> ..i*^ > ■S ,, N . -0- ^ ^.. " S. ■^oo^ ^ .^^ '^ '°- '■>• ^%" -V/^- '^^yg^^i c^^ V '^'• iJAN-2?3 C1A600803 Copyrighted by The Periodical Publishing Company Grand Rapids, Michigan 1922 AUTHOR'S NOTE The cordial reception by woodfinishers generally afforded the previous editions of Problems of the Finishing Room, has influenced the author to revise and enlarge the old publication — hence in this edition will be found much information not contained in the first four editions of this book. The additions com- prise many of the finishes developed within the past two years, together with a description of the new materials involved. The formulas which are offered have all passed their experimental stage. The methods are practical, the results positive. In commending them to the wood finisher, confidence is expressed that many a difficulty will have been overcome for him. Inasmuch as business conditions, and particularly those relating to all branches of chemistry and allied arts, are unsettled and unstable, it should be under- stood by the reader that all prices quoted in this vol- ume are such as would likely prevail in normal times. While the author has gone much into detail in the following pages, he calls attention to the constantly increasing number of stain and finishing possibilities that are coming out from time to time. The reader is commended to the pages of the Furniture Manufac- turer and Artisan in future numbers for many notes and formulas which may be incorporated in the blank pages in this book, by means of which he can keep up to the minute in finishing problems. WALTER K. SCHMIDT. Grand Rapids, Mich., October 1, 1922. INDEX TO CONTENTS Page 1. The Finishing Room — Scant attention paid to finish- ing room. Where best to locate finishing room. Finishing room of the future. Proper location of department. How to heat a finishing room. Ques- tion of best heating system. Much light essential to a finishing room. Whitewash undesirable in a finishing room. Chipping off of whitewash hurts finish. Direct rays of the sun to be avoided in room. Hot water a constant need 17 2. System for the Finishing Room — Value of records of matchings. Equipment of finishing room. The question of weights. Laboratory equipment. Varia- tion in weights. How to use apparatus. Results depend on filler used. How to use card reference system in staining. Card a record for future ex- periments. Record card for oil stains. Carrying out chart 25 3. The Staining and Coloring of Woods — Art of stain- ing essential in good furniture. Stain should en- hance wood's beauty. Requisites of a good stain. Permanency and fastness of a stain. Knowledge of mordants necessary. Wood changing affects the stain 33 4. Knowledge of Woods Necessary — Wood must be sea- soned and dried. Unevenness of finish troublesome.. 39 5. Preparation of Wood Before Using — Old methods good but too slow today. Finishing process is com- menced. Sanding and sponging. Sponging omitted on some grades. Precautions necessary many times. The danger of "cutting through" 41 6. The Importance of Good S"anding — Good sanding es- sential to good finish. Reducing sanding to the minimum. Must have knowledge of sandpaper. Sanding for uniformity of results. Many varieties of sandpaper. How garnet sandpaper is made. The testing of sandpaper. Moisture is injurious to sand- paper 47 7. The Process op Staining Woods — Foreman finishers should have aptness. The need of following a sys- tem. Getting the same stain shade. Staining the inside of case goods adds refinement. The best method of applying water stain. One great diffi- culty with stain ; 55 8. The Classification of Stains — Water stains are" most satisfactory. Water stains produce every color shade. Acid stains introduced. Uniformity in color essential. How an acid stain should be made up. Water stains give best results 61 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Page y. Staining with Certainty of Results — Preparing stains so as to avoid any re-staining. Producing odd shades. The foreman finisher dictates sup- plies. Water stain the most workable 67 10. General Rules for Staining Wood — Results vary with same stain. Results are dependent on tex- ture. Locality influences color. Aniline dyes more uni/orm than others. Antagonism of various ani- lines. A practical illustration given. Great need of care and cleanliness. Extracts exposed to air are difficult to handle. Heat will increase percent- age of solubility. Color materials should be kept dry. Moisture absorbed from air by some colors.... 71 11. The Applying of Stain to Wood — Stain best applied by brushes. Sponge used with strong alkalines. Avoid brush with curling hair. Neutral oil best preservative for brushes. Protect the hands by oil or vaseline. Dominating color stains are brown. Fuming now considered indispensable. Better staining methods coming. Groups of stains. Shun stains made of paint pigment. Black nigrosine the key color. Four classes of stains. The old way of finishing. Valuable procedure 79 12. Spreading Stain on Large Surfaces — Finish must overcome all poor cabinet conditions. Chief diffi- culty lies in laying of wood. Methods of evening up coat stain. Danger of lifting end grain on veneers. Some means of correction. Shortcomings of cabinet work fixed up by finisher 87 13. The Penetration of Wood Stains — Getting ready for staining process. How to apply stains on wood. Keep alcohol stains from the light. Staining is not merely coloring. Solubility of colors must be known. Good stain must be clear at 40 degrees F. Insoluble portions of stains must be removed. Nature of spirit oil stains is a suspension 91 14. Knowledge of Veneers Necessary — Many veneer troubles are found by finisher. Trouble with var- nish and veneer. Checks in veneer ai'e serious. Trouble may be traced back to laying of veneer. Poor work result of too much haste. Veneer will check after finishing, if before it. Thin shellac as finisher on veneer 97 15. Process of Staining Veneer Work — All veneer does not need same method. Avoid use of glue size to stiffen fuzz. S'hellac will stiffen and hold up fuzz. Sanding to give faded appearance. Contention as to sponging veneer. "Blisters" in veneers. Correct weakness in veneer early. Experiments in spong- ing veneer. Correcting defects in mahogany. Bringing back indentations. Defects show up equally with beauties 103 INDEX TO CONTENTS Page 16. Preparation of Crotch Veneers — How to fill holes in the crotch veneer. Do repair work in the cabinet room. When defects escape the eye of cabinet man.. 109 17. Dipping or Tanking Stains — Staining by dipping is rapid method. Colors have varying affinities for woods. Less vehicle absorbed on hardwood. Dip- ping stain should be stronger than brushing. Stain should be kept even in temperature. The use of asphaltum. Some oppose dipping methods. Test- ing for uniform color. Stain not up to original test. Staining by immersion Ill 18. Important Function of Filler — Filling an impor- tant process. Paste fillers for porous woods. Good filler must be impervious to water. Foreman must understand fillers. Filler must be in harmony with stain. Use of silex in filler. Preparation of fillers. Mineral turpentine economical. Apply filler after wood is "cleaned up." Finishing should be done across grain. Bent wood gives some trouble in finishing. Using shellac to fill holes in finishing 117 19. Making and Using of Filler — Ingredients for fillers are three. Filler is determined by wood. Oil binds pigment solidly. Brown japan best drier for filler. "Know How" necessary in making filler. Ideal white filler. Care needed to keep pigment uniform. Reducing paste filler to a liquid. Consistency of filler regulated by nature of wood. How to clean off filler. Important to keep filler stirred. Shellac aids in preserving translucency of filler 125 20. Construction of a Finishing Room — Two types of fuming box. Door should be sectional. Fuming box criticised. Ammonia water must not touch steam pipe. Fuming expedited by use of tan bark extract. Use of test box is recommended. Color of wood varied by strength of bark extract. How to obtain ammonia. A practical fuming box. How Rockford fuming box is made. Is built of matched stock. Plan for handling the ammonia. Free escape of ammonia necessary. Simple form of canvas fuming box. Air tight box inexpensive. Work- man can govern shade in fuming 133 21. Something More About Fuming — Finish shade con- trolled by length of fuming. Texture of soil has influence on fuming. How to shorten time of fuming. Oak yields best results with ammonia. Efficiency of tannin in fuming. Comparative re- sults in fuming. Uniformity produced by use of shellac 151 22. Fuming Oak by Staining Process — Suggestion in staining process. Guarding against "piling up." Method for use with smaller surfaces. Important items in procedure. The result of careful work. 10 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Page Color to be judged only with final finish. Thor- oughness in finish brings profit. Potash solution helps in shading. Flakes prove difficult to stain. Care needed with iron coat. How to avoid use of iron coat 155 23. Acids and Their Use in Fuming — Where the tannins come from. Gallic acid comes from gall nuts. Gallic acid an important astringent. Pyrogallic acid results from heated gallic acid. Tannin and pyro are of uniform strength. Why colors pro- duced is a matter of chemistry 161 24. Glue Joints that Part in Fuming — Procedure to follow 165 25. The Manipulation of Stains — Few formulas come within solvent limits 167 26. Quality Needed in Staining — Transparent stains and clear filler to be used. Blotchy work results from oiling between coats. Filler should match only general shade. Filler may be omitted with birch or gum 173 27. Uniformity of Color Desirable — Most water stains are anilines. Tannic acid an important factor. What to do when color is used 177 28. Use of Oil Stains in Winter — Effect of chill on stains. The three prominent solvents for stains. Creosote oil does not make good stain. Limpid oils are best for stains. Getting uniformity of results. Use of loaded oil brings on troubles. "Doctoring" formulas. Oil solvents should be free from naph- thaline. Trouble in "lifting." Permanent finish prevented by use of gas oil 181 29. Srecial English Oak Finishes — Insight into meth- ods of special finishes. Producing high lights. Kenilworth finish. 16th Century and Stratford 187 30. Birch and Its Various Finishes — Birch as a strong cabinet wood. Difficulty in matching birch. Birch not adapted to gray finish. Pleasing shades are produced on birch. Birch takes any shade of brown. Brown mahogany bad to produce on birch. Birch makes beautiful imitation of cherry. Birch can be fumed 189 31'. The Finish of American Walnut — What is best finish for American walnut? May be used bleached. Advises use of rich brown with Van Dyke filler. How the bleaching is done. Other methods of bleaching. Finish on American walnut too scant .... 193 32. Staining Willow, Reed and Cane — Two pi-ocesses in coloring willow. The question of various shades. Alkalies and their after effect. Spirit soluble colors u?-ed for shades. How to get a mixture of colors.... 197 INDEX TO CONTENTS 11 Page 33. Browns from Tannin and Potash — Getting tints depending on strength of materials 201 34. Browns from Potassium of Permanganate — The work of cold water stains 203 35. Fads and Fancies in Finishes — Oak adapts itself to novelties. Oak permits of artistic coloring. Classi- fication of colormgs. Ten shades and many varia- tions. Fillers must be of harmonious tones. Gun metal a beautiful effect. Maple offers various ways of coloring. How bluish cast may be obviated. Finishing of maple. Novelties on oak. Russian brown 205 36. Blending Woods a Difficult Process — Blending be- fore finish is started. How to make a blending brush. Reduction of asphaltum makes a good blend stain. Strength of stain depends on workman's aptness. Water stain on filled wood is practical. Blending mixture for fumed oak 213 37. Bleaching Wood Before Staining — Oxalic acid bleach for dark spots. Removing iron spots 215 38. Ebonizing Birch, Maple, Beech, Etc. — Woods that imitate ebony well. Ebonizing large surfaces 217 39. Getting Color Results without Anilines — How to obtain certain stains. Use of alkali not recom- mended. Decoctions not without uncertainties. What various combinations produce. Many yel- lows produced. Further interesting combinations.. 219 40. The Staining of Drawers — Staining drawers adds refinement. Dull finish is the proper thing. Good finish for purpose 223 41. Changing Finishing Stain Shades — Two essentials in ready-made stains. Constant need of changing shade. Color value highest in water stains. Water stains in any shade. Adding color to prepared stain. Danger of "lifting" the veneer. Avoid cut- ting through the veneer. Two light stains are bet- ter than one heavy 225 42. Coal Tar Products in Finishing Room — Light oil fraction produces coal tar products. Some of the coal tar products. How various products are ob- tained. Benzols refined in this country. Properties of various benzols. Benzols best suited to artisan. Various uses of benzols. Benzol as a diluent. Oil soluble stain outlet for benzol. How benzol figures in varnish. Further uses of benzol 229 43. Enameling Furniture — Enamel work needs proper surface. "Lapping" to be avoided. Inexpensive varnish 237 44. Lacquer Enamels — Use of lacquer surfacer. Spray- ing lacquer enamels. Lacquering on metal 239 12 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Page 45. Spirit Stains in Finishing — Process to be followed.. 241 46. The Care of Stain Material — Keep liquid stain in cool place. Keep sample of original stain. Many stains vary in color value. Use of sulphate of iron important 243 47. Finishing Gum and Its Uses — Walnut crystals em- ployed. Gum wood produces better than natural rinish. One coat stain for Van Dyke 245 48. System in Matching Stain Colors — Importance in matching color. Procedure in matching. Work from dark to light. Testing samples. Kind of work makes great difference. Workmg on per- centage basis. Procedure continued. Ascertaining correct strength. Testing the solution. Effect of atmosphere on chemicals. Age of finish of golden oak effects matching 247 49. Surfacing and Varnishing — Surface when goods are dry. Importance of early work being done well. Avoid great temperature changes in varnish. What is best surfacer? Most varnish surfacers contain pigment. Use same grade for surfacer as for body. Tested formula for surfacer. Less varnish used than when shellac is used. Method of stainmg maple as mahogany. Imitation oak finish. Pig- ment surfacer not good on mahogany. The use of bleached shellac. In sanding large surfaces. Thin varnish is best reducer. NeeJ of drymg between succession of coats. Why some finish coats do not dry. Secrets of varnish drying. Keeping varnish clean. How to get proper drying of var- nish. Rubbing and polishing. Coarse rubbing with pumice stone. Use of rotten stone. Method used in furniture factories. Felt used in rubbing with pumice. When to do fine rubbing. Formula for polish. Polish plain surfaces crosswise. How to make satin finish. To produce lustreless finish. Finishing by dipping. Pigment surfacer formula. Needs much time for hardening. How much stain- ing may be done rapidly 253 50. Varnishes and Their Drying — Demand for quick drying. The cause of mushy coats. Varnish dry- ing depends on. Best drying condition 35 to 45 per cent humidity. Three pomts necessary to var- nish drying. Desirable condition. Finishing room should be conditioned. Successful method for dry- ing purposes 271 51. Just How Varnish is Made — Ingredients of varnish. two oils are utilized. Process of manufacture. Evidences of poor varnish. Removing varnish. Whitening of varnish. Hair-lines on piano finish ... 273 52. What Constitutes a Good Varnish — How good var- nish works. Varnish tests. Hardness of varnish. INDEX TO CONTENTS 13 Page Test in room of 60 degrees F. Avoid spirit varnish in high class work. Brilliancy and lustre. Dura- bility sacrificed to finish 279 53. Protection in Buying Varnishes — Varnish selling methods changed. Testing before buying. Gravity, viscosity, flash tests. Determining viscosity. Use of the flash test 283 54. Some Troubles with Varnish — Common fault with varnish. Things to avoid in varnishes. More faults that are common. Refinishing patchy work 287 55. Varnish Terms in Finishing Room — Shop terms for varnish. Other names for varnish 289 56. Shellac and Its History — Little information avail- able. Beware of adulterated shellac. Prices vary. Shellac comes from India. Used for ages past. Present day uses. Two crops each year. Grading shellac. bleaching process. Bone-dry shellac. "Hank" shellac. French polishing methods. Source of shellac supply. Crop failures affect price. Fe- male produces the raw material. Harvesting the raw product. Grinding and heating. Wages paid to native workers. Demand for shellac constantly increasing. Testing shellac 291 57. Finishing with Shellac — French polishing. Use of shellac to produce soft finishes. Shellac is eco- nomical. Use as first coater. Rubbing down. Worthlessness of dried shellac. Denatured alcohol is best solvent. Brush to use with shellac. Weather conditions are important. Drying room necessary. Rub with oil. Finishing floors. Shel- lac substitutes. Shellac sticks 307 58. Antique Walnut — A new finish and how it is pro- duced 317 59. Italian Walnut — Stain and filler for new and pop- ular finish 319 60. Italian Oak Rennaisance — Produced with wood lacquer and wax finish. Use of mouldings and armaments 321 61. Things Worth Knowing About Linseed Oil — Source of linseed oil. Green flax produces inferior oil. Refining the oil. Adulterants of linseed oil. Fish oil frequently used. Darkening wood with linseed oil. Filler not desirable when thus darkening. "Bringing up" surface by sandpapering. Avoid- ing muddy look 323 62. Air Brush Equipment in Finishing — S'ales depend on finish. Air brush does best work. Air brush economical. Material sets quicker with air brush. Finishes should be heated. Two well known air brush methods. Two styles or aerons. Spraying 14 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Page done in a fumexer. All parts can be coated in one operation. Heavier coat than with brush 329 63. Explaining a Standard — The meaning of U. S. P 335 64. Modern Wood Lacquer — Meaning of term "wood lacquer." Metal lacquers fail on wood. Use of lacquer increasing. Stains on metal work. Prep- aration of wood for lacquer. Thinning. Short time necessary between coats. Resin provides solids in lacquer. Film resists heat. Use of Zaponite 337 65. Chinese and Japanese Lacquers — Process centuries old. How made. Chinese lacquer poisonous. Ap- plying Chinese and Japanese lacquers 343 66. Polychrome Finishes — Popularity of this new meth- od of finishing. Three methods in general use. Should be coated with lacquer 347 67. Pigment Colors Used in Polychroming — Valuable tables of color mixtures 355 68. Burnish Powders — How to mix and apply bronzing powders. Finishing picture frames and other small objects by burnishing method 369 69. Government Protection to Manufacturers — At- tempts to prevent adulterations. Turpentine has many substitutes. State authorities prosecute. Penalty for offending 373 70. The Care of Raw Finished Stock — Storing finished stock. Storage room ought to be dark. Finishing room a place of concern. Lax methods encountered. Overcoming poorly matched work. Hints for over- coming difficulties. Novice has trouble producing shades 377 71. Cost Keeping in Finishing — Costs for finishing. Process for brush fuming. Process is economical... 381 72. Storage of Finishing Materials — Two familiar sys- tems for storing. Systems of battery tanks. Waste and sloping prevented. Roll top cabinets for oil. Oil room on systematic basis. Distribution of oil in factory 383 73. Special Hints to Artisans — Applying gold leaf. How to avoid "lapping." Finishing open and close grain woods. Making heat stains out of wood. Keeping varnish brushes in condition 389 74. Smoke Stacks and Metal Preservatives — Smoke stack paint needs quality. The best stack paint.... 393 75. Rubbing and Polishing Methods — Great advance- ment in methods. Various methods employed. Felt pad is best kind of polisher. Never rub across grain. Cost is mere trifle. Every edge and corner reached 395 INDEX TO CONTENTS 15 Page 76. Comparing Color Solution — For testing solutions. How the colorimeter operates. How science aids the artisan 399 77. Weights and Measures — Accuracy a prime requisite. Confusion of several standards. Metric system simple. Weights should be stamped. Application of metric system. Too many afraid of metric system 403 78. Stain Formulas and Methods 409 79. New Standard Finishes — Formulas 475 80. Liquid Glues 489 81. Polishing by Tumbling — Process for a positive pol- ishing 505 82. Polishes in Furniture Finishing — French polishing. Polishing formula. Inexpensive furniture polish. Furniture cleaner. PreseFving finish on pianos. An equal temperature necessary. The use of "revivers" 507 83. Valuable Recipes and Formulas — Frosted glass. Sticking paper to tin. To remove specks or mahog- any finish. Discolored woods cannot be remedied. Other recipes for common faults 515 84. Ground Color for Graining — Ground work for grain- ing. Some of the colors used. Other colors 521 85. Resilvering Mirrors — Bassett's method is popular one. Temperature should be 100 degrees F. The operation of resilvering. Use only rain or distilled water. Three solutions used. Applying silvering solution. Coating over with paint. Absolute clean- liness needed. More of the procedure. Heat will discolor silvering. Make up and use of three solutions 525 86. Working with Glass and Celluloid — White letter- ing on glass. Ornamental work. Bronze lettering. Cementing celluloid. Cleaning mirrors 537 87. Preventing Brass from Tarnishing — Brass must be protected in plating operation 541 88. An Acid Proof Table Top — Formula for acid proof table top. A modified formula, Ebonizing the top.. 543 89. Paint, Varnish and Enamel Removers — How vari- ance in shade is produced. Removing oil and paint. Another remover. Removing enamel and tin solder. Paste that removes old paint. Changing a finish. The formulas that will do it. Removing dry paint.. 547 90. Wood Putty and Fillers — Making wood putty and fillers. Cements for fillers. Stopping for cabinet- maker's work. Crack fillers. For work on mahog- any 557 16 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Page 91. For the Cleaning of Leather — Cleaning leather. Renewing color. Various methods. Paste and polish helps. Water dressing. Refinishing rough leather. Avoid color in last coat of finish. OtHer hints for care and finish of leather 563 92. For the Matching of Finishes — Formula for match- ing finishes 571 93. Dents, Defects and Knots — Serious dents can be raised. Wood can be replaced successfully with cement. Veneer blisters removed 573 94. Help Offered in Fixing Formulas — Anilines fur- nished by publishers. Method of "fixing" a for- mula. How to be certain of results 575 95. By-Products of Coal — -Evolution of the raw product — coal — through many refinements to anilines, medicines, etc. 577 CHAPTER I PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM TOO often in the planning of the furniture, piano or other woodworking factory scant attention is given to the finishing room. Just why this is, is difficult to conceive because this department is one of the most important in the whole factory. The cost of finishing is no inconsiderable item in the cost of pro- duction, and as the reputation of the goods produced depends upon the finish as much, or more, than upon any other single item, there is every reason why this department should receive every attention necessary to raise its efficiency to the highest point of perfection. ^^^ scant In the factories of more than one story, the finish- attention ing room is usually located at the top. This is done as paid to a matter of convenience in the handling of stock as finishing well as to have it as far as practicable from the dust room. of the woodworking departments. While the top story has many advantages over any other part of the fac- tory for the location of the finishing room, it has a few disadvantages, and provision should be made to counteract them. In the first place the whole accumulation of gases of the various departments below the finishing room will rise and ultimately reach the top story. This fact, together with the fact that all the materials used in finishing generate a considerable quantity of gas, extra provisions should be made for carrying it away. In making this provision, we find the top story possesses advantages not to be found in other flats. Ventilators may be put in the roof at regular intervals, the num- ber of these ventilators to depend on their capacity and the amount of gas to be carried away. There are many forms of ventilators in use, and it is not for us to dis- cuss the merits of any particular kind, the chief con- sideration being that they are large enough to carry off" the gas and be easily regulated. But while we are considering the gases and vapors 18 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WHERE BEST TO LOCATE WORKROOM. FINISHING ROOM OF THE FUTURE. that may arise from the floors below, we must not overlook the fact that many of those given off by the finishing process follow the floor; in fact, they seek the lowest level. Thus naphtha, benzole and kindred hydrocarbon compounds, in their process of evapora- tion, produce gaseous compounds that are heavier than air and consequently sink to the lowest level. This is contrary to the general understanding of gases, a fact to be reckoned with. For instance, naphtha used in large quantities is dangerous because in a case where the boiler room may be in the basement the fumes or gases may follow the floor down the elevator shaft with dangerous results. The ventilating system therefore would have to be arranged to provide ceiling and floor exhaust, so that the floor of the finishing room would have an outward exhaust. This is an essential provision where goods are dipped in so-called oil stains. The ventilating proposi- tion has its direct bearing upon the insurance rate, as insurance companies are mindful of the dangers aris- ing from the gases evolved by the drying processes of a finishing room. The finishing room of the future will be a place of rapid processes. Instead of having to wait days be- tween the various processes it will be only a matter of hours ; and instead of it requiring weeks to com- plete the whole process the thing will be accomplished in a few days at the most. Already in the varnish room the number of days required has been reduced to as many hours. Just what this means in dollars and cents to the manufacturer of finished articles, each one can best figure out for himself; but it means a big thing in rush seasons when time is limited. It is important that in planning the finishing room and its equipment consideration be given to the claims of the modern var- nish drying room. In laying out the finishing room and locating the various processes, it is important to have the stock follow from one process to the other with as little mov- ing as possible. In a factory with only one elevator the ideal finishing room is one in which the stock PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 19 is unloaded from the elevators into the staining and filling department; and when this process is finished, the stock is moved toward the shellacing department, then on to the sanding and varnishing departments. Both the varnish and the rubbing rooms should be in close proximity to the stock room so that the goods, when varnished, may pass immediately into the rub- bing room. This brings the goods back into the ele- vator. PROPER If the dipping process is used in staining, filling or location of varnishing, the space required for these operations department. should be partitioned oflf froni the other departments. This should be done in the interest of those not en- gaged in dipping. The great amount of stain or var- nish, suddenly spread out, generates a vast amount of nauseating gases and if the work is done in open shop, the whole room is affected. The very best ventilating system possible to devise should be installed in the dip- ping room to carry off these gases and not allow them to escape to the other departments. Of course, the gases generated and confined to the dipping room are equally as bad for the man there as for those in the other departments. But the fewer men affected the better. A factory recently installed a system whereby the product is carried on trucks, especially built, from the first operation in the finishing department straight through the finishing room, for sanding, staining, fill- ing, shellacing, waxing and varnishing. There was no useless handling; space was saved, time and labor less- how to heat ened and better results were obtained. a finishing The question of heating the finishing room cannot ^°'^'^- receive too much attention. A fairly uniform tempera- ture throughout the day and night is of great advan- tage in drying finishing materials. If anything like good work is to be done in the varnish room it is abso- lutely necessary that there shall be proper facilities for heating. This department is required much earlier in the fall and a little later in the spring than are usu- ally some of the others. If a vacuum heating system is in use and exhaust steam is used for heating, a separate system should be installed for heating the varnish room. BEST SYSTEM. 20 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM It requires considerable steam to run the pumps of a vacuum system and if an independent system is in- stalled and live steam used, no pumps will be required. The average varnish room in this way can be heated with less steam than would be required to run the pumps of the vacuum system alone. This independent system need be used only when the vacuum system is not required throughout the whole factory. The question of what kind of a heating system is QUESTION OF jjgg^ adapted for the finishing room need not be dis- cussed at any length here. While the modern air sys- tem may be preferred for the other departments, there is too much danger of dust being conveyed into the var- nish room for it to find favor with the finishers. Steam heating is pretty generally admitted to be the best suited for this department. But the question whether to use radiators or rows of pipes, and whether to place them along the wall near the floor or overhead near the ceiling, is not so easily disposed of. Each has its advantages and dis- advantages. If steam pipes are used and are placed overhead they are out of the way ; but overhead pipes are hard on the workman. If it is quite necessary to locate the pipes overhead, they should be placed along the wall above the windows, and not immediately above the men's heads, as I have sometimes seen them. But it is much better to place them along the wall near the floor. A better radiation may be obtained with the pipes there. More uniform temperature above and be- low, and more pleasant conditions for the workmen, are some of the chief advantages. Radiators placed at regular distances along the wall will be found to be the most satisfactory way of heating. With these a much more uniform temperature may be obtained and maintained. With the steam pipes one must either have them all on or all off. The usual way of regulating the temperature is: When the temperature is a little too low, turn on the steam; when it gets a little too warm, turn it off". But with the radiators, the actual number required to keep the correct temperature may be kept in use throughout the day. A thermostat will settle the question. They are ESSENTIAL TO FINISHER. PL ANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 21 not expensive and adjust the temperature automati- cally. They stop all argument between the workmen if one wants it hot and the other cool. It establishes a de facto temperature and all arguments cease. Light, and plenty of it, is essential to the finishing room. But light is not everything. The quality of light is as important as the quantity. Some factories are making the serious mistake of putting corrugated glass in their windows, the light from which has a de- pressing effect upon the workmen, and the absolute ^^^^"^/,™^ seclusion which it provides makes factory life just a little more like prison life than is either necessary, or in the interest of employes or employer. Under such condition the best results are not possible. Man is made with a long range of vision, reaching away off to the horizon. It is true that the vision is adjustable and may be focused on objects near or far. It is this focusing, or continual changing of vision from long to short range that is necessary during out- door life, which is so restful to the eye and keeps it in :ood condition. It is only when we attempt a contin- ual restriction of the range of vision that trouble with the eyes begins. Many men are performing their duties in a perfunctory way, but moving around listlessly with weary eyes and aching head as a result of this re- stricted vision. It is not necessary that the man stand and look out the windows to get relief. If the eye, even for a moment, can reach out beyond the hard stone walls to the distant hills, even though the man be not aware of it, it has a soothing and restful effect. Do not whitewash the ceiling of the finishing room. It may save a few cents in insurance premiums, but in others ways it will cost as many dollars before one is through with it, especially if the varnish room ceiling is whitewashed. Some insurance companies urge this whitewashing upon manufacturers, but these people understand insurance much better than finishing. Some claim to have a formula for making whitewash that will not peel off. I have seen this formula used both with the brush and the spray pump and it peeled off. I have met a good many manufacturers who were in- duced to whitewash the ceilings of their varnishing WHITEWASH UNDESIRABLE IN FINISHING ROOM. 22 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CHIPPING OF WHITEWASH FLAKES HURTS FINISH. rooms along with the other parts of the factory, but I have never met one such v^^ho did not repent it. White- wash is different than paint. The liquid in paint is the binder. It is this binder that enters the pores of the wood, works itself around the fibers and takes a firm hold. It clings to both the pigment in the paint and the fibers of the wood and binds the two together. Not so with whitewash. Water is the liquid here present and is used to liquify the whole so that it will be spread out. Or perhaps we should say that the water is the medium by which the whitewash is con- veyed to the wood. Part of it penetrates the wood and part evaporates, but it has no binding qualities. The remaining substance in the whitewash, lime and other ingredients, is too heavy to penetrate far enough into the wood to get a firm hold. The constant changing temperature to which the ceiling of the upper story of every factory is subjected results in the extremes of expansion and contraction, and the whitewash, being brittle when dry, cracks and as its hold on the wood is not very firm it falls oflf. Any finisher can tell you what this means to freshly varnished stock, and even to the stock that is dry. If something must be done to the ceiling of the varnish room to render it more fireproof, put on an oil paint. If an inexpensive pigment is used the cost of this need not be high ; but in any event the first and last cost will not be as high as the ultimate cost of whitewash. Now and then someone raises the question of light in the finishing room and its effect upon the drying of finish. There are some finishers who will contend that light is just as essential as air to proper drying, and that varnish will dry faster in a well lighted room during daylight than it will at night. Others take a diflferent view of this matter and insist that the drying out of varnish and other finishing materials is purely a matter of temperature and air circulation and that the light has nothing to do with it. There is room for argument on this question, per- haps, but there are other points about light in the fin- ishing room well enough established to require but PLANNING THE FINISHING ROOM 23 little argument. One of these is that good daylight is essential in staining if one would maintain uniformity in stain shades, or stain with any degree of exactness whatever shade is wanted. The ideal light for this kind of work is the same as the ideal light for the artist — light coming from the north side so that it will remain practically uniform and not vary materially with the passing of the sun as when the light is received from any of the other three sides. Another thing we know is that sunlight shining directly on either unfinished or finished woodwork has a tendency to bleach out and deaden colors. Therefore the direct rays of the sun should be avoided if one would get and keep the right kind of live color tone in finished work. To keep finished work fresh, or even prepared wood- work before the finish is applied, it should be stored in a dark place, and especially protected from sunlight. From all this we may safely argue that light is an ex- cellent thing in the finishing room, as it enables one to judge stain shades better, and also makes for greater skill and more satisfactory results in spreading var- nish and other finishing coats. Also it will perhaps be accepted without argument that daylight is much better for this kind of work than artificial light. The electric light firms are making wonderful progress, however, in artificial light, and may soon be able to furnish some- thing practically as good as daylight. They are not likely to furnish anything better. So the ideal finishing room is one that is well lighted, that is well provided for receiving daylight, preferably from the north side. When it comes to dry- ing, either in the finishing room, or in any specially provided drying room, some actual value of light will have to be demonstrated before it will receive much consideration, and the main factors to provide for are temperature, air, circulation and a conditioning of the air so that it will carry the same percentage of mois- ture all the time. Every finishing room should be equipped with the facilities for heating water. The best way to do this is by the use of a vat with a steam coil in the bottom. DIRECT RAYS OF SUN TO BE AVOIDED. 24 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Where water is to be used for dissolving stains it is not advisable to turn the steam into the water because of the possible danger from boiler compounds. Where chemical compounds are used the only safe way is the coil with the return pipe. Where chemical compounds are not used, or the water is to be used for cleaning, heating, etc., the steam may be turned directly into the water. A good apparatus for thus heating water may be made by HOT WATER bringing the steam pipe into the finishing room at a INCONSTANT point most convenient for heating the water. If the NEED, pipe enters through the floor proceed as follows : Place a valve for regulating the steam at a convenient height from the floor. Into the top end of the valve insert a pipe about a foot long. On the end of this pipe place an elbow, screwing it on tightly. Into the open end of this elbow insert another pipe about 10 inches long; screw this up tightly also. Place an elbow on the free end of this pipe, giving it a hold of six or eight threads. This elbow must not be tight. Insert into the open end of this elbow a pipe 15 or 20 inches long. The loose elbow on the end of this pipe will enable one to raise the pipe so that a pail of water may be placed beneath ; then the end of the pipe is lowered into the water and the steam turned on. By this method a pail of water can be heated to the boiling point in a few seconds. CHAPTER II SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM THE foreman finisher of today, while he may not be confronted with so great a variety of colors, among them fumed oak, weathered oak, mahog- any, etc., realizes the necessity for different interpre- tations of these colors. The conception which the various manufacturers have of one color necessitates the varying of these particular formulas so as to match the shade adopted by some other maker. It is, there- fore, necessary that the foreman finisher be equipped with such apparatus as will enable him to do his match- ing in a methodical manner. To establish a rule by which all of these matches may be made will be of great benefit to him if this course is pursued. He should keep a record of each matching, either in a book or, better, a little card value of index, carefully filed away, to correspond with the records of numbering given the different matchings. He should patchings. have, in addition, a board sample of the shade produced by the formula for matching the same number. When an order is received, accompanied by a sample board, he selects from his stock of samples the one matching most nearly the one received, turns to the corresponding formula and builds upon it or modifies it so as to match the sample received from his correspondent. This, again, is given a number and in a short period of tiiTie he has an archive of information which will not only give him record of the goods used, the percentages, etc., in each combination, but also should give him a complete record of the source from which he obtained the various constituents of each formula. A good pair of scales, sensitive from a grain to two ounces, a mortar and pestle, graduates, stirring rods, a set of small brushes kept exclusively for this purpose, a complete set of board panels, showing the various flakes and grades of wood so that when a sample comes in made on a flaky piece of wood it can be 2G PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM EQUIPMENT OF FINISHING ROOM. THE QUESTION OF WEIGHTS. matched on the piece of wood which corresponds to the sample, should be at hand. A set of colors made up of the primaries, the necessary chemicals which are used in the finishing room, such as bichromate of pot- ash, caustic potash, the acids for setting the colors, is also necessary. Where oil stains are employed, the necessary solvents, such as benzole, acetone, wood alco- hol, should be carried. There also should be a water bath, with some suitable porcelain-lined or granite ware dishes. It is not commonly known that oil soluble colors can be dissolved quickly in heated benzole, tur- pentine or oils and that a more uniform result is obtained by making the solution of these colors by the use of the water bath. It is taken for granted, of course, that this water bath will be steam heated. Unfortunately, we have in this country three kinds of weights, of which there is practically but one unit: The Troy weight, with its twelve ounces to the pound ; the apothecaries' weight, with the same number of ounces to the pound but not the same number of grains, and the avoirdupois weight, with sixteen ounces to the pound. Now, while all these different weights have one practical unit, there is always present the possibil- ity of errors getting into a formula through the inter- changing of ounce weights, dram weights, and in mul- tiplying a formula to a larger working quantity. The balance, or scale, shown in the accompanying cut as No. 8, therefore is preferable. There also should be a set of weights having 480 grains to the ounce. To avoid any possibility of misconception, before we go any farther, I suggest that the reader provide himself with any little pocket diary in which can be found the different weights used in the various kinds of weights. Let each one also establish for himself a rule for his formula. Now, here you will have to follow me closely. We are going to use both dry and liquid measures. The smallest graduate that you may use will be a minim graduate, and will be used only for very small amounts. A minim is the equivalent of one drop of liquid, sixty of which make a dram. The next size graduate will be either an ounce or four ounces. Graduated in drams. SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 27 i. e., if a one-ounce graduate, the markings should be in drams, eight drams making an ounce. If a four- ounce graduate, the markings should be for the first ounce in drams and the balance up to four ounces ir quarter and half ounces. The next graduate should be either of pint or quart capacity, graduated from one to four ounces. With a set of graduates as described above, one is able to handle any problem that may arise. Thus it will be seen that minim graduate rep- resents 1 drop, 60 minims 1 dram, 8 drams 1 ounce, 16 ounces 1 pint, 2 pints 1 quart, and 4 quarts 1 gallon, equipment. As this is the liquid measure which we employ, I recommend, to avoid confusion, a set of weights to use in weighing stains, etc., made up as follows : LABORATORY GRAIN WEIGHTS 1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 20 grains equal 1 scruple SCRUPLE WEIGHTS 1 and 2 3 scruples equal 1 dram DRAM WEIGHTS 1, 2, 3 and 4 8 drams equal 1 ounce OUNCE WEIGHTS 1/4, 1, 2 and 4 16 ounces equal 1 pound MEASURING AND MIXING JUG MINIM GRADUATE VARIATION IN WEIGHTS. 28 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM It will be seen that the foregoing is a conclomera- tion of the three different kinds of weights, but that it conforms with the liquid measure commonly used, inasmuch as it makes 16 ounces to the pound ; it differs from the apothecaries' weight, and inasmuch as it uses 480 grains to the ounce it differs from the avoirdupois weight. In purchasing scales you will always find that they are accompanied with grain weights up to two drams. Above that they will have ounce weights. But these ounce weights have 437 V2 grains to the ounce. While this slight difference might not be noticed in some formulas, in others when formulas are multiplied to make a larger quantity, the discrep- ancy will absolutely change the shade of the stain which it is attempted to make. This is why I recommend a balance scale so that the weights desired can be placed on the opposite pan. It will take but a short time to familiarize oneself with these units, and when the units that establish the formula are used funnel in the entire work, the multiple of a formula will be correct. Any of the readers who now have scales and wish to employ the above suggestions, can easily test out their scales by beginning with the grains and multi- plying up until they have established a unit of 480 grains, then making comparison with their ounce weights when it will probably be found that these show but 437 grains. It should then be an easy matter to either weight these weights with more lead or to make some weights out of lead pipe and mark them. For example: 1 ounce, 480 grains. The mortar and pestle is positively the handiest thing for thoroughly mixing and reducing to a fine powder the various colors and chemicals employed. For example, in making up a formula, I will say, of 20 grains of black, some orange and bichromate of potash, these chemicals can be weighed out, rubbed up finely in the moHar and half of the quantity of water added SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 29 and thoroughly stirred. It will be found that nearly- all of the color has been dissolved, but that there is sufficient color left in the bottom of the mortar which might change the color. Now you can readily see what it would do to a for- mula, the amount of which has been many times in- creased but not all dis- how to use solved. Therefore, after apparatus. pouring off the first water, use a little more water to stir the balance of the color MORTAR AND PESTLE ^^ ^he mortar and continue to add small portions of water until all of the color is dissolved. You will then be certain that all the color has been dissolved. In the cuts I have shown the handiest and most useful styles of graduates. As these graduates are used for either water, spirit or oily liquids, get the graduates made in the larger sizes which have a flat bottom with the markings on the outside. These are easily kept clean and clean dishes are absolutely necessary in the experimental work in the finishing room, as it takes but a small amount of color sometimes to ruin a formula. In some factories they make their own fillers, or rather, they color their own fillers, and in others they have ready-made fillers. Every finisher knows that a certain amount of his results depend upon the filler used. In matching up a piece of wood or establishing a formula, it is just as necessary to know what filler to use as it is to know the composition of or the stain used. The filler which is at hand may not be dark enough and, therefore, the compounder should have at his disposal the few colors ground in oil which are used in color filler, such as black, browns, rose pink and the siennas. Then in the changing of a filler, or the coloring of one, he can weigh out his colors, and thereafter have no trouble in producing the same shade of filler. RESULTS DEPEND ON FILLER USED. 30 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW TO USE CARD REFER- ENCE IN STAINING. Colors ground in oil can be weighed out just as easily as dry colors. For this initial work you can take two pieces of glass, evenly balanced, and put your paste color on this glass. Brush it clean with the liquid used in thinning the filler. To further illustrate my idea of how a card ref- erence should be made, let me introduce here: WATER STAIN EXPERIMENT CARD NO. 506 Match for I. C. PROGRESS & CO.'S Mahogany, on Birch. Water Stain Water Scarlet Black Oranga Bichromate of Potash Filler 1 Pint 1 dram 2 scruples 30 grs. 30 grs. 20 grs. 2 scrupl^-s 1 scruple 1 dram Marietta's Standard Shad' Total in grains 100 80 60 60 To make a gallon multiply by 8, there l)--ing8pint.s to the gallon 800 C40 480 480 Reduce to the largest units 1 oz. 5 drams 1 scruple 1 oz. 2 drams 2 serupl s 1 oz. 1 oz. Thus, the formula for matching I. C. Progress & Co.'s mahogany on birch as given above and fully inter- preted reads: To 1 gallon of water add 1 ounce, 5 drams, 1 scruple of scarlet ; 1 ounce, 2 drams, 2 scruples of black; 1 ounce of orange, 1 ounce of bichromate of potash. Fill with Marietta Co.'s mahogany standard filler. From the foregoing example we find that the first test was made as shown in the first line of quantities used. That is, the operater used 1 dram of scarlet, 30 grains of black, 2 scruples of orange and 1 dram of bichromate of potash. It is evident that there was not sufl^cient strength, so the next addition was 2 scruples of scarlet, 30 grains of black and 1 scrunle of orange. This did not produce the desired result. The third exper- iment, or addition, produced the result by the addi- tion of 20 grains of black. This, then, gave a pint of stain which would do the work. A pint being an eighth of a gallon, the diflferent amounts used were added up in grains, then reduced back to the largest units of SYSTEM FOR THE FINISHING ROOM 31 the M'eights employed by the scale at hand. The totals give the correct amount for a gallon of stain. It is then an easy matter to double or increase the amount to any number of gallons desired. The card becomes at once a record and when filed away numerically with the sample of wood received, the sample will show the re- sult from the stain made. This makes an additional record which at any time can be called for to assist in future experiments. Should there be another order taken in where the shade varies little, you have a basis to work upon. These experiments sometimes will take from 10 to 20 additions of the various colors, but after a pint of water is used for dissolving more than a half, or possibly three-quarters of an ounce, it is recom- mended that you destroy the chart and begin over again as in that case the water carries too much stain and is liable to become muddy. Again, care must be taken in the selection of colors. It must be remembered that acid colors and basic colors do not harmonize. A pre- cipitate is thrown out which is absolutely useless and a waste of color material. The foregoing example may be employed in the making of oil stains, but owning to the fact that oil colors do not dissolve as readily, especially if they be of the lumpy kind, unless they be heated on a water bath, the results are not so easy or sure. The prep- aration of a concentrated solution of the colors usually employed for making oil stains is very handy. For instance, the finisher of experience knows what colors are usually employed for making the various oil stains. Consequently he can make up a certain quantity of a very strong solution of the colors, the strength of which is known to him. He can then proceed very much as in the previous example, or according to the following, the chart of which is shown below: OIL STAIN EXPERIMENT CARD NO. 569 Match for sample hoard frorn A. S. Mufllen Company "OLD OAK." BenzoH Oil Red Oil Yfllow Oil Black Acetone H pint Yi pint 1 pint 1 ounce H ounce V2 ounce 2 ounces Ji ounce J5 ounce 3 ounces 1 ounce 1 ounce 1 ounce 2 pints 2 ounces IVi ounces 4 ounces 2 ounces CARD IS A ■ RECORD FOR FUTURE EXPERIMENTS. RECORD CARD FOR OIL STAINS. CARRYING OUT CHART. 32 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM The chart is then carried out by multiplying the amounts with whatever factor is desired to produce the quantity of stain required. As there are eight pints to the gallon, in order to make the above into a gallon quantity we would multiply naturally by four. Multiplying the entire amounts by this figure would give us a total of eight pints of benzole, eight ounces of oil red solution, 10 ounces of oil yellow solution, 16 ounces of oil black solution and eight ounces of acetone, which the operator has found to produce an oil stain, which will match the sample board in question. My readers will notice that this formula will produce one and one-quarter gallons of stain. For all prac- tical purposes this slight increase will not matter, but if that quantity should be too large, it is an easy mat- ter to reach the factor. The adoption of a system of this kind in any fin- ishing department where mixing of colors takes place. NO. 8 SCALE is far ahead of the old style, which was taking a little of this and a little of that, and then some more of this, without keeping or having at hand a record of where the stock came from, and with nothing but memory to rely upon. A finisher who once starts a system of this kind will eventually become possessed of a val- uable lot of information. The more of these charts he has, the more readily he can match a special order. ING ESSENTIAL IN GOOD FURNITURE. CHAPTER III THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS THE first efforts at staining or coloring woods were primarily undertaken to embellish them. Our native woods were colored in order to give them the same shade as those of the tropical woods, which ^^'^ ^^ stain- are so much more expensive, and also to color cabinet woods, producing deeper shades and to give them the appearance of age. Of late years, all sorts of colors and shades have been produced. Many of the colors have nothing in common with those of the natural woods, such as the green, olive, gray and blue tones, these especially being absolutely foreign colors. Stained woods are today very popular, the buying public demanding strong col- ors, so that the art of producing these colors is becom- ing more and more a requisite in the building of fur- niture. The literature which is offered seems to be a com- pilation of traditional information, each succeeding effort containing parts of some previous publication, with a few additions. In applying the word Stains to the furniture industry, it can be classified as covering all the different processes which are employed in the finishing room and which tend to change color, to produce shades or match woods. No matter what method is employed in finishing, it is called staining, with the one exception, which is fuming. But the stain- ing methods must be subdivided so that, when aft- erward referred to, they will be recognized. Under the head of Sanding, some details and re- quirements for successful treatment are given. That they may not be overlooked, let me briefly refer to a few essential things. These are the preparation of the wood by sanding, and in some cases, by sponging and sanding afterward, for it should be remembered that some of the woods must be sponged and sanded down again before the stain coat is applied. 34 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM The production of stained woods, however, de- mands that, as much as possible, the characteristic texture and growth of the wood should be absolutely retained. Not only should they be retained, but the stain should, if possible, bring out the beauties of the wood. All materials employed in the production of stains, anilines, dyes and chemicals as well, should be absolutely soluble in water, or if used in spirits or oil vehicles should be equally soluble, so that they will pen- sTAiN SHOULD etrate as much as possible into the wood and carry with ENHANCE them their color value without destroying the ntural WOOD'S BEAUTY, appearance of the wood. Therein the well stained wood has an advantage over a wood stained with insoluble color materials, as the former penetrates, and in its process of penetration lends its color to the fibres and cells of the wood, whereas the latter tends to cover, and thus destroy the natural appearance. Of a stained wood, we demand, from the fact that the furniture is to be used indefinitely, a permanency that will not be affected by either light or air. Yet these two requisites are not the only ones that are essential in making a good stain. There are a good many dyestuffs and chemicals which are fast to light, but they are not adapted for wood stains. A good wood stain, one that will be fast to light, and perma- nent to exposure to air, must have the necessary pen- etrating quality so that when spread upon the wood will pentrate the fibres and pores alike, tending to REQUISITES leave an evenly colored surface. The application must OF A GOOD be simple, the results certain and, as a rule must not STAIN. be exorbitant in price. The various anilines, vegetable color stuff and chem- icals used in the production of stains have a varied qualification as to their permanency when made up as stains. We have a good many anilines whose colors are most beautiful, and from which every conceivable shade can be produced, but unfortunately within 24 hours after their application they begin to fade. Another series of anilines permits the exposure of months, withstanding all without a particle of change. As a rule, coal tar colors are far in advance in their qualifications as stain material in preference to veg- THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS 35 etable products. It is an easy matter to produce any shade of stain out of the two thousand available aniline colors. But it takes an intimate knowledge to ascer- tain which of these colors is adapted for use in the coloring of woods. The demand for these special colors has so increased in late years, that the consumer is comparatively safe in ordering supplies if it is known by the supply house for what purpose the colors are to be employed. With- out discussing here the relative values of oil stains and spirit stains, suffice it to say that the general rule is, from the very nature of production, neither spirit stains, nor oil stains, can be said to be absolutely per- manent. But their permanency can be greatly aug- mented by the after treatment of the wood, such as covering or coating it with an air-tight coat such as shellac or varnish, thus protecting it from the oxidiz- ing effect of the atmosphere. For the artisan, it is well to know that, as a rule, a color that is absolutely soluble in water, as well as in alcohol, is not fast to light. Where it becomes abso- lutely necessary to produce shades by the employment of colors of unknown permanency, it is far better to apply each coat separately. To be explicit, let us sup- pose we wish to use a red and a black, but the effect of the two colors mixed is unknown to us. Then apply one color first, and when thoroughly dry, apply the second color. Thus the uncertainty of the mixture is avoided, but the result on the wood is obtained. In the event of producing stain out of coal tar dyes and chemicals, it is well to remember that it is not safe to go beyond two ounces of chemical salts to the gallon of water. There are instances, however, where a quantity as high as four ounces of chemical material can be dis- solved in a gallon of water. This depends largely upon the amount of water for crystallization present in the chemical. In the application of vegetable dyes, one should always thoroughly understand the mordants that are to be used in the making of permanent colors when em- ploying this material. As a matter of fact, vegetable colors should be obsolete, from the fact that their very PERMANENCY AND FASTNESS OP A STAIN. ;}6 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM KNOWLEDGE OF MORDANTS NECESSARY. nature does not spell uniformity. For it must be known that no two plant lives produce results identical. There is always a discrepancy in the actual percentage of color value present in a given weight of material. While the few that are still popular, such as log wood, fustic, catechu, can be purchased in extract form, and thus partially eliminating the uncertainty, there is never- theless, a percentage of uncertainty, which . although small would manifest itself in the results. And al- though the popular mordants would be employed, assuring the permanency of the resultant color, the shade might vary. Then, too, standardizing the stains made from veg- etable dyestuff would exact an amount of labor the expense of which is not warranted in the face of the fact that an aniline of absolute permanency, producing identical color values, can be purchased at reasonable figures. Therefore it is not considered timely to recom- mend continuance of materials prone to uncertainties. While mineral colors, as far as permanency is con- cerned, are recognized superior to any stain material, from the very fact that they do not change their physi- cal condition while being applied to wood, yet they must not be considered a stain. Their only considera- tions in good furniture are in their filler coats, and their value of giving to the filler a harmonious shade conforming with that of the stained wood. The fact that a thin coat of stain ofttimes is not considered permanent, whereas a stronger stain made of the identical material is called fast to light, needs consideration. For example, if we coat a square yard of a certain wood, employing ten grams of color mate- rials, and then coat another square yard using but one gram of color material, it will be found that after a given time the sunlight has produced a greater effect on the weaker stain. The dark coat will have lost possibly one-half gram of its color material, say about 5 per cent. However, the lighter shade will have lost about 50 per cent, and will have the appearance of a faded-out surface, which will show us that in pro- ducing the light shades, the effect of sunlight must always be taken into consideration. THE STAINING AND COLORING OF WOODS 37 But it must be understood that it is not the stain that changes the color, but it is the wood itself that has changed and thus affected the stain. This can be car- ried on further, and show conclusively the permanency of the stain, by taking a freshly sanded panel and ex- posing it 48 hours to the sunlight, applying the weaker affects stain, and again exposing it to the sunlight, when it the stain will be found that there is no perceptible change in the stain. This again convinces us that after the perma- nency of the stain is established in delicate tones, light effect on freshly sanded surfaces must be taken into consideration in the final result. WOOD CHANGING CHAPTER IV KNOWLEDGE OF WOODS NECESSARY ALL woods entering into the manufacture of pianos, furniture and other high class commodi- ties intended to receive a clear and durable finish ^^^^ ^^sr should be thoroughly seasoned and well dried. We are living in a fast age. The rapidity with which the monarch of the forest is converted into the beautiful article for the home is but characteristic of the times, and calls loudly for a care that in some measure at least will compensate for the haste in the preparation of the wood for the finish. Until quite recently both in England and Europe, and even in this country, it was customary to allow wood to stand several years between the time it was cut from the tree and the time of manufacturing it into household articles, in order that it might become thoroughly cured. But in this age of action nxuch lumber is used in the manufacture of goods that has been cut but a few months at the most. . Wood intended for furniture, pianos, etc., that has not been thoroughly seasoned in the open air should be thoroughly kiln-dried a considerable time in advance of being made up. This is of advantage to any wood whether thoroughly seasoned or not. But it is im- perative with wood that has been rushed from the tree to the dry-kiln. If poorly seasoned wood is hastened from the dry-kiln into the workshop it is very easily affected by atmospheric changes, and constant expan- sion and contraction result from a continually varying temperature. On the surface of such wood a lasting finish need not be expected. When the highly polished, mirror-like surface grows dim before its time, either the method or the material used in finishing is usually held accountable, and all eyes are turned toward and centered on the finishing room as the source of the trouble. A careful examina- tion of the finish reveals the fact that the surface of 40 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM UNEVENNESS OF FINISH TROUBLESOME. the varnish is gradually growing uneven, and this un- evenness is the cause of the dimness. But what is the cause of the unevenness, is the question demanding an answer. In many finishing rooms unevenness of finish has been for years, and is today, one of the unsolved mys- teries. A microscopic unevenness will adversely affect a high polish. If wood has not been properly dried, no matter how well the pores may have been filled, or how carefully the varnish may have been rubbed and pol- ished, there is certain to result, in consequence of ex- pansion and contraction, an unevenness sufficient to detract from the appearance of the finish soon after the work is done. And this trouble may continue indefi- nitely without its cause being ascertained, because men persist in looking for the cause of trouble in the im- mediate vicinity where the trouble is discovered. It is here that science enters and enables the finished' with a well trained mind to stand out from among his fellows and clear the path of obstacles that are immovable and insurmountable to the average man. CHAPTER V PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING WHILE it is generally understood that all wood should be thoroughly dried before it is fin- ished, this really means that it should be thor- oughly seasoned before it is put into work at all. Un- questionably there was no better method than the old way of storing it in the rafters of the work shop for five or six months, where it was subjected to the cir- culation of the air, and was always in a dry place. The stacking up of lumber or boards, sometimes said to be done to take out the warp before the present- day kiln-drying, is only a step toward the preparation of the wood. It shortens the time in the kiln. In the present day of hurry and hustle, the old methods, no matter how meritorious, will not do, because compe- tion will not permit of tying up capital for so long a time, and, therefore, it may be said that all cabinet woods are prepared by drying them in the kiln. One would naturally suppose that this was an en- tirely satisfactory procedure, but it is not without diffi- culties, for the softer wood, when hurried too much, will shrink beyond normal, only to take on a certain amount of moisture after having been in work. To exemplify, take a piece of basswood, subject it to ex- cessive kiln-drying, and, for argument's sake, say it has been reduced to nine inches. You will find that it will increase, in a perfectly dry room, to about 91/2 inches. If this piece of wood were immediately put in work, the atmospheric conditions would later cause trouble. The preparation of the wood, therefore, to a certain degree, must be in keeping with the peculiari- ties of the wood. After the wood has been thoroughly seasoned, it is usually cut to sizes, when it is ready for the planer; from the planer it goes to the sander, when it is passed to the various machines, preparing it for the cabinet room. OLD METHODS GOOD BUT TOO SLOW TODAY. 42 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FINISHING PROCESS IS COMMENCED. The foregoing procedure is that of the furniture factory, whereas the general preparation of the wood for the various kinds of wood-working industries is similar and supplied to the different industries as kiln- dried stock in the rough or planed. The stock thus prepared is ready for the cabinet room, where it is made up into the various pieces and again smoothed down before going to the finishing room. Large surfaces, such as table and dresser tops, are put through the polisher or sander machine. Sand- ing is employed wherever possible. When a piece is finally finished and thoroughly smoothed down, it is turned over to the finishing room. The sanding of large surfaces is a delicate operation, particularly so where veneer is employed. Here the danger of cutting through the surface of the veneer comes, for which there is no remedy except to send the piece back to the veneer room to have it re-veneered. This is done over the old veneer, as the surface has already been smoothed in the pol- isher or sander, Turned parts are sanded before they leave the lathe. Unusually rough parts are drawn down with a scraper. This, however, is only necessary when ex- tremely uneven joints have been made. Here the cabi- netmaker uses his plane or scraper. Where hand sand- ing is done, the cork block or, nowadays, the rubber block, is employed and usually garnet paper is found to have the preference. It will be seen that no matter what the work, the general preparation of the wood before it reaches the finishing room results in thor- oughly seasoned stock and, when made up, perfectly smooth work. A piece thus prepared, and particularly is this the case of medium and better grade work, where water stain is to be employed, is now sponged. This sponging is usually done by one man, who has a large pail of lukewarm water in which a small quantity of glue has been incorporated — not enough to act as a sizing, but sufficient to cause the fibers of the wood to dry stiff or to hold up the fuzz. After the sponging the smoothing process is employed. In pieces where large surfaces are to be smoothed down, as much as possible is done in PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING 43 the knock-down. By this is meant the various tops. Drawer fronts can then be done with machine work. After the entire piece has been sponged and smoothed it is ready for the finishing room. The question naturally arises, why do you sponge and sand when you intend to apply another solution of water stain? This accomplishes one of the main features of good finishing. It has opened up the pores of the wood. The loose fibers have been removed and this enables the finishers' art to enhance the beauty of the wood. First, it does away with the extreme amount of sanding which is necessary to smooth the wood after the grain has been raised by the sponging process which, if the stain were incorporated with the sponging solution, would cut off too much of the stain coat, and in some places, pos- sibly, cut through, leaving an unevenly-colored surface. That a considerable amount of care must be taken in the sanding process, especially with the softer woods, is generally known. But for the novice, let him take various kinds of woods, and he will notice that he can cut down into the soft parts of the wood, leaving the flakes of the fibrous parts protruding. That is why it is well to employ a fine, but high grade, sandpaper in smoothing the surfaces, whether before or after stain- ing. On the cheaper grades of work the sponging process is omitted. It means two less handlings of the article. On work that is to be oil stained, or spirit stained, sponging is also omitted ; but in either of these cases a thorough dusting is quite essential, if a clean bit of work is to be the result. In the general preparation of the wood in carvings, turned work and curves, there is no special method to be recommended. The turned work is sanded in the lathe, carvings by hand, curved work by hand or ma- chine, but in all cases there is end wood to be considered in the staining process. If it is found in work that is to be sponged, it is merely a case of thoroughly sand- ing and smoothing down before staining. No general precaution is necessary with a water stain, and espe- cially is this the case in the darker shades ; but if the SANDING AND SPONGING. SPONGING IS OMITTED ON SOME GRADES. 44 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM end wood takes on the color too dark, it is merely a case of proportionate thinning of the water stain so that the increased amount of stain deposited in the end wood will only come up to match that on the gen- eral work. But in cases of oil stain, it is absolutely necessary to greatly reduce the strength of the stain, so that the end wood will not show up darker than the general color of the entire piece. This end wood should all be stained before the balance of the piece. This rule PRECAUTIONS equally applies to the filler. It can readily be seen that NECESSARY end wood would take on more stain and more filler than MANY TIMES. the smooth flat surface. These precautions are employed where the best of results are desired, and, unfortunately, are never con- sidered in the cheaper grades of furniture. Where the dipping processes are employed these precautions are simply out of question. Built-up stock and veneers are all sponged and treated like solid woods where water stains are employed. It would surprise any one to know how small a quantity of wood is taken off in the spong- ing process. That is why we are able to sponge the veneer parts in the same manner that we do solid wood. If this were not possible, the results would not be uni- form. It has been stated that the sponging method is employed only where water stains are used. While this is general, there are exceptional cases where the wood is sponged in order to open the pores, such as in making fumed oak by the use of an oil stain, or where some of the fancy finishes are to be made, and the pores to be later filled with a colored filler. In these cases, the wood is sponged, and in order to more readily open the pores, a small amount of alkali is added and then, when dry and sanded, the pores are still further opened up by the use of a picking brush. After the sanding has been completed, the work is thoroughly cleaned off before applying the stain and before applying the filler. This is also necessary in cases where precaution is necessary to keep the filler from settling, from the fact that the oil penetrates the wood, leaving the dry filler to still further settle in the pores only to be followed by all the subsequent coats in the finishing process. THE DANGER PREPARATION OF WOOD BEFORE FINISHING 45 The difficulty that affects the finishing room is usu- ally that which is termed "cutting through." After the wood is sponged, it is put through the polisher, which is a machine usually supplied with No. 1 down to No. 00 paper. The operator of this machine has the most responsible sanding position. He must smooth the piece without cutting through the sponged part. The great danger is in using too coarse paper, and then cutting through part of the wood which has been affected by the sponging operation. Thus he entirely eliminates the sponge part, and while bringing a through " smooth piece to the finisher, causes the difficulty which cannot be recognized until it has passed through the cabinet room and is ready to receive its final treatment. The foreman finisher unsuspectingly puts the piece through the staining process, only to find that the color has not taken evenly. The particular part which was cut through did not take the stain as evenly or as deeply as the rest of the piece. Then and there the difficulty begins. It means "doctoring," with doubtful results. When the finishing department thoroughly understands its requirements, it should be consulted in the matter of purchasing sanding machines. Usually the builder of such machines informs him- self of the requirements and the results necessary to be obtained with the machine before he puts it on the market. In these days, when time is money, when wood is getting scarcer, when the finishes are of a much higher grade than they used to be, the sanding operation is one that must not be overlooked. CHAPTER VI THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING BEFORE staining woods, it is absolutely necessary that every part of the piece has been thoroughly sanded. As a rule, the machine sanding, when done by ex- perienced operators, needs little attention; but the necessity of the sanding operation, as a whole, is recog- nized by the foreman finisher as absolutely essential to good finishing results. Untold troubles and difficulties may arise from too much or too little sanding. The fin- isher must insist that sanding be done with the grain : First, with the coarser sandpapers until toward the finishing of the sanding operation it is smoothed with the finest paper. An experienced hand will never attempt to go cross- wise of the grain. The use of the sanding block, which is usually made of a block of wood three by five inches, to which is glued an absolutely square piece of cork, is common. About this is placed the paper that is used. It might be well to state that sandpaper should not be torn. Place it face down, cut the paper side, and then break over an edge. In this way absolutely even work can be produced by regular strokes and uniform pres- sure. I will not enter into the merits of the various sand- papers on the market, for every operator has a choice, and once he is accustomed to the results he obtains, it matters little what brand of paper is employed, as long as a satisfactory surface is produced. A method em- ployed which takes the place of sponging the wood be- fore staining is the sanding, or rather smoothing with wet pumice stone. This method is .not popular in this country, but is used in Europe quite extensively. It is claimed that better results are obtained by its use, and one operation eliminated. The wood is moistened with sponges to raise the pores, and then rubbed smooth with pumice stone and by the use of the sanding block. GOOD SANDING ESSENTIAL TO GOOD FINISH. REDUCING THE SANDING TO A MINIMUM. 48 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM For this process it is claimed that the water stain, described later, will penetrate the wood better without raising the grain so that the sanding or smoothing after the application of the stain is reduced to a mini- mum. In this country, the sanders deliver the piece supposedly completely sanded to the finisher. For many of the stains it is sponged, and quite thoroughly at that, and again sanded before the stain is applied. The difference seems to be in the fact that the cutting of the moistened surface with pumice stone to absolute smoothness has a different effect than sponging, let- ting it dry and then sanding. One of the text books published in Leipzig, Ger- many, tells us: "Wood is in all probability the most difficult material on which to produce an absolutely even surface. The structure of the same is so varied ; beside the soft, fleshy part are the bone-hard fibers representing the years, or age of the tree. In oaks which are quartersawed we call them the flake. In some woods the structure is tough, hard and pithy ; in others, short and stocky fibers. Therefore, to sand woods even, and so that the flakes and soft parts are equally affected by the process, the soft parts should not be crushed down or pressed together, so that they will not swell up later, the hard parts not to protrude by the sanding process. In other words, so that there will be no depressions and elevations, but that the surface will be absolutely even. The following requisites are specific of a good sanding or smoothing material: First, it must be sufficiently hard and sharp so as to attack the hard parts of the wood and, at the same time, to cut the soft parts of the wood rather than to press them to- gether. Second, it must be produced chemically so that the wood will not knot itself, but will powder up and be readily removed with a duster." We see that sandpaper figures extensively in the manipulations which go to make the finished product. First, the raw wood is smoothed, and so is each con- secutive coat until the last one, which is usually rubbed. After sponging, staining, shellacing and filling, it is sanded. Different degrees of sanding, diflferent de- grees of fineness of the sandpaper, all of which must THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 49 be thoroughly understood by the foreman finisher, are applied. He must understand how to break in his men. A new hand will do more harm than good. In these days of finishes of woods, such as Circassion, where there is really little coating, scratches or cuts by negli- gent sanding loom up like a boil on a man's nose. Sandpaper, used on finish, must be kept moist. Old finishers usually split their paper and then moisten the back. This is so that the paper will give way under pressure rather than to press in on the soft part of the wood. An experienced sander will have at hand a sponge with which he moistens his paper as he uses it. Today you can purchase sandpaper that is coated on both sides, and on which a split is started so that when you come to use it, it is merely necessary to pull it apart. There are various makes of sandpaper, some have preference in one factory, and some in another. The main thing is to know what degree of coarseness or fineness to use, and then to see that the men use it properly. No matter what woods are used, the surfac? cannot be prepared too carefully. As stated before, wnether sanding is done by machine or whether it is done by hand, it must never cut through th sponged part of the wood. That part which had been raised by the moisture should only be sanded sufficiently to give it absolute smoothness. After staining (of course, we mean water staining, as spirit or oil stains will not raise the grain) , it is only necessary to cut off the little fibers or nap that may protrude. Some finishers, par- ticularly where the cheaper grades of furniture are made, prefer to put on a coat of stain without sponging, usually relying on their results by putting on a heavier coat of stain or a darker coat and sanding lightly after- ward. They even fill the wood without sanding, put on the shellac and cut the protruding fibers which are ' -ifened by the ^hellac by giving it a light coat of sand. I'he only danger of this operation is that these little fibers will show ud the raw color and will not permit a permanent finish, acting as conductors of air, espe- cially where wax finishes are used. Shellac coats and varnish coats are, of course, hand MUST HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF SANDPAPER. 50 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SANDING FOR UNIFORMITY OF RESULTS. sanded, No. and No. 00 paper being used. It is im- possible to lay down an ironclad rule for the operation. Enough has been said to show the reader the points to be safeguarded, but the factory that wants good fin- ishing results must insist upon the fulfillment of the essentials conducive to good results in the finishing room. Uniformity in sanding is essential, and to properly convey this to the finisher, the following experiment is suggested : Plane a piece of wood, making a smooth surface. Sand one surface with No. GO sandpaper and the other with No. 14 sandpaper, and stain both sur- faces. This will exemplify in a strong manner what it means to the finishing department if uniformity in sanding is not insisted upon. The planed part of the sandpaper will be darker and that sanded with the board will be light in color. That sanded with the fine coarse paper will be very much darker, and the coarse one will give a muddy finish. Another precaution is the sandpapering between each application of finishing material. For instance, after the filler has been applied, there are likely to be spots where the filler has taken darker, due to a little roughness generally caused by insufficient sanding in the cabinet or machine room, which may not have been noticed until the filler showed them up, and which, in the finished product, would show up a blotchy bit of work. It is a fact that it is diflficult to clean up filler, or wipe it oflf, on the so-called "skipped" places, and in consequence thereof a bit of judicious sanding will greatly help the final result. Varnish surfaces may be sanded without creating the least bit of dust, if the sandpaper is wet with oil before it is used. For this purpose a shallow dish should be procured and partly filled with oil. The sandy side of the paper should be wet with the oil, after which the paper is used just as in dry sandpaper. After using the sandpaper for awhile, it will become clogged, but may be cleaned to a large extent by brushing it out with a wet brush, after which it should be dipped into the oil again. Use a substitute turpentine or a mineral oil. Sandpapering with oil does not retard the work ; THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 51 on the other hand, it seems to help it. For some kinds of varnish sanding, steel wool is recommended as eco- nomical and labor saving, but experience has shown that it is dangerous to the finish. That there should be a great many details in the manufacture of sandpaper seems, at first thought, rather remarkable ; but when one stops to consider the large variety of material which goes to make paper, the different ways of making it, the innumerable sub- stances which are used in glue, and the wide range in their prices, not to consider the various factory meth- ods, it is not strange. If the different grades of paper were limited to only ten, and the glue to ten, we would have one hundred possible combinations without even considering the sand, grading or care in manufacture. The process of making sandpaper has been special- ized to a degree which seemingly allows but little pos- sible improvement, and the production is so low in price that it is poor economy to use inferior paper, quality being so important that it outweighs every other con- sideration. The most important quality of the paper is strength; not strength in one direction merely, but in every direction. Paper, designed for sandpaper, is of two kinds : Cylinder and Fourdrinier. The cylinder has strength all in one direction ; the Fourdrinier paper has no grain, the fibers being distributed in such a manner that the strength is equal in every direction. Four- drinier paper will not tear in a straight line. It is made in combinations of fiber in different thicknesses, according to the grit to be applied. Few people realize the adhesive power of the best glue, and sandpaper demands the finest. It has to be specially made and must be very elastic. When it is con- sidered that fine glue has cohesive power equal and even superior to glass, the importance of the right glue can be readily understood. The glue acts not only as a binder, but aids materially in strengthening the paper. The term "sandpaper" is a misnomer, as sand is not used, the material, instead, being crushed flint rock or quartz. Flint rock, when fractured, presents the sharp- est edges procurable, whereas natural sand, exerii^^ed MANY VARIETIES OF SANDPAPER. 62 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW GARNET SANDPAPER IS MADE. under a microscope, will be found to have a rounded appearance, the cutting edges being considerably dulled by the action of wind and water. The garnet paper is made by the use of garnet ore, which is secured in the United States and abroad. It is not quite as sharp as flint rock, the particles fractur- ing in right angles, but the edges being more durable than flint. In grinding flint or garnet the material, in the form of large chunks, is first passed through crushers, which are graduated to produce the desired grit. The material is then carried to sifting rollers, which are, in reality, skeleton cylinders covered with fine bolting cloth. The material passes through the inside of these cylinders, which are placed at an angle, the larger pieces passing out at the other end, and only the finest material being sifted through. The sifted product is next passed through a series of vibrating separators, which deter- mine the different sizes with extreme exactness and uniformity. All kinds of sandpaper, emery paper and emery doth are made in rolls as large as that used in the printing of a daily paper. The process is continuous to such an extent that while the paper is still coming from the roll at one end, the finished product is being re-rolled at the other end. The first step in the process is the printing of the brand, which is done by passing through a roller press. The paper next dips into the glue, which is applied very hot, rubber buffers prevent- ing it spreading to the other side of the paper. From this it passes under brushes which distribute the glue evenly. It next passes under a shower of the grit de- sired, the surplus falling off by gravity at the first turn. A further application of a thin solution of glue gives an extra coating which thoroughly cements all the par- ticles. From this the paper passes over a hot blast dryer, and is suspended in long loops, traveling slowly for a considerable distance, to be finally rolled into a finished state. The sheets are cut by running the paper from the rolls through a cutter which drops them out, automatically counted, and delivered so that they can be assembled easily in quires and reams; THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SANDING 53 To determine the quality of paper, tear it from each edge. Good paper will not tear straight readily. It does not tear cleanly, but the fiber pulls away, leaving an irregular edge. This characteristic should be the same, tearing from all four directions. When bent, the paper should give a good snapping sound, and when bent sharply the particles should not loosen and drop off. Another test is to rub two pieces from the same sheet together. This is a very severe test, but good paper will give up its grit with extreme reluctance, not showing the paper beneath without considerable rub- bing. Above all things, keep sandpaper in a dry place, away from an open window where there is a possibility of its absorbing moisture from the air. If the paper gets too dry and cracks or breaks when fastening it onto the drums, moisten the paper on the back before attempting to place it on the drums. This will do away with that trouble. Every user of sandpaper should know, if he but stops and thinks about it, that moisture is injurious to sandpaper and that it should be thoroughly dry when used, no matter whether it is paper to be used by hand or paper to be attached to a roll sander or any other Sander device. Moisture and heat both tend to soften the glue holding the sand to the paper, and to let the sand strip off, thus shortening the life and impairing the usefulness of the paper. Those who know this thoroughly perhaps often fail to appreciate another fact, and that is that sandpaper in stock will go and come more or less with the weather. It will absorb moisture from the air during rainy weather and should be dried before using. Indeed, it is well to treat sandpaper pretty much as one treats veneer before using it. No matter how well it has been taken care of, treat it to a little drying in a warm room to insure drying out all of the moisture be- fore using it. This may seem a little matter, but it is attention to small matters of this kind that often marks the difference between fairly good work and entirely satisfactory work. Surely if there is moisture in the sandpaper that will soften it, it is worth the time it takes to thoroughly dry the sandpaper before using. THE TESTING OF SANDPAPER. MOISTURE IS INJURIOUS TO SANDPAPER. FINISHERS SHOULD HAVE APTNESS. CHAPTER VII THE PROCESS OF STAINING WOODS STAINING is a branch of finishing that requires a man naturally adapted for the work to produce the best results, and even then he must give it his best efforts. Each and every stain has its own pe- foreman culiarity, and the man using it must be able and willing to adapt himself to the requirements of the stain he is using. Many troubles of the finishing room and many a headache that the foreman finisher endures have their inception in the staining room. All stains should be put on quickly. I make no ex- ception to that rule. No matter if it is an oil, acid, spirit or water stain, in order to insure satisfactory results in every detail speed must be used in applying it. If one is staining mahogany veneered work with water stain, it is necessary to cover the surface in the least possible time in order that the brush may not work up any of the glue that may have been squeezed through to the outer edge of the pores. Speed is also necessary to insure a strictly uniform depth of color throughout the surface. It is also neces- sary to have a uniform way of doing things. By that I mean to do the same thing the same way each time. Have some system. Suppose a man has a batch of 50 mahogany sideboards to stain. The first thing to do is to stain the unimportant parts such as the back, bot- tom and inside of the board on your bench. There are various reasons for doing these parts first, but the chief one is this : If the more prominent and important parts were stained first and one were to allow some stain to run over an edge, or get any stain on these prominent parts after they have once been stained, it is liable to show up after goods are varnished unless the utmost care is exercised in removing it. Whereas any stain that may run over on these parts, while they are yet in the white, will be lifted and worked out when the regular coat is applied. 