r FIRST Y iiBi#iMM»«9««9ti«mfpMaiMM*t^^ SINCLAIR iMaA » PRI!VlAR¥VTEA«eHERS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. LB \5i\ Slielf-.-S.C;!.-. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. First Years at School. A MANUAL OF PRINCIPLES AND METHODS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS, y 4 y/^ ^Y S/ B^ SINCLAIR, M.A. (Toronto University), vice-principal provincial normal school, ottawa ; formerly principal hamilton model training-school. mi 1311 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 1894. Authorized by the Ontario Education Department, Copyright, 1894, by E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK. VALUABLE HELPS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. Perez's First Three Years of Childhood . $i 50 Patridge's Quincy Methods Illustrated . . i 75 Johnson's Education by Doing .... 50 Hall's Contents of Children's Minds ... 25 Roofer's Object Teaching ..... 25 Kilburn's Manual of Elementary Teaching . i 50 Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw ... 30 Parker's Talks on Teaching . ; . . . i 25 Hughes's Mistakes in Teaching .... 50 Hughes's Securing Attention 50 Kellogg's School Management .... 75 Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts .... 15 *^* Large descriptive catalogue of all books and aids for teachers published sent free on application. CONTKNTS. PAGB Preface, .-.--. 5 Introduction— First Year at School, 9 Time-table, -.-.-- 24 Discipline and Tactics, - . - - 25 Language Lessons, . . . - - 35 Reading, ...... 38 (a) An Electric Method, . - . - 42 (6) Word Recognition, . . - 44 (c) Expressive Reading, .... 71 Number Work, ..... 86 (a) Perception, ..... 92 (6) Subtraction, ■ . . - . 96 (c) Addition, . . . . - 100 (d) Division, ..... 101 (e) Multiplication, - - - - . 101 (/) Partition, ..... 102 Study of Surroundings, . . - - 109 (a) Natural Science, - . - - 112 (6) Geography, ^ . . . . 125 Manual Training, - . . . - 131 (a) Form Study, Modeling, Drawing, etc., 132 (6) Color, - - r ' 152 (c) Writing, ..... 154 (d) Songs and Calisthenics, - 157 Moral Training, - - . . . 161 (a) Self, 163 (6) Others, -.--.. - - 164 List of Supplies, - • . - . 168 List of Books for Primary Teachdrs, 169 New Books for Teachers. ILES* A CLASS IN GEOMETRY. By George Iles. *' It cannot fail to give to the teacher of this science new enthusiasm and new ideas, and to all teachers the pleasure arising from following our ideal method." Limp cloth. Price ^oc, post-paid, KELLOQQ*S ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. By Amos M. Kellogg, Editor of the School Journal, A concise outline for Normal students and the home study of pedagogy. It will aid those who have found other works obscure. Limp cloth. Price 2^c, post- paid, ROOFER'S APPERCEPTION, or, ''A Pot of Green Feathers," is a very simple book on psychology, strange as the title may seem. It dis- cusses perception and shows how it becomes percep- tion. Limp cloth. Price 2^c. post-paid, ROOPER'S OBJECT TEACHING makes plain this much-talked-of but little-understood subject both in its philosophical basis and its practice. Limp cloth. Price 2^c, post-paid, HALL'S CONTENTS OF CHILDREN'S MINDS on Entering School, by G. Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, gives the results of careful investiga- tions made by the writer and others to determine the amount and kind of knowledge possessed by the average child on entering school. Limp cloth. Price 2'yc, post-paid, ^j% Large descriptive catalogue of five hundred books and aids for teachers in all branches of school work free. E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York and Chicago. PREFACE. The reader will find nothing in the following pages which has not been submitted again and again to the tests of actual experience and careful criticism. For a number of years the author has devoted his entire time to the training of teachers and the supervision of primary grades. In the oversight of four hundred children, who are putting in their first year at public school, and the ma- jority of whom come directly from the Kindergarten, he has had unusual opportunities of observing the results of FroebePs methods of instruction. He has also been able to study the best means of blending Kindergarten methods with methods of the public school, in order that the children may pass in easy gradation from one to the other. Again, in studying the requirements of those pupils who had not received Kindergarten training, he has had an opportunity of applying such kindergarten methods as can profitably be introduced into public schools. The methods are specially adapted to graded schools, but the wants of rural schools have also been kept in mind. To be helpful rather than to be original has been the aim throughout. While some of the methods are the outgrowth of observations at Toronto, Oswego, and Cook VI PREFACE. County normal schools, the autlior humbly liopes that the enthusiastic searcher after truth will be able to pro- nounce the greater part of the work not only new but good. Within the narrow limits of such a book it has been necessary simply to state methods without attempting in any way to defend them, and the author must rely upon the charity of his fellow-teachers to give the methods a fair trial before condemning them. Realizing that it is always better to teach from a jprinovple than from a co^y, he has made the type-lessons very short. They are intended to be merely suggestive. He takes pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness to Dr. Sheldon, Prin. Oswego IsT. and T. S. for phonic plate, page 63 ; to Miss Walter, Oswego IS", and T. S., for cabinet collection, page 125 ; and to all others who have kindly aided in the preparation of this work. S. B. Sinclair. Ottawa Normal School, March, 1894. FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. An Important Work. To the primary teacher is entrusted the most arduous and, at the same time, the most responsible of all school work. She stands at the very starting point of school life, ready to switch the child off upon some side track, where he soon comes to a hopeless standstill, or to guide him forward upon the main line to a glorious destiny. First impressions are the most lasting, and during the first year the pupil decides whether school is to be to him dj happy home, or a hateful prison ; whether the object of his endeavor is to be the development of strength — physical, mental, and moral — or the cramming of the mind with a mass of indigestible facts, as useless as they are distasteful. When the special difficulty in dealing successfully with little children during the early or formative stage is con- sidered, it is not surprising that many eminent educators have concluded that the very best teachers should be placed in charge of the primary grades. Inner Connection. There are no two schools, no two pupils exactly alike, and no pupil remains the same for any considerable period of time. The teacher always finds herseK placed under con- 10 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. ditions which have never existed elsewhere, and, even though she has spent years in careful preparation for her work, she finds it no small undertaking to discover what is best adapted to the special requirements of her pupils. The most important of all studies is the study of relations. Can we know anything but relations ? Are things really related as they appear to be related ? What relations hold in the realms of mind and matter ? What can be known conceTning the underlying principle which holds these relations together ? These are ultimate questidns in ^e profoundest philosophy. Any rational system of education must likewise rest in the final analysis upon principles evolved from a care- ful consideration of laws of relation. New conditions, and therefore new relations arise at every step. These must be carefully investigated. For example, there is a certain time in the life of a child when he should begin a particular study. A moment earlier may be too soon, a moment later may be too late. The proper time can- not be determined without a thorough knowledge of the relation which this subject bears to all others and of the law of the child's unfolding. Study of Child Nature. In her search for laws of " inner connection," and "ways and means to their expression," the thoughtful teacher is led to concentrate her study mainly upon child nature. She realizes that the highest result, whether for himself or others, can be reached by the child only through intelligent action coming from within, and she considers her greatest work to consist in stimulating his self-activity and in directing that activity into proper channels. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 11 As it is impossible to learn to swim without going into the water, and unwise to plunge in headlong without previous study or subsequent direction, so in every act the wise teacher combines doing with knowing. She sees in the pupil " the promise and potency of much that is to be " and directs her training in such a way that each experience shall be the occasion best calculated to develop the higher natural potentialities of the child and to submerge the lower. While attaching great im- portance to development she does not forget that there are many natural tendencies which are better undeveloped, and also that life is too short for the child to discover all truth for himself. Her watchword is spontaneity, but spontaneity tempered by judicious control. She exercises the greatest care at all times to preserve the golden mean between that view which considers the child simply a receptacle to be filled with knowledge, and the opposite one which looks upon him as " a centre where truth abides in fullness," and which would have the teacher's work consist entirely in " opening out a way whereby the imprisoned splendor may escape." She knows that, in early child life, sense impressions form a most important factor in the acquisition of know- ledge. Facts taught to the child parrot-fashion, without any empirical basis in sensation, are apt to be as meaning- less to him as the idea of color is to a blind man. But, on the other hand, it is as true that " intuitions without concepts are blind," as it is that " concepts without intuitions are empty." Before an impression from with- out can be properly termed a sensation it must possess a mental factor, and at any rate there can be no real knowledge without action of the mind. It is only by 12 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. thinking that " a knowledge of things as related becomes a knowledge of the relations of things." Thus, then, while the teacher is careful to adopt objective methods, she is always vigilant in securing the child's attention upon the subject and having him do his own thinking. In this way when the concrete has answered its purpose it is discarded, and memory, imagination and reason are permitted to perform their proper functions. Relation to past and to future development. " The man who is not too big for his position is not big enough," and the teacher who thinks only of the grade limit prescribed for the first year at school cannot per- form that work in the best possible way. She should inform herself in regard to the previous training the child has received. His mind when he first enters the school room is not like a blank page. The chances are that he knows one-third of all he will ever know. The teacher should make the best of all the knowledge that the child brings by building upon the foundation already laid, in so far as that foundation is a solid one, and see that at the beginning, as well as in every subsequent stage, there is a clear fusion of new ideas with the old ones related to them. In this way the mother's teaching about people, places and things will be developed into History, Geography and Physics. Her instruction in regard to plants, animals, language, and numbers will be the stepping-stone to a knowledge of Botany, Zoology, Literature and Mathematics. The child's knowledge of his physical frame will form the groundwork for Physiology, and the lessons which he has learned in the home regarding right and wrong will be the foundation for his Ethical study. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 13 The pupils may also have received a Kindergarten* training, and if so, it will be best to adopt methods which will enable them to utilize the strength already gained in the Kindergarten in such a process of steady and natural advancement that they will experience no abrupt change ill the transition to the public school. Then, again, the superstructure should not be entirely forgotten. The pupil who can go to school for only four years may require a different training from the one who can remain at school for fourteen years. The first year at school should be a continuation, not only of the child's previous instruction, but also, as far as possible, of his previous child-life and habits. He has been accustomed to out-door exercise and to a thousand liberties which cannot be granted him at school. The change should not be too abrupt. Wherever practicable the true educator will introduce anything that will enhance the charm of school life. " Heaven Hes about us in our infancy, Shades of the prison house begin to close about the growing boy." The Primary Teacher will do well to see that the " light of common day " does not too soon break upon the immortal souls under her leadership. *The introduction of the Kindergarten has done much to awaken public interest in primary work. A careful investigation of the Kindergarten must convince every one that the songs, the games, the occupations, the homelike charm, and, above all, the heart culture to be found in it afford the best gymnasium offered for beginners. It will be a glad day for the children when in the public school they can receive a preliminary Kindergarten training before entering the primary grade. 14 FIBST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Size of Class. Forty children is the maximum for efficiency in a primary grade. In order to do efficient work the indi- viduality of each child must be studied, and this cannot be done in a large class. Better results will be attained by putting a primary class of sixty children on half time, teaching thirty forenoon and afternoon than by taking the whole sixty at once. The teacher who is compelled to take charge of more than forty children must spend very much of her time in preserving order, for, unless very carefully watched, fifty children will make twice as much noise as forty. The amount of work done by the teacher cannot be esti- mated by the number of pupils she has in her room. It is one thing to keep pupils quiet, and quite another to educate them, and the latter is by far the harder task. To plead for smaller classes is to ask not for easier, but for more efficient work. The best primary teachers seldom stand the strain for many years and do not gener- ally receive more than a mere pittance for their services They continue teaching because they love the work and have caught something of the spirit of the gifted Agassiz who said he had not time to make money. To the born teacher there are two great inducements in this work — one, that she will live in the memories of her pupils, the other that the world will be better for her having livec^ Such a teacher will labor harder with thirty than with sixty children, for in the former case the very joyousness of her work, will cause her to forget the strain on her vitality. The class should be divided into sections of ten or twelve children, each section being taught by itself. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 15 In this way the teacher has a manageable class. She can therefore study the special needs of each pupil, and promote from one class to another when the child is ready. The proper time to promote a child is when lie is ready to go on, not when the majority of the class are ready. Many a one has formed a permanent dislike for school by dreary drills upon what he already knows, or by what is even worse, attempting to grapple with work entirely beyond his powers. Such is apt to be the case when the teacher endeavors to bring all her class to a dead level of uniformity. Promotions from one section to another may be made daily. An Ideal Primary Teacher. The perfect Primary Teacher should first of all be heartily in love with child nature and feel herself instinctively drawn to little children. She should possess rare natural gifts, a good voice, a ready hand and a pleasing address, for by music and picture, and personal magnetism she will be able to win the hearts of her pupils. She should be widely read. Although it may not be necessary for her scholarship to be so profound as for advanced teaching, she will find that in order to hold the attention and answer the many questions proposed she must have an almost inexhaustible fund of informa- tion and be able to draw on it at a moment's notice. She should know something of heart culture experi- mentally. She should have sat at the feet of the Great Teacher long enough to have learned not only the value of objective methods, but also the great lesson of self-sacri- fice. While there should be nothing of creed or dogma in her teaching, she should, by " wearing the white flower 16 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. of a blameless life," exercise a constant positive influence for good. Her professional training should have extended over, at least, one year, and would be much better for an addi- tional year in the Kindergarten and Normal School. She should know something of Psychology, not only theoretically, but practically, i. e., she should have learned to look into the mind and study its operations. Every method used should be adapted to the mental con- dition of the children and this adaptation requires, on the part of the teacher, the ability to discern the stage of mental development of the children, and a knowledge of the peculiar nourishment suited to that period of develop- ment. One of her greatest duties is to train children to think. She should therefore know what thought is, viz. the holding of ideas in relation. Her work will consist in part in the furnishing of the mind with materials for its future operations, and to do this it will be necessary for her to have an intelligent conception of the methods involved in this furnishing. She is thus at the outset met with the old question, "How do ideas come into the mind ? " a problem which she should have carefully investigated. To one who has thus prepared herself for her profession, there is a beauty in it never dreamed of by the untrained teacher. The work possesses an irresistible charm to her, and as time goes on she finds it necessary to guard against a fascination which makes her oblivious of all else but school. Danger of Discouragement. At the same time it is not wise for the teacher con- stantly to place herself alongside a perfect standard and PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 17 feel how far short she comes of it. She who has an earnest desire to help children, and is able and willing to work, will in all probability in the end make a good Primary Teacher. More teachers and more pupils fail from discourage- ment than from any other cause. Many efficient teachers have become so deeply impressed with the importance and responsibility of the work and their own fancied unfitness for it that they have entered other less respon- sible and more remunerative callings, forgetting that their places are apt to be filled by teachers who care " nothirg for method, fitness or responsibility. There are few sadder sights than that of a primary school, where sixty, eighty, or perhaps a hundred children are huddled together in a dingy, ill-ventilated room, and placed under the charge of a nervous, over- worked, untrained teacher, to be driven, and cowed, and deadened until the last vestage of individuality has dis- appeared. There is, however, abundant evidence to show that in hundreds of just such schools the teacher, by receiving a little more sympathy and by gaining a know- ledge of better methods has caught an inspiration, which has been, in turn, communicated to children and parents, until in a few short months by a gradual and almost imperceptible change the miserable environments have given place to those more attractive and rational An Ideal School Room. There is something in addition to the cheery greeting of the teacher and the glances of welcome from the children that make us wish to linger here. There is a home-like charm which cannot be described. 18 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. The air is pure, the light mellow, the room clean, the temperature uniform. On the walls are tastefully hung a few suggestive and valuable pictures which have formed the basis for stories to the children and which call up many remembrances. Above the blackboard in view of the class is a pretty motto formed from folded Kindergarten papers. On the window-sills are a few house plants and in one window is a large box of earth, the children's window garden, in which they have imbedded numerous tiny seeds which are now in various stages of development, and are soon to become treasured plants. On the teacher's table is a bouquet of natural flowers. There is an abundance of blackboard and on it we find many interesting things. Colored crayon has been used to good advantage. That pansy, so true to nature, was studied by the children last week, and now it remains an honored guest. Near it is a list of the dates when the respective seeds in the window garden were planted. That neat row of problems now screened from the pupils' view by a small ciirtain is the seat work in number which the pupils are to work on their slates and illustrate in various ways. This picture of a see-saw with three boys on either end, so evenly balanced that one leans forward every time to make the board tip, was drawn rapidly by the teacher yesterday in a number lesson to teach that J of 6 = 3. It is a rough sketch to be sure, but it is intended only to suggest other pictures to the children. Near it is a care- fully drawn picture of six stars arranged symmetrically to represent the number fact, and under the picture the equation "J of 6=3." The picture with the words "Late for School ' under it, and the one showing the position PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. i9 of the hand in writing, as well as the pretty honor roll border, are from stencils and were put on by the pupils. The letters on the phonic ladder indicate the sounds learned. The column of words are difficult words learned in recent lessons. The circle with the combinafcion in the centre and single letters around the circumference indicates new words discovered yesterday by phonic synthesis and written on slates in short sentences. These words the teacher intends to weave into the reading story to-day. Here too are relics of the last drawing and writing lessons. In one corner of the room is a sand moulding table, and in another a cabinet containing materials for illustration and for seat work. In it also are supple- mentary Readers, a collection of specimens for Natural History study, and many other things which only the children who brought them can properly explain. The pupils have just finished their opening song and are sitting quietly in an easy position. There are forty children arranged in four sections, each section in a row ready for work. By a silent signal to monitors the teacher indicates that she wishes materials for seat work distributed. Half a dozen monitors step quickly to the cupboard and in a trice, without any confusion and with very little noise, we find the pupils supplied with materials and ready for work. The teacher then assigns seat work for three sections and calls up the forth for a lesson. Yesterday morning the geranium in one of the flower pots came out in bloom and to day the pupils have brought some flowers with them for they knew that they would require them. Five minutes are occupied in studying and conversing about the new flower, its name, form, size, color, number of parts, 20 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. etc. The teacher then writes half a dozen short sentences upon the board, sentences which have been developed incidentally in the preliminary conversation and which involve only words the forms and meanings of which will be immediately and automatically recognized by the children. These sentences are read orally by the pupils. The teacher is en rapport with her class and when ten minutes have passed the children have become so inter- ested in the subject that on going to their seats they are anxious to read the cards which they find there and which contain printed stories about the geranium. These stories are all different and are for silent reading at seat while the teacher is engaged with the next section. After the silent reading the pupil writes his story on his slate or draws a picture to represent it. During the lesson the pupils at their seats are not as noisy as might be expected. True they sometimes whisper, but these are exceptional occurrences. These children are learning self-control. The child works away conscious that he is a spoke in the wheel. He looks up and sees a motto that he has helped to make and put up. He knows how the papers are folded ; he can fold them himself and he can read the motto too, " Willing Work- ers." He knows what that means. He hasn't entirely forgotten what the teacher said about it, nor will he have forgotten fifty years hence. He hadn't any plants to bring, nor even a flower, for the bouquet on the table, but over in that cabinet is a queer little stone which he found the other day and brought to school. The teacher said she never saw such a stone before ; it was just what she wanted, and when she showed it to the class they all thought it pretty. This is his school. " They love a PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 21 fellow here." It was only last week he had to stay at home, and the teacher said she always missed him when he was away. He does not care to play truant from this school. As we walk down the aisle we see some very grotesque representations, but there is thought behind them all. This pupil, who to represent 6 — 3 — 1 = 2, has drawn a picture of six squirrels playing hide and seek, one count- ing, three secreted in various out of the way places, and two running to hide, is learning to propose questions aa well as to answer them. As we remain through the day we see that there is constant change, constant effort, an all-sided culture, natural, rational, homelike and healthful. This is the pupil's workshop where he develops muscle, mental and moral as well as physical. The teacher is glad to see visitors, she is in touch with parents and the public and wishes them to know what she is doing. The sight of a parent who has just " dropped in " to stay all the forenoon and has brought her work with her would be rather a source of pleasure than other- wise. A Well Balanced Self-Culture. Education aims at the full and harmonious develop- ment of all the powers, including those of hand and heart as well as those of head. It is a difficult matter to preserve the proper mean between extreme systems, which on the one hand limit the child's attention entirely to the three E,'s to the exclusion of all other training, and on the other hand dissipate the energy by flitting from one subject to another without remaining at any single subject long enough to make definite progress in it. 22 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. While adhering rigidly to the principle of one thing at a time it is possible so to correlate the work of the school- room that each lesson will have an important bearing on all others. This unifying principle is indispensable. In every act, whether it be of class or seat work, there must be a consciousness of unity in diversity and an applica- tion of definite means to definite ends. If the highest possible success is to be achieved the child's self-activity must be aroused and his co-operation secured, and this can be best accomplished only when he is able to see a purpose in his work. In the following pages the subjects of instruction have been grouped under five heads, viz.: — (a) Language, including reading, composition, etc. (h) Number work. (c) Study of surroundings, including places and objects. (d) Manual training, including drawing, writing, gym- nastics, songs. (e) Moral training, including a study of self and others. This arrangement is followed as being more convenient. It is probably not the natur;d order, e.g., group (a) does not precede but goes hand in hand with and in a sense contains group (c). It is not the intention to lay down any hard or fast lines in this division, to limit the work entirely to these subjects, nor in dealing with any to entirely submerge the others. TIME-TABLE. The following time-table, which is merely suggestive, is adapted to a primary class divided into four sections, viz. : — A, B, C, D, where the subjects of reading, writing and natural science are taught to one section at a PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 23 time, the remainder being occupied with Busy Work* at seats (see p. 46). The capitals R, N, and S, indicate lessons in reading, number and surroundings taught by the teachen Thus reading lessons are taught before forenoon intermission ; these are followed by number work until noon hour, after which natural science is taken. The small letters r, n, and s indicate busy (seat) work in the foregoing subjects. The figure 1 written to the right of the small letter indicates that the seat work is principally conventional and has a direct bearing upon the class lesson which im- mediately precedes it ; thus the teacher, in teaching the lesson N, will explain what she expects the pupil to do in seat work n^. The figure 2 indicates that the seat work is for review of work gone over in previous lessons. The figure 3 indicates that the work is to be in great measure spontaneous, the pupil being allowed consider- able freedom in invention. It is intended that the lessons be short, not occupying the full time assigned on the time-table, the remainder of each period being devoted to examining and assigning seat work. In many cases the whole class can be taken to- gether when the question of busy work will be much simplified. It involves less work for the teacher to give the same seat work to all at the same time ; e.g., in the following time-table when section A is called up for reading at 9-10, sections B, C and D may all be given n 3. *The term "Busy Work" is applied to any occupation in which the pupil can be profitably engaged without the direct supervision of the teacher ; also to the materials used. 24 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. i It is better not to divide a class into more than four sections no matter how many pupils there are ; neither is it well in a large class to take more than two subjects in sections on the same day, e.g.^ if reading and science \ are taken in sections take number with the whole class, j i Time-Table. Time. A. B. C. D. i 9.00 a.m. Opening exercises, singing, etc. i 9.10 R n3 s^ s' \ 9.25 r^ R n» r« 9.45 Physical training. \ 9.50 n« r^ R n» | 10.10 s n^ r R ' \ 10.30 Forenoon intermission. \ 10.45 N s3 n* ri 1 10.65 n N 8» n \ 11.05 Physical training. ■ 11.10 s« n N s» ] 11.20 r3 s2 n* N j 11.30 Writing and drawing. ] 11.56 Closing exercises. ;; 12.00 Noon intermission. \ 2.00 p.m. Singing. ; 2.10 S r3 s' n» \ 2.20 s' S r3 i« \ 2.30 Physical training. 2.40 r« s^ S r» \ 2.50 n3 r3 s^ S \ 3.00 Afternoon intermission. r 3.15 Number, phonic or word drill. Language lesson „ ] 3.30 Moral training, stories, literary gems, etc. \ 3.55 Closing exercises, 4.00 Dismissal. 1 PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 25 CHAPTER II. DISCIPLINE AND TACTICS. It is probable that the order of your school during the first three days will determine the nature of your order during the term. The first day is therefore a critical period in your school life. It is probably better to begin by erring on the side of sternness than on that of laxity. Your principal objects to-day are : (a) To create in the child's mind a favorable impression of school and teacher, (6) To establish a kind of order which will daily improve, and (c) To test as far as possible the relative standing of your pupils and to divide them into sections. The last is the least important. You must be kind as well as firm. Let the child see that school is going to be a pleasant home to him. Every moment of the time must be occupied, in order that he may be diverted from that feeling of homesick- ness which comes over the young heart when placed amid new environments, and that he may not be led into mischief through idleness, also that you may have an opportunity to study his nature when he is not thinking about himself. It will no doubt be a long day to you, but it will be a longer one to him. Let the little teaching that you do be your very best effort, animated, earnest, hopeful and interesting, so that the child will long to come to school to-morrow and hear your voice again. It is a great mistake for the teacher to do very much talking or teaching the first day. A merchant does not put all of his goods in the window. 