality of the asphalt disap- pears, the pavement disintegrates, cracks, and is rapidly worn or broken down. The general tendency of asphalt pavement to decay will be indicated b.v its loss Of elastic- ity, during sudden changes of temperature, cracks forming during cold weather, and particularly during extreme drops in the temr)eratuve. THE AUTO TELEGRAPH CAR. The United States government has de- cided to make a practical trial of the use- fulness of the automobile in modern war- fare and to that end has just had con- structed for the United States Signal Corps a high power motor vehicle known as an auto telegraph car and which is the only machine of its kind in the world. In this age the chief function of the Signal Corps is to erect military telegraph and telephone lines in order to keep communication open between forts or other headquarters and the forces in the field and it is in this service ^B ^HRHSI^^^^T?r7^^^P^' ^^.^i^'Meik'^ '-■-'■ ^^^^^^^1 ■ I ^^^iHI fif^i i| -*'^^ 1 fe""'" ^--^j:! '7J; |P^^:----i.:..:--'"^, """■'" "Only Machine of Its Kind in the World." that the new auto car will be used. It is designed not only to facilitate the rapid erection of telegraph lines, but is also equipped for use as a field telegraph station. The automobile itself is very similar to a heavy touring . car of the Winton type ^\-ith the exception that the ordinary style of tonneau has been replaced by a special tonneau with seats along the sides, the occu- pants of which face each other, and having ample storage space for instruments, and other equipment. At the sides are racks on which are carried lances or light poles for use in erecting a temporary overhead telephone or telegraph line when other sup- ports are not available. The "flying tele- graph office" is equipped with all the latest modern improvements, including "sounders," which make it possible to receive and trans- mit messages amid the din of battle. The regular automobile detachment comprises eight soldiers, six of which act as an armed guard for the operators. Comparative Loads cue Horse Can Draw on Different Roadways. :\Iechanical training is putting the Jap- anese well to the front; they have learned liow to shoot with big guns. 326 ENCYCLOPEDIA JAPANESE MINES THE TERROR OF RUS- SIAN FLEETS. TJhe Japanese have been very daring in the matter of laying mines. Ofttimes they have watched their opportunities and done tlieir work under the very noses of the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. vessels "Gromoboi" and "Rossio." The five months' service, declare the French, had lowered the 22-knot speed of the Japanese vessels to 16 knots. An investigation re- veals, however, that the Japanese vessels had cylindrical boilers while th« Russian vessels were equipped with watertubes in perfect condition. Japanese Torpedo-Boat SeatroyerB Laying Mines Outside Fort Arthur. One feature of this worlv was a most deadly explosive invented by one of their engineers. The inventor kept the nature^ of the explosive a profound secret, but while superintending the placing of a mine it exploded, and he was killed and the secret of his invention was lost with him, much to the regret of the Japanese. SPEED IN WARSHIPS. Is it worth while to sacrifice any naval qualities in warships for the sake of speed? This is the question that has been agitating the minds of French naval tacticians, says the Engineer of London, and one faction de- clares that the consideration of speed is secondary, citing the manner in which the "Gloire" class have all beaten the "Jeanne d'Arc" (two knots swifter) on trial and how the Japanese vessels "Tokiwa" and "Asama" failed to catch the slower Ru.sssian The English paper in refuting the stand taken against speed as an important ele- ment, declares: "The swifter ship always has the option of battle, and that means much, if not everything in modern war- fare. The swift warship or fleet cannot, of course, be in two places at once, but it can certainly compel the enemy to have ships in two or three different places at once to waylay it. In fine, it is tolerably certain to compel the enemy to divide, and thus take risks of annihilation in detail. "Difficulties there are, and must ever be. Mostly they are inherent in warships. For instance, the ocean liner is designed to run at a high speed regularly, rarely cruising at a low rate, whereas the warship usually goes slowly, but must be able to spurt her hardest at very short notice. From this cause troubles may arise now and again, but the navy whose ships can race on occa- sion is the navy that must rule the sea." ENCYCLOPEDIA 327 Brilliant Scenes at an £^n^lisK YacHtin^ Festival "THe Scene at Ni^Ht "Viras One The annual yachting festival held at Cowes, Isle of Wight, during August, was a most brilliant affair. The king and queen graced the occasion and the weather was beautiful, a combination of affairs calcu- lated to rejoice the average Englishman's heart. Among the yachts which entered the races the German emperor's "Meteor" was very conspicuous because of the poor show- ing it made and the "Ingomar," owned by of Beauty Beyond Description.