56 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THE NEED OF FOLLOWING A SYSTEM. Then have a place to start and a place to stop. Most finishers work to the right, so in order to illustrate what we mean we will start to stain at the top of the left hand gable. It will facilitate matters greatly if we stain the edge of the top as we go along, wiping it off immediately. This will prevent the possibility of it becoming daubed and spotted. Staining the gable, we proceed to the edge and the inside of the pilaster. This done, we stain the front edge of the top, wiping it off immediately, and proceed downward, staining the drawer and door divisions. Then up the truss and pi- laster on the other side and around to and down the right hand gable. Now the case is all stained except the top, which is stained last. In staining the flat of the top we will put but a light coat on the edges, which have already been stained and wiped off. This will give the edges the same depth of color as the rest of the case. By going about the work in this systematic way one can do more and better work, with much less labor and worry. I have seen men stand before a piece of work, perhaps a large china cabinet, or some other such arti- cle, dreading to commence, fearing they would make a bad job of it before they got through. This would not be true if they would plan out the best way to proceed and follow it strictly. In staining mahogany one will frequently find a piece of plain wood alongside of a nice piece of African stripe. This is more likely to be found where solid wood has been used in connection with veneer. If this plain wood is left so, it will not look well after it is finished. An easy way to grain these plain parts is as follows: Make a small quantity of stain double the strength of that used on the case, ordinarily. Stain the case in the usual way with the regular stain and when about half dry (the surface must still be showing moisture) ; take a small camel hair pencil brush and with the dark stain stripe the plain parts to match the balance of the wood. If the first coat is not allowed to become too dry before the stripes are put on, the dark' stain will flow out nicely to a fine feather edge and be sufficiently like the genuine to puzzle the most expert. THE PFOCESS OF STATNTNG WOOD 57 GETTING THE SAME STAIN SHADE. To get the same depth of color on Cuban mahogany as on African mahogany, a stain about one-half stronger is required for the former than for the latter. Birch may be treated the same way except that the stain for this wood, if it is to match mahogany, must be double the strength of that used on the mahogany. Some stainers in staining articles with both birch and mahogany put two coats of the ordinary stain on the birch. They stain all the birch parts first, and when these are dry they then stain the whole article. Frequently a stainer has diflficulty in getting hand carvings dark enough. Mahogany being a soft wood and the carver an expert, he is able to make complete, clean, perfect cuts, which require no sanding to make them perfectly smooth. But here is where the trouble lies — they are too smooth. The depth of color will be regulating by the absorbing qualities of the wood and an absolutely smooth piece of wood can absorb very little color. There must be a loosening of the fibers to enable the wood to absorb the color. This can be done best by sanding. As previously explained, the coarser the sandpaper the more fiber will be loosened and raised, and the more of this loose fiber there is, the darker the stain will take. All mahogany carvings, therefore, should be sanded before staining if the proper depth of color is to be expected. In staining case goods, an air of refinement is lent to them if the inside is stained about 50 per cent lighter than the exterior. Open up a sideboard, dresser staining or wardrobe, and everything else being equal, if the inside inside is lighter than the outside, one is impressed with of case the distinguished appearance of the whole thing. The goods adds dark exterior, by the law of contrast and harmony, refinement gives the interior a chaste appearance while the latter by the same law increases the richness of the color effect of the exterior. I have read that a water stain should be put on with a sponge, but I have never been able to find the man who could give me the reason why. A sponge is the proper thing to use for sponging the wood before stain- ing. It will help loosen and lift the fuzz which is to be sanded off when dry. So far as possible the object 58 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BEST METHOD OF APPLYING WATER STAIN. desired in sponging is to be avoided when staining. The less fuzz raised with the first stain the better. A rubber-bound polar bear hair brush is the best thing with which to apply water stain. In putting golden oak stain on large plain surfaces a more uniform job can be made if the stain is applied with a cloth, using the ordinary fitch brush for the smaller parts. A fitch is the proper thing to use in applying turpentine stains, such as most of our Early English and weath- ered oak stains are. If a piece of stained wood which has not had a coat of any other material, has a patch of stain scraped off and it is desired to re-stain so that it can never be de- tected, proceed as follows: First, stain the patch with the regular stain and allow it to dry. The patch can now be distinguished by a narrow border darker than the rest and which is caused by the stain lapping. Now take a small quantity of the regular stain and reduce it one-half and apply a coat of this to the whole sur- face. When this is dry, the border caused by the lap will have disappeared and the patch cannot be found. In applying an oil stain, it is necessary to spread the stain out quickly, especially on oak in order to pre- vent the large open pores drinking in more than they can properly dispose of. Extreme care must be exer- cised in this respect when staining end wood. In staining veneered work the stain cannot penetrate deeper than the glue ; but in solid oak of the softer va- rieties, the stain will penetrate to a considerable depth. One frequently sees oak furniture with the stain oozing out of the pores in places. This is usually caused by one of the three following things : Working so slowly that the stain is allowed to penetrate to a considerable depth before being brushed out; coating too heavy with the stain, or filling before the stain has suflficient time to properly dry. Stain allowed to pene- trate to such a depth goes beyond the reach of air, and consequently cannot dry in the time usually allowed for that purpose. After the goods are filled and perhaps varnished, the stain deep down in the pores begins to generate a gas which creates a pressure beneath the filler, and THE PROCESS OF STAINING WOOD 59 soon it throws out the filler and varnish and begins to ooze out itself. But it does not always wait until the wood has been filled before this action takes place. One may wipe the stain off clean and on examination after the goods have stood for a few hours, find a little circle of hardened stain around each pore as evidence that the oozing has already commenced. When one finds himself confronted with a condition such as this, he must call a halt and either give the stain considerable extra time to dry, or do something to extract it from the pores. In any event he should dampen a cloth with benzine or something similar, and remove the circles from around the pores. This will likely give the wood in the immediate vicinity a faded appearance. The proper thing to do then is to rub the whole surface affected with the cloth, making it uni- form. Then take a little stain on another cloth and rub it over the surface. This will restore the proper shade. If the goods are wanted quickly, and it is thought that to allow the stain to dry out thoroughly will con- sume too much time, much of the stain may be ex- tracted by applying to the whole affected surface a good coat of benzine, working it well into the pores. Wipe this off and apply a second coat, wiping it off also. Allow a few hours for drying, keeping an eye on it to see that any stain that may continue to ooze out is wiped off before it hardens. Then take some stain on a cloth and apply a light coat to the surface, allowing very little to enter the pores. This will restore the original color which was destroyed by the benzine. If stain oozes out after the goods are filled and var- nished, it is not remedied so easily. Usually the bet- ter way will be to remove the varnish, wash out the pores with benzine and refinish. ONE GREAT DIFFICULTY WITH STAIN. CHAPTER VIII THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS STAIN materials, as employed in the production of stains, cause our stains to be classified as water stains, oil, spirit, and again as acid or alkaline ^^ter stains stains. Without a doubt those produced by dissolving ^j^^, ^^^ j^^s^ the color material in water give us the best and most satisfactory. satisfactory medium for the coloring of the wood. Artisans have argued that as in most cases the sap of the wood in the natural tree is mostly water, the wood from this tree more readily absorbs a liquid of the same nature. Therefore, when the color is dis- solved in water, a more even penetration is obtained. It also penetrates farther, owing to the fact that the evaporation of the water is not so rapid as that of alcohol or any of the coal tar solvents usually employed. Again, the water soluble color material at hand ex- ceeds all of the others combined. In describing stains, we have said that the material employed designates the name. In the trade a finisher immediately knows what materials are apt to be em- ployed when he is told that a water stain was used. He immediately seeks his supply of materials from ani- lines. If he is told it is an acid stain, he infers that chemicals are employed and it may be in conjunction with an aniline color. Spirit stains of today would indicate an aniline, soluble in alcohols. Oil stain would indicate an aniline soluble in oil. By these oils, however, is meant turpen- tine, but more often such hydrocarbon compounds as benzole, xytol, etc. In the alKaline stains he would look for ammonia, soda or potash, as the case may be. The terms have simply been brought out by the use of the materials employed, and as there has never been a definite basis upon which to build stains, it is the in- timate knowledge and practice that has brought out to the artisan an understanding of the terms employed. The present-day demands upon the finishing depart- 62 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WATER STAINS PRODUCE COLOR SHADES. ment are so varied that a familiarity with all the meth- ods used to arrive at a result should be known in that part of the factory. The more varied the line, the still greater are the demands on the finishing end. That water stains supply us with practically every shade that is desired or in use is a conceded fact, and that they are not always used is usually a matter of dollars and cents in regard to the cost of the finished article. We do not know of any style that could not be produced with water colors. Of course, there are always these exceptions, that small obstacles may arise from the use of the water stain, such as thin veneers and delicate woods, and in these places the oil color or the spirit color is usually brought into play. The comparative value of these stains, and it must be understood that we are talking of the present day method of production, is all in favor of the water stain, particularly in regard to its permanency and fastness to light. Spirit stains and oil stains will fade, the per- centage, however, varying greatly in accordance with the colors. Thus it will be seen it is unadvisable to use a combination of stains on any one job. Spirit stains are usually used for quick work or for touching up, and that is all the consideration they should be entitled to when their qualifications in regard to permanency are considered. Oil stains are usually employed on the cheaper grades of furniture, and where the finish is put on so heavy as to thoroughly protect them against the air. The eff"ect of the light is then greatly modified owing to the fact that the light is without the assistance of air and in consequence oil stains are claimed to be perma- nent. On the interior of case goods, oil stains are in favor. They do not require the subsequent sanding, and the variations of shades due to the wood are not objected to as they would be on the outer surfaces. We do not consider plant extracts in our industry, as they are practically off the market, and it is difficult to obtain them of a uniform strength. We mention acid and alkaline stains. Generally speaking an acid stain is one in which we find chromic, acetic, tannic and pyro- gallic acids, and in which the solution has an acid re- THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS 63 action stronger than that of the anilines, although usually they are employed in conjunction with an ani- line. The tannic and the pyrogallic, however, form the basis of brown shades produced by the subsequent ap- plication of alkalies. These alkaline stains, we said, were made out of the volatile alkali, ammonia and the fixed alkali of soda and potash salts. We say a volatile alkali when speaking of ammonia and it is well to re- member that word. Ammonia itself is a gas, and the only way we can handle it is by the absorption of a certain amount of this gas when it is run into water. This, however, is not a fixed or definite proposition. Every time it is handled, the amount of ammonia gas is reduced. Stains in which ammonia is employed should be made up fresh, and to be accurate should be made according to hydrometer tests. Uniformity of color is the great essential. After a stain is once found correct, the greatest difficulty is to keep it uniform. This is a diflficult proposition where ammonia is employed. Therefore, the fixed alkalies are preferable. In general, alkalies produce a brown shade when applied to wood, and this peculiar action is taken advantage of as much as possible without injury to the wood, to the brushes, or the hands of the operator. In this method of staining, the volatile alkali, am- monia, has an advantage over the fixed alkalies. For after it has been applied and the work done, nothing remains on the wood that could produce a deleterious effect upon the subsequent finish. However, where the fixed alkalies are employed, if the amount be too great, their presence on and in the texture of the wood is apt to affect the subsequent coatings, through their saponi- fication of the oils. employed in the finishing processes. Alkalies, in conjunction with the chrome salts, are very popular just now in producing the various shades of brown, and bring what we call a strictly chemical stain, in aqueous solution, penetrate deeper, and in consequence a more satisfactory result is obtained than from staining which leaves a superficial coloring. Thus it will be noted that alkaline stains have a de^^ided alkaline reaction to litmus paper. ACID STAINS INTRODUCED. UNIFORMITY OF COLOR AN ESSENTIAL. 64 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW AN ACID STAIN SHOULD BE MADE UP. Before touching upon the reaction through which still deeper colors are obtained, by the use of the two diametrically opposite stains, alkaline and acid, just a word or two of the trade's conception of an acid stain. It should be a stain made up of acids and have an acid reaction, but unfortunately, any stain in which chemi- cals are employed, and which have a corrosive action on the wood and particularly on the hands, is termed an acid stain. Thus it will be seen it is judged by the effect rather than from the material of which it is made. Acid stains are few, but the acids employed in con- junction with materials held in solution in acid re- acting liquid should be termed acid stains. Not only are they made up of acid re-acting stain materials, but as a rule an excess of some acid is present which still further facilitates penetration and color. Simple acid stains, such as solution of tannic acid or pyrogallic acid, produces very little color in themselves; chromic acid produces a greater amount of color; picric acid a decided yellow. When this acid is used, in conjunction with a nigrosine, we produce the popular Early Eng- lish, and the acid has a double purpose in its yellow color ; it produces the olive black typical of Early Eng- lish stains, increases the penetration of the stain, and acts as a mordant for the aniline. Speaking of the results obtained by the use of the alkaline stains, and the acid stains, it is understood that this depends upon two separate applications. One could not mix the two and obtain the results. The chemical change which takes place must take place in the wood, in order to produce the color. It is exempli- fied particularly in the production of fumed oak, by the first coat being of tannic and pyrogallic acid and the subsequent coat, a strong alkaline solution of bichro- mate of potash, and possibly other chemicals, showing clearly that the two entirely opposite compounds when applied separately will produce colors in strength in direct ratio to the quantity of color chemicals employed. We have spoken of oil stains and spirit stains. Where the simDle coloring of wood is desired, they give us a very quick method of procuring a color which is ready for further finishing in a very short time. Those THE CLASSIFICATION OF STAINS 65 of experience know the delicacy with which it must be handled in a subsequent procedure. Spirit stains, owing to the fact that they dry quickly, penetrate cor- respondingly less. Oil stains may penetrate more, but both are apt to lift with filler coats or shellac. The spirit stain is apt to color the shellac and thus be un- evenly deposited on the work. A comparison must determine judgment upon these various stains as to their qualifications for producing the best results. They all have a place in the finishing room, but for general good work, the water stain seems to give best that which is wanted. WATER STAIN GIVES BEST RESULTS. CHAPTER IX STAINING WITH CERTAINTY OF RESULTS MANUFACTURING today calls for time limits, and this affects the finishing as well as other departments. Stains, therefore, should be pre- pared so that the application in the regular manner will produce the desired color without any after-stain- ing or restaining. Those that are preferred make it possible to obtain the desired color with one applica- tion, or possibly two applications of the same stain. It is a peculiar fact that, as a rule, repeated coats pro- duce diversified results. In chemical stains the color production depends upon the chemical reaction of the first coat in conjunc- tion with the color-giving materials naturally present in the wood, and the chemicals applied in the second coat of stain. Chemical stains differ in their results inasmuch as the actual chemical change that takes place is definite, and can be ascertained before the applica- tion of either coat. The variance, therefore, that may take place is due only to such color-giving materials as naturally may be contained in the wood. To overcome this uncertainty, usually an excess of that which nature has furnished is applied, so that when the second coat is applied the chemical change depends upon the amount of chemicals in the second coat, and, therefore, is definite. An example of this is found in the present methods of producing brown, such as fumed oak, by the application in the first coats of tannic and pyrogallic acids, and the subsequent chemi- cal change which takes place when a solution of potas- sium bichromate, potassium carbonate, copper sulphate, stronger water of ammonia (26 degree) in water, is applied. It sometimes becomes necessary, in order to produce odd shades, to use two different anilines. We said "different" because they may be of different series, that is, one color might be known as an acid color, and PREPARING STAINS SO AS TO AVOID ANY RESTAINING. 68 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PRODUCING OOn SHADES. THE FOREMAN FINISHER DIC- TATES SITPPLIES the other as an Alizarean color, or a basic color. No two or these colors could be mixed in one solution, and therefore the shade may be obtained by the application of one, and when this is thoroughly dried, the second one is coated over the first. This is not recommended, but it shows a means by which the end can be obtained. After the wood so colored has been finished, the color is usually permanent, but not always. It denends upon what combinations were employed, and how thorouehly the finishing coat protects it. and the amount of light that the product is exposed to. The cost of production is a question ever present with the manufacturer. Those who recommend water stains are confronted by the arguments of those who recommend oil stains, and of those who recommend spirit stains. The consumer of stains, that is, the man who actually is in charge — the foreman finisher — un- doubtedly is the controlling snirit in each factory, and, as a rule, the methods favored by him dictate the sup- plies of that factory. If he is using water stains, he can tell you to the penny how much each gallon of stain costs ; he is usu- ally familiar with all the colors, chemicals and dye stuflFs that are required for the production of a stain. The more he handles them, the more he becomes ac- quainted with their peculiarities and thus he is more capable of circumventing any of the eccentricities that arise occasionally wherever chemical and kindred mix- tures are made. A factory, as a rule, is quite unlike a laboratory. Things have not been brought down to the nicety which the chemist has learned by experience must be present in order to have accuracy. The dried residue of a previous mixture may go unnoticed in the use of a measuring glass or container, and the amount of dam- age done to the new mixture is not realized, until, per- haps, an entire mixture goes wrong, the reason for which is afterwards ascertained bv experiment or otherwise. The natural precaution then would be that every vessel, dish or container employed in the finish- ing room be cleansed thoroughly before it is again put to use. STAINING ■■■ ■ITH CERTAINTY OF RESULTS 69 We stated that the finisher employing water stains would be confronted with arguments from those em- ploying other stains. He will be told that the necessary sanding overcomes that difference in cost which he saves from the fact that water stains are cheaper. This statement I doubt very much. Gallon for gallon, a water stain will go farther than an oil stain ; it will go much farther than a spirit stain. Except for the sanding expense, each costs more than the water stain, and ow- ing to their quick penetration, neither will go as far as water stain a water stain ; and, lastly, they are not as permanent. ^^ the most Further, there are but very few chemicals, if any, workable. that are soluble in either oil vehicles or spirits. There- fore the colors depend on oleic or stearic derivitives of the anilines, or that series of anilines which are soluble in spirits. Another peculiarity is the fact that oil stains are used in factories where quick results are desired. Spirit stains do not enter into the furniture industry to any great extent, and, therefore, may be dropped from consideration here. However, since the advent of denatured alcohol the cost of spirit stains has been reduced greatly. Thev all have their places, and it is a fact that one cannot do what the others can do. A manufacturer of chean wooden toys who can immerse them into a water solu- tion of color by the basketful, and which sell for a few cents, would not be expected to dip them in a spirit stain, costing 10 to 20 times as much. Thus the selec- tion of the stain must be governed by the work at hand. CHAPTER X GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD WOOD staining not only requires the production of a stain, and the application of the various stain solutions, but the rational application of stain and a certain amount of knowledge of the dif- ferent woods in regard to their adaptability and sus- ceptibility toward a certain stain. With one and the same stain different results are obtained when applied to various woods. This is due to the very different chemical constituency of woods, which tannin or tannic acid, which is present in larger or smaller quantities, produces on many of the stains, chemical action vary- ing in results according to the quantity of this chemi- cal present. Two examples will explain: First, in applying a solution of two ounces of bichromate of potash in a half gallon of water to a species of wood, such as pine, or similar wood which contains a very small amount of tannin, the result will be that of a light yellow due to the chrome bichromate, which unfortunately is not fast to light, and, therefore, in this case is worthless. On the contrary, if you take the same bichromate of potash solution and apply it to any of the oaks, which are rich in tannin, the results will be a yellow brown color, comparatively permanent when subjected to light or air. This is due to the fact that the tannic acid present unites with the bichromate, forming a brown color material. Similar effects are to be had when this bichromate solution is applied to mahogany or black walnut, as both of these woods contain consider- able tannin. Second, stain whitewood or any wood in which the tannin is practically absent with a solution of sulphate of iron, one ounce, water one gallon, the result will be negative. However, if the same solution should be ap- plied to ash, oak or even maple, a gray color will be produced and on the oak it is very often possible to RESULTS VARY WITH SAME STAIN 72 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM RESULTS ARE DEPENDENT ON TEXTURE LOCALITY INFLUENCES THE COLOR get the dark blue grays verging into black. This is obtained from the fact that sulphate of iron, or in fact, any salt of iron, when subjected to the action of tan- nic acid produces tannate of iron, which is the color- giving result of the procedure. The different textures of the woods, designated hard and soft, have a good deal to do with the results obtained by the application of the stain. In a closely grained wood of a hard texture the penetration of the stain is retarded, when on the contrary large-pored wood absorbs more stain, much quicker, with the result that an ordinary application of one stain on the two different kinds of wood will produce vastly different results. If one wishes to match the hardwood with that of a soft, it will be necessary to increase the strength of the stain, which is far preferable to the possible application of several coats of stain. In case of match- ing the hardwood by staining a soft wood, the stain will have to be reduced in proportion. This is recom- mended only after repeated tests have been made. A porous wood might give indications of being dry, and as tests are usually hurried the operator is apt to fool himself and to find later the results are too dark. A certain stain applied to a certain species of wood may not always give identical results, and in conse- quence the operator must be continually on his guard, as various growths and various localities will affect the stain with enough difference to manifest itself in the color produced. A thorough operator soon becomes aware of these peculiarities, and by applying the stain heavier or lighter he will succeed fairly well in holding to a uniformity of shade. Extreme cases, of course, need individual attention. Woods containing a great deal of sap, or resinous matter, present their difficulties especially when water stains are employed, but as they are not much employed in good furniture and as we have already touched upon the handling of the stain, it will suffice to say that occasional resinous portions that are met in cabinet woods are better individually treated. Where stains depend upon the presence of a certain quantity of tannin, the formula usually employed is built up so THAN OTHERS GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 73 that the minimum amount of tannin present will suffice to make the color desired ; otherwise the application of tannin is resorted to. It may be said that stains consisting entirely of the aniline dyes, in solution, reach their final shade much sooner, and with much more uniformity, than those which are made up of combinations of dyes and chemi- cals. It may be stated as universally true, that where chemicals are employed, some sort of chemical reac- aniline dyes tion is relied upon to produce the desired color. There- ^l^^t^^l^^^^^ fore, it will be seen readily that when the material to be stained is not always alike, although the same kind of wood, yet of sufficient difference in its physical con- stituency to make possible slight variance, from 24 to 48 hours are required for the complete chemical re- action. Stains containing chemicals should be permitted to dry from 24 to 48 hours in normal temperature, in rooms that have a good circulation of air. Whatever chemical changes are to take place will have been com- pletely consummated within this lapse of time. Where more than one coat of stain is required to produce certain colors, it is always best to allow at least 24 hours between each coat. Sand the first coat after it is thoroughly dry, and then apply the second coat. This is just as essential, whether the stain is made up of anilines or chemicals, the desire always be- ing to produce a stain that is permanent. It may be well to state again that not all color materials permit being dissolved in one vehicle without injury to one another. That the novice may thoroughly understand, and further have a method of ascertaining and recog- nizing the fact when any of the rules are infringed upon, the following explanation will bring out the point : We have said there are several kinds of anilines. The acid anilines and the basic anilines, both are water soluble. The finisher, however, is unable to tell to what group they belong. It may be he has a beautiful shade of brown which has been doing his work, and he wishes to employ it in conjunction with some other colors. Not knowing that they are antagonistic, he makes his mixture which may not at once manifest the 74 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ANTAGONISM OF VARIOUS ANILINES chemical change that is about to take place or is taking place. Later on, however, a precipitate which is first recognized by the turbid appearance of the solution will show that the chemical reaction which is taking place is throwing part of the color material out of solution, and the stain, therefore, has become an unstable com- pound. As long as any chemical reaction takes place, there is an uncertainty about the color. This, however, has a fixed and definite place as s"oon as the acid has been neutralized by the alkali. The chemical action ceases, but in dealing with two color compounds, where the chemicals are aniline salts we are treading on pretty thin ice in an eflfort to obtain a color, and, there- fore, it is always best to discard any attempt at pro- ducing a stain by the use of anilines of different reac- tions. This undoubtedly will find some exponents who have had satisfactory results by having done just what we say not to do, probably for this reason : They use ma- terial far in excess of the amount required, and thus overcome that which was lost by precipitation. The excess color having precipitated out, left in solution enough color material to produce the result. It will be seen that this is an expensive and uncertain way be- cause at different temperatures there would be more or less precipitation, with a probability of a turbid solution which at its best is not a satisfactory stain. In a measure this applies to chemicals. It may be known that one chemical applied to wood will produce a certain color, and if a second chemical be applied over that coat a different color is produced, but that in no way signifies that the two chemicals may be mixed in solution and with one coat produce the same results. Again, for example, if wood is coated with an iron salt, the usual color is a shade of gray. If a strong alkali is dissolved in water, and put over this gray coat a brown of some shade is produced. If you take any iron salt, and dissolve it in water (practically all iron salts are soluble in water) and add to this solution any form of alkaline salt, or alkali, such as potash, soda, or ammonia, or their salts, such as carbonate of potash, carbonate of soda (respectively, GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 75 salts of tartar or sal soda), a brown precipitate is the result. The brown precipitate is represented as the oxide of iron. The balance of the solution will contain the acid radical of the iron salt as having combined with the alkaline base of potash or soda. We have then a cloudy solution, which cloudiness is due to the oxide of iron, and which will settle, and leave in the solution the salts of the alkalies, whichever may have been em- ployed, showing us clearly that by application of the same material in separate coats it was possible to ob- tain a certain color on the wood, but that it is not at all feasible to attempt to do it in one coat by putting the various materials into one solution. By giving our readers such a strong illustration it carries with it an exemplification of that which is often attempted, and the failure not recognized. If our readers will but take the time to carry out the last example and make practical experiments, the result- ant information will be invaluable. Producing solutions of anilines, dye stuffs and chemicals should always be carried on with a certain degree of care, and especially cleanliness. Water being the most commonly employed solvent, a certain amount of care is to be given. It is a well known fact that cer- tain waters are hard, especially those taken from wells. Some may contain magnesium, and some iron, but in most cases they all contain more or less lime. The dif- ferent percentages of any of these present affect the color materials in their same ratio. It is best, there- fore, to employ boiled water, or in a factory to obtain the water from the returned steam. The dishes or containers employed should be absolutely clean. Noth- ing is better than earthenware and glass measures. Solutions are best obtained by employing hot water. The maximum amount of color material can be dis- solved at increased temperatures. Thorough solutions are obtained by powdering the dye stuffs, by stirring and agitating while dissolving the material, and by in- creasing the temperature by boiling the solution. An excess amount of color material may be brought into solution by boiling, which will again solidify or precipitate out when the temperature falls to normal. A PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATION GIVEN GREAT NEED OF CARE AND CLEANLINESS 76 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM EXTRACTS EXPOSED TO AIR DIFFICULT TO HANDLE Let it be understood that the application of heat is used only to hasten the dissolving of the color material. In the case of vegetable extracts, such as logwood, japonica, cutch, etc., uniformity is absolutely neces- sary. If they are kept exposed to air, which carries with it a certain amount of moisture, these materials are apt to absorb this moisture, and then take on a thick, gummy consistency, difficult to handle, or if kept in extreme hot or dry places, they are apt to cake, and then become difficult to remove from their container. All chemicals should be kept in air-tight containers; especially is this necessary in factories where there are more or less vapors and gases to contend with. There is ever present in air, carbonic acid gas, which in itself is a chemical reagent to which color materials are sus- ceptible. It will readily be seen if a chemical formula, a stain formula, were made up from material received in prime condition, that it is absolutely essential the material be kept in that condition until it is consumed for the sake of uniformity. Much of the difficulty, the continual doctoring of formulas, is traceable directly to the indifferent handling of the materials, dirty dishes, uncovered containers, in fact, complete disre- gard for any of the physical peculiarities which are so common to dye materials. Having obtained the formula, make a record of each ingredient ; weigh carefully, and take care that a com- plete solution is made. If an article is given you as water soluble, the success of your formula depends upon making an entire solution of it. Should the mix- ture become clouded, you have no way of telling what percentage of your color is going to precipitate out. The very fact that the solution is cloudy or turbid must tell you that something is not completely in a state of solution. Every color-giving article has its percentage of solubility. Some of them are greater than others. You will find, as a rule, that the nigrosines have a greater solubility than the oranges. The same is true of most of the lighter shades. Vvhen you go beyond that per- centage, heat will greatly increase the percentage of color that you cannot dissolve. But it is not safe to INCREASE PERCENTAGE OF SOLUBILITY GENERAL RULES FOR STAINING WOOD 77 attempt this remedy unless you can apply the stain hot. While we recommend the dissolving of colors by heat- ing, this is more to hasten the solution than otherwise. The complete solubility to be employed is that which will stand at a temperature of about 50 degrees. Your solution must remain clear at that temperature. Should it precipitate out, as it many times does, where water stains are subjected to freezing temperature, it should be dissolved again by heat, for be it known that crystal- lization takes place by the chilling of saturated solu- heat will tions. When a chilled solution begins to crystallize, the crystallization takes from the solution a larger per- centage of color than one can realize. In some cases it almost exhausts the solution of the color material that had heretofore been in complete solution. Therefore, in cold weather, when your stain begins to run light, the above may give you a cue for remedying the trouble. Again, in some mixtures, the chilling may affect one color and not another. Alcohol mixtures are not so easily affected. Oil mixtures are very seldom affected, but oil colors will crystallize, especially where the sol- vents are loaded to obtain the desired shades. The practical man at once will recognize that if he dissolves his color material by the aid of heat, and it precipitates when it again resumes the temperature of the room, he has a super-saturated solution, and he will have to increase the amount of water or decrease the amount of material. There are cases where it is neces- sary, in order to get the depth of color, to use super- saturated solution. This is sometimes the case where dipping is employed, such as small parts, and in these cases the solution is kept at a boiling point by the in- jection of steam by means of a steam jet. The careful operator filters his stains, and a felt filter is a most desirable stain room accessory. All color materials, whether anilines, vegetables ex- tracts or chemicals, should be kept in sealed packages in a dry, but not too warm room. Many of them have a peculiarity of absorbing moisture from the air. Others give off moisture. It is not uncomm.on to take a can of carbonate of potash and on opening it find it COLOR MATERIALS SHOULD BE KEPT DRY 78 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM MOISTURE IS ABSORBED FROM AIR BY SOME COLORS in a white graular salt. Put it back on the shelf with- out sealing it, or closing the can, only to find the next time you want it, it has liquified. If any of it remains so you can put it on a scale, you cannot say with cer- tainty whether the ounce or two you are weighing out represents the same strength that the first portion you took out represented. This is a case of absorption of moisture from the air. Again, you may have a pound of sulphate of iron crystals. When you received these crystals they were bright green, glass-like particles. Going through the same procedure, you will find the next time that each crystal is coated with a grayish powder, and if you weigh the same quantity of this sulphate of iron in its second condition, you will have a vastly larger amount of sulphate of iron in your second weighing than you did in the first. For sulphate of iron in its crystalline form contains a large amount of water, and when it is not kept in an absolutely air-tight container, it will give oflF some of this water of crystallization with the result that a large percentage of sulphate of iron known as dried sulphate of iron, is present. STAIN BEST APPLIED BY CHAPTER XI THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD THE various stain solutions are usually applied cold. Occasionally they are warmed in order the better to penetrate the wood. The applica- tion of stain, as a rule, is accomplished by the use of brushes, preferably rubber set brushes. The brush is to be filled well with stain material and the actual stain- brushes ing accomplished with full, strong strokes of the brush. This because of the fact that a comparatively dry brush will tend to streak the work. This is particularly true where large surfaces are stained. Where the wood presents open pores and large pores, a stiffer brush should be employed. It may be necessary after the first stain is applied to use one of these coarse, heavy brushes to rub the stain well into the wood, for often these coarse pored woods will not take the stain as well as one would naturally expect. The pores are filled with air cells which must be broken before the stain can penetrate, and unless this be cared for the result will not show the uniformity that it should. It always must be borne in mind that staining is an effort to make it appear as though the entire wood through and through is the color as that being applied. While the vast majority of stains are applied by means of brushes, there are cases where it is impos- sible to do the work with a brush. Stains, in which strong alkaline solutions, such as ammonia, the car- bonates, hydroxides of soda or potash, are employed, or strong acids, or strong oxidizing chemicals, such as permanganate of potash, are better applied with a sponge or brushes made of vegetable fibers, such as tampica, hemp and wood fibers. Whenever a stain curls the hair in a brush, no mat- ter how trifling, it is better to do away with the means of application than to continue, for the very good rea- son that as the brush is subjected to the stain it be- SPONGE USED WITH STRONG ALKALINES 80 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AVOID BRUSH WITH HAIR CURLING NEUTRAL OIL PRESERVATIVE FOR BRUSHES comes less efficient, and the results will be manifested in an uneven appearance of the stain coat ; once stained it will be difficult to make an even job of the effort. The preparation of the hair or bristles has more or less to do with the lasting quality of the brush. From their very nature bristles that have not been cured to an excess will resist more or less alkali and in the same manner they will withstand an acid. When the stain brush is cleaned out, after it has been used, in a very weak acid solution, and washed out in plain water, permitted to dry, and immersed in a penetrating petroleum oil, use any of the lighter parafRne oils. The market affords a water-white paraffine oil put out as liquid vaseline. This is an ideal brush preservative. Neutral oil which can be obtained at 25 cents per gallon will do very well. After the brush has been im- mersed in this oil over nignt, it may be taken out and thoroughly dried by rubbing on rags or waste until it no longer gives off any fatty or oily substance on clean paper. Brushes treated in this way will give an im- mense amount of endurance. It would be natural to suppose that a brush prepared in this manner would not carry the amount of stain that it did in its original state. This, however, is only the case for a few minutes after it is again employed in staining. But the tenacity of the bristle, the resiliency, is more permanent throughout the day's work than if a brush is not pre- pared to withstand the inroads of the chemical sub- stances, the action of which on the animal fiber is not withstood by some substance not affected by the con- stituents of the stain. Stains which are slightly alka- line or acid may be applied with bristle brushes. The foregoing suggestions rather cover those with a slight acid reaction, but the coal oils do not answer readily to the weaker alkalies as they do not saponify when brought in contact with alkalies. In cases where it is absolu::ely necessary to apply strong alkaline or strong acid stains, the hands may be protected by washing them in heavy oils, such as cylin- der oil, or better still, by thoroughly coating them with vaseline. Especially is this recommended for the tips of the fingers, under and around the finger nails, and THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 81 the back of the hands. Then in applying the stain with a sponge, the sponge should be previously im- mersed in the stain solution, which is absolutely for- eign in nature to the vaseline on the hand, and in con- sequence thereof it will spread the stain without re- moving enough of the grease from the operator's hands to have any effect on the wood. The few moments required to prepare the workman for handling these strong stains and the expense of keeping at hand a few pounds of vaseline, which can be purchased in the open market, are slight. It may be well to say that in calling for vaseline, which is put out by an individual who has the word "Vaseline" copy- righted, the purchaser is apt to be confronted with a stiff price. The United States government has recog- nized this product under the name of "Petrolatum," and as such it is supplied by any of the petroleum com- panies at lower figures. It may not be as highly re- fined, but its efficiency is nevertheless satisfactory. Incidentally the same protection can be employed where strong acid solutions are used in staining. These precautionary measures are well to consider, as the trend of times is manifestly toward chemical stains. The dominating shades employed in wood fin- ishing have been brown and at the present time they are brown, Due occasionally have verged on black. A peculiar fact is that the two shades, exclusive of the reds, are depende/it upon the chemical reaction which the latter-day chemist has found for the finisher. Classing them as a whole with their modifications and their extremes, every one of them can be produced by the use of chemicals. Granting, then, that sooner or later such stains will be preferred, it is well to know how to handle them advantageousl5^ Two strong factors confront this method of coloring woods : One, which is ever present in human endeavor, is the results obtained through the minimum cost ; namely, the putting of a certain amount of aniline dye in a given amount of water, and spread- ing it on the wood producing a color the quickest and cheapest way, just good enough to sell. The other, from the fact that the industry is yet a rule-o'-thumb propo- PROTECT THE HANDS BY OIL OR VASELINE DOMINATING COLOR STAINS ARE BROWN 82 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FUMING NOW CONSIDERED AN ESSENTIAL sition when it comes into the finishing department. No reader will admit that a brown color spread on wood will give the same shade as that produced by the lengthy, more expensive method of actual fuming. There is something superficial about the one ; no matter how much after-fixing may have been done, it does not produce that wholesome appearance that the fum- ing brings forth. It has not been so long since a fuming box was considered an expensive luxury, but today very few concerns that rank as producers of high grade fur- niture are without their fuming box. The fuming process not only produces fumed oak, it produces what is known as "English Fumed Oak," "Stratford Oak," and may be used as a basis for many of the other oaks, were it only true that the subsequent application of chemicals and the great possibilities were realized and understood by the artisan of today. Granting then that the fuming box has been recog- nized as a valuable adjunct, that the aniline dyes have made a vast stride over the obsolete methods of juices, extracts, or vegetable plants, we will soon enter the era of chemical staining. This in no way means that ani- lines are to be superseded, for they are chemicals, com- plex chemicals, which unfortunately are not thoroughly understood. The writer claims that each day we are gaining ground in the matter of understanding better the chemical peculiarities of these delicate color-giving chemicals. The desire to make something better, to be a leader, is a road fraught with countless difficulties. Few venture away from conventional methods. Innovations in procedure are not countenanced by many heads of industries. They fear disaster from experiments. Enterprise, originality, personal initia- tive by the man at the head of a finishing department, are given little or no financial support. It is a case of get out the work, and never mind experiments, and thus many an idea is lost. The man feels that he has given all that is asked of him when the daily routine is carried out. Again, new methods are not taken to kindly. The usual reply is, "Our goods are selling; why should we change." But there comes a time when an individual COMING THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 83 drifts away from the rut, and does start something. A few people put in fuming boxes ; competition has made it necessary for many others, who wish to equal the standard, to do likewise, and so it will be in the process of staining. Better furniture will find a market. At- tention to little details will find appreciation, and when competition finally recognizes the value of detail there will be a scramble in the effort to meet the competition, i and thus will be recorded one more stride in the better- ment and advancement in the method of producing better stain- , „ ., ING METHOD good lurmture. In preparing a classification of stains for the reader It will become necessary to generalize and to group such that depend upon kindred mixtures for results. For example, many stains come under the brown shades, whether on oak or mahogany ; yet fumed oak will stand out by itself. The mahogany and the cherry stains will constitute another class with the distinction that those applied to mahogany are differently constituted than those which are applied on cherry ; whereas their color material may be very similar. In bringing out classi- fications of this kind it is with the view of giving a com- prehensive survey of all stains that are now in general use. We believe that a thorough understanding of the basis of the present day staining will bring the reader up-to-date, and upon which knowledge it will be possible to build a future along the line of the more advanced theory of producing absolutely per- manent, but transparent, colors on our cabinet woods. In order to do this, we must dismiss some of the older methods of producing colors on wood, claiming that a stain implies the act of giving a color to the wood absolutely transparent, and not in any way pro- ducing a color by spreading over the surface of the wood a solid particle, no matter how finely divided a state it may be in. That, in our mind, would be and should be classified as paint. There are books written on finishing, and articles appearing in periodicals, in which formulas and methods are given for producing some of our popular colors by means of paint pigments. These are mixed with oils and spread over the wood, producing a shade not unlike that of a stained piece of GROUPS OF STAINS 84 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SHUN STAIN MADE OF PAINT PIGMENT FOUR CLASSES OF STAINS wood, but they are not transparent, and as before said, should not be regarded as a stain. In the painter's trade it would be a different propo- sition; many old houses in perfect condition are planned to be finished in harmony with the general color scheme of the day. In cases of this kind, the ground work constitutes the first coat, and the imita- tion is accomplished by graining. Therefore, we do not disparage entirely the old methods in case of neces- sity or where materials are not obtainable ; but in pro- duction of furniture from the raw wood we advocate the application of the modern method of staining, meaning the production of a transparent color that gives to the wood the color preserving the natural beauty and still having the appearance of being na- ture's product. Broadly speaking, the four classifications will cover all the stains now employed in the industry: Black, brown, red and green, and probably in the order named. In their varying shades, down to grays, they are produced along similar lines, and the same of the browns (except in the case of fuming), the reds and the greens. All have a similarity. The final result, however, in many cases, is affected very much by the filler employed. Let it be borne in mind that not too much dependence should be placed in the filler assisting in the production of the desired effect. Time has shown that in the ages and the mellowing of the shade, which only years can produce, if too much of the finish de- pends upon the filler, the original appearance is not maintained, and a decided difference is shown between the flake and the pores. This is not desirable, and es- pecially is it manifested where oil stains have been employed. It is not our province to enter into the various con- stituencies or peculiarities of the materials employed in the modern methods of staining. This field would be so vast that an undertaking of this kind would mean a book of technical knowledge which could be compre- hended only by those having been prepared in chem- istry and other scientific fields. Suflfice it then to say that it be taken for granted the reader shall follow the THE APPLYING OF STAIN TO WOOD 85 suggestions and familiarize himself with this informa- tion sufficiently to be able, from his experiments, to become acquainted with the reaction and the results obtained by the recommended color-giving substances; thus verifying in his own mind the correctness of these statements by producing on his own premises the re- sults here stated. A complete tabulation is not necessary to carry out our viewpoint. Let the modern shades of Early Eng- lish, Antwerp, Flemish, weathered oak and the grays represent that part which we classify as black. They are usually produced, in the cases of Early English and Antwerp, by a black stain, modified with an orange, red or yellow, but filled with a black filler, whereas Belgian and Flemish are on the black and should be modified with sufficient red to give a faint brownish tint, but are not to be filled. The production then of the key color is black. At present black nigrosine is the most popular, and can black be recommended because one coat suffices to produce nigrosine the TCPY OOLOR the shade wanted. But in olden times this color was produced from nutgalls, today represented by tannic acid and iron, or any salt of iron. Before the day of varnish, when repeated coats of oil were used, a depth of color was obtained which gave it that wholesome eff'ect, the appearance as though the wood were of that color through and through. The reason is simple ; nutgalls or tannic acid was not a for- . eign product, in fact, it was partly present in the wood. The iron solution being watery, penetrated the wood to a greater excess than will any single coat of stain, carrying with it a foreign product. It is a pe- culiar fact that any stain if made of chemicals has a the old way greater penetrating power than one made ud of ani- of finishing lines exclusively. Then, too, if this chemical solution is heated or applied warm, it will penetrate farther. If it is something that has an affinity for particles form- ing parts of the constituents of the wood, it penetrates still farther. This is shown in the example just given. Again, the depth of color was greatly enhanced from the fact that warm oils were applied and rubbed into the wood. The oil having the effect of driving the VALUABLE PROCEDURE 86 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHIN G ROOM chemical action before it and still deeper into the wood. If the manufacturers of today would only consider the beautiful effects that could be produced by using the foregoing method, and then fume the wood, sim- ply finishing by repeated coats of warm raw linseed oil, and doing considerable rubbing, there would be a new market, and, we claim, sufficient support to the con- cern showing the enterprise to take advantage of the suggestion. But today it is hurry and hurry ; "get the goods out." The grays referred to have a weak and greatly modified process. They simply follow in the wake of black, but with one distinction — on many of them an absolutely white filler is used. CHAPTER XII SPREADING STAIN ON LARGE SURFACES THE staining of large surfaces requires much more skill than on the smaller broken parts, and even- ness is required. No matter what the cabinet conditions are, the finishing is supposed to overcome ^^^^^^ must these. Woods presenting sap streaks, knotty and o"^ercomeall fibrous parts are all to be stained, with the result of a conditions general uniformity of color. If the stain was applied alike on all parts, the end wood or cross cutting, as well as the sap part, would take on a much darker color, owing to the different density and different por- ous conditions that exist in these portions of the wood. In resinous woods, the knotty portions as a rule do not answer to the stain application and even though prepared for staining, they manifest difficulties that must be overcome if there is anything like a general uniform appearance to be obtained. In quarter sawed oaks, and their veneers, the greatest difficulty is with the sap. In general cabinet work, the difficulty is chiefly in the laying of the woods, and their selection, such as laying of white and red oak, side by side, second growth and red oak, poorly selected figures; chief dipfi- laying the wood '*up-tree" against "down tree," so that ^ulty lies when you look at a table top on one board you are inlaying looking into the pores, and on the next one, you are of wood looking over the pores. If the finisher matches it look- ing one way, when he turns the table around, he will find that it does not match at all. This is probably the greatest difficulty that is encountered in the staining of woods. Many an altercation has arisen between the finishing department and the glue room where this sort of wood joining is performed. In order to overcome the difficulties thus enumer- ated, let us go back to the most common of all difficulties that the stainer encounters — sap streaks. Now that woods are becoming rarer the raw material is cut up 88 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM closer, and the appearance of this unripened portion of the wood has to be dealt with : First, for the reason that the raw stock costs more money; and secondly, because a good deal of money has been put into the work before it reaches the finisher. The following methods are recommended, and have been found from experience to be about all that can be done to even up the stain coat: In water stains, if, just before the stain is to be METHODS OF applied, the sap portion is gone over with a moist EVENING UP sponge so that the pores of the wood are partially filled COAT STAIN ^vith plain water, then the regular coat of stain in most cases can be applied. In woods that are very porous, and which take the stain more readily in consequence, it may be necessary to dilute the regular stain with water. A good deal of this may be controlled by the amount of moisture applied with the sponge. Only experience can get this down to a nicety. In cases where oil stains are to be applied, the same process is gone through, but in place of water a coat of naphtha or turpentine, or a mixture of the two, and in extreme cases the addition of a little japan drier; will do the trick. In case of spirit stains, it would be simpler to dilute the stain, yet the above method may be applied, but instead of using alcohol or spirits solely, about 50 percent of water may be added to the alcohol. Another method which could be recommended, and which is used a good deal in the larger factories, is as follows : A thin glue is prepared, and one man who is particularly adapted for detail work, is given the task to go over all the sap parts with this thin warm glue, which is permitted to dry before the piece reaches the regular stainer. This man must know his work thor- oughly, for should he put too heavy a coat he would create an impervious surface over which the water stain would spread and congeal in uneven surfaces before it would penetrate the wood. On knotty surfaces, which as a rule take dark, and which ofttimes present an end grain, the problem as a rule is handled in an individual manner. If the knot is "dead" and free from resinous matter, the glue-size SPREADING STAIN ON LARGE SURFACES 89 is probably preferable, but where it presents a resinous surface, and no water stain would be apt to take, it should be sponged with several coats of a one-half to one per cent potash solution, then thoroughly sponged off with clear water. If still further treatment is required, it can be given several coats of alcohol. As a rule it will then answer to the stain. In cases of veneer, such as crotch mahogany, there is considerable danger, by any of these methods, of l-^4.- 4.U J -J • -4- 4- U 1 rru J DANGERSOF lifting the end gram and causing it to check. The end ^ ,^^,,,^ ,,^,^ . . T^ . . ^ LIFTING END grain permits the water stain to penetrate down to the qr^in on glue coat, and in this manner the veneer, which is veneers naturally weak, will raise away from its backing and become checked. It is a rather difficult proposition to overcome, and have good results without blemishes. In the treating of this crotch veneer use a filler made of gum shellac and glue, which is melted on a water bath, and then thinned with a mixture of oil (boiled linseed) and turpentine, to which enough color material is added to give it the right one. This is usually an oil soluble, red and brown. This filler penetrates the pores, or rather the end grain, and goes through to the glue coat with which it combines, holding fast the crotch veneer. After this is thoroughly dried it is sponged off with alcohol which removes the filler from the outer fibers of the wood, and leaves the outer surface in a condition in which it will receive the stain coat. After this precautionary preparation, it only remains for the stainer to ascertain the strength of the stain coat which is to be applied. '^'^ SOME MEANS OF Undoubtedly, the reader will ask why not use an corrections oil stain, or a spirit stain, on this crotch work. More diflficulties arise from the oil stain than are conceded, for the solvents used in the preparation of oil stains are so foreign in their make-up to the general constitu- ency of the glue, and they have the peculiar, "pucker- ing effect" on the crotch wood, that checking is bound to occur. Spirit stain, as a rule, is not fast to light, and again there would be the difficulties of the match- ing of either the oil stain or spirit stain with that of the water stain, and of getting an oil stain or a spirit stain that has the same permanency of color that the 90 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SHORTCOMINGS OF CABINET WORK FIXED UP BY FINISHER water stain would have. The tendency would be that the crotch work, so treated, would stand out in relief from the rest of the work instead of forming the pleas- ing homogeneous, uniform gradation of shades, which is so carefully sought. It must be understood that these special operations are intended to be employed in the production of good furniture. In the cheaper grades this detail work to a certain degree is prohibitive, owing to the fact that it consumes time, and time is money. I often question whether the expense of one man to look after and cor- rect these deficiencies in the wood would not be recom- pensed by an equivalent decrease in the selling ex- pense. It is a fact that many shortcomings in cabinet construction design are overshadowed by a good fore- man finisher who produces a pleasing uniformity that covers it all, the same as a good overcoat and hat will do for a man. In cases where dipping is employed, the sap parts will come out strong unless some precaution is taken. It has been found that it is almost impossible to over- come the differentiation of color when stained by the dipping process, and we have yet to find methods other than those described that will help us, unless it be the employment of the spraying machine, when each indi- vidual piece must be handled and looked over just the same. CHAPTER XIII THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS AFTER the application of a water stain, there will be more or less raising of the grain, which will necessitate the subsequent sanding usually done with No. 00 sandpaper. This is not the case, how- ever, where spirit or oil stains are employed. The smoothing of the water stain surfaces cannot be done by inexperienced help, as they are liable to cut through the stain surface. The application of a stain carries with it a certain amount of practice. It must be spread getting ready evenly, so that there will be no laps in the coat, and for staining must be put on heavy enough to penetrate the wood, process On the close fibred woods, where it is a difficult matter to have the stain penetrate, it is better to give two coats of stain to produce the desired depth of color, than to attempt to do it with one coat. With two coats of stain, usually the one sanding is sufficient. In light shades, it is especially recommended that in order to get penetration, the stain be applied warm. In woods that are resinous, the sponging with an alkali is to be recommended, but to avoid the discoloring of the wood by the use of an alkali, an ounce of ordinary washing soap should be added to the alkaline solution, four ounces of sal soda to a gallon of water. Sponge the wood with this mixture, allow it to dry, and then sponge off with warm water. After this operation, the wood is susceptible to the ordinary water stam. It is a peculiar fact that when wood is kept in a warm place, say 90 degrees F., water stain will pene- trate it better than at reduced temperatures. Without entering into the details or classification of water stains, such as acid, alkaline, or neutral stains, being the several mixtures of color materials in water, the foregoing procedures are general. It stands to reason that on a porous softwood surface, any liquid that is applied will penetrate quicker, and in cases of this kind, the application of the stain must be done 92 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM without stopping. The strokes must be carried out thoroughly to prevent piling up of color material at the end of stroke or at the beginning. The movements must be decisive, the brush must carry the stain freely, but not overloaded ; that is to say, the brush must carry just sufficient stain to fill it so that the natural cohesion will not permit the stain to run out of the brush. In that way, the setting of the brush onto the work will not blot the work where the brush is first applied. HOW TO APPLY The exceptions to this rule are cases where the color STAIN ON is produced by virtually flooding the work. In a case WOOD of this kind it would be better to dip the entire piece or its sections, and thus avoid the danger to the glue joints and veneers. Where alcohol or oil stains are applied the same precautions on soft woods are to be followed. Alcohol stains penetrate quickly ; fortunately they are not generally used, but they as well as oil stains are usually quick of penetration, and their appli- cation should be guarded the same as water stains on soft \>'oods. No provision is necessary to prepare the wood for the application, other than the dusting which, of course, it is understood should always be done before any stain is applied. Alcohol stains should be kept from the light as much as possible, and after they have been applied the furni- ture should be kept in dark, well ventilated places to avoid fading which is apt to take place on these stains when subjected to strong daylight, especially sunlight. Their permanency depends entirely upon being pro- KEEP ALCOHOL tected from the air by an impervious Coat of shellac. STAINS FROM This appHcs to oil stains as well. Alcohol and oil stains THE LIGHT should not be sanded after they have been applied. It is considered they will not raise the grain, and these are the strong talking points that the makers of these stains put forth to sell them : Easy to apply, no sand- ing necessary, and consequently a great saving of labor. Great care must be exercised in the application of the shellac coat not to lift the stain, and spread it about in the shellac coat, as both color materials could again be dissolved in the alcohol which is spreading the shellac. Every species of wood has a texture peculiar to itself. Each is recognized by its own characteristics. STAINING IS NOT MERELY COLORING THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS 93 To retain these is just as essential as it is to color them, and if in the staining of this wood the beauty can be enhanced and the figures made to stand out, then one has accomplished an important thing. It is certainly that which constitutes a good stain. A stain coat that will obliterate any beauty of the wood, which is appar- ent before any finish is put on, cannot be called a good stain. To simply color a piece of wood, to change it from one color to another, is not what should be called staining in good furniture. That should be classed as painting. The workman must know what kind of a stain will bring out the peculiarities of the wood, he should know how to take advantage of the fibers, flakes, and pores by a treatment with a stain of such reaction that will enhance and bring out the sought-for characteristics. Take oak, with its simple application of a golden oak stain. Note how the center of the flake remains one color, surrounded by a circle of a darker shade with a corresponding depth of brown in its pores. These same characteristics are found in almost every wood. It is true, oak is the best example. To maintain the charac- teristics of a wood, the stain material must be abso- lutely soluble in the vehicle employed. There can be no precipitation, or no suspension of color-giving par- ticles in the stain. If, by standing, a stain produces precipitates, then it should be allowed to stand until every particle has settled to the bottom, and the clear liquid drawn off. Many times the solubility of a color is not understood, or it is affected by other color materials employed. The raising of the temperature a known few degrees may overcome this, and as long as the temperature is maintained, all the material of color value may be held in solution, but the grave danger is that the workman will permit the temperature to fall, and before it is noticed, muddy results have been pro- duced. Again, a stain may be produced in the summer months, and this diflflculty manifested only in the win- ter months. During the day, when the steam is on, and the building heated to 72 degrees, the stain may appear absolutely clear, but the night may have chilled it, and then a complaint is made, ofttimes, when it is SOLUBILITY OF COLORS MUST BE GOOD STAIN MUST BE CLEAR 94 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM too late, that the shade is falling off. Again, part of that day's work may be done from the first dippings from the vat or stock solution, and later on the stain may be drawn from that portion which contains the precipitate, and naturally, the results are not uniform. A good stain must remain absolutely clear at a variance of temperature down to 40 degrees F. It is not necessary to provide against freezing, as in the majority of cases, any stain that will stay in solution at 40 degrees will have sufficient amount of percentac^e solubility in its favor to preclude any precinitation. To make this absolutely clear, let us take the following example : Suppose we can dissolve a cunful of salt into a pint of water, and get a clear solution at 60 degrees F. We find by boiling this solution, we can add two tablespoons of salt, and still have a clear solution. We AT 40 DEC. F. have raised the temperature to 212 in order to main- tain the clear solution. We know that at the 60 de- grees it was possible to dissolve but one cupful. Now M-e will take the boiling hot solution and let the temperature fall to 60 degrees and we will find that not only has our cupful of salt crystallized out but almost another tablespoonful has been added thereto, showing us clearly that when a liquid is supersaturated by the increase of temperature, we endanger the na- tural amount of solid that can be dissolved at the nor- mal temperature of 60 degrees. This is the pheno- mena of crystallization. In short, when a linuid is supersaturated, and precipitation once starts, the re- maining solid held in solution is reduced far below the normal carrying power of that liquid. The reader will say to himself that many of his formula^ are given him with directions to boil the color material. This is done, usually, for the following rea- son: Certain color materials made from an earthy or vegetable basis — earths that are treated with chem- icals and then allowed to crystallize — give their color values to solutions in certain percentatres in direct ratio to their component parts. Take for example, walnut brown. About 80 per cent of this material is of color value, the balance being inert matter of a brownish insoluble nature, but so THE PENETRATION OF WOOD STAINS 95 finely divided that to a certain degree it can be carried in suspension, but this percentage is dangerous to stain. Therefore the formula is built upon the known per- centage that it will give off to the water when it is boiled, and will remain steadfast after it is allowed to cool down to a temperature of 60 degrees, at which time it will remain permanent. The insoluble portion will slowly settle to the bottom of the vessel, and the clear liquid then can be drawn off with absolute assur- ance that it will stay clear, and no further precipitation will take place. It must not be construed that this liquid is of necessity a saturated solution. It merely represents that percentage of permanent color taken from the original amount of walnut brown. Particularly is this of interest just now when much insoluble of our furniture is made of Circassian, gum and portions of American walnut. For if we do not take care in doing stain must away with the insoluble portion of ttiis walnut brown be removed stain, the work is apt to become streaked, spotted and cloudy from the presence of these insoluble particles. It might be well for the artisan to try this experiment. After making a solution of walnut brown and pouring off the clear liquid, pour out the insoluble dregs of the solution onto a blotting paper, cover it with a box so that the wind will not blow it away, and when it is thoroughly dry, put it on a clean piece of sanded wood and rub it across the surface. The results will imme- diately show him what this insoluble portion of this staining material would do to his work if he did not remove it from^ the stain. Many of our color-giving materials have their solu- bility greatly increased by the addition of a chemical or an acid, acidulating the solution and by an excess of a few per cents of acid, assuring the continual solution of a color-giving material. However, the chemical con- struction of stains is to be treated under a separate chapter, and. therefore, we will not enter into the de- tails here. The foregoing is specifically intended for water stains. Spirit stains and oil stains represent merely the dissolving of spirit soluble or so-called oil soluble materials in their respective vehicles. Their absolute 96 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM NATURE OF SPIRIT OIL STAINS IS A SUSPENSION solution in many cases is obtained. But their nature has been described as virtually a suspension. Espe- cially is thus due to oil stains, for when the oil stain is applied, the evaporation of their liquid is so quick that the color under a microscope has the appearance of having been sprayed, or blown upon the surface with a powder blower. In other words, the small oil soluble particles, through a peculiar molecular cohe- sion, will solidify in minute particles which give a uni- form color appearance to the naked eye. Yet owing to the quick evaporation of the vehicle do not penetrate the wood, but as in spirit stain produce the color by a superficial coating of the wood. CHAPTER XIV. KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY A KNOWLEDGE of veneers is a necessity to the finisher working with veneered goods, because the problems presented by this class of work, and which demand a solution, are numerous and com- plex. Many veneer troubles are not discovered until the goods are part way through the finishing room, and because no one present has the requisite knowl- edge to enable him to trace this trouble to its source, the finisher finds the responsibility placed at his door, and is compelled to confront the problem without any hope of finding a solution. Many of the troubles which the finisher finds aris- ing from veneered work either have their inception in the early stages of the veneering process or are the result of an inherent weakness in the veneer itself. A great amount of fine figured veneer is very scaly. The difi^erent layers of fiber have become separated and overlap each other loosely like the scales on a fish's back. These defects in the veneer may be natural, but more frequently they are the result of improper hand- ling during the process of cutting. These defects are difficult to detect with the naked eye unless one is familiar with them; but when one knows what they are, they may be detected easily with the aid of a mag- nifying glass. Then the proper thing to do is to re- ject all such veneer for face work. But veneer of this kind quite frequently finds its way into the finishing room and is varnished and put away to dry. In time the goods are brought out to be rubbed, when all over the surface, running along the line of the pores, are to be seen innumerable depres- sions of hair-like appearance. If the varnish is only partly dry these depressions may rub out and not re- appear for some time, but if the varnish is thoroughly dry these depressions at once ooen out in bold checks. Varnish which is not thoroughlv hardened will expand MANY VENEER TROUBLES ARE FOUND BY FINISHER 98 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TROUBLE WITH VARNISH AND VENEER CHECKS IN VENEER ARE SERIOUS considerably without checking. But after it has lost much of its elasticity it will check along the line of the scale in the veneer. Everything follows the course of least resistance. The continual expansion and contrac- tion of the wood, resulting from the frequent atmos- pheric changes, make a continual strain along the weakest parts of the veneer, which is along the line of these scales where the fiber is broken. This strain is carried to the varnish along the same line; and when the varnish becomes dry and no longer is able to expand in unison with the wood, it breaks along the line where the strain has been greatest. How is one to know whether these checks are in the veneer or in the varnish only, is a question that should be answered here. If we scrape the varnish off, it is quite possible the checks will disappear with the var- nish, and nothing wrong will be seen in the veneer. This is because the raised edge of the scale has been scraped off with the varnish, and the balance lies quite flat and smooth. To the finisher who has trouble along this line I would suggest that he get a good magnifying glass and study the difference in the fiber of different veneers. In this way one may soon learn how to de- tect defective veneer. But where the finish is checked and the cause is in the veneer there is usually a sharp raise on one side of the check. If we draw a damp sponge over it, this sharp edge raises quickly. This never takes place when the finish only is checked. Frequently the finisher is brought face to face with another and more serious problem resulting from checked veneer — serious because the check is not a natural weakness in the veneer, and made doubly seri- ous bv the further fact that the veneer did not check until some time after it had reached the finishing room and the goods were partly finished. This problem would not be so serious for the finisher, and be much more easily solved, were it not for the before-mentioned prevailing idea that the cause of the defects must be lurking in the immediate vicinity of the place where the defects first manifest themselves. Everything has a cause, and that cause is itself the effect of some other cause ; and one of the first things KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY 99 the investigator must learn is how to distinguish be- tween cause and effect in their relation to each other. When veneer checks, it breaks and spoils the finish. That is cause and effect. But what caused the veneer to check? Shrinking! What caused the shrinking? Drying, or the expulsion of moisture. What caused the moisture in the veneer? This is the question that requires investigation, and in order to get a correct answer we may have to pass out of the finishing room and trace the veneer back to a time before it was laid. ^^ graced to If we do this we may find that no effort had been made laying of to keep the veneer dry or make it dry before it was laid, veneer And then after it was laid it was rushed off to the finishing room without any though of what effect it would all have upon the finish. If anything like justice is to be done the finishing room in the matter of veneered goods, all veneers should be re-dried before being laid, and they should be laid in such a way that the moisture from the glue will not swell the veneer before it is put under pressure. If the veneered stock is put into the press before the moisture from the glue has had a chance to enter and expand the veneer, there will be no trouble from this source, provided the veneer was properly dried before being laid. Veneer cannot expand under the heavy pressure necessary to properly lay veneer. Not only this, but when the stock is hastened into the press, instead of the veneer taking up the moisture, the hot cauls will drive it into the corestock where it can do no harm. kesulToTtoo The utmost care should be exercised to see that j^ju^h haste veneered work is properly and thoroughly dried before entering the finishing room. It is a common practice in some factories, where trouble with veneer checking is experienced, to send the goods into the finishing room with instructions to the finisher "to get a coat of some- thing on at once to keep them from checking." No greater fallacy was ever breathed. If veneered work will check if exposed to the air before it is finished, it will check after it is finished, no matter how carefully the finishing may be done. It is true that if heavy lumber in the green state 100 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM VENEER WILL CHECK AFTER FINISH IF BEFORE IT were submitted to a rapid drying process without some protection for the surface, the outside would check because it was drying and shrinking faster than the inside. In the case of drying such lumber it is cus- tomary to afford protection to the outside by allowing moisture in the surrounding atmosphere until the whole substance is heated uniformly through. Then the process of drying may be allowed to proceed without danger, because it will proceed uniformly throughout the whole substance. But in the case of veneered work it is a different proposition. The inside of the stock is already dry, and only the outside is to be made dry, consequently there is no advantage in doing anything that will retard the drying process. In fact to do so merely means to heap up trouble for the future and prolong the day of reck- oning — and when that reckoning comes, all accounts must be settled with interest. As before stated, veneer that will check before it is finished will check aftferward, and then it will do it at a time when great damage to the finish will result. All checked veneer is hard on the finish, but veneer that checks after it is finished destroys the finish entirely. When veneer goes bad and destroys the finish the finisher is confronted with the problem of how best to remedy the defect and make the goods pass. To repair checked veneered work, such as has been here de- scribed, proceed as follows : Rub the varnish down with oil and pumice. Oil is preferable to water because the latter will get in the checks and increase their size. In case of mahogany and other woods that have been stained with a waterstain, the water will dissolve the stain and leave a faded margin around the check. After the varnish has been rubbed down, allow the article to stand for a few hours in order that as much oil as possible may ooze out of the check. Then apply a coat of very thin white shellac. This shellac should not be heavier than about one pound of gum to the gallon. This must be applied as rapidly and with as little brushing as possible, otherwise it will streak with the brush ; these streaks will necessitate a lot of work sanding them out. If the operator merely brushes it KNOWLEDGE OF VENEERS NECESSARY 101 enough to put it on he will find that it will flow out and not leave laps. Shellac as thin as one pound to the gallon has very little body, and when the solvent has evaporated there is not enough left to make a serious lap. But the solvent will cut rapidly into the varnish below and if the brush is drawn across it after it has become soft from the action of the solvent, it will leave ridges. The object of putting on this shellac is two- fold: First, to neutralize the oil that may remain in the checks, and second to seal the pores of the wood surrounding the checks and hold up the varnish better, qn veneer After the shellac has been put on, let it dry from 12 to 24 hours. Sand lightly with very fine finishing paper and apply a good coat of varnish. If the checks are very fine and not deep, one coat of varnish will usually be suflficient, but if the checks are bad, more coats will be required. Where only one coat of varnish is applied, the utmost care must be exercised in rubbing because if the varnish is rubbed through to the old varnish below, it will show a patch. THIN SHELLAC AS FINISHER CHAPTER XV PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK ALL veneered work does not require the same treatment preparatory to staining-. Walnut and Circassian should be finished with fine sand- paper in order to insure a clear finish. These woods are usually stained with an oil stain if they are stained at all, and therefore no grain or fuzz is raised. But if the goods are finished with a coarse sandpaper a fuzz will be raised into which the stain will penetrate in such quantities as to detract from the clearness of the all veneer finish. DOES NOT NEED The clear, transparent finish that brings to view all ^^^^ method the finer markings of the wood depends almost as much on the way in which the wood is prepared to receive the finish as on the process of finishing itself. Especially is this the case with golden oak and other oak finishes that are made with a very dark stain. Not only this, but the depth of color can be made to vary by finishing the wood with different grades of sandpaper to such an extent that one who is not in the secret would believe that entirely different stains had been used. The coarser the paper used to finish the wood the darker will be the effect produced by the stain ; and the finer the paper used for the final finishing the more clear and transparent may be the finish. This applies to solid wood as well as to veneered work. Mahogany, both veneered and solid, is seriously affected by the way in which it is sanded. ■ The process of cleaning up mahogany and other woods that are to be stained with a water stain, is somewhat different from the process required for woods to be stained with an oil stain. Nearly all mahogany, and especially African mahogany, is very fuzzy and requires the exercise of all the known arts to get it perfectly smooth so that it may receive that beautiful transparent finish that shows up all the fine markings of the wood, which have made this wood so 104 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AVOID USE OF GLUE SIZE TO STIFFEN FUZZ SHELLAC WILL STIFFEN AND HOLD UP FUZZ popular. So troublesome has this wood been that many schemes, not conducive to the highest quality of finish, have been resorted to in order to make it smooth. Some have gone so far as to use a thin glue-size on the wood to stiffen the fuzz so that it might be cut off with fine paper. But this should never be done. No matter how small the quantity of glue, it will not all come off with the sanding unless one goes deep enough to raise other and equally troublesome fuzz, and the stain will lift the glue, and both combined will make a murky surface. Others again, realizing the danger of the glue-size on the one hand, and on the other the danger of the filler gathering in this fuzz and making an equally bad job if it were not taken off, have left the fuzz on and the filler off, and have gone to the extra work and expense of applying several extra coats of varnish to fill up the pores and insure a clear transparent job. But this is no longer necessary. If one will proceed according to the following directions, trouble from this source will be reduced to a minimum, if not entirely eliminated : When the wood is ready for the final sanding moisten the surface with clear water, putting it on with a sponge. This will raise the fuzz, so that when it receives the final sanding with fine paper much of the fuzz will be cut off. Then stain the wood. This stain will also raise some fuzz, but not so much as was raised by the water. After the stain is thoroughly dry apply to the wood a coat of very thin shellac, not more than one and one-half pounds gum to the gallon of solvent. The shellac will stiffen and hold erect whatever fuzz remains, and unless the wood is unusually soft and spongy will enable one to sand it as smooth as polished glass. In this sanding, as everywhere else where good results are desired, care must be exercised. Very fine paper of the best quality should be used for this pur- pose. If one sands too deeply the work will have a faded appearance in places. To enable one to do the work more evenly, especially on large surfaces, a soft sandpapering block will be of great assistance. Thick felt, such as is used for water rubbing, cut five inches long by two wide, makes a fine block- for this purpose. PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK 105 Should any