26 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. It will be necessary to take all the class together during the forenoon, and you must have your time-table thoroughly mapped out beforehand, so that there will be no hitch in the proceedings. You require materials for busy work more to-day than any other day of the term, and you should have them ready for distribution if possible. Avoid assigning work too difficult for the child. It is better to run the risk of giving him work that is too easy, for nothing will discourage a child quicker during his first day than to give him a task which he has no idea how to begin to do. Study than to find such work as may be adapted both to brilliant and to dull pupils, e.g.y the drawing of horizontal lines. Try to find out something of the nature of your class beforehand, the songs they know, etc. If any of your pupils have attended school bef re, utilize them to the fullest extent. On entering, if possible have pupils march around the room, hang up hats and take seats. If they can march to music let them do so. Be sure that the tune is one that they can keep step to, and one familiar to some of the pupils. Perfect order having been secured, proceed with very brief opening exercises, followed by singing. If children know songs, let them sing several. Few children can resist the influence of music, and if any of the little folk feel awkward and shy, lively singing will do much to cause them to feel in harmony with their surroundings. When a class can face and stand promptly on the word of command, they are ready for work. It will be well at this juncture to begin to teach them how to do PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 27 this. Give orders — ready — face — rise. On the word " ready " have pupils sit erect at end of seats, in position of attention. On the word "turn" have them turn facing the aisle, the feet being lifted noiselessly and placed in the best position for rising, the hand being placed on desk to assist in rising. On the word " rise " have children rise quietly and face front, standing in military position of attention. Never allow pupils to stand in a hurried or disorderly manner, no matter how pressed for time you may be. If you do, your discipline will surely suffer. Let the exercises during the first few days consist in standing, turning, marching and other exercises necessary to class management. Little children were not made to stand in straight lines. They like to do so for a short time, but cannot remain in the same position long with- out impairing their health. After the preceding drill, your class are ready to begin work. Have pupils in front seats distribute busy work. See that every child has something to do, and that the work has been thoroughly explained. Impress upon the pupil from the first that his best work is expected, and accept nothing which you are sure has cost no effort, always remembering to give a pupil credit for his best work, no matter how poor it may be. In order to secure the best results the teacher must examine all busy work. It takes time, certainly, but you lose more by not doing it than you can make up in the time you save. Feel yourself, and let the pupil feel, that you really want that work done well. Such a command as " Now you may make figures," given in a tone of voice which the children have learned to know means 28 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. "I want to keep you working," will result in careless work which weakens the child. Utilize every opportunity to test the relative power of the children without interfering too much with the work in hand, and grade into sections as soon as possible. Learn the names of a dozen pupils as soon as you can. Deal with cases of discipline as they occur. When the first pupil leaves his seat without permission is the time for you to explain that you wish pupils to raise the right hand and receive permission before leaving their seats. Let pupils know that all grading and seating during the first few days is only temporary. When children grow restless vary the exercises by songs, calisthenics, etc. " There is a familiarity which breeds contempt " and the teacher v/ill find it better to hold the reins pretty tightly during the first week, if she wishes to be able to lay them down altogether after a time. Corporal punishment should never be used except in the most extreme cases ; however, if there is to be any occasion for its use, that occasion will probably arise during the first week. Very many young teachers fail owing to an undecided, vacillating manner at the outset. You must get attention before you can educate. When you once have your class in satisfactory condition, unbend a little. Adopt such discipline as your best judgment dictates. Do not be guided entirely by the opinion of somebody else. A system of discipline which will work like magic in the hands of one teacher may prove a complete failure in the hands of another, and vice versa If possible arrange your class so that each row of seats will contain a section. In apportioning busy work to PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 29 those in seats to be done while one section is being taught, give such busy work as blocks, slats, script, etc., to alternate rows, and slate work to the remaining rows. Do not collect busy work and re-distribute to different rows but allow pupils to change seats, e. g. if you have a class of forty pupils, seated in four rows, 10 in each, give first section slate work, second section slats, third section slate work, leaving fourth section to be taught. Alter fourth section have had lesson and are ready for their seats, let them take seats in the fourth row. Then have the class face and stand, so that all in one row will stand in one aisle, then allow pupils of second section to take seats in the first row, third in second, etc., leaving the fourth row vacant, and first section standing ; then as busy work has not been collected, each section will have a change of work, and a rest in changing seats. Take first section to floor for lesson, and repeat until each section has done all the busy work, and had lesson, when each child will be found in his own seat. In some rooms the change may be made by the serpentine march. In appointing monitors to distribute busy work, water for slates, etc., it is a good plan to ask a backward or slow pupil to do the work. It will brighten him up and make him active. If you have an especially restless pupil, such work will be an outlet for his energy. It is well to appoint monitors for a week, and the office may be made a reward for conduct, or for work, and monitors who do not strive to do their work quietly and quickly should be changed at once. The choosiog of monitors, if not done very carefully, is apt to create a feeling of jealousy. Let it be distinctly understood vjhy you choose a certain pupil for a certain work. If he is chosen because he can 30 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. do that work ^ell, every pupil who wishes a like honor will try to fit himself for it. Whatever plan is followed try to let no pupil feel that he is neglected or slighted in any way. In giving commands, first see that your command is such that it can be obeyed. Give it in a firm, decided, courteous tone, and insist on its being carried out. Let your rules be few, very few, but let every infringe- ment of them be followed by its natural punishment. If your bell says " Take position," never let it say anything else, and never ring it unless you want position. If children are told to raise the left hand when they wish to leave the room, do not allow a child to pass out until he has complied with the rule, but even here you must make exceptions for extreme cases and for children who do not yet know which is the left hand. Never attempt to give an order with one-half of your class listening, and the other half doing something else. Get attention first, and then speak. Always speak to your pupils in your natural voice, that is, if it is a pleasant one, if not, try to make it so, and never be snappy. Be as courteous to your pupils as to your friends. If you once gain their respect and love, you will have little trouble with order. Discriminate between noise and work, also between accidents, and intentional noises. Remember that your pupils are but human, and that accidents will happen. It is not wise to forbid little children talking. Forbid their talking too much or too loudly, and you can regulate the order so as to cause no inconvenience unless you are one of those teachers who cannot teach without PRIMAKY teachers' MANUAL. 31 "perfect silence. If you are, you must do one of two things, either educate yourself to teach with the cheer- ful hum of work going on, or make the little ones be still and suffer. N"o child will work as well in a state of repression as he will in a state of freedom, and no child can feel free who must keep his lips closed for a very long period at a time. Noise from work done should not be considered out of place. Perfect silence and earnest work are almost impossible at the same time. Allow no whispering while teaching a lesson to the whole class, but when pupils are busy at seats allow the liberty of whispering at times. They will not abuse the privilege if the right spirit prevails in the school room. It is a good plan to have pupils try to work for ten or fifteen minutes at a time with lips closed. They rather enjoy this exercise which trains them to be like grown up scholars. If you forbid whispering, a few conscientious pupils will obey the rule. The majority of the class will pro- bably whisper if they get the chance, always with a guilty feeling, which soon tells for evil on the character. The same children have been accustomed to talk all day long at home, with perfect freedom, then what a task it must be for them to sit for even half an hour with their lips closed. Those who forbid all talking surely do not realize the hardship it is to obey that rule, nor the lonely, isolated feeling it gives one not to be able to communicate with one's neighbor. Go slowly at first with little children, and try to remember how hard it is for them to learn, and how often a thing must be repeated before they remember it 32 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Better spend two days at the beginning on one word, than be compelled to teach that word over again at the end of the term. In all your work be patient and hopeful. Try to see things in their proper light, not in the school-room light, as we often do. The slamming of a slate, the noise of whispering are annoyances, they are not crimes. A child is not necessarily had because he does these things. He should not be looked at or spoken to as if he had committed a grave offence. Do not take all the pleasure out of a child's school life by treating him as if he were your natural enemy. Be sympathetic with the little folk. If one of them tells you his grandma has a cat, at least look as if you felt an interest in that fact. It is well to create a kind of home feeling in the school- room, and if jom have only one pupil whose home is not all that could be desired, you may be giving him a few bright hours, and that is surely worth a little trouble. Do not govern your pupils : help them to govern them- selves. This end will not be reached, if you make a rule for everything that goes on in your room. Give your pupil the opportunity of exercising his power of choice, and help him to strengthen his will power. He cannot be taught too early that he alone must choose for himself the good or the evil, and abide by the result of that choice. It is possible to create such a spirit in a class, that if there be a thoroughly bad boy in it every pupil will feel it his duty to do all in his power to save that one. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 83 Do not do your work in a hurried manner, as if you were always trying to catch up. Be energetic without being fussy. Remember that the little people are watching and imitating you all day long ; yes, and discussing you, too. Be true. Children will discover a fraud more quickly than older people, and we all know the feeling of disap- pointment, and loss of respect and confidence that follows such a discovery. Do not remember a pupil's faults against him from day to day. You will foster prejudice and discourage the child. Never scold, threaten, or lose your temper. Private reproof is often the most effective. Do not deal with a serious offence when it is com- mitted, but wait an hour or two. Strive to prevent any open opposition to your authority. Violent methods of discipline mar the harmony of the school-room and often injure innocent pupils, who are compelled to gaze in trembling and humiliation upon scenes which stamp their impress indelibly upon the memory. Take it for granted that the majority of your class are on your side, and are desirous of doing what is right. Have a care for the phj'sical comforts of your pupils. The temperature of a room should range from 62° to 66°. It is almost impossible to preserve order in a room below 60° or above 70°. Keep your room thoroughly ventilated. Lower windows from the top. If they have not been constructed to do this, they can be easily changed. Windows should be provided with curtains hung over 8. pulley at the top in such a way as to cover the lower part of the window and admit light at the upper part. 34 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. If the children's feet do not touch the floor, have seats changed, or place something under the feet. Avoid corporal punishment. In no school -room should it be at all frequent. When used, the infliction should be in private, the instrument being a leather or rubber strap. The punishment should be inflicted on the palm of the hand. It is a good plan never to inflict such a punishment without the pupil's having flrst admitted his offence and the justice of his punishment. The best teachers never find it necessary to resort to corporal pun- ishment. Children are not angels by any means, but there is a chord in the heart of every child which can be touched by the earnest teacher, and she, who is born to teach, will find it, too, if she be left untrammelled. With weaker disciplinarians it may be necessary at times, and it is certainly better than the nagging, cuffing, etc , which is sometimes substituted for it. In your opening exercises be earnest, cheerful and brief. In some schools, pupils and teachers receive an impulse in the morning exercise that makes the life of each during the entire day a constant conscious approach to the Divine image, and such school-rooms are more numerous than some would have us believe. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 35 CHAPTER IIL LANGUAGE LESSONS. After enlarging on the importance and capabilities of the English Language, Mathews says " Let us carefully guard its purity, maintain its ancient idioms and develop its limitless resources, that it may be made if possible, even more worthy than it now is to be the mother tongue, not only of the two great sister nations whose precious legacy it is, but of the whole family of man. This appeal comes with special force to the Primary Teacher charged with the oversight of the child during the first stages of his development. Most of us remem- ber the difficulties experienced in early childhood in grasp- ing thought and in trying to talk like grown up people. How hard it was to understand some things and how easy to understand others that every one else thought were completely beyond our comprehension. When we framed our first baby sentences was there any one there to help us ? If so, we can never forget their kindness. Was there any one to mimic our feeble stammerings and make fun of our failings ? If so, their cruelty may be forgotten, but its evil result will ever remain with us. Many of us, too, have reason to regret early companion- ships, which have left us a legacy of incorrect expres- sions, slang phrases and faulty pronunciation. A whole school has been known to assume the pronounced brogue natural to a teacher who had taught the school for several years. If incorrect expressions are used by a teacher they will in all probability be repeated by the pupils. In scarcely any other particular is the 36 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. old proverb so fully verified that "as is the teacher, so is the school." The main object of primary language lessons is to teach children to use language. The art of using lan- guage is learned by imitation and practice. In primary grades the child should be taught to speak good English, rather by exercises in conversation than by studying the underlying principles of the language. (See p. 110.) Very much of the difficulty under which English has labored in the past has been due to the mistaken idea that in studying text book Grammar young pupils were learn- ing to speak correctly. Again, language should be thought expression. If not, it is merely the saying of words. The pupil should speak because he has something to say, rather than because he is asked to say something. We should also see that the child has emphasized the thought before we ask him to emphasize the words. Two facts should therefore be constantly kept in mind by the teacher. 1st. A child who has never heard any false syntax will not be likely to speak incorrectly. If, from earliest infancy he be placed amidst such environments as always to hear the best and purest English, be will by uncon- scious imitation speak good English himself. 2nd. Words are useless and meaningless to us unless they represent ideas, the sequence being — ideas first, then words. Every lesson should be a language lesson. If the child says " I seen six boys," the teacher may say " You saw six boys," and during the lesson so direct the question and answers that the correct form will be used several PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 37 times. It is often better to insist on the proper form being used at once, except with very young children, for there is no quicker or surer way to remedy a defect in English than to repeat the correct expression over and over again. It is better not to criticise an error in a Primary Language lesson, but simply to correct it. In taking this view, however, the great importance of language as the vehicle of thought and of language training as complementary and accessory to the study of things must not be overlooked. An object cannot be said to be fully known until we know its name. In all lessons on surroundings, etc., the child in his investigations of things unconsciously makes rapid strides in language study. His vocabulary increases with each lesson and he gains a power of description which is quite unattainable under the self-consciousness of a lesson on language, as such. His false syntax is inciden- tally corrected. He has practise in the use of correct forms and thus begins to acquire a habit of expressing his thoughts more perfectly. As he continues his in- teresting researches respecting the persons and objects around him his attention is more attracted to particulars and generals, and this results in a desire to begin the study of language proper. (See p. 110.) During the first year, the language teaching may be confined mainly to such lessons and to reading, etc., there being but few language lessons given only for the sake of language. 38 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. CHAPTER IV. READING. On the subjective side, reading follows in logical and chronological order as a sub-department of language study. On the mechanical side it involves writing, spelling and voice culture. When properly learned it forms a helpful hygienic exercise, and as it furnishes a key to the investi- gation of all knowledge and is a valuable accomplishment in life it is usually considered the most important subject on the primary school curriculum. The subjects for the first year can be so related that the amount of time actually devoted to reading as such will not be so great as its importance would indicate, still it must be remembered that no other subject demands such careful preparation and skilful application on the part of the teacher. In this subject particularly it is necessary for her to avoid teaching anything which the child will require to unlearn. On this account she will find it better at first to hasten slowly. The stilted, mechanical, hesitating drawl so often acquired by begin- ners is largely due to an attempt to cover too much ground at first, and to compel children to read ready-made sentences containing the thoughts of others rather than their own. The child who looks forward to his reading lesson with pleasure will probably soon become a good reader. It is possible to teach the subject in such a way that the pupils wiU manifest as much interest in learning to read as they formerly did in learning to talk. They are quite as eager to assist in the work and experience as much pleasure in PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 39 its performance ; for, apart from the utilitarian advan- tages which accrue from this second method of thought giving and thought getting (advantages which the pupils are not slow to appreciate) there is in the simple exercise of transferring their thoughts to paper and having them reproduced, a charm to the pupils which can scarcely be exaggerated. Reading is a means to an end. There is a great temp- tation to consider it the end in itself. It is probable that oral reading during the first school year is not nearly so valuable an exercise as it is sometimes considered to be. If a pupil can read to himself rapidly and can converse fluently, the amount of time required to teach him to read orally will not be very great. The child who has learned to recognize the words in a certain book and knows that it contains information which he is very anxious to obtain will read the book without urging, and there are various ways of testing whether he has extracted the thought, any one of which is as reliable as oral reading. A number of interesting and helpful supplementary readers can easily be obtained. By reading these silently as indicated, the pupil acquires the habit of rapid word and sentence recognition without the drawling habits often acquired by beginners. He also gains information and learns to like to read. Oral reading should however from the first accompany the silent reading, the teacher being careful to proceed in graded sequence from easy to difficult. Preparation. The whole question of expression in reading will be found to hinge on the "preparation which the reader has 40 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. taken before attempting to read aloud. Let us endeavor to find out something of what is involved in this pre- paration. Conditions Essential to Good Reading. In order to get thought properly from the written or printed page there must be at least three existing con- ditions. First, the reader must be able without conscious effort to recognize each word form instantaneously. Second, each recognized word must at once bring the preformed concept of its meaning into the consciousness. The meaning of the word must be suggested immediately upon the occasion of the word recognition and without loss of mental energy. This implies that the meanings of all unfamiliar words must be taught before the passage is read. Third, these ideas must be placed and held in proper relation in the mind, e.g., to the thoughtless reader the sentences " The box is on the book," and " The book is on the box," may convey exactly the same impression, not because he has failed to grasp the meaning of the words, but because he has neglected to think the thought. He must go further than this, he must consider the whole selection in its unity, form a mental picture of the scene, read between the lines and endeavor to catch the spirit of the author, interest, attention and imagination being kept in lively exercise. The baldness of style so characteristic of the average schoolboy's translation of Latin or Greek is mainly attributable to the fact that he has studied the dictionary meanings of the words, and strung them together without fifoing far enough to comprehend the real meaning of the PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 41 passage in its entirety. The worst features of the reading to be found in schools can be traced to a similar cause. A failure to know relations properly is a failure in all knowledge. In oral reading there must be at least three conditions in addition to the three already mentioned. First, the reader must know how the thought should be expressed, i.e., he must know the proper pronunciation of the words read and be familiar with the manner of expression used by those who are acknowledged to be good speakers. The statement that "if the reader has grasped the thought properly, expression will take care of itself," correct in a certain sense, requires very impor- tant modifications in dealing with pupils who from companionships or other causes have acquired habits of incorrect or slovenly expression. Second, he must have a complete and healthy vocal organism properly trained so as to be entirely subservient to the will. If he is tongue-tied, or is suffering from sore throat, or if he is not able with certainty to pitch his voice upon any required key his reading cannot be up to the mark. Third, he must possess a desire to express thought. This last is a most important condition and the one most often omitted. This desire may proceed from very different causes. It may be that the writing of his own spoken thought has aroused in him a wish to proceed to the converse act of converting the written thought into spoken language. The desire may be prompted by a feeling of helpfulness, a wish to impart pleasing inform- ation to others. It may arise from eagerness to show how well the work can be performed, or from a lively 42 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. interest in the subject read which causes the reader to wish to be an actor in the imaginary drama. Whatever be the cause this spontaneous desire must exist, otherwise the rendition will be cold and lifeless. No where else is it so true that a volunteer is better than a pressed soldier. An Eclectic Method. The method suggested in the following pages begins with the word and sentence taught objectively and uses only script at first. It recommends the postponement in ordinary cases of oral reading from books for twenty weeks and the oral spelling of words until a subsequent period. It begins a course of voice training the first day, which quickly leads to phonics and takes phonic and word drill every day as an exercise, apart from the reading lesson. The pupil writes his first word in script. At an early date he is introduced to various whole arm movements and to elementary script forms. At the outset the child learns the true office of written words, viz., to represent thought. By confining the written form entirely to script at first the teacher is able to write sentences rapidly on the board when developed, the pupil's attention is not diverted by the difierence in the print and script forms, he learns the kind of writing and spelling which he will always use and likes the work even better than drawing. By slow pronunciation he discovers that there are certain sound elements common to difierent spoken words, and by a comparison of different written word forms he sees that there are certain common characters corresponding to the spoken elements. He learns the sounds of these characters (not the alphabetical PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 43 name). He also learns to coalesce the sounds of the written characters presented in new word forms. He thus quickly gains a power which enables him, without the aid of the teacher, immediately and automatically to recognize new words. He is supplied with a large number of easy interesting stories for silent reading and at the conclusion of the year, with the help derived from the context and inductions from previous experience, succeeds in making out difficult new word forms. His oral reading at first is confined almost entirely to sentences which are the direct outgrowth of his language lessons. Before asking him to read a sentence orally the teacher is certain that all the requirements enumerated under the head of " essentials to good reading " have been filled. By taking the vocal exercises beginning on page 50 simultaneously with the word and sentence lessons begin- ning on page 44, the pupil will usually be prepared to attack the phonic synthesis of a new word by the end of his second week at school. The word and sentence method may then be discarded except for the teaching of difficult non-phonic words. It is however not so much the object in these pages to indicate a method of teaching reading as, if possible, to ofier suggestions which will be helpful no matter what method the teacher adopts. Wherever in this and in succeeding subjects a method seems to be needlessly elaborated, such elaboration is made to suit the needs of slow and backward pupils who after all must be the objects of the teacher's peculiar care. Precocious children require but little assistance. 44 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. For an investigation of different methods of teaching reading to beginners, see page 169. Word Recognition. The course prescribed in reading for the first year should admit of considerable freedom for spontaneity and individuality in the work. As a general limit the pupil might be required at the end of the year to be able to read with good expression any lesson in almost any ordinary First Eeader, when written either in script or print; also to write the words to dic- tation, to know the elementary sounds and to be able to recognize any easy word at sight. The average pupil can compass this limit and also do a large amount of sup- plementary reading, but the test for advancement must always be the strength of the child. The teacher may begin by teaching several presentive words as follows : — Lesson 1. — Word Method. Purpose. — To teach to read and write the word " dog." Plan. — Hold up a toy dog before the class and develop from the children such sentences as " I see a dog ; " "I have a dog ; " *'A dog can run." Bj a short conversation awaken interest in the subject. Draw a picture of a dog on the board. Under the pic- ture write the word " dog " and tell the pupil that this is the word " dog," or the chalk has said " dog." Draw pictures of dogs in various positions, developing such stories (sentences) as " I see a dog in a box." Rub out the picture of the dog and write the word instead, developing the same story as before. Write the word in new positions, developing new stories. Drill on the word PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 46 by writing it in a number of places with other words, and having the children find the " dogs " and erase all other words. Have class take seats and copy the word on the ruled side of their slates, at first following you as you write the word slowly on the blackboard, explaining the process step by step. After this have them copy it from written cardboard. After three or four words have been taught in this way introduce the sentence. Lesson '2, — The Sentence. Purpose, — To teach to read and write the sentences — " I have a dog ; " "I have a fan ; " "I have a cup ; " "I have a box," to a class who know the words " dog," " fan," "cup," "box." Flan. — Develop from the children the sentence, "I have a dog." Write the sentence on the board and tell the pupil that the chalk has told his story. Ask another pupil to tell you what the chalk has said. Similarly develop and write the sentences, " I have a fan," "I have a cup." Drill on these sentences, letting each child read first his own story and then the other stories. Write the sentence " I have a box," and let the children try to make it out. If they cannot do so develop the story by giving the toy to a pupil and having him tell the story. Rub all out, send class to seats and write on the board the sentence " I have a dog," the class imitating you as in lesson I. The word " and " may be taught next* 46 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Lesson 3. — Word and Sentence, Purpose. — To teach to read and write the word " and," introducing it in a sentence. Plan. — Drill on the words already known. Have the objects — dog, fan, cup, box — on a table. Send one pupil to it, asking him to take any two things he sees on the table, and then tell you what he has, i.e. develop such a story as "T have a box and a cup," and write it on the board. Continue with such stories as " I see a dog and a fan," etc. Drill on the word " and." Busy Work* for Foregoing and Similar Lessons; Have children copy the new word from blackboard, or from script cardboard, that is, from a cardboard block one inch square with the new word written on it. Each child may have a little box in which to keep the words he has learned. Copy the sentence containing the new word, draw the picture and write the associated word or sen- tence below it. Find the new word on a written page containing other words. Outline the new word with pegs on desk, etc. Write a sentence containing the word learned yester- day. Divide all the words in word box into two piles, the known and the unknown. *The busy work is intended to furnish work for the children at the con- clusion of the lesson. (See p. 23. ) The suggestions are submitted as aids to teachers in teaching lessons similar to the type lesson. When busy work and suggestions are applicable to succeeding lessons, which is generally the case, they are not repeated, as the teacher will experience no difficulty in adapting them. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 47 Underline all known words on a written page. Read and draw pictures to represent stories written on the board by the teacher. Compose stories containing the new word and other words already learned. Write these stories and represent them with script blocks and pictures. Sugg-estions. Slates should be ruled according to directions, page 155. Have lines drawn on blackboard similar to ruling on slates and allowing about two inches for small letters These lines should be near the bottom of the board at suitable height for a small child to write on when stand- ing up. The lines may be painted upon the board or marked from day to day with chalked cord about eight feet in length. A good, plain, uniform hand, such as the Spencerian, is the best. It is well to write in large characters on the board when developing the word. The children may practice writing the word in the air before attempting to write it on their slates. This device will also be found helpful in drawiug for it enables the child to become accustomed to the " muscular sweep " required in making outlines. Freedom of movement is more important than accurate copy. Face the class and write on the board with the right hand. Always insert punctuation marks, and have the children insert them. See that the class have long pencils for writing, and that they observe the proper position of the hand. In tracing make the divisions as simple as possible, e.g ,111 writing the letter "u " have five steps, and explain each step by itself. 48 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Keep on hand a quantity of foolscap paper, cut in slips and ruled as indicated on page 155. On Friday afternoons let pupils write on these slips with pencils a story con- taining new words learned during the week and take the slips home as a sample of that week's progress. Do not expect the child to write well at first. All he can do is to try. Encourage him. In learning to write it is a better plan for the teacher to ask pupils to try to write the words so well that she can read them than to attempt to point out all defects. These lessons are only preliminary and should partake largely of the nature of play, e.g., in teaching the first word some such device as the following may be adopted to create interest in writing as a means of expression : — Have a pupil who can read go outside the door ; have a pupil lift an object on the table, or perform some act. Write a statement of what he has done. Call in the outside pupil who reads from blackboard and is thus able to tell what was done. Do not attempt to teach more than one word or sound per day at first, but teach that one so thoroughly that it will be as familiar to the pupil as his teacher's face. The picture and the written name or sentence should be left on the board for one day at least. Lists of all difficult words and sounds recently learned should be kept in view on the blackboard. These word and sound ladders should be constantly referred to and should be used for daily drill with the full class. Enliven the lessons by such devices as in the first lesson, letting the children frighten the " dogs " away by erasing them from th€ board, etc. PRIMARY teachers' MA.NUAL. 49 Do not hold a class after the interest begins to flag. The class may answer simultaneously as you point to the name, but do not allow the children to repeat the name several times. Do not spend too much time in word d evelopment. Practice drawing the objects in your first year limit until you can draw a picture upon the board very rapidly. If possible every primary teacher should take a thorough course in drawing. Hang a curtain to conceal a small portion of the black- board. A picture drawn before school time may thus be kept from view until required. It is well to have a definite sequence to follow and to bear in mind what v/ords and sounds the pupil knows thoroughly. Otheis may with advantage be written on the board and used in sentences as occasion demands, but there should be a distinction between those and the ones actually mastered. A set of lithographed script words and letters has been proved helpful for busy work, and as a guide to the order of words. No sequence of words can be followed which will be the best for any two classes owing to the difierent con- ditions of difierent schools, e. g., the best sequence for city children would be difierent from that for children attending a country school. The most satisfactory sequence is that which is the outgrowth of language lessons. Such a lesson as that on p. 75 is much more in- teresting to a pupil than the one on p. 81. Pupils often enter schools with a knowledge of the alphabet and of the first few lessons in the reader. With such pupils it is usually wise to continue, although slowly, along the line of work already done with books, utilizing 50 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. all information gained, and at the same time introducing phonics and script. Voice Culture, Phonics and Word Drill. During the tender years in the symbolic period of early child life Kindergarten songs with accompanying gestures furnish the very best means of unconsciously acquiring refined habits of thought expression in language. As the conventional period approaches there should be a continuation of such songs, properly correlated with the other work and suited to the advancing age of the child. There may also be gradually introduced definite exercises in calisthenics and vocal gymnastics. A sequence of vocal exercises may be prepared which will naturally lead up to word recognition by phonics. Word recognition can be taught more rapidly by the phonic than by any other method and every primary teacher must avail herself of this fact or lose valuable time. In any case where the teacher hesitates to begin phonics on account of not having had previous training she will, on attempting it, be surprised to find how easy it is to prepare herself for the work. It is well before begin- ning to teach the subject to learn to give all the sounds correctly and to spell any word phonically at sight with- out hesitation. Slow pronunciation is the key to success- ful phonic teaching. A little practice in pronouncing words slowly while reading from any book, and before a mirror, will enable the teacher when she meets such a word as " cough " to know at once that she should pronounce it with the three sounds, k-o-f, and also to know the posi- tion of the vocal organs. In addition to the information PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 51 contained in this chapter she will also find a good dictionary and any standard work on elocution helpful in preparation. The following sequence of preliminary exercises may be taken in the order of succession indicated or changed to suit the conditions of the case. It is sometimes better to devote several lessons to one exercise. Exercises such as the second may be taken with the whole class, but such exercises as the fourth are better taken in sections of ten or twelve pupils. How to interest the pupils in the lesson is the great problem. Do not make the lessons long; ten minutes is a good maximum. If the lessons are bright and partake of the nature of a game the pupils will quickly evince a love for them. No words are supposed to be written on the board during the first exercises. Teachers who begin with the word and sentence method can take these lessons the last half hour of the afternoon. Those who begin with phonic synthesis with- out first teaching any words as wholes can take them in the morning. First Exercise— Distinguishing Sounds. Have on the table a bell, a tumbler, a pencil, and a few other articles which will make difierent sounds when struck. The teacher says : " We shall have a game every day at this time. To-day we are going to play the game of sound. Now listen ! " The teacher strikes the bell and the glass with a pencil. " Those who notice any differ- ence between the sounds may raise their right hands. When I say * one ' you may look in another direction or close your eyes, and I shall strike one of these objects. 52 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. then when I say * two ' some one may tell which one I struck. Ready, * one.' " The teacher strikes the bell then says " two," and then receives answers. Continue by testing with three sounds, then four sounds, and so on, also by taking sounds which are quite similar. Vary the lessons as much as possible, e. g., allow different pupils to do the tapping and take the answers. Children like this game so much that they very frequently play it out of school hours. Second Exercise. The teacher says : " We are going to play the game of * sound ' again." She asks pupils to make sounds made by dogs, cats, roosters, etc. " What does the dog mean when he growls ?" " How do we talk ? " She explains the method of breathing, and draws pictures on the board illustrating the use of lungs, mouth, etc. She develops the differ- ence between voice and breath, gives suggestions about breathing and speaking, and has pupils illustrate. Such exercises as the following may be taken : — Have the children place the thumb and forefinger of the left hand at the corner of the mouth, open the mouth wide and pronounce " ah," then " uh," " aw," " oo," notic- ing how the lips are drawn into a more rounded form with each succeeding sound. The pupils will readily per- ceive this from the fact that the finger and thumb are almost together when " oo " is pronounced. Third Exercise— Slow Pronunciation by Teacher. The teacher says : " We can all play the ' sound game so nicely that I think we may have a new game to-day." " We shall call it the ' tell what I say game.' " The PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 53 children listen attentively and repeat the familiar words, Sam, Tom, dog, cat, etc., which the teacher speaks in the ordinary manner. She continues as follows : — " One day Willie's mamma sent him on a very long message, and when he arrived at home he was so very tired he could hardly say a word. I shall now talk as Willie did when he was tired and you may see if you can do what I tell you." " Put your hands on your h-ea-d." " Touch your ch-i-n." " Turn a-r-ou-n-d," etc. The teacher pronounces the words slowly and the children perform the acts. The following day the teacher says : " We are going to play the ' tell what I say ' game again. I shall tell you a pretty story slowly, and if there is any word you do not hear raise your hand and I shall say it faster, and when I finish some one may tell me as much as he re- members of the story." " Johnny was a little b-oy who lived in the country. One d-ay his fa-ther took him to the c-i-ty. Of all the pretty things he s-aw that day, there was nothing e-l-se that pleased him so m-u-ch as a toy balloon, so he bought it with some money his father had given him to s-p-e-n-d as he pleased," etc. By observing the pupils closely the teacher will be able to gauge her speed correctly. At first, pupils do well if they can coalesce one break in a word, thus s-pan, they find two harder, thus s-p-an, and three more difficult still,, s-p-an. It requires some practice for the teacher to make definite gradations from easy to difficult. As a rule pupils have little difficulty in doing this work ; some, however, may find it too hard and with such it is well to postpone word recognition by phonics until the ear has been sufficiently trained to distingish sounds 54 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. readily. Children are always delighted with a story and never tire of this exercise. Fourth Exercise— Slow Pronunciation by Pupil. The teacher says : " We did not finish our game of 'tell what I say/ yesterday. There is another part of it which we have not tried yet. One of you may be the teacher. I shall say a word slowly first." The teacher says " s-u-n." Children know the word and raise hands. Then she selects a clever pupil from whom she has received a correct answer, and says : " Now, you give us a word and see if we can guess it." The pupil pronounces some word slowly and asks another pupil to tell what she said, and so on. This method, which seems hard in theory, is com- paratively easy in practice, and pupils are always eager to try. Show the pupil that in some cases he cannot make the correct form by itself. He can do that only when he pronounces the word, e. g., in giving the sound of " t " in the word "cat," the sound is made almost instantaneously. In speaking a word naturally, a child gives its phonic spelling in the most perfect way possible. Caution the pupils against an explosive vocalization of a sound, such as " bu " for " b." It is better for pupils to whisper such sounds and soon to learn to think them in word recognition without uttering them audibly. If pupils exhibit a tendency to form a habit of drawling words, discontinue this exercise. Fifth Exercise— The Naming of Respective Sounds of Words. The teacher says : " We shall have another game to- day. You are getting so very strong that I think it shall be a harder one. Everyone will try his very best to win it. PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 65 How many words in this story ? ' Good morning, Mr. Squirrel ! ' What is the first word ? what the second ? etc. You can break up stories into words, I wonder if you can break up words into sounds. We shall try. How many sounds in the word * sat ' ? What is the first ; the second ? " etc. Continue very slowly with other words, gradually in- creasing in rapidity until the pupils experience no diffi- culty in naming the respective sounds in easy words. If the pupils find it difficult to isolate the elementary sounds and pronounce them correctly when apart the teacher may enunciate the words slowly so as to make the division, having the pupils tell the number of sounds and give only the first sound. Sixth Exercise— Naming Words Containing Certain Sounds. The teacher says : " Give me a story with the word * dog ' in it. Give me another, etc. Give me a word containing the sound 's.'" Pupils give a number of words, e, g., so, snow, etc. This exercise requires more thought on the part of the pupils, but as a rule they like the game and surprise the teacher with the strength they have acquired. When the pupils can name words containing easy sounds they are quite ready to learn the sounds of the letters. They may reach this point in six lessons. Seventh Exercise— Discovering and Learning the Writ- ten Character which Represents the Sound "A." The teacher says : " We found we could break up spoken words into parts, and we found the same sound in many words, we are now going to try to break up written words into parts. 56 FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. What is the first sound in the word * at.' " Accept the answer, write the word " at " on the board, and ask pupils to give another word which contains the sound " a." Write a number of answers on the board. Ask pupils to draw the ehalk around that part of each word which says " a." Write a large script letter " a " very plainly on the board and the word " at " alongside of it. Develop from the children the position of the vocal organs in making the sound and draw diagram on the board. (See p. 63.) .By a looking-glass or some other device, impress upon the child the correct position of the organs in making the sound. The letter and its sound may be impressed by some such device as the following : — The teacher says : " This letter reminds me of the story of what Tommy heard. Tommy was a little boy who lived in the city. One summer he went to visit his uncle who lived in the country. The following morning he got up very early, and when he went outside he found that his uncle was going to market with a load. He saw a number of things shaped like this (the teacher makes an oval on the board) which his uncle was packing in a box which they just fitted like this, (0000) leaving a space between each one so they would not break. He had some hooks to take to the town, so he packed one hook between each of the eggs like this {aao). When the eggs felt the cold hooks beside them they cried out, 'a,'* a.' Did you ever hear anything make a sound like this ? Yes ; the little lambs say ' a,' ' a.' When you go to your seats you may write this letter a great many times on your slates and draw pictures of anything that makes this sound." PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 57 If the teacher concludes to introduce print at this stage she may write the print letter beside the script. Busy Work. Have children copy " a " from the card board and write all the words they know containing ''a." A number of card board or paper letters may be given to each child, and he may select all the " a's " from them. Pupils may take all the words containing " a " out of their word box. Give each pupil a column of newspaper and let him draw a pencil mark through every " a " he sees. This device may also be used with a page of script words. The same columns may be used as busy work wlien the child is learning other letters. Draw a picture of the position of the vocal organs in making the sound. Also a picture of anything which makes a similar sound. Sequence. The following sequence may be found helpful : — First stage. — a, t, m, s, p, b, r, o, f , v, n, w, h, e, 1, d, z, u, g, k, q, c, i, y,j. (Seep. 55.) These combined with diagrams — at, am, ab, etc., to form new monosyllabic words, (a) by prefixing letter to diagram, (b) by affixing letter, (c) by internal change. (See p. 64.) Second stage, — Long sounds of vowels a, e, i, o, u, (See p. 67.) Third stage. — sh, ng, th, wh, ch, tch, oo, oy, oi, ow, ou, qu, tion, aw, ei, gh, ph, au, etc. (See p. 70.) Type Words. If the child forgets the sound of a letter it is a good plan to have it associated with some type word to which 58 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. he can refer as a key to its rediscovery, instead of trying to remember the sound made by the teacher. The lesson may be taken up in such a way as easily to form this association, e.g. If in teaching the sound of '* s " the child knows the words " at " and " sat " he will usually by observation be able to mark off the letter, and by slow pronunciation to discover the sound at once. If the type word has not been previously taught a sentence containing the word can be quickly developed, written on the board, and the word and sound taken together. The following list of type words and the letters with which they may be associated is suggested. z — laz}^ j — join. u — up. n — box. g — get. sh — shed. k — kid. ng — ring. q — quit. th - -thin. c — cat. wh — whip, i — it. ch — chip. y— yet. Stories. Such devices as that of the story of the eggs, introduced as suggestive of the sound and form of the letter " a," while appearing childish when written down, are invalu- able in adding interest to early phonic lessons. When the teacher prefers beginning with phonic synthesis before teaching any words (as many good teachers do), she will find that such devices form a happy means of introducing the letter and its sound. It is well, if possible, to have the form suggested resemble both the script and print form of the letter. The experienced teacher will not find any difficulty in preparing an appropriate story a — at. f —fat. t —at. V — vat. m— mat. n — not. s — sat. w — wet. p — pat. h —hat. b — bat. e — end. r — rat 1 — lap. o — on. d —doll. PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 69 for each letter when beginning. When the developing mind of the child no longer needs such devices they are to be discarded. The f ollov^ing are suggested : — " t " — May represent an old man with a board on his shoulder, who stutters and says t-t-t-Tommy. " s " — The sound the snake makes. " m " and " w " — The sound of the wind. " p " — The sound of the engine. "v" — The sound we make when we are cold. " z "—The buzz of the bee. " wh " — The sound that blows out the light. «< J, »» — rj^^Q ^Qgg growl, etc. Position of the Vocal Organs. Although the teacher possesses the power from word analysis to determine by induction the correct position of the vocal organs in the formation of each sound, it may be of service to you to have these indicated. On this account the following description is submitted : The nature of the sound depends on two things. The air from the lungs may be driven against the vocal chords and its force spent in causing them to vibrate, the column of air above the larynx being thereby put in vibration, or it may be emitted without being converted into vocality, e.g., the two sounds of " s " in the words " has " and " so." In the latter case the air is made audible by a rushing sound given to it on being driven through some compressed opening, either of the glottes or of some of the speech organs. When the air is made vocal it is called " tone " or " voice," if not vocal '' breath " or " aspirate." 60 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. " a " — In making " a " open the mouth and lips wide, keeping the tongue in its natural position, and cause the voice to pass suddenly between the tongue and palate, " t " — In making " t " apply the edges and point of the tongue to the upper gu.m, compress the breath and cause it to escape by suddenly romoving the tongue. (See p. 63.) " m "—In making " m " close the lips, compress the voice and cause it to escape through the nostrils. " s " — In making " s " the throat and lips are open, the teeth separated, the sides of the tongue touch the teeth and the roof of the mouth. The tip of the tongue nearly touches the roof or the mouth just above the front teeth. The breath is softly hissed out through the narrow open- ing. " p " — In making " p " the lips are pressed tightly to- gether. The breath is compressed in the mouth and allowed to escape with a gentle puff by the sudden separation of the lips. " b " — In making " b " place the organs in the same position as for " m." Close the nasal passage and cause the voice to make a muffled sound. When the lips are opened a gentle puff is produced. "r" — In making "r" raise the point of the tongue towards the upper gum and cause the voice to escape so as to make the tip of the tongue vibrate. The sound is not heard before a consonant. "o" — In making "o" open the mouth wide, round the lips, raise the tongue slightly and cause the voice to escape suddenly. •' f " — In making " f " the throat and lips are open, the teeth separated. The middle part of the lower lip is PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 61 placed against the edges of the upper front teeth. The breath is driven out between them. " V " — In making " v " the position of the organs is the same as for " f ," the voice being driven out in the same way that the breath was in making " f." " n " — In making " n " place the edge of the fore-part of the tongue firmly against the upper gum. Compress the voice and cause it to escape through the nostrils. "w" — In making "w" round the lips and cause the voice to escape so as to blend with the following vowels. " h " — In making " h " place the mouth in the same position as for " a " and allow the breath to escape gently " e " — In making " e " place the organs in the same position as for " a," open the mouth a little wider> enlarge the back cavity by raising the tongue a little higher and cause the voice to escape suddenly. " 1 " — In making " 1 " place the tip of the tongue against the upper gum and cause the voice to flow over the edges in a pure tone. " d " — In making " d " place the organs of speech in the same position as for "n," and close the nostrils. An endeavor to produce voice without removing the tongue, results in a muffled sound being made in the throat, a slight pufi being heard on the separation of the tongue and gum. " z " — In making " z " round the tip of the tongue and bring it near the gums of the upper front teeth, pressing its sides firmly against their inner surface, and cause the voice to flow between its broadened point and the upper gum. 62 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. " u " — In making " u " open the mouth not quite so widely as for " a," raise the tongue somewhat, and cause the voice to escape suddenly. " g " — In making " g " place the back of the tongue close against the soft palate and compress the voice. An effort to produce voice causes a muffled sound in the throat, a clicking sound being made on the separation of the organs. " k " — In making " k " place the back of the tongue in contact with the soft palate, compress the breath, and cause it to escape with a slight puff. " X " — In making " x " sound " ks " very quickly. " c "— " c " is made exactly like " k." " i " — In making "i" arch the tongue and raise it toward the roof of the mouth, the point being depressed and the lips narrowed, the mouth slightly open and the back cavity enlarged. Cause the voice to escape suddenly. " y " — In making " y " raise the tongue towards the hard palate, dilate it against the upper side teeth, and cause the voice to pass through its narrow passage so as to blend with following vowels. " j " — In making " j " place a portion of the tongue near the tip against the palate, near the upper front teeih and attempt to sound the voice. 64 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. The vocals may be sung up and down the scale or to some well known tune. A familiar song may be adapted by changing the words, e.g. the song " It is lovely May " might be chang- ed to, " What is this the letters say " ? etc. Similar sounds may be taken together, e.g. " f " and "V," "m" and"n," "p"and"b," "t" and "d," "k" and "g." Phonic Synthesis. After several sounds have been learned, begin word- building. Call attention to the fact that as the words already learned have been made by putting letters together, so other words can be formed with letters. " "What is the first sound in ' am ? ' " Ask pupils to write the letter that makes that sound on the board or slate. " What is the second sound ? " Have them write the letter which makes that sound close to the letter " a " on the right hand side, and join the letters together. Have children tell the word they have written. Pro- ceed similarly with other words. It does not follow that a pupil thoroughly knows a word when he can write it in this way. After a little practice he will write a dozen new words in a minute and perhaps the following morning will not be able at first sight to recognize one of them when written for him. The objects of the exercise are to train the child to observe and think sounds, and to lead him to the synthe- sis of both letters and sounds. If the teacher prefers, she may begin the synthetic word-building without the analytic step just mentioned, proceeding thus : The teacher writes " a " and " m " upon the blackboard, first far apart, the pupils giving the sounds of the letters. She then writes them closer together PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 65 and the sounds are given with shorter interval She continues this until the letters are joined, when the sounds follow without any pause. The pupils will then readily- read a sentence containing the new word. The child who has realized by experience what a bar- rier the word form interposes between him and the thought which he wishes to gain from the interesting written story, rejoices in the power which he gains by phonic syn- thesis. With many this impelling force is so strong that when they gain the clew to discovery they hurry on without assistance. It is well, however, to have a defi- nite sequence from easy combinations to difficult. At first take the synthesis of two-letter words familiar to the child, thus : " am," " an," " at," " if," " in," " it," etc When all such words have been discovered draw a circle on the blackboard and write one of these words in the centre, and around the circumference all letters which, when prefixed to the word will form familiar three-letter words, thus : Q In assigning such work the teacher mentally ^/^ N, runs over the entire alphabet (beginning H an J with " a '*) in search for letters, avoiding ^V y combinations of which the child does not t as yet know the meaning, e g., ban. Next, write the word in the centre of the circle and around the circumference write letters which, when affixed to the word make new familiar words, thus : — .d m t All words formed from " an " may be said to belong to the "an family/' Prefixed letters may be called ''front 66 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. door keys ; " affixed letters " back door keys," and letters inserted by internal change " inner door keys." The work just indicated will, of course, include hun- dreds of new word forms, the meanings of which are familiar to the child. The object of the exercise is not so much to teach to remember the word form as a whole as to develop power in coalescence, so that when the pupil meets any new phonic word he will know it auto- matically. The words thus formed may be introduced in the next reading lesson. After the first few lessons there need be little oral synthesis. The teacher writes the circle diagram and letters on the board as previously indicated and the pupil for busy work first writes the words on slate or paper in a column, e.g., can, fan, man, etc., then weaves these words into stories, e.g., the squirrel can run. Or, the teacher may write on the board a continued story containing blanks for new words learned and the children may write the story, filling in the words in their proper places. Such busy work exercises are preferable to that of allowing pupils to build new words indiscriminately by phonic synthesis. It is probably better not to allow pupils to write mis- spelled words. ks they develop strength, proceed to words of more than three letters, thus : rap, trap, strap, straps. The pupil may subsequently be drilled on all possible combinations, as " ap." When pupils are discovering new words in class have them whisper the word to you. In word recognition, avoid spending too much time on the word form and not enough on the meaning, otherwise you will send the child away with his mind filled with PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 67 the idea of the construction of the word to the exclusion of its use. It is well for some time after beginning phonics to confine the new words mainly to phonic words. After the short sounds of the vowels and the consonants have been taught, introduce the long sounds of vowels. Pupils usually learn the names of the letters of the alpha- bet at home and thus know the long sounds of the vowels already. If not, they can be discovered easily, as in the case of previous sounds. Those who prefer using diacritical marks may adopt some such device as the following : Ask the children to write a word