** an American, Mr. Moi'gan Plant, was of in- terest because of the splendid speed made in the race for big yachts in which it won first prize. Most of the first prizes were taken by Englishmen. The scene at night was one of beauty be- yond description. Eacli yacht was bril- liantly illuminated with myriads of incan- descent lights, which the clear waters doubled and tripled, and the fireworks dis- plays intensified the effect. TO REMEDY ELECTROLYSIS IN ST. PAUL. The escaping electric current from the rails of the street ear lines in St. Paul has been attacking the underground water and gas mains for some years. The city author- ities have insisted that some remedy be pro- vided. The railway company have decided to lay copper wires between the double tracks, and lead these wires back to the power station. By frequent connection of these wires to the rails it is expected the escape of stray currents into the earth will be prevented. The cost of the wire and labor of installing will be $23,000. Work will commence at once. 328 ENCYCLOPEDIA CONTROLLER ON A TROLLEY CAR. The "Throttle" by Which the Motorman Turns on the Power The popular idea of the controller of the electric car seems to be that it is an iron box containing a good deal of delicate mechanism which, in s'ome incomprehensi- ble manner, performs certain complicated functions, says the Electrical Review. Many, no doubt, think that the controller cover conceals electromagnets, gear wheels, rods, wires and other devices, all in immi- nent danger of flying to pieces when any- thing goes wrong. This is not true, for although the action of the controller may seem complicated to one Avho has not made a study of such devices, the mechanism of the controller is exceedingly simple. When anything happens to the controller, it is the controller itself which suffers. It is true tliat sometimes the motorman's clothing may be damaged under such cir- cumstances by hot metal, but the passen- gers themselves, if they are where they belong, are in no danger. Every one ap- preciates the startling character of a bril- liant electric arc suddenly appearing when and where least expected, but the electric arc is not dangerous to those who remain at a respectful distance. The electric controller used on a street car may be compared with a water faucet, though, of course, the analogy must not be pushed too hard. Its function is to regu- late the supply of current both in amount and in the way it flows through the car motors. It allows the current to flow first through a single path, and, by steps, re- duces the opposition to this flow, thus al- lowing the current to increase. It then supplies two paths, as though two faucets were opened, and again by steps allows the current to increase through each of these paths. For convenience in manipulation, all electrical connections, except such as are permanent, are made by the controller. Ex- ception is made in the cases of the fuse and circuit-breaker, which are safety de- vices, and, for this reason, are separated from the controller and are isolated. The function of these two is to open the con- ducting circuit when the current flowing through the car is too great. Other than this they have no effect on the motors. An electric motor consists of two parts, each of which contains a winding of copper Avire. The rotating part is called the arma- ture, and the fixed part, the field. From each end of these two windings wires are carried to each of the car's controllers. Since there are two motors, there will thus be eight wires carried in a cable under the car floor and up through the platform floor to the controller. An additional connection A Controller may be made to the field winding, for the purpose of giving a greater range of speed, but this is not essential to the working of the car. Besides the car motors, there is under the car the so-called rheostat, a de- vice for preventing the flow of excessive currents. This device is usually divided into two or three sections. When all of it is connected in the circuit, the greatest re- sistance is offered to the flow of current. As it is cut out by the controller, the re- sistance it offers decreases until it is finally all removed. Assuming two sections of the rheostat, there will then be three wires ENCYCLOPEDIA 329 carried from this piece of apparatus to each coutroller. There are two other wires, one by which couuection is made to the trolley, and the other making connection through the