places require sufficient sanding to give the spot a faded appearance, apply a second coat of stain to the place thus sanded, and wipe it off when about half dry. When thoroughly dry apply a coat of the thin shellac. In putting on this second coat of shellac be careful and cover every spot touched by the second coat of stain, otherwise the stain will show up unevenly after the piece is finished. Permit me here to lay emphasis upon the necessity of having this "wash" coat of shellac very thin, other- wise it will clog the fibers of the wood surrounding the pores and prevent the filler taking a good hold. All that is required is a sufficient amount of gum in the solvent to hold the fuzz stiffly erect in order that the sandpaper may cut it off. The writer is aware that in advocating the sponging of veneered work with water for any purpose what- ever, he is treading upon ground on which have been fought many battles between the finishing rooms and the veneering departments. In entering upon this field, I do so, not for the purpose of conflict, but in the hope that many years' experience and very careful observa- tion may result in throwing some light upon a very vexed question. In the first place, I take for granted that the finisher who sponges his mahogany veneer before staining is anxious to know if sponging is injurious, and is willing to discontinue the practice if it can be shown that it is so. I also take for granted that the veneer man is equally desirous of getting at the truth of the matter, so as to know whether blisters and other defects which develop in veneered work after it reaches the finishing room are the result of the practice of sponging, or in consequence of some oversight on the part of the veneer room, and if the latter, that he may adopt the necessary means to prevent a continuance of the defective work. The usual cause of trouble from this source are "blisters" — the name by which loose veneer is known when it raises from the corestock. It frequently hap- pens that stock will pass through all the various processes from the veneer room to the finishing room SANDING TO GIVE FADED APPEARANCE CONTENTION AS TO SPONGING VENEER 106 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM "BLISTERS IN VENEERS CORRECT WEAKNESS IN VENEER EARLY without any loose veneer being detected. But almost immediately after the goods have been sponged or received a coat of water stain, the veneer is seen to blister in places, and, of course, the man who has not been trained to delve to the bottom of things at once comes to a conclusion, based upon a superficial view, and says the stain or the sponging caused the blister by softening the glue and loosening the veneer. That the water used in sponging or staining was the immediate cause of the veneer raising in a blister there can be no doubt, but it would never have raised had it been glued to the corestock. When we look at the matter calmly, and without prejudice, we will see that it is not a reasonable contention that the quantity of water used in sponging or staining could in a few minutes penetrate the veneer and glue to such an extent that the latter loosens its hold and allows the former to raise. And if it cannot do this in a few minutes it can never do it because, after a few minutes in the temperature of the average finishing room, the moist- ure has largely evaporated. Instead of the moisture which is still in the wood penetrating deeper to affect the glue, it is being drawn out and vaporized by the atmosphere. I have heard the argument frequently advanced that if veneered work has an inherent weak- ness, then everything possible should be done to pre- vent this weakness manifesting itself. Here, again, a superficial view gives this the appearance of being rea- sonable; and it would be a reasonable proposition if time alone could heal the defect and strengthen the weakness. But such is not the case. Time is against it, and if we do not do something to detect these de- fects in the early stages of the finishing process, time will reveal them for us and do it in a period when it will cost considerable to right the wrong. If there are those who still believe sponging will injure veneered work, here are a couple of experiments for them to try : Select a piece of veneered work that you are positive is perfectly sound. Sponge this piece with water every half hour until you can pull the veneer off. By this time I think you will be ready to admit that one sponging or one coat of stain will not do any PROCESS OF STAINING VENEER WORK 107 injury to good veneered work that will be perceptible. The other experiment is this : Take a veneered board and a pail of water. Pour into the pail of water a sufficient quantity of stain to give it a deep color. This color will enable one to detect the distance it pene- trates into the wood. Take a brush or a sponge and apply to the veneer a coat of this colored water. Put it on heavy, many times heavier than would be done in the ordinary course of staining or sponging. After it is dry sand or scrape the surface until all signs of the stain have disappeared. When this has been done it will surprise many to learn what a short distance it penetrated into the veneer. One must come to the con- clusion that the primary cause of loose veneer is much deeper than this. We think we have shown that no harm results from sponging veneered work, and we might enumerate a few of the advantages to be gained from this practice in the preparation of both solid and veneered work for the finish, apart from the raising of the fuzz. Mahogany, with the exception of Cuban mahogany, is very soft and easily bruised. It is asking too much that this wood pass through all the various processes from the dry kiln to the finishing room without receiv- ing any bruises. If nothing is done in the process of cleaning up this wood to bring these bruises back the surface will be cleaned off to a level with the bottom of the bruises, and when the stain is applied, if a water stain is used, the bruises will swell up and leave raises on the wood. If an oil stain is used these bruises will not likely manifest themselves until the finishing pro- cess has pretty far advanced, perhaps not until they have passed through the varnish room and the goods are being brought out to rub. During the weeks that the goods have been in the finishing room the expansion and contraction of the wood caused by atmospheric changes have relaxed the tension of the fibers in the bruised part, and they have endeavored to resume their normal condition, and raise higher than the surround- ing fibers, owing to the others having been cut down in the scraping or sanding. Had this wood been sponged with water some time during the process of cleaning EXPERIMENTS IN SPONGING VENEER CORRECTING DEFECTS IN MAHOGANY 108 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BRINGING BACK INDENTATIONS DEFECTS SHOW UP EQUALLY WITH BEAUTIES up, these bruised parts would have been swelled out to their normal condition, and, if too high, they would have been cut off to the proper level. In cleaning up mahogany or other soft wood that has been shaped or run through the sticker, sponging is of incalculable benefit. The rapidly revolving knives, no matter how sharp or well adjusted they may be, and the rollers through which the wood passes, are certain to make indentations in the softer woods. Unless some- thing is done during the process of cleaning up to bring these indentations back, they will show up after the goods are finished. It is not an uncommon thing to see 0. G. drawers and other shaped work, such as rolls of beds and mirror frames that have been veneered, showing up these regular indentations. These marks are not so pro- nounced if the body of the article in question is made of some hardwood, such as birch or maple, because these woods do not bruise easily. But a great deal of veneering is done on whitewood and basswood — woods that are very soft ; and, under the mistaken idea that the veneer will cover up all defects, no effort is made to clean up the core before the veneer is laid. In order that goods may be given a good finish at a minimum cost in the finishing room, it is imperative that everything be right when the goods reach that department. The object of finishing is to draw out and enhance the natural beauty of the article finished, and this can be accomplished only when there is some natural beauty to enhance. The same force or power that reveals and enhances the natural beauties of the wood will show up with equal distinctness any defects that may be present. After an article is cleaned up, and ready for the finisher, no one can tell whether care has been exercised in the preparation of the corebody for the veneer. But with each succeeding application after the finishing process has commenced there is a gradual unfolding, alike of beauties and defects, and it is then that any neglect or carelessness on the part of the woodworker will manifest itself. CHAPTER XVI PREPARATION OF CROTCH VENEERS CONSIDERABLE trouble is experienced at times with crotch veneer that has chipped during the cutting. Little particles of the veneer are broken out, but it is not advisable to scrape the whole surface down to a level with the holes because that would make the veneer too thin, and perhaps result in scraping through in places. Various methods of filling these holes have been tried such as burning shellac gum into them. But this plan is not satisfactory because burnt shellac is not sufficiently transparent. A number of wood finishing supply houses have placed on the mar- ket a transparent cement by the aid of which these defects in crotch veneer, together with all kinds of chips and bruises, may be repaired so perfectly that the most careful search will fail to find them after the goods are finished. The tools necessary for the work are a spirit lamp and a knife. Any narrow piece of steel or iron that is heavy enough to hold heat for a minute will answer the purpose of the knife. The best tool for the purpose is made by grinding the edges of a putty knife until the end of the blade is about three-eighths of an inch wide. It is necessary that a spirit or alcohol flame be used, as any other flame will discolor and destroy the trans- parency of the cement. room The proper place to do the cementing is in the cabinet room at the time that the wood is being cleaned up. The earlier the defect is discovered and repaired the better. The first thing to do is stain the hole with some of the stain in which the goods are to be finished. Stain will not "take" over this cement, and as the latter is transparent, it is necessary to stain the cavity be- fore filling, in order that it may have the proper color after it is finished. Stain a wide margin around the cavity to prevent cement coming in contact with the white wood, when putting it in or sanding afterward. HOW TO FILL HOLES IN THE CROTCH VENEER DO REPAIR WORK IN THE CABINET 110 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WHEN DEFECT ESCAPES EYE OF CABINET MAN If the cavity to be filled is not large, the knife should be heated over the flame until sufl!iciently hot to melt the cement when held to it, and when enough has been melted to fill the hole it should be pressed in with the knife. If possible, take up a sufficient quantity the first time to fill the hole, because if the first lot becomes hard before the second lot is put in, a perfect union between the two lots may not take place, and the last lot may chip off. If the hole is large a better way would be to hold the lamp on its side and bring the cement in direct contact with the flame and as the cement melts allow it to drop into the cavity until the latter is full. When cooling, but while yet in a soft, pliable condition, the cement should be pressed firmly into the cavity to insure it obtaining a firm hold of the wood, and to destroy any air bubbles that may have formed. When the cement is hard, cut off the surplus with a sharp chisel and sandpaper. But it sometimes happens that defects of this kind escape the attention of the man cleaning up the wood, and are not detected until they reach the finishing room and receive a coat of stain. When that happens, the better way would be to allow the goods to proceed until they have received a coat of varnish. If an effort were made to remedy the defect at this stage, it might result in making matters worse by cutting or sanding into the stain. If it is delayed until a coat of varnish has been applied it may be proceeded with without danger from this source. But when sanding over the varnish, a little linseed oil or benzine should be used to prevent the sandpaper burning or scratching the varnish. A good alcohol lamp may be made from an ordinary machine oil can. Cut off the end of the spout leaving only about one and one-half inch of the larger end. Ordinary cotton twine may be folded up to make a wick, if nothing better is at hand. When using the lamp do not allow the knife or the cement to come in contact with the wick, because if the wick becomes dirty it will smoke and smudge the cement and destroy its clearness. CHAPTER XVII DIPPING OR TANKING STAINS DIPPING or tanking stains, that is, immersing the material to be colored, is found to be expedient in many lines of manufacture, such as in fac- tories where small parts are used, or where small staining by pieces are manufactured, toys, checkers, piano and dipping is typewriter keys, handles, and all similar parts. These ^^^^° method can be colored much more uniformly and cheaper when subjected to the dipping process. Considerable uniformity can be maintained pro- vided certain basic facts relative to the material are employed. Spraying will produce the same effect until the stain is completely consumed; this cannot be said for a dipping stain. The dipping method is an eco- nomical method as far as labor is concerned, and a speedy method where the articles dipped are not too > large. The one difficulty, and the one question that is sought to be cared for, are the methods to keep the stain of uniform strength throughout the manipula- tion, so that the last piece dipped will have the same color as the first piece. It is a peculiar fact that one color, that is, one color material, may have a greater affinity for the wood than another. Thus it is this particular component is ex- colons have hausted much quicker than some of the others, so that after a dipping stain has been used for some time, fqr woods the shade is so gradually changed it is not noticed at the time, but when the first piece is compared with the last piece there is quite an appreciable difference. In many things that are dipped, such as stepladders, handles, toys, this may not make much difference, but in furniture it should not be the case, and, by the simple methods which will be given, can be avoided. Suppos- ing a man were dipping children's furniture, and a hundred sets were to be run through. Naturally the little table would go first, then possibly the chairs next. It might so happen that a fair degree of uniformity 112 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM LESS VEHICLE ABSORBED ON HARDWOOD would result, but unless the stain is kept up to standard some parts of that set are very apt to be lighter, that is, of a lighter shade than those dipped at first. Another peculiarity of dipping stains is the fact that on hardwood the color will exhaust proportion- ately quicker than on soft woods. This, because of the fact that on the hard woods less vehicle is absorbed than on the soft wood. In clipping a soft wood the vehicle penetrates farther but leaves color particles more on the outside. While it is not absolutely correct to say "color particles," it is nevertheless the case, and of interest to note that the moisture precedes the color. Dipping stains are usually made of oil, or water as a vehicle. By oils is meant turpentine, benzoles, and the various naphthas. To those not acquainted with the dipping proposition it might be well to say that it is a quick way and a very good way. The care taken is pro- portionate to the quality of the material manufactured. Cheap goods are simply dipped and passed along on a draining board which permits the excess stain to run back into the tank. Better goods should be wiped clean to avoid runs. It ofttimes may be necessary to make a dipping stain a trifle stronger than where it is applied with a brush. It will be seen usually that this is neces- sary because the stain is not worked in. If it is a water stain, many may have misgivings as to the effect on veneers and glue joints. These can be dispelled easily because the article is simply immersed, and immediately withdrawn, and in these cases, a hot dipping stain, when made of water, is better than a cold STRONGER THAN dipping stain. First, it penetrates more readily, and BRUSHING second, it dries quicker. The wiping off on hardwood especially is to be recommended to overcome any pos- sible air cells or patches that might not be covered when the immersion is done quickly. Thus it would tend to make a uniform job. It must be remembered, however, that a stain applied cold will not give as dark a color as one that is annlied hot. for it is readily un- derstood that the hot mixture nenetrates deeper and in consequence deposits more color. In a water stain it does not matter what shade or what kind of wood is to be dipped, it is merely a case DIPPING STAIN SHOULD BE DIPPING OR TANKING STAINS 113 of establishing the strength in accordance with the method to be employed ; that is, whether it is going to be used cold or whether it is to be kept warm by a steam coil or a steam jet. One thing is certain, a stain should be kept at uniform temperature so that the penetration is uniform. Again, the material to be dipped should be of uni- form temperature. Raw material should not be stored in a cold room and then brought in to be dipped. There ^^^^^ should would be some disappointment, especially on hardwood, g^ j^^p^ if this were undertaken. A steam jet in a large vat even in works satisfactorily but not so well in a small vat. temperature There is a certain amount of condensation which adds materially to the amount of water. A certain amount of water follows steam, and if the pressure is low, there is apt to be quite an amount of water added to that in the vat. The diminishing of the water by the dipping process is carried on in a direct ratio with the color materials, and these can be kept up to stand- ard as we will shortly see. Consider an oil stain. For example a golden oak, the color of which depends largely upon asphaltum varnish, oil yellow and oil black. It will be noticed that the yellow on many woods gradually will become less noticeable; in short, it is exhausted quicker than either the black or the asphaltum component. If it is desired to keep the oil stain warm it can be done by means of a steam coil, and on good furniture it is more necessary to wipe than on cheaper materials. Where it is to be wiped clean the stain should be stronger or the use of the immersion longer. Manufacturers of asphaltum asphaltum varnish of late have been selecting their material so that a richer and more golden color is obtained than heretofore. It is sold as asphaltum varnish for mak- ing golden oak stain. Some call it standardized asphal- tum, which name covers the two requisites of the mate- rial for producing stains: First, the color, and sec- ondly, a uniformity of strength, so that a given amount of asphaltum will always have the same color value as the preceding lot. The maker of stains has simoly to specify what he wishes this asphaltum for, and he can readily find it in the market. 114 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SOME OPPOSE DIPPING METHODS TESTING FOR UNIFORM COLOR Now that the two colors, here referred to, have doubled and trebled in price, it might be of financial interest to those using golden oak stain to investigate this method of producing it. Those who are makin? the grayish cast of golden oak will find that the asphal- tum with the black will give them the desired results. Any innovation in a method meets with a certain amount of opposition by those who have been follow- ing a beaten path. All kinds of criticisms are. heaped upon the idea. The spraying machine is an example. No new method ever received such a chilly reception as did that. Unquestionably, if one would suggest to a factory which never did any dipping, to dip its work, the same reception would be in store for the method. It is not claimed that everything and anything can be dipped. Common sense tells us that. But there are hundreds of small pieces manufactured that can be sub- jected to the dipping process at quite a saving of time and labor, with probably better results than where an attempt is made to do the staining with a brush. Brushes cost money these days. Undoubtedly fault will be found at once as to the possibility of keeping a general uniformity of color, but this is easily handled in the following manner. When the strength has been ascertained, the vat pre- pared, either for oil or water stain, and all the tests have proven that the first immersion gives the desired color, the standard is then kept by proceeding as fol- lows : A cylindrical vat is filled with the original liquid, or a large test tube would make a very practical con- tainer, securely corked and labeled as the standard. Strong solutions of known strength are prepared of the diff'erent components of the stain. Then we proceed to dip, and after the process is continued a sample is removed from the vat and compared with the original. If it has fallen off at all, it will be noticed immediately when held up to the light. A delicate test is to watch the effect of a few drops of this material on a clean blotter. It will be noticed that as it spreads on a blot- ter the different colors will form a circle, the stronger color penetrating out into the blotter farther than the DiPPING OR TANKING STAINS 115 weaker color. These rings will tell you at once by com- parison which color is exhausted the most. From these comparative tests we realize that the stain is not up to the original test. Although the work being dipped may not yet manifest the discrepancy, the stain having run down, the balance left in the vat can be brought up to standard. The sample taken from the vat is carefully measured out in a cylinder, and the quantity in the tank figured up. The tanks are usually ^^^^^ ^^^ ^p square, and by ascertaining the amount of cubic inches, ^^ original dividing this by the amount of cubic inches in the gal- ^^g^ Ion, the number of gallons in the tank is established. Granted that our cylinder holds a pint, this is brought up to strength by adding from our standard solution stock enough of each color so that by comparison with the solution in the thin tube the color is identical. Then if the amount has been carefully kept track of, that is, the amount of the solution added to the pint, and is multiplied by eight, there being eight pints to the gal- lon, and this multiplied by the number of gallons in the tank, the amount of stock solutions to be added is given. This added to the liquid in the vat will bring up the stain to its original strength. This is not a long procedure, nor is it a difficult one ; in fact, it is an interesting problem for the foreman finisher. The same proposition will confront him when he comes to increase the amount of stain in the vat. Take a vat of 25 gallons; when it runs down so that it no longer covers the materials that are to be dipped, ^^^ ^^ ^^ the quantity of stain will have to be increased. It interesting might be an easy matter to simply make up another problem batch of stain and fill the vat to the required depth; but when a stain has been used so long that the quan- tity is reduced — where the tank needs filling — it is apt to fall below par, and before adding new stain to it, it first should be brought up to strength. I know of no stain that becomes stronger in the dipping pro- cess, but should such a proposition arise, it is an easy matter to reduce it by the addition of more vehicle. An oil stain containing much naphtha is of more or less danger owing to its vapors, and an open blaze should not be permitted in close proximity, nor should 116 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM DANGER OF OIL STAINS WITH NAPHTHA STAINING BY IMMERSION an open flame be on any floor below a dipping vat where oil stains are employed. Naphtha vapors are heavier than air and follow the floor rather than rise to the ceiling. Naphtha vapor will run along the floor, following a current of air down an elevator shaft and to a fire room, and in this manner a sudden blaze may be caused. Good circulation is necessary, and should be of such strength that the vapor is brought out of doors in the shortest possible time. When the vat is not in use, provision should be made to draw off the oil stain into air-tight cans, for if allowed to stand any length of time, enough of the light oils may evaporate to cause a material change of color. Small pieces for staining can be handled in baskets or cages that can be closed, made of wire, the mesh just small enough so that the pieces will not fall through. This wire cage is immersed in the tank, and worked up and down, so that the liquid penetrates and touched all pieces. It is then pulled up and swung over onto the dripping board which leads back to the tank. Where the stain is hot, it will be found the pieces are practically dry in a few minutes. The basket is opened and the contents dumped onto the upper end of the dripping board from which it readily can be re- moved in a few minutes, without the dye being affected in any way. This dripping board acts as a drying board, from which the stained pieces can be shoved into carts for the next operation. In case of caster wheels, or small parts that are to receive a polish, directions will be found in this book for producing an inexpensive polish by tumbling them. A CHAPTER XVIII IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER FTER the preparation of the wood, through the sanding and sponging process, the next step is filling. Proper filling of the wood is as im- FILLING AN portant as any one of the details that go to make the £ . , IMPORTANT finish. PROCESS It might be said that all woods are filled, modified, however, by stating some are filled with a liquid filler, some with an absolutely transparent filler, and others with a paste filler. Woods like gum and Circassian walnut come in the class of transparent fillers, by which is meant oil, shellac, or one of the many modern prod- ucts of the varnish factory. Before the discovery of a filler, repeated coats of drying oil were rubbed into the wood. Then came the era of shellac. The finisher should remember that while shellac makes a very admirable first coat finish, it should always be applied thin, as it does not form the best adhesion either to the wood or the subsequent coats of varnish. When shellacs are used with the idea of constituting a filler coat, they should be applied thin, two thin coats being preferred to one heavier coat, and should be sanded smooth. The wood then will be ready for its paste filler subsequent finish. On porous woods, it is better to use po^ porous a paste filler, preferably made from a floated silex woods base, than either a shellac or liquid filler. The object is to fill the pores with material that will neither ex- pand nor contract through the different temperatures, or atmospheric conditions. Here let it be understood that experience has taught us that any vegetable, such as the various starches, which have been used in years gone by, is a mighty poor filler at the best. Whiting, China clay, resins, lime or flour should not be considered up-to-date mate- rials. For let it be understood that a good filler is made up of something that neither shrinks nor absorbs 118 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM GOOD FILLER MUST BE ONE IMPERVIOUS TO WATER FOREMAN MUST UNDERSTAND FILLERS any of the vehicle that may be used to spread it and hold it to place, it must be impervious to water. Tem- perature should have little or no effect. It must be a material heavy enough in specific gravity to obviate the carrying with it of air cells into the crevices or pores of the wood. These air cells will afterward permit the settling of the filler. The entire finishing process will be completed before this will manifest itself. To the writer's mind, there is nothing that will take the place of floated silex. The addition of color material should be only of such quantity as absolutely necessary to produce the shade desired, and in such cases colors ground in oil are preferable, as the grinding process intimately mixes the oil with the color particles of the pigment employed, and in such case reduces the bulk of the color to the minimum. Compactness of a filler is the desired object. Liquid fillers, such as those made up of oils and resins, into which have been ground various earthy products, are on the market, and usually found in paint stores, either as natural or colored, according to the woods and finishes for which they are desired. They are neither a liquid filler nor a paste filler, but might be said to be the paste filler thinned, ready for the brush, when stirred. These fillers are adapted to many cases of finishing, where the artisan has not the material at hand with which to prepare his own filler. In the larger plants it is necessary for the foreman to thoroughly understand the coloring and preparation of the filler for the par- ticular finish that is being produced. In this treatise, with each stain formula given there will be found an indication of how to color the filler for each particular finish, which, together with this general outline of fillers, will enable the reader to com- prehend and understand the procedure he should fol- low. That the filler plays a large part in the production of the color effect, especially in the oaks, is known to every finisher. Filler must be in harmony with the stain, but if it is too radical in shade, it becomes freak- ish and, when the wood mellows down, shows that it IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 119 is not a part of the staining operation, but it is apparent it is applied to the wood in solid form and, in short, does not affiliate itself with the general desired results. In such finishes as antique oak, Flemish, bog, mala- chite green, forest green, cathedral, Early English, Antwerp, Belgium, baronial, Dutch brown, English oak, golden oak, tobacco brown, silver oak, gray oak, kaiser grey, oriental, sixteenth century, drift wood and others, the filler plays an important part in the results. Each and every one *is produced to harmonize in color effect with the general style of the finish. It is not uncommon, especially in matching products of other finishers, to have the correct match as far as the stain is concerned, only to ruin all the efforts by making the wrong colored filler. It is well for the artisan to have a small magnifying glass with which to thoroughly in- spect the filler of the sample that he is trying to match. Under the chapter Hatchings, and in the procedure there given, will be found valuable hints on how to recognize the color in a sample of finish brought in for matching. It will easily be seen that it is absolutely essential to have a knowledge of the procedure necessary for the production of a good, reliable filler. Leaving aside the question whether it is best from a financial standpoint to buy the silex filler in paste form or to buy it in the dry form, the artisan should know how to proceed to prepare his filler for any particular style of finish. In cases where the paste filler is at hand, as stated before, stir in colors ground in oil, such as recom- mended and such as were found to produce the desired shade of filler. When the dry silex is to be used, stir into the silex boiled oil and turpentine of sufficient quantity to make a homogeneous paste of the consis- tency of a very heavy paint. Then the color is thinned, generally using nothing but turpentine. When this is so you can pour it out of the can, stir it into the paste filler until the same becomes of a uniform color, a ho- mogeneous mass, when it is ready for thinning with naphtha. Filler should be stirred continually when being ap- plied. It should be rubbed crosswise of the pores. FILLER MUST BE IN HARMONY WITH STAIN USE OF SILEX IN FILLERS 120 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PREPARATION OF FILLERS MINERAL TURPENTINE ECONOMICAL When filler in drying settles in the pores it is an indi- cation it has been thinned too much. If filler lifts, when wiping off, it is an indication that not sufficienl: binder is in the mixture. In that case the addition of a half pint of japan to the gallon of filler will overcome the diflficulty. In the preparation of filler for such finishes at Antwerp, bog oak, Flemish, Belgium, Early English, a black filler only is employed. This requires nothing more than drop black, ground in oil. Drop black is much superior to lampblack, and it is only necessary to use quantity required to give the silex a black color. In such finishes as baronial, cathedral, Dutch brown and sixteenth century, the fillers are usually colored with Van Dyke brown. The same effects can be pro- duced, however, by using burnt umber and toning it down with black, or black and an orange, but the most economical that we have is a Van Dyke. It will thus be seen that the majority of fillers on the oaks are made with black or brown, the only differ- ence being that the strength of color varies. In the greens, chrome green is employed. In the case of forest green, equal parts of chrome green and drop black are used, and in some cases a small percentage of brown. In the olive oak, which is another finish that is used more by chair manufacturers and fixture concerns, the green is produced by the stain, but the filler is black. In general, the use of silex, colored to match the style of finish, and thinned with naphtha, is a general procedure. Where large quantities of filler are miade and used, a saving can be made by the employment of mineral turpentine, which costs about one-third as much as regular turpentine. Where this is employed it is well to use about four ounces of cheap rosin var- nish so as to keep up the binding qualities that would be had where boiled oil and regular turpentine were employed. Silex might be likened to powdered glass. Spread over the surface and into the pores by means of the liquid vehicle, which has just sufficient adhesiveness to hold the filler in place, there can be no shrinkaee in the material. When the work is cleaned up, the excess moisture removed and the filler thoroughly dried, it IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 121 holds its place and form, and the subsequent finish re- mains where it is put. The present style of the many so-called Mission finishes calls for a light colored filler, especially in oaks, the pores of which have been extended by the wood having been first sponged, sanded and the pores opened with a picking brush. The effects produced by giving the fillers various shades ranging from absolute white through all the grays, greens and browns, are in many cases very pleasing to the eye. The gray oaks lend p^j^^gj^^g themselves particularly well for this sort of treatment, demand light These finishes are known under many different names, fillers but are usually finished in waxes. The best procedure is to use a strong water stain which will give the color deep enough so that when the lighter filler is used there will be some difference between the stained wood and the color of the filler. The effect is striking; a good clean job will not permit the filler to be smeared over the wood. Where an absolute white filler is de- sired, and where the wax is to be the finish, it is well to give the work a very thin coat of shellac, and then mix carbonate of zinc, known to the trade as zinc white, with wax, and rub it across the pores until they are thoroughly filled. Let this work stand for 24 hours, then apply second coat of wax, bringing it to a polish. Where a gray filler is desired this same procedure can be followed, merely coloring the white with dried drop black. Filler should be applied only after the wood has been thoroughly prepared, sandpapered, cleaned up apply filler and dusted. Emphasis to be placed upon the "cleaned ^fter wood is up," which means that no finger marks from previous "cleaned up" handling should be allowed to remain. It should be dusted so that all the fine particles arising from the sanding are removed before the filler is applied. The filler should be of the consistency of a varnish, applied with a good brush, rubbed well into the grain and pores of the wood. W^hen the filler is fairly well set, which is when it begins to show flat, rub it into the wood with a pad, always rubbing across the grain. For spindles and long turniners have a long strip of leather to draw back and forth around the work. 122 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM P^INISHING SHOULD BE DONE ACROSS GRAIN Fill only as much surface at a time as you can wipe off before it sets too hard to rub off without rolling up. Wipe off with tow or excelsior or rags all the filler ex- cept that which is in the grain or pores, and be care- ful to have all the grain and pores level, full of the fille" because upon that feature the success of your, work depends. All rubbing and wiping must be done across the grain. Give the filler all the time to dry you can, but never less than 6 hours, especially when the grain is rather open. When dry go over it lightly with No. sandpaper to take off every particle of filler left on the surface. The cleaner you wipe off the filler the cleaner the finished job will be. If you want to do high grade work it is well to ex- amine the filler surface with a magnifying glass to see if the pores are well filled and no pinholes visible. If there are such defects, it is best to go over the surface with a filler a second time, but have it of thinner con- sistency than at first, and repeat the operation of rub- bing, wiping off and sandpapering. An exception to the general rule of filling, and it might be said of staining, is that of the production of golden oak, as employed by many of the larger furni- ture factories, showcase and school equipment com- panies. The stain is produced by the use of asphaltum varnish, augmented by the addition of oil soluble black and yellow as will be found in the chapter on Stain Formulas. This stain is spread over the sanded and dusted work in such an amount as to leave an almost black- brown coating, which is permitted to set from 15 to 30 minutes, according to the amount of drier that the stain contains. It should not be permitted to dry, but just before it sets a natural filler, that is, a plain un- colored silex filler, is worked across the grain of the wood. It gradually lifts the excess stain and gradually with the filler is worked into the pores. This process is continued until the filler is about to set. When it is cleaned off the filler is colored, the pores and grain are thoroughly filled, and golden oak is stained and filled with an oil stain with this procedure. After the cleaning process is accomplished a thin IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF FILLER 123 coat of shellac is applied, and the finishing coats are given. Bent wood, such as chair backs, seats, etc., which have been subjected to the steaming process, may give trouble which would manifest itself in the filler coat. This is due to the fact that wood treated in this man- ner, when not properly stored, is apt to re-absorb mois- ture, and, after the filler is applied, permit a settling of this filler, through the fact that as the moisture leaves the work the filler follows down into the wood, bent wood When difficulty like this manifests itself the first gives some thing to do is to look up the history of the stock, and trouble in the condition in which it is received. Take a suspected finishing sample, see that it is thoroughly dry, and put it through the regular process. This will prove whether or not moisture has caused the difficulty with the filler. The universal method for finishing cedar chests does not call for a filler. But there seems to be a de- mand for a filler that will take care of the rough spots in the knotty portions of the wood. The desire prin- cipally is to get one that will harmonize with the shade. For this purpose Van Dyke brown and rose pink will give the best colors with which to color the natural filler. Where bits of wood have been pulled out by rough planing, colored shellac serves nicely, and if the depressions or holes are large enough to warrant the use of shellac sticks, it is preferred to melt the shellac into the crevices. Another method would be to work into the rough spot a colored shellac, colored with Bis- „g™g shellac mark brown, giving the work repeated coats until a xo fill holes smooth surface is obtained. Then sand this to the even- jj^ finishing ness of the regular work in the following manner : Cut down the shellac with a No. sandpaper and finish up by using a No. 00 sandpaper which has been dipped into light rubbing oil. This will not disturb the underlying depressions, and will give a toughness to the shellac used as a filler, which will keep it in its place, and leave it ready for the general finishing coat. The following list will give the artisan a good idea of the colors necessary to obtain certain shades, espe- cially in producing tints in the fillers. Undoubtedly the list given will be of additional value to the informa- 124 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM tion already given with each formula, in which also is mentioned the filler. Produce the color first and then with it tint the filler. It is best to obtain colors ground in oil or japan. Mix these and stir into the filler. In case the ^ry silex is used in producing the filler it may be well to use dry colors. Stir them thoroughly into the silex and add to it the japan, boiled oil and thin- ner, as given elsewhere: COMBINATIONS Combinatlons of Products PRODUCE CER- Red and black Brown TAIN SHADES Lake and white Rose White and brown Chestnut White, blue and lake Purple Blue and lead color Pearl White and carmine Pink Indigo and lampblack Silver Gray White and lampblack Lead color Black and Venetian red Chocolate White and green Bright green Purple and white..... French white Light and dark green Dark green White and green.. Pea green White and emerald green.. Brilliant green Red and yellow... Orange White and yellow. Straw color White, blue and black.. Pearl gray White, lake and vermilion Flesh color Umber, white and Venetian red Drab White, yellow and Venetian red Cream Red, blue and black... Olive Yellow, white and a little Venetian red. ...Buff CHAPTER XIX THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER THAT which is known as filler in the finishing room is a paste used for the purpose of filling the pores of the wood to be finished. The object of filling these pores is to prevent the varnish sinking away and enable it to flow out smooth and make an even surface. Fillers are made in various ways, of various ingredients to suit the different kinds of wood on which they may be used. But there are three in- gredients which enter into all fillers and which form the base for all the others. These three ingredients are : Pigment, oil and drier. The best known pigment for filler today is ground silex. There are various other pigments in use, such as silica, silver white, and I have known good filler to be made with wheat flour and cornstarch as a pigment. It has been contended in some quarters that wheat flour and cornstarch, being vegetable products, are liable to decompose in the pores and thus destroy the finish. But I do not believe that contention to be well founded. The wood itself is a vegetable product and the oil that binds the pigment together is of the same origin. Why should one be more liable to decomposition than the other, especially as the pigment is protected by being surrounded by the oil? I have seen goods that were filled over a quarter of a century ago with a flour-corn- starch filler today showing no signs of decay in the filler. For oak filler silica makes a good pigment and it is economical. It is much less expensive than silex and considerably lighter in weight. For walnut and mahogany woods that are somewhat easily clouded, pure ground silex should be used as a pigment for the filler because it is more transparent, and, therefore, less liable to leave the slightest sign of a cloud, Silex is offered in various degrees of fineness, but the finer it is the better. It not only is more trans- INGREDIENTS FOR FILLERS ARE THREE FILLER IS DETERMINED BY WOOD 126 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM OIL BINDS PIGMENT SOLIDLY BROWN JAPAN BEST DRIER FOR FILLER parent when fine, but it is easier to use and does its work better. Oil is the ingredient that binds the fine particles of pigment together so that when dry they form a solid substance. Boiled linseed oil is usually the kind use'^ for this purpose, although raw linseed oil may be used with good results. A considerable quantity of linseed oil on the market today is adulterated, and care should be taken to see that only pure linseed oil is used. These adulterated oils contain quantities of fish oil or some sort of mineral oil. These adulterants prevent proper hardening of the linseed oil and the drying of the filler, and unless the filler, which is the foundation of the fin- ish, dries and hardens thoroughly, a high class durable finish cannot be expected. Recently I was shown an in- side door which was painted ten years ago with a paint mixed in adulterated oil, and it is not yet dry. In warm, humid weather the best that can be said of it is that it is dust proof. Varnish cannot harden on such a foundation, and if it is polished it will lose its bril- liancy in a few days. The third ingredient of which we spoke is some form of drier. Linseed oil will dry of itself, but is is too slow. Brown japan is the most popular form of drier for filler. It also helps the oil to bind the par- ticles of pigment together. But filler in which japan is used ought not to be made very far in advance of the time it is used. All filler should be made at least 24 hours before being used, but if it is allowed to become old and stale it works sticky and hard, and will not fill the pores properly. If I were asked to set a time limit in which filler is at its best I would say between 24 hours and 10 days after it has been made. This is one of the advantages of the finisher being able to make his own filler — he can always have it in the best condition. The argument is advanced frequently that the finisher cannot successfully make his own filler because he has not the powerful machinery for grinding and mixing the ingredients. He does not need it. No matter who makes the filler, or where it is made, the pigment is ground and the oil extracted before the process of making filler commences. These are occupations by NECESSARY IN FILLER MAKING THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 127 themselves, separate and distinct from filler making. In addition to the proper ingredients, the only require- ments for filler making are a tub, a pair of hands and the "know how." If a finishing room were using filler by the ton it might be well to use a power mixer cap- able of handling it in such quantities. But the quan- tity used in the great majority of factories can be mixed readily by hand. I have heard it said that a filler cannot do its work well and work easy. I wish to hit that right on the "know how" head, and say that a filler cannot do its work well un- less it does work easy. Filler that is stiff and hard is certain to pull out of the pores when being cleaned off ; while filler that will clean off easy, if otherwise prop- erly prepared, will cut off level with the top of the pore, leaving it full. The proper kind of a filler is one that may be cleaned off easily between 20 minutes and three hours after it is applied to the wood, and will dry in 24 hours and thoroughly harden in 48 hours. In addition to the pigment, oil and drier which form the base of all fillers, there are other ingredients added to meet the color requirements of the different woods and finishes, except when a colorless filler is de- sired, as these other ingredients are added for color purposes. To make a white filler, which may be used by itself where a colorless filler is required, and which may be regarded as the base of all the colored fillers, we will give the system which we have followed for years with entire satisfaction, and which is the result of many years' careful observation and experiment: 12 parts pure boiled linseed oil. 6 parts brown japan. 1 part pure turpentine. Mix the above thoroughly, then add a sufficient amount of silex, or whatever pigment is to be used, to make a stiff dough. Allow this to stand for 24 hours, then reduce such quantity as may be needed for imme- diate use with benzine to the consistency required for the wood on which it is to be used. In the above formula the turpentine is added to assist in the more complete assimilation of the oil and IDEAL WHITE FILLER 128 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CARE NEEDED TO KEEP PIGMENT UNIFORM REDUCING PASTE FILLEf TO A LIQUID japan, and prevent the disintegrating effect which the benzine would otherwise have upon the japan. It will be noticed that I have not given the quantity of pigment in weight. This cannot be done to advan- tage because the ratio of weight to measure or absorb- ing quality is not the same with the different pigments. But no matter what the weight of the pigment, a suf- ficient quantity will be required to make a stiff dough. In order to insure uniformity a good plan would be to weigh the pigment put in the first batch of filler, and if the filler works well put the same weight in all subse- quent lots. Be careful to measure the liquids accurately because on this will depend largely your success as a filler maker. In coloring filler, if dry colors are used they will displace an equal quantity of the other pigment, so that a smaller quantity of the latter will be required than would be the case with white filler. If the colors used are ground in oil or japan, then the oil or japan, as the case may be, will displace an equal amount of its kind in the original formula, and provision should be made to meet this. Occasionally a combination stain and filler is re- quired for cheap goods, such as elm and ash, and one that will not require cleaning off. For this purpose re- duce asphaltum with turpentine to the desired depth of color and mix into each gallon of the stain about two pounds of colorless paste filler. The paste filler for this purpose should be made of finely ground silex to insure transparency. After this stain is dry, if a coat of pig- ment surfacer is applied the pores will be filled per- fectly, and the whole will be ready for sanding and var- nishing. To reduce paste filler to the liquid state quickly, place the desired quantity of paste in the vessel in which it is to be used and pour on but a small quantity of benzine. Mix this together thoroughly, then add more benzine. It can be reduced to the required con- sistency much quicker this way than can be done if the full quantity of benzine is put on at the start. The consistency to which filler should be reduced must be regulated by the porous nature of the wood on THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 129 which it is to be used, but in any event it should be reduced to a state in which it will work freely under the brush. Filler should be put on with a medium stiff brush, giving plenty of brushing to work it well into the pores. The pores of the wood are full of air which will prevent the filler going to the bottom and getting a firm hold unless it is well brushed. Evidence of this neglect will be found in the shape of "pinholes" after the goods get a coat of varnish. Very thin filler, or cleaning the filler off while it is wet, will result in ^^^t'^lt^T^ , - _ Or r ILLKR lo pinholes. regulated by Too frequently it happens that the edges of tops and nature of other narrow but prominent parts of the goods are not ^ood filled as well as the larger surfaces. This is largely be- cause these edges are usually perpendicular, and be- cause it is more diflficult to put a heavy coat of filler on a small surface than to put it on a large one. The way to overcome this difficulty is to put two or more coats on these places, allowing each coat to dry until it be- comes "flat" ; then put the next coat on top of it. Much depends on the way filler is cleaned off. This should be done in such a way that the filler in the pore is disturbed as little as possible. The best thing to use for cleaning off filler is the hair-like moss used for up- holstering. Of late years this has become too expensive to use for this purpose, consequently many other things have been tried in its place. Some shops use shavings, excelsior, burlap and anything that will re- move this surplus filler, and yet not be expensive. We have tried all these things, and some others, and have found that sea grass, or sea moss, as it is sometimes how to clean called, is superior to any of them, and it has the addi- off filler tional advantage of being inexpensive. To remove filler take a handful of the grass and shake it up well to remove any hard, foreign substances, then with it rub the article across the grain. One is less liable to disturb the filler in the pores by cleaning off across the grain. After as much of the filler has been removed as possible with this grass, the balance may be cleaned off thoroughly by wiping with a cotton cloth. Sterilized cotton rags are used generally for this purpose. Avoid rags that leave lint on the work. 130 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Rosewood is one of the most difficult woods to fill with the ordinary wood filler. The oil in this wood will eat its way up through the filler and injure the finish unless something- is done to prevent it. In the early history of what might be called our modern system of finishing, the filling of this beautiful wood was a long and costly process. Coat after coat of shellac was ap- plied and then sanded down to the wood or scraped off until the pores were filled to a level with the surface. FILLING WAS Shellac seemed to be the only thing that would keep in FORMERLY check the oil in this wood. But these several coats of EXPENSIVE shellac are not now necessary. Put on one good heavy coat of bleached shellac reduced at the rate of one and one-half pounds of gum to a gallon of spirits, using methylated spirits or grain alcohol as the solvent. Brush this well so that it will reach as deep as possible into the pores. This will seal up the fine pores through which the oil would ooze and hold it in check. After this is dry, the wood may be filled in the usual way. Do not sand the shellac before filling and do not have more oil in the filler than is absolutely necessary. When using filler, no matter on what kind of wood it is being used, keep it well stirred. Too much stress cannot be placed on the importance of this. If this is not done, the first part of the filler used will contain too much oil, and the latter part not enough because the pigment has been allowed to settle at the bottom. If the top part of such filler were used on rosewood, the con- sequence might be disastrous to the finish, while if the IMPORTANT TO bottom Were used on mahogany it certainly would be KEEP FILLER SO, because in the latter case the filler, deprived of the STIRRED oil, would tum gray in the pores, and give the whole work a grayish, clouded cast. In the case of mahogany, if these conditions have all been complied with, and the pores still show a gray- ish cast, one must look either to the original filler, or to the method of preparing the wood to receive the filler in order to get at the cause. The filler, which is just right for mahogany that has had a coat of thin shellac before filling, is not suitable for mahogany that has not had that shellac, because it does not contain a sufficient quantity of oil for the latter. This thin coat of shellac THE MAKING AND USING OF FILLER 131 seals up the fine pores in the fibers of the wood and prevents them from extracting the oil from the filler and imbibing it. This leaves the oil w^ith the pigment and preserves the translucency of the filler, v^hich, when dry, retains the color of the liquid state. When filler is applied to mahogany that has not been coated with shellac the oil is drawn away from the pigment into the fibers of the wood by the force of capillary attraction and the pigment, deprived of this protection, becomes opaque and shows gray beside the brown mahogany. To counteract this, it is necessary that filler used on bare wood contain a slightly larger percentage of oil than that which is used on a shellaced surface. I have met finishers who were of the opinion that birch-stained mahogany does not require to be filled. But birch mahogany can be finished much more cheaply if it is filled. When not filled, the extra varnish and rubbing required to produce the desired results is much more expensive than the filling would be. SHELLAC AIDS TO PRESERVE TRANSLUCENCY OF FILLER CHAPTER XX CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM WITH fumed oak, as much in vogue as it is at the present time, it is almost necessary that some- thing in the way of a fuming room or fuming box be supplied. I shall endeavor to describe three two types of types of this sort of equipment, supplementing it with fuming box some description of the process. The size of a fuming box must be left to the manu- facturer and be built according to his needs. After the size of the box has been determined upon, the fol- lowing methods, if followed, will produce a strictly up- to-date fuming box. Select a place in the factory which is easily acces- sible to daylight, blow-pipes and steam. After setting up the framework of the size which has been decided upon for the box, inclose it with matched flooring, giv- ing each groove or tongue a coat of thick paint and driving the joints well to- gether. On the sides make the sash for the glass as indicated in Fig. 1. Be care- ful that the glass, when put into the sash, is either set in soft putty or lead in oil. The reason for this is to make everything air-tight. The door should be sectional so that it can be opened for the various sizes of furniture, as it is often the case that after a first batch has been fumed, another batch of furniture can be quickly put in this box without exhausting the ammonia gas. The doors should be made with L joints and these joints fitted with felt. The doors are then locked with a friction lock much like those that are used on an ice box. In a corner, convenient and accessible, a series of shelves should be provided, the upper one a distance from the ceiling so that it will carry a five-gallon gal- vanized iron can. This can should be fitted with a door should be sectional 134 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THE FRONT THE SIDE TWO VIEWS OF FUMING ROOM BUILT AFTER PLANS DE- SCRIBED IN FOLLOWING CHAPTER CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 135 faucet. The successive shelves should be supplied with half-inch deep pans, placed in such a position that when the first is filled with ammonia water it will over- flow into the second and so on down until the last pan empties into usually a five or ten gallon earthen jar. A steam coil placed in the jar will greatly facilitate the evaporation of the ammonia or, more correctly stated, the liberating of the ammonia from the water, and work an economy by reducing the amount of am- monia required. Right here is where caution must be exercised. First, the steam coil must be placed in a jar which is at least twice as large as the can. The steam coil takes up less than half of the space in the jar. This coil must then be covered with water and the steam should not be turned on until the ammonia water begins to drip from the last pan into the jar, for if the coil is not covered with water, the drippings will come down in such small quantities that they immediately will be evaporated and cause excessive moisture in the fuming box. Again, the steam must not be supplied to the coil in too great a quantity and thus create too much Tieat. It must be kept under control and the water maintained just below the boiling point. This can all be done by watching the process through the window. The question has been asked often whether the am- monia can be turned on before the doors are closed. Of course this is the only way it can be turned on. But it might be well to turn on the ammonia and allow the gas, in a measure, to replace the air before the doors are closed tightly. Recently there appeared an article giving the de- tails for constructing a fuming box, which is very good. Some points brought out are recommended, but the basic principle of the box as given in this chapter has not been changed sufficiently to make it necessary to incorporate any of the ideas here. One exception, however, should be noticed, because of the fact that the use of a steam coil and tank is useless and might lead to a doubt in the minds of those who wish to construct a fuming box. Therefore, it is necessary to say that the coil and jar are not placed in the fuming box to create any unnecessary moisture, which, according to the arti- HOW AMMONIA WATER IS LIBERATED FUMING BOX CRITICIZED 136 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TWO VIEM^S OF THE INTKKIOK ()!•' ONE FUMING ROOM BUILT AFTER THE PLAN DESCHICED IN THIS CHAPTER CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 137 cle referred to, is employed to soften the wood. On the contrary, it is merely used to facilitate more liberation of the ammonia gas. To repeat: The ammonia dripping down slowly from pan to pan, finally reaches the jar. There must be a jar there to receive the ammonia water as it runs not touch from the tank over the several trays to this receptacle, steam pipe AMMONIA WATER MUST INTERIOR VIEW OF FUMING BOX which, if it is fitted with a steam coil, will heat the water present and thus help to liberate the ammonia gas. Particular attention is drawn by the writer to the fact that the steam coil must be covered with water so that the ammonia water when dropping down will not come in immediate contact with a hot steam coil and thus create steam. The entire idea is to avoid the steaming of the water and merely to raise the tempera- ture of the water present in the tank so that the am- monia will be given off more readily. At the same time this steam coil acts as a source of heat, which heat is 138 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FUMING EXPEDITED BY USE OF TAN BARK EXTRACT greatly desired, especially in the winter months, for raising the temperature inside the fuming box, because a warm gas will fume quicker than cold. Again, when the temperature is the same in the fuming box as on the outside, there is less condensation. The writer referred to recommends a trade article under the name of Fumine. It happen that the writer _j SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF WINDOWS of this book originated the name of Fumine and made the original product put on the market under that name. This was nothing more than tan bark extract. It was found at that time that by the addition of tan bark extract fuming would take less time than when the wood was put in the fuming box in its natural state. Later it was found that tan bark extract was nothing- more than a vehicle for tannin. Therefore, the use of Fumine, while recommended and doing the work, and while it covers all the virtues of tannin, resolves itself CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 139 down to the use of tannic and pyrogallic acids. In cov- ering a method for producing fumed oak it must be taken into consideration that sometimes some of the materials are not as easily obtained as others, and, therefore, the various products that can be used are use of test given, but the one producing the best results is recom- box is mended. recommended For those who do not wish to supply their fuming THE sectional DOORS chamber with windows the arrangement of an opening, called a testing box, is recommended. A sliding door of a size varying according to one's ideas, say 10x12 to 10x20 inches, is made and back of it a box is placed which again is fitted with a sliding door. When the fuming chamber is charged with gas the inner door is opened and the outer one is closed. This outer door can be made of glass, and the process can be watched. When you desire to examine results, close inner door, take out piece and test by giving it a bit of oil, rubbing and shellacing it. If desired depth is not shown, replace. 140 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ARRANGEMENT OF AMMONIA TANK CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 141 SHOWING SLIDING DOOR FOR TESTING 142 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM COLOR OF WOOD VARIED BY STRENGTH OF TAN BARK HOW TO OBTAIN AMMONIA The entire interior of this chamber should be painted with the same care that you would paint a boat, and all crevices closed. In mentioning the size, it should be stated that it is not wise to build it any higher than required for the tallest piece of furniture. It costs money to fill the surplus space with gas. On the sides of the chamber, provide fastenings so that the pieces can be piled up to the ceiling without resting upon each other, much as the bed slats were arranged in an old- fashioned bed. In this way all the available space can be used. A box constructed in accordance with these directions will bring out results in the shortest possible space of time. These results can be greatly augmented and the time reduced, when it is necessary, by coating the work with tanned bark extract, about one part to ten of water. The result, or rather color of the wood, can be varied by varying the strength of the application of this tanned bark extract. It is possible to turn out a thoroughly fumed batch in six hours by use of this ex- tract. The question, of course, then is, which is the cheaper : to run the fuming box two or three times as long, or to coat the wood with an extract solution ? It is a fact that a much deeper effect or color can be made when the extract has been applied. Various ways have been tried for obtaining am- monia (which is a crystalline salt) ; by placing it on tin pans under Bun- C" C I T" sen burners; by rTE-LT mixing carbonate of ammonia with unslacked lime and then moisten- ing with water, etc. ; by using the anhydrous a m - monia, and, last- ly, by employing aqua ammonia or water of ammonia. Anhydrous ammonia is the gas which has been liquified by compression and will ex- pand into gas again as soon as the pressure is released. SHOWING JOINTS FILLED WITH FELT CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 143 JAR FILLED WITH COILS A cylinder of 100 pounds contains 100 per cent of absolute ammonia and requires more careful attention than aqua ammo- nia, which is a distilled water that has absorbed a large volume of ammonia gas by its own affinity and not under pressure. The ammonia in the aqua ammonia can be driven off easily by heat un- til nothing but the pure water remains, and this can be done by the steam coil ar- rangement and the agitation afforded by the dripping from pan to pan. A number of furniture factories at Rockford, 111., have installed fuming boxes which exhibit several in- genious and interesting features. The room shown in the accompanying plan is that in the factory of the Union Furniture Company, of which P. A. Peterson is president. It is 10 feet square, eight feet high, and is located on the top floor of the building against one of the exterior walls. This loca- tion was determined in order to secure ventilation through the roof and into the fuming box through a window opening from the exterior of the building for quickly cleaning the box of the ammonia fumes after the fuming was completed. Aside from requiring a greater length of ventilation pipe, a location on any other floor would be as satisfactory, provided there were a window opening from the outside or other means by which to secure a circulation of air and quickly clear the box of ammonia fumes without letting them into other parts of the factory. Both the dimensions of the box and its location have been practically adopted as standard in a number of Rockford factories. While the size permits of fuming A PRACTICAL FUMING BOX 144 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW ROCKFORD FUMING BOX IS MADE only from 25 to 34 pieces at a time, buffets, china closets, desks, etc., it has been found ample under ordinary circumstances, with the very decided advan- tage that a larger room requires more than a single carboy of ammonia, or a rehandling of the ammonia, and hence a longer time for the fuming process. The box itself should be built of matched stock with ^^^^^n\rA\ A\ Avvw ^ THE ROCKFORD TYPE OF FUMING BOX IS BUILT OF the finished side in. The openings in the wall are one MATCHED in the top for the ventilation pipe, a door (in this case STOCK about 3x7 feet) , a small sealed window located so as to place the ammonia trays in view from the outside of the box, and a sliding window located in juxtaposition with the lower sash of the window in the side wall of CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 145 factory building. The small peep window is sealed all around and the door and sliding window fit closely and are provided with rubber strips, similar to weather strips, in order to make them air-tight when closed. The inside of the box is lined throughout, except at the ventilator and window openings, with sheet tin sol- dered together in the same manner as tin roofing, and correspondingly air and water tight. The arrangement of the apparatus for handling the plan for aqua ammonia and securing a dissemination of the handlingthe ammonia fumes is shown in the accompanying cross ammonia section and elevation of one side of the fuming box. It occupies a space 12 inches wide across one side of the box. A tank 12x18 inches and 12 inches deep, large enough to hold the contents of a carboy of aqua am- monia, is placed in an upper corner of the box. The carboy containing the ammonia is placed in the lower corner. When the goods to be fumed have been placed in the box and both window and door tightly sealed, the ammonia is pumped by a small hand pump from the carboy into the tank. From the tank it runs through a valve and down a series of steps and back to the carboy, when it is ready for use again. The tank and steps are made of galvanized iron and the steps have three-inch sides and are braced, as shown in the sketch. In previous plans, a series of trays which overflowed, one into the other, were used in place of the steps. The valve in the top reservoir is used in both instances to control the rate of flow of .^ ^,^,^^„,ta to OF AMMONIA IS the ammonia water. necessary The number of steps shown in the sketch is not necessarily the exact number used, as the drawing is not made to scale. The object, of course, is to have enough of them to give a large surface of water from which the ammonia gas can escape, and also to give enough motion to the water to hasten the separation of the gas from it. As the fuming box is sealed, and the air free from ammonia gas, when the water starts to flow, gas is taken up readily at first. As the box be- comes filled with ammonia, the gas escapes from the water less easily, and it is an advantage to have the ammonia water flow slower. The steps are hinged at 146 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM OBJECTIONABLE FEATURES REMOVED SIMPLE FORM OF CANVAS FUMING BOX the top and may be raised or lowered by a rope fall which supports them at the bottom and operates from the outside of the box through a small hole in the top. For this purpose a pulley is placed on one of the sup- porting- joists of the roof, as indicated in the diagram. The same arrangement is used for raising the two win- dows when it is desired to clear the box of ammonia fumes. As soon as the windows are opened, the shut- off in the ventilator pipe is also opened and the air sweeps in and through the box, quickly emptying it of ammonia fumes and making it possible to remove the goods from the box without discomfort. With the arrangement for pumping the ammonia water from the carboy to the tank, the handling of am- monia is relieved of most of its objectionable features. Some difficulty was encountered in devising a pump which was not affected in any of its parts by the am- monia. The pump used is made of iron and steel espe- cially for the purpose. About two minutes' work suffices to pump the am- monia from the carboy into the tank. It is usually the practice to place the goods to be fumed in the box at night and in the morning they can be removed. The fuming, however, can be completed in less time when necessary. Twelve to 18 fumings can be made with a single carboy of ammonia, though the later fumings, w^hen the water is more nearly free from ammonia gas, require a longer time. It may not be possible in every case to construct as elaborate a fuming room as has already been de- scribed. It certainly is not at all probable such an equipment can be introduced in the manual training shcools. But here is a simple form of canvas fuming box which will do its work. Out of 2x2 material set up a frame-work, according to the size of the box desired, and cover with un- bleached cotton, the weight of this to be determined by the size of the box. When the four walls are set up and screwed together, put between the joints pieces of felt or some heavy material previou^y saturated with silicate of soda (liquid glass), which can be pur- chased at about 40 to 50 cents per gallon. When the CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 147 screws or bolts are drawn tight, air-tight joints will be secured. The top is put on in the same manner. The door can be covered in the same manner. When the frame-work is bolted or screwed to the floor, which oftentimes is uneven, use a half-round, under which is placed cloth saturated with the liquid glass and air tight box drawn down with screws. Then, after the box is set inexpensive PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A CANVAS FUMING BOX up entirely, give it a coat of liquid glass and two coats of paint. This will give an absolutely air-tight fuming box, inexpensive, but serviceable. The arrangement of the can may be made as for the larger fuming room, or it may be placed outside with a tube running through the wall of the box into the livst pan. The capacity of these pans, together with the final receptacle, should be a little greater than the supply can. After the box is loaded, the ammonia is turned on and led into the pan by means of a small tube. It can remain in this manner until the process is 148 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THIS PROCESS TOO SLOW AND UNCERTAIN complete. The fumes can be exhausted by connecting the top of the box with a blower. The exhausting of the box will be accomplished quicker by opening the door an inch or two so that the same amount of air is let in as exhausted by the blower. While the process here described contemplates the evaporation of ammonia without artificial aid, the 1 /^ ) // 1 SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF FRAME-WORK process is objectionable. First, it is slow. Second, it is rather uncertain in its results, because of the liability of the ammonia to vary in strength. Third, because in purchasing and transporting ammonia in the liquid form, it is necessary to transport a large amount of water. An inventor, whose device is shown herewith, has sought to overcome all of these objec- tions. The system depends upon liquifying the gas and accurately measuring it and then permitting it to enter the fuming box in a gaseous form only. In this patented system, the anhydrous ammonia is used, and it is claimed that the operator is placed in position to CONSTRUCTION OF A FUMING ROOM 149 know absolutely just how much gas per cubic foot of space to use in order to produce a certain shade of color. It then becomes a matter of simple equation, thus: Space + gas = time -f- results. The operator will then work out his definite formula and control workmen can his shades by the amount of gas and time — space govern shade having become a known quantity. To do this, the in fuming END VIEW SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF AMMONIA TANK AND TRAY apparatus shown in the illustration is used. One pound of anhydrous gas is used for every 200 cubic feet of space in the fuming box. The apparatus works automatically. There is no danger whatever in con- nection with this method as, should an accident happen to the glass gauge, this supply of ammonia is cut off, doing away with any danger. The valves are all high pressure, tested up to 500 pounds' pressure, assuring absolute safety. The time required is greatly shortened by this system, as 12 hours of the fuming or over night, produces a greater effect than from 24 to 36 150 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM REAL FUMED OAK THUS PRODUCED hours by the old method. The operation of the system is absolutely accurate, as in setting the scale for weigh- ing the amount of ammonia required there is no guess work or wasting of extra ammonia. The system is the application of a scientific principle taking advantage of a chemical change, controlling it all by an ingenious device which, in itself, gives to man the use of an ILLUSTRATING A PATENTED AUTOMATIC AND MEASURING DEVICE FOR THE INJECTION OF AMMONIA GAS element by the simple turning of valves and the element then doing the work that he desires. Fumed oak, thus produced, is absolutely permanent. Fumed oak that is fumed oak is recognized from its imitations, and the older it grows, the better it gets, whereas, the imita- tion wears off at the edges, bearing its own stamp of imitation. CHAPTER XXI SOMETHING MORE ABOUT FUMING FUMED oak, as the name implies, should be pro- duced by the fuming of oak. It is an established fact that when the unfinished oak is subjected to ammonia in its gaseous form, ordinarily called finish shade fumes of ammonia, the wood assumes a color which is controlled by now being marketed as fumed oak. The shades can be length of controlled by the length of time that the wood is sub- fuming jected to the process, and the color can be greatly aug- mented by the application of boiled oil. The most beautiful results are obtained, however, by applying linseed oil heated, so it is just bearable to the hand, and then thoroughly rubbed into the wood. After it has dried, the process is repeated. This gives a fumed oak of that richness that is found only in furniture a good many years old. The process of today, how- ever, is to use one part of boiled oil and from three to four parts of naphtha which, of course, dries a good deal quicker. This being thinned, penetrates the wood, and, to a certain extent, produces the hot oil effect. When this coat is dry, a thin coat of shellac is applied and then the piece is waxed and called finished. This latter method produces a very creditable result, but it does not come up to the first-named texture of method. When the fuming process was first employed, soil has it was customary to use the wood of a single log. A influence on more evenly-colored piece of furniture was the result, fuming Today this would be a difficult proposition, because a piece of furniture is apt to be made up of wood from various logs. Again, these logs are grown on various kinds of soil. The result, therefore, cannot possibly be as uniform. After a piece made up in this way is fumed, and the oil coat has brought out the shadings and the oil is thoroughly dry, rub off any grease spots that may remain and even up by using a water solution of sulphur brown, blending it nicely by the use of a camel hair brush. (See "Blending.") Then give it 152 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW TO SHORTEN TIME OF FUMING OAK YIELDS BEST RESULTS WITH AMMONIA a coat of shellac, preferably made of one part white shellac, one part orange shellac, and one or two parts of wood alcohol. Apply the wax. There is absolutely no need of mentioning any other method for the use of ammonia. While it is true that it can be obtained from other methods, the time re- quired and cost is prohibitive. The important question is how to shorten the time required in the fuming- process. While this largely depends unon the strength of ammonia, and the ef- ficiency of the fuming box or room, it still is true that if it is possible to shorten the hours required to fume and to produce the necessary depth of color, the method wouM be welcome, especially during the rush season. Just now there are compounds offered to the manu- facturer M'hich, by their application, reduce the time required in the fuming box. To a certain degree, it is playing one hand against the other. You pay for the labor to coat the work in order to save the time in the fuming box. If this were all that these comnounds yielded, it then would be merely a matter of equipment and the cost of that equipment, but some of the com- pounds have merits other than that of saving time which is an aid in giving a deeper color and, to a cer- tain degree, an aid in securing a more uniform result. Take work that is made up of various grades of oak. These will be found to yield a more uniform result by first having been coated with one of these compounds, and then will require to be subjected to the fumes of ammonia for a shorter time. The color eflFect is pro- duced by changing the compound rather than calling upon the presence of the color-giving factor in the wood, tannin. We are aware of the fact that the oak yields the best results when subjected to the fumes of ammonia. This is due to the large percentage of tannin present. Therefore, is it not the most plausible belief that by supplanting the amount of tannin a quicker result and, also, a stronger result, a deeper shade, is obtained in fuming? It will be found that all of the compounds oflfered on the market are based orr this theory, and that most of them depend upon their results for the r OMETHTNG MORE ABOUT FUMING 153 tannin they contain. To satisfy the user of a fuming box as to the efficiency of tannin, and its kindred chem- icals, let the following experiment answer the question. Procure a good sample of the various kinds of oak and, after it has been dressed, such as it would be when made up into furniture, coat small portions of each with the various strengths of the chemicals mentioned below. To be explicit, remember that each one is to be coated alike, a strip of three or four inches wide, so that later they can be laid alongside each other and efficiency of the results compared. This will show, besides the gen- "^^^^^^ "^^ eral results, the difference which the wood itself makes, so that later on in actual practice, the strength can be changed to produce a uniformity on the different oaks. Tannic acid can be purchased in reasonable quan- tities at about $1 a pound, pyrogallic acid at about $2 and gallic acid at 75 cents. Take one-half ounce of each one of these chemicals and dissolve each in a quart of water. Now coat each piece of wood with these solutions in three different places and subject' them to the fuming process. It is well, also, to have always a piece of wood similar to that which is to be fumed along with the test pieces so that the difference . can be more readily estimated. For the extractive compounds, procure some tan bark liquor, chestnut extract, quebracco extract and catechu, and make with these various strengths by adding one ounce to the quart of water. Apply these to the oak as described above. The results must give the answer to the entire problem of using chemicals or fuming compounds to comparative hasten the fuming process. F^MmG '"^ A greater uniformity can be produced in the fuming box if the wood, or piece of furniture, is coated with a solution of tannic acid, and pyrogallic acid, prefer- ably one-half ounce of the former, and one ounce of the latter to the gallon of water. It has been found that when the fumes of ammonia have been applied at least four hours, a very even result is obtained, much more so than when fumed without the applica- tion of the acids. Where extreme differences of shade are shown, these can be overcome by wetting these places with naphtha which will bring out the discrep- 154 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM UNIFORMITY PRODUCED BY USE OF SHELLAC ancy of shade. As soon as the naphtha has practically dried out coat with a very weak solution of brown stain. For this, use a solution of bichromate of potash and jet black. Put enough of the black into the bi- chromate solution to give it the brownish tint. Under- stand thoroughly that this must be a weak stain. It will be found that when the shellac coat is applied, a uniformity is produced altogether more satisfactory than when the toning is done in the shellac coat. SUGGESTION IN STAINING PROCESS CHAPTER XXII FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS TO BETTER familiarize the reader with the gen- eral operation of the various steps in the produc- tion of fumed oak by the use of any of the several formulas given, and to bring out the great possibilities by the employment of various strengths of chemical solutions, these general suggestion will apply: Where the stain method is employed, a good deal can be done to assist in producing the desired result in the first coat. A solution of two parts of bichromate, one part of carbonate of potash, calling the parts ounces, to the gallon of water, will produce a first coat. Apply this coat thoroughly, and let it stand 24 hours. Where a light piece of wood is laid next to a quartered darker piece, say red oak, let the stainer coat the entire piece, and then re-coat along the -line of the light piece, blending it out. This, when it dries down, and receives the second coat, will materially uniform the shade. Again, the application of naphtha will assist. Under- stand that the naphtha has nothing to do with the pro- duction of the color. It merely helps to bring out the difference in shade, and the man that is doing the blending in that way will shortly know just how heavy to apply the blending coat, and can then dispense with the use of naphtha. Where the blending is done over AGAINST the second coat of- stain, care must be taken not to "piungup" lift the second coat, so as to "pile it up," and thus pro- duce blotchy work. It will not be necessary to sand these blended coats ; the sanding of the first coats will have sufficiently smoothed the work. In chair factories, where smaller surfaces are pre- sented, the following method may be found expedient for dipping. It is purely a chemical proposition, and by no means a poor way to stain. Make a solution of the two acids recommended, and dip the wood; let it drain back from a wood drain board. Absolutely no metallic surfaces can be used, which means that the GUARDING 156 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM METHOD FOR ISE WITH SMALLER SURFACES IMPORTANT ITEMS IN PROCEDURE tank itself must be constructed entirely of wood. Im- merse the piece, and see that it is covered thoroughly. Many times you will find that the dust from the sand- ing operation not being removed thoroughly, will keep the stain solution from getting into the wood. In cases like that, a sponge saturated with the stain, must be passed over these surfaces thoroughly. Again, sweaty or greasy fingers will keep this stain from penetrating. It is necessary to pass the sponge over these spots until you are certain that the same amount of stain has been applied as on the balance of the article. After this dipping solution has dried thoroughly, sand very lightly, just enough to remove all the fibers, and dust again. Then immerse the piece in a solution of bi- chromate of potash, caustic potash, four ounces to the gallon, or three ounces of each to the gallon, if a strong tone is to be obtained. Dissolve four ounces of sulphate of copper in a quart of hot water. Of this copper solu- tion, measure from four to six ounces, preferably in a glass vessel. To the copper solution add an equivalent volume of stronger water of ammonia. When the am- monia is first added, a white precipitate will be formed, which is copper-hydroxide, but which immediately re- dissolves and forms a deep ultra-marine blue colored solution, with a very strong ammoniacal odor. This is due to the excess of ammonia, and as long as this excess of ammonia is present the copper will remain in solu- tion. This blue solution, then, is added to the chrome potash solution which amounts to a little better than a gallon, but which must be in thorough solution, that is, the bichromate and the carbonate must have been dis- solved. The sudden contact of a carbonate with water has a tendency so to harden the carbonate as to keep it from dissolving, and when it once gets into this con- dition, it is apt to stay in a solid form encrusted on the bottom of the vessel, jug or jar. In that way the resul- tant shade will be that much lighter. When the solu- tion, however, is perfect, stir in the blue copper solu- tion, and continually stir or agitate, with the result that a beautiful light green stain will be produced. This, then, is the second coat. Whether it be used with a brush, or whether it be used as a dipping stain, FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS 157 it will form a rich brown when it comes in contact with the first coat. The chemical effect produced is very much like that when the same wood is subjected to the fuming box. It will not raise the grain as one would think ; it will not attack the glue joints, as is often thought it would. The setting of it has been assured by the care taken in applying the first coat, but if this care has not been taken, it is self-evident that the neglect will be more apparent because the second coat has had no chemical to work upon, and thus a much the result of lighter color will be presented where the first coat was omitted. When a formula of this kind is recommended, the reader must apply a bit of his own ingenuity. He can strengthen or weaken this solution ; he can augment the second coat by the addition of anilines, bearing in mind that the mordant which sets the aniline is present in the chemical constituents of the stain, so that there is practically no shade of fumned oak, or brown oak, that cannot be produced with this method. Nor is it necessary that this be used on oak alone. The most beautiful and richest mahoganies, rosewood or cherry can be produced with this method. A decided chemical change is wrought by the application of these chem- icals. Understand, if these are all mixed together they would be absolutely useless. The result is due entirely to the placing of the constituent upon which the second series of chemicals work, producing the chemical ^.q^ortobe changes which bring forth the color. judged only I must emphasize that the judging of these colors, with final or rather the results, must not be done until the wood finish has received its finish, the shellac and wax bringing out a depth of shade far greater than would be ex- pected. Where the cost will permit an oil coat, before the shellac is put on, it will revive the wood and give it a richness and mellowness that cannot be produced by the ordinary way of finishing. It must be remembered that in a fumed oak finish rarely is it filled; whereas most of the other finishes are filled, and in that manner a certain amount of oil is received by the wood. Where the wood is not filled, this oil usually is omitted, with 158 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THOROUGHNESS IN FINISH BRINGS PROFIT POTASH SOLUTION HELPS IN SHADING the consequence that we lack the depth of transparency which is given by the oil. One simply has to exemplify this by coating a piece of paper with oil, and then shellacing it, or simply shellacing a piece of paper, and holding both up to a light. Thoroughness in the finishing department brings profits. There are many corners that can be cut when the department is systematized, and where the opera- tors have a thorough acquaintance with the materials at hand, where every handling of the piece counts. A directness of purpose — no rule-o'-thumb methods — records of operations in black and white, so they may be repeated and duplicated at a moment's notice, are a few of the things advocated. In the factories where fumed oak is produced by the staining method, it happens often that in their endeavors to produce a certain matching the difficul- ties are noticed mostly in the flake. To reproduce the peculiar color that the flake assumes in the fuming process has baffled the staining room more than once. Some of the shades can be produced by sponging the M^ood with a strong potash solution to which has been added bichromate of potash. This is satisfactory where the yellowish shades predominate. The flakes will take on the color and the same will be permanent, but since fumed oak is being made darker this method no longer suffices to match the genuine fumed, as far as the flake is concerned. This can be done, however, by using a very weak solution of iron in the first coat, or better, in the sponging water. Add to the gallon about one ounce of sulphate of iron, and let the work stand over night before any more work is done on the piece. It will have taken on a light blue gray color which can be partially sanded off and the process proceeded with. That is, the brown coats applied when you will notice that the flakes will take on the shades produced by the regular fuming process. All in all, this is a ticklish procedure, as no two pieces of oak will give the same depth of color. In high grade work this can be done nicely, as a piece that has a good many flakes ean have a heavier coat of the sponging solution, and in that way the flake STAIN FUMING OAK BY STAINING PROCESS 159 receives the iron salt required to produce the shade that is now in vogue. It always must be remembered that the flakes present the most difficulty in taking on any kind of stain and, therefore, must be handled with such chemical solutions as are best adapted to penetrate and produce an effect upon them without depreciating the other part of the timber. The sanding will take off some of this effect, and it is peculiar, but nevertheless true, that it evens up when the final results are ob- tained. That is, it is particularly noticeable after the ""^akes prove first coat of shellac. difficult to Usually the fumed stained coat has in it a brown, black, orange and in some formulas yellow. From this make-up you will recognize how it is that by putting a bluish gray on the work for the underlying coat the flake takes on the color that is produced in the fuming process. Take a thoroughly fumed piece of wood and examine it closely. You will notice that the center of the flake is hard and glassy appearing and that the outer part of the flake is of a lighter shade and does not seem to have taken the color as did the center or any other part of the wood. It is absolutely correct, but they must harmonize. In no way can the flake stand out as an individual, rather than the component part of the entire board. This can be controlled by the handling of the first two coats. The iron solution must be in harmony with the orange or yellows in the brown mixture. When you get a line on the shade you are after, a few little testings will suffice to give you the definite formula. You know why you are using more or less of these two colors, and by watching the effect upon the flake, the balance of the wood will come out in beautiful har- mony with the flake. The only place where extreme care is required is where the iron coat, or sponging coat, is applied to the fine grained wood or sappy wood. The operator must apply the solutions sparingly to the close grained and not at all to the sappy portions. Where the greenish effect is desired in the fumed oak, it can be produced by using the iron solution in the sponging coat stronger and the yellow in the brown coat, thus producing the CARE NEEDED WITH IRON 160 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW TO AVOIli USE OF IRON COAT greenish effect. Another way is to avoid entirely the use of the iron and produce the green by using a pre- ponderance qf yellow and green aniline in the stain coat. This is merely mentioned to give the reader an idea how to go at it. A bilious looking fumed oak is never going to stand the test of time. It does not har- monize with the usual decorations of the home. It is a harsh contrast with wall finishes and other decora- tions, and to the manufacturer who has a call for it the foregoing will give him an idea how to go at it. There is little to worry about, as it is almost impossible to find two pieces of the new idea of fumed oak that will match each other. CHAPTER XXIII ACIDS AND THEIR USE IN FUMING AS THE words ''tannin," "tannic acid," "gallic acid" and "pyrogallic acid" are being used fre- quently in this book, undoubtedly a more de- tailed knowledge of what these substances really are is desired by those whose occupation makes it neces- puQ^ sary for them to know their uses. What may be said here will serve as information relative to the source and general constituent of a commodity which is be- ing used more and more in the production of colors in the finishing room. Tannins or Tannic Acid are terms applied to a large number of rather complex organic substances found in various parts of many plants and trees in certain abnormal or pathological growth (galls) oc- curring on the stems or leaves of many plants. In general they are light amorphus solids, pale yellow or brown in color, soluble in water, having an astringent taste, and giving a blue black or olive green precipitate with ferric (iron) salts. They form insoluble staple compounds out of gelatine and albumin, this property being made use of in the process of tanning. The tannins may be divided into two groups. Those ob- tained from abnormal vegetable growths, such as nut galls, and those obtained from the healthy portion of the plant. At the present time, tannin is obtained from the palmetto, which grows in our South, que- bracco and from the chestnut tree. All are indigenous to our own country. Gallotannic acid, digallic acid, ordinary tannic acid, is a most important member of the first class. It occurs in the gall nuts of the various varieties of the oak, in the Chinese and Turkish gall nuts and in certain kinds of sumac. The chemical for- mula is C. 14. H. 10. 