like " baker," or " paper," on their slates. The child meets with a diffi- culty, for he does not know what to put down for the long sound of " a." Tell him that one day " a " was try- ing to, carry a bar on his head without letting it fall. A little fairy came along and said to him that whenever he had that bar on his head he would not be able to say what he usually said, but that he would have to say his own name. It is better, however, to avoid any extensive use of diacritical marks and to dispense with them as soon as possible, allowing the pupil to make his own inductions without them. A few general principles of spelling may be referred to incidentally, but not very many, or the exceptions will prove more perplexing than the difficulties to be over- come. Group the five vowels together. Write a number of examples, such as : " time," " sail," *' read," etc,, on the board, and lead the pupil to discover that in each of the 68 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. words there are two of the vowel group, one having the long sound and the other being silent. Tell them when they meet a new word with two vowels in, to try if one is not long and the other silent. The fact that such is often the case may be impressed by a story of five little sisters who liked to go visiting in pairs. When two of them were together one generally spoke louder than usual and the other kept quiet. The advantage of a know- ledge of this principle will be seen in the power of new word discovery which a pupil would possess in attempt- ing to read such stories as the following : — Conversation Story, after Lesson on the Pansy Bud. (See page 123.) FOR WORD RECOGNITION AND ORAL READING. " mamma, what do you think I have seen to-day," said Cora Bell. " I saw a dear little pansy-bud wake up." " Did she rub her eyes and say she was * so sleepy,' Cora ? " said her mamma, with a smile. " Oh no ! She was asleep under some green leaves and I peeped in and saw a drop of dew fall on her." " Did she shiver then ? " " Yes, she shook herself and leaned over to look at the sun. Then up she rose, and all the green sepals fell back. She wore the prettiest dress. It was pure white, like mine, mamma." "What did she do then, my dear ?" " Why, she just held up her face for the dew to wash it. I was going to pick the pansy for your hair, but she gave me such a sweet smile that I did not like to break her off I " PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 69 " It was good of you to think of mamma, but the little pansy fades so soon it was better to leave her in her garden home 1 " Conversation Story, after Lesson on Squirrel. (See p. 115. ) FOR WORD RECOGNITION AND ORAL READING. ** Rob., Rob., come here and see my squirrel ! " " Oh, what a fine one he is ! Where did you get him ? " " My father gave him to me last week." " See, Will, he puts his head on one side and peeps at us ! Is he afraid ? " " Afraid ! No indeed ! " " Why do you keep him in this box ? " " Well, you see, Rob., he may run up this tree and soon reach his home, for he likes the woods far better." " Look, how he puts his feet between the wires. And what a queer shape his head is — just like a rat's ! " Yes, it is an oval shape. See his dark eyes and his pointed ears ! " And oh ! Will, what long, sharp teeth ! ' " Yes, they need to be sharp to bore holes to reach his food." " Why, what do you feed him on ? ' " Oh, he likes beech nuts and acorns best. Some-times he gets a seed cake too, for he is fond of sweet meats ! " Have pupils for seat work compose sentences contain- ing new words written on the boards in lists, each word of which involves a certain feature of the general rule. Pupils do not find the application of this rule very hard. The less general principle of the silent finat *' e ** may 70 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. bo similarly emphasized, or treated as follows where diacritical marks are preferred : — The teacher writes a word like " cap " on the black- board and asks one of the pupils to alter it so as to make it " cape," the child, if accustomed to marking, naturally puts a bar over the " a." " Yes, that would be a way, but I can make it ' cape ' in another way." The teacher places an " e " at the end of " cap," and then proceeds similarly with " pin," making it " pine," '' tub " " tube," etc. The pupil will readily perceive the effect of the " e." To teach combinations such as " sh," a word may be de- veloped and analyzed, or the combination may be taught as follows : — The teacher says : — " What does mother say when baby is asleep, and any one makes a noise ? " The answer comes readily : " sh," or hush. The teacher says (making " s " and " h " close together on the blackboard) " These are two quiet children who like to play together, and when other little girls, and boys come near they always say ' sh.' " Teach one new phonic fact every day until the end of the year. After completing the sequence suggested on page 57, the sequence of any good first reader may be followed. The object to be constantly kept in view is to train the child so thoroughly in phonic synthesis that when a new word is presented which involves powers of letters al- ready learned the pupil will name it instantly and with- out conscious effort. PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 71 By extensive reading of easy stories he quickly learns to recognize words by every means at his disposal, e.g., the context will often afford the clew required to make him certain of the word. It is probable that in our own reading we do not always recognize words in the same way. We may note the first and last letters and from the chain of thought grasp the meaning and hasten on, or we may recognize the whole word, or phrase, or sentence as a unit. Expressive Reading. This is the most difficult of all primary work. Re- cognition of word forms is necessary, but as we have seen, it is not all that is required. The teacher should keep from the child as long as possible the impression that reading is different from talking. She may begin with short conversations, leading the child to talk to her and tell her about his home and objects of interest to him until he can describe a scene so well that he makes her see it. This will require great tact, labor and patience on the part of the teacher. She may then train him to reproduce stories that she has told him. One of the most valuable results of the language lessons, on sur- roundings, described later on, is that they prepare the child for oral reading by furnishing his mind with ideas and training him in the art of expression. Have the children describe pictures. Two dozen of these may be selected and pasted on common cardboard. They should be interesting and well executed. As a preparatory lesson hold up a picture before the class, withdraw it quickly, and allow the children to tell you all they saw. If they are not given very much time to 72 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. look at it +hey will learn that they must concentrate their attention on the work. Continue this until they have discovered nearly everything in the picture and have described it fully to you, but do not weary them. For the next lesson give each child a picture, and, after allow- ing five minutes to study it, let him tell its story. Let the test of a good story be the power to tell it in such a way that the others who have not seen the picture can draw a similar one from the description given. They may also exercise their imaginative and inventive powers in giving their interpretation of the picture, e.g.^ what the persons portrayed in the picture are doing, and why, etc. It is possible to create such an enthusiasm in this exercise that on the following day you can distribute pictures to the children for busy work and have them work away quietly for ten minutes preparing a good des- cription of their picture. At the end of the ten minutes bring them up for a conversation lesson, and you will not require to do all the talking. Insist on full sen- tences and correct expression. In the change from script to print there is no occasion for great haste. A child may know printed words well enough to read a lesson silently, get the thought, and write the lesson in script on his slate, or tell it to you in his own words, and yet not be sufficiently at home with the print to be able to read the lesson orally, without hesitation. Before beginning oral reading of print, a child should be able to read a number of lessons with good expression when written in script on the blackboard. During the second half year the teacher will have more time to devote to oral reading of lessons. It PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 73 would be better if the children could be supplied with script readers at first. Towards the end of the year the child's vocabulary will be sufficiently extended to admit of long stories for silent reading. This exercise will aid him materially both in thought getting and thought giving. On page 77 will be found a simple story of this des- cription. The teacher may compose a dozen such stories, write them on foolscap paper, and distribute them to a section for busy work previous to a language lesson, similar to the picture lesson just des- cribed. Such stories are not intended so much for oral reading as to impress upon the child the fact that he can gain thought through the medium of written characters. They also familiarize him with word forms and furnish him with ideas for his language lesson. For expressive reading there is nothing else so good at first as that which records the child's own actual obser- vations in a lesson on some object, e.g., a flower which he studies not for the purpose of reading, but for pleasure and information. (See page 68.) He should also be allowed to read from other easy readers. Of these there should be several sets of ten or more in each set. The pupil may begin early with such exercises as the following : Lesson 4. Purpose. — To teach expressive reading of short sen- tences, formed from words known by the child. Plan. — Have on the table a number of objects, the names of which have been learned by the children. 74* FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Drill the class on these words. Tell the children that you are going to talk to them with the chalk, and they may answer the questions you ask, or do anything the chalk tells them to do. Write such a question as — " Where is the cat, Arthur ?'* Then write Arthur's answer, " The cat is on the table," etc. " Put the cat in the box, James." " Put the rat in the box, Minnie." " Put the hat by the box, Robert," etc. Suggestions. The teacher should talk as little as possible during the lesson, and endeavor to impress the fact that writing gives us a new avenue for conveying thought. The benefit derived from such a lesson varies inversely in the ratio of the number of words spoken by the teacher to the number of words spoken by the class. Write a word with chalk on each of half a dozen slates. Give the slates to as many pupils. Let these stand on the platform facing the class and having the words exposed. Write a sentence on the board, and let one of the others arrange the six pupils in such a way that the story will be read from their slates. Sometimes let the children arrange themselves, or lex, one child arrange them, and the others tell his story. For review write a name on the board and have a child describe the object which it represents. Show a number of toys and have the children close their eyes while you take something away, let them open their eyes and write the name of the object you removed. Have the pupil glance over the whole sentence before attempting to read it. PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 75 Do not allow him to read the sentence one word at a time. By a rapid sweep of the pointer indicate that the sentence expresses the one thought. Do not accept rapid reading instead of expressive reading. Write a long story containing all the Nouns known by the children, such as, " I have a cup, and a fan, and a dog," etc. Do not allow the children to read this story orally but have them bring the articles named and place them in view of the class. Similarly develop a story from the objects by placing them in certain positions and have children write the stories on the board. Vary this to suit the size of the class, and the number of words learned. Do not allow them to begin to read a sentence until you think they are certain of every word in it. Lesson 5. Purpose. — To train the pupils to read short sentences composed in a science lesson. Plan. — The teacher holds a squirrel in her hand and the pupils observe and talk about its legs and feet. She develops among others such stories as the following which she writes on the board and the children then read : " Good morning, Mr. Squirrel." " Good morning, children." " I have short legs with white and brown fur on them. I can run fast. If I see a dog I can run up a tree. The dog cannot get me. See my claws," etc. Such lessons as the foregoing should be brief and may often be introduced as accessory to language lessons. By 76 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. exercising a little forethought and care in asking ques- tions the teacher can develop sentences containing only nonphonic words already known and new phonic words involving sounds already learned. More expressive reading will be secured from sentences written in dialogue form. After tlie pupils have gained considerable strength in word recognition, cards may be distributed, upon which stories, similar to those on page 68, are written or printed. The story may be typewritten in clear type, with lines and words not too close together, and then pasted, on cardboard four inches square. While some are reading orally others may read silently and write their story in their own words, or draw a pic- ture to represent it. The science lessons may be arranged in such a sequence as to form correlative work for the phonic and reading lessoQS. (See pp. 68 and 69.) Other stories may be given. From Script to Print. Many teachers find the change so easy that the pupils scarcely realize that there is any difference at all in the forms. Others experience more difficulty, and to the latter the following suggestions may be of value. In no case, however, is the change very difficult and it is a mistake for a teacher or pupil to get the impression that he has a hard task before him. The teacher must first be sure that the child thoroughly knows the script form and can write it to dictation without hesitation. When he can do this the change is exceedingly easy to him. He may then be told that on the tablet and in the book the words are not PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 77 written exactly the same as he has learned to write them, but that if he watches them closely he will soon learn to make them out just as quickly as when the chalk has said them„ Where the children have learned a number of phonic sounds the printed letter may be written in the phonic ladder alongside the script and the difference pointed out. The pupils may find all the letters on a certain page. Show the pupil the same word written in script and print and allow him to compare the forms ; then ask him to find the word on the tablet or in his book. The tablet is preferable for class work. Write a story in script on the blackboard and under each word write the print form similar to the mode pursued in interlinear translations. When the children have examined the story, erase the script and have them write the script story on their slates. Write a story in print on the board and give the chil- dren blocks with the script words on them, and let them arrange the story on their desks. They may translate script into print in the same way. Distribute books to a section at their seats and for busy work ask them to read a certain lesson with lips closed and then write it on their slates, or draw a picture illus- trating the story. When they come up to the class they may read the story in script, either from their slates or from the blackboard. They may also tell the story in their own words for language lessons, but it is not well at first to attempt the oral reading of the print. It is better not to allow them to print the letters at all. the results are always disastrous to the script writing. 78 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Story for Busy Work. Said Tom one day to May and Fan, " See the nuts on that big tree ! " " May, go and put on a hat and get one for Fan. Fan, will you get a big box for the nuts ? I shall get Dash and we will go off for them. E,un ! " May and Fan run and get them. " See, Tom," said May, " did not Fan get a big box ? '' " Yes, it is a big one. May. That is not a big one you have ; is it for nuts ? " " No, Tom, you will see." " Fan ! we are off," said Tom. " Dash ! Dash ! old boy ! " " Did he go, May ? " " Yes, he is off for that cat ; let him go ; you will see that he will get to the tree with you, Tom. Dash is the dog to run ! " Tom, May and Fan go on to the tree with no Dash. Tom is on the run, so that he can see Dash, and get him to go with them, for Dash is his pet dog. May and Fan do not run, so Tom and Dash get to the tree, and Tom has to put the nuts in an old pan, for Fan and May have the box. " See Fan ! " said May, " Tom and Dash are at the tree- we will run ! " " May, I cannot run, this box is so big." " Yes, so it is. Fan. Let me have it. I did not see Tom run off with my box. He is no man to let you have the big one to carry to the tree. We will not let him put his nuts in it, Fan," said she. " No, May, that will not do. You see, Tom is not a man, he is a boy, and he did not see that the box is so PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 79 big for you and me. This is the tree. Let us put the box on that old log by it." May and Fan put the box on the log, and sit on one by it. Fan has her hat in her hand to get the nuts Tom may drop into it. Tom and Dash do not see them, so May and Fan get no nuts in the hat. " Tom ! Tom ! " said May, " we have got to the tree, but we see no nuts. Are the nuts on it ?" " 0, I did not see you," said Tom from the top of the tree. " No nuts, May ! see the lot we have, and see the nuts on the tree, up at the top ! I have had to put them in this old pan, I had not the box that Fan got for us, with me, I ran off for Dash and did not get it." " 0, we have it, Tom, can you not see it on the log ?" said May. " You have it !" said he. " Did you and Fan carry that big box up to this tree ? and you are so red and hot ! Do not get up for it Fan, Dash and I will go and get you and May a cup of sap and the nuts, so big I" said Tom, with his hand up. Tom and Dash go off. " May," said Fan, " Tom is a man, is he not ? see the big cup of sap he has for us, and the nuts ?" May and Fan sit on a log and sip the sap. " You may have the ten big nuts, Fan, I have a lot !" " Let us go at the nuts on the tree," said Tom, " I am off, are you, May and Fan ?" " Yes, Tom, and we will get the old pan." Tom has put the nuts from the pan into the big box, and is up the tree. 80 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL, " Fan and I will put up the pan for you to drop the nuts into, Tom. We will let the nuts get to the top of the pan, and I will put them into the box." Fan, May and Tom go at the nuts and get a big lot. " Tom," said May, " You had my box, will you get it ?" " Yes, May, this is it." May put up the lid of the box, I had ham and a big bun in it. " ! !" said Tom, with a hop. " I will cut them for you, May f " 0, I can do it, said she. May cut them, and Fan, Tom and she sit on the log, and have a bit of bun and ham. " Is not this fun ?" said Tom. " Fan, may Dash have this bit of ham ? It is not big." " 0, yes, Tom, he may have it," and Dash has it. " You have a lot of nuts in that box, Tom, and I have my ten in my hand, too. Let us go," said Fan. " But, Tom, can you get on with the big box and that lot of nuts in it too ?" " I will see Fan," but he cannot do it. " Do you see that man's hut ? Let us run to it and see if we can get the man to let us have his nag." May and Fan see an old man by a log, he has an ax, but he is so old he cannot cut with it, and he is sad. " O, Tom," said Fan, " shall I give my ten big nuts to this old man, he is so sad ?" " Yes, Fan, put them in his hat." " You are a pet to do this for an old man," said he. "Are you, Fan ?" PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 81 " Yes, and this is May and this is Tom," said she, '' and we have a big box of nuts, so big that we have to go to that man's for a nag to put the box on." " Do not go to him," said the old man, " my hut is not far oflf." Fan, May and Tom go with him to his hut, and see him get his nag and red gig. " May and Tom," said he, " you may have my nag for the nuts, but Fan let a sad old man have the nuts so she is to have the gig." " I have one by the hut, it will do for me. Tim, my boy, may go with you and see to my nag, but Fan is to have the gig." " Go, or the sun will set, and you far from the tree and the box of nuts." " 0, Fan !" said May and Tom, " see this red gig, and it is for you." Fan put her hand in the old man's. " 0, Sir !" said she, " I can not," but he led her to the gig. " Tom," said he, " put her and May in, and off with you." Tom did so, and got in with them. " Off we go," said Tom, " get up 1 old nag, get up ! see the old man at his hut. Fan, he is not sad, is he ? and O, Fan ! you have a gig and May and I have a big lot of nuts. Have we not had fun for one day ?" The reading of lessons in books may be taught as fol- lows: Purjyose. — To teach to read the following story : Frank and his sister Lily lived on a farm. They had cows, pigs, sheep, hens, and ducks. The ducks liked to swim about in the mill-pond. What a noise they made ! 82 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. « Quack ! Quack ! Even Rover would run away as fast as he could. Lily called one little duck " Snowy." " You are a real swan, Snowy, I am sure," she often told her pet. So Snowy got the best crumbs every day. This made her very vain. '' I am too good for those ducks," she used to say to herself. "I will run away when my mother does not see me. I do not want to stay here. Away over on the other side of the pond there are tall reeds and rushes." Miss Snowy swam softly across and hid herself in the reeds. " O Frank ! " cried Lily when she came out, '' where is my Snowy ? I cannot find her." The other ducks did not know, and so poor Lily felt very sad about her lost pet. What about Snowy herself ? When it was quite dark she was cold and sleepy. A big water-rat came near her and she shook with fear. Then she swam home again. The next day when Lily came out, there was Snowy as hungry as a duck can be. '' O Snowy ! " cried the little girl, " where did you go ? "' Snowy did not say a word ; she only ate her crumbs, and said to herself that she would not run away again. Plan, — If the children have not previously read the story, ask them to read it with their lips closed. Tell them to raise hands when they come to a word that they do not know, and to show the word to you. Write all such unknown words on the blackboard. Develop the pronunciation and meaning of these words, and drill on them by having pupils find them on the printed page, etc. Discuss the picture if there is one in the book. Then proceed to the oral reading. Ask questions before and after the reading in order to lead the child to get the thought correctly, and to correct misconceptions : e.g., PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 83 '^ What is this story about ? Whose duck was it ? What kind of home did Lily have? Kead the part that tells you that. Who in this class have lived in the coun- try ? Tell me a little about it. Read what is said about the ducks. What was the pet duck's name? Tell us what Lily used to say to the duck. What did Snowy say to herself ? Eead that part. How did Snowy feel when she said that ? You may try it again, and see if you can read it so that we would know that Snowy is proud and cross, etc. How was Snowy punished ? What was she punished for? Read from " when it was dark " to '* again." That is very well. What kind of duck do you think Snowy was ? Yes, a very foolish one indeed. But was it not partly Lily's fault ? " Suggestions. The accompanying lesson contains only the "dry bones " of a perfect reading lesson. The teacher s very countenance should be radiant with interest in the sub- ject, while each earnest effort should receive a sparkling recognition from her. She must feel a childlike enthusiasm, which is sure to be contagious, A child has a unit of energy to expend in a reading lesson. It is the business of the teacher to see that but a very small fraction of this unit is diverted into any other channel than that of expression. If half of the energy be expended in striving to decipher the half -learned words in the sentence and one- fourth in trying to keep the pupil's toes within a hair's 84 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. breadth of a chalk line, or, worse still, in endeavoring to make no mistakes in reading so that he may keep his place in his class, the chances are that the other one- fourth will be expended in longing for the time for dismissal from prison to freedom and sunshine. Never allow a child to attempt to read a sentence without being sure that he knows every word in it. See that the child gets the thought of every sentence he reads. " Saying the words " is of little use. Never allow a primary class to read a sentence simultaneously, except in vocal exercises. They may occasionally read the les- son backward for word drill, although this is a danger- ous expedient. Do not let pupils speak out in the class, no matter how eager they are, unless you ask the whole class to answer. Propound the question before naming the pupil who is to answer. Insist upon good position in reading. Have the pupil stand on both feet, hold his book in one hand, and speak loud enough for all to hear. Do not allow the children to point to the words with the finger as they read. They should have had enough blackboard drill on sentences to teach them to glance forward constantly, the voice following the eye. Do not adhere rigidly to any system of class tactics. Vary, by allowing the children to stand in a promiscuous group, in a semicircle, or in two straight lines marked on the floor. In drilling on the different words, ask the children to find the word in their books as you point to it on the board. Or locate it thus, *' Who can tell me the second word in the second line ? " When the pupils come to PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 85 anything in the lesson which is distinctly represented in the picture, have them find it. Talk about the characters in the story. Let the children personate the characters in the story, asking questions and receiving answers in the words of the book. If the child finds difficulty in reading from the hooh, write the story on the board in script, and after he has read it, return to the book. If a child does not keep the place have him look on the same book with you, and show you the place every few minutes. Whenever you can develop a sentence from the child do so, e.g., if a child has difficulty with such a sentence as " Tom has ten nuts in an old rag bag," reality will be imparted to it if the teacher shows the child a bag con- taining ten nuts and develops the sentence from him. This can be carried to an extreme, but the great majority of teachers err on the side of too little reality and too much abstraction. If the pupils thoroughly grasp the thought and have good training in vocal gymnastics there will be little need of teaching reading by imitation. The teaching of reading by imitation may however sometimes be used with beneficial results. The teacher must supply her own limitations to the statement that children should read naturally, e.g., a pupil when personating Shylock should try to feel and .speak for the moment as Shylock felt and spoke. 86 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. CHAPTER IV. NUMBER WORK. The great object to be attained in primary number teaching is to train the child to observe closely, and in due time to think logically, that he may gain knowledge and power which will enable him by -and- by to grapple with practical problems. Many of the failures in life are due to inability to sit down quietly and concentrate the mind upon a problem, weighing it carefully and ar- riving at a wise solution. A child who has studied numbers properly for several years has received a certain amount of information, it is true, but he has gained what will be of infinitely more value to him, viz., a habit of observing and thinking, and a power to investigate and deduce conclusions which will enable him in a very short time to acquire a thorough mastery of practical arithmetic. The amount of arithmetical knowledge really utilized in every -day life is comparatively small and could be thoroughly learned by such a pupil in one year of good, earnest work by studying one hour per day. A child who knows the perception of 2, 3 and 5, if given 5 blocks will discover for himself the fact that in 5 blocks there arc 3 blocks and 2 blocks. It is better in the first year's number work to allow the child to discover everything for himself and to ex- press the facts objectively. Even in advanced forms there need be no hesitation in using objects in developing a fact. What student in PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 87 Spherical Trigonometry has not been aided by making a solid triangle in order to have something tangible to help him to the truth ? In teaching such a principle as " carrying' in multipli- cation " the teacher should have the class discover the reason for the rule from objects, if necessary. It does not follow, however, that she should keep constantly drilling on the proof, and expect the pupils to give it at a moment's notice. The knowledge that we have investigated and proved a fact, makes that fact, even though we have forgotten the proof, more real to us than if we had simply accepted it at second hand, without investigation. The use of objects in discovery should be abandoned so soon as the pupil can make the abstraction without them. During the first year the pupil will be engaged upon fundamental principles in which there are no processes requiring extended reasoning. When he does face such questions he should in every case be led to develop the reason. It is possible in many subjects to carry develop- ment too far and waste time by *^ Dipping buckets into empty wells, And growing old in drawing nothing up '* but there is little danger of making this mistake in arithmetic. All primary arithmetic should be mental arithmetic. The object aimed at is not so much speed as investiga- tion and thought. The child will make a much better lightning calculator in after years for having at the beginning firmly fixed the processes in his mind. 88 FIEST YEAR AT SCHOOL. The distinction between primary and advanced num- ber work should constantly be borne in mind. The problem f X f can have no meaning to a young pupil. To him, multiplication is nothing but addition, where the groups are all the same size, and he does not understand what is meant by taking a group three- fourths o£ a time. But to the advanced student who has grown familiar with the convention which allows him to extend his definition of multiplication to include finding the product of several factors, all of which may be fractions, the problem presents no difficulty. This distinction becomes more marked as we approach and enter the region of pure mathematics. In the lessons on surroundings, natural science, etc., opportunities are presented by which, in many diflferent ways, the child incidentally enlarges his conception of number and learns by unconscious tuition. The utmost freedom is allowed him in measuring, counting, etc., and thus he gains a wide outlook over the field of number. Sucli number study should receive quite as much time and attention as the more conventional work. This general knowledge of the subject should, however, be supplemented by number lessons proper in which the child proceeds to classify his knowledge and carefully advances in regular sequence from the unit upward. Such lessons should be very brief, lasting from five to ten minutes, and may be taken with sections at first, and after a time with the whole class. On the time-table (page 24) one hour per day is devoted to number work, but the teacher will notice that during only two ten-minute periods, one in class and one at seat, PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 89 is number prominently emphasized, and, when number facts are carefully noted in the science lessons, this time can be considerably reduced. Whatever method is adopted it is better at first to confine the formal work to small numbers, and to have the pupil clearly understand each step taken, also to pro- ceed in such a way that each day's work will be a definite advance upon that of the preceding day. In the plan outlined in this chapter the pupil begins with the unit, proceeds to the number two and so on to ten, learning each number thoroughly before proceeding to the next. Starting out then with the intention of mastering each step in detail, we ask what must be learned before a number is thoroughly known ? We must know, — 1st. The perception of the number as a whole. (Les*- son 7. Page 92.) 