car truck to the rails. In all, this makes thirteen wires led into each controller. The function of the controller is merely to establish suitable electrical connections between these thirteen wires. When the controller handle is first turned, everything is connected, as we say, in series — that is, the current coming to the car from the trolley wire passes through the rheostat to the field winding of one motor, then through its armature, next to the field wind- ing of the second motor, finally passing through its armature to the track. The next two or three moves of the controller handle merely cut out the rheostat in steps, just as though a faucet handle were given two or three turns, opening it wider to al- low more water to flow. The next move- ment of the controller handle causes the current entering the ear to pass first through the rheostat. It then has two paths by which it may reach the track — one through each motor. Further move- ments of the controller handle cut out the rheostat as before, leaving the two motors connected directly between the trolley and the rail by means of the wires running through the controller. The movable part of the controller is an iron spindle, upon which is arranged a series of metallic discs insulated from the spindle. These discs are connected together in pairs, and they are partially cut awaj' at the periphery, so that they represent a series of cams. On the back of the controller are a number of brass blocks supported on springs, which press each of them in con- tact with its corresponding disc whenever the projecting portion of the latter comes opposite to the contact block. To each of these blocks one of the car wires is con- nected. In this way the electrical connec- tions just explained are made successively as the handle of the controller is turned. When the handle is at the off position, none of the contact blocks is touching the discs. There is, in addition, the reversing lever, which is placed in the controller box, but this is only operated when the regulating l.iandle is thrown off, and it merely makes the necessary change in the method of con- necting the motors .so that the car may be run in either direction. What happens when a controllev breaks down, or, as the motorman would say, "blows out," is either that too large a cur- rent has been allowed to pass through some of the wires' in the controller— a rare acci- dent which should be prevented by the fuse; or, in throwing the controller to the off position, which should break the current, the latter has instead jumped from' one con- tact block to another, or to the frame of the controller. This produces what is called a short-circuit^that is to say, a path offer- ing little resistance to the flow of current from the trolley wire to the track. This arc may cause more or less damage to the wires and metal of the controller before it goes out, but the damage is usually slight and is confined to a small spot. It is to be expected that the average passenger on an electric car is startled when something goes wrong, with a bright flash and a loud re- port, but he is learning rapidly that this does not signify danger, and that he is safest if he sits still. On the other hand, electrical apparatus is being improved rapidly, so that such accidents are becoming rare. In some of the latest types of controlling systems the main motor current does not pass through the controllers— in fact, it at no thne in its passage is above the car floor. ^ * » FIREMEN TO QUALIFY AS ENGINEERS. Two big railway companies, the Lake Shore and the New York Central, have de- cided that in order to secure competent engi- neers and to weed out incapable firemen, they will educate their firemen in conjunc- tion with their daily duties to become engi- neers. More than that, the fireman who Avill not take the education will lose his job. In the first year of his service the fireman will receive a book of rules pertaining to the mechanical and fuel phases of a loco- motive. If he fails to make a good grade when examined at the end of a year he will be dropped from the service. The course covers three years and a grade of 80 per cent secures a diploma as a qualified engi- neer. The examining board, however, re- (juire a. grade of 100 per cent. The English telegraph service, which is a ])ranch of the postal department, had a deficit last year of $4,500,000. This is partly due, however, to extensions and mainte- nanee of newly established lines not yet self-sustaining. Last year over ^i<,000,000 messages were handled. 