0.9. It may be considered anhy- dride of gallic acid. It passes to that body when heated with dilute alkalies. Gallotannic acid is used in the preparation of gallic and pyrogallic acids, in the WHERE THE TANNINS COME 162 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM GALLIC ACID COMES FROM GALL NUTS GALLIC ACID AN IMPORTANT ASTRINGENT preparation of ink ; in medicine as an astringent, and as a mordant in dyeing. The most important tannins of the second class are found in the bark, wood and leaves of the oaks and hemlocks. Many other similar acids, such as querci tannic acid, from the oak, of somewhat uncertain con- stitution, are known. These are said to be a reddish white powder, slightly soluble in cold water, more readily in diluted alcohol. Undoubtedly many of these acids are present in our woods, as used in the industry, and it is upon these that we depend to a certain degree for the color produced when chemicals are applied that are affected by the presence of the tannins and kindred acids in the woods. Gallic Acid is an acid which exists in a small quantity in gall nuts, in Valonia (the acorn cups of the oak), in pods of sumac and other vegetables. It is usually prepared from gall nuts which, in addition to the gallic acid, contain a large proportion of tannin (tannic acid or gallo-tannic acid). When the gall nuts are digested with water for some weeks, fermentation takes place, and the tannic acid is gradually converted into gallic acid. The same result is obtained more quickly if sulphuric acid be present. To obtain pure gallic acid, the gall nuts are boiled with water and the hot liquor separated. On cooling, gallic acid crystal- lizes out, and is further purified in the solution of hot water, and treatment with animal charcoal. It forms delicate, silky crystals, nearly colorless, and having a sourish taste. It is soluble in boiling water, but only one part to one hundred in cold water. On this account it can be readily purified by recrystallization. With a solution of iron, it produces a blue black color, and finally yields a black precipitate on exposure to the air. Hence it may also be used in the production of ink, for which purpose it has some advantage over tannic or gall nuts. When the crystals are strongly heated, pyrogallic acid is produced, and sublimes over. Gallic acid is useful as an astringent as it does not coagulate albumin. It is readily absorbed into the blood, but where a decided local astringent eflfect is desired, tannic acid is much more powerful. This bit of information PYROGALLIC ACIDS AND THEIR USE IN FUMING 163 is of value to the factory man, as in cases of cuts or slight injuries a tampon, soaked with a 5 per cent solution of tannic acid will act as an astringent and stop the bleeding. Pyrogallic Acid, Pyrogallol or Tri-Oxy-Ben- ZINE are produced, as stated, by the action of heat on gallic acid, carbon-dioxide being eliminated in the process. Fine, colorless needles or plates, readily soluble in water, less so in alcohol or ether, melting point 102 degrees C. It is valuable because of its great affinity for oxygen. Its alkaline solution is used to ^„^,^ „,:,A-nT:,r. u u • 1 • Tj. ^ ^ j: from HEATED absorb oxygen m gas analysis. It forms a number of gallic acid derivatives, some being valuable dye stuff. With this short description of the three vegetable acids which today are playing such a strong part in the production of fumed oak, we can readily see where- in we take advantage of their peculiarities in produc- ing stains. Pyrogallic acid can be made up into an alkaline solution which will turn brown, and this gives to the finisher a new line to experiment with. At the present time we are applying a mixture of tannic acid and pyrogallic acid and follow it with a mixture in salution of bichromate of potash and carbonate of potash or soda. Pyro, as it is commonly called, will permit of making the solutions all in one, and it only remains to take into consideration the amount of each chemical that will remain in solution and be of sufficient strength to produce the depth of brown now conventional as tannin and fumed oak. We have gone to the products used by the ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ tanning works to obtain our dye stuffs in a crude way; uniform that is to say, the extracts are of more or less variable s™^^^^^ strengths. The percentage of tannin is really all we rely upon, and as the extracts known as tan bark extracts generally were not standardized as to the definite strengths of tannin, our results necessarily were uncertain, and therefore, we reverted to the use of tannic acid and pyrogallic acid themselves. These are of uniform strength. Their application has been treated upon heretofore, but the man who is supposed to be using these commodities can better understand the handling of them when he has some 164 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WHY COLORS PRODUCED IS A MATTER OF CHEMISTRY knowledge as to the source of his supplies. To tell why a color is produced, and what changes really take place, would be stepping into organic chemistry, which is complex to say the least, and could not be expected to be comprehended by the craftsman. But the simple statement that the results obtained by the processes and formulas given are absolutely permanent and defi- nite, must suffice. To know and to be positive of this statement only requires a few experiments to convince the skeptical. The chemical changes which take place and through which the color is produced, are according to the laws of nature, and while nature works many freaks, it never belies itself. To take advantage of the natural changes produced by the various applications of nature's products is but to help oneself. It is impor- tant that one become familiar with these changes and processes which are here offered and which are ours by mastering them. CHAPTER XXIV GLUE JOINTS THAT PART IN FUMING WHEN difficulty is encountered in glue joints parting during the fuming process, it will be found due to one or two causes — glue or hu- midity in the fuming box. When this trouble arises, procedure to do not condemn the glue itself; it may be a fault in follow its application or in its preparation and general treat- ment. A quick remedy is to have about 1 per cent of alum dissolved in the water. This has a hardening effect and it has been found glue joints made with alum will withstand the fuming process under all con- ditions. One thing is to be avoided when steam is employed to agitate the final drippings of ammonia; never should it be allowed to escape in the fuming box. Joints that are not made true, where the glue is applied so thickly that you might almost call it a space filler, are dangerous at best. The amount of glue is so great, the surface so large, subjected to all kinds of atmospheric conditions, that ammonia gas may have a detrimental effect; but this is a fault of the wood- working end rather than of the staining department, although manifested only when the finishing depart- ment receives the work. FEW FORMULAS COME WITHIN SOLVENT LIMIT CHAPTER XXV THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS IT IS safe to say that very few published formulas exceed, or come within, the solvent limit of their solids. The difficulty of overloading the liquid is usually encountered in endeavoring to get a dark or heavy shade, but this can always be avoided by change of materials. Whenever a color or stain requires more of the color material than remains in solution, it is well to quit at once the attempt at producing a stain with that material. It then becomes more of a paint. With the later stain materials this is rarely the case. It is only by the use of the older method that these difficul- ties are encountered. When a formula is once estab- lished and the resultant shade correct, the necessity of bearing the foregoing recommendations in mind must be apparent. Again, it is taken for granted that for- mulas are made up of materials, the standard of which can be maintained. In this day, when aniline colors can be obtained in almost every conceivable shade, under normal conditions, their use is recommended. But in cases where extracts of vegetable matter are emploj^ed, uniformity must always be guarded by keep- ing for comparison the original solution made up from the same material as that employed in building the original formula. For this purpose, adopt a uniform standard, say, standard for example, use one ounce of your color material, and dissolve it in sufficient water so that a light shade of the color is produced, label it and put it away. When the next batch of the same material is purchased, make a like solution and compare it. If it corresponds with the original sample, it is safe to employ in the future stains, but if it runs darker, you Avill have to lessen the quantity, and if it runs lighter you will have to increase the quantity. This precaution is not necessary where anilines are employed, but is safe to carry out, es- pecially where color material is offered at reduced maintain uniform 168 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM REDUCTION OF COLOR VALUE TO BE AVOIDED THE CHEMICALS THAT SHOULD BE SHUNNED prices. The reduction is usually compensated for by a similar reduction of the color value furnished. Un- fortunately, this reduction is made by the addition of salt, sugar or dextrin. Take a high grade color for which the market price is 70 cents. It may be offered to you for 60 cents, the difference being made up by that same percentage of salt in the product shipped to you. This is not detectable in the physical appearance of the dry color received, and often it is not noticed until the last finishing coats are applied. Ofttimes this reduction is made gradually and then it is not noticed for months after until, perchance, a piece of furniture is compared with one made in a previous year. While this is not a common occurrence, it is, however, one of the many obstacles that the foreman finisher has to contend with in maintaining the general uniformity of his stain. The preparation of stains in the factory does not alone depend upon the mixing of colors and dissolving them in a liquid, but it depends upon a more or less familiar knowledge with those colors that go to produce a desired shade. The writer has often cautioned the consumer, when purchasing anilines, to insist upon get- ting acid colors or direct colors — preferably acid colors. Where a certain shade cannot be produced with the acid colors at hand, direct colors may be used. Again, where mixtures do not produce the desired effect, try to obtain the desired shades by applying one coat over the other. Where chemicals are employed, there are only a few that are to be avoided. They are notably the permanganates, silver salts, or the weaker salts which are easily affected by any of the vegetable acids that may be present in the wood. Sometimes the change so produced is calculated to make a component part of the desired shade, as in the oaks. The tannin will affect the iron salts by producing tannate of iron. The amount of tannate of iron produced then depends unon the amount of tannic acid present in the oak, and as this varies greatly, there is only one way that definite results on oaks can be produced. Inasmuch as a good many of the present finishes depend upon these two chemicals, it might be well to THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS 169 give to the reader a method for definitely producing the shades always uniform by taking advantage of this chemical change. It is known that there is nothing more absolute than a chemical. Therefore, take an iron solution of a certain strength, and a certain amount of tannic acid would change all the iron present to tannate of iron, Tannate of iron is a gray- ish black. The weaker the solution, the weaker the color. As the wood is an unknown quantity as far as the amount of tannin is concerned, it becomes neces- how produce sary, in order to get a uniform shade, to have one of shades the chemicals of specific strength, and the other one in always excess, so that you are positive the color-giving prod- uniform ucts are entirely exhausted by the chemical change. Therefore, we take a definite solution of the iron salts. See to it that there is enough — yes, more than enough — tannin present to effect the change. We coat the wood with just enough tannin or tannic acid to neutralize the iron solution, depending upon the tan- nic acid present in the wood to be in excess. This as- sures a certainty of results. Of course, the finisher knows that weak solutions always can be neutralized. Tt is safe to say that any kind of oak contains enough natural tannin present to overcome a one to three per cent solution of iron salt. In a following chapter, where formulas are to be found, the production of different shades, all depending upon chemicals, will be given, but the principle in- volved in many of them is the same as the preceding illustration. color of wood The preparation of stains, as far as possible, should ^^^"^ ^^^^ be the final operation of the color-producing attempt, consideration but there are cases where it is simply impossible to meet the demands of style and fashion with just one operation. It is unfortunate that natural wood varies in its tone, and that in each and every case the result forces us to take into consideration the color of the wood in the building of every formula. For instance, the man who is using birch or maple in the making up of mahogany makes it necessary for his foreman fin- isher to take into consideration the difference in the wood when he stains this piece of furniture. The fin- 170 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SIMPLE WAY OF TESTING MATCHINGS MANY FINISHES DEPEND ON WOOD PORES isher, under these circumstances, in making his for- mula, increases the strength of the stain which is to be applied, to the lighter woods beyond the stain for the darker wood, so that the results will be uniform. Or if he is using part mahogany, he will make the stain so that it will give the desired shade and matches up the lighter woods with the darker stain. A simple way of testing these matches is to wet the stains with naphtha after they have dried, and make the com- parison while the naphtha is wet. This proposition, however, will not work out satisfactorily on oil colors, for it is apt to make them run. In making up the formula, many foremen finishers have found that an increase of from four to six per cent of color comes very near to making the matches. The procedure for making oil or spirit stains is very similar to that of water stains, where anilines are employed. There are but a few vegetable products that can be used in the latter solvents, and we recom- mend the omission of them entirely. Pigments should never be used as a stain. Where colors are produced, by their use, it is better to classify them as paints or graining colors. But many of our up-to-date finishes depend upon the color produced in the pores of the wood by the filler. These are notably employed in porous woods where the pores are filled and the filler usually colored with pigments that harmonize with the general tone of the finish. Spirit mahogany must come in for consideration, because none of the stains that are used in making it have been mentioned in the preparation of water stain. Spirit mahogany is nothing more than Bismark brown, of which there are a good many varieties and strengths. A good quality of Bismark will make a very admirable spirit mahogany. However, it is necessary to caution the users of Bismark brown, because they are apt to use more powder than is required. Every stain pow- der that is soluble has a certain percentage of solu- bility, and beyond that there can be no solution. For instance, if a gallon of alcohol will dissolve four ounces of Bismark brown, all that is added above the four ounces is merely mixed with the alcohol the same as SHELLAC COAT FOLLOWS ALCOHOL STAIN THE MANIPULATION OF STAINS 171 you mix white lead and oil. This is where trouble arises. You do not get a deeper shade, but you are very apt to get blotchy results. For instance, where an alcoholic stain is used, and no filler, the next coat is usually shellac. The alcohol in the shellac picks up some of the Bismark, and then it leaves it in brush marks on the work. But, worse than that, Bismark brown is both soluble in alcohol and in water, and sparingly soluble in oil. When it is used in excess, you are apt to have the same diffi- culty without any benefit. Therefore, always see that ^j^^ ^q filler the amount of your stain powder used is dissolved. After the solution is made, let it stand for an hour, and pour it off. If you find dregs, you can make up your mind that either you haven't given it time enough to dissolve or that you are using more powder than necessary. In such a case, where the depth of color cannot be obtained by the straight Bismark, add spirit black. A very lit- tle of this will work wonders on the spirit stain. One of the best signs that too much mahogany, or rather Bismark, has been used is the bronzing of the aniline after the alcohol has evaporated. Of course, this is all done away with, as a rule, when the shellac coat is applied; but it is just that much more than is required and has a tendency to take away the transparency of the stain. Finishers often have wondered why they have a sediment in their mahogany stain. This is usually found in the cheaper stain powders where the reduc- tion in price has been made up by the addition of dex- trin or similar inexpensive fillers. After the advent of red and brown, a formula was sold to the manufactur- ers in which was given a certain black, scarlet and orange, and which makes a very good mahogany. It placed in the finisher's hands the colors which go to produce almost any shade of mahogany stain. In speaking of colors, it may be well to repeat that these articles are handled with the general understanding that by colors we mean aniline dyes. Many of the finishers are using this formula. With it they are able to produce and match anything that WHY SEDIMENT IN MAHOGANY STAIN? 172 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AMOUNT OF STAIN POWDER DEPENDS ON WOOD AND SHADE comes along in the mahogany line, but the buyer in the office again is looking at price. All he often can see is the number of pounds. The result is that this formula is supplied at prices varying 100 per cent or more. The amount of stain powders requisite depends upon the kind of wood used and what shade is to be made. The colors recommended are water soluble, and should be fast to light. It is, however, a fact that many finishers have gotten the idea that the addition of a little lye helps set the color. This is not the case. If the mahogany stain is an acid color, it is absolutely wrong to use an alkali, such as caustic potash or soda. It merely requires a certain amount of color to neu- tralize the potash. It, probably, works out this way. The alkali present may help to penetrate. The stain seems to take hold of the wood better. While this is not to be denied, yet, chemically speaking, the proper addition would be bichromate of potash. This would chrome the color, would be a nat- ural mordant, and would help the penetrating of the stain, but not that alone. Bichromate of potash, in itself, has a color-giving value, and especially when put on mahogany. Many formulas recommend the use of one ounce of bichromate to be dissolved in a gallon of water before any of the mahogany stains are added. The amount of color can be offset by lessening the amount of stain powders. You will find, too, that the stain will not lift up and in sanding not so much of the color will cut away. Acetic acid has been recommended. Two ounces to the gallon of stain is given by an English writer, but from actual tests made from this formula, it is a ques- tion, in the writer's mind, whether this is a good for- mula. For a time, chromic acid was used by our finishers and chemists. This is a red crystal and, in itself, makes a good stain; but on account of its cost and on account of its corrosive nature, it is being dis- continued. When this acid is present, stain cannot be kept in metal tanks. The acid is rather uncertain in action, and certainly cannot take the place of its salt, that is, bichromate of potash. STAINS AND CLEAR FILLER TO BE USED CHAPTER XXVI QUALITY NEEDED IN STAINING WHETHER or not you are using mahogany, or whether you are using imitation woods, you want to use a transparent stain and a filler which will not mud up your woods. There are places transparent for water stains, for oil stains, and for spirit stains. But it is a peculiar fact that water stains are nearly always used on the high grade furniture. The cheaper the furniture, the more varied are the products that are used to produce the colors. But we are not dis- cussing the merits of stains — we are talking about transparent stains, and as most of the muddy colors are offered on imitation woods, the following procedure for birch is recommended : For imitation mahogany where birch is used, pre- pare the first coat by dissolving a pound of potash in 50 gallons of water, and enough of bichromate of potash to give this water a decided orange brown look. When these are thoroughly dissolved, add one-half pound of mahogany stain, made up of the red and brown, in such proportions as you would use to pro- duce the shade you are using, were it used full strength. Apply this to the birch furniture. When dry, sand down thoroughly ; then apply the stain, made up of the stain powder and water only, but with bichromate of potash. Shellac with equal parts of orange and white shellac, then varnish. You will notice that the filler has been omitted. When this method is used birch does not require a filler. It is because of this filling that so much muddy imitation mahogany is on the market. Suppose you have a piece of furniture made up of mahogany, a good deal of which is veneer, and where the pilasters are of birch. Use this method on the birch, fill your mahog- any, and we will guarantee that the birch will look much better than had it been filled. Some of our best manufacturers, according to that 174 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM LLOTCHY WORK RESULTS FROM OILING BETWEEN COATS FILLER SHOULD MATCH ONLY GENERAL SHADE traditional method, are still oiling between the stain coats. The results are naturally a muddy, blotchy imitation looking piece. Cut out the oil coat — it is too expensive. Your stain will not take hold evenly and you cannot get the transparent effect on the mahogany. It is all right to use it on oak, especially in making fumed oak with stain, but it is absolutely out of place in the production of imitation mahogany especially if you want transparent results. The same process may be applied to gum wood. A thin filler may be used according to the quality of the furniture turned out. But the filler employed must be transparent. Somebody here is going to say, "How can a filler be transparent?" It cannot be, but there is such a diflference in filler that we use the term ''transparent" to designate those that clean up well from those that paint. Many a filler has been con- demned because the application of it has not been prop- erly done. By transparent filler is meant one that is made of silex and not one that is made up of starch, or whiting, or the very many other substances used for filler. We are not discussing the qualities of filler, but rather that which in the filler causes the muddy results. On a finely grained wood the filler should be applied thinner, and it must be cleaned off with greater care than on a coarse grained wood. On a coarse grained wood, such as oak, where the pores are large, and the flakes comparatively harder, the filler itself will clean up easier. But where the wood is softer, as in gum, it will adhere and form a paint-like coat unless care is taken in the cleaning up. Do not endeavor to produce a color with the filler. The filler should match only the general shade of the wood and should not be used as a shade producing material like a paint. It is wrong to put a black into a mahogany filler. That color is too cold. That is one of the troubles with imitation mahogany. There is something about it that is cold. This is not so with the genuine piece made of the natural wood. The filler should be colored with Van Dyke brown and rose pirlk which will produce any depth of shade desired. When the filler is used QUA LITY NEEDED TN STAINING 175 judiciously and properly cleaned up, the colored wood will show through and give you the transparent, and not painted, effect that is wanted. The foregoing is written on the presumption that water stains are used. Where oil stains are used, the filler may be omitted on either birch or gum, but care must be taken that the shellac coat does not lift the color and give you uneven results. Where spirit stains are used, a little shellac added to the stain will help to bind it so that the subsequent coats will not lift. Oil stains are preferable to spirit stains, and usually any shade of oil stains may be obtained. The transparency, too, may be had. The men applying the oil stain will soon learn that they must not lap the color and thus avoid uneven results. For quick work for the factory turning out qualities, unquestionably the oil stain has taken the place of the water stain, but we do not recom- mend the mixing of the filler in the oil stain. That is where the muddy color is bound to come in, because the filler is bound to be deposited in a thin coat over the entire work. It is impossible to cover every detail. The reader looking for specific information must let these chapters serve to suggest to him places and points from which he is to obtain results. I cannot write that which will apply to a chair factory making two dollar chairs, and which, at the same time, will answer the requirements of a factory making high grade bed room suites. But the sugges- tion, the methods offered should serve to prompt ideas and to bring out results, applicable to each individual case. FILLER MAY BE OMITTED WITH BIRCH OR GUM CHAPTER XXVII UNIFORMITY OF COLOR DESIRABLE WATER stains are generally made by putting into solution color-giving products with the design of having this color permanent and uniform. In recent years the anilines have furnished practically 95 per cent of this material, the balance being made up of such as bichromate of potash, sul- phate of iron, chloride of iron, chromic acid, from the chemical list, and from the vegetables or plants, such as logwood, japonica, chestnut, fustic, bloodroot, mad- der, etc. The latter, however, from a scientific point of view, are not to be recommended owing to the fact that it is rather uncertain as to the strength of color you are apt to get by relying on any one sort of material for color, as no two growths will give the same per- centage of color-giving material, and the finisher who makes up a stain of this class must keep doctoring his formulas so as to make up the various deficiencies of organic color material. Even if these are used in connection with chemicals, the fact remains that they are rather uncertain, and therefore, in the writer's opinion, it is well to eliminate them entirely from the stain category. Further, be- cause there is not a known shade that cannot be pro-' duced, and better at that, with the anilines. The few stains that are being made today solely with chemicals depend mostly upon the chemical actions that they have on the color-giving materials found in the woods, such as the oaks, which when coated with various strengths of iron solution will produce from light gray down almost to black, depending entirely upon the amount of tannin (tannic acid) present in the wood, and the strength of the iron solution employed. It is known, of course, that it does not matter whether you use a solution of sulphate of iron or chloride of iron, the tannic acid has an affinity for the iron and thus replaces whatever acid may have MOST WATER STAINS ARE ANILINES 178 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TANNIC ACID AN IMPORTANT FACTOR been combined with it. This would be known to the chemist as a chemical change in which an acid reaction has taken place and in consequence thereof would come under the classification of not only a water stain but as an acid stain. On the other hand, take the same wood, oak, and apply to it a strong- solution of caustic potash, ammonia or caustic soda. These are the stronof- er alkalies or solutions of salts of tartar and sal soda which are chemically carbonate of potash and carbon- ate of soda, making the weaker alkalies. When either the stronger or weaker alkaline solutions are employed they will produce a yellowish brown down to the darker shades of brown, thus again depending upon the color- giving material naturally present in the wood. From this we see that tannic acid plays a strong role in producing colors on oaks. The difficulty that arises from depending upon the presence of this color- giving material, tannin, is the fact that it is not uniformly present in the different boards. The fin- isher does not know from how many trees and from how many diflferent places the trees from which the boards assembled in one piece of furniture have come. Therefore, he cannot expect uniform results by de- pending upon either the acid or alkaline method for producing any desired shade, but he can take advan- tage of this natural state of affairs and augment the color-producing chemical by supplying the deficiency. This is done by coating the wood with a solution of tannic acid and then applying the chemical solution, all of which, however, must be worked out to a nicety. Where a certain piece, say one panel of a table top, does not match up, it must be gone over until the desired depth of color is produced. There is still another method available, and that is to employ anilines that permit of mixing with acids or acid-reacting chemicals, and it is necessary, there- fore, that the finisher supply himself with colors known as those belonging to the acid group. Anilines are broadly specified as acid colors, basic colors, spirit colors, oil colors, and direct colors. For the furniture industry the chief interest lies in acid colors with a few direct colors that can be mixed with the acid colors UNIFORMITY OF COLOR DESIPABLE 179 but never using a basic, spirit or oil color with either of the other two. To exemplify the procedure wherein a color is used, which is to augment the results obtained when it is desired to take advantage of the nature of the wood, and the chemical reaction, we would suggest that the wood be coated with a 5 per cent solution of tannic or is used a 3 per cent solution of pyrogallic acid. After dry, sand lightly and apply a coat made up by using four ounces of bichromate of potash, two ounces of caustic potash to the gallon of water. When this is thoroughly dry coat with raw linseed oil. WHAT TO DO WHEN COLOR CHAPTER XXVIII USE OF OIL STAINS IN WINTER THERE are so many ways of making oil stains, so many solvents that are used, that to put one's finger on the spot and name the difficulty without knowing the formula employed is impossible. Any oil is more limpid in warm weather than in cold weather. To exemplify this we need but refer to butter. It is easily spread in warm weather, but it is more diflficult in cold, and it is a peculiar fact that the chill it receives from being in the refrigerator is altogether different from that of zero weather. I bring this to the reader's mind and ask him to bear it in mind when using oil stains. If he does so he will overcome a good many of the difficulties. For in cold weather oil stains do not spread well, do not penetrate as well, and if the material to be stained is brought in from a cold room, the troubles are more numerous. Oil stains, which are built up with resinous material, such as japans and cheap varnish, are those which will be affected by the cold weather. Not only are these difficult to work, but the color is apt to be heavier and the brush marks are often lapped. The oil stain, in which the finisher incorporates some of the filler material, is not excluded, for as a rule a com- position stain carries with it a certain amount of this resinous material. In consequence, the spreading and the penetrating qualities are absolutely different than during the summer weather, at which time the material works at its best. In many formulas that have been given for pro- ducing oil stains, in which the solubility of the color depends upon the stearic or oleic acids, and where ben- zole constitutes the prime solvent, a bit of rosin should be added to overcome odor and give color. I refer to cases in which the solvents named are used with ar- tificial turpentine, by which is meant those distillates differing from naphtha in specific gravity, but higher EFFECT OF CHILL ON STAINS 182 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THE THREE PROMINENT SOLVENTS FOR STAINS CREOSOTE OIL DOES NOT MAKE GOOD STAIN than the kerosene series or those made from the asphalt beds, and not those made by coloring naphtha and by adding fire weed oil. These stains so made, when em- ployed in the ordinary temperature have a sufficient amount of penetrating proclivities and evaporate so fast that the temperature does not materially affect them. Their evaporation is so speedy that cool weather is rather desirable. The main necessity is a circula- tion of air. Creosote oil, gas oil or crude carbolic acid are three of the prominent solvents used by stain manufacturers, especially those making shingle stain. They also enter into the furniture stains in various proportions. The odor is disguised by the use of oil of citronella or oil of mirbane, sometimes a bit of sassafras. The latter two are so cheap and so strong that the quantity required does not prohibit their use; in fact, they are coal tar derivitives. They belong to the artificial class of volatile oils. The sassafras never saw the sassafras tree. In the stains where the vehicle, or even a part thereof, is a creosote oil, difficulties are usually encoun- tered in zero weather. In a recent circular letter, a clear and concise rea- son is given for the difficulties that are now being re- ported and complained of by those who are using oil stain. A statement is made that "creosote salts are just as characteristic of ordinary creosote oils as or- dinary salt is characteristic of the ocean water." It is claimed further that it is just as foolish to expect ordinary creosote oil to make good stains as it would be to expect the ocean waters to be good for drinking purposes. They are both too salty. When the ther- mometer registers close to zero, a barrel of ordinary creosote oil, gas oil or crude carbolic acid will show from 10 to 20 gallons of residue known as "creosote salts" or "crude naphthalene." Good as this "naph- thalene" may be as a moth preventive, it is not valu- able when you are buying a stain solvent. You do not want a third of it to be a solid, and absolutely dele- terious to stain materials. Whether this naphthalene shows as a residue or is held in solution in the oil as is the case in warm weather, the fact remains that the LIMPID OILS ARE BEST FOR STAINS USE OF OTL STAINS IN WINTER '_ 183 naphthalene is there just the same, and is bound to cause trouble sooner or later. For stain purposes you want oils that are limpid, free from these objectionable salts. Every solvent can carry in solution only a certain amount of solids. If, therefore, it is already burdened with from 10 to 30 per cent of foreign material, its solvent qualities are reduced by that percentage, which is present as a bi-product or adulterant. Crude naphthalene is so cheap that it does not pay the manufacturers to remove it, and thus it usually is sold in the creosote oil. The seller of the oil says nothing as to its presence; the stain manufacturers knows nothing of its presence until a complaint arises or he luckily passes over a period of time about in this manner. His stains are mixed during warm weather or in a warm room, and are consumed in the same manner. If a barrel of this oil happens to become chilled and the naphthalene crystallizes, he may be lucky again by merely being able to draw off the thus inadvertently purified creosote oil. Once more any difficulty has been avoided. While this makes manifest that the high grade article is the better, it at once gives us an ordinary method for specifying the grade of oil we want and a method for detecting the naphthalene. With the naph- thalene some chemists claim other injurious compounds present are crystallized, thus automatically removing themselves. While treating on the subject of crystal- lization of the naphthalene, etc., let me say in order getting to establish a uniform standard, if the oil is purchased uniformity in five gallon, ten gallon, or even barrel lots, it is desir- able that a certain definite uniformity of results in colors, spreading qualities and penetrating qualities be established. Obtain an ordinary hydrometer for heavy oils and a hydrometer jar. These should not cost more than 75 cents or $1.00. Take the specific gravity or reading; then chill the oil, keep it in a freezing tem- perature and again take the specific gravity. You will find that a certain percentage of solids appears. By pouring off the limpid liquid, bringing it to a uniform temperature, the reading will be different. The most OF RESULTS 184 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM L'SE OF LOADED OIL BRINGS ON TROUBLES "DOCTORING" FORMULAS opportune time for this experiment is during the freez- ing weather, as a lower and a more steady cold can be obtained. In that way the crystallization of the im- purities will be more pronounced. Having established a specific gravity, and the formulas built thereon, it is an easy matter to make this standard a specification of future orders. I have mentioned that this impurity is injurious to oil stains, and I will endeavor without going into tech- nicalities to show wherein the use of a loaded oil is apt to cause an endless number of troubles which are diflficult to locate and which vary in the same ratio as the amount of impurities presented. Take, for example, a pet formula in which a certain amount of color material is given — say eight ounces of mahogany oil soluble, one quart of benzole in which to cut it. and three quarts of creosote oil. For the sake of argument, it is admitted this formula has been working satisfac- torily. It was made with a very good grade of creosote oil. The next batch comes in during the summer, but is loaded with 25 per cent of naphthalene. It works a bit heavier, and does not seem to have the penetrating power. It needs to be doctored. A little more benzole is added, then the color is too light in shade; then a little more color is added. Right here is the first mis- take. We have left our regular formula and com- menced to doctor, and in all probability have not kept a good record of the quantities consumed in the doctor- ing. The result is that our regular formula is thrown in the air, and the foreman finisher's troubles are mul- tiplied. Still he keeps fussing, and the cold weather comes on. Over Sunday the factory becomes cold, the stain is chilled, the naphthalene has taken a notion to sep- arate itself from the general mixture by crystallizing and settling. If this were not all, it might not be so bad, but it has such a peculiarity of taking other things with it. It removes a portion of the coloring material in various percentages ; first, according to the amount of naphthalene present, and, second, depending upon the color itself. Some coloring material is more readily attacked and affected by the crystallization and the USE OF OTL STAINS IN WINTER 185 precipitating process thus enacted than others. This stain, which has gone through an ordeal of this kind, is absolutely changed. If the change be recognized, there is an opportunity for more doctoring. But the chances are that the stain will be allotted to the workman, and being thinner will penetrate deeper. This will help to retain the original color, but more likely the color will be found several shades lighter than it was intended to be. ^^^ solvents Were this the only difficulty to be attributed to this should be series of solvents, and which I claim can be avoided pj^^g pnou by stipulating that this series of oil solvents be free naphthalene from naphthalene, it would not be so bad. The one objectionable feature in the disposition of naphthalene is that it forms a coat of non-drying, oil appearing, waxy surface where the stain has been applied. It depends in great measure upon the kind of wood to which it is applied, to the amount of gas oil present in the stain, and the diiferent solvents used in conjunc- tion. The greasy, non-drying propensities of a gas oil stain often have been attributed to the stearic acid which is one of the constituents of oil soluble colors. But the truth is that the oil gave greater trouble, and that without its use there would have been sufficient penetrating material present to completely distribute the stearic acid in the pores of the wood. Many a finisher has experienced trouble in the oil stains "lifting" when applying the shellac. This is often due to conditions as described above. The alcohol attacks the naphthalene and with it comes the colors ^„^„„_ ,., and the attendmg troubles by the use or an oil stam m "lifting" which a percentage of naphthalene is present. I do not condemn the use of this series of solvents; I merely draw out the difficulties that arise during cold weather. They can be avoided, and I trust that I have made it sufficiently clear so that the finisher will know and understand the means at hand to obviate the pos- sibilities of trouble of this order. A permanent finish never can be made where there is a large amount of this gas oil used. Understand me, I mean the gas oil as usually sold. To exemplify this, you have seen a house built where the shingles were 186 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PERMANENT FINISH PRE- VENTED BY USE OF GAS OIL stained and after a season there was hardly any color left. That was due to the naphthalene present in the creosote oil. Of course, had these shingles been treated as furniture is usually treated, the trouble would not have been so apparent, but there will be no permanent oil stain where the main solvent is one of these oils, unless you insist upon the same being free from naph- thalene. I have endeavored to emphasize these points, be- cause many of you have used this material and have heard nothing of it after it left the factory. People are becoming more critical ; they know there is a vast difference in the quality of finish, its durability and general appearance. The foregoing should help the reader to remove a possible danger and obstacle in attaining good results. CHAPTER XXIX SPECIAL ENGLISH OAK FINISHES THE average foreman is not located in the furni- ture center and, therefore, has not the advantage of his more fortunate brothers through the inter- change of ideas. The assistance obtainable through coming in contact with the diversified methods of fin- ishing afforded to those situated in the midst of an industry, he is denied. This chapter is written to give an insight into the methods and procedure usually em- ployed in the making of these special finishes. Jacobean is usually produced by the use of an oil stain. Its shade of a reddish, golden brown, with high light effects, has been pretty well standardized. The color can be readily produced by the use of a brown oil soluble color, which has a tint toward the orange. Usually an oil solution is made, or, rather, the color is dissolved in hot turpentine to which two pounds or more of black, preferably drop black, ground in japan, are added to a three gallon mixture. After the color is thoroughly established, the stain is applied with a fitch brush, but care must be taken not to apply it too heavily, for when it dries the stain darkens consider- ably. The high lights are produced by cleaning off the stain in the center of the panels, etc. It is entirely up to the foreman to get the effect. He must understand Jacobean effect and carry out the idea of the period. The design of the furniture usually helps him out. There is no difficulty in matching the color. A good golden oak oil stain will make a first-class base. A little experimenting with the application will make him proficient in that part of the procedure, and if in pro- ducing the high lights too much stain is removed, it is easily replaced, as the entire color scheme is produced before the finish is applied. Kenilworth, which is very similar in appearance, is made by first fuming the wood. Load the fuming box at night and in the morning the wood will be suf- INSIGHT INTO METHODS OF SPECIAL FINISHES PRODUCING HIGH LIGHTS 188 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM KENILWORTH FINISH 16th century and stratford ficiently fumed to proceed. Then stain, using fitch brush, and allow the stain to dry 24 hours. This stain is practically the same color as that of Jacobean. The high lighting is done by using sandpaper and then dusting. Give one coat of white shellac, sand smooth and apply a flat finish. The selection of the color of this stain, and depth of shade, depends upon the Kenil- worth that you are trying to produce. A golden oak oil soluble stain is usually used. But every foreman finisher knows that a good deal of his shade depends upon the amount of turpentine that is used in cutting the stain powder. To lay down a definite formula in this case would be the recommendation of certain makes of golden oak oil stain. The selection of this, therefore, is left to the finisher. If, however, he wishes to prepare his own golden oak oil stain, this can be done readily by taking oil black as a base and adding orange, yellow and red until the shade of golden oak desired is produced. It is not necessary to produce the shade of golden oak that is used in this, but better to produce the shade of color that you wish in making your Kenil- worth. Another formula would be to dissolve oil black in turpentine and add it to asphaltum. This, however, would require more experimenting than to take the colors themselves, and would be apt to prove uncer- tain, as the diflferent lots of asphaltum vary in color. The finish known as Sixteenth Century is produced in a similar manner, with the exception of the fuming proposition, which is embodied in the production of Kenilworth. Stratford oak is produced in a very similar manner. After the work is fumed a coat of dark brown is ap- plied. When dry, a filler that has a slight pinkish cast is given, not with the idea of filling the wood but to give the pores a pinkish color. Then give two coats of wax. CHAPTER XXX BIRCH AND ITS VARIOUS FINISHES BIRCH, one of our well known native woods, is slowly but surely becoming recognized as a strong factor in wood industries. It has a good many qualities that are suited for cabinet work, notable birch as a among which are its strength, and that it gives a good strong surface and sands well. In finishing, the grain does <^^^^n^t wood not raise much, and the price also goes to give it con- sideration. It is the writer's opinion that, inasmuch as factories have undertaken the experimenting with this wood for furniture, its use will become large. Birch, as found in the market, is rarely quartered. There must be a reason for this, and there is a grow- ing belief this style of sawing will be adopted as the demand for the wood increases, especially if it is to be employed in the better grades of furniture. For com- mon and medium grades, it is most desirable, and if selected stock could be had, or the curly birch were plentiful, undoubtedly we would see more birch fur- niture. I believe that the one peculiarity of this wood can best be explained in the word of a man who has had considerable experience with it. He says: "The only difficulty I have found in employing birch ie the fact difficulty in that often it seems to grow both ways; that is, when matching you look down a piece this way, the finish is elegant, birch turn it about and it is dark." This is due to the fact that birch often presents end growth, which is very susceptible to the stain, and, of course, will show up much darker than the rest of the work; not at all a pleasant feature when it makes its appearance in the center of a panel, or some large surface, for we all know that high grade furniture depends upon its uni- formity of the wood in each individual piece. It is a question in my mind whether a good deal of this could not be done away with if the wood were quartered. Birch makes an elegant wood for chairs. It takes 190 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BIRCH NOT ADAPTED TO GRAY FINISH PLEASING SHADES ARE PRODUCED ON BIRCH finishes most beautifully. I believe a mistake has been made in the attempt to make a gray color for it to imitate gray maple, or the various grays that have been put on oak. The texture of the wood is not adapted for a good gray. The gray that can be pro- duced may suit some people, but it will never be in competition with maple or oak for gray finishes. There is a certain vein in birch that when stained persists in giving a yellowish tone which clashes with the gray, and my experiments have shown that an entirely dif- ferent line of endeavor should be employed for pro- ducing a finish that will help to popularize birch as a cabinet wood. It has been put out as "fumed birch," and, consid- ering the innovation, has been quite successful. The experiments that were made and the formulas obtained are quite interesting. Beautiful satiny brown finishes are quite possible, then if the laying of the wood is given suflficient attention so that similar grains and figures are joined together, the natural beauties of the wood will help to augment the general results. It has been found that the coating of the wood with a tannic acid solution, and when thoroughly dried with solution of bichromate of potash or bichromate of soda, which at this time is 'much cheaper, produces a beautiful and pleasing shade. Another formula, which is very similar to fumed oak, gives a good fumed oak color. By this color is. meant the shade of brown that is no-sy called "standard fumed oak." The first coat is made up of pyrogallic and tannic acids, one-half ounce of each to the gallon; then, without sanding, a second coat made as follows is applied : Two ounces of dried carbonate of soda, one ounce of bichromate of soda in a gallon of water, to which is added aynmoniacal solution of copper sulphate. This is made as follows. One ounce of sul- phate of copper dissolved in eight ounces of water, to which is added 26 degree ammonia, until a precipi- tate is formed, and then continue to add the ammonia until this precipitate is redissolved. The ammoniacal solution of copper is added to the gallon of carbonate and bichromate of soda solution. This second coat is BIRCH AND ITS VARIOUS FINISHES 191 applied over the acid coat with the resultant brown, sanded slightly, and a very thin coat of white shellac applied, and waxed. The best velvety or satiny finish is obtained with a Circassian coat varnish, or a similar product. It is found that most any shade of brown can be made on birch ; in fact, any stain that one may desire may be applied, but the idea is to get a color that will go with the trade. There is more cheap and medium priced furniture BIRCH" TAKF^ made than high grade furniture, and the consumption 1- J.1- 1 T • J? J. • 1 ^ • • ANY SHADE by the public is lar greater m number oi pieces m brown these two named classes. Birch furniture made in popular designs, and supplied to the trade with a popular finish, such as its higher priced competitor, fumed oak, finds a good market. Like mahogany, birch fills a certain place in the construction of some grades of furniture, especially in such parts where strength is desired, and so it has become natural for the manufacturer consuming birch in this manner to say that he wants a stain for birch. By that he means a stain that, when applied to the birch, will harmonize with the stain that he is putting on that portion of the piece which is made up of ma,hogany, whether solid or veneer. Now that brown mahogany is in vogue, it is only necessary to take the same material and apply it heavier to the birch, but it would be better to make a stronger solution for the birch wood. A great mistake has been that fin- „„^,„,, ,,. ... r'^^• 1 1 • 1 • 1 1 /^ BROWN MA- ishers will persist m filling the birch with the rest of hoganyhard the piece. This ha,s a tendency to give the birch a tq produce muddy appearance. If you have a good penetrating on birch stain, the color will be deep enough and the surface smooth enough so that filling is absolutely useless. Should it be that the stain does not take hold, add an ounce of acetic acid to each quart of stain. This will assist the stain to penetrate to such an extent that the color will be uniform and obviate the use of any filler. Undoubtedly brown mahogany is a finish that will be more typical of mahogany, and in consequence more difficult to produce satisfactorily on birch. That would be a reason for the production of a pleasing shade of brown and make it typical of birch. Gum, when 192 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BIRCH MAKES BEAUTIFUL IMITATION OF CHERRY BIRCH CAN BE FUMED slightly stained, and given a coat of orange shellac and dark varnish, produces a beautiful brown. It is a dif- ferent shade of brown; it carries with it just enough originality to differentiate it from other woods, and therefore, in the making of a finish for birch, there is a possibility of striking a shade that will typify birch as an individual wood, which will later become popular in its own cast. If curly birch were plentiful, the plain wood would not have to be considered now. That is not the case, and as long as we realize that birch is becoming a factor in ca,binet woods, it is best at once to establish a finish for it. Birch will make beautiful imitation cherry. Care must be taken, however, not to give it a red tone, for cherry, when finished as it should be, has a very pleasing, mild color, due only to its own con- stituents. The trouble is, and has been, that in attempt- ing to imitate cherry, the results have been too much on the red lines. A dark toona mahogany finish by some would be called a cherry when put on birch. The stain to be employed on birch to produce cherry, above all things, must be free from any sediment. It must be a penetrating stain, and made up of strong material so that a small quantity of stain powder will give the desired color. It is not at all impossible to fume birch, but it does require a coat of tannic or pyrogallic acid, or a com- bination of both of the acids to produce a good fumed effect. Then, before a finish is put on, the wood is given a thorough oiling; this permitted to dry for 24 hours, or if a kiln is employed, 12 hours, then proceed with the regular finishing. Birch will give a beautiful fumed color. There is no more ideal wood for hotel furniture than this birch. It is durable, hard, and will stand and endure the rough usage to which hotel fur- niture is subjected. CHAPTER XXXI THE FINISHING OF AMERICAN WALNUT SINCE our native walnut has again become popular, the finisher is confronted with new problems, one of which is the correctness of the color in which this wood should be finished. One of the prob- ^^^'^ ^^ ^^^'^ lems is due to the fact that manufacturers have ^^^ " ^^^ bleached the wood, and this bleaching process has been walnut? carried on by different methods and to different de- grees. We are just as much at sea relative to the cor- rect shade for American walnut as we have been on many of the other new styles of finishes. Uniformity, of course, is almost a necessity. That nature does not produce her wares upon certain definite standards is unfortunate. Black American walnut varies the same as any other wood, but being a dark wood we find a greater amount of difference in the shade, probably due to the locality from which the tree was taken. In conversation with one of the best foreman fin- ishers, he said that he did not know why walnut should be bleached, unless it is that some one, somewhere, ran onto some light wood and in order to match it, bleached the next piece, and in this manner the lighter shades became known and, of course, imitated. As long as a light shade of American walnut is supplied, the fin- ishing department of necessity will be compelled to furnish the lighter shade, and to produce it with what- ever meams at hand. Should the tide of favor turn to a darker finish, it would be easier to meet the demands, as in that case it would reouire only the staining of the wood to the depth of the darker finish. I was shown some bleached American walnut that was of a lighter shade than Circassian, and it may be that the attempt is being made to bleach the American walnut so it can be used in place of Circassian. If a process can be simplified so that the work may be done in the finishing room, it may open one more avenue for the consumption of a native wood. This piece of MAY BE USED BLEACHED 194 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ADVISES USE OF RICH BROWN WITH VAN DYKE FILLER HOW THE BLEACHING IS DONE wood was about one-fourth inch thick, and was bleached at least one-sixteenth inch, in fact, the color was much lighter than Circassian. The method just now is unknown, but we hope to be able to give it to our readers after further experimentation. What the manufacturer will call this bleached wood is a problem, and what there is to be gained by the introduction of such an extreme, remains to be seen. Woods mellow with age, and I cannot imagine anything more har- monious than a good rich, brown finish on American walnut. My conception for a finish for this native wood would be a rich brown, transparent color, with a Van Dyke filler, well cleaned oflF, two coats of oil, and varnish without shellac, rubbed dull. This would pro- duce something that would have an air of elegance about it, especially if the design were commensurate. Light colored woods, to the writer's mind, unless the design alone can produce it, will not give the lasting qualifications that a piece of furniture should have to bespeak refinement. It must be remembered in the fin- ishing room that it is easier to match shades that are darker than the natural wood, than to attempt to match shades by a bleaching process. The manufacturer alive to the situation will pro- duce in his line something of the darker shades, and I am willing to prophesy that the darker shade will be the one that will find favor with the home furnisher. Hotels may desire the special bleached finish, which is another reason why American walnut designed for the home should be different than that turned out for pub- lic places. The production of the bleached finish is usually attained by first bleaching the wood with the several bleaching compounds that are at hand. Chlori- nated lime, ofttimes misnamed chloride of lime, is a favorite bleaching agent. It can be purchased on the market in tin cans, the contents of which is diluted with water, and the work coated with this mixture. The chlorine gas retained is the bleaching agent. A very eflficient method, but which is now pro- hibitive owing to the price of material, is the w^e of permanganate of potash and oxalic acid or hypo- sulphite of soda. The potash is a purple chemical, THE FINISHING OF AMERICAN WALNUT 195 giving first a purple color to the wood, changing to a brown. The bleaching is then accomplished by the second coat of oxalic acid. Oxalic acid is a white crys- tal, of which about a 5 per cent solution is required to overcome the permanganate of potash. A better, but cheaper, reagent for bleaching the permanganate is the hyposulphite of soda. This is an American prod- uct and can be bought for about three cents per pound. Unfortunately, it has little or no effect when applied , ., , « OTHER by itselt. -^ METHODS OF The use of peroxide of hydrogen gives very good bleaching results, especially if this material can be obtained freshly made, but it is rather expensive, yet very cer- tain. A good stock solution to have in every finishing department is a solution known as chlorinated soda. It is a simple but efficient bleaching agent, and while not as rich in chlorine as the chlorinated lime, owing to its alkalinity, it has a peculiar effect upon the wood, which seems to give the small amount of chlorine pres- ent a greater opportunity for bleaching. Then, too, if first applied, followed with peroxide of hydrogen, a very effective bleaching process will be obtained. There are a few chemical processes that will bleach wood, but it would be difficult to employ them in the woodworking industry. They may prove satisfactory in the laboratory, but not practical in the finishing room. After the wood has been bleached, the usual method is to give it a stain made up of walnut crystals, to which is added a small quantity of a solution of finish on nigrosine and mahogany red. At best, this is a weak American stain. The red gives it the warm tone that seems to walnut is be so desirable in the production of the present "^^^ scant American walnut finish. The amount of real finishing on American walnut is rather scant, although the bet- ter grade of furniture seems to carry with it a little more varnish. It does seem a pity to take the elegant design and made-up pieces of furniture and send them out with a coat of shellac and a coat of inexpensive flat finish. Alpine walnut is a beautiful new shade used mostly in connection with burl walnut. It is almost a natural 196 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM color, being a light brownish green. The finish is pro- duced as follows: A^"'^^ 1. Stain with Alpine walnut stain two ounces to WALNUT Qj^g gallon of water. 2. Sand and fill with walnut filler, using a dark shade. 3. Coat with three coats of white shellac, or wood lacquer, and rub to a smooth surface with pumice and oil. CHAPTER XXXII STAINING WILLOW, REED AND CANE IN COLORING TO PRODUCE colors on willow, the operation must be divided in two distinct processes, coloring by- immersing in hot liquids, or staining by applying the color in a liquid form ; it not being our purpose to two processes suggest the producing colors by painting or enameling In the manufacture of willow furniture, where a willow colored willow is to be produced, the willow usually is prepared by putting it through a bleaching process, which is subjecting it to the action of lime water, after which it is dried and found to be more susceptible to stains or colors, whether aniline or chemical, or a com- bination of the same. The coloring of willow can be carried out better by applying the regular dye method than by attempting to produce a color by simply immersing in a colored solution. The browns are the more desired shades, and un- doubtedly those produced by chemicals are the more satisfactory. The formulas in which are given meth- ods for the production of browns, by the use of per- manganate of potash, bichromate of potash, pyrogal- lic acid, etc., when applied to the coloring of reed, will produce many shades of brown, the intensity of which may be augmented by the addition of aniline. The temperature has a good deal to do with the penetration, and should be kept at 150 degrees Fahren- heit, and the stain of such strength that excessive dye- ing is not necessary, as a subsequent drying process will take much more time where the reed has been completely saturated in the dye bath. Beautiful gray shades may be obtained by immers- ing in a solution of tannic acid and in a second solution of iron chloride, the strength of each producing the shade of gray. Where grays are to be produced, it is well to select well bleached reed, as the natural color of the reed does not give dainty shades of gray. the question of various SHADES 198 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ALKALIES AND THEIR AFTER EFFECT SPIRIT SOLUBLE COLORS USED FOR SHADES Maroons, dark reds, and kindred shades may be obtained by the use of alkaline solutions of logwood. Two methods are used. One, to boil the reed in a strong solution of log wood extract and then passing it through a strong alkaline solution such as sal soda, which on account of its cheapness will be preferred. After the desired shade is obtained, care must be taken that the alkali is washed out thoroughly so that no detrimental after-effects are to be expected from the presence of alkali. The production of satisfactory results upon reed or willow depends upon the penetrating qualities of the sta:in. As experience has shown, this material does not take the color uniformly. The incorporation of acetone in small quantities, carbolic acid, acetic acid, or oxalic acid in their order named, will greatly assist the penetration of the stain. Certain cases will answer to the addition of a small bit of alcohol to the stain. An acid solution of an aniline may be found not to take hold at certain places, whereas, the addition of a small quantity of alcohol will prepare the way for the stain. It is not necessary to enumerate specific formulas for the production of any stain. Suffice it to say that any aniline dye generally used in producing stain, the solution acidified, will produce the stain the shade of which is controlled by the material used. In cases where absolutely no results are obtained by the simple application of the stain, a fairly good color may be made by using spirit soluble colors, producing the shade you want and adding a pound of gum shellac to each gallon of such alcoholic stain. This gum will hold the colors in place and permit the subsequent finish to be applied. Of late years it has become fashionable to stain; it really ought to be called coloring. Cane panels, etc., have become quite fashionable in modern furniture, and it is desirable to give this cane an harmonious color, a color that will conform with the style and general shade of the finish. It is practically impossible, owing to the glossy, hard surface presented by cane to stain it with any degree of uniformity or success. STAINING WILLOW, REED AND CANE 199 It has been found expedient, therefore, to prepare a mixture of colors, using the pigments ground in oil or japan in such proportions as will produce the shade in harmony with the finish of the furniture. The pro- cedure is as follows: Before applying any color, give the cane a coat of japan, being careful not to allow an excess to be ap- plied. This coat forms a body upon which may be spread uniformly the color coat, made up of japan and for the colors of umbers, siennas, etc. This coat must be thin, and carry merely enough body to uniformly spread the color, it being advantageous to repeat the operation rather than to attempt to put on a heavy coat. The final finish may be obtained by using a flat, or Mission finish. There is no established standard for this work and each artisan will have to work out his own salvation, where confronted with work of this kind. The use of a bit of varnish with the japan and pigment coat may be found necessary, but whatever is applied, it should be short on oil, and quick-drying. The work must not be gone over, as that has a tendency to lift the pigment from one place and to deposit it on another. HOW TO GET A MIXTURE OF COLORS CHAPTER XXXIII BROWNS FROM TANNIN AND POTASH ON application of one to two ounces of tannic acid dissolved in a half gallon to a gallon of water to oak or many of the other cabinet woods, and after sanding apply the piece in warm solution of two ounces bichromate of potash or soda, and raising to a temperature of 100 to 125 degrees, there will be pro- duced by the aid of the carbonic acid gas in the air, beautiful brown tints, all of which may be varied ac- cording to the strength of material employed. This process will produce pleasing shades on gum, pine, and other soft woods. On soft woods it has the faculty to bring out the figure, the flakes producing a more attractive coloration than an aniline stain, the surface having the appearance and the effect of a dis- tinct coloration of its fibers, especially the flakes. The effect is of greatly enhancing the characteristics of the particular growth of each wood. In applying this method to hard woods, care must be taken to obtain uniform application so that no blotchy work may result. If it is desired to obtain a more reddish brown cast, this may be done by adding pyrogallic acid to the tannic solution. It is well to prepare the acid solution fresh when desired for use. GETTING TINT DEPENDING ON STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COLD WATER STAINS CHAPTER XXXIV BROWNS FROM POTASSIUM OF PERMANGANATE POTASSIUM permanganate is a violet crystal, and its stain qualifications depend upon its peculiar- ities of producing brown shades when it comes in contact with organic substances, or on exposure to ^"_^_ ^_°^5_?^ the air. The solution should always be prepared with cold water. The application of this stain should be made with a sponge and not with a brush, as the bristles will not withstand the action of the permanganate. When first applied to the wood, it will give a violet shade which will gradually turn to a nut brown, and of a depth in direct ratio to the percentage of perman- ganate employed in the solution. Where a deep brown shade is desired, a second coat will usually produce results. The use of permanganate is a very handy method for producing brown, particularly where it is desired to match some other finish, as in the case where too dark a shade of brown may have been produced; it may be lightened in shade by the sponging with any mineral acid, or solutions of sodium hyposulphite. This method will be recognized as the same as that given under Bleaching, and often taken advantage of for the imitation of inlay wood, accomplished in the following manner: After the entire piece has been stained brown, paste strips of paper to the surface, leaving such parts exposed which should represent the inlay; then treat this exposed surface to the action of hyposulphite of soda, when an absolutely white wood surface will be obtained. Then the paper is removed by laying wet cloths or blotters thereon, which will soften the adhesive and permit the paper to be taken off. Lightly sand, and it is ready for the regular fin- ishing work. CHAPTER XXXV FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES SINCE the introduction of the Gift Shops, stores that usually offer the unique, and things out of the ordinary, there is being created a demand for small odd pieces suitable for gifts. The workers have oak adapts taken advantage of silver gray, kaiser gray, and sev- itself to eral other grays, making the goods mostly out of. oak. novelties Probably no wood offers the possibility of a larger variety than oak. By taking advantage of its beautiful flake, and large pores, staining the wood, and produc- ing a contrast effect by filling the pores with various pigments, there can be produced an endless variety of pleasing and attractive effects. In order to get the best effects by the introduction of the various fillers, it becomes necessary to have a comprehension of the stain materials employed. For instance, it is an easy matter to color the wood, and then to put some radically different color or filler into the pores, but that does not accomplish the artistic effect, nor that pleasing soft tone which will go a long way towards making a piece of furniture or a novelty fascinating. On the contrary, the more one studies a creation of this sort, the less it gains in favor. The ground work must be stained so that the flake sur- rounding the large pores will take on a correspondingly definite color — a color which is in harmony with this filler; a color which in turn is to produce a contrast that at once makes it attractive and pleasing to the eye. It is, therefore, necessary that the stain present a sharp contour about the flake, and be softened down to the center of the flake, leaving the appearance of a clear surface. Naturally one would select for this purpose quarter sawed oak, so as to take advantage of the characteris- tics of the wood. The wood should be sponged to raise the pores, and then thoroughly sanded. If the pores are not sufficiently opened by this process, the result 206 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM OAK PERMITS OF ARTISTIC COLORING CLASSIFICATION OF COLORINGS desired can be accomplished by going over the work with a picking brush, and thoroughly dusting it off. Then the stain is applied, and this should be done thoroughly. The application of a stain cannot be called thoroughly applied if the wood be simply covered and colored. If a depth of color is to be produced it is bet- ter done by the application of two weak coats, than by one strong coat. There will be less danger of cutting through when sanding, for the simple reason that these fancy finishes are seldom more than shellaced or waxed. Oak presents an almost unlimited amount of possi- bilities for artistic colorings. Especially do the chem- icals aid us in producing absolutely permanent stains. This is fortunate, especially in finishes, where the pro- tecting coats, such as two or three coats of varnish, are not used, but instead a thin coat of oil and a bit of wax. The following classification will assist those who may be called upon to produce these color effects. The filling is made an after-treatment, but the similarity of pro- cedure make it possible to cover all cases in a few para- graphs, and will be given in a separate list. First — By the use of iron, as iron sulphate or iron chloride, in its various dilutions, grays can be produced in any depth of color. The color may be evened up by penciling with a weak solution of tannic acid. Second — Rich browns can be produced by boiling catechu and bichromate of potash, and applying the stain, one or two coats. Third^The Persian brown by applying a solution of permanganate of potash, permitting it to stand six or eight hours, when the second coat should be applied. Fourth — Old Oak — To each pint of water add one ounce of carbonate of potash (salts of tartar). When dissolved, mix with an equal quantity of ammonia water. Stain the wood, and let stand for 24 hours. Then apply a solution of sulphate of iron, one ounce to the gallon of water. This will produce, according to the strengths employed, a great variety of oaks. The process may be carried until darkest shade of brown is produced. Fifth — Bichromate of potash gives yellow tints ; if carbonate of potash be added, lighter shades of brown. FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES 207 Sixth — The application of pyrogallic acid, one ounce to the gallon. This can be applied to the sponging coat. The second coat made of one ounce of nigrosine to the gallon of water, and if a deeper brown is desired, add a small percentage of the iron sulphate solution. Seventh — The application of a tannic acid solution and a subsequent coating with logwood extract, which has been dissolved in hot water, and to which has been added a 5 per cent solution of sulphate of copper. Eighth — Any 'aniline color that will produce a many staple green, such as acid green, applied to the variations strength of the desired color, and then coated with a 5 per cent solution of picric acid. Ninth — Acid green solution, sulphate of iron solu- tion, nigrosine solution, to produce the deep and olive green. Tenth — Acid green, picric acid and sulphate of cop- per, on sulphate of iron to produce gun metal effect. In giving the above, let it be distinctly understood that the finisher can vary his shades according to the strength. But the key given will produce absolutely transparent, penetrating and fast to light colors. Each stain will affect the flake in such a manner as to be co-ordinate with the filler. In preparing the filler for these kinds of finishes, it is to be expected that they will be made of har- monious tones. The gray, from a light shade of gray which will be filled with white filler mostly, and which, according to taste, can be darkened with drop black; fillers must the browns, in contrast with the shade of the wood ; be of har- the greens mostly made by coloring the ordinary filler monious tones with chrome green and darkened with drop black. But where the correct shade of green cannot be produced by the use of chrome green, color the filler by the use of ultra-marine blue, and chrome yellow, and getting it dark enough by the addition of black. One of the most beautiful eflfects produced and which has not been taken up in our country to any degree, is gun metal, so called because a metallic effect is produced by the filler, which is made up of oxide of lead, commonly known as plumbago or graphite. This filler coating should have enough japan to hold it, as 208 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM GUN METAL A BEAUTIFUL EFFECT MAPLE OFFERS VARIOUS WAYS OF COLORING when it is applied it is more difficult to hold in place than any of the other pigments. It should be used in a very fine powder, so that in applying it to the wood. a small amount of it will be drawn out of the pore and blended over the flake, which will then produce the gun metal effect, but still bring out the beautiful flakes of the oak. The many novel shades and finishes that can be produced on maple and oak are finding their way slowly but surely into the market. Especially are these woods and finishes popular in the finishing of cafes, lobbies, store fixtures, window decorations, etc. France is buy- ing our bird's-eye maple. In that country the most delicate shades are produced, especially in the gray. The tensile strength of the wood admirably adapts it to many of the dainty lines put out by the French man- ufacturers. The satiny finish aff"orded by French pol- ish still holds forth in some of their markets. The tra- ditional clannishness clings and the impress of the Louis periods furniture, we are told, has a preference there, rather than the heavy lines of our Mission. The French get more out of a board than we do. It is only to be expected that the same daintiness of color would prevail. With maple there are various ways for the produc- tion of the color. At one time, the wood could be pur- chased already colored, but for the occasional produc- tion of this color on maple, nigrosine, jet black, paper black, anilines are the series which will make a fairly good gray. These are all water soluble, and should be applied hot. It will be found that, when applied cold, the color will have to be put on so sparingly in order to produce a light gray that the yellowish tint of the maple will show, and an uneven color will be the result. Only a very little color to the gallon of water is re- quired. Were it not for the fact that the spirit stain fades, it would make a better gray. A very pleasing and, undoubtedly, the best results are obtained by the use of iron salt in conjunction with a good permanent black aniline. For the finisher to have a uniform result, one to be relied upon, a certain amount of precaution is necessary in the use of the iron. Sulphate of iron FADS AND FANCIES IN FINISHES 209 is not a staple salt and, therefore, in using it, it is better to buy the dried sulphate of iron rather than the crystal, or, if this is not at hand, to purchase the solu- tion of chloride of iron which is of definite strength. The shade to be produced is then merely a matter of quantity. To avoid the bluish cast which is sometimes apt to result from the use of the iron and the nigrosine, a bit of orange should be used, and will overcome it. All shades of gray can be produced in this way. The fine grain of the maple makes it necessary that the finish be of an absolute uniformity of shade. The heart of the maple tree cannot be used in the making of a piece of furniture, as its brown shade cannot be overcome by so delicate a color as gray. It cannot be bleached sat- isfactorily, and when it does appear in the made-up piece, it would be better to stain it as an imitation mahogany. After the stain has been applied, it should be al- lowed to stand at least 24 hours ; but, better yet, 48 hours. Then let it be sanded with a very fine sandpaper, and polished with parafl^ne wax. This wax is best applied by melting it and thinning with a substitute turpentine such as turpaline, or terrabentine, which has no color. It can be obtained easily by demanding the pure article. This substitute is placed on the mar- ket in such a manner as to give it the physical appear- ance as well as odor of the genuine turpentine. This is done by adding a quantity of regular turpentine, sometimes a bit of rosin, and fire-weed oil. None of these, however, are wanted in the solvent used to thin the wax. After the wax is applied, let it stand, then bring it to a polish, and the second day after it has been polished, rub in a circular manner, the same as French polishing. The finished work should have a satiny appearance. Lacquer takes the place of paraf- fine wax, but it will not withstand the usage. It would be better to put a thin coat of lacquer on the stain coat, and the wax on it. This, however, is a mat- ter to be considered in cost of production. Maple is used as imitation cherry, and works up beautifully for that. It is also used as imitation mahog- HOW BLUISH CAST MAY BE AVOIDED FINISHING OF MAPLE 210 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM NOVELTIES ON OAK RUSSIAN BROWN any and in various other ways where the strength of the wood recommends it. Among the novelties — but always made on oak — are driftwood, kaiser gray and silver oak. The latter, however, is not a regular gray, but still must be classi- fied with the grays owing to its style of finish. On oak a gray can be produced in the same manner as on maple. The stain, however, must be carefully used. Avoid lapping of brush marks, and give it plenty of time to take on its shade. The iron salt, with the tannic in the wood, produces the color to a certain degree, and the stronger the stain, the deeper the color. The nigrosine serves to modify the shades and to kill the blue cast. The difficulty is the fact that the different pieces of wood put in the make-up of the furniture contain different percentages of tannin and, in conse- quence, one is apt to obtain as many different shades as there are pieces of wood. If it were possible to make a table top or any sur- face out of one board, this difficulty would not arise. Knowing how to produce a color should help us to know how to make it uniform. When it is found that right through the center of the stained piece there is a light streak, it can be matched up by taking a solution of tannic acid and coating the work and then, when dry, applying successive coats of very weak stain until it has taken the depth of color to match the balance of the piece. Another attractive novelty is known as Russian brown, a beautiful light brown, which is sometimes utilized in the bird's-eye maple, with the eye taking a darker tinge. IS STARTED CHAPTER XXXVI BLENDING WOODS A DIFFICULT PROCESS THE usual procedure for the blending of golden oaks to uniform the colors and shade, due to the difference in the texture and kind of the woods, is a problem that confronts every manufacturer in blending ,, 1 • • J 4- BEFORE FINISH the wooworking industry. The most reliable remedy is the blending of the shades before any finish is attempted. This, however, is rather difficult, and should be attempted only after considerable experience has been had, and the work- man becomes familiar with the general scheme of equalizing shades. In golden oak, where the difference in shade is brought out after the stain and filler coats are applied, proceed as follows: Prepare a weak stain by the use of oil black, oil brown and oil yellow, the shades of which are exem- plified in the colors. Make three distinct solutions, one ounce of color to the quart of turpentine. Of these three solutions, use a sufficient amount of each to pro- duce a light stain, but of the same tone as that of the present appearance of the work ; that is, the appear- ance of the stained and filled work. Apply cautiously with the use of a camel hair or a fitch brush to the light parts, applying repeated coats until it presents the same depth of color of the darker. When uncer- tain, have a bit of naphtha at hand, and wet the dark portions which you are trying to match so that both pieces can be judged when wet. For cases where the piece of wood runs from a dark shade to a very light shade, usually on extremely hard pieces of wood, it will be found that the darker piece is a softer piece of wood, that it may run up- grain, presenting more of the pores. Consequently a good deal more of filler has been taken on. Here it is best to grade down the shade, from the dark edge to the light, reducing the amount of difference gradually. 