2nd. Any two equal or unequal numbers to be found in the number. (Lesson 8.) 8rd. Any two equal or unequal numbers which make the number. (Lesson 9.) 4th. The equal numbers in the number. (Lesson 10.) 5th. The equal numbers which make the number. (Lesson 11.) 6th. The equal parts of the number. (Lesson 12.) By this method, in teaching a number, e. g., 6, all the additions, subtractions, multiplications and divisions which can be discovered by separating and uniting 6 objects will be mastered before proceeding to a careful study of the number 7. The fractions J, J and J may be taken or reserved for a later period, Pupils do not 90 FIRST YEAE AT SCHOOL. usually experience difficulty with them. Much practical information may be gained while dealing with these small numbers, e. g.y the number of days in a week, the number of pints in a quart, etc. As figures are almost indispensable in assigning busy work, it is well to teach them from the first, always en- deavoring to keep the number and not the figure before the mind. The teacher may begin the first day with the number " one," and then proceed with the number " two," and so on until she reaches the point where the known and unknown are mingled. This point will generally be found in the number " three." This review will be of service in grading the class into sections. The teacher who can teach one number thoroughly can teach any other number. On this account the num- ber 6 has been taken as an illustration, and from it the teacher may formulate her plan for other numbers. The meaning of the signs, as well as the «igns them- selves should be taught. The object in teaching the signs at first is to enable the teacher to assign busy work easily from the blackboard. It is well to teach the meaning of " equals " first, writing such an example as 2 and 1 = 3 and teaching the child to read it " two and one are three," or better still, allowing him to supply his own word. Perhaps he will prefer " make " to " are." (See page 105.) The words add, subtract, multiply and divide need not be taught during the first year. By a little careful supervision the child will make a correct inference in re- gard to the use of the sign, without having his mind burdened with the difficult phraseology. In teaching PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 91 the sign X , the teacher must decide at the beginning whether she will consider 3 x 4 to mean three multiplied by four, or three times four. The latter is preferable, the child being taught during the first half year to read the expression " three-fours ; " in the second half-year, " three times four " and afterwards " four multiplied by three." No lessons have been given on drill, as the teacher will be able to develop her own plan. The numeral frame may be used to advantage in drill work. In discovery it may prove a dangerous device, for the child may watch the teacher perform the operations and think that he has discovered, when he has done nothing but memorize. No definite limit can be set down as the amount which a child should go over in a certain time. The power to do work, and the knowledge of preceding work are tests of advancement. One new fact per day is sufficient at first. By the method proposed the pupil discovers each fact for himself, expresses it in various ways and learns it so thoroughly that he is able to give it without a moment's hesitation, the operation having been performed automati- cally. When the first ten numbers have been thus learned and the number 1 1 is presented to him he knows how to proceed, and if asked to do so, will discover all the facts in the number without the aid of a teacher. He can also express the facts in pictures and propose questions for solution. To acquire such knowledge and power may be considered a good year's work in definite number study. In his other studies he also gains an indefinite and unclassified knowledge of higher numbers. A lesson on the writing of a number of two digits is added. (See p. 107.) This work properly belongs to the 92 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. second year, but it is inserted here because notation is of such great importance in after study. If a child has thoroughly learned the notation of a num- ber of three digits, the reason for carrying in addition, and the table of long measure, the operations performed in the solution of the following problems will be almost exactly similar to him : — h, t. u. yds. ft. in. 12 8 12 8 114 114 113 113 3 5 5 In this way, after properly learning the simple rules, together with the tables of weights and measures, he can deduce all the compound rules without the slightest aid from the teacher. Lesson 7. — The Perception of a Number. Purpose. — To teach the perception of the number 6. (Children stand around a table having spools, slats, sticks, blocks, etc., on it.. Plan. — Give short, rapid drill on the perception of 3, 4, and 5. Have children take five things and one more. " How many things have you now ? " If no one knows the name six, tell it. Have children take six things, and develop such stories as " I have six pens," " John has six blocks," etc. Have pupils bring you six things from a distance. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 93 Suggestions. Have knowledge of six £[.ained through different senses, e»g., let a pupil take six steps, close his eyes and touch six desks, tell you how often you ring a bell under a desk, etc. (The author once met a pupil who could fetch five things from another room, but who invariably said, when a bell was rung ^yq times, that it rang six times.) Test his memory of six. Develop such stories as " I saw six trees in the park this morning." Draw on the blackboard a number picture consisting of six stars arranged symmetrically and write the figure 6 underneath. These number pictures should be symmetrically balanced. For instance in the arrangement just men- tioned the six stars should be so placed that if they were solid and were connected at the central point and then lifted from this point, they would all balance in a hori- zontal plane. This will be the case with six stars if they be arranged from the centre in the form of an equila- teral triangle, thus : If Tfi rlf Or in pentagonal form with one star in the centre, thus: ♦ * * It is frequently advisable to allow the pupil to devote ten minutes to one such picture while at his seat. Adapt to slow and rapid workers by telling the pupils that 94 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. those who get through first may draw a circle around each star, etc. The pupils will very soon be able to make good designs. These they may be allowed to elaborate, pre- serving balance throughout. (See page 139.) Busy Work. Hi. Copy the number picture from the board 6 times, also the figure 6. Draw 6 pictures of some definite object indicated by the teacher, e.g., the object learned in the last drawing lesson, six squares, six windows, six chairs, etc. Draw a picture containing 6 things, also indicated by the teacher, e.g., a picture of a flower having six petals. Copy the written word " six " from the blackboard. Copy six new words from the blackboard. Copy six stories from the blackboard. Construct the form of the figure 6 with pegs. Arrange pegs, cubes, cardboards, etc., in symmetrical groups of 6 each. Draw pictures of stories developed in the lesson, e.g., " I saw six boys coming to school this morning." Copy and solve on slate or paper problems written on the blackboard, e.g.y 6-2 = 3x2 = 2+ =5 -4=2 6-1-2= Represent these problems by pictures, pegs, etc. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 95 Write from memory the figures and the perceptions of 1,2,3,4,5. Write Problems and solve them, then represent them by objects or pictures. Draw pictures of any objects arranged to illustrate the fact learned, for instance : If perception of six has been the fact taught, the pupils may draw any picture of six, as six birds sitting on the branch of a tree ; six squirrels in the tree ; a house with six windows, etc. Write six words or six sounds known .Write words with six sounds, six stories, or stories with six words. Draw figure with six sides. Draw objects with six faces, as cubes, etc. Number Chart. Number charts for language and number work can oe constructed of stiff manilla paper. Probably the tint most suitable for the purpose is a cream yellow, the usual wrapping paper color. The sheets may be about 24 X 18 inches in size and separately pasted at the top to pieces of black linen fastened to a roller in the way in which maps are made. The chart can be hung anywhere on the wall or over a chair, a cord being attached to the ends of the roller. One sheet may be reserved for each number, and when a drill is to be given on any one of these numbers the pr ceding sheets can be thrown back over the roller leaving the one desired uppermost, the linen allow- ing this to be easily done without danger of tearing the paper. On each sheet the perception, additions, subtractions multiplications, divisions and partitions in the number are illustrated in various ways ; the excellence of these 96 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. will depend upon the originality of the teacher in devising positions and forms and upon the resources at her command. For example, suppose the number four is to be illustrated. A well-formed two-inch figure four, cut out of light colored Kindergarten folding paper, may be placed at the top equally distant from the two sides of the sheet, with a number picture composed of stars at the left, and another of geometric forms at the right top corner. Paste the pictures in their places. The pictures, stars, forms, etc., may be symmetrically grouped around a large central figure. For the number four a square centre piece, e.g., a pic- ture of four boys playing would be preferable to one of triangular or irregular shape, as it furnishes stories of four sides, four corners, etc. The pictures may be made of newspaper cuttings, colored cards, etc., contributed by the children. The stars, cubes, triangles, rings, circles and many other forms, the names of which the child knows, can be cut out of tinted paper and arranged so as to represent the several facts in the number. The teacher's quota to the fund may consist of water- color pictures illustrative of the science lessons. Lesson 8. — Subtraction, Any two equal or unequal numbers in a number. Purpose. — To teach that 6-2=4 Plan. — Drill on the perception of 6. Ask pupils to take six things, and lay two of them on the table. '' How many have you in your hand now 1 " Give such problems as the following : — " If you have 6 blocks of wood and 2 of them are burned up, how many blocks will you have left ? " PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 9f " Show me with your blocks." " Johnnie has six ducks and two of them are on tks pond. How many are not ?" Endeavor to get children to propose problems similar to the foregoing. " Who will tell me a story about 6 slate pencils and I^ slate pencils ? " Impress the fact of the lesson by developing anc memorizing the following : — " In 6 there are 2 and 4: Draw illustrative picture numbers thus : — ■ * * • * 6-2=4 Busy Work. Take 6 splints, pegs, blocks, etc., and divide them into groups of 4 and 2. Pupils may draw a picture to represent a story whicb the teacher has written on the board, e.g. : " Tom had six rats in a box. Dash got two of them. How many ran off ? " Draw original pictures of 6 - 2=4. 6-2= may be written alongside a number of prc^ blems previously known and children required to worj? them with their splints and pegs on the desks, also to copy them on slates and fill in answers, e.g. : 6-2= 3 + 1 = 2+ =5 6-2= These examples of busy work ma.y be modiSec? to ^iiif what has been taught in subtraction. 1^ FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Buppose the fact taught be 6 — 1 = 5. Dc:aw pictures illustrating such stories as : There were six pears on a tree ; one fell off, leaving five f.n the tree ; six birds in the tree, one flew away, leaving five, e^c. Suggestions, In learning the perception of a number it is better to proceea by the addition of one to the previous number, thus relating the new fact to those already known. In the investigation of the number itself it is a ques- tion which should be taught first — the additions or the subtractions. As a general rule children like to break dishes before they want to build houses, but not always. Some children instinctively divide their blocks into groups ana continue the process of analysis. Some at once take more blocks and continue to synthetize, while otners naturally inertwine the two steps, and by so doing cannot learn 4 + 2=6, without at the same time learning 6-2=4. If the two facts are not taught in the same lesson they should be related in review. The teacher will notice that she requires only six splints to teach the accompanying lesson. By this method the child will see that the subtrahend is always a part of the minuend. It will be necessary to explain to a class how to draw pictures representing problems such as 6 2=4 ; e.g.^ the teacher may draw (in addition to the number picture) a picture of a tree with four apples on it and two on the ground below. The child will find it hard to do this at first, but he soon becomes completely absorbed in the exercise. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 99 In such lessons it is well to give a number of problems, but not so many that the child will grow weary. A con- tinued story containing several problems is preferable to a number of diflPerent stories, e, g., I had six cents in my pocket, I went into a drug store and bought a two cent postage stamp. How many cents had I left ? The en- velope upon which I put the stamp was six inches long and two inches wide. How many more inches were there in the length than in the width of the envelope, etc. The child should be led to call up his previous ex- perience for he has often in the past observed the sub- traction of two things from six things, and after this lesson each observed case will strengthen his generalized fact. In a review with the whole class, one pupil may pro- pose a question for all the rest. In the class, one pupil may arrange his articles to illustrate a story, and another tell the story thus : " John had 6 leaves. He divided them into two piles, with 4 in one, and 2 in the other." Avoid such words as subtract, etc. Avoid the error of thinking that a child thoroughly knows a problem when he can write the answer. Do not attempt too much at one lesson. If the child never again makes a mistake in the fact that 6 — 2=4?. five minutes have been well spent. The other subtractions in 6 similar to the above are — In 6 there are 1 and 5 « 6 ix blocks into three groups of two each. " How many groups ?" " How many in each group ?" Have children take 6 articles and find for themselves how many twos there are in six. Develop the story — " In six there are three twos.** " A boy bought six skates, how many pairs of skates did he buy ?" Give a number of such questions. Have the pupils propose questions similar to the preceding. Draw a picture on the board illustrating such a story as " there were 6 chickens, and they walked off two to- gether, so there were three groups of chickens." Draw number picture on the board to show that in 6 there are three twos. The other divisions of 6 similar to the foregoing are : in 6 there are 6 ones. " 6 " '* 2 threes. Lesson 11, — Multiplication. — The Equal Numbers that make a Number. Purpose. — To teach that three 2's make 6. Plan. — Drill on previous numbers, also on the fact learned in previous lesson that " in 6 there are 3 twos." Have children take 2 splints together, 2 more together, and 2 more together. " How many splints in each group ?" " How many groups ?" How many altogether ?" De- velop from the class the story — '•' three twos make six." Have children show this with sticks, splints, etc. 102 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Give such problems as, " If there are two boys at each desk, how many boys will there be at three desks ?" " Three boys are looking at me, how many eyes are looking at me ?" Have class ask such questions as the above. " Show me on the board that three 2's make 6." The other multiplications in 6 similar to the foregoing lesson are : 6 ones make 6. 2 threes make six. After a few lessons combine multiplication and divi- sion, e. g.y for one lesson each 6-^-2 = 3, and 3x2 = 6. Lesson 12 — The Equal Parts of a N'i'.mher. Purpose. — To teach that | of 6 = 3. (The teacher may provide herself with an appie, a stick or a circular piece of paper cut in halves, besides splints, blocks, etc. Plan. — Hold up the apple before the class. " What is this ?" Break it into halves. Hold up a half apple. " What part of the apple is this ?" " How many of such pieces are there in a whole apple ?" " Why do you call this half an apple ?" Develop such an answer as — " I call it half an apple because you divided the apple into two parts, exactly the same size." " Take 6 splints." " How will you find out what J of 6 is ? " " Divide six sticks into two piles exactly the same size, and find the number of sticks in one pile." ■ Do this and tell me how many you find." • The iialf of 6 sticks is how many sticks ?" " Find how many pens in J of 6 pens." " Show me J of 6 blocks." " How many blocks ? ** PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 103 " If I have six apples, and give you J of my apples, how many shall I give you ? " " Show me J of 6 blocks." " How many blocks ? " Lead pupils to propose such questions as the preceding. Develop the sentence, " one half of six is three." Write J of 6=3 on the board and drill. Have the pupils draw pictures on the board to illus- trate the fact taught. Suggestions. It is likely that in teaching 4, the term one-half will have been taught. If so drill on | of 4, and proceed at once with the discovery of J of 6 from the splints. If the pupils are not familiar with the word " half " it will be necessary to spend a full lesson on it, previous to such a lesson as the accompanying one. In that case it is well to begin with a straight line or string, proceed to strips of paper and plain figures on the board, then to regular solids, afterwards to numbers. A little child will often find the number in half a pile of sticks by making two piles, beginning by placing one stick in one pile and one in the other until his sticks are exhausted. In this way he can tell how many sticks there are in J of a pile containing 20 sticks, when he cannot count above ten. In teaching fractions, paper circles are good for illus- tration. Let the child measure the circumference with a string, and then measure half his string. The other partitions in 6 similar to the foregoing lesson are J of 6 is 2, and J of 6 is 1, These may be left until later. 104 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Review and more general Number Study, After the additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions and partitions of the number have been learned, there should be constant review in order to ^x the facts in the mind. Rapid mental drill may be taken with the whole class. Special care should be exercised to make the seatwork during the period devoted to review as interesting as possible. A good device is to have the pupils play " keeping store," one pupil acting as sales- man and the others as buyers. A collection of ribbon, nuts, toy money, etc., can be easily procured for the pur- pose. In the Natural Science study every lesson presents opportunities for review and also for looking out into the region of number hitherto unknown to the children. They should count and measure the parts of objects studied, e.g. the number of the squirrel's teeth, and the length of the stem of the plant. In order that such work be satisfactorily performed, it will be necessary to give a preliminary training in measurement and measures. It is better to confine the study at first mainly to measures which come under the number ten. Measurement of distances makes a good starting point. A knowledge of the number of inches in a foot and feet in a yard, with fractions of these, is sufficient for the first year. Each child should have a foot ruler marked off into inches and fractions of an inch. He may measure ofi an inch on his slate, the blackboard, etc., cut off" pieces of paper an inch long, draw one inch squares and circles, etc. After pro- ceeding to the foot and yard he may make measurements in comparing objects in language lessons. The pint, quart, gallon, etc., may similarly be objectively dealt with. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 105 Lesson IS, — Tins and Minus, Pnr'pose. — To teach the sign +. Flan. — Write on the board such a problem as 1 2=3. Ask children to read it for you, and tell what is left out. Instead of writing " and " in our stories we can put in a mark like this -h, which always means ' and' " Who can tell me what this mark + means ? " " Tell me what it is like." " Make it for me with two splints." " Put the mark which means ' and ' in its place in this story 6 1=6.' " It looks like a little boy with his arms stretched out." " How many blocks has he in one hand ? " " How many in the other ? " " What is he going to do with his blocks ? " " When he puts them together how many blocks will there be together ? " " These two horizontal lines mean that he has put his arms together," etc. " We call this boy "plus" " What is his name ? " Make " plus " for me on the board. " Make him with your splints, and say the name as you make him." "Put ' plus ' in this story, 2 2=4, and read it." " Finish this story, 3 1=4, and read it." DriU carefully. Busy Work. Have children copy on slates a number of problems without the signs, fill in the proper signs and work with pegs, putting the answers opposite the problems. Let them copy problems, filling in the signs, but not working them with the pegs. 106 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Let them copy problems containing the signs + and — . Let them make the signs with their splints and pegs. Do not be satisfied when the child can read a problem putting in the signs. Be sure that he sees the force of the signs, by requiring him to work problems, which he makes himself, with his pegs, repeating to you each operation as he performs it. The primary teacher will find that devices similar to the one used in the accompanying lesson are exceedingly helpful, even though they may appear childish, and in many subjects, notably phonics, she will find them a happy variation from the hum-drum routine of every- day work. Lesson IJf,. — Figures. Purpose. — To fix the first nine digits in the mind and drill on previous number work. Plan. — Write a figure on the board. Ask the children to show you that many fingers, " Tell me something which has this many feet.'' Write the figure 4 on the board. '' Tell me a story about this." Write the figure 2 on the board. '' I am thinking of an animal and want you to guess its name. It has this many feet, this many ears, eyes," etc. Continue your explanation until the children guess a '' fox." Tell a story about a fox and some chickens. Have the children take " this many " sticks to make a henhouse, *' this many " pegs for hens to put in it, take away " this many " that the fox caught, etc. Continue the story in this way, until all the figures have been drilled on. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 107 Lesson IS, — Notation, Purpose. — To teach to write a number of two digits. Preparation. — The class should know the first ten numbers, and the perception of 11, 12 and 13. Have a small board which can be hung up and in which there are two hooks in a horizontal line two inches apart, also a number of small splints and rubber bands. Plan. — Have pupils take ten splints each and put an elastic band around them. Let them repeat this process until they can bunch into tens quickly. Have them put all their bunches back, and try to take ten in the quickest way they can. They will discover that the quickest way is to take a bunch. Develop that we call these bunches, tens. " Take two tens in your iett hand.' " Take three ones in your right hand." " Tell me what you have." " We always hold tens in our left hand, and ones in our right." " Put them all back." " Take one ten and four ones." " Tell me what you have." " Where do you hold tens ? " Drill. " Look at the board." *' Which hook is opposite your right hand ? " " We will call that the right hand hook." " Let me see which hook you think these two tens should hang on." " I have one ten ana two ones."' " You may hang them on the proper hooks," etc. "You know how to write numbers up to ten. We have a quick way of writing numbers greater than ten, by using just the same figures as before/' Make two marks on the blackboard similar to the relative position of the hooks. " Which is the right hand dot ?" 108 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. " Under which dot do you think you will write your tens ? " " How many tens are there on the small board ? " " What shall I write under the left hand dot ? " "You may write it for me." "You may write the ones." Drill by repeating this a number of times until the children cnn transfer readily to the blackboard from the small board, writing figures for bunches. " Now we always write tens in this way." " If we have more than ten, we find out how many tens and how many ones we have, and write a figure on the right hand side for the ones, and on the left hand side for the tens." " W^rite one ten and two ones for me." (The preceding: lesson is only suggestive, and might better be taken in several lessons, as the subject is worthy of time.) PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 109 CHAPTER VI. STUDY OP SURROUNDINGS. A half hour's walk with a wide-awake child will usually reveal the fact that little children have already acquired considerable knowledge concerning the external world, and that they avail themselves of every opportunity in season and out of season, to add to their existing fund of information. It would be difficult to find a boy of six years of age of whom it could truthfally be said that : — ' ' A primrose by the river's brim — A yellow primrose is to him, And it is nothing more. " What child does not instinctively love nature, does not feel his little heart bound with delight under the influ- ence of the warm sunshine, the bright flowers and the singing birds ? With what eager interest he lingers on the first pages of nature's wonder book, a volume whose pretty pictures and charming stories never lose their fasci- nation unless by some unnatural influence from without. This love springs from the purest and most beautiful side of child-nature, it is a gleam from those " trailing clouds of glory " which float around the child's world of fancy, making it all rose-color and light and joy. It is the sacred duty of the teacher to foster this poetic and spiritual element in order that the characters of her children may be proof against the later contact with the prosaic world which so often tends to blunt and harden the finer parts of their nature. Perhaps the greatest charm in the Froebelian system lies in this, that 110 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. it leads the child into closer communion with his surroundings and to a conception of law, thus teaching him in the highest sense to know and love not only " life and her children," but the " Giver of life." This interest too, if properly stimulated and directed, will be productive of untold pleasure to the children and will give them a bent for scientific study that will be invaluable in later years. It is not proposed as yet to attach the child to any inflexible course of study with the intention of giving much definite instruction, but rather to fan the flame of interest in the external and universal, to lead him to classify his previous knowledge and to guide him into a proper method of scientific investigation. It must always be remembered that these lessons are given principally for language training. See pages 19, 20, 37. The work can be taken in the afternoon, when it forms a helpful offset to the recoil which follows the more diflficult reading and number lessons of the morning. The child's previous knowledge has been acquired incidentally on the occasion of each experience and has not been, to any great extent, correlated. He now pro- ceeds to observe more closely and systematically, to exercise more fully the powers of comparison, abstraction, generalization, judgment and reason, and to arrange and classify his knowledge, giving a coherency to it all. In this unifying process he constantly sees evidences of design, and is led from nature up to nature's God. Knowledge begins in sense perception and is gained by attention to things, accompanied by a comparison and discrimination of resemblances and differences, the order being interest, attention, analysis, arrangement. ^ PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. Ill If the pupil is to be trained in observation, he must begin with things which he himself can examine. He is usually most interested in that which is near and partially known to him, but not always, for the distant star may have a deeper interest for him than the stone at his feet. Beginning then with the study of places and things coming under his own experience, viz., those environ- ments which he has influenced and which have influenced him, a few preliminary talks may be given on the following : {a) The school-room. (6) The school-ground, (c) The city. {d) All space with which the child is familiar, (e) Objects, natural and artificial. (/) Natural objects — living — animals, vegetables. {g) Natural objects — non- living — minerals, natural phenomena, (h) Animals — diflferent classes, (i) Fishes, {j) Insects, {k) Reptiles. After these simple introductory lessons more definite work may be attempted. Of the five hours per week devoted to "surroundings," one may be given to clay modeling, (see p. 132) one to lessons leading up to geography work, (see p. 125) and three to language lessons on objects. Language Lessons on Objects. Most of the teaching in a primary grade should be objective, e.g,., the child should be led to a knowledge of the fact that 2 and 4 make 6 by means of a number of objective illustrations, such as 2 leaves and 4 leaves make 6 leaves. In an object lesson on the leaf, the leaf itself is studied as to parts, size, color, etc. Object teaching, which con- sists simply in giving a number of hard names and use- 112 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. less details in connecfcion with an object without regard to expression or sequence, is of very little value. The child should have the object in his own hands and find out for himself and describe in good English every- thing which he can discover. He should then be led by proper questioning to find but what has escaped his observation, after which he should receive additional information in regard to the object from the teacher. The questions asked should stimulate thought and direct his investigation along the proper channel. Facts already known to every one, e.g., that a dog has four feet, if noticed at all, should simply be glanced at in passing. All irrelevant discussions should be discouraged. The questions should be definite and thoughtful. Such a question as " What is the shape of this petal ? " is a bet- ter one than " What do you see ? " Natural Science. The study of Natural Science is so entertaining and use- ful that it may be wise to confine the language lessons on obgects almost exclusively to such study of objects as will lead up to Zoology, Botany, etc. The subjects chosen should, as a rule, be native to tlie locality, and will be made more interesting if furnished by the children. By selecting subjects appropriate to the time of the year, etc., much labor may be saved, e.g., lessons • on flowers may be taken during warm weather, the children being encouraged to do some gardening on their own account. In all these lessons it is well to begin with the whole animal, plant or mineral, and proceed to the 'parts, avoid - inef many technical terms, and making generalizations from observed facts only. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 113 In the first year these lessons must be of the most simple character, nothing difficult should be attempted, although a few technical terms may be learned. The study of the animal kingdom is probably the most interesting to children. The teacher will find it an advantage to be a taxider- mist, able to prepare and mount her own specimens. This is not a difficult task. A teacher can, in a few weeks, acquire sufficient proficiency in the art to fill all the requirements of a primary grade. It is doubtful whether pupils should ever be asked to kill living creatures for the sake of observation. The killing instinct is usually quite strong enough in the average boy without further training Children should be taught that life, even of an insect, is a sacred thing and should not be destroyed save for good and sufficient reason. There can be no serious objection, however, to catch- ing and observing animals for a time with gentle care. (See p. 121.) By making judicious selections mainly from domestic animals and by devoting a proper time to botany, etc., the necessity for even this may be reduced to a mini- mum. One of the greatest aims is to furnish the child with a plan of investigation for himself, e.g., so that by study- ing one rodent thoroughly he may be able to study all others without a teacher. For this reason there should be a carefully chosen and logical sequence. The number of lessons which the teacher will devote to one subject, e.g., the squirrel, will depend on her power to keep up the interest. She may give at least ten consecutive lessons. In the first and last lessons it would be best to have a live squirrel in a ca^e, but the 114 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. teacher will require to exercise a good deal of discretion here. If her discipline is weak, her class a mixed one of large and small pupils, or one with which she is not well acquainted, the experiment might prove most disastrous. It is possible to introduce a number of things into a cer- tain kind of school room which will lead children to run riot, forgetting the true ends of education. On the other hand, if she knows her room to be a home, as it ought to be, if every child is her friend, if all are fired with a common impulse to become wiser and better, if her work is one constant, glad, united search after truth, such a digression as the bringing in of a live squirrel will not create any uncalled-for merriment or excitement. In such a class the ten or fifteen minutes devoted to the first lesson will be spent in observing the little stranger and conversing about him, and at the termination of the lesson the children will feel a strong desire to know more about their visitor. In the second and succeeding lessons they should have stufied specimens and examine them, telling their dis- coveries. At the beginning of the second lesson they may discuss the general characteristics of the squirrel as in the preceding lesson, taking up the different kinds of squirrels. The children may then find and name the parts. Lessons on each of the latter should follow, and may be taken in this order : Body, head, legs, tail. In treating each part it is better to follow a definite plan, e.^., number of parts, name, form, size, color, use. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 115 Lesson 16. — The SquirreVs Head. Purpose. — To teach the size, form, color, uses, etc., of the squirrel's head. Call attention in a general way to the squirrel's head. Have the children first guess — then accurately measure — its length and width, and note its size in proportion to the rest of the body (about I). Develop from the class some idea of the form of the head ; they will probably tell you that it is shaped like an egg, and is, therefore, ovoidal. If they do not, question until they discover some likeness, or develop by a sketch on the blackboard. Have them show you where it is widest, where narrowest, and notice other peculiarities of the features — the depression below the eyes, the pointed lower part of the face, etc. " What other small animal has a head shaped almost exactly like the squirrel's ? " " Yes ; for the squirrel and the rat are distant cousins ; indeed some people say that those funny little squirrels, called chipmunks, are really striped rats." Ask the class how they would set about modeling the head, and what must be remembered about its size and shape ? " What is the head covered with ? Is the fur like that on the tail ? How does it feel to your hand ? I once knew a tame squirrel who was called 'Velvet Paw ' by its little mistress, his fur was so soft and silky." Note the color of the fur — lead pupils to see the delicate blending of the colors — where darkest and where shading off into paler tints. A lesson on water colors could well foUow, in which the child would reproduce what he has observed. An outline sketch of the head may be drawn on the board. 116 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Busy Work. Sj See p. ^4" Model squirrel's head in clay ? Draw the head from object or memory. Paint a picture of it in water colors, or draw it with colored crayons. Write stories containing words which were used in lesson and were written on the blackboard for phonic recognition. Copy from the blackboard the names of the parts of the squirrel's head. Sa Model, draw or paint a representation of any part of the squirrel previously studied. Write stories about the parts. Draw pictures illustrating these stories. Draw a picture of any object previously studied. s Read stories about the squirrel's head from black- board or books. Represent these stories by pictures. Draw forms representing the squirrel's head. Write stories about these forms. Read them aloud. Draw heads of other animals. Compare and contrast with head of squirrel, either orally or by means of written stories or pictures. Write or tell any story about the squirrel's head. The parts of the head — ears, eyes, nose, mouth, teeth, etc., may be similarly studied in succeeding lessons. These again may be more closely studied, e.g., as in the following lesson. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 117 Lesson 17. Purpose. — To teach the peculiarity of growth of the squirrel's teeth. Plan. — Show the class a number of squirrel's teeth ; also some nuts, and talk about them. Develop from the class that a squirrei lives on nuts, and first gnaws holes in them before he can eat them. Have a child take a tooth and try to make a hole in the nut by rubbing it, the other children observing closely ; but before beginning, have the child examine the tooth carefully. After this is done, develop from the class that the tooth is worn, and that if a squirrel made a great many holes in nuts, his teeth would be apt to wear out. " Do our finger nails wear out ? " "Why not?" " Who can tell me what would keep a squirrel's teeth from wearing out ? " " Yes, a squirrel's teeth grow like our finger nails." " What would happen the squirrel if his teeth did not grow?" " How kind God is to the little squirrel." " If I were to put a squirrel in a cage and feed him on porridge, what would happen to his teeth ? " " A man once did this, and the poor squirrel's teeth grew as long as your fingers ! " " Do your teeth grow in that way ? " At the conclusion of the series of lessons the live squirrel may again be brought before the class. He is now a well known friend. Before leaving the subject, the knowledge gained may be classified in a general way, 118 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. and supplemented with such other information as may be helpful to the child. This additional knowledge may be given incidentally during the lessons. The teacher should have studied the subject thoroughly, so as to feel per- fectly at home with it, and know that she is competent to answer questions which will arise from time to time, but she must studiously resist the temptation to tell any- thing which the child can find out for himself. If the interest can be easily sustained there are many advantages in giving a series of say ten lessons on the first subject taken. The next animal can be dealt with in fewer lessons. The teacher should allow the children to lead her to a certain extent, but she should still supervise the investi- gation, stimulating them to observe, discover and tell. The lesson should not consist in a simple repetition of the child's previous knowledge. , The teacher should strive to have one investigation lead up to another ; thus when studying the legs of the squirrel she can easily lead the children to a consideration of its actions. The lessons may be varied by introducing stories about squirrels, each pupil contributing his quota to the general fund. Every such lesson should be succeeded by a drawing or painting lesson for busy work. The pupil should be given several preparatory lessons in mixing paints, etc. Forms should also be moulded in clay. After a lesson on the head of the squirrel, half-an-hour may be spent to good advantage in moulding a clay form of the head. (See p. 137.) Plants. The spring of the year is the most suitable time for the study of plants, for then the children have been PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 119 eagerly awaiting the appearance of the first flower in the woods or along the mountain side, and are quick to bring to the teacher the delicate wild-flowers and pale-faced garden-blossoms which grow so abundantly everywhere. In plant study an abundance of specimens can be ob- tained, and this is an important consideration in all natural science work. In some schools better results will be accomplished by confining the first year's science study mainly to plants, and in such cases there is ample field for observation in every season, e.g., in the autumn leaves and fruit may be studied ; in the winter, house plants, etc. Nothing else will arouse a class to such a pitch of en- thusiasm in this work as flower culture in ihe school room. In addition to the potted plants which the children bring to the class, a long, deep box neatly painted or prettily decorated with pictures, may be kept on the window-sill. In the box the pupils can plant their seeds. The names of seeds and of pupils who planted them, as well as the dates of planting, first appearance, etc., may be kept on a pretty scroll on the blackboard. Such flowers as the morning-glory, scarlet -bean, sweet-pea, nasturtium, etc., are admirably adapted for such a garden, and may be trained to climb up the windows. The children take delight in watching their growth and unfold" ing, feeling that they have a personal interest in the work. The following plan of plant study for several months is suggested. The teacher will not find it difficult to adapt a sequence for the whole year suited to her special requirements. Before beginning lessons on a particular plant some preparation is necessary. Have the class bring various kinds of seeds — peas, oats, corn, flax, etc. These may be 120 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. planted in a damp sponge or in a glass tumbler, over the top of which a piece of coarse netting is tied, allowing it to sag in the centre so as to be below the water. Fill the glass with water, and in the hollow of the netting drop the seeds. Place the sponge or glass in a sunny- window, where the pupils can observe it. This method is preferable to that of planting in the earth, for the children from actual observation are able to judge what is going on underground with similar seeds. In addition to this, hyacinths and other bulbs in glasses will afford great interest when their roots shoot out, and will do much to gratify the desire of the little people to see a seed grow. In a few daj^s the plants will be large enough for the purpose, and lessons may then be taken in the following order : (a) seeds, (6) roots, (c) stems, (d) leaves, (e) flowers, (/) fruits. In each of these lessons a plan of investigation may be followed similar to that suggested in the animal study, i.e., observing the sequence, name, number of parts, size, form, color and uses. Pupils may bring different kinds of roots, etc., for comparison. After these half-dozen lessons, which can generally be best taken in the month of April, the following may be taken, devoting at least two lessons to each : Snow drops, pussy willow, spring beauty, trillium, cherry blossom, tulip, apple blossom, buttercup, daffodil, syringa, daisy, geranium, forget-me-not, pansy. In studying a plant, e.g.y the pansy, one lesson may be devoted to the root, stem and leaves, and another to the flower. Pupils enjoy a careful investigation and a few technical names may be learned. It is well to have one new scientific term thoroughly learned at each lesson. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 121 Where there is danger of flower study becoming mono- tonous, the sequence may be varied by studying the shad, turtle, sponge, butterfly, frog, etc., in their proper seasons. Such specimens as the frog may be preserved alive for study, in glass globes with green window net- ting over the top to admit air. Let the greatest care be exercised to secure accuracy of observation, and precision in thought and in the use of language. (See p. 110.) The busy work to succeed plant lessons will be similar to that given for animal study, and will consist of clay modeling, drawing and painting, reading and composition. Appropriate songs will add greatly to the interest of the study. The following lessons are probably too long for single lessons. They are simply suggestive, and will, of course, require modification. Lesson 18. — Seeds, Plan. — Many other specimens in addition to those growing in glasses, will be required in order to show the various shapes and colors of seeds. If the larger kinds are soaked over night they can be examined by the children with a pin and the embryo plantlet can be plainly seen. Develop from the class the use and value of seeds, where deposited in different plants, and why. Have the class notice the different shapes of seeds. Many grasses, the pea, morning glory, etc., have round seeds of varying sizes ; some plants, e.g., the bean, have ovoidal shaped seeds, while those of others are flat and elliptical, as water-melon and pumpkin seeds. 122 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Notice the different colors, etc., of specimens at different periods, also the places where they were deposited in the plant. Have several specimens of fruit and of flowers in various stages of unfolding and decay for the purpose of examining their seeds. Some plants, like the dandelion and thistle, have little silken wings or plumes attached to their seeds. These are borne away and dropped by the wind. Others, e.g., the pansy, carry their seeds in small sacs which burst when ripe and scatter the seeds over the ground. In studying the growing seed, the proper time will be when the tiny white sprouts on either side are distinctly separate. Have class notice these carefully, the one yellow in color already throwing out slender roots, and the other of a pale green color, shooting upwards. Give names — the first part radicle or root, the second the plumule, Explain the importance of these parts. Prove by experi- ment, that if we reverse a germinating seed, placing it with the sprouting root upwards, the root and stem will turn into their proper position of their own accord ; such is their nature. If the little seed-leaves, or cotyledons have appeared, notice them, give their name and explain their peculiarity. They push themselves up from the plumule singly or alternately or in pairs, and the way in which these first leaves appear will be an index to the appear- ance of every future leaf and branch. Lesson 19. — Tlie Pansy. Materials. — Have the children bring several specimens showing flowers of varying colors and in different stages of unfolding. See that each child has a flower. It would also be better to have a pot of growing pansies. PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 123 Plan. — Develop or give name of flower. Develop that it is formed of several leaves. Give name of petals. Have class notice their number, form and relative size, their texture, lustre, the tiny hairs on petals, etc., and their color. Let the children notice especially the deli- cate shading and exquisite harmony of the colors. Name different kinds of pansies. Have class notice the centre of the flower — a triangular feathery ridge of 3^ellow and white, etc. Turn the flower over. Draw attention to the dull, almost uniform color of the back part of the petals. Observe the sepals, discuss name, number, size, shape and color, (five long, narrow green sepals). Next proceed to an investigation of the stalk — long, upright, tender, easily broken, having a peculiar taste like that of peppermint. Notice that the leaves on the stalk are as on the daisy. Develop that the pansy grows sideways on its stalk, pushed into this position by the small pointed sac on the underside, Ask for other flowers which resemble the pansy in this respect. Lesson 20. — The Pansy Bud. Plan. — Develop (having children examine the growing plant) that each bud has a separate stalk, coming straight up from the root. Pansies do not therefore blossom in clusters like the geranium, but rather like the daisy, vio- let, etc. " Let us look at these tiny buds. See how tightly they are wrapped up in the green leaves ! What do wi) call these leaves ? What will happen to these buds when the sun and water wake them up ? Are they always the same size ? " 124 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. ^ " What would the young buds do if we did not water them ? What else do they require in addition to water ? Yes, and they are particular about the kind of sunshine they get. They like only the morning and evening sun- shine but the hot noon-day sun withers them up and they hang their pretty heads. When they first open or when freshly watered they hold their bright faces up to you, looking like a row of little soldiers." " Have pansies any fragrance ? What is it like ? Which will live longer in water, a bunch of pansies or a bunch of geraniums ? What does this show ? How long do the flowers live on the plant ? Look at these which are just beginning to fade— what do you notice about their color and brightness ? When the petals have withered and dropped off, what is left ? Let us examine this funny little green sac — open it — you see it is full of greenish-white seeds. How large are those seeds ? What are those little brown sacs hanging on the stocks of our plant ? When the seeds are ripe the sac withers and bursts, scattering the shining dark brown seeds upon the ground. The little sacs are really the fruit of the pansy plant, and are little houses in which the seeds grow and ripen sheltered from the weather." Cabinet. The following suggestions may be helpful in arranging a cabinet of curiosities and materials for busy work in a primary grade. The objects should be collected mainly from the imme- diate vicinity, and the children should be encouraged to help in furnishing them. They should possess additional interest to the children from having been studied in object and language lessons. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 125 Where the pupils are made to feel that the cabinet is really theirs, the visitor will be astonished to find with what interest and pride they show their collection and dilate on the peculiarities of the objects. The children should classify from the first, and should learn to recognize the objects, know their names, and a few facts concerning them. The cabinet may consist of five shelves arranged as follows : — Top Bhelf. — Animal kingdom : Insects mounted. Birds and mammals stufied. Other specimens preserved in alcohol, e.g., the frog in difierent stages. Animal pro- ducts. Glue, wool, silk, coral, shells, etc. Second Shelf. — Vegetable kingdom: Vegetable pro- ducts of the vicinity, grain, flowers, fruit, nuts, etc. Manufactured vegetable products : Linen, cotton, wicker v/ork, wooden objects, etc. Third Shelf. — Mineral kingdom : Stones and pebbles of the vicinity, iron, gold ore, flints, arrowheads, etc. Fourth Shelf. — Objects illustrative of form, measure- ments and color, manufactured by children when possible : First and second kindergarten gifts, clay forms, etc. Fifth Shelf. — Objects used in number work and read- ing, splints, script, etc. IGEOGRAPHY. What child does not take infinite pleasure in building his sand castles, or constructing his pebbly bridge out into the water, and then watching it slowlj" melt away under the influence of the incominoj waves. The sand structures he thus builds are pictures of nature, and his lively imagination readily supplies what is wanting in size and 12(5 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. color. This natural tendency supplies the key by which the teacher may unlock the vast and wonderful store- house of geographical truth. The principal object in geographical study is to gain a perfect concept of the locality studied, and a knowledge of the forces acting upon it — a concept, which will adapt itself to the onward march of time, anticipating erosion and upheaval, the building of cities, and growth of nations, thus forming a dissolving view, ever changing and ever perfect. With this ultimate object in view the teacher will find it possible, by devoting one hour per week to this study, to do much preparatory work during the first year. A moulding-board, a number of small trays or pans, and a quantity of unused brass moulders' sand are necessary. The moulding-board or sand table may be about 30 inches by 36 inches, having a 1 inch rim around all the sides. It may be painted a light green to represent the water, and should have some contrivance by which one end can be raised, in order that the sand map may be seen by the whole class. However, something that will answer the purpose can easily be improvised by the teacher. The principal use of the moulding-board is to afibrd the child an opportunity to express his concept. Each attempt strengthens his power to do this, and leads him to closer observation and study. There lingers yet enough of the symbolic in the child's mind to enable him thoroughly to enjoy this exercise, but care must be taken that he does not stick in the sand, and become a mere imitator. His best effort should be appreciated, no matter how imperfect it may be, and the utmost freedom may be allowed for representation. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 127 Aftor the first lesson the pupils may go in groups to the moulding-board, and for busy work mould a map, each doing his part of the work. (See p. 166.) In addition to the work in the school-room, short excur- sions may be taken by the teacher and pupils for the purpose of observing the locality. In the hands of the skilful teacher, if not carried to extremes, such a plan of nature study is quite as valuable as school -room work, and is much more attractive. In these the child may be led incidentally to a consideration of structure, and should be taught to draw his own conclusions in reference to the efiects of mountains, rivers, etc. The child beginning Geography does not desire to begin with the study of the universe as a whole, and proceed to its parts. He may not even wish to begin with the study of the whole space known by him. He likes to commence with the locality that he knows the most about. His concept of his own school-room probably contains more to him than his concept of any other locality of the same area. Plan of Work. After the preliminary conversations on school-room, etc., referred to on page 111, three or more introductory lessons may be given on 1. Position of (a) objects on the desk, (6) objects in the room, (c) objects in the yard, {d) principal buildings in the city, (e) scenes of interest in the city, etc. 2. Directions including cardinal points of the compass, also direction of different objects in the room, yard, city, etc., etc. 3. Distance, including {a) table of long measure, (6) distance of objects in the room, play -ground, city, etc., (c) size of desk, room, yard, city, etc. 128 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Then proceed to a mere definite study of scliool-room, yard, etc. After thoroughly studying a locality, it may be moulded in sand. Children learn sand modeling very quickly, without any mechanical aid from the teacher. A few suggestions may be helpful, but as a rule, it is better to place the model before the child, and let him struggle into a know- ledge of how to mould it. Pour a heap of sand on a table, have the children stand around it, and each take a quart or more of sand. If each pupil has a sand tray so much the better. Place a book on the table, in view of the pupils, and ask them each to try to make a heap of sand, that v/ill look just like the book. Then have them try to make a sand book, of exactly the same shape as the book, but only half as large. Next, allow pupils to exercise their choice as to what they mould, e.g. a hand, a box, a hat, etc. They may then proceed to simple outlines, e.g. the track of a foot in the sand, the mark of a hand, the top of the desk, etc. To do this the sand is first levelled, and the outline made with a ruler or the hand. The pupil may then proceed to mould a map of the school-room, after having first studied it in a language lesson. Lesson ^1. Purpose. To model a sand map of the school-room. Plan. — Divide the sand evenly among the pupils. Have them level their sand with the hand or a ruler, leaving it an inch or two deep. The child has previously studied his room, but the necessary points should be reviewed. A few rapid questions will lead him on the right track, and he should then be allowed to work freely. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 129 " Which is the north end of the room ?" " Which will be the north side of your sand-room ?" " How many sides has our room ?" " Are they all the same length ?" " If not, tell me which are longer." Accurate measurements of the room may be made by the children, but in fixing on a scale for the plan, approximate measurements will suffice. Irregularities in the sides of the room may be noticed, with regard to their number, position and size, also the number, position and relative size of windows, doors, aisles, etc. The class may then commence work, each expressing his concept of the room in his own way. If incorrect models are made, question the child until he discovers his errors and have him correct them. When the ground plan is modeled, let the pupils add symbolic representations, e.g. pegs arranged in various ways for chairs, tables, desks, windows, doors, etc. Even toy furniture may be used ; anything which will help to make the sand-room life-like and pleasing to the child is of value. Let him use his taste and ingenuity in finish- ing his room. For review have the class model the plan without looking at the roon? After the sand modeling have pupils draw pictures on slate or paper. Where there is no sand-table the blackboard may be used, although it is wise to have the first idea of a map gained from a drawing in which the picture plane is parallel with the ground plane, and the north end of which actually points to the north. Relief can be beautifully indicated by ordinary white crayon on ordinary blackboard. 130 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Having continued this " circular " Geography as far as is deemed profitable, perhaps to the boundary of his own county, the pupil may at the beginning of the second year start upon the real study of Geography by a pre- paration for the study of the continent. The foregoing lessons may be occasionally varied by lessons on Natural phenomena, e.g. lightning, hail, dew, etc. These would be better taught as the occasion arises, that is, on a day in which the phenomena can be observed by the children. This definite formal work should, of course, be only supplementary to general information, extending over the universe of space, and gained incidentally in other lessons. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL, 131 CHAPTER VII. MANUAL TRAINING. The greatest objection that can be urged against primary teaching as presented in the preceding pages is that there is danger of the child being kept in a state of high nervous tension. The thoughtful teacher cannot fail to be impressed with the fact that as she approaches perfection in her methods of training and instruction, the child's heart beats more quickly and his eye receives an unwonted lustre, the whole system indicating that he is growing old too rapidly. High mental action is healthful, if not con- tinued too long, and instead of abandoning her methods it is better to remove the objection by adopting one of two expedients : 1st, Place the child on half time, train- ing him to work at high pressure while he works ; or, 2nd, Devote the greater part of school hours to busy work, which is a mild and gentle play to the child, and to songs and calisthenic exercises suited to develop " a perfect physique." Where practicable, the latter is the better plan. Manual Training, which may be said to include all expression of mental concepts through the medium of the hand, is deservedly receiving increased attention in the schools, and it is now almost universally admitted that, in order to secure symmetrical development, such training must form an important element in all education. Draw- ing, Writing and Calisthenic exercises, when not carried to extremes, seldom meet with public disapproval Even sand and clay modeling, block building, paper folding. 132 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. tablet laying and splint weaving, when conducted intelli- gently and in moderation, do not now awaken much adverse criticism in an ordinary school. Considerable caution should be exercised in introducing new methods, and care taken to see that whatever is introduced shall receive a fair trial. Form Study — Dra-sving, Modeling, etc. Every child loves to draw pictures, and no other exer- cise under the head of manual training is so universally admitted to be necessary in the public school. The drawing should be mainly from actual objects and the pupil, from the very beginning, should be allowed the utmost freedom in representation. It is better not to have much drawing from flat copies, although a study of good pictures will often aid the pupil. The object to be drawn should first be thoroughly studied as to form, size, and color, and may then be modeled in sand, clay, or putty. It may be reduced to the flat by cutting a similar form in paper, etc. By making the objects studied in natural science lessons the basis for drawing lessons, much time will be saved, and the exercise will form a valuable aid to the science work. When the pupil has thoroughly studied an object, e.g.y the squirrel's head, he is prepared to model it in clay. (See p. 137.) He may then proceed by pencil or brush to make a representation of it upon paper. He sees by a comparison of his representation with the object in what respects his original concept was faulty, and to what extent his muscles are unable to express his ideas in the concrete. Each successive investigation and effort increases knowledge and strength. With proper PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 133 supervision, such drawing will be something more than the literal imitation of contour, etc. ; it will possess the elements of life. Train the child to draw fearlessly. There is usually too much erasing of lines and drawing with rulers. He should learn to draw rapidly with either hand on blackboard and on slate. It is well for him to learn that no product of honest effort should ever be ruthlessly destroyed. Even the sand map may remain for a fewhours. Accept the pupil's best work, no matter how grotesque it may appear. A successful teacher is always able to see some beauty is such products. It would be a good thing if slates could be entirelj- discarded in all primary work and paper substituted. Paper which answers the purpose admirably can be secured at a very low price. As in other subjects, this spontaneous and informal work should be supplemented but not superseded by a thorousfhly sequential course of form study, modeling and drawing along purely conventional lines. In the study of the forms of natural objects the child will note a resemblance in diversity and be led to a consideration of underlying common type forms. The formal work of the first half year may be based upon the sphere, cube and cylinder as type forms ; that of the second half year upon the hemisphere and the square and right angled triangular prisms obtained from the preceding solids by easy analysis. Materials. In order to secure the most satisfactory results, it is well to have the following materials for a class of 40 children : (a) A large wooden model of each of the foregoing type solids, from four to eight inches in diameter for the 134 FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. teacher's use. Twenty small wooden models of each type solid, one of two inches in diameter, for the children's use. (h) A large pasteboard tablet from each type solid for teacher, and forty small tablets for the children, each tablet being the size of a section of the corresponding solid in (a), e.g., the small circle will be one or two inches in diameter. (c) Sticks of various lengths for measuring and indica- ting boundaries of figures. (d) Fifteen lbs. potter's clay for moulding. (e) Forty clay moulding boards 12 in. long and 9 in. wide. (/) Ten paint boxes and tumblers. (g) Lead pencils and drawing paper. (h) Twelve pairs scissors, {i) Colored Kindergarten paper. Where it is impossible to get these supplies, much may be done in improvising materials. Glass or clay marbles answer the purpose for spheres, etc. Pupils can cut the tablets out of ordinary paste- board. Clay costs but four cents per pound. Slates may be used for moulding boards. It is important that the models be accurate, and that there be a suflSicient number to admit of at least one for every two children. Plan of Work. The models are first studied as wholes and then moulded in clay. In the study each form is compared with the previous one, e.g., the sphere will stand and roll, the cube will stand and slide, the cylinder will stand, roll and slide. Objects similar to them are also to be PKIISLIRY teachers' MANUAL. 