330 ENCYCLOPEDIA HOUSE-BOAT TRIP FROM CHICAGO ST. LOUIS. TO Editor: I send you a rough sketch showing a longitudinal sec- tion of a house-boat in which I recently completed a trip from Chicago to St. Louis. Those of your readers who live along the Illinois or Mississippi rivers will no doubt think this a crude craft of its kind, but to the inland boys it will convey a fair idea of how to build a house-boat cheaply in which just as much fun can be had as in a more pretentious craft. This boat is 24 feet long, 6 feet wide and 10 feet high, and the lumber in it cost $60 in Chicago. The hull is built of 2x10 pine dressed, and the seams calked so that she never leaked a drop. The studding and bracing is all 2x4 The bunks (not shown) were the or- dinary woven wire mattress frames, hinged at their inner corners to the uprights or studding and supported at their outer cor- ners by chains, the inner ends of which were connected to staples driven in the 2x4's, so that during the day the bunks were folded back against the wall and held so by hooks, thus leaving the entire floor space of the cabin free for table and chairs. At night the table and chairs were folded and the bunks let down. The roof was 10-ounce canvas covered with three coats of good lead paint, but a cheaper roof could have been made with matched boards covered with tarred paper. Common mosquito netting could be substi- tuted for the wire netting. The hull and the roof are the essential features and must be side XSlevation of House-Boat except in the corners, where 4x4's were used. The cabin, 14 feet by 10 feet, had a door at each end and double windows on each side, the upper sash being hinged and the windew openings are covered with wire netting on the outside, the sash swinging inwardly and hooked up to the ceiling. At the stern where we had our gasoline stove, wire netting on hinged frames with canvas curtains formed a perfect protection from flies, mosquitoes and wind. At the bow or front end, where we used our oars for pro- pelling and guiding the boat, we had can- vas curtains which could be adjusted at any height and set at an angle like regular awnings. The hull was built deep so as to with- stand any waves that we might encounter In the river from storms or passing steam- ers. The floor is 18 inches below the hull line, and the space under the floor is used for storing ice and supplies; trap-door af- fording ready access thereto. tight. We used common siding for the sides and ends and did not line the cabin. An important point is to have as much "rake" as possible, thus causing the boat to ride the waves easily. In this boat we drifted, rowed and were towed through the Illinois and Michigan canal from Chicago to La Salle, 111., where we ran into the Illinois river, which we traversed to Grafton, III. (near Alton), where we struck the "Father of Waters," who carried us along at the rate of seven miles an hour to St. Louis, the entire trip taking just three weeks. So enamored have I become of house-boat life that 1 shall build a larger craft, equip it with a paddle-wheel and a gasoline engine, launch it in Lake Michigan and use it for summer outings in the streams along the eastern shore of the lake. ¥. B. ENCYCLOPEDIA 331 Realistic Target Practice in tHe German Army Life-sized Pictorial Cavalry Used in Target Practice in the German Army The German army has adopted a method of target practice in which a life-sized body of charging cavalry are fired upon by a force of riflemen, the cavalry advancing at full gallop, or the same rate as in an actual conflict. This novel target vras adopted in order to test the number of telling shots made by the riflemen under those con- ditions. The life-sized figures of the cavalry are painted upon a movable screen which is connected by strong ropes to an immense beam. These ropes pass over pulleys in the beam and thence along the beam, and to their ends is hitched a team of horses. These horses are set at full gallop and the pictorial cavalry charge toward the beam, while the infantry fire. How to Pasteurize MilK Milk can be successfully pasteurized in even a small way without the use of expen- sive machinery. Hoai'd's Dairyman gives the following directions: Obtain a tank large enough to hold four or more deep setting pails about 8 inches in diameter and 20 inches deep. Have water and drainage pipes so arranged that the tank can be quickly filled and emptied. Fill the tank with sufficient hot water so that it will come above the milk in the cans. Set the cans of milk in the hot water and turn on enough steam from a small boiler to heat the water to about 160° F. Heat the milk in the cans with constant stirring, as rapidly as possible to 140° F. and hold at that point for 20 minutes. Draw off the hot water and let a con- stant supply of cold water flow into the tank, stirring the milk in the meantime so that it may cool as rapidly as possible. It should be cooled to 50° F. or below. It will take some skill and experience to do the above successfully, as well as considerable work. It should be understood that pasteurizing milk does not increase the purity, but only kills the bacteria that are present. If clean milk is desired, it must be obtained by methods of cleanliness in the stable. 