212 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW TO MAKE A BLENDING BRUSH REDUCTION OF ASPHALTUM MAKES GOOD BLEND STAIN This is usually done by making a brush that will greatly assist, as follows: Cut the hairs diagonally, so they will be short on one side of the brush, and full length on the other, then chisel them down so that the long hairs will be full thickness, and thinned out to the short side of the brush. You will find that a brush of this kind will carry a full coat of stain in the long fibers with a gradually diminishing amount of stain in the thin and short fibers, and that it will deposit its color material in a similar proportion. The workman in this way will soon learn how to spread the color and the brush will save a good deal of time, as the one dipping will deposit the most stain where it is required. You can readily see how you will take the light piece of wood, where it shows the extreme difference, and grade it out. It might be well to mention here, that on the cheaper woods, the simple reduction of your as- phaltum with turpentine and naphtha will make a good blending stain ; always bear- ing in mind never to have the stain strong enough so that a complete match could be made with one stroke of the brush, as in that case you would be very apt to find the blending work going darker than that you are trying to match. The strength of the stain rather depends upon the aptness of the workman. It should be thin enough, and a sufl^cient amount of naphtha used to insure quick drying so that the repeated coats can be applied with- BLENDING BRUSH BLENPTNO WOODS A DIFFICULT PROCESS 213 out the stain acting in the capacity of a varnish re- mover. In that case, it would not only lift the stain originally applied, but it would also lift the filler, and would then cause an uneven deposit with the result that the work would have a mottled appearance. For the use of a water stain, it will be found that this will work very nicely, provided sufficient amount of time has been given for the original coats to dry. The ordinary workman will belittle the application of a water stain on top of a filled piece of wood, and he will tell you that it cannot be done. Proceed as fol- ^^r w^«T^n/.AXT'c ''■ ON WORKMAN S lows : APTNESS The water stain will not lift or open any of the pores. In short grained wood or cross grained wood, where the stain takes dark, where a lot of filler is con- sumed in the filling, a difficulty can be avoided by first shellacing this coarse part with a very thin coat of shellac. This will hold back the stain coat and at the same time hold back the filler, so that when the piece is ultimately finished, a uniformity of shade is the result. A blending mixture recommended for the use of fumed oak and which can be applied with a brush, de- scribed in this chapter, is made up as. follows: To a pint of alcohol, add a half ounce of Bismark brown, spirit soluble. To another pint of alcohol, add a half ounce of spirit black, alcohol soluble. When the solution of each is complete, pour each solution into a pint of white shellac and shake them up thor- water stain oughly, enough of the Bismark and enough of the on filled black, to obtain the proper tone for blending, until it wood is produces the correct shade desired on the fumed oak. practical For instance, if sapstreaks are encountered and are very light, this blending solution must be proportion- ately darker. This same solution is good to be used in the covering of the edges where the sanding has cut through, as the small amount of shellac will hold the color to place and obviate any danger of finger marks or prints in the handling of the work afterwards. Blending on gray is seldom required, but when re- quired, a black shellac solution will do. If, however, it is required to be used on gray maple, silver gray, 214 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BLENDING MIXTURE FOR FUMED OAK or any of the very light shades, a very small amount of black is better. In other words, it would be better to make an alcoholic solution of the black or even a water solution of nigrosine black and touch up the work, and thus avoid the extreme polish that would be obtained if a shellac solution were used. Not much blending is done on mahogany. The only touching up that is required on this finish is usually from troubles caused from sanding through the finish. In this case the Bismark brown solution will answer the purpose. Where the brown mahogany is used, pro- duce the brown by the use of Bismark brown and spirit black solution and adding a bit of orange until the correct shade of brown is obtained. CHAPTER XXXVII BLEACHING WOOD BEFORE STAINING THERE are numerous ways of bleaching dark spots and discolorations on wood, but the method which will perhaps give the most general satis- faction is the oxalic acid bleach. For this bleach one oxalic acid half pound of oxalic acid crystals should be dissolved ^^^^ch for in a half gallon of hot water. This solution should be ^^^^ ^^^"^^ applied to the wood with an old brush, and when dry the surface should be gone over with clear, hot water. Often repeated applications of the bleach are neces- sary. Should this be the case, the wood should be washed off with hot water only after the final appli- cation of the bleach. When the wood to be bleached is greasy or oily, it should first be washed with alcohol or benzine, to remove all the grease ; when the wood is dry, the bleach should be applied. A good stock solution to have in every finishing department is a solution known as chlorinated soda. It is a simple, but efficient, bleaching agent, and while not as rich in chlorine as the chlorinated lime, owing to its alkalinity, it has a peculiar effect upon the wood which seems to give the small amount of chlorine pres- ent a greater opportunity for bleaching. Then, too, if first applied followed with peroxide of hydrogen, a very effective bleaching process will be obtained. Chlorinated soda solution may be made as follows : Take 21 ounces of sal soda, and dissolve in 40 ounces of hot water. This is Solution "A." Take 10 ounces of chlorinated lime and mix it with one and one-half pints of water. Stir this mixture thoroughly; then allow it to settle, and pour off the clear liquid. To the sediment, add another pint and a half of water and repeat the operation. After this second solution has settled, pour off the clear liquid into the other solution and to the sediment add a bit more v^ater. Let this filter into the balance of the chlorinated solution. Pour the two solutions together; the result will be a clear, 216 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM REMOVING IRON SPOTS HYDRO- SULPHITE BLEACH pale greenish liquid, having a faint odor of chlorine, and a disagreeable alkaline taste. Iron spots may be removed with a solution of cyanide of potash, phosphoric acid, and then v^^ashing off with clear water. Sulphur fumes will bleach and, while difficult to apply, will ofttimes do the trick by blowing the fumes against the part to be bleached, covering the work with a 2 per cent solution of per- manganate of potash, and after it is thoroughly dried, applying a 5 per cent solution of hyposulphite of soda. This method has been found very satisfactory, espe- cially in the softer woods. Care should be taken in all cases to remove the chemicals from the wood by re- peated applications of fresh water. Of late it has been found that a ten per cent solu- tion of hydro-sulphite of soda is in many cases a much better bleaching agent than those depending upon chlorine. The wood is given repeated wettings of this solu- tion, always allowing it to dry between coats, and when finally sanded it needs no other treatment, such as sponging with clear water, as the hydro-sulphite has no effect upon the finishing material. CHAPTER XXXVIII EBONIZING BIRCH, MAPLE, BEECH, ETC. THE WOODS best adapted for ebonizing are apple, pear, hazel, maple, beech and birch, in their order named. When stained black, they give the best imitation of the natural ebony. The process is best carried out by immersing or by applying repeated woods that coats of the hot color material. Aside from the method imitate given elsewhere for ebonizing laboratory tops, the for- ebony well mula here given will produce very satisfactory results. For staining, boil one pound of logwood chips in two quarts of water, or one ounce of logwood extract (solid). Brush the hot solution over the work, giving it a second coat when dry. Allow this to stand at least 24 hours, and then coat with a solution of one ounce of green copperas (sulphate of iron) to one quart of water. Let this dry in a warm, well lighted place. It should not be hastened by artificial heat. For dipping, the solution may be prepared prac- tically as given above, and the woods immersed for at least 15 minutes in the first solution, then drained off and allowed to dry in a good circulation of air; im- merse in the second solution, which may be made up of sulphate of copper in place of sulphate of iron, taken from this solution, and again dried, and passed through an alkaline solution made up by dissolving one-half polishing pound of sal soda in a gallon of water. After it passes imitation through the third solution, it should be rinsed in clear ^^^^^ water. For polishing imitation ebony, such as piano keys, etc., first coat the work with a very fine glue size, and when dry smooth lightly with No. 00 sandpaper. Do not cut through the stain coat. Then make a pad, and apply French polish; immediately add a few drops of oil, and rub with a circular motion. Set it aside for one hour, sand again lightly, and repeat the operation. To spirit off, great care must be taken or the work will be dull instead of bright. Take a clean pad, moisten 218 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM with alcohol, passing quickly over the surface; then drop on a few drops of oil, and rub lightly but quickly in circular sweeps until polish is obtained. EBONiziNG For large surfaces, similar methods may be em- LARGE SURFACE ploycd, but good effects can be produced by oiling the work, giving it at least 48 hours to dry ; then two coats of shellac, and rub dull with oil. For formulas for ebony stains see chapter on Stain Formulas. CHAPTER XXXIX GETTING COLOR RESULTS WITHOUT ANILINES THE production of wood stains is not solely de- pendent upon the aniline dyes, and to familiarize the finisher with the possibility of employing chemical and vegetable extracts is the object of the how to obtain following- tabulation of the more popular materials certain which are in use and which can be employed to great advantage. Every one has been tested and is thor- oughly reliable. The tables show at a glance how to combine chemicals and colors to produce a given stain. These are valuable suggestions, but by no means do they embrace all of the possibilities, for by the use of these as a base, where the reaction is acid in nature, acid colors or anilines can be added to the chemicals which then act as a mordant for making color per- manent and, at the same time, play a part in producing the color. To make this absolutely clear, such salts or chem- icals as potassium chromate, sugar of lead, magnesium sulphate, and the various acids will combine without injury to color with any of the acid colors in the aniline series. Alkalies will destroy the color of many of the anilines. We, therefore, do not recommend their use in combination. They will work with basic colors, but as the basic color is not considered fast to light, with- ^se of alkali out a second coat of some mordant, they are seldom ^^^ used in connection with the color. Where the effect is that of an alkali, under which head comes carbonate of potash, aqua ammonia, sal soda, etc., these should be used in a coat by themselves, and after it is dry the other color put over it. It is true that a good many use a small amount of potash in getting their mohogany stain. It is a ques- tion whether this is absolutely wise. It is done with the belief that it helps the color to penetrate the wood ; but, in the writer's mind, this potash is more harmful than beneficial, and he recommends the use of bichro- 220 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM DECOCTIONS NOT WITHOUT mate of potash, which not only gives a color, but helps to fasten the stain in the wood. A few experiments will exemplify the method and results obtained. Oak would not be expected to pro- duce the same shade as mahogany, etc. The decorations of various color-giving woods are not without their uncertainties. This is due to the fact that a vegetable is not always uniform in its color-giving proclivities and, therefore, after producting a uniform extract, it is well to keep a sample of it for future operations. This fault is being met by the production of extracts UNCERTAINTIES made from these various color-giving plants which are as nearly uniform in their color value as possible to make. The table which follows has been published in many periodicals, trade journals, etc. It will serve a pur- pose here, as heretofore many formulas also have been published, giving the use of these and other vegetable coloring materials which today are not considered, nor being recognized. The list shows at a glance what is to be expected and the possible results that may be obtained by the use of the ingredients so treated. Decoction of logwood treated with : Gives : Strong hydrochloric acid Reddish yellow Dilute hydrochloric acid Reddish orange Pure and diluted nitric acid Red Pure and diluted sulphuric acid Black Sulphide of hydrogen Yellow brown Ferric nitrate Black Potassium chromate Black Stannous chloride Violet Tartaric acid.. Gray brown Sulphate of copper Dark gray Tannin Yellow red Sal ammoniac - Yellow Verdigris Dark brown Sugar of lead Gray brown Potash Dark red Potassium permanganate Light brown Potassium iodide Red yellow Cupric chloride Reddish violet to dark brown Chrome yellow Dark violet WHAT VARIOUS COMBINATIONS PRODUCE GETTING COLOR RESULTS IN FINISHING ROOM 221 Soda Violet Sulphate of iron Gray to black Alum Dark red brown Carbonate of potash Yellow brown Magnesium sulphate ..Brown Cupric nitrate ...Violet Aqua ammonia Dark violet Potassium sulphocyanide Red Zinc chloride Red brown Decoction of fustic extract treated with : Gives : Concentrated hydrochloric acid Red Dilute hydrochloric acid Yellow brown Concentrated nitric acid Reddish yellow Dilute nitric acid. Brown Concentrated sulphuric acid Dark purnle many yellows Dilute sulphuric acid : Brown red produced Aqua ammonia - Dark yellow Ammonium sulphydrate.. Dark yellow Ferric nitrate - ...Dark gray yellow Tannin Yellow Potash Yellow Stannous chloride. Yellow Cupric chloride Yellow Tartaric acid Yellow Alum Yellow Pyrogallic acid Yellow Cupric sulphate Orange Sugar of lead Yellow Potassium permanganate. Brownish yellow Decoction of Brazil-wood treated with : Gives : Strong nitric acid Dark purple Dilute nitric acid - ...Pale red Strong sulphuric acid ...Red Dilute sulphuric acid ...Red Strong hydrochloric acid ..Dark red Dilute hydrochloric acid Light red Aqua ammonia... Dark red Ammonium sulphydrate Dark red Sulphide of hydrogen. Light red Sulphate of iron Dark violet Tannin ...No change Stannous chloride Light red 222 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Cupric chloride Dark red Sal ammoniac Reddish yellow Sugar of lead Yellowish red Potash Dark crimson Tartaric acid Reddish yellow Decoction of madder treated with Gives : Dilute hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid Pale yellow FURTHER Sue-ar of lead Reddish violet INTERESTING Soda Red COMBINATIONS Tartaric acid Pale yellow Tannin ...Pale yellow Potash... Light red Sal ammoniac Pale yellow Aqua ammonia Reddish yellow Alum Faint red Stannous chloride Light red Decoction of French berries with: Gives:" Dilute hydrochloric acid Rose color Dilute nitric acid Nq fchange Dilute sulphuric acid Yellow Potash Yellow Stannous chloride Dark yellow Tartaric acid Discoloration Sugar of lead Dark yellow Ammonium sulphydrate Faint yellow Potassium bichromate... Brown yellow Ferric nitrate... Dark olive green Potassium iodide Yellow Cupric sulphate Greenish yellow Decoction of tumeric treated with : Gives : Hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid Yellow Sulphate of iron Greenish yellow Ferric nitrate... Yellow to dark yellow Sugar of lead Yellow Alum , Yellow Potash Red yellow Stannous chloride Yellow Sodium Yellow The foregoing table is obviously of great importance in the finishing* room. DRAWERS ADDS REFINEMENT CHAPTER XL THE STAINING OF DRAWERS THE difference in the cost of finishing the inside of a suite, and the cost of doing it right, is so small as to make it scarcely worth while speaking about. There is no good reason for staining the inside ^^^''^^^^ of furniture darker than the outside, and it costs more to do it that way. To make a pleasing contrast when the drawers are opened the inside should be stained considerably lighter than the outside. Everything else being equal, this gives the goods a touch of refinement that appeals to the aesthetic taste. I cannot under- stand why so many leave the outside of the drawer sides unfinished. Of course the slides ought not to be varnished, but they should be stained to match the rest of the drawer and given a thin coat of shellac. A great many factories are doing this now, but sometimes a trimmer finds it necessary to plane some off the slide to make the drawer work freely and frequently it is left that way — part finished and part white. It should be somebody's business to see that this patch is re- paired ; it should be the duty of the trimmer either to repair it himself or see that it is done. No matter how the outside of the case is finished, whether polished or dull, a gloss finish on the inside is an offense against good taste, and tends to cheapen the appearance of the whole thing. A dull finish is the is the proper proper thing. Some factories dull rub the inside of the thing drawers; but this involves a lot of work, and unless the oil is thoroughly cleaned out of the corners — which is not always the case — the effect is anything but pleas- ing. There are on the market flat drying varnishes that are not very expensive and which make an excel- lent finish for the inside of case goods. Some of these are harsh to the touch when dry, and some are soft and velvety. Of course the latter is preferable. A good finish for the inside of drawers may be made as follows : Take 20 gallons of water heated to about DULL FINISH GOOD FINISH FOR PURPOSE 224 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 175 degrees Fahr., dissolve in this eight pounds of borax. Then pour in slowly, stirring constantly, 40 pounds of orange shellac. Stir until all is dissolved. This makes an excellent drawer finish, but where the goods are to be water rubbed it should be put on after the rubbing has been done, as it will not stand water. It should be used merely as a finish coat on top of a coat of spirit shellac. Spirit shellac for inside of drawers should be made somewhat heavier than is used for ordinary work. Three and a half pounds of gum to a gallon of solvent will be about right on work that has been water stained. This should be nicely sanded before the finishing coat is applied. When drawer bottoms are faced with mahogany, walnut or some other open grained wood, these should be filled before they are put in the drawer. When staining the drawers, the bottoms may be stained over the filler and wiped off with a rag. This will give them suflficient color to match the sides. There are makers of furniture who think it is of no importance how the back of the case is finished. This is a mistake as regards the better grade of furniture. Everything is of importance. No one pretends that the back should compare with the front, but the con- trast should be pleasing. The back should be finished like the inside — clean and smooth and dull. The shel- lac finish above mentioned may be used on the back with good results. When using this shellac finish do not work it too much or it will froth. It requires merely enough brush- ing to spread it over the work and will flow out nice and smooth of itself. It should be strained through book muslin to remove foreign matter that one finds in the gum, and to insure a nice smooth surface. TIALS IN READY MADE STAINS CHAPTER XLI CHANGING FINISHING STAIN SHADES IT SHOULD go without saying that the needs of dif- ferent factories are not the same, and that there- for the requirements of the finishing room are not all the same. The factory that depends upon the "^^^ essen- ready made stains has really but two essentials to look after. One of these is to see that the stain is always uniform and the other to get the best for the least possible money. After the shades have been adopted, it is up to the foreman to see that the stains are uniformly applied, and that he gets the greatest amount of work possible per hour. It is like a painter who buys ready mixed paints, stirs them up and spreads them. He buys them from a color card and suits his customer from this color card because in that way all he has to do is to open the pails and apply according to the directions. But should the customer wish the shade changed a little the painter would be up against it unless he knew just a little about the mixing of paints. And unless he understood something about the paint he was using, he might ruin the paint in his attempt to alter the color. It is not my province to talk against the prepared material. This is unquestionably as good as can be made, but cases continually arise in which it becomes absolutely necessary to change the shade, and it is here that it becomes imperative to have such knowledge of the material as will enable the foreman to add colors to his prepared stains in order to change the shade. If, therefore, he has a fair amount of knowledge of what is usually employed in producing a desired result, he can do this without spoiling or injuring the stain. There are all kinds of goods on the market — water stains, oil stains, and spirit stains. The maker of each lauds the special qualities of his make. Unquestionably in the main the claims are correct. It remains for the manufacturer to select what is best adapted for constant need of changing shade 226 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM COLOR VALUE HIGHEST IN WATER STAINS WATER STAINS IN ANY SHADE his purpose. There are some places where nothing but a spirit stain is advisable. There are other places where only water stains can produce the desired effect, and lastly spirit stains, which serve best for a special purpose. The color value is highest in water stains, for two reasons. A greater variety of colors are made water soluble, permitting the production of a greater variety of colors or shades, and these are of more delicate hues. Again the material upon which we are working, namely, wood, in its growing state has a water soluble sap, so that when a color is applied it stands to reason that if it be mixable in the same fluid as that which had been a component part of the wood, it is going to unite better than if applied by a vehicle absolutely foreign to the nature of the product to which it is applied. Second, oil stains, because they save tirpe and labor, and will produce a satisfactory color. But as yet the colors obtainable are limited. Third, spirit stains which are not, however, as a rule permanent when exposed to light. It is a peculiar fact that wher- ever the highest grade furniture is made you will see water stains predominating. There are places of course where the oil stains are used in conjunction with water stains ; places where it is absolutely necessary not to raise the grain. This applies also to spirit stains. An intimate knowledge of the stains, and the pro- duction thereof cannot be expected to be had by the foreman finisher. His business is the using of the material and the getting of results. It is also his business to get the best results for the least expenditure of money and labor. His requirements, therefore, are governed by the class of goods, or furniture, turned out in his particular factory. But the more he knows about stains the more readily he can adjust any diffi- culty with which he may be confronted. For water stains the following colors will produce any of the shades now on the market : Black, brown, orange, red and yellow. For the blacks, nigrosine or naphthalene black ; for the brown, Bismark, loutre and seal ; for the brown mahogany, orange and naphthalene black ; for the reds, scarlet, or carmosine. For the CHANGING FINISHING STAIN SHADES 227 orange there are but two shades — orange Y and orange G; in the yellow, naphthalene yellow and aurimine. With these colors any water stain can be made or altered. In oil stains the same shades are used but are specified "oil soluble." The same applies to spirit stains with the exception that the name of the color must be used with the words "spirit soluble." It would be impossible to give the trade names of these various 1 T-£ J! A. T-1- ^j ADDING COLOR colors, as each firm or manufacturer has his own trade ^^ prepared names. stain The foreman finisher must remember that in adding a color to a prepared stain, as a rule it is necessary to increase the liquid or vehicle as well. There are two points to be remembered. One is, changing the shade without changing the strength or depth of color, and the other is increasing the strength. In the former the additional color should first be dissolved and then be added to the already prepared stain which is to be altered. In the latter the strengthening is produced by the addition of color without any more vehicle. It is impossible to give any specific formula or directions that would be applicable to each case. In changing the shade of a finish, to begin with, the finish must be removed. If it is a wax finish, most of the wax can be taken off with turpentine, naphtha, or benzole. This is cheaper than the prepared varnish removers. The removal of the wax coat will bring you down to the shellac; this can be removed with alcohol. In case the wood has been filled, and the piece "^ipting" the is to be finished in a style which carries with it no filler, the pores must be opened and the filler removed with a picking brush. It will be found expedient to give a good sponging with a strong alkaline solution which should be washed off with a clear coat of water, when as a rule the filler will lift. The work is then thoroughly sanded, and should be by this time back to the white state. Care must be taken in doing this work when applying this method to veneers. One cannot be too painstaking and especially careful with the alkaline and water for fear of lifting the veneer. In case you suspect the veneer to be very thin, do more work with danger of "LIFTIN( VENEER 228 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AVOID ANY CUTTING THROUGH OF VENEER TWO LIGHT STAINS ARE BETTER THAN ONE HEAVY the varnish remover, and alcohol, and less with the alkaline solution. Then in sanding, care must be taken not to cut through. Avoid scraping for fear of pro- ducing an uneven surface which would later necessi- tate a good deal of sanding. When the wood has been brought back to the white state, follow the directions for finishing according to the directions in any one of the finishes that may be selected. The matter is sim- plified where the change of shade is for the darker, as from a light golden oak, a cathedral to a fumed or an Early English. Avoid attempting to produce finishes that are not in conformity with the regular styles, such as attempting to make a mahogany on oak. Always see to it that the change is compatible with convention. In changing golden oak to a fumed, little difficulty is encountered, as the finish as a rule does not pene- trate and the removal of the filler is not so exacting. But avoid a job of changing a genuine fumed to a light golden oak, or in fact any kind of a color that is lighter than the original fumed oak. It is well to ascertain whether the fumed is a genuine fumed piece or whether it is stained fumed oak. In mahoganies, some results may be obtained by applying bleaching methods where the shade is to be made lighter. But, here again, you are apt to encoun- ter difficulty when the veneer portion of the furniture is to be treated. It is well to remember that in changing finishes, and especially where the change is to match some other piece, it is safer to apply a weaker stain, and repeat the operation, than to apply a strong stain which may prove too dark. It would be better to make tests on pieces of wood before attempting it on the original work. Always remember, that if the finish after the filler and the first coat of shellac has been applied, should be too light, considerable doctoring can be done by incorporating a bit of color in the second coat of shellac. LIGHT OIL CHAPTER XLII COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM FROM coal tar many products are extracted or pro- duced, either directly or indirectly, which prove to be of considerable interest to staining artisans. We are indebted to the so-called light oil fraction of the tar for the large majority of these products ; some puQpucEs coal few, however, are obtained from the other fractions, tar products The writer will confine his efforts to giving you in detail only the characteristics, uses, etc., of those prod- ucts of special interest to the finisher, all of which incidentally are taken from the light oil fraction. We will mention, however, in passing: Crude and Refined Cresylic and Carbolic Acids, extracted from the carbolic acid or middle oil fraction, which are occasionally used on account of their ex- ceptional solvent and penetrating actions. These actions are stronger and more pronounced than the corresponding actions of some of the lighter distillates of a neutral nature. They cannot be used in all cases, inasmuch as they often "burn" or otherwise affect some delicate shades. Naphthalene and Phenol (Refined Crystal Carbolic Acid) , obtained from the same fraction, offer themselves as bases for some coal tar colors. Anthracene, from the anthracene fraction, is like- some of the wise used in the same manner. coal tar Heavy Tar Oils and Pitches, the former a widely products fractioned crude, is often used as a paint without alteration ; while the latter, which are residues, are used as bases for crude paints or various natures. After the crude coal tar has been fractioned into light oil, middle oil, heavy oil, and pitch, the light oil fraction is further distilled by the general methods of fractioning with a column still heated by steam. The temperature gradually rises until a fraction of liquid comes off in a steady stream at approximately 82'^ centigrade. This is crude benzol and is run into a 230 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW VARIOUS PRODUCTS ARE OBTAINED tank for further refining. The still temperature rises steadily and at about 110'' C. a crude is collected that is called toluol or methyl-benzol. Crudes continue to come off from there to about 145". These are stored to refine xylol or dimethyl-benzol, then to 160"" these give us solvent naphtha, and so on up to 200°, v^^here heavy naphtha comes off. After these products, fol- low the creosotes which cannot be graded as to boiling point, nor be classed as benzols or naphthas. Now we shall go back to our crude benzol. This as you see is crude and possesses considerable odor. This is washed with acids and alkalies until all the impurities are out and then it is redistilled in a more highly developed type of still and we get the water- white benzol as a result. This is drummed off as it comes out of the condenser and an individual analysis shows whether it is benzol pure, lOO^r, 90%, or 50' i. This is done by distilling it in a small flask and condenser, and the per cent that has already distilled over at 100" C. is taken as the basis of grade. For instance, a drum having 100 /o volatile at 100° is called 100% benzol; 90% benzol having evolved at 100° is known as 90%>, and so on down. A drum, of which the sample will show the entire amount volatile within two degrees of 80^, is listed as pure. The crude toluol is refined in the same manner, but is divided only into pure (that which all distills in 2° of its true boiling point 110), and commercial (90% of which is volatilized at 120^ C). Pure xylol is refined to a fraction, all of which boils between 135° C. and 140° C. When a fraction is obtained which tests 90'' distilling at 160°, this form is termed solvent naphtha. Heavy naphtha is not further refined, and with that is offered unrefined benzol and toluol, which are offered to the consumer as straw color. Bear in mind that they are the same as the water whites, but are not given a treatment to remove the impurities which impart a color and odor. There is also a straw color, or unwashed solvent naphtha, that is offered under various trade names, usually determined by the com- pany offering them, "Barrettol," etc. COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 231 This completes the list of benzols that are refined in this country, and as to which is the most suitable to the artisan, it is so largely a matter of personal opinion, that it will probably be best to sum up all the possibilities in each. All of these benzols can be used interchangeably, that is to say, that one will do the work of the other, because they all have approximately the same diluting, thinning or solvent power. They are in respect to each other the same hydrocarbons, but having different boiling points, they have correspondingly different rates of evaporation. With this point in mind, let us consider each separate grade. Pure Benzol — Low boiling point and very quick in evaporating. Should be used as a solvent only where a strong solvent and quick evaporation is desired. This material is particularly designed for the rubber trade and for manufacturing other chemicals, such as aniline, myrrhbane, synthetic phenol, etc. 100% Benzol — Used generally as a solvent where people want to volatilize at the temperature of steam, i. e., 100° C. 90% Benzol — This is the best known grade, has a fairly fast evaporation, and for solvent power and thin- ning properties may be used as the typical benzol. 50% Benzol — Is the same as the preceding, but merely a little slower in evaporation time. Toluol Pure — Designed chiefiy for manufacturing purposes, such as benzoic acid, etc. Toluol Commercial — Water-white as all before, but the boiling point has increased so as to about treble the evaporating time of this grade as compared with the first distillates. In fact, this is slow enough to have some brushing quality, and is for that reason preferred for certain classes of work. The solvent power is relatively the same. Pure Xylol — Designed for drug and scientific pur- poses. Solvent Naphtha — A water-white product, quite slow in evaporation ; in fact, more nearly approaching turpentine with a corresponding increase in brushing quality than all others gone before, and here the boiling BENZOLS REFINED IN THIS COUNTRY 232 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS BENZOLS point has increased sufficiently to raise the flash point to a point of safety. The flash points of the others are very low. Straw Colors — The properties of each of these may be described by referring them to each correspond- ing water-white: Straw color benzol corresponds to 90% benzol; straw color toluol corresponds to com- mercial toluol; crude solvent (Barrettol) corresponds to solvent naphtha. It should be remembered that they will do the same work, but that their color and odor make them less desirable at times. Heavy Naphtha — The heaviest one of the coal tar naphthas possesses a high flash and a dark color. It has still the same strong solvent power as the pre- ceding ones, and the same characteristic odor. From this discussion it will be seen that several of the products bear very general likeness to each other and that their behavior toward other materials is gen- erally the same, consequently the most conspicuous variation is the one we are inclined to group them by, and that property is the one that the artisan must look to also as his method of determining which he is to use. I refer to boiling point or evaporating time. We can eliminate certain grades immediately, and by choosing the following grades we will include one of each type that will determine the benzols suitable to the artisan : BENZOLS BEST SUITED TO ARTISAN T-. T> ^x ^ [90 '/c benzol. Fast Benzols o4- i u i I Straw color benzol. T./r T3^^T,,^T r. \ Commercial toluol. Medium Benzols -I -,. , ^ , ^ [ Straw color toluol. Solvent naphtha. Slow Benzols Heavy naphtha. Crude solvent (Barrettol) It will be seen that by ignoring the pure grades, it is possible to eliminate the higher priced articles. While these are quite worth the difference in cost, as a rule the ones mentioned are sufficiently worthy for COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 233 the purposes they are used for to be called suitable. As to the uses the material may be put to, it is hard to define any limits, because some one individual may prefer it for purposes where other solvents would do just as well. Sometimes where it would be by far the best, the other solvents still have the precedence; but as a general thing, the uses may be grouped under the specialties which are best enumerated as follows : Paint and varnish removers consist largely of ben- zol, and the consumption of such compounds is very large in this country and the demand is divided between alcohol and benzol. We refer now to the neutral and patented removers which are on the market. A great many individuals and manufacturers use the acid or carbolic varieties, thus avoiding certain of the patents, but at the same time a great deal of benzol goes for this sort of a use. Also a fast benzol is used by a great many, and recommended by not a few chemists and manufacturers for cleaning up the surface after the remover has been allowed to do its work and been wiped off. This is particularly advantageous when a remover carrying a paraffine blanket has been used, as the benzol penetrates the pores of the wood and tend to remove the wax that has remained in the fiber, which is desirable when the surface is to be revar- nished. Benzol as a thinning agent in bronzing liquids has considerable vogue. The varnish varieties of bronze and aluminum paints are frequently thinned with the benzol, because it is possible to get some brushing quality and at the same time use a liquid which con- tains absolutely no free impurities which would tend to discolor the powder. Also the gravities, being con- siderably heavier than the petroleum naphthas, sup- port the heavy pigments so much better that the liability of caking is decreased. The cotton or banana liquid vehicles carry very often considerable benzol, because of its cheapness and the fact that the coal tar naphtha imparts a certain silkiness to a cotton film. When gun-cotton or scrap celluloid is dissolved in amyl- acetate, alcohol, or similar material, it can be diluted with the benzol to a point where the cotton does not VARIOUS USES OF BENZOLS BENZOL AS A DILUENT 234 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM OIL SOLUBLE STAIN OUTLET FOR BENZOL HOW BENZOL FIGURES IN VARNISH coagulate^ thus being considerably cheaper and at the same time reducing the liability of carrying moisture into the mixture as is possible with some other diluents, which have an aflfinity for water. The oil soluble stain is a very considerable outlet for benzol, and really, when thought over, is a very natural one, since the oil soluble stains are made from aniline, which is in turn made from benzol; and it is generally agreed that it is quite natural to dissolve one substance in a material of a similar nature. In this way the permeability of the anilines is increased and the solution can be made much more readily. A large point in the favor of coal tar naphtha is of course its penetration. In fact, it is quite remarkable that a spirit stain, having been treated to make it soluble in oil, may be put into benzol quite to the limit of solvent power, and yet the stain when applied will penetrate a very closely grained wood to a considerable depth ; in fact, to a much greater depth than if the material were dissolved in alcohol originally. Some claim that anilines thinned with benzol take on a certain tone or softness, but since there is no chemical reason for this, it is believed it is largely a matter of personal opinion. Since we know that many people using benzol become quite attached to it and form very decided prejudices in its favor, we can readily understand this attitude. Of course, there is also the oil stain in which pigment colors are used, where benzol on account of its gravity, penetration, and brushing qualities is to be desired, as well as in the real dyes. Varnishes and the demand that they make upon the benzol market in a way is hard to describe, since a great deal of benzol may go into varnishes in the form of turpentine substitutes. That is, people who make turpentine substitutes for their own use may take a percentage of turpentine for odor and brushing quality, and a per cent of benzol for solvent power, penetra- tion, and the like, and the rest of benzine for cheap- ness. A great deal of varnish is probably thinned with a material like this, but it does not warrant calling benzol a thinner for varnishes in the sense that you COAL TAR PRODUCTS IN FINISHING ROOM 235 would turpentine or benzine. We refer to the oleo- resinous varnishes. Spirit varnishes of course carry a great deal of benzol, because the solvent power of benzol for damar and rosin is Very marked. Manila is cut very readily by the use of alcohol and benzol, as are a good many of the hard copals. This feature of benzol is a remark- able one and as yet not very clearly explained. In fact, a separate group of solvents might be called the conjunctive solvents; benzol with alcohol, with acetone, with amyl-acetate, and various other solvents would seem to form a mixture with a solvent power greater than the individual powers of any of its constituent parts. In the enamels and japans the use of a small amount of one of the refined benzols is recommended by some authorities ; "the complete evaporation" quality of the thinner in question being the point that prompts such a recommendation. Considering in such a case that when the enamel or japan has been properly thinned and applied in a satisfactory manner the benzol has completed its work; the fact that upon drying (fast or slow), this thinner leaves behind no oily or gummy residue to mar the resultant finish, should appeal as an advantage. This outlet for coal tar thinners has never proven to be a large one. The characteristic odor of the distillates, which to some people appears unpleasant, has been one drawback. This applies espe- cially in cases where oven drying, or hot room drying, is resorted to. FURTHER USES OF BENZOL NEEDS PROPER SURFACE CHAPTER XLIII ENAMELING FURNITURE ENAMELING furniture, whether upon new or old work, must have the surface in proper condition, well filled, smooth, and shellaced; then sanded and dusted. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ The finest finish may be obtained in the following manner: When surface is in proper condition, apply two coats of enamel priming white, the second coat being slightly tinted with the finishing color, if the finishing coats are not white. Allow 24 hours for each coat to dry and then sand lightly with 00 sand- paper. Next apply a coat of enamel of the color de- sired for the finished work. Flow on thin with a chis- eled varnish brush. Avoid "lapping" by not brush- ing over the enamel after it has begun to set. Should enamel not work freely, add a very little turpentine. Allow 36 hours for enamel to harden and then rub with curled hair or with pumice stone and water. Apply the next and final coat in the same manner. If a regular enamel gloss finish is desired, this is all that is necessary. A rubbed finish may be imparted by rubbing smooth with powdered pumice stone and rubbing oil, or water. Use a piece of rubbing felt kept well saturated with the oil or water and dip in pumice stone, rubbing sur- "lapping" to face smooth and removing brush marks. Allow enamel to stand three to four days before rubbing. A polished finish may be obtained by polishing with powdered rotten stone and polishing oil, or water. Use soft cloth or cotton waste, kept well saturated with the oil or water and dip in rotten stone, rubbing surface until a high lustre appears. Allow the rubbed finish to stand at least 24 hours before polishing. An average finish may be obtained by applying two coats of primer and one coat of enamel, as described, the last coat being left in the enamel gloss. An inexpensive finish may be had by applying one BE AVOIDED 238 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM INEXPENSIVE FINISH PARCHMENT FINISH coat of enamel by flowing on evenly with a chiseled varnish brush. Avoid lapping by not brushing over enamel after it has begun to set. Should the enamel not work freely, add a very little pure turpentine, but not enough to dim the lustre. This finish will not do if the enamel is lighter in color than the old finish ; in that event, follow directions for an average finish. Parchment is an innovation among enamel finishes. The eflfect produced is somewhat similar to the stip- pled wall effects produced by an interior decorator, and some very novel and beautiful finishes have been produced by the process. The usual method followed is to give the work two coats of flat undercoat, followed by a coat, or sometimes two coats, of the desired shade of enamel. A paste is now prepared of a color which will har- monize well with the enamel. This paste is formed of pigment colors ground in oil, thinned with turpentine to a thin paint, and a little japan added to serve as a binder. A cloth, free from lint, is now crumpled in the hand, and dipped into a little of the thin paint which has been spread on a piece of glass. The cloth is now tamped lightly on the enamel sur- face, so as to leave an impression. The tamping is usually done with a twisting effect also, which serves to give a better appearance. The finish, for medium grade work, is complete with the above process. High class work requires a coat of pale rubbing varnish over the enamel and stip- pled parts, this coat to be rubbed down to a satin finish. CHAPTER XLIV LACQUER ENAMELS FOR lacquer enamel finishes the wood should be prepared by applying one to two coats of a combination filler and surfacer, the number of coats depending upon the nature of the wood. For this ^^^ lacquer . A f • j> 1 1 SURFACER work a lacquer pigmented surfacer is preferable to an oil surfacer for the following reasons : It has greater adhesion ; it presents a harder surface ; it can be ap- plied and dried in three to four hours ready for an enamel coat as against 20 to 30 hours for an oil sur- facer; being closely allied to lacquer, enamels require less enamel coats and enamel adheres better to it; no sealer is necessary over lacquer surfacer as in the case of an oil surfacer to serve as protection against the action of enamel, the enamel tending to blister the oil surfacer. Oil surfacers are very soft and chalk readily. In deep grooves they bridge when enamel is applied due to contraction of the enamel film and lack of adhesion of the surfacer. Oil surfacers can be used to advan- tage in end wood and pitted surfacers after which the lacquer surfacer should be applied. For spraying, lacquer surfacers should be thinned 30 per cent using 50 pounds pressure. Oil surfacer, thinned 50 to 50 with 30 pounds pres- sure, for deep corners, require larger quantities of thinner. After sanding for leveling and smoothing, enamel is applied. Enamel should be thinned 20 to 30 per cent using 50 pounds pressure. Over lacquer surfacer only one or two coats of ^^^^ enamel enamel are necessary, whereas two to three coats of necessary enamel are necessary over oil surfacer on account of the color and softness of the latter. The first coat of enamel will attack the oil surfacer forming blisters LACQUERING ON METAL 240 PROBLEMS OF THE FIN ISHING ROOM which have to be sanded down. The second and third coats of enamel will insure a hard surface in case the oil surfacer is used. For the lacquer surface only a color coat is necessary. In case of flat enamels buffing is necessary for gloss if gloss is desired. Lustrous enamels can be used as a final coat to eliminate buffing. Time of drying between coats holds true with enamels the same as with lacquers — two to three hours. The spray should be regulated and operated in the same manner. For metal parts an oil surfacer is desirable for fill- ing the pores and leveling off. Lacquer surfacer is too hard and brittle for this purpose, but it can be used over the oil surfacer as a hardening coat and a pre- paratory coat for the enamel. Otherwise a sealer is necessary in some cases between the surfacer and the enamel coat to prevent the enamel attacking the sur- facer. Very often an intermediate thin coat of shellac is necessary for adhesion of enamel. Other details for metal finish are the same as for wood. CHAPTER XLV SPIRIT STAINS IN FINISHING THE very title of these stains describes them. Generally they are a solution of spirit soluble anilines which are classified as basic colors and which are generally not fast to light. The durability of their color necessitates stains of this nature to be well protected with coats of shellac, keeping out all of the air. When subjected to sunlight, they will fade, no matter how much finishing has been done over them. There are places where their use is permitted, and there are occasions where the employment of spirit solutions is the only method thus far obtained for pro- ducing the required effects and results. Spirit stains are made by dissolving such colors or combinations as will produce the desired shade. Little filling is done where they are employed. Wood alcohol is the more common solvent, with denatured alcohol and grain alcohol sometimes used. Heat is never em- ployed. Loading of the liquid will cause bronzing, which is the congealing and drying of the aniline on the surface, because it cannot follow the alcohol vehicle in its penetration, and because the evaporation exceeds the speed of penetration thus leaving it in a thin film on the surface to which it has been applied. Covering spirit stains with shellacs must be done quickly and without restroking the surface. The same applies to the application of the stain itself. Spirit stains have one advantage, which is that they do not raise the grain, but produce quick and desirable results where thev are not exposed to air and light, such as the interior of drawers and case work. PROCESS TO BE FOLLOWED COOL PLACE CHAPTER XLVI THE CARE OF STAIN MATERIAL A GOOD rule, for any finishing department, is to insist on finishing material being kept in sealed packages^ Liquids must always be well corked ; kept in a moderately cool place. Liquid solvents will ^^^^ liquid evaporate and the lighter portions which evaporate ^^^J^J^ are many times the stronger factor in solvent qualities and thus the remaining liquids are not as efiicient as the original. In mixed dry stains, where it is possible for the mixture to be made up of coarser and finer powders, there is danger from the coarser powders finding their way to the top of the package through the continual vibration of the factory. In that case the removal of the upper portions would not be an exact representa- tion of the general contents of the package. Such stain material should be shaken thoroughly and care should be taken that the mixture is complete before employing any part thereof. In chemicals, especially those in crystalline form, some may be hydroscopic, others may be deliquescent, by which is meant, that one absorbs moisture from the air, and the other gives off moisture, so that where small quantities are employed the actual amount of the chemical might vary considerably had they not been properly cared for. Uniformity of product is an essen- tial. Upon the stain product depends the entire suc- cess of the finish. It should always be remembered that it is wise to keep in an air-tight package a sample of the original stain, especially with the anilines, so that as each new batch is obtained it may be compared with the original. A simple matter for example: Weigh out five grains, dissolve it in a pint of water. Then weigh out five grains of the original, dissolve it likewise. Pour the contents in separate cylinder glasses of like diameter, compare the color. For a check on this comparison, take pieces of white blotting KEEP SAMPLE OF ORIGINAL STAIN 244 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM MANY STAINS VARY IN COLOR VALUE USE OF SUL- PHATE OF IRON IMPORTANT paper and immerse them in the solution. They must compare both when wet and when dry. Where vegetable extracts and dyestuffs are em- ployed, it is more essential to keep a sample of the original solution. These products often vary in their color value, and unless they are matched with the original by either employing more or less in the making of the second solution, and thus preparing an exact duplicate, the stain so produced is apt to fall off in shade. CAUTION WHEN USING IRON IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS IN THE PRO- DUCTION OF STAIN The most common form of iron found in the market is sulphate of iron, commonly known as copperas. (So named because it has a greenish color.) This, however, is one of the most unstaple forms to use. When employed, the following precaution should be taken. When employing sulphate of iron in the crystal- line form, see to it that only the fresh crystals are used. This will be of a glossy appearance. When exposed to the air, the water of crystallization evapor- ates, leaving a white powder on the exterior of crystal. This represents much more iron than the same weight of crystal and thus the shade of the stain will be greatly changed. It will be darker, which may not be noticed at first, but if it is allowed to continue by the use of the same stain made up repeatedly, the drying out process at the same time increases the amount of iron in each batch, finally these will be so much different in the color produced, that one would not imagine them to be of one and the same formula. It is to be recommended in establishing new for- mulas, to use the dried sulphate of iron. This is a staple compound and none of the foregoing difficulties will be encountered. In stains that are made up for immediate use, the standardized solutions of iron are recommended. Solu- tion chloride of iron U. S. P. or solution sulphate of iron U. S. P. are undoubtedly the most readily obtained. A very small quantity will produce immediate effect on practically all woods, especially those rich in tannin. CHAPTER XLVII FINISHING GUM AND ITS USES THE uses that gum wood are put to today are quite diversified. It is put out as Circassian, and as mahogany, but now there is a strong disposition to give it a shade and put it out under a style of its walnut own. At the same time it makes up beautifully when crystals stained to produce the same as that of the adopted employed color for American walnut. The stain material em- ployed is nothing more than walnut crystals, and imported dye, universally known to the trade, and a very weak solution at that. The dye is prepared by dissolving any given quantity in boiling hot water, allowing it to cool and then passing it through a filter. This concentrated solution is then diluted until it pro- duces the desired shade. One coat of stain is all that is applied. From this step on the procedure is the same as in any finishing problem. Whether it is gum wood or Circassian that is to be finished as Circassian walnut, the question of the last coat always spells lacquer. Circassian, as we know, is finished in natural. Gum is only stained to bring it to its natural Circassian color. Some call it over- coming the red in the gum. The final achievement must be an exact reproduction of the genuine article. What can be produced by the use of wax is known to prq^uces bet- every manufacturer. The use of lacquer remains an ^^j^ than nat- unsettled opinion. Its use is not new, having first been ural finish employed on a finish put out on gum as satin walnut and in connection with verda green. Gum wood, with a very sm^all amount of stain, will make a much more pleasing appearance than if finished natural. Without the stain, it takes on various tones of cold gray which is difficult to describe, but which it is certain does not have the pleasing effect which comes with warm tones which are more desirable and will wear better. Therefore, the application of this brown overcomes this possible difficulty, and as the wood ages 246 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ONE COAT STAIN FOR VAN DYKE it tends to mellow down the cold effect that the gum wood is prone to assume. This does not necessarily cover the process of staining gum wood when it is used as a substitute for American walnut. In other words, the gum wood used in this sphere is stained to match the prevailing style of American walnut, and finished in the same manner. The main point is transparency, such as one wants on Circassian finishes. By Circassian finishes, is meant, of course, all the kindred kinds. When finished as Van Dyke, and the formula pre- pared and ready for the staining, a one coat stain is preferable. Whether it be a water stain, spirit stain, or oil stain, it is not to be filled. White shellac is used rather thin, sanded lightly, and the varnish coats. Any style of final finish may be employed. When finished as Van Dyke, and the formula pub- lished employed, the directions there given will bring the proper results. This is true when finished as moss brown, verda green or any of the other finishes that may be applied to gum. CHAPTER XLVIII SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS WE WILL admit that a very important part of the finisher's daily routine is the matching of colors sent to him representing the style and shade of finish for a special order. Undoubtedly, the 1 ji J • ^^^ jX 11 i.- -P 4-1, IMPORTANCE OF house that is selling the goods has a portion ot the j^^^ching order placed with some other factory — yes, possibly ^^q^or two or three. It is up to each finisher making a portion of the order to make as close a match and duplication of the sample sent him as possible. A great amount of time is thus taken in experimental work. The big mistake, however, is that these matchings are hurriedly made and the different treatments are not permitted to ripen. Thus the sample is not correctly matched be- cause after it has stood for a week the color may change considerably. Therefore, if the operation is hurriedly done, although the match at the time may be perfect, the regular work that comes through may be several shades off. In my experiments I have found that time is gained by giving the stain coat the same amount of time as it would receive in the regular line of work. The pro- cedure is about as follows: Having had the advantage of matching hundreds of boards, it follows one gets an idea of how the color was made. Every time a new sample comes in, it is procedure in easy to turn back and, by comparison, pick out the matching sample that comes nearest to matching, and then change the formula enough to produce a similar shade to the new board just received. But in a factory the proposition may be somewhat different. The foreman may have been working on a limited line of colors. Again he will not have on hand a large variety of shades to make up his matching. But if he has been following these articles, he undoubtedly is familiar with the few absolutely requisite color products, and the chemicals, and the anilines, and has them on hand. I have stated that time is saved by giving the stain 248 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WORK FROM DARK TO LIGHT TESTING SAMPLES coat the regular amount of time to dry and to set. This applies to either water, spirit or oil stains. But if each matching was to be given this amount of time the customer would be calling for the goods long before the shade was matched by the finisher. Th^efore, I recommend that first the finisher make a strong solu- tion which he knows is too dark, and then make 10 more dilutions, until he has one which he knows is right. You will see at once that there will be 10 inter- mediate points. Now then, when these 10 little boards dry out it is an easy matter to select the one which matches closest. Where a two-stain proposition is to be handled, the same method is recommended, for the second coat is prepared in the same way and applied in the same routine and permitted to dry. But it will be seen that the 10 original pieces can be made into a hundred matchings, as each one of the 10 can be coated with the 10 of the second stain. When you first look at a proposition of this kind it may stagger you, and you will say to yourself, "Why, this man wants me to make 100 test samples." Not so at all. You lay the first 10 little pieces, say a board four inches wide and 12 inches long. Lay the 10 of them alongside, then take your 10 dilutions of the second coat and brush over the entire 10. With a lead pencil mark each board "top." Then, from the top down, you cross the ten boards 10 times with each one representing first solution, then with the first dilution, and so on until you have 10 boards, the first coat of which has been crossed 10 times, with the result that you have 100 squares made out of two stains, showing 100 different shades. The chances are very good that you will have some diflficulty in selecting from a few the one that suits you best. But don't stop here. Finish up the entire 10 in the same manner as the board sent in was finished. You know how to test this sample as to its finish, whether it is wax, varnish or just shellac. Find this out and then proceed to finish the board in the same manner. It might be well for me to say, however, that if the wood was filled, you have got to put on the filler and establish in your own mind the depth of color of this SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS 249 material. Fillers don't vary so very much and if they do, make up your mind that there are only three or four pigments usually employed in their makeup. Of course, the kind of wood employed makes a good deal of difference. You are supposed to have selected for your samples the same kind of wood, as near the grain as possible, and, of course, you found out whether it was red or white oak. In short, you have gone through all these preliminaries and have filled the wood and are now prepared to put on the final finish. Go ^'^^ ^^ "^^^^ right along, put on the shellac, give it the regular time, ^ifferenceT ^ then varnish, let it dry and finish to match the sample. Now it is up to the final matching. Carefully examine the little places. You have numbered the boards, you have them all marked "top." Put them in the same position and select the one which matches to your own satisfaction. Then you back up and for argument's sake, find that it is number six on the fifth board. The first board represented your first solution. You may have added 5 or 10 per cent of water for each dilu- tion. Then multiply the strength of your stain by the number of the board, and it must prove up to strength of the original board. If you know the amount of stain powder used in the first solution, you will see how readily you can figure out the strength of your fifth board. This covers the first coat. But you have the sixth in the second coat which works out the same way. Now suppose you don't do it on the percentage basis at all and we will say you took a quart of water and added to it an ounce of stain working on powder. You found this was much too light. I would percentage BASIS here suggest, then, that you take a half pint of water and to it add first a quarter ounce of powder, which is the same strength as an ounce would be to a quart. Then gradually add 30 grains of powder until you have a shade that you know is darker than it really ought to be. I say 30 grains because 30 grains is half of a dram, and it keeps your figures more in direct relation to the weights you are employing. Conse- quently, when you come to figure it will enable you to avoid the many little pitfalls which are due to errors in calculation, especially when you are increasing your 250 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PROCEDURE CONTINUED ASCERTAINING CORRECT LENGTH formula in weights and measures. Then again you must remember that the amount of water is going to increase with each dilution. You take eight ounces of water to begin with and suppose that each dilution is made by the use of one more additional ounce of water. When you get through you will have 17 ounces of water in the 10 dilutions. The 17 ounces of water will repre- sent the same amount of powder that was contained in the original eight. As a rule, I have found that you usually find by this method the fourth, fifth and sixth dilutions as bringing out the shades. Of course, you thoroughly understand that your judgment of the col- ors selected has been correct, but if it was the fifth dilution and you have used the quarter of an ounce, then you have a quarter of an ounce of stain powder in 13 ounces of water, from which it is easily cal- culated how many grains would be to the gallon, for you would divide the number of grains by 13 which gives you the number of grains in each ounce. Then you would multiply by the number of ounces con- tained in a gallon and thus arrive at the amount of stain powder to be employed to each gallon of water. But suppose that the powder or color material does not give you the desired shade, and it thus becomes necessary to try out several colors in order to produce the shade. Proceed in the same manner and if you wish to assure yourself that you have selected colors that will make the shade, take a graduate, add a little of the one in which you have the most confidence, and then shade it up by the addition of the other two or three as the case may be, until this preliminary test convinces you that you have the correct components. Then start out to ascertain the correct strength. Do it in the same manner. Take the 10 boards, coat each one with the first solution, cross it with the second solu- tion. Go back to the first way with the third solution and so on unil all the solutions have been applied. Somewhere in the square you will have your match. Then you figure back for the amount of powder that you require. Now, if you wish to prove this, weigh out the amount of powder shown you by the key, and dis- solve it in the amount of water, but be sure not to fall SOLUTION SYSTEM IN MATCHING STAIN COLORS 251 into this pitfall. The most natural thing to do is to find out -the amount of powder and forget to multiply the amount of water employed. In other words, each color had been dissolved in the same amount of water. Therefore, it becomes necessary to multiply the amount of water by the number of colors you have employed and a slight error becomes greater when it comes absolutely essential to see to it that a complete solution of the color material has been made. If you wish to be absolutely certain, put a bit of cotton in a small IT^!^,^J^^ funnel and run the solution through this. If no sedi- ment is left on the cotton, you can safely go ahead, but if there is sediment, throw the cotton and the sedi- ment into the graduate and vessel and agitate the mix- ture until the solution is complete. Always bear in mind that a slight error becomes greater when it comes to make up a formula into gallon lots. In a chemical formula, and the one now uppermost in the trade is fumed oak, I strongly recommend doing the varying in the bichromate of potash rather than in the alkali, such as caustic, carbonate of potash or ammonia, as the effect of the alkali is practically gov- erned by the one ounce to the gallon formula, and the variance of the shade is more readily produced by the strength of the bichromate. Where a first coat of tannic or pyrogallic acid is given, increase the strength in the pyrogallic acid rather than in the strength of the tannic acid, and bear in mind that the atmosphere has a whole lot to do in turning these chemicals brown. That pyrogallic acid mixed with an alkali turns brown, and that some of the most beautiful shades of brown can be produced by mixing a solution of pyrogallic acid with carbonate of soda or potash, and sulphite of soda, coating the wood with this and entirely omitting the bichromate, is true. To those who are not using a fuming box, let me sug- gest that they make a few experiments. In the few preceding sentences, we have told the trade something. We have told more than is realized, we believe, and if the manufacturer be alert he can work upon the fore- going suggestions to his own surprise and satisfaction. EFFECT OF ATMOSPHERE ON CHEMICALS 252 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AGE OF FINISH OF GOLDEN OAK AFFECTS MATCHING In golden oak, where a board is sent in to be matched, endeavor to make up your mind whether it has been of recent finish or whether it is an old sample. Make up your mind whether it is one in which the effect has been produced by the use of a colored filler, by which I mean a filler stain in which some of the stain material has been incorporated. This you can usually tell by closely examining the flake and the smooth portions of the wood. Don't look at the pores at all. If the smooth portions present an uniformity of color, you may conclude that the piece was originally stained and then filled. And again you know that prac- tically all the golden oak is made by the use of an oil stain. Asphaltum being the base, the color is aug- mented by the use of an oil soluble yellow, brown and black. A good quality of asphaltum is required, and in a case of this kind, proceed about as follows : Dilute the asphaltum with an equal part of turpen- tine. Make the solution of the three colors, that is three separate solutions, all of a known strength. Then add to each enough of the asphaltum solution until you have the shade, judging the shade by the flakes only, applying the stain and wiping oflF with a rag which has been wet with naphtha. Add just enough naphtha to take off the stain clean, for you will find that this stain will look like a brown varnish. You will also notice that by the addition of colors to the asphaltum solution you have diluted this solution, all of which, must be taken into your calculations when making up the larger formula. When this formula is produced and you are ready to go ahead, make up the stain and instead of wiping off with a rag, fill it with an uncol- ored filler. The spreading of the filler will take up the excess stain, and color the filler as it is rubbed into the pores. Then, of course, when this is done, clean up. Care must be taken in matching to go very easy on the yellow, depending largely upon the asphaltum to produce this yellow shade. While golden oak is supposed to be more uniform color, you will find by observing factory samples much variance in shade is seen, and the nicety of match can be made by following the above suggestions. I CHAPTER XLIX SURFACING AND VARNISHING N ORDER to insure a durable finish goods should never be surfaced until the filler is thoroughly dry. This usually takes from 24 to 48 hours. Even if one is in a hurry for the goods, it will be better to make sure that the filler is dry because if it is not and the ,„^ ^^^ surfacmg and varnishing proceeded with, much more time will be lost through the imperfect oxidation of the oil in the filler and the effect this will have upon the subsequent coats than has been gained. Filler that has been subjected to a temperature of 70 degrees F. for 24 hours may appear to be dry, and if the goods are a cheap grade and will receive only one coat of varnish it might be safe to go ahead and coat them up. In fact, some factories making a cheap line of goods coat all of their stuff within 24 hours after it is filler. But a large percentage of these same shops have considerable trouble with "printing." These factories find it almost impossible to pack their goods for shipment so that the impress of the wrapping paper is not left upon the varnish. Some shops making a medium and high grade line are trying to crowd their goods ahead quickly during the early stages of the finishing process, and no matter what time they give their varnish to dry they importance have trouble with printing. BEm ''donT'' If there is one time more than another when ^^^^^^ patience should be considered a virtue in the finishing room that time is during the early stages of the finish- ing process. It is now the foundation of the future beauty of the goods is being laid and much depends on how the work is done. These remarks apply of course to factories that keep their finishing rooms at a tem- perature of about 70 degrees F. Where the highest quality of a durable finish is desired the installation of a high temperature drying system may well be con- sidered. Goods finished a quarter of a century ago in a temperature of 70 degrees still look well. Will the 254 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AVOID GREAT TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN VARNISH WHAT IS THE BEST SURFACER? same thing be said 25 years hence of goods finished today in a temperature of 130 degrees? If we will not be able to do so it will not be because the system is wrong but because we have applied the system to the wrong material. Varnish makers of the past decade have been en- deavoring to produce a varnish that will give good results in a temperature of 70 degrees, and suddenly and without any change in its composition to submit it to a temperature of 130 degrees is certainly a problematical experiment. Unless varnish, after it is thoroughly dry, retains a certain amount of its original elasticity it cannot withstand the varying tempera- tures to which it will be subjected. We know that varnish that is subjected to a very low temperature within a few hours after being applied loses its elas- ticity much sooner than would otherwise be the case, and very often cracks before it leaves the factory. Whether extreme heat will produce a similar result has yet to be determined and the question cannot be settled for some time to come. However, in the natural order of things, the more rapid systems for the finishing room that are knocking at our doors must be admitted sooner or later, and they are bound to stay with us. When varnish makers take the new order of things into consideration and adapt their wares to it, the system of rapid processes in the finishing room will be recognized as the standard of up- to-dateness and finishers will listen to the veteran's tales of today and wonder at the snail-like pace of that bygone age. That time is coming. What constitutes the best surfacer is a question that has received serious consideration in*many quarters for several years. For many years shellac was the stand- ard surfacer for all kinds of work, but when the price rose from 15 to 65 cents per pound, a demand was created for a more moderate priced article and the varnish surfaces came into being. But varnish sur- facers have not always given entire satisfaction. This was not because in the nature of the case a varnish sur- facer was not a good thing, but because many surfacers were made of cheap materials and were used on work SURFACING AND VARNISHING 255 for which they were entirely unsuited. The majority of varnish surfacers contain a pigment and for that reason must be used with extreme caution on woods that are easily clouded. On oak a varnish pigment surfacer is preferable to shellac. This applies only to such oak finishes as are bodied up with varnish and are stained with a stain which turpentine will not lift. Turpentine stains must be held down with a coat of thin shellac before they can be filled with oil ^^^^^ ^,^„^rj^„ filler, and the stam that will lift with an oil filler will surfacers lift with a varnish surfacer. A varnish surfacer may contain be used, however, as a first coater over such stains pigment after the wood has been filled. Every finisher can make his own surfacer, which is a comparatively simple matter, and by making it him- self he can have a high grade article at the price of an inferior one. In making surfacer it is well to use the same grade of varnish that will be used for bodying up. It has been diflficult to understand the process of reasoning by which men come to the conclusion that there is some advantage in laying a foundation of cheap material. The axiom that "the chain is no stronger than its weak- est link" is as true here as elsewhere. A heavily coated piano may have the under coats of varnish badly cracked while the outer coats are yet good. But so far as the appearance is concerned, the outer coats may be of the same material as the under ones, because the cracks show through, and soon the outer coats are use same cracked also. grade for One of the disadvantages of a varnish surfacer is that it ought not to be coated over the same day that it is applied, whereas shellac may be coated over inside of a few hours. If one will put his stuff through the finishing room in a systematic way, this seeming dis- advantage will not be noticed. Allow a given time between every operation, then every job will be ready for the next process when it is required, and it will be required when it is ready. The following formula has been tested for several years and when made of good materials it has no superior : SURFACER AS FOR BODY 256 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TESTED FORMULA FOR SURF ACER LESS VARNISH USED THAN WHEN SHELLAC IS USED 1 gallon Varnish. 14 gallon Brown Japan. 1 quart Pure Turpentine. 6 pounds very fine Silex. Mix the first three liquids and allow them to stand for half an hour or so and then put in the silex. It is well to sift the silex to remove any foreign substance and reduce any lumps. Allow the mixture to stand 24 hours; strain through book muslin and reduce with benzine as required to the proper consistency. When using keep it well stirred from the bottom. The proper proportion of silex to japan and varnish depends on the body of these two parts. In the fore- going formula it is one pound of silex to a quart of the liquids. That proportion is correct for a varnish with a good body. The quantity may be increased or de- creased as the actual working out may prove to be required. It should dry flat, but not too dead. If too dead, less silex should be used. When the proper pro- portion of the ingredients has been used, it will sand almost as easy as shellac, and produce a beautiful, smooth surface for the varnish. It does not require to be brushed more than enough to spread it out, and it may be put on as heavy as one may wish without danger of crawling. One of the chief advantages of a surfacer of this kind is that being of the same material as the varnish, the two will unite much more perfectly than will shellac and varnish, and there is less danger of the latter chipping off'. A surfacer of this kind has no equal for medium close-grained woods such as curly birch and bird's-eye maple which are to be finished natural color. In addi- tion to making a perfect surface for the varnish, it fills up all the minute pores of the wood and, consequently, less varnish is required than when shellac is used. For these finishes the surfacer is applied on the bare wood and no filler is required. To finish maple stained mahogany, this surfacer may be applied to the stained wood without filling, but it would be advisable to add a little extra varnish to prevent clouding. The pores of stained wood, if a SURFACING AND VARNISHING 257 spirit or water stain has been used, are more open than when the wood is in the white and are liable to draw the varnish away from the pigment and leave it opaque and gray. But if a first class job is desired a better way would be to apply to the stained wood a coat of very thin shellac before the surfacer is applied. This will enable one to make a perfectly smooth foundation for the surfacer. The shellac will seal up the minute cells of the wood, and when sanded will remove any fuzz which the stain may have raised. A foundation staining for the varnish prepared in this way will require much maple as less varnish and less rubbing to produce a high class mahogany finish. What is known as Surfaced Oak or Golden Oak Finish is an imitation oak finish with the figure of quartered oak printed on the wood. Some factories have trouble with the figure chipping off. Where this trouble is experienced, the cause is usually in the fact that the printing was done on a coat of surfacer in- stead of on the bare wood. This imitation oak is best made on wood which shows very little of its own figure and has very little color. Birch and maple and sometimes basswood and other light colored woods are used usually. The wood is not stained, because to do so would draw out its figure. The color is built up with the various coats. To prevent these colored coats from drawing out the natural figure of the wood, a coat of pale, colorless surfacer is applied to the bare wood, and the color is built on top of this. Some finishers put this pale sur- facer on before the stock is put through the printing ii^itation machine. That is a mistake. The better way would be to do the printing on the bare wood and put the pale surfacer on top of the printing. In this way the print- ing will last as long as the wood lasts and there will be no trouble from chipping. When the printing comes in between two coats a good union is not formed ; hence the frequent trouble. While this varnish pigment surfacer is adapted for a great many woods and finishes, there is one wood for which we cannot recommend it, and that is mahogany. It may be used even on this wood if it is to be finished 258 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PIGMENT SURFACER NOT GOOD ON MAHOGANY THE USE OF BLEACHED SHELLAC a very light color, and the surfacer is made with a very- small quantity of the pigment. But this is not desir- able. The best surfacer for mahogany is bleached shellac. This should not be used very heavy ; not more than two pounds of gum to the gallon of solvent. Methylated spirits or denatured alcohol, if pure grain alcohol cannot be obtained, should be used as a solvent. In using bleached shellac the utmost care must be exercised. Bleached shellac is a very perishable article, as a result of the method of producing it. It is ordinary orange shellac from which the yellow matter has been chemically extracted. The chemicals used are chloride of lime, muriatic acid and soda. These are washed out as far as possible after the bleaching process is com- pleted, after which the shellac is dried. But it is not always possible to wash out every particle of these chemicals, and these particles that remain bring about in time a condition known as "calsing," and the shellac becomes insoluble, or only partially so. This condition may be detected by straining through book muslin or cheese cloth. If it is found to contain particles of shellac that have not dissolved within a reasonable time, it is not safe to use it. The use of such shellac will produce a milky cast to the finish which will show distinctly in a clear light. Bleached shellac should not be applied in a cool, damp atmosphere. If the humidity is high it will not work freely and when drying is apt to show white in places, especially where it has lapped when being brushed on. This whiteness will disappear when the shellac becomes dry, but it may not resume its clear- ness and is likely to give the finish a clouded effect. To prevent this, raise the temperature of the room until the humidity is below the danger point. This can be determined by the way the shellac works. Shellac should be applied quickly and with as little brushing as possible. A sandpaper with a very fine cutting surface and soft back should be used for sanding shellac. We can- not give the grade because all makes of paper are not graded alike. If the paper clogs it is caused by one of two things. Either the shellac is not dry enough or it SURFACING AND VARNISHING 259 is adulterated. In sanding large surfaces it is well to use a soft block. Thick felt, such as is used by rubbers, makes a fine sanding block. Large surfaces can be sanded much quicker and more evenly when a block is used for holding the paper than when the paper is held in the hand. If any edges are sanded through, they should be re-stained and shellaced before being var- nished. This re-shellacing is necessary because if any of the stain laps over on the shellac it will likely show ^^ sanding green after the varnish is applied. The shellac will large prevent this. surfaces Goods should be thoroughly dusted before they enter the varnish room. Too many finishers are care- less in this respect. They see that the parts to be var- nished are dusted nicely, but give no care to the rest. This is a mistake. The varnish room should be kept as free from dust as possible and this can be accom- plished only by not allowing it to enter. Varnish should never be put on in a lower tempera- ture than 70 degrees F. and the varnish should also be as near that heat as possible. Varnish will work more freely in a high temperature, and when the wood, the varnish and surrounding atmosphere are about the ' above named temperature, conditions are ideal. The first coat of varnish ought not to be quite as heavy as the succeeding coats. If a medium heavy varnish is being used all that is necessary is to put on just a little less. But if the varnish is of heavy or extra thin varnish heavy body it should be reduced slightly for the first is the best coat. The best varnish reducer is thin varnish. To reducer prepare this reducer, take one part varnish (the same varnish that is to be reduced) and two parts pure tur- pentine. Shake these together well and let stand 24 hours before using. This will reduce the consistency of the varnish without tearing down the body as pure turpentine would. The first coat of varnish should be allowed to dry thoroughly before the second is applied. Here is where a great many finishers make a fatal mistake. They act on the assumption that the first coat of varnish requires less time to dry than the second, and the second coat less than the third, etc. Looking at it from their view- 260 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM NEED OF DRY- ING BETWEEN SUCCESSION OF COATS WHY SOME FINISH COATS DO NOT DRY point they are right, but their viewpoint is wrong. From their point of observation they see conditions which ought not to exist, and which conditions are of their own making. If the second coat of varnish is put on before the first coat is perfectly dry and hard, we create a condition which renders it necessary to give more time to the second coat than was given to the first, and the same with the third coat. But it is not the last coats that require the extra time, but the coats that are underneath. By putting on varnish in this way we get on three, four or five coats as the case may be, and not one of them dry. Each coat stops drying the very moment the next coat is applied and does not resume until the condition of each is the same. In fact, unless the previous coat has reached a certain stage the last coat will not only arrest the drying process, but will enter into and partially dissolve the under coat, reduc- ing it to a semi-liquid state. The above will explain the reason why so many nnishers find it impossible to get their varnish dry after applying three or four coats. If each coat were allowed to dry thoroughly before the application of the suc- ceeding coat, much time would be saved and a better job assured. Where varnish is to be rubbed to a perfectly smooth finish, the second last coat should not be allowed to become so dry that a complete union cannot be formed between it and the last coat. If this union is not per- fect and the rubber goes through one coat into the other, the break between the two varnishes will show up in patches. It is not likely that on four-coated work the rubber will go through the last two coats, at least he ought not to ; consequently it will be quite safe to allow the first two coats to become thoroughly hard- ened before the third is applied. When this is done a much heavier coat may be put on for the third coat than would otherwise be safe, thus minimizing the danger of going through. When this coat is medium dry, the fourth may be put on. A great many varnishers are puzzled at their inabil- ity to do clean work, while a fellow workman in the same room, and working under the same conditions, SURFACING AND VARNISHING 261 has scarcely a speck on his work. Many are of the opinion that there is some great secret about clean varnishing, but there is not. On the contrary, there are many little ones. Much that is called dirt on a var- nished surface is not dirt at all, but particles of con- gealed varnish that have been worked off the varnish pot or out of the brush and spread over the surface. It is a common thing to see the sides and edge and crossbar of the varnish pot heavily coated with con- gealed varnish the accumulation of days and weeks and secrets of sometimes months. The brush coming in contact with varnish this congealed mass works off fine particles which are drying gathered up with the varnish and spread over the surface. These particles of congealed varnish harden very slowly and are the cause of much of the trouble the rubber has with " pulling out " when rubbing var- nish that otherwise ought to be thoroughly hard. The remedy for all this is to keep everything clean. The crossbar of the varnish pot should be a moveable one, and should be removed from the pot and cleaned whenever work is suspended for any length of time. If work is suspended for an hour or so, and the varnish is left on the crossbar, it will congeal partially in that time, and when work is resumed the fresh varnish will soften it sufficiently to break its hold and it will be gathered up and carried along in the fine particles. The top and outside of the pot should be cleaned off with a cloth and a little benzine every noon and night. When a brush not in use, do not lay it down in such a way that the hair will come in contact with the edge or sides keeping of the pot. A block of wood, two inches thick and varnish about eight inches square, will be large enough to lay clean them on with the hair projecting over the edge. The hair of the brush should not be allowed to come in contact with anything except the work it is to do. If a brush is to be out of use, for more than a few minutes, it should be put away in a thin varnish or pure turpentine provided for that purpose. Care should be exercised to see that all brushes thus out of commis- sion have the hair completely immersed in the liquid ; otherwise the varnish on the exposed part will harden, and when the brush is brought into use again, this hard 262 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HOW TO GET PROPER DRYING OF VARNISH RUBBING AND POLISHING varnish will crumble and the brush will be known as *'lousy." Attention to these details will bring relief to many a varnisher who is worrying because he cannot do clean work and wondering where the dirt comes from. The conditions necessary for the proper drying of varnish are a well heated atmosphere with facilities for keeping the air in constant circulation and replenishing the supply of oxygen. The drying of varnish is quite different from the drying of wood. In the latter case drying means the expulsion of moisture which is car- ried away in the form of vapor by the air. In the former case the varnish extracts from the air as it passes by an element known as oxygen and absorbs it. Varnish throws off very little moisture, consequently the term "drying" is scarcely the correct one. It is a hardening process and is scientifically known as oxida- tion, the oxidizing of the oils in the varnish by com- bining them with oxygen which has a hardening effect. .Heat is necessary to the proper oxidation because it releases the oxygen from the air, and at the same time renders the varnish more receptive. Circulation of air is necessary in order that the air may be removed from the varnish after the oxygen has been extracted and other air brought in its place. Ventilation is necessary in order that the air that has been depleted of oxygen may escape and fresh air with plenty of this necessary element admitted. This fresh air should be admitted in such a way that it will not become a disturbing factor. It should be admitted in small but steady quantities at various parts of the room, so that it may readily diffuse itself throughout the whole air space without in any perceptible degree affecting the temperature of the room. Rubbing and polishing are important branches of finishing. It is here .that the final touches are added and no matter how well all previous work may have been done, it will all count for naught, and may be spoiled entirely, if this work is not done right. Con- siderable practice is required before one can be an expert rubber. There are various kinds of rubbing. There is the rough rubbing on carriage and automobile SURFACING AND VARNISHING 263 bodies that is done with lump pumice and water. Some interior finishers, chiefly among house painters and finishers, rub with fine sandpaper and oil. In piano factories there is the coarse rubbing which is rubbing down to a perfectly smooth surface the first coats of varnish which were put on to make a body and give the finish a depth. This rubbing is done to pre- pare the body for the final flowing or polishing coat. This is done with coarsely ground pumice and water, the rubbing being done with blocks of thick felt. This rubbing ought not to be done until the varnish is thor- oughly hard. But if the goods are wanted rush, a little time may be saved by rubbing down carefully before the varnish is quite hard, and after the rubbing allow the remaining varnish to harden thoroughly before the flow coat is applied. The rubbing will take off at least from one and one-half to two coats which leaves just that much less to harden. In any event a few hours should elapse before the flow coat is applied after the body has been rubbed. Then comes the fine rubbing. This is done with fine felt and finely pulverized, sifted and bolted rotten stone and water. This rubbing is done on the flow or polish- ing coat and the utmost care must be taken not to rub through to the under coats. This coat when properly applied is very clean and smooth and, therefore, requires very little rubbing; the main thing being to rub it evenly all over. After the fine rubbing, 12 to 24 hours should elapse before polishing. The old method of hand polishing is still in vogue in many piano factories. This is done by slightly Y^^_^^, moistening the hand with water and with a very small quantity of very fine rotten stone, rubbing the varnish with the hand, using a circular motion. The quantity of rotten stone is gradually diminished until none what- ever is on the hand and the final polishing is done with the bare hand, after which the surface is oiled with sweet oil and cleaned off dry. In furniture factories this method of finishing very rarely is carried out. The goods are varnished with the same grade of varnish throughout and the rubbing and polishing follow each other on the varnish put on COARSE RUB- BING WITH PUMICE STONE ROTTEN STONE 264 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM METHOD USED IN FURNITURE FACTORIES FELT USED IN RUBBING WITH PUMICE for a body. If the goods are to.be polished they first should be rubbed down smooth with water and medium coarse pumice stone, using felt as a rubbing block. Plenty of water should be kept on the work to prevent the varnish caking on the bottom of the block. No matter how careful one may be in this respect some varnishes will harden on the bottom of the felt, and, if not removed, will scratch and tear the surface. The expert rubber instantly can detect this gathering of varnish on the felt from the feeling of it as his hand draws it over the surface. This caking is more liable to take place where the varnish is not quite hard, but will take place wuth some varnishes no matter how thoroughly hardened they may be. If there are four or five coats of varnish on the goods to be rubbed, it is well to have two grades of pumice, one grade somewhat finer than the other to finish ofiE" with. If one attempts to rub down four or five coats of varnish with one application of pumice, he will find before he gets through that there is too much of the varnish mixed with the pumice to enable him to make a good job, and that the caking on the felt is greatly facilitated thereby. If he cleans off this mixture of ground varnish and pumice, and starts to finish oflt with a second application of pumice of the same grade, he will find the work so badly scratched that great difficulty will be experienced in getting it in shape for polishing. If fresh pumice is required after the rubbing is nearing completion, a fine grade should be used. The felt used for rubbing with pumice is a coarser grade than that used for fine rubbing, and may be obtained from one-quarter inch to two inches thick, the latter thickness being preferable for heavy rubbing. It is made in various degrees of firmness, a medium hard felt being the best for this work. Some rubbers, if the work is very heavy, will start to cut down with burlap, using this until the job is about half rubbed, then using the block ard finish off with a piece of thin felt. Burlap will hold the pumice better and cut a little quicker than the felt, but the work done is not so fine and the felt must be used afterward. WHEN TO DO FINE RUBBING SURFACING AND VARNISHING 265 If the varnish is fairly hard at the time this first rubbing is done, the fine rubbing may be proceeded with at once. If it is not too hard, it should be allowed to stand from 12 hours up. according to its condition, to give it a chance to "sweat" out and take on a hard sur- face on which to do the fine rubbing. While the fine rubbing in this case is done in the same way as on pianos, yet the object to be attained is somewhat dif- ferent. When rubbing a flow coat of varnish there is a certain amount of grit to be rubbed off", and while doing so, one must keep the surface in condition for polishing. In the case under consideration, where one is fine-rub- bing a surface that has been coarse-rubbed, the object is to prepare the surface for polishing by removing all the scratches made by the pumice. From 12 to 24 hours should always be allowed between the fine rub- bing and the polishing to insure a durable polish. A longer time than this may be necessary unless the var- nish is fairly dry. In the opinion of the writer, the modern method of polishing is in every respect equal to the hand polish- ing still in vogue in some piano factories. Of course, in the modern method a great deal depends on the composition of the liquid used in the process. There are many formulas for making polish, but the follow- ing is one that has been tested for several years on high grade work. It produces a very high and durable pol- ish with a minimum amount of labor. 