135 studied and modeled as a ball, a box, a rolling pin, a cup, a trunk, a trough. The details of the type solids are then to be studied, e.g., surfaces, round, plane, curved ; and the shapes of the faces shown in tablets and also in paper cutting. The shapes thus obtained may be used in various ways, folded or cut in paper to represent objects, arranged in borders, etc. Next proceed to a study of edges curved and straight and represent by sticks, strings, etc. At this stage the pupil may begin drawing lines with pencils in imitation of sticks, etc. Corners are next studied and the point developed. Thus the child is led gradually from the concrete to the abstract. The sharper the corner the hearer a geometrical point, the sharper the edge the nearer a correct line, the thinner the tablet the nearer a superficies. He may then retrace his steps and proceed to synthetize forming lines from points, angles and figures from lines, and solids from planes. The circles, squares and rectangles may be arranged symmetrically in forms of beauty and in borders. Objects similar to the sphere, cube and cylinder may be drawn from life. The second half year's work may be treated as the first. Lesson 22. — Drawing. Purpose. — To teach the circle and centre. (Be provided with sphere, cube, cylinder, hemisphere and a number of circular cardboards, having the position of the centre marked on each.) Plan.—'' Find me a cube ? " " What kind of surface has it ? " " How do you know it is a plane surface ? " Develop the answer — " I know it is a plane surface be- cause I can slide the cube and move my fingers along it." 136 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. " Show me a curved surface that ends." " What does the curved surface on the hemisphere end in ? " Develop the answer — " It ends in a curved edge." " Show me another surface that ends in a curved edge." Have chil- dren point out plane surface of hemisphere, top of cylinder, and the cardboards. Give each child a card- board. Call attention to the mark in the middle of it, and develop that this is called the centre. "You may all take lead pencils and draw straight line from the centre to the edge." " Draw two more lines from the centre to the edge." " Measure the lines." Develop thafc all lines drawn from the centre to the edge are equal to one another. " What kind of edge has this cardboard ? " " If you draw a picture of a curved edge, what do you call it ? " " I want you to draw a picture of your cardboard." " How shall we begin ? " " Make a dot for the centre." " How far will your curved line be from this dot ? " " Measure and find out." " You may put some more dots for your curved line to pass through." " Draw your curved line." " Who can tell me the name of this picture of the cardboard ? " If the children do not know the name, tell them that it is called a circle. " What do you call this middle point ? " " What kind of line is this around the outside ? " " What do you know about the distance of this curved line from the centre ? '* Develop some such definition as the following: — ^A circle is a figure having a curved line around it, and every point in the curved line is the same distance from the centre. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL, 137 Busy Work, Have pupils cut circles of paper with scissors and paste them symmetrically on drawing paper, then draw the circle beneath. Let the children draw on their slates pictures of cir- cular objects, such as the face of a clock, target, plate, pipe hole, etc. Let them arrange their pegs as nearly in a circle as possible. Let them draw circles with squares as groundwork. If they have paints, let them paint circles of primary colors. Let them stand at the blackboard and draw large circles at arm's length rapidly with right and left hand. Suggestions. This lesson should be followed by a lesson on diameter. Do not let the children play with the cardboard. Have them think. Do not continue too long at one thing, but proceed rapidly from point to point, making the lesson as bright and lively as possible. Do not attempt to teach too much in one lesson. One- third of the accompanying lesson is a review. Drill a few moments on new facts when discovered. In busy work be satisfied with small beginnings, but insist on the pupil's best work. Clay Moulding. Clay can be secured from any potter. It may be used in moulding forms similar to objects taken up in natural science, e.g., birds, etc. (See page 115.) 138 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. It may also be used in moulding forms taken up in object lessons, preliminary to drawing lessons. Fhe following sequence and hints may be helpful : — A Sphere may be moulded. By additions it may be transformed into a tea-kettle, apple, cherry basket, etc. A Hemisphere may be made by cutting the sphere into two equal parts. By additions it may be transformed into toad-stool, bowl, cap, etc. A Circle may be illustrated by taking a plane slice from hemisphere. It may be transformed into a watch and chain in a case or on a card. Original forms may be made from these three in com- bination. To Mould a Cylinder, — Make a sphere first, then lengthen it by relling on the board, and flatten the two opposite ends. Transform into a syrup pitcher, water cooler and bottle. A Cube may be made from a sphere by flattening six opposite sides, giving six square flat faces, eight right corners and twelve clearly defined edges. The cube may be transformed into a house, coffee-mill, and ink-bottle. For the roof of the house, cut a cube the same size, by a diagonal line through one of its square faces. Place this triangular prison on top of the cube. Ornament accord- ingly. A half cube may be made by cutting a cube perpen- dicularly by a line running from edge to edge. This may be transformed into bureau, washstand, table, chair, etc. A Square may be illustrated by cutting a thin slice from this half cube. This may be transformed into chess-board, school-bag, etc. The children may continue with inventions, singly or in combination, from these normal types. PRIMARY TEACHERS^ MANUAL. 139 Kindergarten Forms. Kindergarten materials, where they can be procured by, the pupils, and where the teacher has devoted sufficient time and study to Kindergarten methods thoroughly to understand the objects and application of the materials used, can be utilized to good advantage in primary work, more particularly in form-study. Kindergarten forms are of three kinds, viz., forms of Life, Beauty, and Knowledge. Forms of Life are representation of objects with which the child is familiar in nature and in art, such as trees, birds, flowers, animals, etc., houses, furniture, monuments, archways, bridges, fences, etc. Forms of beauty are symmetrical forms made by working out from a given centre, always keeping opposites dike, as indicated on p. 93. See also pp. Good examples of such forms can be seen in an ordi- nary kaleidoscope. Forms of Knowledge are those constructed on a math- ematical basis, such as mathematical figures : e.g., the square, oblong, etc., also number-pictures, etc. (see p. 100). Materials. For the representation of these forms of Life, Beauty, and Knowledge many different kinds of materials can be used. It is necessary that each child should use the materials himself, and this will necessitate the securing of at least ten sets of all materials used. It is also well to have the material as large as practicable. The following materials may be advantageously used : I. Solids^ to illustrate three dimensions, such as, — 140 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. a. Wooden blocks. The fifth kindergarten gift is probably the best. It consists of twentj-seven inch cubes. Twentj-one of them are solid, three are divided diagonally into halves, and three twice diagonally into quarters. Each pupil should have the complete gift. Where this cannot be obtained, cubes one inch square can be obtained in bulk at a comparatively sliglit cost. Each pupil should have twenty of these blocks. They form the best material for sense-presentation in number- study. h. Cardboard boxes, formed by the pupils to illustrate life-forms. c. Models in clay, similarly formed. d. Natural-science specimen twigs, etc. e. Type solids for conventional form -study (see p. 134). II. Thin, flat objects illustrating an approach from solids of three dimensions to surfaces of two dimensions, such as, — a. Pasteboard tablets. These can be bought very cheaply by the thousand, or can be cut out of ordinary pasteboard into the square, oblong, triangular, circular, and other forms derived from the solids studied. These are probably the most valuable materials for constructing forms of beauty. They can be made of different colors, and used in conventional and original color-study (see p. 152). 5. Folding-paper. Colored Kindergarten paper cut in four-inch squares can be bought, or ordinary paper can cut up for use. These squares may be used for paper- cutting (see p. 148) and for paper-folding (see p. 146). c. l^atural-science specimens, such as leaves, etc., and representations of these in laminae of paper cut in shape PRIMARY teachers' MAKUAL. 141 of leaf, colored with colored pencil and arranged in beautiful forms. III. Long, thin objects illustrating the approach from the surface of two dimensions to the edge of one di- mension, such as, — a. Sticks. These can be bought or constructed in accurate lengths of one, two, three, or four inches. The largest size of shoemaker's pegs can be used. These materials are better when colored. Thej can be used in measurements and in construction of all representations where attentions should be drawn to the boundary of the figure. h. Straws, strips of paper, strings, etc. Kindergarten slats, both long and short, can be used for the same pur- pose. (See accompanying cuts.) lY. Short, thin objects illustrating the approach from the edge to the corner (and eventually the line to the point), such as seeds, pease, small pieces of paper, dots 142 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. on slate or blackboard, etc. Such materials are not as necessary as those of the three preceding groups, and can be easily dispensed with. Sequence. The first object of the use of such materials is to create interest by appealing to the natural impulses of self- activity, — play, expression, etc., — and by this means to arouse non-voluntary attention. This, however, is not the main object. There must be a growth from non-voluntary to voluntary attention. There must be not only the pres- entation of material for sensations, but also an orderly presentation. Furthermore, the mind must be led to act upon the sensations received and must form the habit of relating facts correctly. This will involve a certain amount of conventional work under the direct super- vision of the teacher. It is well to have a series commonly called a sequence of forms constructed, each growing out of the preceding, starting with the entire number of objects considered as a unity, -and by various changes coming back to the original form, such as the following. XT) In the accompanying cuts it will be seen that Form 2 PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 143 is formed from Form 1 by a similar movement of each of four tablets. Forms 3, 4, 6, and 6 are similarly formed, each from the preceding, by a very simple movement. Form 1 can now be formed from Form 6. In the earlier stages use very easy sequences, such as the one just in- dicated. Move the first tablet and have the pupils do the same, or direct them to move it as you wish it moved. Then question until they discover what other tablets must be moved, and in what ways, in order to preserve the proper balance. When they have constructed the entire sequence and returned to the original form, have them construct the sequence from memory. The pupils may now suggest the first change in the next sequence, 144 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. and proceed to construct a sequence working from within outward. After a few preliminary lessons, pupils learn to invent sequences composed of many difficult and beau- tiful forms : e.g., with the fifth gift they can begin with the cube, then change to a schoolhouse, then to a church, etc., each form growing out of the preceding. In such exercises the pupil requires but little direction from the teacher. He is thoroughly interested, his self-activity is aroused ; he investigates, originates and builds. The analytic power of mind is active, and his concept con- stantly becomes more definite. The synthetic power at the same time works toward a unity seizing upon rela- tions. For variety the pupil may construct a sequence by adding new material from form to form, as in the accompanying stick-laying sequence. JL PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 145 delation to Other Stitdy. It is well to have the forms based upon lessons studied, thus being a spontaneous expression of the pupil's con- cept : e.g., the following forms in stick-laying might follow a lesson on snowflakes ; More Com/prehensive Relations, After the pupil has become somewhat familiar with such work as the preceding, he may be led to take great 146 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. delight in and to receive much benefit from exercibes based upon a wider grouping, which may utilize all his materials and exercise his powers to the full. Take, for example, a story of the Easter-time, in which the child visits the country, is taken to the woods, and sees the wonderful process of the transformation of the sap of the maple into sugar. He may construct a sequence picturing forth the en- tire process in artistic forms of house, barn, sugar-camp, sap-trough, etc. Having constructed such sequence with blocks, he may proceed to model the forms in clay or cardboard, make a flat representation with sticks or tablets, draw pictures of his forms on slate, etc. Pa^er -folding. The child lays the sheet of paper straight before him on the desk. The teacher by a series of questions leads him to dis- cover properties of the square. Then by direction he is led to crease the paper in several directions, first diame- ters, then diagonals, always opening the sheet after each operation. A number of questions may here be asked as to forms obtained, sides, angles, etc.; then, by folding each of the four corners to the centre, an envelope is made. Place on desk so that back of envelope is upper- most, and we find by folding corners to centre again we have a smaller form having four squares on one side. On this form many changes can be made. Unfold this form to envelope- form. Unfold one of the four triangular pieces of envelope- PRIMARY TEACHERS^ MAiq'UAL. 147 form. This triangle will be seen to contain a square at outer corner. Beverse diagonal crease of this square, be- ginning at oitter corner of triangle. Proceed similarly with other three triangles, working by opposites, being careful to see that the entire triiangle is turned down in each case. As a result you obtain what is commonly called the table-cloth ground form, having as its top the four inside squares of form obtained above by refolding envelope-form — that is, the diagonal of top will be part of first diagonal of the whole piece, and will be one half as long as first diagonal. Turn table-cloth form upside down, and press middle of edges to centre, the triangular corners standing up like the legs of an inverted table. Open each of these up- right triangular parts, and press outer corner down toward centre, as in the accompanying figure. The skilful teacher will be able to change to many other beautiful forms, each growing out of the preceding. 148 FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Yery pretty mottoes for the schoolroom may be made by pasting such forms as the above on cardboard letters cut in proper shape. Two colors can be included by pasting two sheets to- gether before folding (see p. 20). PEIMARY TEACHERS^ MANUAL. 149 Paj^er -cutting. The accompanying series of figures are intended to illustrate paper-cutting. Fig. 1 represents the original square of paper. Fig. 2 represents first fold across diag- onal. Fig. 3 represents second fold, which is a smaller triangle formed by folding triangle from right to left. Figs. 4 and 5 represent similar foldings, making triangle still smaller. Fig. 6 represents the line to be cut with scissors from apex to centre of base of triangle. Before cutting have child fold back one of the tri- angles, so as to have a form resembling a butterfly, as in Fig. 6. Figs. Y and 8 represent two arrangements of the mate- rial after cutting and pasting. The teacher may make a connected series of such cut- tings proceeding from vertical as in above, to complicated cuttings having vertical, horizontal, and slanting lines meeting in various points. The accompanying figure represents a form of this kind. 150 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Without illustrating further in detail, the following suggestions will enable teachers to extend the work de- scribed in the foregoing pages : The fifth Kindergarten gift can be utilized to good advantage in form study. (See Kindergarten Guide, Madam Kraus.) It consists of twenty-seven inch cubes ; twenty-one of them are solid, three are divided diagonally into halves, and three twice diagonally into quarters. These cubes form an almost endless variety of busy work in making forms of Beauty, Life, and Knowledge. The teacher may draw a picture of the required form on the blackboard and give each child in a section a box of cubes. After a little preliminary explanation the pupils will construct the forms without any assistance. They should be urged to invent and make new designs. The pictures may be left on the board. The use of the fifth gift may also be connected with interesting numerical lessons. Divide cube into three parts horizontally. Divide thirds into three parts, giving ninths. Divide ninths into three parts, giving twenty-sevenths. Recombine into ninths, then into thirds. Slats. The slats of the tenth Kindergarten gift may also be used. These are of wood, ten inches long and two fifths of an inch wide. They are used for interlacing into a great many forms. The child seldom tires of the beautiful figures created by his active fancy and dextrous fingers. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 151 Slats of an inferior quality may be secured in bundles of about three hundred, at ten cents per bundle. The best hardwood slats, in six different colors, cost about twenty-five cents per hundred. In assigning busy work with slats, have a number of forms drawn on the blackboard. It will be necessary to explain the method of making the combinations for a few times, then the child will discover for himself. Parquetry. Parquetry papers, gummed on one side and colored on the other, can be used to form mosaics or artistic forms mounted on sheets of cardboard. These papers consist of squares, right-angled triangles, scalene and isosceles tri- angles. Children can reproduce the forms of beauty in the fifth gift in this work, combining colors in harmony. By moistening the gummed side of the paper they adhere to the cardboard. This forms excellent busy work, but is somewhat ex- pensive. The papers can be got as Kindergarten sup- plies, boxes of 1,000 costing about forty cents. Colored paper may also be obtained in large sheets, and cut into the required form by the children. This is somewhat cheaper. This paper is not gummed, however, and mucilage must be used. Shoe-pegs. Common shoemaker's pegs of the largest size^ dyed various colors, can be used to advantage in form, expres- sion, and number work. 152 i'lRST YEAR AT SCHOOL, Color. Apart from the culture of the aesthetic taste the im- portance of a knowledge of color in every day life ren- ders it necessary that the child should be trained in this department from the very first. In his science lessons the pupil by a study of the beautiful color effects to be observed in nature is led al- most imperceptibly from his first pleasure in glowing con- trasts to the deeper enjoyment of softer blendings. This educative process can be hastened by having the pupil match colored tablets both to dictation and spontaneously. This latter work will, however, require supervision, espec- ially at first, for it is probably unwise to allow pupils to form a habit of combining colors in hideous and inar- tistic arrangement. Colored pencils may be used during the first half year, and water color paints the second half. In using these each pupil has a box of paints and a small glass bottle with wide top for holding water, also a cloth for cleaning box and brushes. The boxes can be secured for about twenty -five cents each. The paints are prefei^ble to the pencils in results and very little children do excellent work with themr In ordinary schools it may be as well to confine the at- tention during the first school year to the observing, nam- ing, discriminating and arranging of different colors with- out attempting any study of the spectrum or mixing of PRDHARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 153 pigments. The teacher should, how-ever, endeavor to familiarize herself with the subject. The conventional work when attempted may be con- fined mainly to the primary and secondary colors. Teach one color at a time, and illustrate by numerous examples. The study possesses such an attraction for little people that it may be introduced for recreation. The first Kindergarten Gift, containing six woollen balls, representing the primary and secondary colors, costs about $1.00. Lesson 23. — Color. Purpose. — To teach secondary colors from primary, using colored crayon and 1st Kindergarten Gift. Plan. — Drill on the primary or standard colors — red, yellow and blue, previously learned. Hold up the red ball. Ask pupils to take a piece of crayon of the same color as the ball Have pupils make, near the upper left hand corner of their paper, a broad, vertical mark, about an inch long, with the red crayon. Similarly, taking yellow crayon, have them make a broad, horizontal mark, an inch long, from left to right, beginning at the top of the red line. At the place where the lines meet, mix the - two colors, applying a little of each. " Tell me a fruit that is the same color as the new color." " What is the name of this new color ? " " What two colors did you mix to get orange ? " Ask questions for drill such as, " If I look through a yellow glass at a red house, what color will the house seem to be ? " Suggestions. The teacher should supervise the mixing of the colors. 154 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Such lessons may be given in a full room by having one pupil come forward and draw the colored lines on the board. Have children bring orange colored objects. Have pupils note complementary colors. Writing. Writing, or " talking with the pencil," is, after gesture and spoken language, the next great means of thought expression. The sooner a child can write easily and well, the sooner he will have in his hands a means to express his own thoughts in an interesting and profitable way. A child trained from the first to the proper forms of the letters will not require to spend any time cor- recting and changing his writing when he reaches a higher grade. The materials for writing consist of script cardboard copy, pencil, and slate or paper. It is well to rule slates on one side at least. The ruling can be done with a common ruler and an old knife. Make the small letters one-fourth inch in height, and long letters (as " f ") three spaces high, i. e., five spaces long. Rule lines at the top and bottom of these long letters, but do not rule for two space letters (as " t "). Thus you will have a line one-half-inch from the top of the slate, a second line a quarter of an inch below the first, a third line one-half inch below the second, a fourth line one-quarter inch below the third, and so on. When available much better results will be obtained by writing on paper slips specially prepared for this purpose. These paper slips are ruled with red ink, and are 8 J PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 155 inches long by 3J inches wide, the ruling being similar to that of slates, thus : — These can be used on Friday to send home with sample of the children's writing of the words learned during tlie week. To obtain an approach to perfect handwriting from the little child requires constant watchfulness and labor. If possible, he should never be allowed to see an incorrect form. In order that this rule may be observed, the teacher must be able to present an almost perfect model of writing on the board. She must be able to write rapidly as well as correctly, and this requires long practice. The child should be given sufficient time to do his best work when writing, and then nothing but his best should be accepted. 156 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. A firm, rigid drill, at first, on the proper position o£ body, arm, and hand, will tend to produce an easy and perfect writer afterwards. The child should sit squarely in front of the desk, the feet being placed flat on the floor. The forearm should be kept at right angles to the writing line and should form an angle of not less than 90 degrees with the arm. The pen should be held loosely between the thumb and two first fingers, the pen-holder pointing over the shoulder. The whole arm movement should be used, exercises being conducted in it with pencils on slate or paper, in time to the tesicher's counting or to music. These exer- cises are more important than the formation of the letters. Daily practice in drawing horizontal lines, ovals, etc., rapidly, to gain freedom of execution, is absolutely necessary . Insist upon long pencils for writing, and do ypur best to encourage the whole arm movement and perfect posi- tion of the hand from the first. The end to be attained is certainly worthy of persistent eflbrt, and the results are often surprisingly satisfactory. Stencils will be found useful in showing the proper position of the hand in writing. Where children experience great difficulty in beginning with the whole word it is well to begin with the elemen- tary principles, which in all cases should go hand-in-hand with the other writing and should be taken up daily with the whole class. On the first day of school the children may begin by making the first principle or " one " on their slates. This furnishes profitable and entertaining busy work for the little folk before they can write anything, and also drills them on correct position. The pupils may be told that PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 157 the marks are little boys running, and they are in such a hurry to get away that they all lean over. Such a device will interest the children, and they will work away happily. Proceed with the elements of the letters until all have been made. Then attempt a whole letter. The letter " i " is an easy one to start with. Practice this one letter until they can make it almost perfectly. Then take the next harder, and so on until all are finished. Search for little devices and suggestions to make the work bright, and you will soon have a class of excellent writers. In marking slates for writing, it is a good device to sketch with colored crayon a daisy, pansy, flag, or some- thing similar on those slates that deserve it ; or you may simply write the capital " R,," and for any remarkably neat slates, add "4- 1 as a reward." Songs and Calisthenics. In teaching a new song, lead the children to talk about the subject until they become thoroughly interested. Bead the first line and have them repeat it after you, and so on with the first stanza. It is as well to teach one stanza at a time. Teach the singing by singing the first line yourself alone, and then wdth the children accom- panying you. Be careful to check discord and insist upon pupils learning correctly what they attempt. Do not allow children to strain their voices. After they have learned the piece by heart and learned to sing it, teach the exercises, line by line. The work must be done almost entirely by imitation. There should be some kind of musical instrument in every primary class room. 158 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. In selecting songs, be careful that the song is not so childish as to appear silly to the pupils. The songs should also suit the time of year and day, e.g., children will not sing " It is lovely May " half as heartily in December as in May. Song. The following is a simple song, suitable for primary grades, combining, as it does, both exercise and singing : Here we stand, hand in hand, Ready for our exercise ; Heads upright, with delight Sparkling in our laughing eyes. CHORUS. — Singing cheerily, cheerily, cheerily, Clapping merrily, merrily, merrily, One, two, three, don't you see Where the children love to be ? PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 159 The children stand in straight lines, holding each other's hands, with heads erect, and faces animated. In the chorus, when the word "clapping" is reached, they clap hands softly, four times, once on " clapping," and once on each " merrily." II. Right hand up, left hand up, Twirling see our fingers go ! Folded now, let us bow, Gently to each other, so ! Singing, etc. In the first line the children extend first the right, and then the left hand above the head, and in second line move the fingers rapidly, with arms still extended. In third line arms are folded, and in fourth, children bow to each other, at the word " so." III. Eastward point, westward point, Left hand nadir, zenith right, Forward fold, backward fold, Arms a-kimbo, chests upright. Singing, etc. In the first line the children point, with arm extended, in the directions indicated. In the second, the left hand points downward and the right upward. In the next the arms are folded in front, then behind, in the last line the hands are placed on the hips, the chest being active. IV. Upright stand, lungs expand, Backward make our snoulders go, Life and health, comfort, wealth. We cpji thus improve, you know. Singing, etc. 6 160 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Children stand erect, heels together, chests active, and roll shoulders backward. V. Now we're done, with our fun, Let us to our work return, Doing right gives delight, So we will our lessons learn. The tonic sol-fa is just the thing for children a little older, but is not used very much during the first year. The singing of hymns in schools should not be accom- panied by Calisthenic exercises. Make the exercises attractive and give the commands in such a prompt, enthusiastic way, as to convince pupils that you like them yourself, know how to perform them, and intend that they shall, too. Exercises should combine health, recreation and cul- ture. The motions should be neither exclusively angles nor curves. They should prepare the pupil for gesture in reading, and for a graceful bearing on the street. They can be so chosen that there will be a sequence in the movements, and yet no monotony. The play impulse should be allowed free action. Teach the pupils healthful, suitable plays and see that they play without restraint. There is no better opportunity for child study and child growth than that afibrded on the " uncovered school room." » PiaMARY teachers' MANUAL. 