332 ENCYCLOPEDIA 100,000 RUSSIAN SOLDIERS WILL WEAR BULLET-PROOF GARMENTS. LIVED IN THE WATER FIFTEEN DAYS. The Russian government lias ordered from the company, established at Milan to manu- facture the Bendetti cuirass, 100,000 of these breast-plates, which are destined for the armies in Manchuria. Last winter the inventor carried out some tests at St. Peters- burg before the czar and high military officials, and it is claimed that the plate is proof against all small-arm projectiles. The cuirass to be supplied the Russian soldiers is flexible, weighs only 17 ounces, is less than half an inch in thickness, and eiitirelj^ covers the chest and abdomen of the wearer. The United Service Gazette says: "The breast-plates were to be deliv- ered at the Russian consulate at Milan on August 15, the sum to be paid for them be- ing slightly in excess of half a million roubles. The factory in Milan employs 250 y>'orkmen, and the process is kept a pro- found secret." HOW TO BUILD A RAT-PROOF CORN CRIB. A corn crib which is cheaply and easily constructed is shown in the illustration herewith. The main feature of the crib is that it is rat-proof. It is constructed of inch lumber; open for air to reach the corn and with flaring sides for protection against rain. The crib is set on either wooden posts or brick foundations, says the Indiana Farmer. The posts are set into the ground 15 inches and extend two feet above it, where the crib sills rest upon them. About 16 inches Bats Cannot Climb These Posts. above the ground are fastened galvanized iron hoods, projecting out and downward around the foundation posts 4 inches in width. Rats could not possibly climb past these. It is quite practicable to shape the hoods out of pieces of tin and nail them to the posts instead of buying the iron hoods. A life suit in which the wearer can lie down or stand up with equal ease while in the water, is a valuable invention lately given to the world by M. Joseph Probst, a Swiss inventor at Geneva. The suit is made of India rubber. It opens in the center and can be quickly and easily donned by the most excitable person. M. Joseph Probst in His Wonderful Life Suit. When attired in it the wearer is absolutely safe while in the water and it is possible for him to exist there several days. Air- tight compartments arranged on the outside, carry the necessary supplies for a prolonged stay in the water, and the apparatus in- cludes an instrument for scaring away dan- gerous fish, says the American Inventor. Nearly one-half of the suit is above water at all times. As a test of his invention Mr. Probst remained in Lake Geneva 15 days and nights. ♦ * » AUSTRALIANS PAY POSTAGE INTO SLOT MACHINES. A new postal convenience is in use in Australia which would be highly appre- ciated in this country. It is a slot machine, in which, if no stamp can be procure;?, the letter and the penny postage are depositee the words "one penny paid" being stamped on the envelope when the box is opened by the postoffice authorities. ENCYCLOPEDIA 333 LARGEST WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY STA- TION COMPLETED. The largest wireless telegraphy station in the world was completed iu September at Pisa, Italy. The buildings are entirely of stone. The machinery and apparatus are being placed as rapidly as possible and by the lirst of 1905 the station will be ready for receiving and transmitting messages. Wire- less telegraphic communication will be es- tablished with England, Holland, the United States and Canada and with vessels in the Mediterranean, the Red sea, the Baltic sea and the Atlantic and Indian oceans. On the coast of Montenegro two Marconi sta- tions are in complete working order and are used daily. » « » SOME PHOTOGRAPHIC CONTRASTS. Never take a view with the sun directly behind you, says a correspondent of the Photographic News, and reference to Figs. 1 and 2 herewith given will show the worth FiK. 1. Fig. 2. Of the advice. Fig. 1 shows the result with the sun behind the photographer; the shape of the objects, shadows, and even perspec- tive are lost. Fig. 2 shows the effect with the light coming from the side, and how great an improvement! Another error to be guarded against is lack of foreground. Note the con- trast between Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. In the former the object has been to get as much of the tree as possible, and cousequent- 1 y foreground has been sacri- ficed, and the tree looks as though it were anchored in the air, rather than ^g_ s. firmly rooted in the earth. In Fig. 4 the top of the tree has been sacrificed to gain more