1 gallon Paraffine Oil. 1 gallon Pure Turpentine. formula for 20 ounces Oil of Cedar. polish 12 ounces Oil of Citronella. The longer this polish has been made before using, the better it will do its work. It is used in connection with rotten stone in the ordinary way with a pad. A very soft cotton waste makes an ideal polishing pad. This polish is improved by the addition of a little water, but it cannot be mixed with the polish. Take a small handful of the cotton waste and thoroughly saturate with water, then wring as dry as possible. Rub this 266 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM POLISH PLAIN SURFACES CROSSWISE HOW TO MAKE SATIN FINISH damp cotton waste over the surface to be polished im- mediately before commencing operations. This will supply the required water. If a plain surface like a table top is to be polished, one should start at the ends, polishing- these crosswise. This crosswise polishing is necessary in order to be sure of a high polish out to the extreme ends and it must be done at the outset otherwise the cross polishing will leave a mark. This polishing is not done with circular motions the way French polishing iand hand polishing are done. The motion is a straight stroke extending from one end to the other of the surface polished. After the polish has been brought to the highest point possible by this process, its brilliancy may be deepened by rubbing rapidly with the bare hand using the least possible quantity of polish — just enough to prevent the hand sticking to the varnish. Rub with a circular motion the same as when hand polishing. Clean the polish off with a soft cloth moistened with alcohol. The greatest care must be exercised in doing this. Have but a small quantity of alcohol on the cloth and go over the surface very lightly, using a circular motion. If there is too much alcohol on the cloth, it is certain to burn into the varnish and destroy the polish. Sprinkle a small quantity of the alcohol on the cloth and twist it up tightly. This will allow the liquid to spread itself throughout the whole cloth and reduce to a minimum the possibility of burning the varnish. To make a satin finish the varnish is rubbed down with water and pumice and then oiled. A finish a little more dull than satin finish is made by rubbing the varnish with oil and pumice. If goods are heavily coated, the large flat surfaces such as tops and fronts and other prominent parts of the work, should first be water rubbed and allowed to stand for a few hours before being oil rubbed. This will prevent "pulling out." To make a dull lustreless finish that will withstand the extremes of any climate, hot or cold, moist or dry, proceed as follows: After the work has been stained, apply a coat of SURFACING AND VARNISHING 267 very thin shellac. This shellac should not be heavier than 24 ounces gum to the gallon of solvent. When this is dry, sand smooth with very fine paper and put on three or four coats of pure banana oil. Sand the last coat well with fine paper, then wax. Banana oil is a very powerful solvent and must be applied very rap- idly and with no more brushing than is required to lay it on. If more than this is done, it will raise the under coat. It will not show laps or streaks when dry, so that fear of trouble from this source need not lead a man into brushing more than is required. If the oil be- comes too thick for use, it may be reduced with alcohol or methylated spirits. Banana oil dries without the slightest lustre. So lustreless is it that after several coats have been applied the surface still retains the appearance of bare wood. If a little lustre is desired, it may be obtained by mak- ing the shellac for the first coat heavier, say about two and one-half pounds of gum to a gallon of solvent. The above makes a good finish for fumed and cathedral oak and other similar finishes. It is also suit- able for carvings and pebbled work. The dipping process in finishing is one that has found favor with several lines of goods, particularly turned spindle work such as piano stools, etc. On work of this kind much better results can be obtained, and with less labor, by the dipping process than by the brush method. To produce the highest quality of finish on stools suitable for the piano trade with but three applications after the stain is on, and that without any sanding of the turned parts, would have been consid- ered impossible a few years ago, and is considered so today in not a few shops. But it is among the every-day things of at least one shop, and the process is very simple. The walnut and mahogany finish are dipped in their respective stains and allowed to dry. The wood is birch and the stains are water-stains.) They are then dipped in a very thin varnish or a cheap grade. This coat penetrates the pores and seals up the fine cells of the wood so that the liquid of the next coat cannot enter. When this is thor- TO PRODUCE LUSTRELESS FINISH FINISHING BY DIPPING 268 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM oughly dry, a coat of pigment surfacer is applied, surfacer is made as follows: This PIGMENT SURFACER FORMULA 1 gallon Varnish. 1 gallon Brown Japan. 8 pounds Silex (very fine) NEEDS MUCH TIME FOR HARDENING This surfacer is brUvShed on and is the only brush coat the stools receive. It is put on full weight and as much of it put on as can be done safely without run- ning. On turned stool legs there is much end wood and the surfacer covers the v/hole with a porcelain-like surface which holds the varnish out perfectly. When this surfacer is dry the flat tops are sanded. Then the whole stool is dipped in the varnish. It is allowed to drain, then the fat edge on the under side is cut off with a brush and the stool set away to dry. The firm referred to manufactures a general line of sanitary woodwork, and much fine work is turned out polished in one coat of varnish. The goods are dipped in a large pan of filler. On large flat surfaces such as tanks, if the wood is oak, the filler is brushed a little to work it into the pores. One big advantage of filling the tanks by the dipping process is that it coats the inside with a water-proof substance, and does it much more perfectly than could possibly be done with the brush. Closet seats and other small articles are dipped and not brushed. Forty-eight hours are allowed be- tween the filling and the surfacing. The surfacer used is made from the formula given in the chapter on Surfacing and Varnishing, and a good coat is put on. If the goods are to be shipped in the varnish gloss, the surfacer is allowed to dry 24 hours before sanding and varnishing. But if the goods are to be polished, 48 hours are allowed. The coat to be rubbed and polished is put on somewhat heavier than that for varnish gloss finish, hence the necessity for allowing the surfacer a longer time to harden that the varnish may have every possible chance. The surfacer and varnish are put on the tanks and seats with a brush. In this factory two men and two boys will stain several thousand closet seats in a short time. The SURFACING AND VARNISHING 269 HOW MUCH STAINING MAY BE DONE stain is used warm and takes hold of the wood instantly. It is kept warm by means of a hot water vat. The vat is 30 inches wide by 60 inches long and 20 inches deep. Inside the vat is a frame 14 inches high. A steam pipe enters at one end and extends along the bottom to the other end of the vat. The end of the pipe is closed, but along the side are about a dozen one- sixteenth inch holes for the steam to escape. There is also an overflow pipe, two inches from the top. The stain pan, which is six inches deep and made to fit the inside of the vat, rests on the frame. The vat is filled with water to the top of the overflow pipe and the rapidly steam turned on. This overflow pipe is necessary to carry away the condensed steam. If a coil with a return pipe were used the overflow pipe would not be neces- sary, but it would require more steam. When the water in the vats heats, the stain soon becomes warm, and as it is surrounded on the bottom and all four sides with water which comes up the side four inches, it is kept warm as long as it is in use. A wire hook is used for dipping the seat in the stain. The seat is placed on the hook and placed in one end of the stain pan, then drawn rapidly through the stain to the other end, then lifted out and set in another large pan to drain. They are then taken out and placed in racks made for the purpose. CHAPTER L VARNISHES AND THEIR DRYING IN RECENT years it was found that the finishing room equipment was falling behind. It was the one department that consumed the most time in obtaining results. Efforts to make quick drying var- nishes, surfacers, etc., did not meet with the demands. One reason why wax finishes were heralded was be- cause they could be turned out quickly. Years of ex- periments were made in an endeavor to find methods which would attain the desired end. It has been known a long time that weather and atmospheric conditions are of vital importance to the drying process in the finishing room. Summer as well as winter months carry with them difficulties which cause delay and uncertainties in the finishing room. The importance of this is appreciated when one con- siders the results that will follow when any under coat of stain, filler or varnish is not thoroughly dry when the following coat is applied. On a damp, humid day, the grain of the wood raises very perceptibly, as compared with a clear, dry day, making the surface to be coated uneven, and destroy- ing much of the effect of fine sanding, thus starting the finish under a disadvantage. Stains and fillers will not dry as well as under favor- able conditions, and especially when oil stains are used the filler is likely to cut into the stain, producing a mushy condition in the filler. If followed by the first coat of varnish on regular schedule, the varnish will have a similar tendency to cut into the filler, causing in turn a mushy coat of varnish, which will not dry hard and firm as under favorable conditions, and this condi- tion will prevail through all coats to the finishing coat of varnish. As a final result, none of the coats being as hard as under good conditions, the finish is compara- tively soft; a polishing varnish will not take as bright a polish and will rub and polish harder; gloss, rubbed DEMAND FOR QUICK DRYING THE CAUSE OF MUSHY COATS 272 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM VARNISH DRY- ING DEPENDS ON SOLVENTS BEST DRYING CONDITION 35 TO 45 PER CENT HUMIDITY or polished work will often develop sticking or printing troubles, and at a later date the gradual drying of these mushy undercoats will draw in the finish coats produc- ing loss of lustre and finish, or shrinkage. During such conditions the finishing materials are usually blamed for the disruption of finish or finishing schedules, when the drying condition of the atmosphere is the sole cause. Considerable quantities of fumes are thrown off by the drying of finishing materials, and we all know that varnish drying depends upon the evaporation of the solvents in the varnish, and of the oxidation of the gums and oils. Experiments have shown that humidity and temperature are two factors which should be con- trolled in the drying process. This condition is based on the scientific fact that the capacity of warm or hot air to carry humidity or mois- ture is enormously greater than that of cold air. For instance, air at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is completely saturated when it carries 4.8 grains of moisture per cubic foot ; whereas, air at 100 degrees Fahrenheit requires 19.8 grains of moisture per cubic foot to sat- urate it. Thus, although the temperature has been in- creased from 60 to 100 degrees, or 66 2-3 per cent, its capacity for moisture has been increased from 4.8 grains to 19.8 grains per cubic foot, or 412.5 per cent. Humidity is expressed relatively in terms of per cent of saturation, which is 100 per cent. Air at 100 degrees with 40 per cent humidity carries 7.9 grains of moisture per cubic foot, which is 40 per cent of 19.8 grains, the saturation or dew point. Practical experience indicates that the best drying condition of the atmosphere at any temperature is with humidity of 35 to 45 per cent, although satisfactory results have been secured at both higher and lower per- centages. With a low humidity, however, there is a tendency to top-dry or case-harden, especially at a tem- perature above 100 degrees. With a high percentage the effect is to retard the oxidation or drying of var- nish. Humidity is determined by means of a hygro- deik, or "wet and dry bulb thermometer." The atmosphere normally has an average humidity of 60 to 70 per cent. When the percentage increases, V ARNISHES AND THEIR DRYING 273 due to natural causes, it often reaches saturation or 100 per cent, at which point the excess is precipitated in the form of rain. The experiments conducted brought forth many- patented schemes such as varnish drying kilns, ovens, and drying rooms. They were the results of experi- ments by varnish makers, and were based upon three vital points necessary to varnish drying : First, the con- stant circulation of fresh air, meaning the continual ^jjj^™ points presence of the drying agent, oxygen ; second, heat, and necessary to third, humidity. These three held under automatic con- varnish trol at the will of the operator produced the best results, drying It is generally accepted as a result of practical operation that the temperature at no time should ex- ceed 120 degrees, it being understood that the humidity should be at a desirable point and under control, and in the presence of continual circulation of fresh air, without a direct draft on the work. It has been proven bejond doubt that there is a limit to the time in which work can be coated, dried in a varnish drying system and recoated, with best results. It has been conclusively shown in practical shop operation, too, that as a general proposition, the varnish that gives the best results under old air drying schedules will give the best results in use in a varnish drying system. In the cool months of the year, the outside air, being at a low temperature, carries a very small amount of moisture, as described above. In this condition, it is brought into the factory or finishing room and heated to 75 to 90 degrees, the result being that its capacity J. . • - 1 • .1 1 • 11 CONDITION for carrying moisture, having thus been increased by raising its temperature, the percentage of humidity is lowered to anywhere from 25 per cent to 40 per cent, depending upon the temperature and humidity condi- tion of the outside air. This is a very desirable con- dition for drying varnish and other finishing materials. During the warm months, the condition is just the reverse. The outside air beii^.g hot, carries a relatively large amount of moisture per cubic foot, as described above. It is brought into the finishing room at the same temperature and in the same condition, and as the 274 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FINISHING ROOM SHOULD BE CONDITIONED SUCCESSFUL METHOD FOR DRYING PURPOSES temperature generally falls at night, its percentage of humidity is thus further increased, producing an ex- tremely bad drying condition. There is nothing that will give the desired results better than conditioning the entire finishing room, thus making the entire room practically a varnish drying room. By this we mean making provision in radiation for raising the temperature to 100 or 110 degrees every night during the year and providing adequate means for a constant circulation of fresh air, which can be done by the proper ventilators, or a fan, or both. Such an arrangement is both practical and economical in the majority of shops, and in any event the manufac- turer should provide for and have heat in his finishing room every night the year round, for reasons which have been explained. This can be accomplished by placing the heating coils or hot air pipes along the outside walls underneath the windows, and having ventilators take air from the center of the room and extend down to within a few inches of the floor. Hot blast pipes or heating coils should not be near the top or center of the room, as such a location of the heating pipes or coils will prevent good circulation and increase the expense of heating. The heat should be turned off at three or four o'clock in the morning to allow the room to cool off and the filler or varnish to harden before the workmen commence work for the day. Suppose the outside atmosphere was 80 degrees with a humidity of 85 per cent, which would be a very hot, muggy day and an extremely bad drying atmosphere. By raising the temperature of the finish- ing room to 100 degrees at night, the percentage of humidity would be reduced thereby to 46 per cent, which is considered an excellent drying condition. A successful method for drying purposes, which is installed in many factories, is the setting aside of cer- tain rooms in which the temperature is continually maintained by means of steam coils over which is drawn fresh air. The room is provided with exhaust fans expelling the loaded air and causing a continual change of atmosphere, producing an ideal drying con- dition which will result in many hours saved in time. CHAPTER LI HOW VARNISH IS MADE VARNISH is composed of three essential ingredi- ents — gum to give hardness and lustre — oil to impart elasticity, and a solvent or thinner to keep it in a liquid state. After the varnish is applied, the solvent evaporates and the coating of gum and oil remains behind — thus these two materials have the most important bearing on varnish quality. There is also another ingredient present in almost all varnishes — "drier," usually composed of lead and manganese. It is almost invariably added to the oil before the varnish is made and varies according to the kind necessary to produce required results. Fossil gums are used for the best varnishes and are the hardened sap of trees that lived thousands of years ago. The sap ran upon the ground, hardened, became covered with decayed vegetation and fossilized. Today it is found several feet below the surface of the earth. The gum known as kauri is the chief and most widely used. There are so many grades of each kind of varnish gum that it means absolutely nothing to one when a manufacturer claims that he uses a certain kind of gum. For instance, kauri gum varies from 14 to 80 cents a pound. So you see that it is not what the manufacturer says is in the varnish that counts, but the quality of the materials and, most of all, what the varnish will do. The oils used for varnish making are chiefly linseed oil and china wood oil, especially prepared and well aged. The solvent is chiefly turpentine. In the manufacture of varnish, the varnish maker first melts the gum over a coke fire in a copper kettle. When the gum is properly melted, the oil which is hot, having been separately heated, is added. The critical point in the entire process of varnish making is to tell the exact moment to add the oil to the melted gum, and experience alone can tell. If the gum is melted too INGREDIENTS OF VARNISH TWO OILS ARE UTILIZED 276 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE EVIDENCES OF POOR VARNISH long, it becomes dark in color; if underheated, it will be paler, but will lack durability. After adding the oil, the gum and oil are heated together until the two are thoroughly combined, when the kettle is withdrawn from the fire. The kettle is next taken into the thinning room where the mixture is allowed to cool to a certain temperature, and the thinner or solvent added. After thinning, the varnish is pumped through a pipe to a vat or cooler where, besides cooling, it settles and becomes clearer. From the cooler the varnish is passed through a filter press which removes all the dirt and foreign matter. The varnish is next pumped to the aging tanks where it is allowed to thoroughly ripen. This aging makes the varnish bright and clear. The tough oil varnishes are in greater demand than the spirit varnishes, although the defects in oil var- nishes are numberless. How often a person sits on a varnished chair and on rising finds the loose nap from his clothes sticking inseparably to the chair and the print of the weave of his clothes left in the soft, tacky varnish. Cases have come within the writer's obser- vation where the fine fabrics in ladies' dresses have been torn on being drawn from the sticky or "tacky" varnish. Cheap contract varnish, such as is often found on church pews and public benches generally is likely to show this undesirable quality. These var- nishes have incorporated in them non-volatile, non- drying oils such as the heavier mineral oils. These oils do not oxidize and dry to a solid elastic mass, as drying oils do, and as a consequence, the varnishes re- main "tacky" for an indefinite time and practically never dry. There is no remedy for this defect but to cut off the poor varnish with some solvent such as one quart acetone, one quart alcohol, one-half pint of water saturated with washing soda and one quart of benzine, in which a few ounces of paraffine or other wax have been melted. The mixture should be M^ell shaken and then brushed over the surface until the varnish is quite wet. To prevent evaporation, cover over the article with old sacks and let it stand for 20 minutes, giving time for the solution to soften up the varnish. On HOW VARNISH IS MADE 277 removing the sacks, the varnish will be found very soft and easy to wipe off with a rag or to scrape off with a straight piece of glass or steel. When the article is cleaned and wiped thoroughly dry, revarnish with a good linseed oil varnish. The recipe just given will remove any varnish whatsoever whether old and hard or soft and sticky. Sweating of varnishes on damp, warm days is due, in many cases, to the presence of fish oils. These oils absorb moisture which causes the varnishes to become clammy and sticky to the touch, if the temperature is above 80 degrees Fahrenheit. The presence of oils having the power of absorbing water accounts for the excessive dews which collect on freshly varnished boats and canoes beached on an open shore of a summer's night. Good varnished furniture is the bane of every one who possesses it. It is "so easily" scratched, and scratches cannot be mended. Scratching will never be eliminated from furniture until a harder and tougher varnish is discovered. Scratches which appear white cannot be obliterated easily. They may be obscured, however, by rubbing well with a piece of cheese cloth moistened with a solution of nine parts linseed oil and one part lemon oil. Any failure to have this solution work correctly will arise from the fact that too much oil has been applied to the surface and the rubbing has not been sufficient. Whitening of varnish in the presence of water, for example, on the bottom of a canoe, is due to the ab- sorption of water by the varnish, especially those low in good resins, and may be corrected by allowing the var- nish to dry thoroughly in the open air (sunlight). This treatment causes the water to evaporate and re- stores the original appearance of the varnish. A spar varnish (that is, one high in resins) should then be applied to the thoroughly dry surface. If the surface is not allowed to dry thoroughly before the new coat of varnish is applied "blooming" will be the result, that is to say, the varnish will have a dull, smoky appear- ance like the bloom on a ripe blueberry. Every one has observed minute hairlines on highly REMOVING VARNISH WHITENING OF VARNISH 278 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING POOM polished varnish surfaces, such as piano cases. This hairlining is the first stage in the cracking of the var- nish, and as the cracks widen the surface takes on a resemblance to alligator leather. This hairlining or cracking of varnish is caused primarily by too little HAIRLINES ON qj| bclug uscd in the varnish, or as varnish makers PIANO FINISH ^^^^ .^^ .c^ gj^Q^^ Q-j varnish" has been used. The lack of oil allows the varnish to dry in a short time, per- haps not longer than eight hours, but the coating is brittle and soon hairlines and these lines in time widen into unsightly cracks. Excess of cheap resins, such as losin often causes these defects to appear in varnished surfaces. VARNISH WORKS CHAPTER LII WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD VARNISH A GOOD varnish has good body, sufficient to give good lustre, yet not so heavy as to work badly and dry unevenly. It works smoothly under the brush and spreads in a thin, even coat, free from "°^ ^^^^ streakiness, still has sufficient consistency. It is elas- tic when dry and will not crack. It is durable and for outside work particularly indifferent to the effects of moisture and atmospheric conditions. It adheres tenaciously to the material to which it is applied. It is of good color that will not darken on exposure. A good varnish is good only for its particular purpose, as a varnish "long in oil" is intended for exterior work, floors, etc., while a varnish "short in oil" is intended for inside trim work. The safest method is to use the varnish which a reliable manufacturer recommends for a given purpose, for that purpose. How may varnish be tested? Varnish may be tested for paleness by placing a small quantity of it in a thin glass vial, and comparing it with any standard sample, by holding both samples to the light. Varnish may be tested for wear by applying two coats to two pieces of well dried, carefully sandpapered, newly planed wood. One piece of wood should be coated with the standard sample — the other piece with the varnish to be tested. Place both pieces of wood in an exposed exterior situation and note from time to time the appearance of the work. The piece which loses its brilliancy and cracks in the shortest time has been coated with the inferior varnish. Of course by this test, you must compare two varnishes intended for the same purpose, such as two interior varnishes, etc., and not two entirely different varnishes as an exterior varnish and an interior varnish. Another simple test is to revarnish any suitable sur- face with the suspected sample, and when the varnish is thoroughly dry, rub it quickly with the finger. If VARNISH TESTS 280 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HARDNESS OF VARNISH TEST IN ROOM OF 60° F. the new varnish crumble? up quickly, it evidently con- tains an inferior gum or most probably a large pro- portion of rosin. A good copal varnish cannot be re- moved in this way. A method of testing varnish for elasticity is to apply two coats of it to a sheet of linen and after it has properly dried, try its flexibility or tendency to chip off by crumbling between the hands. This question of hardness of varnish is so impor- tant that Dr. A. P. Laurie some time since patented an instrument, the principle of which was simply that of scratching a dried and varnished surface by means of a steel point. The apparatus enables accurate readings to be taken, and it has been found that a fine carriage var- nish will withstand a pressure equal to 1,200 grains, fairly good common varnishes 700, rosin varnishes 200 to 400, and spirit varnishes only a pressure of 100 grains. Thus we see why it is that the latter are bruised with even a light blow, while the best carriage var- nishes will withstand a considerable force. The odor of varnish gives some information as to its quality, while the time taken to harden the degree of flowing and working under the brush yields use- ful information. It may be added that it is the opinion of Dr. A. P. Laurie, based upon the experiments he has conducted with his instrument, that the best oil varnishes do not attain their maximum hardness until 12 months after they have been applied. The question of brilliancy of gloss I have not en- tered into, as this will be sufl^ciently obvious in com- paring several grades of varnish. It will be best to conduct these experiments in a well ventilated room heated to a temperature of about 60 degrees. A very hot room containing moisture-charged air is not suitable, as the conditions are adverse to the varnish properly drying, and may yield erroneous con- clusions. There are many more tests which could be made, but they mostly involve the use of heat, or some appliances which are not at hand. In writing this chapter I have kept steadily in mind WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD VARNISH 281 the fact that the user is not so much interested in the chemical constituents of the material that he uses as he is in discovering whether they are genuine, and par- ticularly whether they will do the work for which they are intended. Never use spirit varnish, or enamel in which spirit varnish is used, for high class work requiring dura- bility. While such goods dry quickly, they work very hard under the brush, requiring more labor to apply ^^^^^^ ot^tc-p , _ _ AVUlU br IKl 1 than does a high grade varnish, or an enamel made varnish in with a good oil varnish. Brush marks and laps show hj^jj class plainly. Furthermore, such materials have but little work durability, being made from soft gums. After the solvent evaporates, the only coating left on the surface is the weak, brittle coating of gum with nothing to bind it to the wood. As a result, it soon chips off. The chief use of spirit varnishes is in cheap cabinet work where the main object is to get the work out quickly and pro- cure a finish that will last long enough to sell the goods. Oil varnishes made from good hard gums, pure lin- seed oil and turpentine, are the most durable. After the thinner evaporates, it leaves a hard, tough coating of gum and oil behind, that adheres to the wood ; this is due to the hardness of the gum and the elasticity of the oil. which also binds the coating to the wood. An English work on varnishes gives the following points on brilliancy and lustre : "Brilliancy and lustre depend on the nature of the resin. The greater the ratio of resin to oil, the greater is the brilliancy and lustre of the varnish. As a matter of fact, the bril- brilliancy Tiancy of a varnish is a property dependent on its in- and lustre dex of refraction. As the index of refraction of a resin is greater than that of linseed oil, the more resin there is in a varnish the more lustrous it is. Hence the rea- son why spirit varnishes, after drying, are more lus- trous than oil varnishes. Each unit per cent of oil in the dried coating of an oil varnish diminishes its lustre pro rata. On the other hand, even if it increases the lustre proportionately, each unit per cent of resin in varnish, after a certain amount, diminishes its dura- bility pro rata. A compromise, therefore, has to be made according to the object in view in designing a 282 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM DURABILITY SACRIFICED TO FINISH varnish for any given purpose. Where brilliancy is a desideratum the resin must not be less than one-third to one-fourth by weight of the dried coat. But where brilliancy leaves off, durability is only beginning, and varnishes, in which the resin only forms one-fourth of the dried coat, are used where great elasticity is de- manded. In the case of a piano varnish, for instance, durability, to a certain extent, is sacrificed to lustre, and the percentage of resin to oil preponderates in such a varnish. The harder the resin, the greater the brilliancy. A manila varnish made with the same num- ber of gallons of linseed per 100 pounds of manila is less lustrous than one made in the same ratio of oil to resin from Zanzibar copal. It is asserted that the index of refraction of a varnish is greater than that calcu- lated from its composition, but this may be due to a turpentine residuum left out of the calculation. Be this as it may, the skill and care with which a varnish is made are factors which cannot be lost sight of in any investigation into the cause of the brilliancy of varnish. Durability and resistance will vary with the pro- portion of linseed oil and the elasticity of its oxidation product. Varnishes should embody the brilliancy of the resins and the elasticity of the drying oils. CHAPTER LIII PROTECTION IN BUYING VARNISHES THE day of the varnish salesman and the foreman finisher getting together over the purchases of varnish has passed. The salesman now enters the business office to show his wares. If there is an ^^^nish SELLING inclination to buy of his house he is requested to send jyjgTHODs a gallon, and it is tested out. The foreman and the changed purchasing agent will make a physical test of the sample received. An eight ounce bottle of the sample is hermetically sealed and laid away. The balance is used in a practical way on pieces of furniture which are marked and dated, and put through subsequent operations in the regular manner, the result of the finish being noted in each stage. One manufacturer proceeds" as follows : He keeps a supply of boards in his finishing room of the wood used most in his plant. The boards are six inches wide and 24 inches long. They are put through the various finishing processes until they reach the point where varnish is required, whether it be the first coat or the polishing varnish. Usually three sample boards are used, one-half of which is covered with the old varnish in use, and the other half with the sample varnish. The pieces are left to dry for 10 days, and are then taken to the roof where a large rack has been erected to hold testing them. They are given a southern exposure at an angle before of 30 degrees. The pieces are looked over regularly, buying morning and night, and records are kept of changes and conditions. The boards are thus exposed to all kinds of weather until the varnish shows checking or crazing, when it will be noted whether the checking or crazing comes to both varnishes at the same time, or to which it came first. The manufacturer of furniture is not looking for a varnish that will stand up indefinitely under all forms of weather, but he does learn that a certain varnish will stand exposure to snow and rain in winter months ?84 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM GRAVITY, VISCOSITY, FLASH TESTS DETERMINING VISCOSITY with no indications of checking or crazing for over 350 hours, and when rubbed and polished in the finishing room will reveal a finished surface equal to anything in the factory. He seeks a record by which all the varnish from a certain concern may be judged. This can be done by three tests: Specific gravity, viscosity and the flash tests. Specific gravity of varnish is its weight compared with an equal quantity of water, which is 100. A bot- tle which will hold 100 grams of water is filled with varnish at 70 degrees F. The bottle is marked with its own weight. The bottle of varnish is weighed on scales graduated down to one seven-thousandths of a pound, and if the varnish is all right the register will show the specific gravity is from 80 to 90 compared with an equal amount of distilled water. If the varnish manufacturer has introduced substitute oils or gums there will be a change in the specific gravity for the reason that no two diflferent oils or gums have a like specific gravity. Viscosity of liquids is determined by the length of time it takes a certain quantity of it to run through a certain sized hole compared with the time it takes the same quantity of distilled water to run through the same hole. Knowing the time required for 50 cubic centimeters to pass through a certain hole in a vis- cosimeter (various styles of which are on the market), and knowing the length of time required for a like amount of varnish to pass through the same hole, both liquids being at the same temperature, the viscosity of the varnish is easy to determine. For example : We have a viscosimeter with a water figure of 10.2, which is the time required for 50 cubic centimeters of distilled water to pass through the hole at the bottom of the cup. The same amount of varnish at 90 degrees requires 153 seconds to pass through the same hole. We therefore divide 153 by 10.2. which leaves an answer of 15, or which means that the var- nish is 15 times thicker than water, and therefore has a viscosity of 15. As with the specific gravity, the viscosity will vary with any change made in the manu- facture, or in materials used in the making of varnish. PROTECTION I N BUYING VARNISHES 285 The flash test is used to determine the drying quahty of a varnish. A small iron pot is used, one and one-half inches in diameter and two inches deep. This is surrounded by a water jacket and set on le?s eight inches high. The cup is filled with varnish of 70 de- grees temperature, and the temperature is gradually raised by an alcohol lamp. From time to time as the temperature is being raised a lighted wax taper is brushed across the surface one-half inch above the var- nish. A thermometer in the varnish will indicate when the varnish has reached the point where it will flash, that is, when the fumes will catch fire as the lighted taper is passed over the top. Then the temperature should be noted, which should be in the neighborhood of 98 degrees. This is the flash point, and any higher or lower flash point indicates that a slower drying oil has been used or the varnish contains some drier. The results of these three tests do not necessarily indicate poor varnish, but they enable the purchaser to keep records and determine whether the new varnish oflfered him is better for the money than the quality he has been using. USE OF THE FLASH TEST CHAPTER LIV SOME TROUBLES WITH VARNISH BLOTCHING— This is sometimes called "pinholes," "pocking" or "pitting," and generally results from reducing the varnish with turpentine or some other poor thinner which is not thoroughly mixed common fault with the varnish. It may also result from coating over ^^ varnish an oily or damp surface. Sinking or Deadening — This generally follows the use of insufficient foundation coats ; or it may happen when one coat is applied before the undercoat is thor- oughly dry, so that the top coating is absorbed while drying. Chipping or Flaking — This is often caused by using brittle varnish for first coats or by using varnish of varying elasticity. Chilling — Naturally this occurs only in cold weather. Long or extreme exposure to cold often causes varnish to "speck." Cracking — Brittle varnishes crack under severe changes of temperature. Cracking occurs also when a finishing coat is applied over heavy undercoats that have not thoroughly dried, or when a brittle coat has been applied over an elastic one. Checking or Crumbling — Exposure to coal gas or things to ammonia fumes will cause this trouble as will also avoid in washing with hot water or alkaline soap. varnishes Crawling — This may be caused by using too heavy coats, or by finishing before first coats are dry, or by the quick changes in the weather while drying. Blooming — This is most likely to happen with a quick drying varnish which does not carry oil enough to resist the action of moisture or of various fumes and gases, or with a varnish in which the oil and gum are imnerfectly amalgamated. Brittleness — If a varnish "nails" white it shows the presence of poor material such as rosin, with too 288 problp:ms of the finishing room MORE FAULTS THAT ARE COMMON REFINISHING PATCHY WORK little oil and too much drier; such varnish is hard to apply and does not wear well. Sweating — A varnish coat is likely to sweat when- ever rubbing is attempted before varnish is sufficiently dry. Brush Marks — This trouble results from working the varnish too long or from the use- of a brush too small. Drying and PIardening — For varnish to dry and harden properly requires light, ventilation and mod- erate temperature. Very hot weather, very cold weather and humidity all interfere with drying. Best results are gotten in dry atmosphere and a temperature ranging from 65 to 80 degrees Fahrenheit. If the above suggestions are carefully looked into, many difficulties can be overcome. By all means see that the cans are well corked ; that the stock is kept in even temperature ; avoid extreme changes. Varnish changes with age, and especially does it do this when it is exposed to atmospheric conditions. Drying from Bottom Up — Drying from the bottom up, or drying from the top, means the difference be- tween the surface drying of boiled oil and the more uniform drying of raw oil containing driers, as in paint. Taken literally, the statement is incorrect, be- cause oxidation or drying must occur at the surface of the paint or varnish, and not at the bottom ; but the term "drying from the bottom up" indicates, as stated, a certain process that is different from the usual dry- ing of paint or varnish or plain linseed oil that is a strong drier or has driers added to it. In refinishing a piece of varnish work that is patchy it is first necessary to get at the actual trouble. It may be caused from imperfectly prepared groundwork, an admixture of raw linseed oil to varnish, or incompe- tent brush work. First smooth down Avith pumice stone and water ; prepare with a mixture of equal parts varnish and turpentine, and revarnish. Lay on a good full coat of varnish freely and quickly, working this again once or twice all over without recharging* the brush, thus taking off again some of the varnish, oc- casionally rubbing this out on another part of the work. CHAPTER LV VARNISH TERMS IN FINISHING ROOM RUBBING Varnish — A varnish that is hard, brittle, one that when subjected to rubbing with pumice or rotten stone will yield a high glass- like polish. It must not soften with heat, generated by friction, nor be affected by either oil or water in the rubbing process. Polishing Varnish — Having the same practical points as rubbing varnish but usually capable of giving a higher polish. Dipping Varnish — As the name implies, a varnish that will dry quickly, giving a polished surface, avoid- ing the labor of applying by hand; they are usually much thinner than other varnishes. Flowing Varnish — A varnish that will produce a smooth shiny surface without any after-treatment. A varnish of this kind must spread readily and evenly, and when dry will be devoid of any brush marks. Flat Varnish — A varnish that, as the name im- plies, will dry flat or with a matte surface. Piano Varnish — A high grade varnish that will produce a high polish; an exceptionally hard surface, that will withstand polishing. Shellac Varnishes — By the term "shellac" is im- plied an alcoholic solution of gum shellac. This may be either grain alcohol, wood alcohol, or denatured alcohol. Usually three to three and half pounds of gum are cut in a gallon of alcohol. Ofttimes called Liquid Fillers, because they form an impervious coat between the wood and the varnish. Dry quickly, enter the pores, and sand readily. Damar Varnish — So named from the gum, usually cut in turpentine, and sometimes in spirits. It is recommended in certain places where extreme pale- ness and transparency is desired. Ofttimes used on dainty articles and subjected to French polishing. SHOP TERMS FOR VARNISH OTHER NAMES FOR VARNISH 290 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Finishing Coat — As the name implies, it is the last coat of varnish used in the finishing of work. It may be the first coat, on top of a shellac coat; it may- be the third coat on furniture, and the final coat on pianos, usually selected for its qualifications as to the style of finish desired. Baking Varnish — One that is used where drying ovens are employed. One that is made by the manu- facturer to dry in unnatural heat usually containing more oil, having advantage of being more durable, owing to the fact that the drying process to which it is subjected produces a more uniform film. Spraying Varnish — Does not differ materially from regular stock varnishes, with the exception that as a rule, they are thinner, and obtain their name from the fact that they are applied with spraying apparatus. Long and Short Oil Varnish — These terms as used by the finishers apply to the proportion of oil and gum. One is exemplified by the rubbing varnishes, and the other by spar varnishes; one drying much slower and having more elasticity, and the other dry- ing harder and permitting of rubbing to a high polish. LITTLE INFORMATION CHAPTER LVI SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY* IN VIEW of the size of the shellac industry and the steady growth in the use of shellac products of every description, it is surprising that there exists so much ignorance and misunderstanding about this on shellac almost indispensable finishing material. This, no available doubt, is due in great part to the fact that very little reliable information regarding shellac is to be found in even the best and most detailed books of reference. There are many purposes for which shellac is en- tirely unsuited and where it never should be used. But for certain definite and specific purposes, shellac has no equal. The fact that it is an animal gum differenti- ates it from all other varnish gums — all of which are of vegetable origin and gives it the unique qualities and characteristics it possesses. For years, persistent at- tempts have been made to find a substitute that could be produced more cheaply, but nothing "just as good" has ever been invented. Cheap, so-called substitutes abound, but of course, they give results inferior to shel- lac or else they would have entirely replaced shellac long ago. Where the time limit comes into play, there is noth- ing that can compete with shellac. It is prized more- over because of its varnishing properties. It can be highly polished when dry and because it is translucent and in the case of the white variety, transparent, al- lows the grain of the wood to show through clearly. It is not so many years ago that almost all of the shellac varnish made in this country was adulterated with rosin or other cheaper gums in order to reduce the cost. The use of these adulterated shellacs caused all sorts of trouble which never would have occurred ♦Adapted from shellac literature issued by William Zinsser & Company, New York and Chicago. 292 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BEWARE OF ADULTERATED SHELLAC SHELLAC PRICES VARL\BLE if pure shellac had been used — but, unfortunately, the shellac, and not the adulteration, was blamed. Even to this day, there are still some who are prejudiced against shellac for this very reason. Today, however, shellac of guaranteed weight and purity can be bought from all reputable shellac con- cerns provided the purchaser is willing to pay for it. Unfortunately, there still exist many who believe that shellac is shellac irrespective of where it comes from and who place their orders according to prices rather than quality. Adulterated shellac will dry slower and less hard ; it will crack and chip off and will gum when sanded. It is safe to say that shellac is not thoroughly understood by many of its regular users. Some idea of the size of the shellac industry, which runs into mil- lions of dollars per year, is shown by the fact that the quantity of shellac gum used annually amounts to 42,- 000,000 pounds, which is an average crop in India. India holds virtually a world monopoly on shellac production as nowhere else, outside of Siam, has cul- tivation of shellac held out the faintest promise. The industry is handicapped by unscientific methods and surrounded by local prejudice and tradition so that the production varies considerably — some years only 30 per cent to 50 per cent of a normal crop being reported. This industry has passed through many phases and experienced many whims of fate and accordingly shel- lac has been subject to serious fluctuation in price. For a period of ten years or more, it may not vary more than a cent or two a year, then again, a change of a dollar a pound may be recorded in a few months, owing to natural and economic conditions. Shellac or lac cultivation is largely in the hands of village labor- ers of little education and scanty means and they neg- lect the crop when prices are low and are tempted when prices advance to strip their trees of brood lac on which future production necessarily depends. Advanc- ing prices also tend to induce adulteration of the raw product, but the commercial associations dealing in SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 293 shellac in the United States and England especially have adopted adulteration tests. These tests have done much to keep adulterated or dirty shellac gum out of the United States where the New York market works on a virtually clean basis technically, accepting no shellac gum at full value which does not meet the required test. Shellac is one of the most important products used in the arts and industries of the world today. It comes india mainly from India. Many have the opinion that it is furnishes the gum of a tree, but instead, it is the hardened ex- ^^^'^^^'^ cretion of an insect about l-40th of an inch in length, which swarms in great numbers on certain trees in India, commonly known as "lac trees" ; hence the name shell-lac or shellac. The shellac-producing insect is known scientifically as the Tachardia Lacca. Its complete cycle of life is less than one year and from birth to death, it concerns itself only with eating, propagating and making shel- lac. Thousands of years ago, the ancient natives of India used its excretion as a substance and color in making their ornaments and clothing, which excretion later became an article of commerce as the dye which for years ran the Cochineal bug dye a close race and would today, no doubt, be widely used except for the advent of synthetic or chemical dyes. This excretion forms what is known commercially as shellac gum and is an organic resin produced incidentally through op long chemical processes taking place in the life of an insect, usage Therefore, because of its solubility, it stands out in world commerce in contrast to the vegetable resins. It has qualities possessed by no other gum. It is sol- uble in alcohol or an alkali-water solution, but is not soluble in turpentine. There are records showing that shellac, as long ago as 1590, was dissolved and used as a coating or crude varnish, and from that date uses for which it is now so universally put have been developed until to- day, it is the "open sesame" to all phases of the paint- USES OF SHELLAC 291 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ing and decorating art, the friend of the sculptor, elec- trician and metal worker, the companion of the wood worker, furniture finisher and decorator, the facile aide of the foundry pattern makers, the base of but- tons, phonographs, talking machine records, telephone switchboards and mouthpieces, imitation ivory prod- ucts, billiard balls and poker chips, the principal stif- fening in hats, an element in sealing wax, light drying inks, shoe dressings and wood cements, the "snap" in playing cards and the artful finisher for leather, imita- tion leather, hardwood floors, pencils, broom and brush handles, autos, pianos, and what not. It is used as a cement or adhesive between certain metals or com- positions. Manufacturers of brushes use it as a ce- ment to make the bristles adhere to their base and as a seal on documents and letters, it has no equal. For filling knotholes or blemishes in wood, marble or other similar materials shellac has no competitor. Consequently wood cements or shellac sticks are today made in all colors and shades and are used in large quantities in the piano, furniture and woodworking and marble finishing trades. It is impossible to briefly summarize the uses to which shellac is put. Its distinction as one of the utilitarian products of the world of commerce is not likely to change, for it has no known, satisfactory sub- stitute. Chemists have spent years looking for a sub- stitute and yet today, they have only arrived at make- shifts and do not pretend to have all the important shellac qualities. The composition of shellac or con- stitutent parts are only partly known. The so-called lac trees of India and Siam provide practically the world's output of shellac. These in- clude about sixty varieties from evergreen to fig trees. As above mentioned, about 42,000,000 pounds a year in the raw or gum state, is the average output. Cal- cutta is the port from which the world's supply is shipped. In its raw condition, it is always referred to as a gum. There are essentially two crops a year, al- SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 295 though these come so as to be divided into four sea- sons as follows: The Baisaiki crop of April, 25,000,000 pounds. The Jetowa crop of August, 1,300,000 pounds. The Rungeen crop of October, 3,600,000 pounds. The Koosmi crop of December, 11,500,000 pounds. In its general classification, which in its gum or raw manufactured state, shellac is of two grades, namely: Orange shellac and garnet shellac. Button two crops lac is sometimes given as a third, but it is really a ^ '^^^^ grade of orange shellac. Of orange shellac, the fol- lowing are among the recognized names indicating their value and quality— WZ 1 to WZ 4, D. C, VSO, Diamond I, Double Triangle G, Superior, Superfine, Fine, Good and TN (Truly Native). All but the last five classifications are called standard marks and are used by manufacturers. The others are merely de- scriptive and in the order named range from light orange to less light qualities down to TN, the lowest and darkest grade above garnet lac. Nearly 50 per cent of all the shellac gum is known as TN (Truly Native). It contains more residue and dirt than WZ grades, including Superfine, and is used where color is not a factor and cheapness is required. VSO and DC are grades above the WZ 4 Superfine grade. There are other grades but these are among the more widely used. Garnet lac is shellac gum either pure or adulterated, from which the dye has not been grading of removed. Button lac is ordinary shellac gum usually shellac from medium to good grade, melted into buttonshape rather than flakes. "Kala" is a name given to the dirtiest of garnet lac, and the refuse from other grades. "Keerie" is a very cheap refuse shellac salvaged from the cloth sacks in which ordinary shellace is melted. It is seldom more than 50 per cent lac. The use of shellac dates back to Sanskrit, being recorded among the oldest products of the ancient Hindus. But, after the shellac had served its purpose as the compound for ornaments and the color for trin- 296 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BLEACHING PROCESS BONE-DRY SHELLAC kets and later as a commercial dye product, it was dis- covered that when dissolved in a solvent, like alcohol, it made an excellent varnish and today there is hardly an industry which has not felt its good offices. There was but one serious objection to this and that was the orange brownish tint. It was realized that if it could be made colorless, or given other colors, it would greatly increase its value and it was then that a method was discovered of bleaching shellac ; meaning to change the color without affecting the quality. The bleaching process is a difficult and complicated one, but in laymen's language it may be described as follows: The first step in this bleaching process is to take a hot water solution of borax or soda in which the orange shellac gum is dissolved. While it is in this liquid state, chlorine gas or a similar bleaching prod- uct is introduced until the color has been bleached from orange to white. By means of an acid, the shel- lac is then precipitated out of the solution. Then be- gins the slow and laborious process of drying it; that is, the process was slow and laborious until recent years when one manufacturer applied a system of vacuum drying to shellac. Of the two methods now in use of drying this precipitate, the old-fashioned one, produces what is known as "bone-dry shellac." This antiquated method consists of taking the still wet shel- lac, removing the acid and placing the resulting shel- lac gum in flat trays, setting them in tiers on racks in a warm or steam-heated room. By exposure to air and the heat of the room, the trays of shellac are dried in from five to fourteen days, depending upon the condi- tion of the weather. At present, there is only one concern using the vacuum drying method which is "foolproof" and uniform, and which has taken the bleaching of shellac out of the "rule of thumb" method. "Vac-Dry" is the registered name of this modern bone-dry shellac. Eventually this system probably will be adopted by others. Contrary to. popular misapprehension, shellac does SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 297 not lose its strength of shellac quality by being bleached, when the bleaching is properly done. For best results, however, it should be put into solution relatively soon after being bleached. Hank shellac is also a bleached shellac, which, in- stead of being ground and dried, is pulled into "hanks" or twisted. White shellac, in this form, contains about 20 per cent of moisture and is sold with this under- standing. It is used in those industries where shellac hank is dissolved in a water solution and the presence of shellac so small an amount of water does no harm. Hank shellac is cheaper than dried white shellac because the labor and cost of the drying process are eliminated. Another variety of white shellac gum is made in both the bone-dry and the hank form and is called "refined white shellac." This variety is made from a better than TN grade of orange shellac gum and, as the name implies, it is refined and filtered, the wax which is in shellac gum being removed. Although in the gum form it is very similar in appearance to ordi- nary white shellac, when dissolved in alcohol a big dif- ference is noticeable. A transluscent and almost clear solution is obtained. French varnishes and lacquers of finest quality are made from the refined white shel- lac gum, although, in order to get an absolutely clear shellac solution, it is necessary to filter it through paper, for french Refined shellac gum is one of the important component varnishes parts of the finest guncotton lacquers, and is widely used for this purpose. Our story of shellac would not be complete without a brief account of the process in the life of the lac-bug, which is responsible for the world's supply of shellac gum. During certain seasons of the year, these tiny, red insects swarm in a great numbers on twigs of the several types of trees in India and Siam. They crawl or are carried by the wind, birds and insects to the trees which at times take on a red or pinkish color, due to the dense mass of the visitors. These insects, when thoroughly settled on the 298 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 1. Lac tree twig showing how swarm of lac bugs attach themselves. 2. Young lac insect magnified about 28 times. 3. Female lac insect 4 weeks old, magnified about 21 times. 4. Dead female cell showing young lac in- sects emerging from the shell about twice enlarged. 5. Wingless male lac insect, magnified about six times. (i. Winged male, magnified about 20 times. 7. Male cell 13 weeks old, magnified 7 times. 8. Female lac insect 13 weeks old, magnified about IVo times. SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 299 branches or twigs, bury their beak or stinger-like proboscis through the bark and into the meat of the tree. Many die, however, while reaching a new swarm- ing place or are too weak to penetrate the bark of the tree and hence starve. Then again, many are washed away by heavy rains or killed by severe weather. However, millions survive, and once settled or fixed, they begin sucking the sap of the tree up through their body and literally feeding themselves to death — at the source of same time proceeding with an interesting process of supply propogation. Each female produces about 1,000 new insects, and gives her life as the toll. The sap sucked up in this process undergoes a chemical transformation in passing through the body and is eventually exuded, forming a hard shell-like covering of the entire swarm upon contact with the air. This covering in time takes the form of a composite crust for the twigs and insects. It is this chemical process, taking place at this time, which causes no end of anxiety throughout the world, for market quota- tions which may be seriously affected should natural or weather conditions cause any serious change in the composition of this crust. Some shellac crops are partial or whole failures due to the predatory in- roads of certain insects and parasites, to heavy rains or hail, to hot dusty winds or to indo- lence of the Hindu shellac growers. Frost has little or no effect, but monkeys do much mis- chievous damage. About five per cent of the in- sects amassed on the trees are of the male sex, which strangely to say, are of two kinds, winged and wingless, according to whether they are of the February (wingless) or July SOME CROPS ARE FAILURES CLOSE-UP OF SWARM OF TACHARDI LACCA. 300 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FEMALE PRODUCES SHELLAC (winged) generations. Nature, no doubt, provided wings for the July brood to facilitate his valuable pres- ence in a new swarm. The female always wingless, is m reality the shel- lac producer. While she is exuding the substance from which shellac is made, she is preparing herself to die after producing a fluid in which her eggs are matured and which produces during the next six months the future supply of lac bugs. The young go almost im- HINDU SHELLAC HARVESTER CUTTING DOWN LAC-BEARING BRANCHES. INSECTS SOON DIE mediately in swarms to another tree to repeat the propogations and chemical transformations and to make the next season's supply of shellac. The males, after having fertilized the horde of females, begin also the "feast of death" and contribute relatively little more to the shellac crop for the year — though without him the shellac industry would soon languish. As the shell-like covering forms over the insects on each tree, they gradually become inactive. In the sixth or seventh month after swarming the young begin to SHELLAC AND ITS HISTORY 301 break through the apparently lifeless mass and swarm to new fields — the male and female parents having died in the meantime. It takes but a short time for the young to get about and attach themselves to other trees, although their first movements are sluggish and slow. The natives begin the harvest of this shellac-like crust, known as "stick-lac," from the old swarming place a short time after the young are born and have harvesting swarmed to another tree. Only one crop is taken from stick-lac a single tree in a year, although young are hatched twice a year. The natives gather millions of these in- crusted twigs and assemble them to be taken to a fac- tory where the incrustations are removed. Sometimes they take wooden mallets into the orchard or forest and break the incrustations off at the start, quite as ice would be broken from around a tree branch or a water pipe. The latter method produces what is known as "grain-Lac." This, in either case is the first step in the harvest of the raw shellac gum. While, as a rule, shellac trees grow in groves or forests, many of the trees growing along the roadside in India also produce shellac. In assembling the stick-lac or grain-lac at the fac- tory, it is usually placed between two great stones, not unlike the grain grinding stones used by the Ameri- can Indians. Between these stones the lac is ground, lac is usually by women, sufficiently to remove the remains ground of the parent bugs, sticks and other dirt. This crudely between ground lac is then sifted and separated into three ^"^^^^^ classes, the most important of which is the "seed-lac," which is retained for commercial purposes. The sec- ond class, containing fragments of branches and other dirt, is often collected and used for fuel, while the third product, consisting mainly of very small fragments of lac and dirt, known as "khud," becomes a commercial product and is sold to trinket and toy makers. In preparing the seed-lac for the market, it is washed and soaked for about twenty-four hours to rid 302 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM it of the coloring matter or dye. It is again put through a grinder. The resiliency or bending quality is one of the most valuable of the several physical characteristics of pure shellac and every effort is made to maintain it. This is why the United States Shellac Association has made a regulation which successfully keeps out of this country shellac which has more than a small minimum of adulterant. NATIVE STRETCHING COOLED MOLTEN MASS SHELLAC INTO THIN SHEETS PRIOR TO BREAKING IT INTO FLAKES. HEATED AFTER GRINDING After being ground, the seed-lac is placed in large cloth bags, about twelve feet long and tM^o or three inches in diameter. These bags are then heated be- fore an open fire slowly and steadily while the natives twist them to wring out the melted lac. This melted lac then drips to the floor on tiles or wet plantain leaves and is caught up while still warm SHELLAO AND ITS HISTORY 303 and in a partly molten mass, by a native who stretches it into thin sheets. To do this, he places one corner between his teeth, two other corners under either foot and then with a hand on either side stretches the mass until it becomes a very thin, parchment-like sheet thereafter easily broken up into flakes. When in this form, it is shipped in gunny sacks containing about 164 pounds (two maunds) each. While stretching, all dirty and too darkly colored portions are broken off and remelted. It would appear that the world production of shel- production lac would depend on the vagaries of the lac insect, but depends on while this is partly true, it is only part of the story, insects The cultivation of lac is one of the main resources of India, the shellac industry having become so vital. The Indian government has a conservator of forests who is in charge of the lac trees and who is constantly at work preserving the supply of shellac and extermi- nating the insects and parasites which prey upon the lac bugs. Some few cents a day (about twelve cents on an average) for some years were the wages earned by the natives of India in the shellac factories. The cost of producing raw shellac, however, is much more today before the than ever before, due largely to new economic condi- war tions in India, which were caused by the war. While, as a rule, the lac bugs remain constant in the community where they are once established, the shellac growers see to it that the district is not de- nuded at each successive harvest, but cutting lac-bear- ing branches from healthy well-filled trees about a fortnight before the young are due to emerge. Later, these cut branches are hung in bamboo baskets or in other crude native receptacles in other trees, thus bringing new trees into bearing or perhaps mixing new "shellac blood" into the district, crossing the breed as in any other plant or animal breeding process. Care is taken during this time to eliminate any branches containing any predaceous caterpillars and other ene- 304 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CARE MUST BE USED DEMAND INCREASING mies of the lac bug. Before being aerated into the new trees, the branches are cut into twigs of eight to eleven inches in length. Usually these brood twigs are not hung in the tree until about a fortnight after being cut or until the first few tiny red insects are seen to be crawling over the sticks. It is at this time that they are planted in the new trees which have been properly prunned to receive them. Almost immediately upon being hatched, the insects fasten themselves to the news trees and begin their gum-bearing and reproduc- tion process. If a tree is too heavily innoculated, it will die, and therefore, one of the arts of lac growing is to inoculate the tree just enough. When dissolved in alcohol and made into a varnish, shellac gums have applications too numerous and well known to require mention Shellac gum is soluble either in alcohol or with the use of an alkali in boiling water. When dissolved in alcohol, it is called shellac varnish or "cut shellac." When an alkali is used, the term "water solution" is usually adopted, and it is for this use that white shel- lac hanks find a market. The demand for shellac among painters, decorators and finishers is increasing yearly in spite of the in- creased cost over turpentine varnishes made from other gums, and today they use a large part of the available supply of shellac. The furniture manufac- turing world also uses large quantities. A good shel- lac varnish, when thinned down and used as a primer, is much more permanent than a cheap varnish of mix- ing or ceiling variety. A good point to remember is that when so-called turpentine varnishes dry quickly, it indicates the presence of benzine or resin, while in the case of the shellac varnishes, the quicker they dry, the purer shellac they are likely to be. There is one characteristic of shellac which needs explanation after which we may say that we have cov- ered the essentials of interest to shellac users. That SHELLAC A ND ITS HISTORY 305 is the tendency of shellac to become "matted" or "blocked" while in transit during the spring and sum- mer months from India. It is shipped from there be- tween May and November, which means shellac arriv- ing in the United States between July and January, has to pass through intense tropical weather en route. The heat causes the shellac flakes to stick together, sometimes only slightly so that they can be "freed" by hand, when the shellac is said to be "matted," and at other times so much so, that the shellac becomes like stone and has to be broken up and ground. It is then spoken of as being "blocked." When shellac arrives in flaky condition, it is said to be "free." The quality of "freed" or "ground" shellac is just as good as flake shellac, but its appearance is not as attractive, of course. DETERMINATION OF ROSIN IN GUJl SHELLAC AND SHELLAC VARNISHES Sample — Should be at one pound per bag or case testing of for gum shellac and one pint per barrel for varnishes, shellac Method (Wijs-Langmuir) — Weigh out .200 grams of ground (20 mesh) shellac, after thorough mixing, into a dry 250 c.c. glass-stoppered bottle. Add 20 c.c. (pipette) C. P. acetic acid 99 per cent; warm very gently on the hot water bath, until completely dis- solved. Add 10 c.c. pure chloroform. Add 20 c.c. (calibrated pipette) Wijs solution iodine monochloride. Immerse the bottle in warm water kept between 21-23 wijs-lang- degrees C. for exactly one hour. Add 10 c.c. potassium iodide solution, 10 per cent. Immediately titrate with sodium thiosulphate solution. This is made by dis- solving 24.83 grams of sodium thiosulphate, C. P., in one liter of water, and determining its strength with pure copper or idodine. After running in about 25 c.c. of the thiosulphate solution, a few drops of fresh starch solution are added, which turns the shellac solution dark. Thiosulphate solution is added gradually, until the blue color due to starch is discharsred. (Shake the MUIR METHOD 306 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TO DETERMINE PERCENTAGE OF ROSIN bottle occasionally.) Run a blank exactly as above without the shellac. The c.c. of thiosulphate required by the sample, is subtracted from the c.c. required by the blank. This gives the c.c. absorbed by the shellac, divide by .200 grams to give c.c. absorbed by one gram. Multiply this by the iodine value of the thiosulphate solution, which will give the iodine value of the sample. To obtain the percentage of rosin : Y — percentage of rosin M — iodine value of shellac (pure) N — iodine value of rosin A — iodine value of mixture (sample) Then Y equals 100 (A-M) (N-M) In the official method 18. is taken as the iodine value of shellac and 228. as the iodine value of rosin. To determine the percentage of rosin in a shellac varnish, the varnish is evaporated down on the water bath until dry and .200 grams of the residue taken and treated as above. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE IN GUM SHELLAC A representative sample must be taken and quickly ground to about 10-20 mesh. Weigh out about 5 grams into a flat bottomed dish 3-4 inches in diameter. The shellac should be spread out in as thin a layer as possi- ble. Dry in a well ventilated air-bath at 38-43 degrees C. until constant weight (about 5 hours). Transfer to a dessicator and when cool, weigh. CHAPTER LVII FINISHING WITH SHELLAC WHEN one stops to consider that more and more shellac is used in this country years, not- withstanding the fact that no real efforts have ever been made to popularize or advertise it and that its use is increasing in the face of continued opposition from oil varnish manufacturers, v^e realize that shellac now occupies a definite place and has some advantages over all competing finishes. It is definitely conceded by the best finishers that beauty of if the time could be expended on it, there is no finish french that has the durability, velvety surface and the beauti- polish ful grain effects of French polishing work, built up by coat after coat of very thin shellac. To produce a French polish, first see that your sur- face is thoroughly and evenly sanded. If stained, be sure that water stain only is used and let it dry before you start with shellac. If the surface is veneered, see that the glue moisture has also been driven out by kiln drying, if possible. Then take shellac which has been thinned down to a water consistency ; make a soft ball or pad of stocking material and apply the shellac in light, straight-line strokes with the pad. As soon as the surface is dry, apply another coat in the same manner. The term coat is really a misnomer as the shellac is so thin one would hardly believe in watching this work built up that the finisher were more than lightly sponging the surface with alcohol. Should there be hair line cracks, sprinkle very directions for lightly here and there some very fine pumice. Then applying on the next coat, you will fill up these lines, using your french pad and rubbing this fine pumice combined with the ^^^^^^ shellac into them. In building up a fair sheen or gloss, be careful not to cover so heavily as to hide the "feel" of the grain. Then after your surface is again thor- 308 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM MUCH RUBBING NECESSARY SOFT FINISHES HERE TO STAY oughly dry, you can begin rubbing lightly in a rotary motion with your pad, on which a few drops of linseed oil has been poured. Be sure to cover all your area or you will find yourself polishing only one spot, usually the middle. After rubbing for sometime and using additional drops of oil, you will notice a high polish coming up. Then gently rub this until it is fairly dry. Let it stand over night and rub with oil again the next day. This process will produce a mirror-like finish which is impossible to obtain in any other way and one more durable and permanently indestructible than any finish known. It was to imitate and hasten this process that rubbing and polishing turpentine var- nishes were introduced. The term "French polish" is often confused with a so-called French polish that can be bought in a bottle. There are several "wonder mixtures" selling under this name but they are dangerous to finishes, and try to accomplish in a few moments what it takes careful fin- ishers in Europe days to do. Shellac is fast becoming more popular in this coun- try. It was side-tracked for a time because we de- manded quantity production here and required rapid results. This caused gloss finishes to become popular- ized. Today soft waxy wood finishes are desired just as flat effects in paint have superceded gloss paint for interior use. For this soft finish effect, even in quan- tity production, the use of shellac stands pre-eminent. Several heads of furniture houses, known as quality leaders in their line, are of the firm belief that soft shellac finishes like flat paints are here to stay, because with shellac, the new look of furniture can be done away with and at the same time, with a minimum amount of effort, you can produce what will look like the old-fashioned furniture which the public has been educated to prefer over the shiny new finishes of the more recent years. Here some of the reasons are summarized as to why shellac finishes are coming in and why they are as im- FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 309 portant and advantageous to the manufacturer as to the consumer. 1 — Shellac is as durable a finish as is known and its use obtains much quicker results — thus increasing production. 2 — A shellac finish is easier to pack. Paper will not stick to it if proper drying care has been given. A thin coat of hard prepared wax or beeswax would, of course, eliminate even rare cases. 3 — If damage is done to the finish, it is easily re- stored. 4 — It is an economical finish. shellac is 5 — A shellac finish permits a better blending and economical shading. Richer effects are obtained by using the ap- propriate color of shellac (white or orange) than with stain. Shellacs are clear natural stains and bring out the grain. Of course, there are times when a stain must be used to obtain a pronounced finish. Never use oil stains as they set like paint. Use water or natural acid stains. 6 — A simple finish of water stain followed by a few very thin coats of shellac and a coat of wax has much less liklihood to turn gray or white than a finish built up on successive coats of both shellac and var- nish because the latter finish is an air tight seal. Moisture "hydrolyzes" (or fogs) the finish. Once the finish has turned underneath, a tedious refinishing problem -is presented. 7 — The finish gets nearer to the antique beautiful finishes of the past — the pride of every furniture col- lection. . , Laboratory experience has convinced me that it is the maltreatment of shellac in its usage which is re- sponsible for the difficulties which may arise. Little has ever been written about shellac in an at- tempt to analyze some of its failures. Therefore, some of the following suggestions may be of distinct use- fulness. 310 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM USED AS FIRST COATER FIRST COAT SHOULD BE THIN Shellac is a universal first coater. During the great war when prices of shellacs were high, hundreds of resinous substitutes were introduced and cheap ben- zine varnishes were tried. These all failed because you cannot get good results on top, if your undercoat is bad or brittle. As a first coater, nothing is more durable and flexible through various changes of tem- perature than shellac. An instance of this is its use as a first coater for outside work. Even enemies of shellac admit it has no superior to kill knots, i. e. — to keep the sap from coming through the paint. We have seen any number of outside white piazza ceilings or outside trim discolored with brown spots because of sap coming through from knot holes. A whole white pillar can have a muddy brown streak down it a few weeks after pure paint has been applied, unless shel- lac was used as a first coater. This is particularly true of green woods. We have seen white pine tar in green wood fairly bubble out of house shutters under rays of the sun, through two coats of gray lead and two coats of pure dark green paint, when a coat of shel- lac would have saved the whole situation. The most valuable hint we can give a finisher is to put his first coat of shellac on ridiculously thin and his next coat almost as thin. We are only trying to fill the pores, and we do not want to kill the grain. The fault is generally made in practically flowing on a heavy coat of shellac. This leaves the next coat nothing to grip to. Follow the old rule which proves good on every finish, "Never put a gloss on a gloss." If your shellac priming coats are very thin, your finishing coat can dig in and hold on. Remember two thin coats are much better than one thick one. Checking is always due to expansion and contrac- tion of the finishing coat which when attached to an inelastic or unbending finish like a gloss coat, has got to give, particularly through changes of temperature, and in creeping, the coat cracks or alligators. Pure shellac will not scratch white, mar white or FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 311 crack under the hammer. It has wonderful plastic and elastic properties. Steel wool is claimed by many far superior to fine sandpaper for rubbing between coats. Do not touch steel wool up missed places ; you must avoid this to keep the sur- good for face smooth, as touching back simply seals up the first rubbing coat in spots before it has had a real chance to dry. ^^"^^ Shellac, if kept for a long time, should be stored preferably in wood or glass. The most up-to-date packages for general use is a special composition can which has an interior lining of a certain process lead. Never should shellac be allowed to remain in barrels or small packages uncorked. Alcohol is very volatile; the shellac will thicken up and once the alcohol has evaporated, the gum residue is worthless and for all intents and purposes insoluble. It is a popular fallacy to think that shellac which is dried out has only to be dried thinned again with alcohol and that this dry residue shellac is is the same as the original shellac gum. Shellac stored worthless in glass should be kept away from the sunlight as this has a tendency to darken it. Shellac has an affinity for water. Therefore, on hot muggy days when the humidity is particularly high, its use is better post- poned unless its application can be immediately fol- lowed by artificial heat in a special drying room. Never thin shellac with anything but alcohol and in doing this, stir the mixture slowly. Neither the addition of acetone, Venice turpentine, wood alcohol, benzole or any other solvent will help in the least. Always buy the best formula of completely denatured alcohol you can; today (1922) Formula No. 5 is the best for shellac. Since the advent of protiibition, completely dena- tured alcohols have been slightly weakened in strength, but the best formulas are plenty good enough when they are used to thin good shellacs made out of spe- cially 190 degree proof, formula No. 1 denatured alco- hol. Wood alcohol used in conjunction with shellac has practically disappeared except in rare cases. This is a 312 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FORMULA NO. DENATURED ALCOHOL IS BEST USE A RUBBER-SET BRUSH good thing for finishing rooms because it is the most poisonous and also from the cost standpoint, there is a saving, as wood alcohol is more expensive. Pure grain alcohol, which was prohibitive in price even before prohibition, is now entirely out of the question. Formula No. 1 (190 proof) specially dena- tured alcohol mentioned above is a government formula and is composed of 100 gallons grain alcohol to which five gallons of wood alcohol have been added. From this, you see that it is a wonderful alcohol and for all intents and purposes practically a pure grain alcohol. As a matter of fact, this alcohol is so close to the pure grain that manufacturers of shellac using it are under very heavy bond not to sell a drop which has not been mixed with at least two pounds of shellac to the gallon of alcohol. Always insist on shellac made from 190 degree proof material. It will pay you to do this and then you can forget all about other solvents. A rubber-set brush is best for use with shellac. A glue set brush comes second in adaptability. Always brush in one direction and work fairly fast. For shel- lacing large surfaces such as floors, a flat wall brush, rubber bound, of black Chinese, bristles, is the best. For finer work a soft hair brush, rubber bound, of either camel or bear hair variety, is even more adapt- able than a bristle brush. A general complaint about the use of white shellac is that occasionally (and sometimes not for months after a piece of furniture has been shipped) the finish turns gray or white ; this is sometimes called "bloom- ing." It has been found that such complaints are in- variably traced to furniture finished in our humid summer weather or to climatic changes where furni- ture finished in the north has been shipped to the south. We have seen mahogany furniture and store fixtures which were moved into a new concrete sky- scraper in New York, which furniture was beautiful when installed but soon turned white. Concrete and other buildings built in the summer never dry out until FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 313 mid-winter, after steam heat has driven out all the moisture. In all new buildings where windows are shut down tightly after office hours, condensation sets in and when the offices are opened in the morning, you will find water running down the inside of the window panes. Naturally, you cannot blame shellac or any other finish for turning white under such moist con- ditions, and we only mention this instance as an actual example. No one ever stops to consider, it seems, that there are different climatic and temperature conditions sur- rounding the finishing rooms in the winter time, where conditions the temperature of steam-heated factories is kept up to important the accelerate drying and where the heat is dry, than in the same factory in our hot summer weather with all the windows open, the thermometer registering the same degree of heat as in the winter, but a heat that is terribly moist. Shellac, as said before, has an affinity for moisture and will, on damp days, draw it out of the air. You will get the white effect as you work, and if the first coat is not clear when you apply the second, you bury the white coat, keeping the moisture in the wood only to sweat out at a later date. Recognizing this fundamental fact, modern furniture factories screen off portions of their floor with heavy duck or build a drying room where steam heat is kept going even in the summer time. These rooms are not much hotter than any other portion of the floor, but the heat in them is dry. As soon as an article is dipped, drying room brushed or sprayed, it is put into this drying room, necessary When thoroughly dry, the second coat is put on, then back into the drying room again and so on. If you comply with this main principle of drying, and follow this process through, remembering also these addi- tional points, the whole white or gray discoloration complaint should be entirely eliminated. Be sure that you use kiln dried wood. If a veneered finish is to be obtained, see that both the veneer and the wood under it is kiln dried. 