161 CHAPTER VIII. MORAL TRAINING. As the intellectual is superior to the physical, so is the moral more important than the intellectual, and the state- ment that " the highest object of all education is to gain power to help others " is in the ultimate analysis not far from the truth. The main objects of moral training are to awaken the moral sense, to create high moral ideas, to lead the child to an intelligent apprehension of his duties to himself, to others and to God, and finally to enlist his will on the side of right. " If a child knew himself thoroughly, he would from that knowledge be more likely to do what he ought." Within him are forces tending to drag him downward, and opposing forces tending upward. He is possessed of a power which enables him to concentrate his attention upon that motive, which lifts towards the highest ideal, until the motive becomes stronger than any other. In early child-life almost every act requires a conscious effort of the will. After a time the action becomes quite involuntary, and eventually, as the force of habit grows stronger, an effort is necessary to prevent the repetition of the act. " Perfection is attained not by a having and a resting, but by a growing and a becoming." One kindly act, consciously and voluntarily performed, has a greater effect in strengthening will-power than a large amount of unconscious goodness. It is difl&cult to determine exactly how much promi- nence should be given to definite ethical teaching in the 162' FIRST TEAR AT SCHOOL- school-room. The results which usually follow lengthy dissertations on morals, seem to prove that preaching is not the teacher's forte. The most effectual work will be found to be accomplished rather by example than by pre- cept. Nevertheless, character building is never lost sight of by the judicious teacher. The last half hour of each day may with advantage be devoted to language lessons, selected mainly for moral training, although this object should seldom be promin- ently emphasized. In the primary grade the song impulse maybe utilized as a pleasing and effective method of uncon- sciously inculcating ethics. In addition to the foregoing exercises, there will inci- dentally arise many opportunities when pupils are plastic for the reception of moral truth, times when a simple word from the heart to the heart will leave an impress for all time. Many a child has been saved to a life of purity and usefulness by a single sentence spoken at the proper moment. But the greatest wisdom and tact are necessary for such occasions, and it is better to say no- thing at all than to run great risk of making a mistake. The wise teacher will wait until she is close enough to her pupils to hear their hearts beat, before attempting such work as this. The child's environments also exert a potent influence upon his morals, and care should be taken to see that he is not led into temptation, and that he is surrounded by such influences as shall tend to create in him a love for the good, the beautiful and the true. The countless charms, such as mottoes, pictures, etc., which can be introduced to beautify the room and render school life happy, may be so utilized as to serve a higher purpose than the mere giving of pleasure. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 163 Self. In order that the pupil may have a sound mind in a sound body, it is essential that he possess lofty ideals of physical as well as of moral perfection, and that he be sympathetically and at first informally led to a know- ledge of the marvellous structure and functions of his physical organism and of the laws of its development and preservation. One half hour language lesson, per week, may be pro- fitably devoted to such study and investigation. The teacher may begin with a general talk on the body, its parts, etc., with the object of interesting the pupil in the subject. The parts may then be taken in the following order : Head, trunk, upper extremities, lower extremities. Three or more lessons may be taken on each of these parts dwelling on : (a) The structure of the part, names of its parts, etc. (h) The functions of the part and of its parts. (c) The care of the part and of its parts. It is probably better not to spend much time on anatomy and physiology as such. • A closer study may be taken incidentally in natural science by way of com- parison. It is mainly in the lessons on hygiene that the moral element will be introduced, and the number of these lessons can be extended to include such subjects as the following : (a) Personal cleanliness, its necessity and results; washing hands and face, brushing hair, cleaning shoes, etc. (Soap, towel and brush are often convenient acces- sories to a primary school-room.) 164j first year at school. (6) Neatness and as far as possible beauty in dress, harmony in color, etc. (c) Food, care of teeth, etc. (d) Sleep. (e) Exercise, how made helpful, how injurious. (f) Habits, good and bad, swearing, lying, punctuality, copying, etc. This self-study leads the pupil to a consideration of his rights and of the obligations which others owe to him, and from this he naturally proceeds to a study of the sayings and doings of others and of his duties to them. Others. The child comes to us when fancy is at its highest point. He creates his own little world, and lives in the future. No one can estimate the teacher's power to make this fanciful world a pure one, and in no better way can this be accomplished than by beautiful stories. Whether these be Bible stories or fairy tales, they should be care- fully chosen to suit the requirements of the pupil. There comes a time when the child no longer believes in Santa Glaus, but it does not follow that he is then ready for the study of the Calculus or the Categories. Again, the selections should be made from the best authors. In this way the child learns language by the correct method. He becomes saturated with good Eng- lish, and speaks it spontaneously. All children love to hear stories, and the teacher who knows how to tell a story well will foster a love for history in the young mind, which will make the subject as interesting as a fairy tale. By careful selections she will be able to impart considerable information, which PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 165 can be classified in later years when the child enters upon the study of history proper. Indeed he should then find himself quite at home with such characters as Alfred, Watt and Howard. He may study a little local history in these language lessons. Most people like to talk about themselves and their relatives. The teacher must, of course, be cautious in dealing with the history of the pioneers of the vicinity, its progress, etc., but the good tactician will experience no diflficulty here. In these stories an endeavor should be made to impress upon the young mind the advantages of civil and religious liberty enjoyed by us, and to lead his mind back to the time when our forefathers suffered in order that we might inherit these blessings, thus preparing him for a philo- sophical study of history. The special advantage of such study is that in it the teacher has ample opportunity to exercise her highest power, that of " heart culture." It is not necessary to tack a moral to the end of a story in order to give a boy a higher conception of what is pure and noble. It is well to tell the story and have children reproduce it for you in their own words. The exercise may be varied with good effect by having the children tell the stories. Literary Game. Children should be taught to memorize selections of beautiful English. Youth is the most retentive period, and the gems of literature memorized will serve as a fund for after life. This consideration is one which is apt to be overlooked, especially by ardent admirers of objective methods. Friday afternoons may be devoted to recitations, 166 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. dialogues, singing, etc., and the pupils should be assisted in making their selections. This is the time for the teacher to cultivate a love for a kind of literary entertain- ment, which, in some places, is unfortunately compelled to give place to that which presents the veriest trash. The small child naturally has as high an appreciation for choice literature suited to his age as he has for maudlin sentimentality and debased language, which deprave the taste and weaken the mind. In the hands of a good teacher he will enter heartily into the discussion of such gems as this by J. A. Garfield : — " Ideas are the warriors of the world." The following sequence is suggested as a basis for sub- jects for stories and gems, in addition to those under the heading of *' self." Deportment — Politeness to others, e. g., not to in- terrupt others, or pass in front of them ; conduct on the street and in the school-room, etc. Cultivation of such qualities as generosity, self-sacrifice, true courage, truthfulness, honesty, obedience, thought- fulness, modesty, kindness, charity, above all self-control. Co-operation. From the ethical standpoint the educational value of social work in which a number af pupils aid one another in the creation of one common product is very great. The pupil by performing such acts of helpfulness culti- vates a spirit of unselfishness and unconsciously gains information which will make him a better citizen in after life. The boy who does not care to play but who cheerfully takes part in a game which requires a certain number of MIMARY TEACHERS MANUAL. 16? players and which cannot be played unless he takes part, is growing stronger morally. The best expression will be given in reading and language when the pupil reads or tella his story, not simply because he has been asked to do so, but rather because he has a desire to impart pleasing information to the rest of the class. Original forms can be constructed by children at a table with colored tablets, each child forming his part, and pupils can mould in sand as indicated on page 127. These are but a few of the many ways in which pupils can be led to perceive the principle of vicariousness and the necessity for helping others. By such training the teacher will do much towards the ultimate practical solution of the most vexed and difficult problems of Political Economy. 168 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. Supplies. — The character of the work done in the schooh'oom is largely conditioned by the qnality and quantity of the materials furnished. The following list (which is only suggestive) indicates materials which can be utilized in a primary classroom of forty pupils. In the case of permanent materials e.g., '' cubes," the amount named is what might be required at the begin- ning. In other cases, e.g., " drawing-paper," the amount named is supposed to be sufficient for one year. Materials for cabinet (see p. 125). 40 First Keading-books, all of the same kind, for se- quential work in class. 4 sets First Readers, 12 in each set, from 4 different series, for supplementary reading; also books containing easy stories. Reading, phonic, and language-lesson charts. 80 lead pencils. 3000 foolscap slips (see p. 155). 40 slates. 40 slate pencils. 40 rulers. Scribbling-paper, cut 4 inches by 6 inches. 1000 one-inch cubes. 2 quarts large shoe-pegs. 3 bunches long slats (see p. 150). 3 bunches short slats. 1 moulding-board (see p. 126). 20 tin trays for moulding. 3 gallons sand. 3000 sheets drawing-paper, cut 6 inches b}^ 8 inches. Drawing-materials (see p. 134). 1 box colored crayon. 5 boxes white crayon. 6 blackboard brushes. Reference-books for teachers' use. PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 169 BOOKS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. The Primary Teacher in preparing lessons, constantly requires books of reference, and should have a well- stored library. The following list is submitted as a help in making- selections : — Applied Psychology, McLellan ; Arithmetic, Wentworth and Reed ; Arithmetic, Appleton ; Arithmetic Industrial, Baldwin ; Art of School Management, Baldwin ; Art of Securing Attention, Hughes ; Child and Nature, Frye ; Development Lessons, DeGraff ; Early Child Culture, Hailmann ; Education by Doing, Anna Jonson; Education, Fitch ; Education of Man, Froebel ; Elocution, Mrs. Shoemaker ; First Three Years of Child Life, Perez ; Fitch on Teaching ; From Cradle to School, Meyer ; Kindergarten Guide, Madame Krauss ; Kindergarten Songs, Mrs. Hubbard ; Kinder- garten Songs, Mrs. Hughes ; Language Lessons, R. K. Row ; Lectures on Education, Jos. Payne ; Leonard and Gertrude Pesta- lozzi ; Object Lessons, Calkin ; Object Lessons, Sheldon ; Physical Culture, Houghton ; Practical Teacher, Parker ; Principles and Practice of Teaching, Johonnot ; Quincy Methods, Patridge ; Synthetic Method, Pollard ; Unconscious Tuition, Huntington ; Hans Anderson's Fairy Tales ; Claws and Hoofs ; Wings and Fins ; Stories about Cats, Mrs. Surr ; Fairyland of Science, Arabella Buckley ; Life and her Children ; Natural History for Little Folks' Series, Bees, Butterflies, etc. , Mrs. Sanborn Temay ; Greek Heroes, Charles Kingsley ; Water Babies ; Madame What and Lady Why ; Seven Little Sisters, Jane Andrews ; Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago to Now ; Little Lord Fauntleroy, Frances Hodgson Burnet ; Hawthorne's Wonder Book ; Little Friends in Feaithera and Fur, Johonnot* The Best Educational Periodicals. The School Journal is published weekly at $2.50 a year and is in its 23rd year. It is the oldest, best known and widest circulated educational weekly in the U. S. The Journal is filled with ideas that will surely advance the teachers' conception of education. The best brain work on the work of professional teaching is found in it — not theoretical essays, nor pieces scissored out of other journals — The School Journal has its own special writers — the ablest in the world. The Primary School is published monthly from September to June at $1.00 a year. It is the ideal paper for primary teachers, being devoted almost exclusively to original primary methods and devices. Several entirely new features this year of great value. The Teachers' Institute is published monthly, at $1.00 a year. It is edited in the same spirit and from the same standpoint as The Journal, and has ever since it was started in 1S7S been the r?20si pc-pulor educa- tional monthly published, circulating in ever) state. Every line is to the point. It is finely printed and crowded with illustra- tions made specially for it. Every study taught by the teacher is covered in each issue. EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. This is not a paper, but a series of small monthly volumes that bear on Professional Teaching. It is useful for those who vrant to study the foundations of education ; for Normal Schools, Training Classes, Teachers* Institutes and individual teachers. If you desire to teach protessionally you will want it. Hand- some paper covers, 64pp. each month. The Histon,-, Science, Methods, and Civics of education are discussed each month, and it also contains all of the N. Y, State Examination Ques- tions and Answers. OUR TIMES gives a resume of the important news of the month— not the murders, the scandals, etc., but the news that bears upon the progress of the world and specially written for the school-room. It is the brightest and best edited paper of current events pub- lished, and so cheap that it can be afforded by every pupil. Club rates, 25 cents. %* Select the paper suited to your needs and send for a fret sample. Sa*nples of all the papers 25 cents, E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York and Chicago. Best Books for Teachers, Classified List under Subjects. To aid teachers to procure the books best suited to their purpose, we give below a list of our publications classified under subjects. The division Is sometimes a diflBcult one to make, so that we have in many cases placed the same book uuder several titles; for instance, Currie's Early Education appears under Principles and "Practice of Education, and also Primary Education. Recent books are starred, thus * HISTORY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- Our By nATA-DQ wn Retail. Price to Mail l/Ai.UJt.9, JLXKf. Teachers Extra Allen's Historic Outlines ot Education, - - paper .15 pd. Autobiography of Froebel, cl. .50 .40 .05 Browning's Aspects of Education Best edition. cloth .25 .20 .03 " Educational Theories. Best edition. cl. .50 .40 ,05 ♦Educational Foundations, bound vol. '91-'93, paper .60 pd. ♦ " " " '93-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. Kellogg's Life of Pestalozzl, _ _ _ _ paper .15 pd. Lang's Comenius, ______ paper .15 pd. " Basedow, --_____ paper .15 pd. ♦ " Rousseau and his "Emile" _ _ _ paper .15 pd. ♦ " Horace Mann, ----__ paper .15 pd. ♦ " Great Teachers of Four Centuries, - cl. .25 .30 .03 ♦ " Herbart and His Outlines of the Science of Education. - _ - _ _ cl. .25 .30 .03 Phelps' Life of Da^nd P, Page, - - - - paper .15 pd. Quick's Educational Reformers, Best edition. - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 ♦Reinhart's History of Education, - - - cl. .25 .30 .03 PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - - paper .15 pd. ♦Educational Foun dations, bound vol. '91-'92, paper .60 pd. ♦ '' " " '92-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. Fitch's Improvement in Teaching, - _ - paper .15 pd. ♦HaU (G. S.) Contents of Children's Minds, - cl. .25 .30 .03 Huntington's Unconscious Tuition, - _ _ paper .15 pd. Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. LOO .80 .08 Reinhart's Principles of Education, _ _ _ cl. .25 .30 .03 ♦Spencer's Education. Best edition. - - - cl. 1.00 .80 .10 Perez's First Three Years of Childhood, - - cl. 1.50 1.30 .10 ♦Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics, _ _ _ cl. .75 .60 .08 Tate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - cl. 1.50 1.80 .10 ♦Teachers' Manual Series, 2i nos. ready, each, paper .15 pd. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Allen's Mind Studies for Young Teachers, - cl. .50 .40 .05 Allen's Temperament in Education, _ _ _ cl. .50 .40 .05 ♦Kellogg's Outlines of Psychology, - - - paper .25 .30 03. Perez's First Three Years of Childhood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 1.30 .10 Rooper's Apperception, Best edition. - - cl. .25 .30 .03 Welch's Teachers' Psychology, - - - - cl. 1.25 1.00 .10 " Talks on Psychoiogyi - - - - cl. .60 .40 .05 GENERAL METHODS AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. Ourrie's Early Education, ----- cl. Fitca's Art of Questioning, ----- paper " Art of Securing Attention - - _ paper " Lectures on Teaching, - - .. - cl. Gladstone's Object Teaching, _ _ _ _ paper Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching. Best edition. - cl. " Securing and Ketaining Attention, Best ed. cl. " How to Keep Order. _ _ _ _ paper Kellogg's School Management. - - - - cl. McMurry's How to Conduct the Recitation, - paper ♦Parker's Talks on Pedagogics. cl. " Talks on Teaching, _ _ _ _ cl. " Practical Teacher, ----- cl. ♦Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching, - cl. Patridge's Quincy Methods, illustrated, - - cl. Quick's How to Train the Memory, > - - - paper ♦Rein's Pedagogics, ------ cl. ♦Keinhart's Principles of Education, - - cl. ♦ " Civics in Education, - - - - cl. ^Rooper's Object Teaching, _ _ _ _ cl. Sidgwick's Stimulus in School, - - - - paper Shaw and Donneli's School Devices, - - - cl. Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching, - - cl. Yonge's Practical Work in School, - - - paper METHODS IN SPECIIL SUBJECTS. 1.35 1.35 .50 .50 1.50 1.25 1.50 .80 1.75 .75 .25 .25 .25 1.25 .75 Augsburg's Easy Drawings for Geog. Class, " Easy Things to Draw, ♦Bnrnz Step by Step Primer, _ _ _ _ Calkins' How to Teach Phonics, _ - - Dewey's How to Teach Manners, _ - _ Gladstone's Object Teaching, - - _ - Hughes' How to Keep Order, - - - - ♦lies' A Class in Geometry ----- Johnson's Education by Doing, - - _ ♦Keilosrg's How to "Write Compositions - Kellogg's Geography by Map Drawing ♦Picture Language Cards, 3 sets, each, Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, " Grube Idea in Teaching Arithmetic Smith's Rapid Practice Cards, WoodhuU's Easy Experiments m Science, paper paper cl. cl. paper paper cl. paper cl. cl. cl. 33 sets, each cl. PRIMARY AND KINDERGARTEN .50 .30 .50 .50 .30 .50 .50 1.00 .30 .50 Calkins' How to Teach Phonics, _ _ _ cl. .50 Currie's Early Education, ----- cl. 1.25 Gladstone's Object Teaching, _ - _ - paper Autobiography of Froebel, - - - _ cl. .50 Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts, - - - - paper Johnson's Education by Doing, - - - - cl. .50 ♦KUburn's Manual of Elementary Teaching - 1 50 Parker's Talks on Teaching, _ _ - - cl. 1.25 Patridge's Quincy Methods, - - - _ cl. 1.75 Rooper's Object Teaching, ----- cl. .25 Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, cl. 1.00 " Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, - cl. .30 ♦Sinclair's First Years at School, - - : - cl. .75 1.00 .15 .15 1.00 .15 .40 .40 .15 .60 .15 1.20 1.00 1.20 .64 1.40 .15 .60 .20 .20 .20 .16 1.00 .60 .15 .40 .24 .25 .40 .40 .15 .15 .24 .40 15 .40 .30 .80 .24 .50 .40 .40 1.00 .15 .40 .15 .40 1.20 1.00 1.40 .20 .80 .24 .60 .08 Pd pd. pd. pd. .05 .05 pd. .05 pd. .12 .09 .14 .08 .13 pd. .08 .03 .03 .03 pd. .10 .05 pd. .05 .03 pd. .05 .05 pd. pd. .03 .05 pd. .05 pd. .07 .03 .05 .a5 .08 pd. .05 pd. .On .10 .m .13 .03 .07 .03 .06 MANUAL TBAININO. Butler's Argument for Manual Training, - - paper .15 pd. ♦Larsson's Text-Book of Sloyd, - - - - ol. 1.50 1.30 .15 Love's Industrial Education, _ _ _ - cl. 1.50 1,30 .12 ♦Upham's Fifty Lessons in Woodworking, - cl. .50 .40 .05 QUESTION BOOKS FOB TEACHERS. Analytical Question Series. Geography, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 '^ " " U. S. History, - cl. .50 .40 .05 " " " Grammar, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 ♦Educational Foundations, bound vol. '91-'93, paper .60 pd. * " " . " '9;3-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. N. Y. State Examination Quest ons, - ,- - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 ♦Shaw's National Question Book Newly rev' sed. 1.75 pd. Southwick's Handy Helps, ----- cl. 1.00 .80 .08 Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching. Best edition, cl. .75 .60 .05 PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE. GrofE's School Hygiene, _ _ _ _ _ paper .15 pd. MISCELLANEOUS. BlaiMe On Self Cultiu-e, ----- cl. .25 .30 .03 Fitch's Improvement in Education, - - - paper .15 pd. Gardner's Town and Country School Buildings, cl. 3.50 3.00 .13 Lubbock's Best 100 Books, ----- paper .30 pd. Pooler's N. Y. School Law, ----- cl. .30 .24 .03 Portrait of Washington, ----- 5.00 pd. ♦Walsh's Great liulers of the World, - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 Wilhelm's Student's Calendar, - - - _ paper .30 .34 .03 Bas-Reliefs of 13 Authors, each, - - - 100 pd. SINGING AND DIALOGUE BOOKS. ♦Arbor Day, How to Celebrate It, - - - paper .35 pd. Reception Uay Series, 6 Nos. (Set SI. 40 postpaid.'* Each. .30 .84 .03 Song Treasures. ------- paper .15 pd. ♦Best Primary Songs. Tiew - - - - - - - .15 pd. ♦Washington's Birthday, How to Celebrate It, - paper .35 pd. SCHOOL APPARATUS. Smith's Rapid Practice Arithmetic Cards, (33 sets). Each, .50 pd. " Standard " Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) Price on application. *'ManWonderlul" Manikin, - - - - 4.00 pd. Standard Blackboard Stencils, 500 different nos., from 5 to 50 cen<"s each. Send for special catalogue. " Unique" Pencil Sharpener, _ - - - 1.50 .10 ♦Russell's Solar Lantern, ----- 35.00 pd. Standard Physician's Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) ^W° 100 page classified, illustrated, descriptive Catalogue of the above and many other Method Books, Teachers' Helps, sent free. 100 pageCat- loguelof books tor teachers, of allSpuWishers, light school apparatus, etc., sent free. Each of these con; ain our special teachers' prices. E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York & Chicago. SEND ALL ORDERS TO . 6 E. L. EELLOQQ & CO., NEW YORK & GEICAOO. i Aliens Mind Studies for Young Teach- EES. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. There are many teachers who know little about psychology, and who desire to be better in- formed concerning its princi- ples, especially its relation to the work of teaching. For the aid of such, this book has been pre- pared. But it is not a psychol- ogy — only an introduction to it, aiming to give some funda- mental principles, together with something concerning the phi- losophy of education. Its meth- ™-^..^^ od is subjective rather than ob- ^'^fi jective, leading the student to ' A^'l watch mental processes, and draw his own conclusions. It , ^ ^ , is written in language easy to '^^-jsr / ' be comprehended, and has many Jerome Allen, Ph.D.,Associate Editor practical illustrations. It will of the Journal and Institute. aid the teacher in his daily work in dealing with mental facts and states. To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will appreciate this feature of ITS Mind Studies. CONTENTS. CHAP. I. How to Study Mind. II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. III. Development. IV. Mind Incentives. V. A few Fundamental Principles Settled. VI. Temperaments. VII. Training of the Senses. Vni. Attention. IX. Perception. X. Abstraction. XI. Faculties used in Abstract Thinking. CHAP. XII. From the Subjective to the Conceptive. Xin. The Will. XIV. Diseases of the Will. XV. Kinds of Memory. XVI. The Sensibilities. XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities to the Will. XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities to Morality. XX. The Imagination. XX^. Imagination in its Maturity. y^T[. Education of the Moral Sens*. SEND ALL ORDERS TO E. L. KELLOOQ & CO., NEW YORE & CHICAGO. 33 Reception Day. 6 3^os. A collection of fresh and original dialogues, recitations, decla- mations, and short pieces for practical use in Public and Private Schools. Bound in handsome new paper cover, 160 pages each, printed on laid paper. Price, 30 cents each; U teachers, 34 cents; by mail, 3 cents extra. The exercises in these books bear upon education; have a rela- tion to the school-room. 1. The dialogues, recitations, and declamations gathered iu this volume being fresh, short, ^^^^M'^^^^Y^^''^^^^. ^^^ ^^^y ^^ ^^ comprehended, are ~-u ■■-■■■ ■•:■. ...-*.?«'.•< q£ q^j, gfjjjools 2. They have mainly been used by teachers for actual school exercises. 3. They cover a different ground from the speeches of Demosthenes and Cicero — which are unfitted for boys of twelve to sixteen years of age. 4. They have some practical in- terest for those who use them. 5. There is not a vicious sen- tence uttered. In some dialogue books profanity is found, or dis- obedience to parents encouraged, or lying laughed at. Let teachers look out for this. 6. There is something for the New Cover. youngest pupils. 7. "Memorial Day Exercises" for Bryant, Garfield, Lincoln, etc., will be found. 8. Several Tree Planting exercises are included. 9. The exercises have relation to the school-room, and bear upon education. 10. An important point is the freshness of these pieces. Most of them were written expressly for this collection, and can be found nowhere else. Boston Journal of Education.— ■" It is of practical value." Detroit Free Press.—" Suitable for public and private schools." Western Ed. Journal.—" A series of very good selections." SEND ALL ORDERS TO M K L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YOllK & CHICAGO. WHAT EACH NUMBER CONTAINS. No. 1 Is a specially fiue number. One dia- logue in it, called " Work Conquers," for 11 girls and 6 bojs, has been given hundreds of times, and is alone worth the price of the book. Then there are 21 other dialogues. 29 Recitations. 14 Declamations. 17 Pieces for the Primary Class. No. 2 Contains 29 Recitations. 12 Declamations. 17 Dialogues. 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. And for Class Exercise as follows: The Bird's Party. Indian Names. Valedictory. Washington's Birthday. Garfield Memorial Day. Grant Whittier Sigourney " " No. 3 Contains Fewer of the longer pieces and more of the shorter, as follows : 18 Declamations. 21 Recitations. 22 Dialogues. 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. A Christmas E ^cercise. Opening Piece, and An Historical Celebration. No. 4 Contains Campbell Memorial Day. Longfellow " " Michael Aflgelo " " Shakespeare " " Washington " " Christmas Exei'cise. Arbor Day " New Planting " Thanksgiving " Value of Knowledge Exercise. Also 8 other Dialogues. 21 Recitations. 23 Declamations. No. 5 Contains Browning Memorial Day. Autumn Exercise. Bryant Memoii^il Day. New Planting Exercise. Christmas Exercise. A Concert Exercise. 24 Other Dialogues. 16 Declamations, and 36 Recitations. No. 6 Contains Spring; a flower exercise for very young pupils. Emerson Memorial Day. New Year's Day Exercise. Holmes' Memorial Day. Fourth of July Exercise. Shakespeare Memorial Day. Washington's Birthday Exercise. Also C other Dialogues. 6 Declamations. 41 Recitations. 15 Recitations for the Primary Class. And 4 Songs. Our Reception Day Series is not sold largely by booksellers, who, if they do not keep it, try to have you buy something else similar, but not so good. Therefore send direct to the publishers, by mail, the price as above, in stamps or postal notes, and your order will be filled at once. Discount for quantities. SPECIAL OFFER. If ordered at one time, we will send postpaid the entire 6 Nos. for $1.40. Note the reduction. SEND ALL ORDBnS Td S. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & OEIGAGO. 41 Song Treasures. THE PRICE HAS BEEN GREATLY REDUCED. Compiled by Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Jour- nal. Beautiful and durable postal- card man ilia cover, printed in two colors, 64 pp. Price, 15 cents each; tx) teachers, 12 cents; by mail, 2 cents extra. 30th thousand. Write for our special terms to schools for quantities. Special terms for use at Teachers' Bistitui-es. va^bir Tof «£^''1S^II'»S lilliTSWilMlliBSlWI" lection of mu- sic for all schools and in- stitutes. 1. Most of the pieces have been selected by the teachers as favorites in the schools. They are the ones the pupils love to sing, it contains nearly 100 pieces. 2. All the pieces "have a ring to them;" they are easily karned, and will not be forgotten. 3. The themes and words are appropriate for young people. In these respects the work will be found to possess unusual merit. Nature, the Flowers, the Seasons, the Home, our Duties, our Creator, are entuned with beautiful music. 4. Great ideas may find an entrance into the mind through music. Aspirations for the good, the beautiful, and the true are presented here in a musical form. 5. Many of the words have been written especially for the book. One piece, "The Voice Within Us," p. 57, is worth the price of the book. 6. The titles here given show the teacher what we mean ; Ask the Children, Beauty Everywhere, Be in Time, Cheerfulness, Christmas Bells, Days of Summer Glory, The Dearest Spot. Evening Song, Gtentle Words, Goiiig to School, Hold up the Right Hand, I Love the Merry, M^ry Sunshine, Kind Deeds, Over in the Meadows, Our Happy School, Scatter the Germs of the Beautiful, Time to Walk, The Jolly Workers, T1m» Te«®feer'g Life, Ti?ifeiit« to Whittier, e^c, ©te. Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: April 2011 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATIO 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 | (724)779-2111 | m^HipHHiil^jilillgyiSiM® LIBRARY OF CONGRESS | viifiJi^H;i^^i£?i:;iHI!^:Hih!!i^^ A-|Q Q^A HOQ Q ' Hi;n^puu^i^i;ij-i;^n^g^ U U y oh\j a o 1 ^H 1 ^H ■ ^1 ^^^H ^H ■