foreground and the top-heavy and unsymmeti-ical effect thus eliminated. ♦ « » HOW TO MAKE REVERSED PRINTS DI- RECT FROM THE NEGATIVE. A straight print from a reversed negative may be uiade after the following method with as good results as if made in the reg- ular way: Fix an ordinary lens, the one used in making the negative will do, in the end of a packing box and lay the printing frame in the other end of the box with the glass side of the negative next to the paper inside that end. The lens end of the box should be turned to the sky or the light. The rays of light must be so nearly par- allel that they will print through the glass without perceptible blur, and the disc of light made by the lens should completely surround the frame.. The larger the disc the longer should be the exposure. ♦ « » HOW TO MAKE HECTOGRAPH SHEETS. Some people prefer hectograph sheets to the regular tablet, because the sheets are made on blotting paper and clean by stand- ing, whereas the gelatinous tablet must be washed off when through using it or it will not make a clear print next time. To make hectograph sheets soak 4 parts of glue in 5 parts of water and 3 parts of ammonia until it is soft. Heat it and add 3 parts of sugar and 8 parts of glycerine. Apply the mixture to blotting paper, satur- ating the paper and adding suc- cessive coats until one side has a smooth surface. Use the smooth side for reproducing the writing just as the tablet is used, excepting sponging them off. Any number of these hecto- graph sheets may be made at a time anc kept for futur« Fig. 4. use. 334 ENCYCT. OPEDIA AN IMPROVED FILLER FOR THE LUBRI- CATING SYSTEM. TREATMENT FOR BURNS AND SCALDS. Engineers and oilers wIjo are not so fortvi- nate as to liave a '-piped-up" oiling system on their engines and macliines, will find tlie following a handy addition to their fillers: fig.1 Bend a piece of No. 8 iron wire (No. 6 copper wire is better) into a ring or collar (Fig. 2), just large enough to slip over the spout of the filler. Put this on the spout about Vi in. from the end as shown in Fig. 1, and solder in place securely. This ring pre- vents the spout slipping too far into the hole in the cup.— Contributed by Lee Boyer, Ok- mulgee, I. T. ♦ » » TANK FOR CATCHING CONDENSED WATER. For providing water for washing hands, face, etc., in the plant the following ar- rangement was tried by a correspondent of the Engineer's Review and was found most useful. A tee was put in a live steam pump and Condensed Water for Washing a pipe connected from the tee to the top of an 8-in. capped pipe 4 ft. high. This tank is kept full of the condensed hot water all the time. The water is run to the sink by means of a pipe connected at the bottom of the tank. To draw the pain from a burn, exclude the air and cause it to heal rapidly, apply a good coat of a mixture of linseed oil and air slaked lime. Let this remain on until it wears off. An excellent treatment for scalds is to bathe or immerse the injured parts in boil- ing grain alcohol, whicli will take the pain out, and then apply a liealing salve, or treat as a bad wovmd. These treatments are so simple and relieve tlie pain so quickly that they rank with the best.— Contributed by R. E. Blondell, Pasadena, Cal. SAFE RAIL GRIP FOR WRECKING CREWS. A new and simple rail grip now used by the wreclving crew at Sayre, Pa., on the L. V. R. R. was designed by one of our read- ers, D. H. Utter, foreman of the cab shop at Sayre. The grip, whicii is very simple in con- struction, is 8 in. wide and 12 in. high and Front ViEV/ Side View composed of three pieces of forged iron. Section A is placed under the rail, and sec- tions B and C are placed one on each side of the rail, entering section A and closed together at the top. The grip can be adjust- ed to the rail in one-half minute and makes a secvu-e hitch that will not slip. ♦ • ♦ HOW TO PRODUCE FLEMISH OAK. Dissolve in one gallon of water, one-half pound of bichromate of potash and coat the Avoodwork with the solution. When it is dry sandpaper it down smooth and give a coat of the best drop black ground in japan, thinned with turpentine. Let it stand for five minutes, says the Master Painter, then wipe off clean, coat with pure grain shellac and sandpaper with fine sandpaper. Apply a coat of beeswax in xiroportions of one pound to the gallon of turpentine and having four ounces drop black mixed in the wax. Use cheese cloth to wipe off clean. E N Y f ' L O P E T A 335 STEAMER SAILS ON LOFTY MOUNTAINS. Built in England and Carried Up the Andes. Not since the ark landed on Mt. Ararat has, in all probability, any large vessel as- pired to so lofty a home as the steamer "Inoa." Built in Hull, England, she sailed under her own steam to Mollendo, South America; was then taken to pieces and car- ried up the Andes to finish her career on Lake Titicaca, Peru, over 12,000 feet above the ocean. 