314 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM RUB SHELLAC WITH OIL CURE FOR WHITE FINISH If possible, have all glue moisture driven out of veneered surface by kiln heat before shellacing is done. Have the coat of water stain perfectly dry. Do not use oil stains. Never stain and shellac on the same day, particularly on dark woods, unless absolutely necessary. Never apply more than two coats of shellac the same day and keep them thin. In French polishing, where the shellac is used as thin as water, you can of course put on any number of coats providing the pre- ceding coat is thoroughly dry and you are not simply rubbing up the first coat again. Dry with dry artificial heat the year around. Never rub down shellac with water. Always use oil. Water can seep through a crack at the edge of a panel or drawer and work back under the varnish. A white spot on any surface is rarely due to conditions right under the spot itself. Expert furniture finishers claim (and we have seen it done) that if a piece of furniture has turned white, it is possible to eliminate it at least to some extent in the following way, and often the result is permanent. Brush your work very lightly with the highest grade of alcohol you can find, using a camel's hair brush. Medicated grain alcohol purchased at a drug store, if it is of guaranteed high proof, is the best alcohol that can be obtained these days for this work. Simply draw the brush over the work so that the shellac finish is moistened. For some inexplicable chemical reason, the white can be brushed out. This operation may have to be rubbed. Let it stand over night and rub with very light pumice stone, soft felt and rubbing oil. Be careful not to rub up the finish, which a novice is apt to do. Sometimes where large surfaces have turned milky, an electric flat-iron with slow heat will restore the color. Placing the work near a steam pipe will also restore it. The electric iron can be applied over a piece of tracing cloth so that it will not stick FINISHING WITH SHELLAC 315 to the surface. The iron must not be pushed around but instead merely held in one position until enough heat has been brought to bear to clear up the finish. In the case previously cited, where office fixtures turned white, in a damp moist concrete building which was finished in the summer, it is absolutely certain that in the winter time when the place has dried out, and the steam heat is left on day and night, the finish will entirely clear up again. Of course, on very soft woods it would take too long and possibly be too expensive to do all your filling with shellac. In that case, we recommend a good paste filler put on sufficiently thin to fill the grain absolutely, using a medium amount of same and then a coat of shellac. Put on both the filler and the shellac so as not to fill in absolutely the pores for the reasons we have mentioned earlier in this chapter. In finishing hardwood floors, we recommend that finishing the filler be a thin coat of shellac. If the floors are floors very soft, a coat of paste filler should be used. For floor work, of course, where you want a quick durable finish, the first coat should be thin shellac, using about two pounds to the gallon, and the second coat to give a final finish should be about four pounds. There is no other more durable finish than a shellac coat, and the householder much prefers it to the very shiny glass- like floor varnishes so widely advertised. Of course, a shellac floor gives a much richer and softer effect, and a coat of wax applied on top of it softens the finish still further and should stand an indefinite amount of wear. Of course, in the case of the shellaced floor, it is ' f 1 NEVER USE best for the householder to put a coat of wax over the shellac most used portions of the floor such as thresholds, en- substitute trances into a room, etc., every month or so. Never on floors use a shellac substitute on floors. It cannot stand the wear. It is made of rosin and of course will crack and mar white under the heel. Never use a shellac substitute as a first coater under shellac, because if 316 PPORLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM USE OF SHELLAC STICKS REPAIRING MADE EASY the under coat peels off, the shellac will also and the latter cannot be blamed. By all means for floor use, buy a pure shellac from a reputable house. Be sure the word "pure" is plainly stated on the label, and the formula, too, wherever possible. The use of "stick shellac," or, as it is more often called, "wood cement," is the most modern method for repairing blemishes, filling cracks or other injuries to wood. Reputable shellac houses manufacture these sticks in fifty or more shades — each shade being col- ored to match every kind of finish, such as Adam brown, Circassian walnut, dark mahogany, etc. Color cards can be furnished from which you can pick the nearest matching stick for your particular work. In buying shellac sticks, you must be sure to buy the best because there are several grades on the mar- ket which contain too much rosin, and, needless to say, they are not satisfactory for the same reason that a pure shellac is better than an adulterated one. Good shellac sticks will not soften under sandpaper; can be both rubbed and polished and will not chip or crack. The ideal way to apply these cements is by means of an electric soldering iron which can be connected to an ordinary light socket. When the iron becomes hot, it melts the shellac, and the operation is the same as a tinsmith when he applies his solder. If this tool is not at hand, a small alcohol flame will do equally as well. A candle, a match or an oil lamp will simply soot up the cement and discolor it. For pin holing, we have seen finishers use an ordinary flexible palette knife to squeeze the melted cement into small holes. The use of these cements has grown continuously and their origination has proven to be a Godsend be- cause woods are growing inferior from year to year and often a very fine piece of wood had to be thrown among seconds because of some small defects. Such close matcnes can now be made by means of these cements and the most remarkable work can be done in patching inferior wood. CHAPTER LVIII ANTIQUE WALNUT ANTIQUE walnut is a 1921 creation along the lines of the Italian Rennaisance, and, not being a radical departure from the generally accepted ideas of what a good finish should be, is meeting with considerable success. The finish is easily produced, and little time is con- success of sumed — a point of vital interest to the manufacturer, new finish The first step is to see that the wood is made perfectly smooth. A little extra time in sanding at the begin- ning will save twice that time later on in the finishing process. Use 000 or 0000 sandpaper, and sand the wood until it is like velvet. After sanding, clean out the pores thoroughly. It is not enough to wipe them off with a rag, or to use compressed air. Provide the finisher with a picking brush, and see that he uses it. This little tool will greatly aid in removing dust from the pores, and it does a clean and efficient job. Prepare your stain after this formula: Loutre R _ _ .2 oz. Indian Yellow H 1 oz. Bichromate Potash Yz oz. Water _. 1 gal. If desired, this stain can, of course, be reduced with water. Dissolve the powders in hot water {not boil- ing) and stir until they are thoroughly dissolved. Ap- directions for ply a coat of this stain in the usual manner, brushing out well. Let dry thoroughly — ^about 12 hours should be given. The work may appear dry in a few hours, but there will still be some moisture left, and it takes a little time to get rid of this. When the wood is dry, sand lightly, and spray on a coat of wood lacquer reduced about 40 per cent to 50 per cent with wood lacquer thinner. Use about 30 318 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM USE PURE WHITE FILLER FINISH WILL GIVE LONG WEAR pound pressure, and give as even a coat as possible, without piling up any of the lacquer. This v^^ill dry in a few hours, and the work is then ready for the filler. This consists of white lead, mixed to a paste with tur- pentine, or, better still, white lead ground in japan thinned with turpentine. Turpentine substitute, or mineral turpentine can also be used. Some finishers advocate the use of 70 per cent carbonate of lead, and 30 per cent zinc, as it is a well known fact that paint which contains zinc will wear better and look whiter than if all lead were used in the making. Whatever material you employ, make it up to a smooth paste with turpentine, and then apply with rag to the stained wood. Rub thoroughly into the pores in the usual manner. Let it set a few minutes and then rub dry and clean with another rag. The pores may now look too white and glaring to the finisher, but when finished they will soften down and will harmonize perfectly. The next step is to spray on a coat of wood lacquer reduced about 40 per cent with the thinner. When this is thoroughly dry, which will take but a few hours, the finish should be lightly rubbed with fine sandpaper. It is then ready for waxing, which completes the finish. There are a number of good waxes on the market or the finisher may prepare his own after the following formula : Beeswax, pure 4 lbs. Turpentine 1/^ gal. This will produce a first class wax that will rub up to a beautiful polish with little effort. The finish is now complete, and the result will please the eye of the most fastidious purchaser. The beauty of the wood is emphasized, and not hidden by heavy thick coats of varnish, and, although the finish is thin, it will give long wear. The foregoing directions give the wood lacquer pro- cess, which is the manner under which antique walnut was introduced. It however is optional, and shellac, or similar materials may be substituted. IN USE CHAPTER LIX ITALIAN WALNUT THERE are two popular conceptions of Italian wal- nut finish — the greenish grey and the blackish grey. They are rather difficult to describe, yet after reading the directions, it becomes easier to pic- two shades ture in the mind's eye, the effect produced. With the final preparation of the wood down to a velvety satin-like surface and the pores thoroughly cleaned out — all the sand and dust removed by brush and air pressure — the stain is applied. To produce the greenish-grey, the following will act as a basis : Nigrosine, greenish black 1 oz. Warm water 1 gal. To produce the blackish-grey : Nigrosine, blue shade 2 oz. Warm water 1 gal. For uniform colored walnut, no other material is necessary, but where the wood presents some sap, and light streaks, the addition of one-fourth ounce of crys- tal sulphate of iron is recommended. The sap is then treated with a weak stain to bring it up to the depth of the darker wood, and when dry the entire piece gone over with the nigrosine solution only. When the preparation final coat is thoroughly dry — and to obtain complete chemical action it is well to let it stand over night — sand it with extremely fine a«,nd paper, and dust it thoroughly again. Then apply a coat of wood lacquer, thinned with about 40 per cent of wood lacquer thin- ner. When this has dried at least four hours, prepare a filler as follows : 25% zinc white (carbonate of zinc), 75% white lead, Turpentine. OF FILLER 320 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM APPLICATION OF FILLER SHELLAC CAN BE USED Finishers generally, are acquainted with this style of filler, which is not designed to fill the pores abso- lutely, but rather to give them a white color, and also to deposit in the little tissues bits of white so as to pro- duce in the final finish, a grey-white effect. This white filler should be of the consistency of syrup, spread on to the wood freely, and immediately rubbed in briskly and cleaned oflf. The fil*st rag discarded, and the work wiped clean with a fresh rag. This should then be allowed to dry and it is quite necessary that it is abso- lutely dry before the final coat of wood lacquer is ap- plied. This coat of wood lacquer should be thinned with 40 per cent of wood lacquer thinner. After this coat is thoroughly dry, say four to six hours, sand with 0000 sandpaper, dust and wax. It has been found that niany finishers are apt to let their wax stand too long before they polish. The writ- er's experience induces him to recommend that the wax be evenly spread upon the surface with the flat of the hand, rubbed about until it begins to stiffen, and then brought to a polish. This polishing should be con- tinued until an absolute gloss is produced, and suffici- ent friction has been maintained to produce a certain warmth. A finish of this kind will present a satisfac- tory surface and although it does not have the appear- ance of a sheet of glass over the wood, it has a finished appearance that immediately brings to the mind that some care has been taken in acquiring it. This new finish is brought out with wood lacquer, which must not be confounded with the popular con- ception of lacquer, which is a metal lacquer only. It is, of course, possible to use shellac and similar products in place of the lacquer. A NEW- CHAPTER LX ITALIAN OAK RENNAISANCE THE Italian oak Rennaisance finish is a 1921 crea- tion in wood lacquer and wax finish with smutted pores, smutted moulding trim, decorations of mahogany finished in natural wood. finish The stain is prepared by dissolving six ounces of Italian oak stain powder in one gallon of water. The stain is ready for use as soon as the powder is thor- oughly dissolved. The wood which has first been care- fully sanded is given a good coat of the above stain, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The oak is then filled with a mixture of rotten stone and turpentine to which a small proportion of japan dryer has been added. This is rubbed thoroughly into the pores of the wood, and cleaned off thoroughly after the filler has begun to set. It is understood of course that this filler is not designed to fill the pores of the wood so as to present a level surface, but merely to color them with the rot- ten stone so as to give a dusty appearance to the wood. When the filler is dry, a coat of wood lacquer is sprayed on, which has been reduced with wood lacquer thinner about 50 per cent. After drying and sanding lightly, another coat of wood lacquer is sprayed on which has been reduced about 30 per cent. These coats of lacquer will dry in a few hours so that they can be sanded and a coat of wax then applied. It is a good plan to add a little rotten stone to the wax, as this tends to give a more uniform tone to the whole piece, and also emphasizes the coloring of the pores. This completes the general finishing process. Many variations may be introduced in the finish by using a darker stain for rails, edges of tops, etc. Sometimes small ornamental pieces of mahogany or walnut are used, these being glued on to the face of the work and ORNAMENTS ARE SOME- TIMES USED GOLD MOULDING IS BEST 322 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM finished in a light natural color. Mouldings are also very effective in connection w^ith this finish. A plain gold pattern is best, and should of course be stained with the same stain used on the piece. A heavy paste of rotten stone is then applied, and when dry, high- light, so that all the depressions are fully covered with rotten stone. CHAPTER LXI THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL LINSEED oil is a drying oil; that is, an oil which will absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, and during this absorption become solidified into a rubber-like, water-proof film. The absorption of this source of oxygen produces a gain in the weight of the oil, linseed oil Linseed oil is pressed from the flaxseed. The flax, in this case, is grown especially for crushing purposes. To make the best oil, the flax is not cut until its seeds have commenced to ripen. This is the practice in India where labor costs only a few pennies a day. Here the flax is pulled and manipulated entirely by hand and the seed is very plump and rich in oil, because the juices have been enriched by the natural process^of ripening. The India seed produces an oil which is highly prized by all those who must have linseed oil, second to none ; especially varnish makers, who consume enormous quantities. This method of harvesting flaxseed cannot be practiced in this country nor in South America or Russia, where great quantities are produced, as it would raise the price far beyond reason. In America, flax is cut by machinery, exactly as is wheat. Now, if the farmer waited until the seed had started to ripen, much of it would shell out from the shaking of the harvesting machine and would be ^^^^ ^ wasted. To prevent this, the seed is cut while in the inferior oil "dough," as it is called, just previous to ripening. Although it becomes solid and ripens after cutting, it does not receive the juices which would have been ob- tained if left to ripen naturally. Indeed, much of it is cut so green that it produces a very inferior oil. Much is heard about cold-pressed oil, but with the powerful hydraulic presses (the most common means of extracting the oil) it matters little whether the flax has been heated slightly (is hot pressed) or not, as to the resulting quality. Heated seed, however, will make a more highly colored oil, due to disintegration of muci- 324 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM REFINING THE OIL ADULTERANTS OF LINSEED OIL laginous matter. It is doubtful whether this injures the binding quahties of the oil, as claimed by some, as much of this matter settles upon standing. In varnish manufacture particularly, refined oil is necessary. Linseed oil contains some coloring matter which still remains after the oil has settled. Ordinary oil will impart a yellowish tint to certain light tones especially to white pigments, particularly white lead and zinc white. This refining is usually done by agi- tating it together with sulphuric acid or alkali and filtering. Boiled linseed oil is the name usually given to oil which has been heated to a temperature of at least 250 degrees Fahrenheit, with or without the addition of drier. Boiled oil is not as elastic as raw oil and is little used for exterior work. For interior work, however, much is used as conditions are less severe. Then, too, tjie boiling causes the oil to dry much quicker, which is particularly desirable for interior work. The possibilities of obtaining pure boiled linseed oil are very slight and much of it sold under this name is really raw oil, to which a cheap benzine drier is added. This gives the oil the proper color and drying qualities of boiled oil. This adulteration, however, is detrimental to the durability of the oil. The most frequent adulterants are mineral oil, rosin oil and fish oil. If heavy mineral oil is used, the oil will dry extremely slow on glass and after a few days a greasy surface will be noticed on the oil film. If a lighter mineral oil is present, the oil will dry perfectly, but the adulterant may be detected by the use of a hydrometer, i. e., by determining its specific gravity. The specific gravity of pure raw linseed oil should be between 0.932-0.936, while a refined oil may often be 0.001 lower, and a boiled oil may be considerably lighter. Hence, inasmuch, as the specific gravity of light mineral oil often runs as low as 0.725, a specific gravity of less than 0.931 would probably indicate the presence of this adulterant. The detection of rosin oil and fish oil is much more diflficult. Rosin oil may possibly be detected, if consid- erable is present, by rubbing a little between the palms THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL 325 of the hands and noting the odor, also by noting the rate of drying and the appearance of the oil on glass. Raw linseed oil should dry in from three to four days, while rosin oil causes the film to remain tacky for a long time and prevents it from hardening. Fish oil is very hard to identify if thoroughly deodorized and present in small quantities. However, if considerable is present, upon heating, the odor may be revealed, but the greatest care must be exercised l^^mTT OTT not to confound the odor with that given off by certain frequently raw linseed oils when heated. A careful regard for used the drying and appearance on glass will be helpful, for when fish oil is present the film will remain tacky in- definitely. Often if a heavy mineral oil or rosin oil is used, the oil will have a "bloom" or bluish cast, which may be emphasized by pouring the oil upon a black surface. Semi-drying oils, such as soya bean oil and corn oil are seldom used to adulterate on account of their own comparatively high cost. When there is any doubt at all about the delivery being pure, the best course is to forward a sample of it by express to one of the large crushers who maintain laboratories and a force of experts in this line. They are always very glad to test samples for the trade and make reports at a very moderate rate, or in some cases without charge. To darken wood with linseed oil, have the surface perfectly clean, free from finger stains and other dis- colorations, then apply the oil, giving as even a coat darkening as possible. wood with Do not try to rub in the coat of oil. Go quickly and ^^^^^^^ oil evenly over the surface of the wood, giving all atten- tion to applying an even coat, and avoid all lapping of strokes as much as possible. The wider a brush that can be used, the better the job, but wide brushes re- quire lots of muscle to drive them when applying lin- seed oil, especially when it is used as a first coat. The use of fillers is not very desirable when this nrocess of darkening is to be used. At least I have not had good results when a filler was used before the lin- seed oil was applied, so it has become my custom to 32n PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FILLER NOT DESIRABLE WHEN THUS DARKENING "bringing up" surface by sandpapering darken the wood first and then afterwards rub in the filler very sparingly. Sometimes it may be desirable to use two or even three coats of linseed oil, depending upon the kind of wood and degree of darkening required. It is best to make up small sample pieces of each kind of wood to be handled, giving one, two and three coats of linseed oil to as many samples of each kind of wood, then you will be in position to know exactly how many coats of oil will best suit the work in hand. After the oil has been applied, and has dried, or "struck in" sufl^ciently to allow the work to be handled without showing finger spots, place the work in a japanning oven and bake at least two hours at a low heat, then raise the temperature until, at the end of the third hour, the wood gives off a smell of scorching — the "hot-wood" smell with which we are all so familiar. Upon removal from the japan oven, after treat- ment as above, the wood will be found very dark, closely resembling ebony, somewhat rough on the surface but easily smoothed by light sandpapering or by burnishing with a blunt steel tool. Care should be taken in sand- papering to remove as little as possible from the sur- face, for the darkest fibers are those closest to the sur- face, and the more they are removed the lighter and more streaked the work will appear. Very light sandpapering, indeed, will "bring up" the surface. It seems that the w^ork requires more of a polishing, if that term can be allowed, with old or very fine sandpaper than a regular sandpapering. Just remove the fibers raised by action of the oil and the heat. Oil swells wood in the same manner that water swells it, although to a far less extent, and the surface fibers are sure to be slightly raised by the oiling pro- cess. Take off these raised fiber-points and a smooth surface is again obtained. Whatever filler is to be used should be applied be- fore the sandpapering is done. Sometimes it is pos- sible to sandpaper before the filler is thoroughly dry — not appreciably wet, but just green enough so the dust raised by the sandpaper will be caught in the damp filler and retained in the cavities of the wood. Some THINGS WORTH KNOWING ABOUT LINSEED OIL 327 excellent effects may sometimes be obtained in that way, but great care is required, or the work may be spoiled by a muddy, streaky look, which no subsequent operation can remove, short of planing the entire sur- face and darkening it again. When the surface has been darkened and smoothed to suit, it can be finished either by varnishing, or by oiling without any varnish. Or, a certain proportion of varnish may be mixed with the oil and excellent results obtained. The use of oil alone gives that peculiar effect so much desired by the makers of Mis- sion styles. AVOIDING MUDDY LOOK CHAPTER LXII AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING MUCH has been written about the methods of air brush finishing, but the information, while giv- ing essential points, has not seemed technical enough on the actual merits of the equipment. The finishing of a manufactured article is of vital import- ance from the standpoint of sales. Nothing depends more on increasing the reputation of the manufacturer than the care given in finishing his product. Appear- ance counts for considerable from the point of view of sales, reputation and satisfaction. The air brush, while necessarily a mechanical tool, should be of such construction that it will be capable of supplying the manufacturers with these qualifica- tions of finish demanded of it. It must be a tool not only equal to the improving of finish at a big saving, but one which will add to the product such refinement in the work that it immediately becomes a very impor- tant factor in the shop. It must not be merely a sprayer. It should be an instrument of great efficiency ; one which responds to the slightest will of the operator and is under his absolute control at all times. There is a big difference between an air brush and a sprayer. The air brush represents the most complete or advanced stage of finishing devices. The same relative difference is proven daily in air brushes in regard to quality and efl!iciency, as any finisher knows who has used good and poor air brushes. Air brushes will absolutely apply finishes more evenly, more economically and satisfac- torily than the old method of hand brushing. Economy in finishing does not rest with the saving of time. It is an assured fact air brushes will save the manufacturers from 25 per cent to 75 per cent in labor as well, de- pending on the nature of the work to be finished. Com- pressed air costs little compared to the great saving in time and labor. Manufacturers, owing to the ease and speed of handling the finishing of their products. SALES DEPEND ON FINISH AIR BRUSH DOES BEST WORK 330 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM AIR BRUSH ECONOMICAL have been able to double their output without adding to floor space or increasing payroll. Many manufacturers have been amazed at the seem- ingly large waste of material. Some have been misled by ones not specific enough. Air brush finishing actu- ally wastes very little material, due to the fact that the material, as applied with the air brush is, or should be. thinned five to 50 per cent, according to the nature of the work and various materials used. There are in- numerable preparations of all kinds and descriptions used. These must be reduced in regard to consistency. The thinner seldom is costly. While there is a waste, this volume in waste depends wholly with the equip- ment in use as well as the experience of the operator. THE AERON SYSTEM OF FINISHING Considering the superior finishes obtained and the great saving in other features, the small waste is not considered by manufacturers who have become thor- oughly posted and experts in the proper manipulation, and perfected their system of handling the work. Man- ufacturers who have used and observed the finishes pro- duced by air brushes all agree on one point, namely: That air brush finishing when completed is far superior to hand brush methods. Uniformitv of finish without AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING 331 MATERIALS SET QUICKER WITH tears, sags, runs or dregs along the edges is a feature of air brush finishing. The finishing material being applied by air is forced into every crevice by the simple sweep of the hand and the pull of a trigger removing the strenuous eff"orts on the operator which would tire him out should this same force be induced in hand brushing. On uneven surfaces, carvings, ornaments, etc., air brush finishing is particularly advantageous. A great many plants have a foreman of finishing who may be an expert, particularly in flowing on a finish. Should he become sick or die, it often ties up the whole air brush finishing department until another eflftcient or expert foreman is found to fill this vacancy. When air brush equipment is installed after a very short time, depend- ing with the finisher handling the air brushes, the operators are all experts. This is of untold advantage to the manufacturer. Most materials will set twice as quick when applied by the brush, particularly in case of shellacs, enamels and varnish. Manufacturers should be sure to help the finishers to obtain the best results by co-operating in installinof proper equipment. The oil and water separators should be installed near the finishing booths. This removes all moisture and grease or dirty oil which may work into the air lines from air compressor and endanger the finish or ruin it. Better finishes are obtained by heating all materials as well as the air with proper heating system. This is essential in spraying varnishes and shellacs. Too much cannot be said of its value as used in connection with air brush finishing. In reality it is one of the many heated important parts of a high grade finishing equipment. The absence of a good heating system has caused many a manufacturer no end of trouble and great losses at various times. The virtue of heating, not only the material but air as well, was not known and appreci- ated until a short time ago. Since the fact became known, the result has been better finishes and thou- sands of dollars have been saved. Fusel oil when used sparingly, particularly in spray- ing of enamels and heavy paints, is found very satis- factory in air brush coating. The under coating can finishes should be 332 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TWO WELL KNOV/N AIR BRUSH METHODS be done with ease with much better results than can be obtained by the harder method of air brush work. The air brush ordinarily saves two coats out of five required by hand brush methods and very frequently gives the same or better results in two or three coats that manu- facturers have been giving the same product, using five or six coats by hand process work. Air brush finishing does not rest with the manufac- turers of high grade furniture or wood products but CONTAINER SrANO RAPID METHOD OF APPLYING VARNISH TWO STYLES OF AERONS is also being used with remarkable success by manu- facturers of metal goods who have found a bigger sav- ing with the same special advantages as furniture, piano manufacturers for filling, coating, enameling, lacquering, bronzing and all around finishing. There are two equipments for finishing along the lines just indicated : The Paasche or air brush method described in the foregoing paragraph, and the Aeron, or the spraying method. There are two styles of Aerons, one with the at- tached fluid cup, and the other without the cup, receiv- ing the fluid from a container placed overhead. Of AIR BRUSH EQUIPMENT IN FINISHING 333 these two styles there are several sizes and different types to meet every requirement. Then there is the air compressor and the air receiver, and also the air trans- former set, together with air duster, for regulating the air pressure and purifying the air, and for cleaning the parts to be finished. There is also the electric air heater which is at- tached to the Aeron at the last possible point of con- tact, and which supplies the only practical way of heat- ing the air and keeping it heated until it reaches the work, and of raising the temperature of the material. To complete the equipment there is the fireproof, indestructible steel fumexer in which the aeroning or spraying is done. The back of the fumexer is funnel- shaped clear to the floor. This scientifically correct style of back together with the large fan opening and arrangement and the short exhaust pipe combine to in- sure the height of exhausting efficiency. The fumexer is made in a variety of sizes, ranging from three feet to 16 feet in width, with the proper number of fans installed in each size. A turn-table, which is also sup- plied, greatly facilitates the handling of the work. The autocool electric exhaust fan installed in the fu- mexer has a protected and automatically cooled motor ; it can be swung inward for cleaning ; each fan is a self- contained unit and can be adapted to any kind of work ; ft requires no belts, nor millwright work, and takes up no valuable floor space; it has a one-twelfth horse- power motor and can be attached to any electric light socket, using one-tenth to one-twentieth the current to do the same work as other style fans. The autocool fan is made in one size only, the number of fan units being increased to two or more for f umexers above five feet in width. The big advantage of the fan arrange- ment is that a better distribution of exhaust is secured, and the vapor is quickly moved at low pressure. In using the Aeron system, for which the air pres- sure required varies from 30 to 80 pounds, it is not necessary to finish separately different parts of any particular job, allowing time for one part to set up before coating another, in order to obtain a full bodied application. All surfaces that are to be finished can SPRAYING DONE IN A FUMEXER ALL PARTS CAN BE COATED IN ONE OPERATION 334 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM HEAVIER COAT THAN WITH BRUSH be coated in one operation, and it is also quite possible to put on a heavier coat than with the brush without the danger of sags or runs. This is of particular ad- vantage in the application of coach varnish, where a full body and high gloss must be obtained with as few coats as possible. u. s. p. CHAPTER LXIII EXPLAINING A STANDARD IN AN explanation of the following term, "U. S. P.", let it be said that these letters stand for the words United States Pharmacopoeia. This work is a standard, adopted by the United States government ^^t""!^^ ^^ which has a commission that meets every 10 years, and standardizes medical and chemical compounds as well as* chemicals themselves. Thus when a formula is given in New York City and filled in San Francisco, it will be made up of the same standardized material. Not only is this true of our country, but the foreign countries, in fact almost all the countries comprising the Postal Union, have adopted the same standard. It has been mentioned in this book that materials of universal standard and materials subject to as little physical change as possible should be employed. For example, the reference to the solution chloride of iron, or the solution sulphate of iron. This material, as well as many others, is governed by the U. S. P., and there- fore, the purchasing of materials under this standard will obviate a great many pitfalls in the making of stains, according to the formulas given. CHAPTER LXIV ' MODERN WOOD LACQUER PROGRESS in the wood finishing world makes necessary that the line of demarkation of the word "lacquer" as used and applied to wood fin- meaning of ishing processes be set forth distinctly and clearly, for term at this writing — 1922 — we still confound the Japanese "wood and Chinese lacquering process or lacquer finish with lacquer" those of the present day. Again, we may think of lacquer as a cotton solution which we understand to be intended for use on metal, but which the wood finisher occasionally applies to his art, especially on furniture. But now we come to the present day product, broadly termed "wood lacquer," the definition of which might well be, "A scientifically prepared mixture of transpar- ent solids and solvents, the former consisting of py- roxylin and gums dissolved in the latter which are a mixture of quick drying solvents so selected that the product will dry evenly, and smoothly, leaving a firm, homogeneous flexible, waterproof, non-crystalline, cel- luloid-like film to protect the surface." It will readily be seen that the Chinese and Japa- nese methods no longer prevail — at least in modern countries. We have had an occasional attempt at the reproduction of these oriental lacquer finishes, but they were invariably modernized and bordered closely on French polishing. The metal lacquers undoubtedly have been elimi- nated from wood finishing. They have been sup- lacquers planted by the present day wood lacquers which are eliminated the latest scientific achievements in the line of wood finishes and can readily be differentiated from the ordi- nary lacquers by the fact that they only can be safely spread over the present day wood fillers. Thus, when lacquers are offered that do not have this achievement 338 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM INCREASING USE OF LACQUER VARIOUS GUMS ADDED it clearly shows the misconception by the seller of the new term "wood lacquer." This peculiar qualification of the modern article, thus makes possible complete finishes on top of stain and filler coats. Metal lacquers on the contrary have very little body and as a rule attack the filler, acting very much like a varnish remover in this respect. Lacquers are coming more and more into use in the finish of high grade furniture, and it is evident the demand will increase rather than decrease in the years to come. The preparation of their solvents calls for high skill and care. Lacquer solvents are prepared water white and free from both water and acid. Those solv- ents that are free from acid when made and become acid with age, must be avoided, as their presence spells trouble. They produce discoloration of the metal. Long experience alone tells what solvents to use to- gether and in what proportions. A single solvent can- not be used, for dip work requires one rate of evapora- tion, while spray work requires another. The base solvent of lacquer is nitrated cotton, made by soaking clean cotton in mixtures of nitric and sul- phuric acids at various temperatures and lengths of time. As cotton fibre is hollow and very absorbent, it is a diflficult and lengthy job to wash thousands of pounds of it after nitration, making it free from acid. If acid is left in the cotton, the latter will decompose, and if the cotton is made up into lacquer before that operation, the lacquer will naturally be defective. In the production of heavy-coated, high gloss lac- quers, various gums are added, some to cause hardness, some for gloss, and some for adhesion, each in proper proportion, and each with the necessary amount of the proper solvent. If the use of heavy coats of gum lacquers is adopted, they should be dried with con- siderable heat to produce the right hardness. The gloss will then be greater. Green and brown stains on brass and bronze wares MODERN WOOD LACQUER 339 are often apparent. They are usually caused by acid conditions of the lacquer, brought about in many ways — usually by unclean work. Lacquer work must be chemically clean. Metal in the lacquer will corrode, stains Lacquer thinner is a good cleaner and removes quickly caused any buffing dirt and leaves it in the lacquer. Brass ^^ unclean work that has much soft soldering and is acid dipped will cause trouble. For that and all similar troubles, use the lacquer in as small dip tanks as possible, and at the end of a day pour back the lacquer unused, after filtering through cheese cloth. For silver work only glass tanks and stone jars should be used as containers, except for common work, when tin cans soldered with tin may be used. Lacquer should not be kept in lead, copper or zinc cans. Poor work with lacquer, which is often charged to poor ma- terial, is usually traced to keeping' it in an improper container. In medium priced work, there is often trouble with the lacquer turning white in drying. With fusel oil now so high priced, it is evident lacquer cannot be Imade at a cost less than the price of the oil unless a lower priced solvent is used with amyl acetate. Lower priced solvents are rapid-evaporating. Turning white takes place only in very damp weather, when it is so warm that the windows of the work room are thrown open. The work is chilled which causes the lacquer to turn white. It will not take place if the work is done in a dry atmosphere. "Pink silver" is caused in various ways. Grease left from buffing will produce it; if the work in hand has not been thoroughly cleaned of red buffing mate- rial, the work is sure to be pink after lacquering. Some hollow ware with a fair plate on the outside, but no special attention paid to the inside, will often show all cause of right on the former and a rich pink color on the latter, ^^^^ silver some time after lacquering. The preparation of wood, as to staining and filling for coating with lacquer, is the same as that for var- 340 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PREPARING THE WOOD FOR LACQUER LACQUER SHOULD BE THINNED nish. Water stains are preferred, although other stains such as oil and spirit stains can be used. The standard filler of linseed oil, japan, turpentine, silex and desired coloring matter gives satisfactory results when applied properly. The formation of craters is the result of improper application of the filler. Insuf- ficient drying of filler will permit the lacquer to work in and lift the filler resulting also in pits in the work Lacquer should be thinned with lacquer thinner, the amount depending upon the work in hand. Larger quantities of thinner will be necessary to work mate- rial into deep grooves, etc. The lacquer when thinned should flow on in such a manner as not to produce runs or a pebbly surface; the former is due to too much thinner and the latter to insufficient thinner. Best working pressure is 50 pounds with the flow cut to one- half instead of full flow. Upon spraying, operator should keep work at a distance of eight to ten inches. This will permit of an even and wet flow of lacquer on the work, thus preventing an over loss of solvent by evaporation and pebbly work at a greater distance or production of waves in the coating with the force of material against the work at close range. The method of procedure in spraying objects will be determined largely by the nature of the object. If massive, such as a desk, the top should be sprayed applying the lac- jquer at the point nearest the operator and working outward or away from the operator. This will prevent pebbly work or the accumulation of dust on the work as the force of the spray will always be away from the freshly coated surface. The spray should be worked steadily across the object from left to right and then right to left, making sure that the motion is reversed beyond the edge of the object sprayed, to prevent ex- cessive coating along the edges. There is a great ten- dency on the part of those inexperienced in the use of a spray to build a thick coating along the edge because the spray is not carried clear of the object before re- turning to the adjacent uncoated section. Upon coat- MODERN WOOD LACQUER 341 ing objects which present small surfaces, the operator can use his own judgment. Unlike varnishes, or oil enamels, a freshly coated lacquer surface can be re- worked if need be without danger of runs or waves. Two hours drying should be permitted between coats in a slightly humid atmosphere and summer heat. This time between coats will insure a hasty final drying of two hours the lacquer. Three to four coats of lacquer should give between a good heavy coating with plenty of depth when rubbed ^o^'^s to a polish. For a wax finish one coat of lacquer is sufficient. No rubbing or sanding is necessary between coats and only light sanding after final coat to knock off dust ■ or high spots. For smoothing the surface coarse pum- ice and water or oil can be used followed by very fine pumice or ground rotten stone and oil or water to work up a high gloss. The work should be allowed to dry three days before rubbing. Although not having the same building properties as varnish, the desired finish can be obtained with lac- lacquer quer at a saving of time — even with the extra coats of sets rapidly lacquer necessary. After the bulk of solvent is evapo- rated — which requires but a short time — the lacquer coating is set hard enough for the next coat. Owing to the immediate drying of the successive light coats, lacquer will show very little shrinkage. That is to say, a lacquer finished object put on the market as perfect will remain so after years of aging as lacquer does not undergo a change due to oxidation as in the case of varnish, which after a period — de- pending upon the type of varnish — will show shrink- age and a crystaline film. A lacquer film will not chalk or crystallize readily w^hen abraded or when the film is dented in with a blunt instrument. The resin present in varnish and lacquers is the cause for chalking. When the oil in a varnish film is completely oxidized the film will chalk. In a lacquer film the nitrocotton, which serves the same purpose as the oil in a varnish, is ever present, so that 342 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM RESIN PROVIDES SOLIDS TO LACQUER LACQUER FILM RESISTS HEAT ZAPONITE the danger of chalking will depend upon the proportion of cotton to resin. The nature of the resin has a bear- ing on the chalking as well. The resin necessarily must have the proper degree of hardness. If too soft, it will cause the film to gum up when rubbed, and if too hard cause brittleness and chalking. The resin provides the bulk of the solids and gives to the film adhesive quali- ties and permanent gloss when rubbed. The cotton is meant to give flexibility, so as to offset chalking. Cotton has no adhesive qualities and cannot be rubbed to a lustre. Hence, to get proper adhesion, minimum shrink- age, good rubbing qualities the use of cotton is limited and resin must be employed. As regards water resisting qualities, a lacquer film compares favorably with outdoor spar varnish. A pane, to which three coats of lacquer had been applied did not show a greater passage of moisture through the film by complete immersion in water over a period of ten days than a similar test with spar varnish. Lacquer films show great resistance to heat. A film rubbed vigorously to a heat unbearable to the touch will show no signs of gumming up. In this connection it might be stated that upon at least two days' drying after the final coat of lacquer, the film is sutticiently hard so as to not to paper mark. Much credit for the achievements in the production of wood lacquer is due the laboratories of the Celluloid Zapon Company of New York, who market a pioneer product as Zaponite, the name being taken from the German "Zaponieren," which means broadly the ap- plying of a pyroxyllin finish. The second product, "Zaponite A," produces a com- plete finish — it is a much heavier i3odied product. After the work has been prepared in the usual manner, i. e., stained or stained and filled, apply a thin coat of shellac, sand and dust if necessary, then spray with a fifty-fifty (half thinner and half Zaponite A) wood lacquer), applying two or three coats, producing any kind of surface desired. For mat finish 000 steel wool will be found expedient, saving labor and time, with Vv'onderful mat resUlt. CHAPTER LXV CHINESE AND JAPANESE LACQUERS THERE is a great variety of work in lacquer in China and Japan, with almost as many qualities as there are varieties. China and Japan both claim priority in the art of lacquering. Japan has lacquering brought the art to its highest development in every evolved on way, although some samples of Foochow lacquer equals ^**^ orient that of Japan for commercial shipments. The exact process of preparing lacquer not only differs as between China and Japan, but differs in the nature of each piece of work, the article made, the color and quality. In general, the basis of all lacquering is a varnish obtained from the resinous juice of the rhus veniicifora or "uruso-no-ki," ''urushi" or "varnish tree" cultivated in many parts of China and Japan for the purpose. This tree in many respects resembles an ash. It grows to a height of from 15 to 18 feet, and can be tapped after several years. The varnish is ob- tained by making incisions in the bark of the tree, near its base, before daylight during the months of July and August and catching the sap which exudes as a mixed clear and milky product. This sap is placed in tubs or similar vessels which are set in the sun to evaporate all moisture. It sepa- manufacture rates into a clear almost colorless resinous liquid which of Chinese rises to the top and into a thicker, more resinous and ^^cquer darker liquid mass which settles to the bottom. The qualities are then separated by decanting, the top rep- resenting the finer grades and the bottom the lowest grades used for ordinary paints, "Ningpo varnish" and similar ordinary work. This liquid, in its various qual- ities is the basis of all lacquering, and variations in treatment begin with the various way and degrees of refining of the liquid. The liquid is separate:! into grades by minute degrees for fine work. 344 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CHINESE LACQUER POISONOUS APPLYING ORIENTAL FINISH It is colored various shades in various ways. For example, in China, black is obtained by stirring the liquid in the air until it thickens somewhat and then mixing with it a stain obtained by mixing gall-nuts and iron. Other shades involve the use of ox blood, sul- phate of iron, vermilion, tea oil and other substances. In China the liquid is thinned for use by the addition of vernicia montana, Camellia cleifera, sulphate of iron, rice and vinegar, and sometimes wood oil. The use of each of these substances represents some especial need, difference in quality or condition or especial object in view, and is not altogether a matter of convenience at the time. The lacquer is poisonous until dry. Usually the wood to be lacquered is soft, dry pine. The surface and corners are made absolutely smooth; joints are stopped by oakum, paper pulp or strips of grass cloth. Paper is pasted over rough joints to make all smooth for the varnish. Emery powder is then used for a coat on the piece, although vermilion or gamboge are sometimes used. After drying, the whole is ground down by pumice stone, powdered sandstone or pow- dered deer horn. The same preparation is again ap- plied and ground down again. Then the lacquer is evenly applied with a broad soft brush, in a room free from breezes and dust, and with a minimum of light, in fact a dark, damp room is the best lacquer finishing room. After the varnish dries, the piece is ground down and polished. The same process is then repeated, the minimum number of coats being three, while often as many as sixteen are applied. For solid colors, this alternate varnishing and pol- ishing constitutes the finish. Various decorations are applied in different ways. In mother of pearl inlay work, for example, the mother of pearl is cut in the desired figures in thin shell, and the pieces are placed in position on the undried surface soon after the appli- cation of one of the early coats of varnish and are then varnished over, polished as the rest of the surface, re- varnished, and so on, becoming imbedded in the enamel CHINESE AND JAPANESE LACQUERS 345 and polished and repolished as a part of it. Lacquer is mixed with various substances and raised figures are made and applied to the surface in the same way and are ground and revarnished in this manner for relief work. The process is the same, with varied manner of work, for articles of the most intricate design. In gen- eral, the diff'erence in qualities of lacquer work, there- fore, depends first, upon the high refinement of the lac- quer and the manner of its early treatment, which, in requirements the old processes often represented the work of many for good work men for an incredible time, most of which finer pro- cesses are impossible in countries without labor of ex- traordinary cheapness and skill; and secondly, on the care and skill with which the articles lacquered are pre- pared, and the care and skill with which the lacquer is applied and decorations are made. POPULARITY OF POLYCHROME CHAPTER LXVI POLYCHROME FINISHES POLYCHROME has become one of the most popular finishes upon the market, and this is de- servedly so because of its real beauty. From time to time, we have received numerous requests for facts concerning the production of polychrome. The finishes diversity of these requests plainly shows that manu- facturers in all lines are desirous of adapting this popular finish to their own productions. The requests also show that comparatively few finishers are ac- quainted with the practical methods of polychrome fin- ishing. It will, therefore, be our endeavor to submit to the reader a few of the practical methods and pro- cesses that are being successfully employed today by a good share of the world's largest producers of poly- chrome. Turning to nature : in the fall one may find a vision of polychrome spread upon the rising hills, where the magic hands of the frost king have painted innumer- able soft and lovely colors upon the leaves. Contem- plating such a picture from a little distance one sees only a blending of shades. There are no harsh colors to be seen, and such is the ideal that the finisher pro- ducing polychrome must strive for. Harsh, bright colors have no place in polychrome. Soft, subdued col- ors must be employed — those that naturally blend with one another. The methods of carrying out this finish are as diver- sified as the colors employed. We are doubtful whether ^^ ^^^^^ there are two houses that use the same method.- We ^"^^^^^^^ EMPLOYED also doubt whether any house succeeded in turning out two pieces of polychrome that are exactly alike ; there- fore, the finisher must realize in the beginning that we can give him in this chapter merely the basic in- 348 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SURFACE MUST BE ORNAMENTED formation, or skeleton, as it were. He will have to adapt this to his own requirements, or, in other words, build up the rest of the body to suit himself. He will, however, be enabled to proceed with a reasonable de- gree of intelligence, and after a little practice, will be able to turn out a first-class job. Before proceeding further, the finisher must bear in mind the fact that it is impossible to polychrome a plain piece of wood, that is, one that has a perfectly plain surface. The furniture or other work must be ornamented with turnings and carvings in order to properly present this finish, as this gives an oppor- tunity for design and dusty background. The fluted columns of the ancients with their many elaborate carvings were often painted in various colors, which the centuries of storms and sunshine have dimmed until they are visible to us today only through what appears to be a dusty film. Such is the origin of poly- chrome, and it is from the past that our designers have conceived this finish as we know it today. It will be seen, therefore, that any piece which abounds in turnings, carvings or flutings is ideal for this work. Roughly speaking, polychrome may be produced in three ways : First, the stippled finish ; second, using a colored enamel over the entire piece, and third, stain- ing the piece much as in the production of the ordinary finish. The first of these methods is distinct from the other two in the preparation of the wood. This method, as its name implies, gives a stippled finish, and is very suitable for small pieces, such as table lamps, book ends, candlesticks, etc. The second method is suitable for small pieces, and also for those of moderate dimen- sions. The third method is suitable for the largest pieces. Of course, no hard and fast rule can be laid down as to which method should be employed for any article of furniture. Ofttimes the three methods will be employed in the finishing of a single piece. POLYCHROME FINISHES 349 350 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THREE METHODS SUGGESTED FIRST METHOD For example, let us take a table. The top would bo finished by the third method, with a stippled border around the top, which would employ the first, and tho second method might be used for finishing the legs. Then, too, a lamp base might be finished by the second method with stippled sections around the base or other portions. We will now present to our readers the dif- ferent steps in their order for each of the three meth- ods as outlined above. Method Number One — The work is first given a coating of wood lacquer or shellac, which is reduced with a suitable solvent so as to form merely a wash coat. A coat of a special stippling material which is now upon the market, is then applied. This coat must be plastic and will require very little thinning with turpentine. Before this stippling material dries, it is stippled. This may be done in a number of ways, but is usually accomplished by means of a stiff-haired brush. The brush is held at right angles to the work, and the operator then taps it gently over the stipple, thus drawing it up into fine points, and it is then al- lowed to dry in this form. Twenty-four hours is usually sufficient for drying under ordinary conditions. If the stipple is thick enough, it will draw up into long thin points. If these are not desired, a thinner mix- ture will allow the points to flatten out. We now have a rough surface on top of which any desired color may be applied. For example, let us take a candlestick, with turnings at the top, a fluted column, and a carved base. A coat of redwood lacquer enamel (or any other color) is next applied, and when this is dry, a thin coating of pale gold bronze should be sprayed on. Wood lacquer is by far the best material to use for this purpose. The lacquer should be reduced with a special lacquer thinner, 50 per cent, and then from one to one and one-half ounces of pale lemon yellow, bronze lining powder stirred into each pint of it. A deeper color, such as roman gold, may also be used, oi course, if that is the eff'ect desired. This mixture is POLYCHROME FINISHES 351 then lightly sprayed on the work. The carvings on the base, and the flutings on the column, should be polychromed in harmonizing colors, or, in other words, a design in appropriate colors is painted upon the work. When this is dry, respray very lightly with a thin solution of bronze powder. Now prepare a very thick paste of turpentine and rotten stone, and smear this over the entire piece. Wipe this off before it dries, using a soft cloth. You will readily see that this rot- smutting ten stone will cling in every little pore or crevice, when the work the turpentine has evaporated will give the work that old dusty look as though it had withstood the elements for centuries. Method Number Two — In this method the work is first coated with a colored wood lacquer enamel. Wnile ordinary artist's oil colors may be employed, we can- not recommend too strongly the use of color wood lac- quer enamel. The wood lacquer enamels not only wear very much better than the oil paints, but they also have the advantage of being water-proof, and they dry in a very much shorter period of time. While oil colors will require about 24 hours to dry, lacquer enamels are dry in a few hours. This point alone makes the em- ployment of lacquer enamels very desirable, as any manufacturer will readily appreciate. To return to our method, the piece is first coated with a colored enamel. If the same color is desired to predominate over the whole piece, the work will then be given a first coater of only one color. If on a large piece, dif- s^*^^^^ ferent colors are desired to predominate on different parts, any desired colors of course may be employed. For example, a lamp standard might be given a coat of red lacquer enamel on top, green on the column and blue on the base. After this is dry, the work is then sprayed with a thin coating of pale bronze, as in method No. 1. The design is now to be painted upon the stand, and right here is the stumbling block of many a finisher endeavoring to produce polychrome. While it does not take an artist by any means to accom- 352 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM NEVER USE BRIGHT COLORS AGITATOR MUST BE USED plish satisfactory results, yet the finisher must have a little artistic ability in the application of his design. As stated in the beginning of this article, bright col- ors must never be employed. Faded, washed-out col- ors are the rule, and may be obtained by suitable mix- ing, thin solutions, and light application. When the design is thoroughly dry, another coating of the light bronze powder is applied. In this case, however, the air pressure should be reduced, and the brush held quite a way from the work so that a very light coating is applied. Next comes the coating of turpentine and rotten stone, which is smeared over the entire piece and then wiped off as before. In applying the design, ordinary artist's camel hair brushes can be used. It is perhaps unnecessary to state that in using the liquid bronze in the spray gun, some sort of an agitator should be used, as the bronze powder will settle to the bottom of the container. Most air brushes are built with this device. If it is not used, the cup containing the bronze liquid must be thoroughly stirred up at intervals. It is also well to point out at this time that, when we speak of fine bronze powders, we mean "lin- ing powders," such as are used for the very highest grade of work, such as lining or striping automobile bodies, etc. These lining powders are extremely fine and impalpable, and are not to be confused with the ordinary coarse bronze powders generally found upon the market. Lining powders being very fine, will stay in solution for two or three hours, while a coarse pow- der will begin to settle almost immediately. Method Number Three — This method, as indi- cated above, is usually more or less a combination of the other two. The entire piece is first stained in the usual manner. A wash coat of wood lacquer is then applied, reduced from 60 to 75 per cent, with special wood lacquer thinner. This is then sprayed on the wood, and when dry, the wood should be lightly sanded. A thin coating of zinc or white lead is then applied. This may be obtained by rubbing up a little of the dry POLYCHROME FINISHES 353 pigment in turpentine and adding a little japan, or zinc white ground in oil, may be used in the same manner. Zinc white ground in japan is better yet, as it has been demonstrated that this will cling better in the pores of the wood. This thin paste is then applied the same as a paste filler, only, of course, it is not sup- posed to fill the pore, but merely to color it gray. Where gum wood is to be finished, coarse aluminum powder will be found superior to either that or zinc, third It will give a very soft effect, which is very pleasing method and desirable. Note that for the aluminum powder we specify a coarse grade. A fine powder would cling too much to the work, and give it a metallic sheen which would be very undesirable and difficult to remove. After this filler is thoroughly dry, a coat of wood lac- quer is sprayed on. In this case the lacquer should be reduced about 40 per cent with special wood lacquer thinner. When this is dry, it may be waxed or finished with a mixture of turpentine or rotten stone. The border around the top of the table may then be finished with the stippled effect and the legs with their turn- ings and carvings may be finished by using the second method. Designs are sometimes employed by means transfers of decalcomania transfers, or where expense is not sometimes objectionable, they are painted on by hand. These ^^^^ designs are, of course, only employed on large pieces, as for example, the center cfr at the four corners of the table top. Drawer fronts are sometimes orna- mented in like manner. The finisher, after reading this very brief and ele- mentary description of polychrome, will readily appre- ciate that it is a very difficult thing to convey in mere words the correct conception of this very beautiful and desirable finish. Do not forget that the employ- ment of wood lacquer enamels and wood lacquer itself will add to these desirable qualities. Present day wood lacquers are a scientific combination of specially treated gums, and pyroxylin solutions. A corps of chemists, laboring for years, has been engaged in the 354 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM production of these wood lacquers which are now available to the wood-finishing industry. They are exceptionally tough and resist wear to a remarkable WOOD degree. They are waterproof, which means that the LACQUERS finish will not suffer if exposed to unfavorable climatic conditions. The work will not spot white as will wax or varnish finish; does not easily scratch, and will withstand successfully the wear and tear of time. CHAPTER LXVII PIGMENT COLORS USED IN POLYCHROMING THE USE of artist colors (pigment colors) has greatly increased in recent years. Enameled fur- niture that is decorated either by hand or stencil, requires the use of "tube paints" or artist colors, and „,^„^^ ^„ WORK IS the introduction of polychrome finishes added to the painting demand. From time to time, we have given methods that were being employed for the production of poly- chrome. We have, however, failed to touch upon one method that is being recommended, which, briefly, is the application of the color by using shellac as the vehicle for applying. For this purpose, it is under- stood that dry colors (pigment) are to be employed and emphasis must be placed upon the words "pigment colors," lest some of our finishing friends should mis- take our meaning and endeavor to use some of their stain powders. Remember, decorative and polychrome work is painting — not staining. We would not undertake to recommend any par- ticular way to produce polychrome. The class of work done must regulate the quality and kind of material to be employed and thus we find dry pigment colors or those ground in oil or japan being used, and, in each case, the results are beautiful — referring of course to polychrome and decorated enamel furniture. When we stop to consider the multiplicity of colors applied to furniture, as presented in today's decorative art, we realize that this work entails the use of a great many pigments and that a general knowledge of these is desirable, especially when the art of polychroming is new and when many of those who are decorating furniture have the job only on account of their natural artistic ability. Then, when you stop to consider that many shades and so-called colors are really mixtures, PROPER MIXING IS VERY IMPORTANT 856 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ADVANTAGES OF KNOWING COLORS CHEMICALLY you realize that after you have the primary colors you can produce the proper shades by mixing. Here, in the mixing, is where the inexperienced may "fall down." As said, decorative furniture as put out today is new, and we do not know which color in our decora- tive scheme is going to fade ; but, by learning those colors which will properly mix together and also those that are antagonistic to each other in a chemical way and which, although offered for sale, will fade — know- ing all this — ^then the decorator can go ahead and say, "the work is permanent." In the following tabulation* practically all of the colors offered for painter's, decorator's and general artist's uses are given. A close study will soon enable the user to select those colors with which he can por- tray any color scheme that may come to his mind and still insure permanency. There are also given recom- mendations of groups which constitute all the colors that could possibly be employed ; each grouping is abso- lutely permanent and safe to use and should give such a wide range of colors as to satisfy the most discrimi- nating artist. Alizarin Crimson Antwerp Blue American Vermilion Artificial alizarin lake. A powerful pur- ple red with excellent drying properties and is permanent. Prussian blue reduced by the addition of alumina hydrate, to which it owes its translucency. It is fairly permanent but mixtures with lead colors tends to turn it toward green. Where absolute stabil- ity is demanded this color may be made by a mixture of ultra-marine blue and emeraude green. Basic chromate of lead. It has a fair amount of permanence when used alone. But it is not suited to fine art practice. It is permissible in the commercial arts and has been known to hold for years when employed alone. •Chemical Department, De Voe and Reynolds Co., Inc. PIGMENT COLORS 357 Aureolin Asphaltum Bitumen Chinese Blue Blanc de Laque Brown Madder Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber Brown Ochre Brown Pink Bone Brown Blue Black Brilliant Yellow Cadmium Pale Cadmium Yellow Double nitrate of cobalt and potassium — this color has some of the qualities of the lakes. It dries well and is perma- nent, except when mixed with some lake color. In this case it should be used only as a glaze. In reducing aureolin always use zinc white. Asphaltum and bitumen are chemically the same. It is a mineral pitch, and while it is still demanded by some artists, is really quite worthless, unmanageable and in every way undesirable. Same as prussian blue, but it is slightly modified as to shade in the process of making. Alumina hydrate. This may be termed white lake, valuable in reducing opaque colors to which it adds translucency, and is a distinct addition to the artist's pal- ette. Fairly permanent, and made from gen- uine madder. It changes slightly after a lapse of time, assuming a yellower tone. Calcined raw sienna. Exceedingly rich in tone, highly permanent. Calcined raw umber. Highly permanent, and is, perhaps, the most indispensable of all the brown colors. Native earth. Very permanent. Lake made from quercitron bark. Like all of the lakes made from this source it is fugitive and should be excluded from the artist's palette. Charred bone dust. Fugitive and chem- ically undesirable. A mixture of ivory black with a trace of raw umber will pro- duce a permanent equivalent. A carbon black. Prepared from vine charcoal. Good drying, and is perma- nent. Chromate of lead. Permanence same as chrome yellow. This series are all sulphides of cadmium and are quite permanent. Cadmiums 358 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Cadmium Deep Cadmium Orange Crimson Madder Carmine, French Crimson Lake Cobalt Yellow Cobalt Green Cobalt Blue Cobalt Violet Cerulean Blue Chinese Vermilion should be made by the French process, and are then considered of the very best quality. Genuine madder. Permanent when dis- creetly employed. It is affected when mixed with chemical colors. It, there- fore, should be employed only as a glaze, which, in fact, is the proper method for all lake colors. Coloring matter extracted from the cochineal insect. It is a slow drying color and quite fugitive under most con- ditions. Crimson lake is derived from the same source as carmine. If the palette con- tains the madder lake series both crim- son lake and carmine may be dispensed with. Double nitrate of cobalt and potassium. A fair drying color and quite permanent. (See Aureolin.) A compound of cobalt and zinc. Cobalt green is an excellent pigment. It is opaque, covers well and is exceptionally permanent. With zinc white it produces unusually beautiful grey green tints. A compound of cobalt and alumina. Co- balt blue should be made pure and free from any tendency to turn green. A compound of cobalt and arsenic. This color should, more correctly, have been termed cobalt purple. It is not possessed of very great tinctorial power, but is highly brilliant and quite permanent. Originally a stannate of cobalt. This produces a heavy and rather gritty pig- ment, which does not mix well with other colors. Cerulean blue should be prepared from the oxides of cobalt, zinc and chro- mium. It is permanent and mixes well • with other colors then. Sulphide of mercury. Permanent when used discreetly. Do not mix any of the vermilions with colors of copper or lead, such as emerald green, chrome yellows PIGMENT COLORS 359 Chrome Yellow, No. 1 Chrome Yellow, No, 2 Chrome Yellow, No. 3 Chrome Orange Chrome Green, No. 1 Chrome Green, No. 2 Chrome Green, No. 3 Cremnitz White Caledonian Brown Emerald Green Emeraude Green and greens. Vermilion may be consid- ered permanent, because, when after many years it shows a change it is al- ways down the neutral scale, that is to say it does not change in hue but merely in its value or brilliancy. The chrome yellow series are all chem- ically chromates of lead. The stability of the chrome yellows depends consid- erably upon the method of their employ- ment. It is safe to say, hov/ever, that under most conditions they are fairly permanent. But they must not be mixed with the vermilion series. The chrome green series are produced by varying the proportions of chrome yellow with prussian blue. The mixture is logical and the stability is equal to either of the constituents, which is ap- proximately the same. To obtain abso- lute dependability, the color may be pro- duced by varying the proportion of emeraude green or viridian green with lemon yellow (chromate of barium). Basic carbonate of lead. A mixture of burnt sienna and VanDyke brown. A good drying' pigment and per- manent. Aceto-arsenite of copper. This pigment, while the most brilliant green known, is very undesirable, being of little , power in mixture with other colors, most of which repel it. It covers well and when used as a final touch is quite permanent. It is scarcely to be called a practical pigment, however, and when one has emeraude green and lemon yellow, it may easily be dispensed with. Hydrated sesquioxide of chromium. This color known, also as, viridian green, is, perhaps, the most perfect pigment known to color chemistry. It is brilliant, mixes well with all other colors and is abso- lutely permanent. From the artist's viewpoint, it is elemental. 360 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Citron Yellow English Vermilion French Vermilion French Naples Yellow Flake White Flesh Ochre Gamboge Geranium Lake Harrison Red Indian Red Indian Yellow Indigo Chromate of zinc. Fairly permanent, in time it turns toward green, but varnish- ing retards this change considerably. The change which occurs, however, re- mains fixed at that stage indefinitely, and it may be considered of value when employed as a greenish yellow. Sulphide of mercury (see Chinese ver- milion). Sulphide of mercury (see Chinese ver- milion). Mixture of cadmium orange and zinc white. Quite permanent and a good pig- ment. Basic chromate of lead. A permanent pigment with an ochre base. A natural gum resin. It is of the nature of a lake, and is not sufficiently perma- nent to warrant attention. Made from eosine, a coal tar product. This color is to be shunned. A coal tar color of a most permanent variety. While this pigment is slow in drying, it is permanent and may be used to replace the vermilion colors. It be- haves well in mixtures with the madders and the cadmium yellows. It is, of course, less brilliant than vermilion, but has the features of being less opaque and deeper in tone. Oxide of iron. A good drying color, has exceptional covering ability and is ab- solutely permanent. This coloring matter is obtained from the earth of the stables of native cattle in India which have been fed upon mango leaves. Indian yellow is fairly perma- nent. While it fades slightly in strong sunlight, it regains its color in a mod- erate light. Indian yellow dries well and in mixtures with other colors behaves admirably. This color is extracted from the indigo plant. We do not recommend it to the PIGMENT COLORS 361 Italian Pink Ivory Black King's Yellow Lamp Black Light Red Lemon Yellow Megilp Magenta Mauve Malachite Green Mars Yellow Mars Orange Mars Red artist. It is a slow drying color and fades in sunlight, it should never be mixed with colors containing lead. Its tone of blue can be exactly matched by the mixture of ultramarine blue, ivory black and a trace of emeraude green which is a practicable mixture, drying well and is permanent. Italian pink is prepared from a fast lake and is quite permanent, it dries well and is chemically inactive. Charred ivory. Dense, permanent and may be safely mixed with all other pig- ments. Chromate of lead (see chrome yellow). A form of carbon black, is a slow dryer, but very permanent. Calcined yellow ochre. A good drying color of great strength and highly per- manent. Chromate of barium. In itself it is highly permanent. Mixtures with the raw earth colors should be avoided. It has a slight action on the madders, but not sufficiently to condemn it. A mixture of pale drying oil and mastic varnish. Great care should be exercised in using this medium as it is one of the prime causes for a picture cracking and alligatoring. A coal tar color on an alumina base. This beautiful brilliant purple color, un- fortunately is a fugitive and is of no value in art work. (Same as magenta.) Hydrated carbonate of copper. Is af- fected by sulphuretted hydrogen. It has very little tinctorial power and is not a practical pigment. Its tone can be imi- tated by the mixture of zinc white, emeraude green and a trace of raw sienna. This series is practically the same as the ochres, all of which are oxides of iron. Thev attack most lake colors when 362 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Mars Brown Mars Violet Madder Lake Madder Lake Deep Madder Carmine Naples Yellow, No, 1 Naples Yellow, No, 2 Naples Yellow, No, 3 New Blue Nopal Red Nopal Orange Olive Green Oxide of Chromium Orange Vermilion Pink Madder Paynes Grey Purple Madder Permanent Blue Permanent Yellow in a mixture, but they are safe to use if allowed to dry and then be glazed over. The mars colors in themselves are highly permanent and may be mixed -with all mineral pigments. Genuine madder, obtained from the root of the madder plant. The madders col- ors are all quite permanent when used alone and may be mixed with some of the colors, exceptions being the chromes and all other metallic pigments. All lakes are properly employed as glazes over dry surfaces. (See madder lake.) (See madder lake.) The naples yellows are prepared from cadmium ochre, and zinc oxide, they are permanent and good drying colors. Artificial ultramarine. New blue is quite permanent except when mixed with colors containing lead. Aniline colors. Fugitive. Mixture of raw sienna and Antwerp blue. This pigment is fugitive, the sienna completely consumes the blue in a comparatively short time. An opaque pigment, valuable for the cool grey green tints which it makes when mixed with white. It is absolutely per- manent and a good drying pigment and may be mixed with all other pigments. Sulphide of mercury of yellow tone. It dries well and is permanent. (See Chi- nese vermision.) A weak form of genuine madder. (See madder lake.) -Prepared from ultramarine blue, black and a trace of ochre. It is permanent and dries well. (See madder lake.) (See new blue.) Chromate of barium and zinc white. A slow drying color, but quite permanent, it may be mixed with all other colors. PIGMENT COLORS 363 Permanent White Permanent Green, No, Permanent Green, No, Permanent Green, No, Prussian Blue Purple Lake Perfect Yellow- Raw Sienna Raw Umber Rubens Madder Rose Dore Rose Carthame Rose Madder Sepia Scarlet Madder Scarlet Vermilion Strontian Yellow with the exception of the raw ochres. Zinc oxide. Permanent. 1 Permanent green, No. 3 (deep), is ses- 2quioxide of chromium, reduced by the 3 addition of alumina hydrate, the other permanent greens are the same toned by the addition of zinc chromate. They are permanent pigments. Ferro cyanide of iron. Many chapters could be devoted to the actions of Prus- sian blue, under various conditions of exposure. It is, however, safe to say that it is permanent when used with a palette of colors to which it is agreeable, chemically. Prussian blue fades to light but regains its full color when placed in a dark room. Where absolute stability is required and this tone of blue is de- sired, we suggest that ultramarine blue in a mixture with emeraude green will produce a pigment of a similar tone, ab- solutely permanent, and with good quali- ties. A variety of crimson lake. Fugitive. Barium chromate. Synonymous with lemon yellow. Native earth. A good dryer and one of the most permanent pigments. Native earth. Permanent. Variety of genuine madder (see madder lake). Genuine madder (see madder lake). Prepared from the dye eosine. Fugitive, superfluous in the presence of scarlet madder. Originally made from the flow- ers of the carthamus plant. Genuine madder (see madder lake). Coloring matter obtained from the cut- tle fish. A fugitive and superfluous pig- ment, it may be imitated in many ways with permanent pigments. Genuine madder. Sulphide of mercury. (See Chinese ver- milion.) Chromate of strontium. A neutral yel- 364 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Sap Green Scarlet Lake Silver White Transparent — Gold Ochre Terra Rosa Terra Verte Ultramarine Blue Ultramarine Ash Viridian Green VanDyke Brown Venetian Red Veronese Green Verdigris Violet Carmine Yellow Lake Yellow Ochre low. It is moderately permanent. Sap green is prepared from a fast lake, and is quite permanent, A modified madder lake. Permanent. Basic carbonate of lead. A selected variety of raw sienna. Sesquioxide of iron and clay. A fast dry- ing natural pigment. Permanent. Green hydrated oxide of iron of fair permanence, weak in color with scarcely any excuse for its existence. The tone may be obtained with permanent and practical pigments. For instance, viri- dine green with raw sienna and a trace of zinc white. Artificial ultramarine. It is permanent except when mixed with colors contain- ing lead. A rather weak variety of the penuine lapis lazuli, it is permanent, and may be mixed with all other colors, (See emeraude.) Native earth. Rich in tone, dries well, and is permanent. Oxide of iron. It is an extremely pow- erful color and highly permanent. Prepared from emerauda green and Cremnitz white. For stability, see em- erald green. Acetate of copper, affected by sulphui gases violently attacks all lake colors, and in itself is a fugitive color. Prepared from the root of the plant "an- chusa tinctoria," is fairly permanent. In general, yellow lake is produced from quercitron bark and when so made, is fugitive. A yellow lake may be made that is fairly permanent. Native earth. Quite permanent. Mav be mixed with all other mineral pig- ments, but as in all such colors it must not be mixed with lake colors. Lake colors should always be used as glazes on a color that has thoroughly dried. PIGMENT COLORS 365 Zinc Yellow Zinnober Green — L Zinnober Green — M Zinnober Green — D Zinc White Chromate of zinc. Zinc yellow is in- clined, upon exposure to strong light, to turn towards green. It remains perma- nently fixed at this stage, and when em- ployed as a greenish yellow, it may be considered as a permanent pigment. Zinnober greens are the same as the chrome greens. Oxide of zinc. PERMANENT PIGMENTS Arrangements of permanent pigments, which an artist may employ without fear of chemical reaction. Pigments permanent in themselves, and when mixed together. PALETTE No. 1, PERMANENT Alizarin Madders Genuine Madders Cadmium Yellow Cadmium Orange Lemon Yellow (Barium Chromate) Emeraude Green Viridine Green Oxide of Chromium Ultramarine Blue Permanent Blue Cobalt Blue PALETTE No. 2, PERMANENT Emeraude Green Viridine Green Oxide of Chromium Vermilion (Mercury) Ultramarine (with zinc white only) Transparent Gold Ochre Vandyke Brown Yellow Ochre The Mars Colors Burnt Sienna AND INTERMIXABLE Cobalt Violet Cerulean Blue Indian Red Light Red Burnt Sienna Burnt Umber Vandyke Brown Ivory Black Blue Black Lamp Black Zinc White Vermilion (Mercury) AND INTERMIXABLE Raw Sienna Burnt Umber Raw Umber Ivory Black Blue Black Lamp Black Venetian Red Light Red Indian Red Zinc White Lead Whites 366 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CARE SHOULD BE USED IN MIXING COLOR MIXING CAN BE ACQUIRED If the madder lake colors are used with this palette do not mix with the raw ochres which include mars series, yellow and gold ochre. Ultramarine should not be mixed with lead white. Decorators, artists and finishers are giving more and more attention to the quality of the materials they employ. The permanence of pigments is the funda- mental factor in the preservation of this form of deco- ration or painting. With a general knowledge of the chemistry and composition of pigments, the user will be able to avoid those disastrous mistakes in their mix- tures — the results of which are too often attributed to the color man. One of the elements upon which the art of painting is founded, is the ability of the artist to compound from the elemental pigments tones of color to suit his individual requirements. This knowledge comes only with experience, after which the artist is able to forget the machinery of his profession and to apply his whole attention to expression. Color mixing comes easily and naturally to some. Others may readily acquire a knowledge because there are many well defined laws of color, some efficient and simple, and others are complicated and usually asso- ciated with some one of the many color theories. A clear understanding of the fundamentals of color, that is, the simple law as applies to the difference be- tween the optical and the physical mixing of color, is quite sufficient for many. Others will follow through the best of instructions, observation and experience, together with constant application. Lemon or zinc yellow, when mixed in varying pro- portions with blue black, result in a series of warm green tones of great value in landscape painting and the mixture is permanent. Zinc yellow is balanced exactly between Chinese vermilion and emeraude green. The addition of alii zarin scarlet and cobalt blue, provides a palette ar- MIXING PIGMENT COLORS 367 rangement of pure colors, capable of any demand and their permanence is perfect. Cadmium lemon, while, superficially of a warmer tone than lemon yellow, transmits an exceptional amount of green, it mixes well both ways, red or blue. The cadmium colors, being sulphides, should not be mixed with lead colors, or colors containing copper, which would result in releasing the sulphur to the detriment of both colors. While all of the cadmium hints on colors are quite permanent, the orange cadmium is unusually so, they are all, deep full saturated pigments and in spite of their higher cost, are economical. Ver- milion, though it is of exceptional brilliancy, is lost when one would associate a neutral red with the lower values of veridine or ultramarine. A deeper equiv- alent of vermilion may be made by toning alizarin crimson with cadmium orange, which gives a color of great quality and durability. (Semi opaque.) Light red, carried down with alizarin crimson, has quality and is of value, associates well with oxide of chromium, ultramarine and cadmium. Of the green series of pigments, there are an abun- dance, emeraude, veridine, cobalt green and oxide of chromium. These are all good and may be depended upon absolutely. Olive green may be produced from emeraude and sienna and brought up by the addition of zinc yellow. The olive green so made may be given green series a lake quality by the addition of blanc de laque (alumina hydrate). Cobalt green is quite opaque; is in this sense to be classified with yellow ochre, light and Indian red and Prussian blue, cadmium orange and vermilion. Oxide of chromium is in many ways sim- ilar to cobalt green ; it is also a permanent pigment. Note — Where the expense of emeraude or veridine green is of consideration, we recommend permanent green deep. It is chemically the same, but is less sat- urated than the chromiums mentioned. Of the blue pigments, nearly all are good ; first, in MIXING OF THE 368 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM the consideration of the majority of artists, is ultra- marine (Gumet). This product is known, also, as French blue. It is, perhaps, the most carefully pre- THE BLUE pared of all the ultramarine series and contains less SERIES free sulphur. When mixed with Alizarin crimson it produces a purple, which, while not so clear as may be gotten from cobalt, has more of the plastic quality de- sired. Cobalt blue has the advantage of the sulphur blues, as it may be mixed with all colors. Chemically it is a perfect color. New blue, which has approximately the same tone and degree of visual purity as cobalt, may be used as a cheaper substitute. Curulean blue has been condemned by some artists, owing to the fact that it is gritty, disagreeable to man- age and has the tendency to turn greenish in time. In order to supply the artist with this tone of blue, which also has excellent quality as a pigment, we sug- gest using that prepared from the oxides, cobalt, zinc and chromium. It is a permanent pigment which mixes well with all other pigments of a similar con- sistency and will not change. Cobalt violet (or purple) is an exceptionally good pigment. In spite of its lack of power, it is visually intense, a good drying color and is permanent, form- ing a good base upon which to throw rose madder, or other lake colors. It may be employed to advantage in carrying ultramarine over toward violet, without impairing the luminosity of the resultant mixture. The aniline violet and purple pigments, unfortunately, are without value to the artist. CHAPTER LXVIII BURNISH POWDERS • BURNISH powders are coming into general use, and most manufacturers who have air brush equipment are using them to produce burnished gold and color effects on moldings and metal orna- ments. The method of application is as follows : First sandpaper the wooden surface very smoothly, method of using a fine grade of sand paper, dust, and apply the applying first coat of which is known as "gilder's whiting glue size." The size is prepared as follows: Dissolve one- half pound of Cooper's white glue in warm water. (Any other first-class animal glue that is free from acid will answer.) This mixture is known as "stock glue" or "glue sizing." Mix with this stock glue suf- ficient gilder's bolted whiting to form a mixture the consistency of very thin paint. This should be sprayed on the surface — three coats. The second and third coats should not be applied until the others have dried thoroughly, and the first coat, after drying, should be rubbed down with fine sandpaper. When the third coat is absolutely dry, and sanded down, apply the "clay coat." The clay coat is made from "red burnish clay" „„^^,^^ ,e. mixed with the glue stock described above. It should mixed with be as thin as possible, but it must cover the white glue size coat completely. This is the most important coat, as it is the underground upon which the powder is ap- plied and which permits of the burnishing. The bronze, or burnish, powder is also mixed with the glue size. The proportion is approximately two pounds of powder to one gallon of stock glue. The mixture should be thin, but enough bronze should be carried in it to thoroughly cover the clay coat. Before applying, add two teaspoonfuls of alcohol to the gallon • 370 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM USING AN AGATE BURNISHER mixture, and agitate the three ingredients thoroughly. The application of this bronze mixture should be done with the air brush, or a soft camel's hair brush can be used. The coat should be thin. The mixture should be warm — not less than 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and previous coatings should be bone dry. When the bronze coat has thoroughly hardened, it can be burnished with an agate burnisher, by simply rubbing the burnisher over the bronze until the desired effect is produced. If a protective coating is wanted, the work should next be sprayed or brushed with lacquer, or a bronze protector. Different color effects can be secured by using flat japan colors. These colors must be those which have been ground in japan, as nothing else will answer, and they should be thinned with benzine. If a bright burnish is desired, rub the bronze pow- der coat lightly with beeswax and apply a bit of the wax to the burnisher. If bronze is to be used over compo, it is necessary to first coat the work with white or orange shellac be- fore proceeding with the white coat as above outlined. If metal is to be burnished, the first coat should be a thin, clear, hard drying lacquer, over which the first white coat is applied. On special work, which does not permit the use of the air brush, and on small jobs, the bronze can be mixed in small quantities as needed, and applied with a brush or the fingers. When applying by the latter method, the bronze paste should be of "creamy" texture, and it can be worked up in a small mixing cup or on a slab. Very attractive effects can be had by using different colors of burnishing powders. FOR BURNISHING PICTURE FRAMES OR OTHER SMALL SURFACES 1 — Sand the frame until it is smooth. 2 — Mix up a small quantity of fine "gilder's whit- ing" with a very weak solution of hot glue and water. BURNISH POWDERS 371 Apply two coats. The glue solution must be very weak otherwise it will chip and crack off the frame. 3 — Sand this down after it is dry with very fine sandpaper until it becomes smooth. 4 — Take red or blue burnish size, mix with it a very weak solution of hot glue and water. Apply two coats. If this appears rough after it is dry, rub lightly with fine sandpaper. 5 — Using burnish gold bronze, mix a small amount burnishing of alcohol with it into a paste form, then add a weak small solution of hot glue and water. Stir well while doing surfaces it. Always apply hot if you want good results. The best way is to keep the cup in hot water — that keeps it from chilling. Give two coats of bronze, letting first coat dry before applying the second. 6 — Let dry for about five hours, then rub lightly with the agate burnisher, which must be prepared by rubbing the agate on a piece of leather with emery and crude oil until the glassy finish on it is removed. Then you are assured of good results. 