12,000 ft. in the distance traversed. The "Inca" is well named, as Lake Titicaca lies within the boundaries of the land said to have been the cradle of the old Inca races. PLAN TO SAVE SHADE TREES WHEN RUNNING WIRES. Frequently when putting up a pole line for telephone or electric light wires along the side of a street, the workmen utterly destroy the beauty of shade trees by cut- ting away lai'ge branches. Even with this 'TKe 'Inca* "Was Carried Up tHe Ancles to Lrake Titicaca. The dimensions of the "Irica" are 220 ft. by 30 ft. by 14 ft. She is propelled with twin-screw engines of 1,000 h.p., and has a speed of 12 knots. , She is fitted with good accommodations for 24 passengers, will carry 550 tons d. w.^ and has good arrangements and facilities for working cargo. Before be- ing taken apart for shipment, she was equipped for service in every particular. A portion of a joiner's shop was prepared to represent a ship's deck and here were built up the saloons, staterooms, pantries, etc. Even the upholstery, curtains, rods and din- ing tables were furnished. A system of steam heating was installed and on the cabin sides were marked such details as leads of wires for electric lights, positions of switches, etc; the auxiliary machinery, fans for forced draught with pipes and connec- tions, were all fitted up on the ship. Everything complete, the "Inca" was then taken to pieces and packed in over 3,000 separate packages, each carefully marked so there would be no mistake in re-erecting the vessel, and bearing other marks for ship- ment purposes. The vessel was conveyed 150 miles by rail, the railway running along the mountain side and across the valleys of the AE^es, and rising to an altitude of defacement there is apt to be frequent in- terference with the wires when the wind blows, or during a severe storm. At all times the wires are liable to cut into large linibs or tree trunks. A remedy is suggested in placing a pole on each side of the street and suspending an ordinary cross arm from a strong wire extendiiig from pole to pole. When the Dees Not Injure SHade Trees trees have been passed the line wires can be turned to the ordinai-y single pole placed near the curb. — Contributed by W. E. Mc- Chesney, Berkeley, Cal. The Chinese government has entered upon the granting of letters patent, the first hav- ing just been granted. It is to protect an electric lamp, called "bright moonlight." and which its inventor claims is far supe- rior to glow lamps of foreign manufacture nitherto used in the Empire. 336 E N C Y C L O P E J ) 1 A EMERGENCY WHEEL FOR AUTOS. A tire luaiuifaoturer in South Wales has devised an emergency wheel which can be applied in a few minutes. The Motor News, Dublin, says: As Carried oi) the Car. Attached to the Car "The wheel is merely a rim on which a tire is kept always inflated. It is fitted with three metal clamps ai-ranged to grip the periphery and spokes of the wheel it Is to be attached to, and is held locked by two simple thumb screws. It is easily car- ried on the step of the car, and in that position is in no sense an encumbrance." TEST MOTOR CARS FOR SUBURBAN SERVICE. Motor cars will not be used yet awhile on the Burlington railroad for handling Chi- cago suburban traffic and on branch lines. A short, time ago operating officials of that road tested a gasoline electric motor car in a trial run from Aurora to Chicago and re- turn. The motor was of 225 horsepower operated by electricity generated by a gaso- line engine and drew two trailers making at times a speed of 30 miles an hour. The speed is sufficiently high for the service re- quired, but the motor did not work alto- gether satisfactorily and considerable vibra- tion was caused by two large fly-wheels. The road has not given up the idea, how- ever, but will endeavor to correct the faults. PROPOSED ROAD LOCOMOTIVE TRAIN. AND An English engineer of prominence, \yho is a firm believer in the advantages and future of the road locomotive service, offers a model type which is shown in the cut. Care has been taken to avoid the usual objection of the road engine, which as at present constructed is liable to frighten horses. ■ In the proposed construction the moving parts of the driving machinery are concealed, and noise reduced to a minimum. The train as suggested contains a passenger car or omnibus mounted on four wheels and seating 20 passengers. The rear trailer is for trunks, express and light freight pack- ages. In France traction engines of this class make eight miles an hour easily, over roads which are both rough and hilly. Such trains are in regular service between Lyons and Grenoble, a distance of 70 miles, the trip being made in the night— one train each way. JUL 20 1905,