7 — Apply a coat of H. G. lacquer on top of the bronze and the finish is complete. If you want to tone down the bronze to make it look antique, apply a thin coat of japan colors, whatever shade is desired. Burnt umber is largely used. Thin with bezine, apply to the frame and wipe off high lights. CHAPTER LXIX GOVERNMENT PROTECTION TO MANUFACTURER IT IS NOT generally known that turpentine, which is use in every finishing room, and in so many dif- ferent ways in the manufacturing industries, has a governmental standard, according to an act regulat- ing the sale of turpentine and providing penalties for the violation of this act. Turpentine is designated Pure Gum Spirits of Turpentine, and every dealer or manu- facturer selling this article must so brand it. All that is necessary is to demand spirits of turpentine, as designated by the government, and it is then up to the manufacturer or wholesaler to deliver the article. Provisions are made in the act for the marking or labeling of compounds which distinctly prescribes that it shall be labeled "Adulterated Turpentine." Turpen- tine made from wood by the distillation of pine stumps, etc., must be labeled Wood Turpentine. A good deal of adulterated turpentine is still for sale, and is offered where price competition is strong because it is so easily adulterated with naphtha. The act regulating the sale of the genuine article is not generally known by the consumer. As soon as the buyer understands what he can rightfully demand, all that is necessary, for him to do, is to ask the salesman to deliver to him spirits of turpentine according to the act, which is very plain. The act as given is that of the State of Michigan, and in all points it is practically the same as that of other states governing the sale of turpentine. We give herewith a co^ of the house enrolled act regulating the sale of turpentine and providing penal- ties for the violation of the act: Section 1. No person, firm or corporation shall manufacture, mix for sale, sell or offer for sale, for other than medicinal purposes under the name of tur- pentine or under the name composed of a part or parts of the word turpentine, or spirits of turpentine, and ATTEMPTS TO PREVENT ADULTERATION 374 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TURPENTINE HAS MANY SUBSTITUTES STATE AUTHORITIES PROSECUTE any article which is not wholly distilled from resin, turpentine gum, or scrape from pine trees and un- mixed and unadulterated with oil, benzine or other for- eign substances of any kind whatsoever, unless the package containing the same shall be stenciled or marked with letters not less than one inch square and one-fourth inch apart, "Adulterated Turpentine," ex- cept turpentine produced from turpentine gum, ex- tracted wholly from pine wood which turpentine is known as "wood turpentine," must be stenciled or marked "wood turpentine" with letters not less than one inch square and one-fourth inch apart. When such wood turpentine is mixed and adulterated with oil, ben- zine or other foreign substances of any kind whatso- ever, the container shall be stenciled or marked "Adul- terated Wood Turpentine" with letters not less than one inch square and one-fourth inch apart. When wood turpentine is mixed with turpentine distilled from resin, turpentine gum, or scraped from pine trees in any quantity whatsoever, the container shall be stenciled or marked "wood turpentine" with letters not less one inch square and one-fourth inch apart. Nothing herein contained shall be construed to prohibit the manufac- ture or sale of any compound or imitation, providing the container shall be plainly marked and the purchaser notified as aforesaid. Section 2. The dairy and food commissioner of Michigan shall enforce the provisions of this chapter and the penal statute relating thereto, and such com- missioner, his assistants, experts, chemists and agents shall have access and ingress to the places of business, stores and buildings used for the sale of turpentine, and may open any package, can or jar or other recep- tacles containing any turpentine that may be manufac- tured, sold or offered foip sale in violation of this statute. The inspectors, assistants or chemists ap- pointed by such commissioner shall perform like duties and have like authority under this chapter and the penal statutes relating thereto as is provided by law. Such commissioner shall publish bulletins from time to time giving the results of the inspection and analysis with such information as he deems suitable. GOVER NMENT PROTECTION TO MANUFACTURER 375 Section 3. Whosoever violates any provisions of law relating to the labeling, marking or stenciling of turpentine or wood turpentine by manufacturers or distributors thereof, shall be fined not more than $50 for the first offense, and for each subsequent off'ense shall be fined not less than $50 nor more than $100, or imprisoned not less than 30 days, nor more than 100 days or both. Under the name of Texico spirits, the Texas Com- pany, which has oflftces in all of the larger cities, is marketing their product, the solvent powders of which are comparative with turpentine and which is recom- mended in the place of turpentine. The following tests are given: Gravity.-- -. 50 degrees B. Flash _ 100 degrees F. Boiling point... 276 degrees Evaporation ...18 minutes Solvent power comparative with turpentine. PENALTY FOR OFFENDING TEXICO SPIRITS STORING FINISHED STOCK CHAPTER LXX THE CARE OF RAW FINISHED STOCK WITH the furniture factory, planing mill, or any- where that the finished stock is of a grade that is finished natural and not painted; where freshness and the tone of the wood is an object, it is almost as important to take proper care of raw finished stock after it has been through the machine as it is to exercise care in doing the work right with the machine. Anybody knows, or ought to know, that it is not good for clean, bright, finished stock to be handled with soiled hands. In sash and door houses where they exercise great care in keeping the stock fresh, because it must be kept stored a long time, they often make the men handling it wear clean duck gloves or something of the kind, to prevent soiling it with the hands. Then in storing it they take pains to keep not only the sunlight but the daylight away from the stock. They keep it in dark warehouses where it will remain as fresh as if it had just come from the machine. Stock in the furniture factory is not often carried such a length of time before being finished because it is realized that the sooner the finisher follows after the jointer the better. Often, however, it is necessary to keep the stock stored some time before it is put up and finished. For this purpose provision should be storageroom made to protect the stock not only from dirt and dust, but from sunlight and, in so far as it is practical, from daylight. Y'ou should have dark storage rooms that are clean, and preferably dust-proof; especially should you have these for left-over stock that may come in useful on a future order. It is the one sure way to keep it fresh, and to get real satisfaction out of the work. Above all, sunlight should be avoided. A truck load of finished stock should not be allowed to stand where the sun shines on it brightly. The sun is one of the greatest bleaching agents and will take the life and ought to BE DARK 378 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FINISHING ROOM A PLACE OF CONCERN LAX METHODS ENCOUNTERED tone out of wood quicker than almost anything else except the splashing and dripping of water on it, a thing which is not allowed in any well regulated in- stitution. The finishing room of an up-to-date factory is no longer a place of filler and varnish, but in reality has become a place of concern. The numerous new styles of furniture carried with the different colors peculiar to each historical period, and latterly the scarcity of native woods, the introduction of foreign woods, and the using of cheaper woods, together with some woods heretofore considered unworthy of use, have put upon the finishing department a problem for every day. The individuality of colors, or shades, adopted by manufacturers, those who are leaders in styles and fashion and are considered originators, who thus have the prerogative of establishing colors, which must be followed by others, places upon the finishing room the responsibility of matching these colors and styles of finish. All this has become such an art that the foreman of every factory must be not only a foreman, but, at the same time, a color artist. His office nowa- days represents a small laboratory. There are many other problems which confront the finishing department. The preparation of the work, the mixing of the fillers, quality, color, and shade, shellacs, first coaters, varnishes, waxes, etc., all call for attention. In all of these the foreman finisher has to consider the color, quality and uniformity. While everyone has his own way of judging the quality, there are certain methods and tests which may be used which we hope to present in a simple manner so that they can be adopted and employed by the man who wants to know. The first difficulty encountered by the finishing de- partment are often the lax methods of the joining room. Although this department, in recent years, has received more attention than any other, it is still in need of radical correction. The chief fault is the inattention in matching. For instance, it is not uncommon to see a nice table top with the wood laid one piece up tree and the other down, thus imposing on the finisher the task CARE OF RAW FINISHED STOCK 379 of getting an even shade with the pores running two ways. Especially is this difficult on filled wood. Had more care been taken in matching the wood, the finished product would have been enhanced in value. Here the finishing department can work out its own salvation only by the persistent rejection of poorly matched woods. There are certain methods of over- coming these poor matches, but it takes time, and time is money. The up-todate finisher has bleaches with Q^gp^^oj^jj^g which he bleaches out a quantity of sap. He has alka- poq^ly lies or acids with which he forces his colors into a matched harder board or a second growth piece of wood, none work of which can overcome or match up to a piece of work which has been properly laid together in a joining room. The higher the grade of furniture made, the less of these difficulties there are to be encountered, so that the man who is turning out a cheap line of furni- ture has the greater color difficulties. But there are remedies at hand, methods for handling these difficul- ties, that we hope to offer. Every finishing department is called upon to deliver different results. One factory may turn out nothing but dull finishes, with but an occasional polished piece. In a piano factory it may be vastly different, but the possibility for any finishing department to get a run of any one particular style of finish remains ; the ques- tion then is, which method will give the best, quickest, and most permanent results? The question of a good rubbing polish is not the only proposition to encounter. The varnish to be polished is again put up to the finish- hints for ing department. The varnish that has been employed overcoming for years may fall down ; the polish may be blamed, difficulties It is the intention to publish a few hints that will alleviate these difficulties. Years ago colors were produced from vegetable extract matter, some few known chemicals and gases. Science now steps in and hands us any amount of shades or colors which can be applied in three known solvents — water, spirit or oil. The permanency of some of these modern colors exceeds that of others. For the chemist who knows these preparations, it is an easy matter to produce shades by the mixing of the 380 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM NOVICE HAS TROUBLE IN PRODUCING SHADES primary colors that are permanent. It then depends upon the kind of color employed in compounding, whereas the novice would encounter all kinds of diffi- culties by going in the open market and attempting the production of colors and shades, with the meager knowledge that at the present time is possessed by the consumer. The laboratories of the up-to-date stain manufac- turers are continually experimenting with the products as fast as they are produced by the manufacturer of colors. Here they are put through all manner of tests. Not only are these laboratories familiar with these products, so that admixture of colors is done scien- tifically, but their experiences are invaluable in getting out time-saving and money-saving stain. The man who is continually confronted with new shades, shades of a competitor to match, shades that are just a little different than his own, a certain familiarity with the stain and colors which are offered for his use are requisite. FINISHING CHAPTER LXXI COST KEEPING IN FINISHING AN example for cost keeping which may serve the finisher for a basis of obtaining the exact cost to finish a certain piece, was published in an article by J. W. Withers. It will give the foreman a ^°^^5„'^^.^ good idea of how to establish the cost. Take the time of an average workrnan ; the cost of material used can be taken from a day's work and averaged. We will take the brush fumed finish for an example, as about 36 out of 50 will be finished this way. The prices are as follows: Sponging $ .04 Sanding _ 16 Staining ....- .09 Inside and outside Sanding .19 Shellacing _ .08 Inside and outside Sanding . .15 Shellacing .08 Inside and outside Shading 18 Sanding .11 Waxing and wiping off ... .10 Total $1.18 The method used is to thoroughly dust the article and sponge the surface well with w^ater, allowing it to dry and then sand the grain level with fine sandpaper, using a felt block (as far as possible) to wrap the sandpaper around. Then stain. After drying, it is again sanded. Then shellac with white shellac thinned to one-half its ordinary thickness and sand. Then shel- lac the second time ; then shade with the proper aniline dye dissolved in spirits ; apply with a small camel's hair brush and blend with a small cotton pad. This color does for the touching up of any corners that may be sanded "white." After the shading, the final sanding is done. The shading is a particular job, but a good man can work wonders with white sap streaks, and PROCESS FOR BRUSH FUMING PROCESS IS ECONOMICAL 382 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM any differences of color soon vanish under his touch, and a fine, uniform tone results. The reason the shading is not done between the coats of shellac is that we found the last coat of shellac blurred the aniline shading stain, and a muddy look would appear, so we changed, and with good results. It may be said, in connection with this work, that at first we were inclined to think the labor cost more than the material saved and, in some cases, it really did ; but as the men grew more expert at it, we saved money. At the price quartered oak is at present, it pays to do it. In any veneered work it does not pay, so the sap edges are always cut off. CHAPTER LXXII STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS STORING and proper distribution of finishing sup- plies is accomplished by the Wayne and Bowser systems. A familiarity with these systems will at once show the finisher the great advantages and two familiar assistance he has in the distribution of the finishing systems op materials to the workmen. All supplies can be piped storing directly to his office, and drawn from either the oil house or basement, whichever may be the most con- venient place for storing of the materials. Exact record can be kept ; first, of the consumption per day ; second, of stock on hand, and absolute unifor- WAYNE BATTERY OF TANKS mity of material assured. The expense of the installa- tion is made up by the saving and the reduction of insurance expense. The Wayne and Bowser systems are especially con- structed for storing and distributing oils in factories. Heavy steel tanks are leak and evaporation proof and 384 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SYSTEMS OF BATTERY TANKS pumps are self measuring. They keep the oils, var- nishes, etc., at the original consistency, insuring uni- formity, and practically eliminating fire hazard. The Wayne and Bowser systems of battery tanks make an ideal arrangement for storing and handling oils in an oil house. The respective tanks are always of the same length and height, varying in width only to make the desired capacity. When desired, a barrel track can be placed over the tanks with a cradle extend- ing to the floor. The barrel is rolled onto the cradle and raised to the track level with a chain hoist. A BOWSER "standard" OH. STORAGE OUTFIT splash pan prevents slop or waste. Where volatiles are to be stored the underground system is used. These battery systems require about 35 per cent less floor space than barrels of the same capacity, and are cheaper and more convenient. Tanks may be installed singly. Tanks are labeled with the name of the oil each is to contain, and the pumps lock, making it impossible for anyone to obtain STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS 385 oil without a key. One man can easily handle and empty the barrels. The splash pan prevents waste and -waste and sloping. It is placed in position over the proper tank, sloping the bung of the barrel is removed, and the barrel rolled prevented over the pan to the proper position. The pan can be adjusted easily and quickly. The systems provide for the burying underground, in basements, or in vaults, of tanks from which oils may be pumped throughout the plant with long-distance measuring pumps. This is most economical when con- BOWSER SYSTEM NO. 109 ditions will permit it. The tanks may be placed a rea- sonable distance from the building. In many instances oil is stored in the various de- partments, as a means of saving time and labor. In the Wayne system roll top cabinets are adapted for roll top that purpose. The cabinet is made of steel and the top cabinets closes, making it dustproof . The measuring pump can ^^^ ^^^ be adjusted to give the different measures, preventing loss of time and oil, and cutting down the fire hazard. The cabinet is a splendid arrangement for handling turpentine, oil, varnishes, etc., in the finishing depart- ment. The Bowser safe oil storage systems provide the 386 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ideal, wasteless way to handle these liquids in any quantity. The exact amount desired is pumped. There is no over measure, no inaccurate measures to be left lying around to "gum up," collecting dust and dirt, in- creasing the fire risk and producing nothing but loss. The oils are kept free from evaporation and gumming. The formation of "foots" and "fats" is prevented. The last gallon of liquid can be pumped from the tank in as good a condition as the first one. The Bowser Cut 109 system is more than a collec- tion of pumps and tanks. It puts the oil room on a sys- BOWSER UNDERGROUND STORAGE SYSTEM OIL ROOM ON SYSTEMATIC BASIS tematic basis. Everything is right where it belongs. The oil room can be kept as neat and clean as any part of the shop or store. There is no increased fire hazard because of the use of Bowser equipment, but on the other hand, the fire risk is greatly reduced over old methods of storage. The equipment presents a neat appearance as the tanks can be set in a row along the side wall where they take up but very little floor space. Each pump is plainly marked so that there will be no mistakes made by drawing the wrong kind of oil. There is less likelihood of the oil supply becoming exhausted for the operator can tell in a few minutes just how much liquid is in any particular tank. STORAGE OF FINISHING MATERIALS 387 The distribution of oil in factory requires consid- erable time unless special means are provided. It is a violation of economics to permit skilled labor to waste time going after oil. The portable tank makes this unnecessary. This tank is made of heavy tank steel, mounted on indestructible steel wheels with rubber cushion tires and two rubber-tired guide wheels. It is provided with a self -measuring quart pump. Capa- city of tank, 50 gallons. The wheels have steel bear- DISTRIBUTION OF OIL IN FACTORY STANDARD STORAGE OUTFIT ings which make the tank easy to push about the fac- tory. A boy or unskilled laborer can push this tank about the factory and deliver oil to the hands. This keeps the skilled labor at the benches all the time and promotes shop discipline. CHAPTER LXXIII SPECIAL HINTS TO ARTISANS A METHOD of applying gold leaf, that is claimed to eliminate waste is as follows : Rub a piece of tissue paper on one side with a piece of wax candle or beeswax. Your paper will now have a cer- applying tain degree of tackiness, enough to cause the leaf to gold leaf adhere. Now cut this sheet into squares a little larger than the gold leaf. Regular waxed paper, which is used for doing up sandwiches, lunches, etc., could also be used. Then open your book, place the waxed side of the tissue paper on the gold leaf, gently pressing it. On removing, the gold leaf is attached to it, rendering it very easy to use. The tissue paper being transpar- ent, you can see just where you want to place it, or if you desire, you can cut your leaf to suit. By taking the tissue paper in the left hand, placing it with the gold leaf side to the letters, and rubbing the back lightly, with the right hand, the gold will adhere to the size, and you can use the tissue paper over and over again. This is claimed to have the old way of using the tip and cushion beat a mile, and is said to be a much faster way of handling the leaf. Formulas for gold paint are legion and every manu- facturer has his own secret composition, says an ex- change. Essentially, gold paint is bronze powder mixed with a varnish, or other medium, and it is to the dis- pqrmula for covery of a perfect medium that attempts are being ^qld faint directed. Suffice it. to say, that perfection has not come yet, and that the finest gold paint is markedly inferior, both as regards appearance and durability, to the gold leaf gilding which it is supposed to imitate. The best bronze powder for making gold paint has the trade name of French flake. This is a deep gold color and, as seen through the microscope, consists of tiny flakes or spangles of metal, each flake forming a facet which reflects light. For this reason, gold paint made with it is more brilliant than that prepared from very fine bronze powders. These preparations known as "wash- 390 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ALUMINUM PAINT how to avoid "lapping" FINISHING OPEN AND CLOSE GRAIN WOODS able gold paints," have celluloid varnish as a medium. To make this varnish, prepare a saturated solution in acetone of one ounce of finely shredded transparent celluloid and make up to 20 ounces with amyl acetate. The quantity of flake bronze required will vary from one ounce to four ounces. Washable aluminum paint is prepared by substituting- the flake bronze powder of that metal for the gold bronze. The superiority of the celluloid varnish as a medium lies in the fact that it incloses the metallic particles in a coatine: that is impervious to air and water, and that it contains nothing that will act on the bronze. Celluloid varnish certainly appears to be the best gold paint medium yet discovered. Avoiding "laps" is one of the few hard things for an inexperienced person to learn about painting or finishing. A simple remedy for this trouble is to re- member that tables, dressers, sideboards or floors have natural "breaks" or panels which should be finished one at a time. For example, the side of a dresser will be paneled. Take the top panel and paint, enamel or varnish that part of the dresser. Then take the ad- joining panel, and so on, until the entire side is finished. Thus, if there are any laps, they will occur where the panels are joined and will not show. In finishing a floor, start at one corner and take two or three boards only. Finish just as wide a surface at a time as the arm naturally sweeps, and paint along the same two or three boards until the entire room has been crossed. Always work from the unfinished into the finished portion, instead of from the finished into the unfinished. The following woods are called open-grained woods : Walnut, ash, oak, butternut, chestnut, mahogany, prima vera or white mahogany. All of these woods must be filled with wood filler before they can be successfully varnished. Full in- structions are given under the various headings in this book. Close-grained woods do not need to be filled before varnishing. Some woods which come under this class are: Pine, birch, cypress, beech, maple, poplar or SPECIAL HINTS TO ARTISANS 391 whitewood, hemlock, redwood, sycamore, cherry, gum- wood and Oregon fir. We would suggest that paraffine wax be applied to table tops with a large brush. The wax should be heated first — preferably in a double boiler, to avoid the danger of burning. In case the wax does not penetrate the wood satisfactorily, the surface may be rubbed over with a hot iron, which will melt the wax and allow it to be absorbed by the wood. taking heat To take heat stains out of wood, take three or four stains out thicknesses of blotting paper and lay on the spot, and qf wood place a hot smoothing iron on the paper. Have ready at hand some pieces of flannel, also folded and made quite hot. As soon as the iron has made the surface of the wood quite warm, remove the paper and go over the surface with a piece of parafl[ine, rubbing it hard enough to leave a coating of the substance. Then with one of the pieces of flannel rub the injured surface. Continue the rubbing, using freshly warmed cloths un- til the whiteness leaves the varnish or polish. The operation may have to be repeated once or twice, but it always succeeds at last. The cleansing of brushes should always be done with the liquid that was used for the solvent in the stain. Clean a brush that was used in an oil stain in benzole or naphtha, a spirit stain brush in wood alco- hol. Never use an alkali, such as sal soda or ammo- nia on brushes. If this becomes necessary use a very weak solution. To keep varnish brushes in condition, keeping bore a hole just below the small part of the handle, varnish about one-eighth inch in diameter and suspend the brushes in brushes into a pail so that the hair is immersed in tur- condition pentine, or some turpentine substitute such as tur- paline. Five or six brushes can be put in one pail by suspending them on a wire put through these holes. A cover can be made with a slot which will cover the pail and prevent excessive evaporation. These brushes will be ready for use on a moment's notice. They will al- ways be in condition, even though they are allowed to remain a week at a time unused. The hair of the brush will remam' moist as long as the bottom of the brush or end of the hair is partially immersed. CHAPTER LXXIV SMOKE STACKS AND METAL PRESERVATIVES THE trouble with smoke stack painting is that in most cases any cheap material is considered good enough. Ordinary coal tar is often employed or some cheap benzine asphaltum varnishes in which rosin smoke stack and benzine are predominant and coal tar takes the ^^^^'^ needs place of asphaltum. It should be considered that a '^^^"'^^ smoke stack is really exposed to very severe conditions, having heat passing through to the elements from without. It has to stand sun heat, warm and cold rains; the metal contracts and expands alternately, and it is obvious that only good elastic material can survive for any length of time under these conditions. The best paint for the purpose, therefore, is some- what of the nature of a good, black looking varnish made from genuine asphaltum, linseed oil and turpen- tine, entirely free from rosin, coal tar, benzine, etc. It should consist of 100 pounds of real gum asphaltum, Cuban or Trinidad, that is fused in the kettle with 20 gallons kettle-boiled linseed oil and thinned with from 20 to 25 gallons spirits of turpentine. The price asked by a varnish manufacturer for a varnish of this de- scription may be considered high, but its use will pay in the long run, as the cost of labor in painting a stack is the chief item. This asphaltum varnish will not blister if applied properly, but will bake on the metal the best as the heat passes through the stack, and it will prove stack paint elastic enough to stand all the conditions that it is sub- jected to. Figure the cost of painting a stack three times with cheap paint and the cost of painting it once only during that time with the higher priced asphaltum varnish and note the difference in favor of the latter method. Asphaltum varnish has been the accepted material for the painting of metallic surfaces. A German scien- tific journal gives a new suggestion which may be of interest to the factory owner. It recommends the use 394 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM VARNISH FOR METALLIC SURFACES of red lead with raw linseed oil, and gives as a reason that steam pipes, owing to their often exposed posi- tions, should be painted red so as to denote danger. Heretofore, red lead has been employed by the plum- ber to put into the joints of pipe lines and mostly be- cause when mixed with linseed oil it will harden and form a cement. This, it has been found, is not due to the red lead, but rather to the yellow lead, which was largely present in the read lead as then manufactured. Present day red lead is now sold so pure that it works up into a good paint. It will dry hard and has with it all the qualities that the extreme oxidation can give it. Be it understood that there are three oxides of lead, viz.: Plumbago, or black oxide; litharge, or yellow oxide ; red lead, or red oxide. Each contains a molecule more of oxygen than the other. An ideal paint can now be made by using 33 pounds of red lead to seven and three-quarters pounds of linseed oil, which is equiv- alent to one gallon to one-third of a hundred of red lead. The pigment is first rubbed up with a very little oil, made into a thorough paste and then the balance of the oil added, when it will form a first-class paint, perhaps a trifle stouter than the ordinary white lead paint, but there is no difficulty in brushing it out nor in spreading it. The paint will flow well, soon obliterating brush marks after crossing it. In this present age, where we find that it pays to do things well, and once for all, the suggestion of our German scientist may be well to remember, GREAT ADVANCEMENT IN METHODS CHAPTER LXXV RUBBING AND POLISHING METHODS THE practical and universally used felt pad has supplanted all other materials for rubbing and polishing. Pads were formerly made by various methods, usually a ball of soft material such as old rags, or cloths of many kinds. The balls were covered with heavy woolen cloth. In earlier days the furniture factory owners were buying rags gathered from every conceivable source, clean and unclean. Today the rags used in the modern factory are thoroughly cleansed and disinfected by boiling, and by treatment in germicidal baths, and then selected for their qualifications for the purposes need- ed. Today when a factory purchases a bale of rags, the disease question is eliminated. When stains are wiped, rags are chiefly employed; they are cheaper than waste and they do not leave threads over the work. The felt pad is used as a sanding block, as well as for rubbing and polishing. In the rubbing down with pumice stone or in the polishing with rotten stone, the felt pad does the work with equal satisfaction. Some claim great qualifications for hair cloth, curled hair, burlap, steel wool and excelsior. There are occasions when their use may be successful, but unless the arti- various san is well acquainted with the peculiarities of each, much damage can be done in a few minutes suflficient to ruin the job. Hair cloth is rare, expensive and difl[icult to handle. It has a hard surface and should be discarded. Curled hair and burlap are good in Mission work; they take hold and will help to carry with each stroke consider- able powder but soon become matted, and the time spent in keeping such a pad in good condition will buy good felt. Steel wool is a "quick cutter," but it breaks up when. trimmings and corners are encountered, the little ends get under the trimmings, break off and then METHODS EMPLOYED 396 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FELT PAD IS BEST KIND OF POLISHER it takes a pair of forceps to get them out. Excelsior will do where there is nothing else, yet it is too brittle, breaks up and should be used only as a filler for a pad, using cloth to cover. It will be found that none of the materials can pro- duce anything like the results that the felt pad can, and the artisan who has not had experience with the various methods may rest assured there will be no loss by omit- ting their consideration. The few cases where burlap, curled hair or steel wool may be recommended would not warrant the purchase of them. Where rubbing and polishing is carried on without the aid of machinery, it probably is the most physically strenuous labor in the finishing department, especially true when all the rubbing is done by hand on large sur- faces. The work entails the continual use of the same muscles, practically all in one position, and it is only MATTISON RUBBING MACHINE recently that labor-saving devices have been offered that are really successful. Rubbing and polishing are usually carried on by the employment of felt pads. Where the work is water rubbed it is first coated, or rather pumice stone or rotten stone is sprinkled on the work; this is wet with water, and the rubbing RUBBING AND POLISHING METHODS 397 process carried on in distinct straight strokes of uni- form pressure with the grain. Never is this to be done crosswise. The motion and direction of the stroke should be continually the same. The same is true in oil rubbing. In the polishing process the stroke should be with the grain but toward the finishing process can be done in a circular motion, such as in French polishing. The advent of the rubbing machine has been welcomed by many, and the following description of an accredited device will give the finisher a good idea of the pos- sibilities of a rubbing machine. The oscillating shoes, two in number, carry pads five and one-half by four and one-half inches in size. These pads are readily detachable by hand; no tools are necessary. Various qualities of felt, as well as sandpaper, can be used. The working parts are self- oiling and the whole machine is very quiet running. It is equipped with a cord and plug, and works from any lighting socket. While not in actual operation no electricity is consumed, as the switch is on the machine itself. The cost of current to operate is one cent per hour, if the rate you have for electricity is four cents per kilowatt hour. Wherever the work is, any such machine can be easily carried to it, attached to any nearby electric light socket, and at a turn of the switch on the machine, the two felt pads start oscillating at a rate of several hundred times a minute. The operator, by means of conveniently arranged side or top handles, guides the machine over the surface to be finished. The pads are so designed that every edge and corner will be treated as well as the center of the surface. The operator uses no pressure; the weight of the machine is the right weight to produce the highest grade of work. Wherever rubbing or polishing is done on stone or wood, with anv grade of felt or sandpaper, the machine shown here will do the work now done by hand or by air pressure, in a more efficient and more economical way. The finish is an important part in the appearance — a vital part in the selling price — and a large part of the NEVER RUB ACROSS GRAIN COST IS A MERE TRIFLE 398 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM EVERY EDGE AND CORNER REACHED labor cost. Such machines as the one shown here will produce better polish and materially reduce cost of labor. Under the right conditions they will do many times the work of a man, and are easier and quicker to handle than the pneumatically operated rubbing machines. In addition to these economical advantages the machines produce exactly the same high grade work at four o'clock in the afternoon as they do at nine in the morning. There is no hard labor connected with operating this device — all that is necessary is for the operator to guide it over the surface. A good pad French polisher for hand polishing which will at once give you a finish, color and serve to fill your scratches on the woodwork is the following : Alcohol -8 ounces Shellac - V2 ounce Gum Benzoine - 1/4 ounce Poppy Oil — - 1/4 ounce Dissolve shellac and gum in alcohol in a warm place with frequent agitation, and when cold add the oil. Color with Bismark brown for mahogany, and for the brown woods reduce the Bismark brown and add more spirit black. For Antwerp use black and orange. CHAPTER LXXVI COMPARING COLOR SOLUTIONS THERE has come on the market an apparatus which must prove an immense convenience for the foreman finisher. This is the new colorimeter, an accurate, compact and universal instrument for comparing the colors of solutions in the minimum' amount of time and with the greatest possible ease. The Universal Colori- meter is based upon the principle of determining the value of an unknown solution by comparing its color with that of a stan- dard solution held in a wedge-shaped container, so that a depth of the stan- dard may be obtained cor- responding exactly in col- or with the color of the unknown. After the colors have been properly matched, the millimeter scale is read and the plot- tedgraph for the standard consulted. This graph shows the milligrams of the substance sought per cubic centimeter of the so- lution tested, giving im- mediate result. The instrument consists of a small cell for the un- known, mounted on a removable holder, and a standard wedge on a frame adjustable by rack and pinion to secure various depths of solution and, consequently. FOR TESTING SOLUTIONS THE UNIVERSAL COLORIMETER SHOWING OBSERVATION SLIT, SCALE, ADJUSTMENT, ETC. 400 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM color. A millimeter scale with indicator for reading is mounted with the wedge. There is a large window HOW THE of ground glass which illuminates the field with prop- coLORiMETER erly diffused light. The cell and the wedge are so placed OPERATES in relation to a double prism as to give a field one-half of which shows the color of the wedge and the other half that of the unknown in the cell. There is no COLORIMETER SHOWING DOUBLE PRISM WITHIN THE CASE; CELL, WITH MOUNTING, FOR SOLUTION UNDER EXAMINATION. separating line between the two shades in the field, which is viewed through a small slit. The device is contained in a compact mahogany COMPARING COLOR SOLUTIONS 401 box with front, back and interior finished in dull black. The accuracy attainable with this colorimeter will be apparent from these facts : There is no separating line between the two shades. The cell and the wedge have no curved surfaces. The readings are made through a small slit. The standard solution is abso- lutely durable, made up and calibrated once for all. The saving in time and the convenience are appar- ent from the following features: The apparatus is always ready for use. A standard solution does not have to be made up each time. Readings may be made in less than one minute. Washing between different determinations is reduced to the minimum. Only a small sample is needed. The variety of work to be done with the colorimeter will determine the method to be followed. Many times have hours upon hours been given to the matching of a stain; whereas, by the use of this colorimeter, the matching problem would have been a simple matter. Again, it brings us face to face with the progress of the scientific world and shows us how science aids the artisan if he will but equip himself. It shows the foreman where it will be to his advantage to know the metric system of weights and measures — ^the many ways that this little instrument can be employed in the color work in preparing stains will be self-evident from the description given. Accuracy is an important factor in the fixing of colors, and if this can be accomplished by a mathematical and scientific method, as claimed, a distinct gain has been made. HOW SCIENCE AIDS THE ARTISAN CHAPTER LXXVII WEIGHTS AND MEASURES THE preparation of a stain, whether it be a water stain, a spirit stain, oil stain, or any kind of a stain, depends first upon the uniformity cf the product to be employed and, secondly, upon accuracy accuracy a in figuring the quantities for each batch. The careful p^™^ operator, after he has established a formula, will take ^^Q^^^^™ especial care not to vary in the least from the success- ful formula. It is better to make several batches than to make a multiple, and that I may be thoroughly understood, let me say that in this country several kinds of weights are employed and one may unwittingly ruin a batch of stain by the simple doubling or tripling of. the quantity. This is due to the various kinds of weights having a different number of ounces, different number of grains to the ounce. In purchasing a scale, you may have dram weights which have 60 grains to the dram. Now, eight drams should make the ounce, or 483 grains, but you will find that many of the ounces furnished with scales have only 437V2 grains. The larger your formula, the farther off your color will get. Above all things, know what your scales are made cut of as far as the weights are concerned, and build your formulas on the weights that you are using. But, better than all is the adoption confusion of of the metric system which is employed in all the several European countries. It is not to be expected that standards every foreman finisher is acquainted with the different points relative to the weights and measures, especially in this country, where there is no telling which kind of weights or measures the writer of a formula is refer- ring to. While we have the conventional gallon, and the trade ounce, very few know that chemicals are sold with 4371/2 grains to the ounce, whereas, most for- mulas are built up by the use of 480 grains to the ounce. The metric system of weights and measures alike, on the other hand, for simplicity's sake, can be 404 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM METRIC SYSTEM SIMPLE WEIGHTS SHOULD BE STAMPED likened to our dollar. For example, a hundredth part of a dollar is a cent, a tenth is ten cents, and ten times ten make our dollar. The metric system is identical with this, differing only in the number of divisions, the smallest division being in thousandths in place of hun- dredths. To still further explain this, the unit is a gram, and its divisions are thousandths, hundredths, and tenths, known as millimeters, centimeters and deci- meters. The difference between the weights and meas- ures is only that one is grams, and the other is cubic centimeters. The advantage of any finishing room adopting these measures will immediately be apparent after they are in use. It is only the fear of making a change that causes many of the users of the old system to adhere to it. It is unfortunate that, through usage, we are using in this country a conglomeration of weights and meas- ures. This is due to the fact that, being a new country, we had to rely upon the old countries first for supplies and then for methods. In other countries it had been found that a universal unit was absolutely essential, and thus the adoption of the metric (decimal) systems. This has been adopted by the scientific laboratories, the chemical manufacturers and scientists. The drug manufacturers and apothecaries have their text-books which give both metric and apothecary weights and measures. A more bungling mess is hard to find than a pair of scales with weights — the weights having nothing to indicate what standard they are based upon. Were these stamped troy or avoirdupois or apothecary, it would then be easy to figure out the amount of grains or units. A dealer often cannot tell you what kind he is supplying. We have gone along in this way because, in many cases, it made little difference. But when one seeks to use formulas, the result of which depends upon accu- rate weighing, we should at least use the same weights as did the man who made the formula. A complete tabulation follows. A careful study and comparison will show the differences. It will show the necessity of knowing what kind of weights you have. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 405 Some day we will have the decimal system estab- lished in this country. The schools have been teaching it for the past 30 years, but it is only lately that the pupil has been impressed with the value and absolute necessity of it being understood thoroughly. If the foreman finisher would adopt the metric sys- tem, to begin with, let him imagine it to be just like our coinage — calling the unit 1. If he takes one-tenth part, its decimal is one or .1 ; if he takes ten times the unit, it would be ten decimals, 10. Applying himself q^etwc^ to this thought — calling his units parts — ^he will shortly system be able to write his formula about as follows: Nigrosine A 10. Orange U — . 1. Acid Green 1 Picric Acid .5 Water - 1000.— which would mean, to him, ten parts of nigrosine, one part of orange, one-tenth part acid green, etc., and 1,000 parts of water. Now, if he calls a part a dram (or 60 grains), it would be easy until he comes to weighing one-tenth of a dram. But he would have to know the number of grains to the dram. If 60, then the tenth part is six grains. If, on the other hand, he uses the metric system, he would have to select only the desired weights. It is mainly because we are all generally under the impression that the metric system is something fierce tqq many to master that we avoid it. On the other hand, pub- are afraid of lishers of formulas feel that the people avoid any for- metric system mula given in the metric system and, therefore, con- tinue in the old rut. Following is the schedule of weights and measures referred to ; U. S. Weights and Measures According to Existing Standards TROY WEIGHT Pound Ounces Pennyweights Grains Grams 1 = 12 = 240 = 5,760 = 373.24 1 = 20 = 480 = 31.10 1 = 24 = 1.56 406 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT Pound Ounces Drams Scruples Grains Grams 1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5,760 = 373.24 1 = 8 = 24 = 480 31.10 1 = 3 = 60 = 1.89 1 = 20 1 = 1.30 .06 The pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in Troy weight. Pound . 1 Ounces 16 1 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT Drams Grains (Troy) 256 16 1 7,000 437.5 27.34 Grams 453.60 28.36 1.77 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 20 Grains = 1 Scruple = 20 Grains 3 Scruples = 1 Dram = 60 Grains 8 Drams = 1 Ounce ^ 480 Grains 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5,760 Grains FLUID MEASURE 60 Minims = 1 Fluid Dram 8 Drams = 1 Fluid Ounce 16 ounces = 1 Pint 8 Pints = 1 Gallon The above weights are usually adopted in formulas. All chemicals are usually sold by AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 27 11-32 Grains = 1 Dram = 27 11-32 Grains 16 Drams = 1 Ounce ^ 437>2 Grains 16 Ounces = 1 Pound = 7,000 Grains Precious metals are usually sold by TROY WEIGHT 24 Grains = 1 Pennyweight = 24 Grains 20 Pennyweights = 1 Ounce = 480 Grains 12 Ounces = 1 Pound = 5,760 Grains NOTE. — An ounce of metallic silver contains 480 grains, but an ounce of nitrate Qf silver contains only 4373^ grains. 4 gills ^ 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 gallon VOLUME— LIQUID Gills Pints 32 = 8 Gallon 1 = Cub In. 231 EQUIVALENTS OF FLUID MEASURE IN METRIC Gallon Pints = Ounces Drams Minims Cubic Centimeters 1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024 = 61,440 = 3,785.435 1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 = 473.179 1 = 8 = 480 = 29.574 1 = 60 = 3.697 16 ounces, or a pint, is sometimes called a fluid pound. UNITED STATES FLUID MEASURE Gal. Pints Ounces Drams Mins. Cub. In. 1 = 8 = 128 = 1,024= 61,440 231. 1 = 16 = 128^ 7,680= 28.785 1 = 8= 480= - 1.8047 1 = 60 = 0.2256 Grains Cub. CM. = 58,328.886 = 3,785.44 = 7,291.1107 = 473.18 = 455.6944 = 29.57 = 56.9618 = 3.70 IMPERIAL BRITISH FLUID MEASURE Gal. Pints Ounces Drams Mins. Cub. In. Grains Cub. CM. 1 = 8 = 160 =1,280 = 76,800 = 277.27384 = 70,000 = 4,543.732 1 :^ 20 = 160 = 9,600 = 34.65923 = 8,750 = 567.966 1 = 8 = 480 = 1.73296 = 437.5 = 28.398 1 = 60 = 0.21662 = 54.69 = 3.550 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 407 THE CONVERSION OF FRENCH (METRIC) INTO ENGLISH MEASURE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1000 cubic centimeter : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters cubic centimeters = cubic centimeters = cubic centimeters cubic centimeters ; cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters = cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters = cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters : cubic centimeters 17 minims 34 minims 51 minims 68 minims or 1 85 minims or 1 101 minims or 1 118 minims or 1 135 minims or 2 152 minims or 2 169 minims or 2 338 minims or 5 507 minims or 1 676 minims or 1 845 minims or 1 1014 minims or 2 1183 minims or 2 1352 minims or 2 1521 minims or 3 1690 minims or 3 1 liter = 34 fluid dram dram dram dram drams drams drams drams ounce ounce ounce ounces ounces ounces ounces ounces ounces 8 mmims 25 minims 41 minims 58 minims 15 minims 32 minims 49 minims 38 minims dram 27 minims 3 drams 16 minims 6 drams 5 minims dram 54 minims 3 drams 43 minims 6 drams 32 minims 1 dram 21 minims 4 drams 10 minims nearly, or 2J^ pints. THE CONVERSION OF FRENCH (METRIC) INTO ENGLISH WEIGHT The following table, which contains no error greater than one-tenth of a grain will suffice for most practical purposes: 1 gram = 15 2 /5 grains. 2 grams = 30 4 lb grains. 3 grams = 46 1 /5 grains. 4 grams = 61 4 /5 grains or 1 dram 1 4 /5 grain 5 grams = 77 1 /5 grains or 1 dram 17 1 /5 grains 6 grams = 92 3/5 grains or 1 dram 32 3 /5 grains 7 grams = 108 grains or 1 dram 48 grains 8 grams = 123 2 /5 grains or 2 drams 3 2 '5 grains 9 grams = 138 4 /5 grains or 2 drams 18 4 5 grains 10 grams = 154 2 /5 grains or 2 drams 34 2 5 grains 11 grams = 169 4/5 grains or 2 drams 49 4 5 grains 12 grams = ' 185 1 /5 grains or 3 drams 5 1 /5 grains 13 grams = 200 3/5 grains or 3 drams 20 3 /5 grains 14 grams = 216 grains or 3 drams 36 grains 15 grams = 231 2/5 grains or 3 drams Tl 2 /5 grains 16 grams = 247 grains or 4 dram.s 7 grains 17 grams = 262 2 /5 grains or 4 drams 22 2 /5 grains 18 grams = 277 4 /5 grains or 4 drams 37 4 5 grains 19 grams = 293 1 /5 grains. or 4 drams 53 1 5 grains 20 grams = 308 3/5 grains , or 5 drams 8 3 /5 grains 30 grams = 463 grains or 1 dram 43 grains 40 grams = 617 1 /5 grains or 10 drams 17 1 15 grains 50 grams = 771 3/5 grains or 12 drams 51 3 '5 grains 60 grams = 926 grains or 15 drams 26 grains 70 grams = 1080 1 /5 grains.. or 18 drams 1 '5 grains 80 grams = 1234 3 /5 grains or 20 drams 34 3 /o grains 90 grams == 1389 grains ...or 23 drams 9 grains 100 grams = 1543 1 /5 grains or 25 drams 43 1 /5 grains 1000 grams = 1 kilogram -^--^ 32 oz., 1 dr., 12 2=5 gr. Metric System of Weights and Measures MEASURES OF VOLUME Denominations and Values Equivalents in Use Names Liters Cubic Measures Dry Measure Wine Measure Kiloliter or stere 1,000 1 cu. meter 1,308 cu. yards 264.17 gallons Hectoliter 100 1 10th cu. meter 2 bu.and3.35 pecks 26.417 gallons Dekaliter 10 10 cu. decimeters 9.08 quarts 2.6417 gallons Liter 1 1 cu. decimeter .908 quarts 1.0567 quarts Deciliter 1-10 1 10th cu. decimeter. 6.1023 cu. inches .845 gill Centiliter 1-100 10 cu. centimeters .6102 cu. inch .338 fluid oz. Milliliter 1-1000 1 cu. centimeter .061 cu. inch .27 fl. drm. 408 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WEIGHTS Den oirinations and Values Equivalents in Use Number of Grams Weight of Volume of Water at its Maximum Density Avoirdupois Weight Millier or Tonneau Quintal _ Myriagram Kilogram or Kilo.... Hectogram Dekagram Gram Decigram Centigram Milligram 1.000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 1-10 1-100 1-1000 1 cu. meter 1 hectoliter 10 liters 1 liter 1 deciliter 10 cu. cent'rs. 1 cu. cen. 1-lOth of a cu. cen. 10 cu. mill'rs. 1 cu. mill'r. 2204.6 pounds 220.46 pounds 22.046 pounds 2.2046 pounds 3.5274 ounces .3.527 ounce 15.432 grains 1.5432 grain .1543 grain .0154 grain For measuring surfaces, the square dekameter is used under the term of Are; the hectare, or 100 ares, is equal to about 2)2 acres. The unit of capacity is the cubic decimeter or Liter, and the series of measures is formed in the same way as in the case of the table length. The cubic meter is the unit of measure for solid bodies and is termed Stere. The unit of weight is the Gram which is the weight of one cubic centi- meter of pure water weighed in a vacuum at the temperature of 4 deg. Cent, or 39.2 deg. Fahr., which is about its temperature of maximum density. In practice, the term cubic centimeter, abbreviated c. c, is generally used instead of milliliter, and cubic meter instead of kiloliter' CHAPTER LXXVIII STAIN FORMULAS THE following formulas have been given in ma- terials of uniform strength which can be found in the market. It must be realized that the entire value of stain formulas depends upon the uniformity of the ingredients used, a uniformity that extends into the percentage of color-value of the aniline employed. The formulas given will produce the correct con- ventional shade and method of finish. It, therefore, will be seen that any material difference in the color- value or shade of an aniline employed will not attain these results. Realizing that there may be occasional difficulty in obtaining colors identical with those em- ployed in the production of these formulas, the pub- lishers have arranged to furnish gratis, upon receipt of sufficient return postage, sample of such color that will enable the artisan to compare materials at hand and to provide himself with identical goods. Note final chapter. ANTIQUE MAHOGANY. FORMULA: Mahogany Brown 2 ounces Mahogany Red 1 ounce Potassium Bichromate Vz ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Apply two coats and proceed in the usual manner with the finish. Color of filler usually very dark. Under "Antique" we have many shades, all of which can be produced from above ingredients. AUSTRIAN OAK. Austrian oak, like Hungarian oak, is not a general finish, the procedure being the same as for producing Baronial oak. 410 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ANTWERP OIL STAIN. FORMULA: Oil Black 4 ounces Oil Yellow (light) 6 drams Oil Red (bright) 80 grains Boiled Oil , 1 pint Turpentine 1 pint Naphtha 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Cut the color material in the turpentine by heating on a water bath, then add the oil. When cool add naphtha, using same to rinse dish in which original solution was made. One coat of this followed with a coat of white shel- lac. Filler to be black and put over the shellac coat. Then give a second coat of shellac and two coats of white var- nish. Rub flat. BARONIAL OAK "A." FORMULA: Brown Mahogany Stai.i Powder V2 ounce Jet Black Nigrosine 30 grains Walnut Crystals Powder 20 grains Bichromate of Potash .,.. 1 dram Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Dissolve stain powders in warm water and apply first coat freely. This coat may constitute the sponging coat. Sand smoothly and apply second coat of same stain. Do not sand this coat but give a good coating of white shel- lac, or if preferred, white japan. When dry, wax. This finish is not filled. BARONIAL OAK "B." Brown Mahogany Stain Powder 1 ounce Nigrosine Jet Black 1 dram Bichromate of Potash 1 dram Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Dissolve stain powder and after the wood is sponged, apply stain. Do not wipe but see that same is well brushed out. When dry sand lightly and then coat with white shellac, and sand with 00 sandpaper. Give two coats of some good flat varnish or wax. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 411 ANTWERP OAK. FORMULA: Potassium Bichromate, powdered 1 part Sap Brown, powdered 4 parts Jet Black Nigrosine 4 parts Napthol Black Vz part Each part may represent a dram, an ounce, or a pound, depending' upon the quantity of stain desired. YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 413 BELGIAN OAK, FORMULA: Walnut Brown Crystals, ground 4 ounces Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce Nigrosine Jet Black 4 ounces Naphthol Black Vz ounce Mahogany Brown % ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Dissolve powders in hot water. Apply first coat, sanding same without cutting through stain coat. Then give second coat of stain and when dry, without sanding, apply solution of oil black made by cutting one ounce of oil black aniline in one quart of white japan. This can be best accomplished by heating turpentine on a water bath and it dissolving the oil black. Then while warm add to the japan. When this black coat is thoroughly dry, wax. BOG OAK. FORMULA : Sap Brown or Walnut Brown 1 ounce Bichromate of Potash 2 drams Nigrosine Jet Black 1 ounce Mahogany Brown Stain Powder 1 dram Water 4 gallons DIRECTIONS: Apply first coat of stain, thoroughly brushing well into wood. Sand well, and apply second coat but do not sand second coat. Fill with dark filler colored by using two parts of Van Dyke brown and one part of drop black. BUTLER OAK. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Catechu % Pound Lye Vz Pound Water 2 gallons SECOND COAT FORMULA: Black P. B 135 grains Naphthol Yellow 12 grains Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: After preparing first coat as per formula, use one ounce 414 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM of the solution to ten ounces of water. With this stain the wood, sand and apply second coat. Then fill with a black filler, this to be a natural filler colored with drop black in oil. Shellac using white shellac, sand lightly and give two coats of light varnish. Rub dull with oil. For Butler oak, nothing serves better than an oil rub finish. CATHEDRAL OAK (Old). FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash ,. 2 drams Naphthol Yellow 1 dram Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 1 dram Sap Brown or Walnut Crystals 4 drams Jet Black Nigrosine 4 drams Naphthalene Black V2 dram Water 4 gallons DIRECTIONS: Apply first coat freely. This may also constitute the sponging coat. Sand carefully and apply second coat. Shellac and varnish, rub dull to dead finish. CATHEDRAL OAK (New). FORMULA: Sap Brown or Walnut Crystals 2 ounces Black P. B 14 ounce Naphthol Scarlet 15 grains Bichromate of Potash 1 dram Water 3 quarts DIRECTIONS: For the first coat, which may also be the sponging coat, dissolve two drams of Lewis' or Babbitt's lye, or car- bonate of potash, in a gallon of water. Then when dry, sand carefully. Apply stain when dry and see that work is well smoothed. Then apply solution made of three parts boiled oil, one part asphaltum varnish, six parts naphtha. Clean and rub dry with rags or waste. The next day shellac and wax. CHERRY STAIN ON BIRCH. FORMULA: Mahogany Brown 21^^ ounces Naphthol Scarlet 1 ounce Potassium Bichromate V^ ounce Water 8 gallons FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 417 DIRECTIONS: Prepare the work in usual manner, that is, as if stain is to be used on cherry wood and apply the stain, wiping it off. If on birch, maple or other substitute woods, apply thoroughly and brush out well. No filler is required. Little gTain will be raised. On high grade work sand before shellacing. On fixtures, etc., do this after the shellac coat has been applied. Use equal parts of white and orange shellac. Finish as required. CHERRY STAIN ON PINE FORMULA: Mahogany Brown 2 ounces Naphthol Scarlet 10 ounces Potassium Bichromate - 1 ounce Water 6 gallons DIRECTIONS: This will produce a good penetrating cherry stain devoid of that scarlet shade which is often found in prepared cherry stains and absolutely incorrect. The sanding can be done after the shellac coat has been applied. CHIPPENDALE ACID STAIN. FORMULA: Black P. B 1 ounce Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Mohagany Red 60 grams Water 3 gallons DIRECTIONS: Give one coat of stain filler colored with Van Dyke, burnt sienna and rose pink. Hold to a decided brown shade. Use brown shellac and white or very light colored varnish. CHINESE TEAK. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Mahogany Red Stain Powder 4 ounces Naphthol Yellow 1 ounce Potassium Bichromate '. V2 ounce Water 3 gallons SECOND COAT FORMULA: Antwerp Stain Powder (1st formula) 4 ounces Water 1 gallon 418 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM DIRECTIONS: Apply the first coat as prepared according to the above formula, and when dry, sand the work thoroughly. Then apply the second coat, but do not sand. Fill with a filler which has been colored so it has almost a black appearance with three-fourths part of drop black, ground in oil, and one-fourth part Van Dyke brown, ground in oil. Clean the filler off well, and give one coat. DUTCH BROWN OAK. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Mahogany Red Stain Powder 4 ounces Naphthol Yellow 2 ounces Potassium Bichromate 1 ounce Water 3 gallons SECOND COAT FORMULA: Ground Walnut Crystals 6 ounces Mahogany Brown Stain Powder 5 ounces Water 2 gallons DIRECTIONS: Dissolve the first coat in the water. This may be applied freely, and thus serve as a sponging coat, as well as the first stain coat. Sand down thoroughly, then apply the second coat. In preparing the second coat, boiling water should be used, and the stain allowed to cool and settle. Then pour off the clear liquid, and strain the last liquor through a few folds of cheese cloth. Apply and sand very lightly. Fill with a filler colored quite dark with Van Dyke brown, ground in oil. Shellac, varnish and rub dull. If a cheaper finish is desired, three coats of flat finish may be used. DRIFT WOOD (Old Method). FORMULA: Unslacked Lime 5 pounds Water 2 gallons DIRECTIONS: After the lime has slacked, pour off clear liquid and give the work a thorough sponging. Smooth down with sand- paper and coat with wax into which is sifted carbonate of zinc and just enough dry drop black to give a slight gray tone. The wax should be thin so as to spread easily, to be rubbed well out. When dry, give second coat of wax. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 421 DRIFT WOOD (New Method) FORMULA: Sulphate of Iron dried 60 grains Black P. B 14 ounce Oxalic acid 60 grains Water 3 gallons DIRECTIONS: To prepare drift wood finish (usually on oak) omit the sponging coat, using the stain on the sanded work. After the stain has stood 12 hours in a well ventilated room, sand down well. Put a small amount of zinc white in the wax, just enough to give the pores a grayish tint, but not to fill them. Then a second coat of wax which is rubbed to polish. EARLY ENGLISH (Windsor) FORMULA: Picric acid 4 ounces Nigrosine Jet Black, H. & M 6V2 pounds Mahogany Brown 1^/4 pounds Of this powder, usually three ounces to the gallon of water produces the shade desired. Finishing procedure same as above, although many makers add a little Van Dyke brown to their filler. EARLY ENGLISH (Spirit Stain) FORMULA: Spirit Black 4 ounces Auramine V2 ounce Malachite Green Va ounce Wood Alcohol - 1 gallon A spirit stain is not as satisfactory a way to produce Early English. The pores are not open and the amount of filler that the wood will take on is not sufficient to produce the effect. EARLY ENGLISH (Oil Stain) FORMULA: Oil Black 1^/4 pounds Oil Yellow 2y2 ounces Oil Brown V2 ounce Linseed Oil % pint Turpentine 1 quart Naphtha 1 gallon This mixture is prepared as follows: Heat the turpentine 422 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM on a water bath and in it melt the colors. Then, when melted, add the linseed oil and when cool add the naphtha. This gives a base for producing Early English. It must be thinned with gasoline or benzo, however, to produce the desired depth of color. The stain must be allowed to stand until thor- oughly dry before an attempt be made to fill the work. The same ingredients can be cut by the use of benzo in place of the hot tur- pentine, and if it is desired to increase the penetrating powers, add four ounces of acetone to each gallon of stain. This will greatly facilitate the binding of the stain into the wood. EARLY ENGLISH FORMULA: Nigrosine, Jet Black, soluble in water 1 pound Water, hot 7 gallons To produce greenish shade: Dissolve Picric Acid 1 ounce Water or Alcohol 12 ounces DIRECTIONS: Add to the nigrosine solution as much of the picric acid solution as required to produce the shade desired. Sponge the wood and sand. Then apply stain, giving one good coat. When dry, sandpaper, dust and fill with black filler. Any good natural filler may be colored black by adding drop black. Early English may be shellaced, varnished and rubbed flat, or flat finish may be put over the shellac coat. Some prefer to wax it. EARLY ENGLISH (One Coat) FORMULA: Sulphur Brown "M" 2 ounces Black P. B 4 ounces Lye M ounce Water 1 gal. 3 qts. DIRECTIONS: After work has been sponged and sanded, apply thor- oughly. When dry, sand lightly with finishing paper, sand just enough to remove the fibers. Prepare the filler by coloring natural filler with equal parts of Van Dyke brown, ground in oil, and drop black ground in oil. After filling, let work stand 24 hours. Then apply shellac, using two parts of white to one part of orange. Sand the shellac lightly and coat with flat Mission finish or wax. If better finish is desired the Mission can be oil rubbed. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 425 EARLY ENGLISH (Standard) FORMULA: Walnut Crystals (ground) 2 ounces Black P. B 1 ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: First sponge the wood with a solution of one-half ounce of lye to a gallon of water. Sand and apply the stain. Fill with a dark filler colored with drop black, ground in oil. Then apply one coat of white shellac. Sand with 00 sandpaper and give one or two coats of white varnish and rub dull. Some finish in wax, others prefer flat finish, but Early English proper should be finished with varnish. EARLY ENGLISH (Oil Stain) FORMULA: Oak Stain No. 53 H. & M 1 ounce Oak Stain No. 37 H. & M % ounce Benzole 3 ounces Oil of Mirbane i/4 ounce Japan 3 ounces Naphtha 16 ounces Turpentine 2 ounces DIRECTIONS: Cut the stain powders with the benzole and slowly add turpentine until the color is all dissolved, or heat the tur- pentine on water bath and cut the color while turpentine is hot. Next add the japan and as the mixture cools, add other ingredients. After the work is smoothed and ready for stain, dust it off carefully and apply stain. Do not fill till second day. Filler to be colored with two parts Van Dyke brown and one part drop black. Let filler dry well, then coat with shellac two parts white shellac and one part orange. Sand lightly and coat with flat varnish or flat Mission finish. ENGLISH OAK FORMULA: Walnut Crystals ground 10 ounces Lye, such as Babbitt's V^ ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: It will be noticed that this is very nearly the same as walnut stain, the only differing feature being the filler which should have the Van Dyke brown color and the 426 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM final finish, which should be correct. It is a high polish, usually produced with two coats of shellac and varnish polished. EBONY STAIN FORMULA: Solid Extract of Logwood 3 ounces Water ^ gallon DIRECTIONS: Tie the broken pieces of logwood extract in a cotton cloth and place in the water which should be allowed to boil until the liquid is reduced one half. Remove the cloth which will contain but a small amount of fibrous inert matter. To the warm solution of logwood, add two-thirds ounce of powdered sal soda or one-third ounce of dried carbonate of soda. Stir this gradually into the warm solution and remove the resultant foam. Should the solution be cooled, then heat again and apply to the wood or if convenient, dip the wood. If first operation does not peneti'ate thoroughly, repeat the operation. After the wood has dried, apply a hot solution of bichromate of pot- ash or soda, using one and two-thirds ounces to the quart of water. A deep rich color will result. For small ar- ticles, the dipping process is recommended. This produces a much deeper penetration than any other known method. The following formulas will produce excellent blacks and being made up of material to be found in any market are of value because the black color can be changed so as to produce many of the modern stains by the admixture of such colors as red, yellow and orange. FORMULA No. 1: Logwood Chips 6 pounds Powdered Verdigris Vz pound Copperas % pound Bruised Nutgalls 4 ounces Water 10 gallons Boil for two hours, then add one gallon of vinegar, and boil for one more hour. FORMULA No. 2: Logwood Chips \^ pound Pearl Ash 1 ounce Boiling Hot Water 2 quarts Apply hot to the wood. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS ^ YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS » FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 429 FORMULA B: Logwood Chips ^ pound Verdigris V2 ounce Copperas % ounce Boil in two quarts of water. Second coat. FORMULA No. 3: Logwood Extract 1 pound Water 3 gallons Copperas I pound Boil for two hours. FORMULA No. 4: Logwood Extract 1 pound Copperas 1% pounds Powdered Nutgalls 2 pounds Water 5 gallons Boil for two hours. FORMULA No. 5: Nigrosine , 4 ounces Acetic Acid 4 ounces Water 1 gallon Apply two coats. EARLY ENGLISH (Antique) Sometimes called Royal Early English. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Walnut Crystals V2 ounce Mahogany Brown 1 dram Lye (Carbonate of Potash) % ounce Water 2% gallons SECOND COAT FORMULA: Tincture of Iron V2 ounce Black P. B % ounce Walnut Crystals ^/4 ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: The first coat should be applied thoroughly, as it con- stitutes the sponging coat. When dry, sand it well and apply second coat. When dry, give a thin coat of shellac and sand lightly, then fill. Filler to be almost black, just enough Van Dyke brown to be used to take on the coal black shade. Let stand 48 hours and give one coat of 430 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM shellac, using three parts of white and one part of orange. Sand and wax or give good flat finish. FOREST GREEN FIRST COAT FORMULA: Acid Green "E" 2V4 ounces Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Picric Acid % ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: The wood to be prepared in usual manner. First coat applied and sanded lightly. Then apply second coat. This serves as a mordant. After this is dry, fill with a filler which is colored with chrome green and drop black. Some add a bit of brown. Shellac and finish to suit. FLANDERS (Stain Method) FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Caustic Soda (stick) 1 ounce Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Nigrosine, Jet Black 2 ounces Sulphate of Iron, dried 1 dram Acid Brown 2 ounces Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: The first coat constitutes sponging coat as well as stain coat. It is sanded thoroughly, and the second coat is applied. When dry, coat without sanding with a mix- ture of two parts japan, two parts boiled oil and four parts naphtha. Let this dry well, and rub down when dry. Properly speaking, Flanders should not be filled. If, however, it is requested, color your filler with equal parts of drop black and burnt umber. Then shellac. If not filled, use repeated coats of the oil mixture and rub until a good, smooth matte surface is obtained. FUMED OAK "A" FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 4 ounces Carbonate of Potash 1 ounce Water 5 quarts FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF TflE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 433 SECOND COAT FORMULA: Blue, Extra Blue 1 ounce Scarlet 2R 60 grains Water 2 gallons DIRECTIONS: After applying the first coat of stain, let the work stand over night, then sand smooth, and coat with a mixture of one part boiled oil and three parts naphtha. To each quart of this oily mixture add one ounce (liquid measure) of japan drier. The following day, stain over this coat, which by this time should have thoroughly penetrated the wood, with the second coat. If there is any difficulty in making the stain take hold, rub the spot with rags, and then go over again with the stain. Do not sand this coat, but go over the work with japan drier to which one pint of turpen- tine has been added to each gallon. See that a uniform covering is produced. When it is thoroughly dry, finish in wax. FUMED OAK "B" FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash % ounce Carbonate of Potash, or Soda if dried % ounce Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Nigrosine, Jet Black % ounce Walnut Brown Powder 4 ounces Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Apply the first coat, and when dry, sandpaper, dust off. Then apply a mixture of one part of boiled oil and five parts of naphtha. Allow to stand not less than six hours, rubbing off the oil spots with rags, and then apply second coat. If oil spots show through the stain, wipe them off well with waste or rags, and stain again. When this coat is thoroughly dry, coat with white shellac. If any wood fibers show through the shellac coat, they can easily be cut off by going over the shellac coat carefully with sand- paper. In this operation, however, care should be taken not to cut through the shellac. Dust off, and apply wax. FUMED OAK "C" FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Orange Y 30 grains Naphthol Yellow 30 grains Water 1 gallon 434 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SECOND COAT FORMULA: Scarlet 3RL i^ ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black 3% ounces Naphthol Yellow 2 drams Water 1 gallon. DIRECTIONS: Apply the first coat in the usual manner, and sand lightly. Dust off, apply the second coat, and, without sanding, give a coat of white shellac. When this is thoroughly dry, sand it smooth, and apply a second coat of very thin shellac. Then finish in wax. FUMED OAK ENGLISH FIRST COAT FORMULA: Orange Y 30 grains Mahogany Red 10 grains Water 16 ounces SECOND COAT FORMULA: Picric Acid 10 grains Nigrosine 3 grains Iron Sulphate (crystals) 60 grains Sulphate of Soda 60 grains Water 1 quart DIRECTIONS: It is not necessary to sponge the wood after the original sanding. Apply a good coat of the first coat stain. Sand smooth and then apply second coat. This may be varied in strength according to the depth of color desired. This fumed oak is sometimes called Limbert's No. 4 and is of a grayish color. It has none of the deep brown shades typical of regular fumed oak and looks very much like the wood when it first comes from the fuming box before any oil has been applied. The finish is made the same as in any fumed oak with the exception of shellac. This must be white shellac, and, if necessary, give a shade of gray by adding a few grains of spirit black to each pint of shellac. FUMED OAK OIL FORMULA: Oil Black 1 ounce Oil Brown 30 grains Oil Mahogany % ounce Benzole 1 pint FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOyi YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 437 DIRECTIONS: These dyes, oil soluble anilines will produce a good fumed oak stain, and will, if handled carefully, produce a quick . finish job. The addition of a half ounce of acetone will help to penetrate and hold the stain in place. The shellac must be applied quickly without much brushing. FUMED OAK OIL FORMULA: Gum Asphaltum 3 ounces Oil Black 3 ounces Oil Brown 3 drams Benzole 42 ounces White Varnish 5 ounces Naphtha 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Put the color materials in a bottle and add the benzole, agitating occasionally until the colors are cut. Then add the naphtha and the varnish. It takes considerable time to cut the colors; therefore, the bottle is recommended to avoid the evaporation of benzole. Apply the stain, taking care to avoid laps and brush marks. When dry, apply shellac and wax or give two coats* of wax substitute. Be sure the shellac coat covers well to keep air off stain. FUMED OAK OIL STAIN (A) FORMULA: Oil Oak Stain No. 37 H. & M % ounce Oil Oak Stain No. 41 H. & M Ve, ounce Benzole 1 V2 ounce Oil Mirbane 1 dram Japan 4 ounces Turpentine i ounces Naphtha 16 ounces DIRECTIONS: Cut the colors in benzole. Then add the turpentine and other ingredients. The wood must be well sanded and dusted before stain is applied. Then give one coat of orange shellac. If sanding is necessary, use the very finest sandpaper. Finish with wax or a good flat varnish. FUMED OAK OIL STAIN For Printed Woods. FORMULA: Burnt Umber ground in oil 1 pound 438 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Turpentine 1 quart Japan 1 quart Naphtha bVz quarts Oil Fumed Oak Stain (A) equal measure IV2 quarts DIRECTIONS: See that the umber is thoroughly mixed with the liquids. Then add the fumed oak (A) stain. Keep the mixture well stirred when applying. When dry, shellac, using orange shellac which is colored with a little Bismark brown to give it a reddish tint. When dry, sandpaper lightly and wax or give a coat of flat varnish. FUMED OAK— G. R. M. STANDARD FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash % ounce Carbonate of Potash or Soda, if dried V2 ounce Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Acid Brown 2 drams Sap Brown, or Walnut Brown Powdered.. 2 ounces Nigrosine, Jet Black 1 ounce Naphthol Yellow 1 dram Sulphur Brown M 1 oz. 6 dr. Of this powdered mixture, use three and one-half ounces to the gallon of water. DIRECTIONS: Apply the first coat thoroughly, and let it stand at least six hours. Sand and dust off, then oil with a mixture one part japan drier, two parts of boiled oil, and five parts of naphtha. Wipe off thoroughly, and when dry apply the second coat, taking care that the stain covers well, and that no oil spots are visible. Coat with white shellac and wax. In place of waxing, some prefer to use a flat finish, or a substitute wax finish as made by the varnish houses. FUMED OAK No. 5 FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Orange Y 30 grains Naphthol Yellow 30 grains Water 1 gallon FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 441 SECOND COAT FORMULA: Scarlet 3RL % ounce Nigrrosine, Jet Black 3 ounces Walnut Brown, Powdered 1 ounce Naphthol Yellow 2 drams Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Apply the first coat, let stand over night, sand lightly, and apply second coat. Shellac and wax. FUMED OAK WITH STAIN POWDERS DIRECTIONS: The first coat is made with the idea of penetrating the wood, and producing the fumed oak effect in the flake. The second coat is to give the color. The oil coat is intended to give a depth of color, and a transparency which is produced in fumed oak when made in the fuming box. Different shades are possible with any of the foregoing formulas by first increasing the amount of stain material used to the gallon of water; second, the color effect is under control by increasing or decreasing the amount of blacks, browns and reds used, so that any shade of fumed oak can be produced at pleasure. For blending, evening up, see general directions under Blending Mixtures. FUMED OAK SPECIAL FIRST COAT FORMULA: Pyrogallic Acid 1 ounce Tannic Acid V^ ounce Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Carbonate of Potash 8 ounces Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Stronger Ammonia (26°) 4 ounces Copper Solution 4 ounces Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: To prepare second coat, dissolve the carbonate of potash in the water. Dissolve the bichromate. Then add the copper and ammonia in this manner: Prepare the copper solution by dissolving four ounces of copper sulphate in one quart of water. Powder the copper sulphate and use boiling water. When this solution is cool, take four ounces and add to it four ounces of ammonia. When first 442 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM adding: this ammonia, a white precipitate is formed, which will redissolve as ammonia is added. If the four ounces of ammonia do not completely dissolve this white precipi- tate, then continue to add ammonia until a deep blue solution is obtained. Add this then to the potash solution. When a clear olive colored solution is obtained, which is the second coat, that does the changing of color on the first coat. Coat with shellac, half orange and half white, sandpaper and wax, or use one of the now popular pre- pared wax substitutes. Blending may be done in the shellac coat according to the directions under "General Instructions for Blending." OTHER FUMED OAK SPECIALS Herewith are given second coats over pyrogallic and tannic acid coat. SECOND COAT FORMULA: Water (Hot) 3 gallons Nigrosine, Jet Black 1% ounces Carbonate of Potash 12 ounces Bichromate of Potash 6 ounces 26 degrees Ammonia 12 ounces Add when solution is cool or Water (Hot) 1 gallon Carbonate of Potash 8 ounces Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Copper Solution 8 ounces DIRECTIONS: Dissolve four ounces sulphate of copper in one quart of hot water; to this add one quart of 26 degree ammonia. At first it will precipitate and form a white cloud. Keep on adding ammonia till a dark blue solution is obtained, then of this dark blue solution add eight ounces (one-half pint) to above gallon. Then add jet black nigrosine till desired shade is obtained; one-half ounce to gallon is recommended. For toning light streaks and to even up, use following in shellac coat: Dissolve enough Bismark brown in one pint of wood alcohol to make a reddish color, then add equal quantity of white shellac. Make same kind of solution with spirit black, then mix these two shellac solutions to make the brown fumed oak shade when applied to last stain coat. Sand lightly and wax. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 445 FURNITURE CITY WAX. Ready for use. FORMULA: Japanese Wax 10% pounds Turpentine 14 pounds DIRECTIONS: Melt the wax and when about to cool, add the turpentine. It will be noticed that no beeswax enters into this wax. GRAY MAPLE. FORMULA: Jet Black 1 dram Orange Y 5 grains Sulphate of Iron 1 ounce Sulphate of Soda 4 ounces Water 2 gallons DIRECTIONS: Apply one coat on the sanded work. Do not sponge the wood. Brush the stain well into the wood and let it stand at least over night as the action is slow. The strength of the stain may be varied to produce the various shades of gray. Sand down with very fine sandpaper. Do not use any shellac-finish with lacquer or paraffine wax. GRAY MAPLE— DARK DIRECTIONS: Use same method as above, but precede the operation by giving the wood a coat of tannic acid, one ounce to the gallon of water. When dry, apply regular gray maple stain. This produces a rich deep gray and can be changed by varying the strength of the two solutions. G. R. M. STANDARD MAHOGANY. FORMULA: Mahogany No. 708 1 pound Bichromate of Potash 1 pound Naphthol Yellow % ounce DIRECTIONS: Of the above powder mixture use six ounces to each gallon of water. This mahogany stain was adopted by the Grand Rapids furniture manufacturers as a standard. The filler is to be dark. Color the natural filler with Van Dyke brown, drop black and a small quantity of rose pink. 446 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM JACOBEAN OAK. FORMULA: Oil Brown 2 ounces Oil Orange 1 ounce Oil Black 1 ounce Drop Black 8 ounces DIRECTIONS: Cut the color in warm turpentine; when all dissolved stir into the mixture one-half pound drop black, ground in oil. Then apply the stain, keeping continually stirred. When about ready to set, high light. In this purpose, use rags or burlap. Then shellac and wax. The color and shade may be varied by changing the amounts of material employed. KAISER GRAY. FORMULA: Sulphate of Iron V4, ounce Black P. B Vi ounce Oxalic Acid 1 dram Water V2 gallon DIRECTIONS: After sponging and sanding, give the work a good coat of stain, being careful to spread evenly. Give one or two coats of lacquer. Rub with hair cloth or 0000 sandpaper. KAISER GRAY. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Oxalic Acid 1 dram Water 1 quart SECOND COAT FORMULA: Black P. B 1 ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS : Apply first coat thoroughly, then sand the work and give second coat. Do not sand this. If any grain is raised, rub with burlap. Then give one coat of lacquer, sand lightly and wax with paraffine wax. This is prepared by melting same. When in this condition add half turpen- tine and naphtha. Remove from fire before attempting this. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 449 KENILWORTH. FORMULA: Oil Brown, dark 4 ounces Oil Orange 2 gallons Oil Black i^ pound Asphaltum Varnish i/^ pound Turpentine V2 ounce Drop Black 2 ounces Burnt Umber 2 ounces DIRECTIONS: Warm a portion of the turpentine on a water bath and allow the oil anilines to melt. When solution is complete add another portion and stir well. Then mix the pigments with another portion, and when a smooth mixture is obtained mix all, using the balance of clear turpentine to rinse the mixing dishes. Apply with a wide flat brush and when dry high-light with sandpaper. Some prefer to do this with rags dampened with turpentine, taking off just enough color to show high-lighting when completely dry. LIMBERT'S No. 8 FUMED OAK. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce Carbonate of Potash 1 ounce or Carbonate of Soda dried 1 ounce SECOND COAT FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 1 ounce Solution No. 1 V2 ounce Solution No. 2 3% ounces Solution No. 3 2 ounces Water 1% pints Prepare solutions Nos. 1, 2 and 3 by dissolving: 1% ounces of Naphthol Yellow in one quart of water 1^/^ ounces of Black P. B in one quart of water 1% ounces of Loutre in one quart 0;f water Label each bottle as Sol. No. 1, 2 and 3. DIRECTIONS: Coat the work with first coat stain. Sand well and apply oil made as follows: Boiled Linseed Oil 1 part Japan % part Turpentine 1 part Naphtha 4 parts 450 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Let this penetrate well. Rub off greasy spots and apply second coat. When dry, give a coat of white shellac, sand and wax. LIGHT BROWN MAHOGANY. FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash % ounce Mahogany Brown 2 ounces Mahogany Red % ounce Walnut Crystals 1 dram Water 5 quarts DIRECTIONS: After work has been prepared, give one good coat of stain. Sand lightly and shellac with half white and half orange shellac, giving two coats, and follow vdth one good coat of varnish. Rub dull. MAHOGANY STAIN FOR BIRCH. FORMULA: Mahogany No. 708 18 ounces Water 2 >^ gallons (See formula for No. 708) DIRECTIONS: First sponge the wood with a solution of lye, using one- fourth ounce of Lewis' or Babbitt's lye to a gallon of water. Sand and dust well, then apply stain, one coat of shellac and two coats of varnish. Rub dull. MAHOGANY No. 708. FORMULA: This is a popular one-powder mahogany stain made by mixing: Mahogany Red (Standard quality) 6 parts Mahogany Brown (Standard quality) 4 parts MAHOGANY, BROWN. FORMULA: Mahogany Brown 1% ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black % ounce Picric Acid 20 grains Water 1 gallon FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 453 DIRECTIONS: For genuine mahog:any apply one coat of stain; then sand and fill with a dark filler, first colored brown with Van Dyke brown, then made very dark with drop black. Shel- lac and apply two or three coats of varnish. Rub flat. For imitation coats reduce water 25 per cent. MAHOGANY, BROWN, ADAM. FORMULA: Mahogany Brown 2 ounces Nigrosine, Jet Black i/^ ounce Bichromate of Potash V4, ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Mix the colors and dissolve in water. Apply one coat of stain, and fill with a dark brown filler, softening the shade with a little rose pink. Shellac and give two coats of varnish: rub flat. For imitation woods use 25 per cent less water. MAHOGANY STAINS. The following formulas for mahogany will be found excellent in factories where large quantities of work are turned out. A close study of the various stain solutions will show wherein they constitute the "backbone" of all mahogany finishes. No. 1 STAIN: Bichromate of Potash 10 V^ ounces Water 2 gallons No. 2 STAIN: Mahogany Brown 4 ounces Mahogany Red 4 ounces Water 2 gallons No. 3 STAIN FOR MAHOGANY: No. 1 STAIN 3% ounces No. 2 Stain 5 gallons Water 10 gallons No. 4 STAIN FOR BIRCH TO MATCH MAHOGANY: Bichromate of Potash 2% ounces Mahogany Red 4 ounces Mahogany Brown 4 ounces Warm Water 2 gallons 454 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM No. 5 STAIN FOR TOONA ON VENEER: Caustic Soda % ounce Spirits of Nitre 2 ounces No. 2 Stain 1 ounce (fluid) Water 2 gallons No. 6 STAIN FOR TOONA ON BIRCH: Use No. 2 Stain diluted to produce the same shade as No. 5 Stain produces on veneer. Then go over it with No. 5 if necessary. For Toona on solid mahogany use No. 5 double strength. DIRECTIONS: To produce satisfactory working solutions from mahogany stain powders, known as mahogany red and mahogany brown, care must be taken to get a good quality. The cheaper powders, usually sold around 50 cents per pound, do not contain the color value and thus the formula is liable to fall off in shade. After securing a good grade it is easy to establish these formulas to suit each particular case. These formulas will not produce the later shade of brown or Adam Mahogany. These are given under their respec- tive names. MALACHITE OAK FORMULA: Blue, extra Blue 1 ounce Acid Green 4 ounces Water 4 gallons DIRECTIONS: Dissolve the dyes in the water and when the solution is complete apply two good coats. Sand the first coat but not the second. Prepare the filler by coloring with six parts drop black, one part Van Dyke brown and one part deep green, all ground in oil. Give two coats of white shellac varnish and rub dull. This is a very dark green finish, the filler a shade darker. ORIENTAL OAK FORMULA: Dried Sulphate of Iron 120 grains Sulphate of Soda IV^ ounces Nigrosine, Jet Black 60 grains DIRECTIONS: Apply one coat of stain. Let stand 24 hours. Then sand and give a good coat of white shellac. Smooth with fine sandpaper and wax. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OK THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FOR MULAS AND DIRECTIONS 457 PALMETTO WAX A Good Furniture Wax FORMULA: Carnauba Wax 1 pound Cerosene Wax 2 pounds Paraffine Wax 4 pounds DIRECTIONS: Break up in small lumps and melt on stove. Stir well and if desired for future use, pour in tins. These can be of a size so that each will represent a definite weight. If de- sired for immediate use, add turpentine to the melted waxes just before they begin to harden. Substitute tur- pentine or mineral turpentine will do very well. Usually equal parts by weight will make a good working wax. This wax is durable, holds its finish and is inexpensive. OIL SOLUBLE GOLDEN OAK STAIN FORMULA: Oil Black 8 ounces Oil Yellow 4 ounces Oil Brown 1 ounce DIRECTIONS: Dissolve this in a w%ter bath in a quart of turpentine. Stir into one gallon of asphaltum varnish. When cool, add four gallons of naphtha. Apply this stain and allow it to set for 15 to 20 minutes, then fill with natural filler. The filler, when being applied, will lift up the excess stain, and by being brushed across the grain will color itself as it is being deposited in the pores of the wood. When cleaned off and when dry, shellac, varnish and polish or rub well. PRIMA VERA— MAHOGANY FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 1 ounce Mahogany Red V2 ounce Water 1 gallon riRECTIONS: Dissolve the chemical and stain powder in water and allow to stand over night. If any sediment appears, drain off clear liquid or filter. Then coat the work, allowing same to dry for 24 hours. Most makers of furniture do not fill; this is a matter of choice. If filler is used, color with raw sienna or raw umber. Then oil with seven parts oil, one part japan. When dry, shellac, smooth if necessary, var- nish and rub flat. 458 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ROSEWOOD FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 1 pound Mahogany Brown 5 pounds Nigrosine, Jet Black 2% pounds Methyl Violet 2 ounces DIRECTIONS: In place of pounds, use the quantities or proportions given as parts, calling them ounces, drams or grains, and the amount of water in accordance with one or two coat work. The filler should have one part of rose pink to three parts of Van Dyke brown. Use brown shellac, two coats of varnish. Rub dull. SHELLAC, WHITE Five pounds bleached shellac, one gallon wood or denatured alcohol. Follow directions given for orange shellac. Keep the product in glass jars or earthen jugs, as tin is liable to discolor it. Some users call for pure grain alcohol shellac varnish, but manufacturers have given up the manufacture of such a product long since, as consumers will not pay the price it would be neces- sary to charge. SHELLAC, ORANGE Four and one-half pounds- of gum as above, one gallon wood or denatured alcohol. Digest in a suitable mixing keg for large batches, or in a wide-mouthed glass jar for the small quantity given here. Agitate or shake the mixture occasionally until all the gum is dissolved. To hasten solution, keep in a warm place, or place jar in a warm water-bath. The batch noted above will produce one and one-third gallons. SHELLAC SUBSTITUTE A new shellac substitute is prepared by treating manila copal, sandarac, acaroid resins, and other resins soluble in alco- hol, and precipitating the resulting resin soaps with acids, the resin acids thus obtained being mixed with palmitic, stearic, elaidic and similar fatty acids. The mixture is said to possess the property of forming, on the evaporation of the solvent, an excellent varnish of good covering properties and as durable in air as shellac. The resin acids and solid fatty acids may be mixed, either in the solid state, as alcoholic solutions, or dis- solved together in an aqueous solution of alkali, followed by pre- cipitation. The proportions taken are: Manila copal, sandarac, acaroid resin, or mixtures of same, 30 parts; caustic potash lye (33 per cent strength), 13 ^/^ parts, and water, 50 parts, the whole being boiled until solution ensues. The solution is next treated with a hot solution of one part of commercial stearine and one FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 461 part of caustic potash lye in 10 parts of water, the whole being precipitated with a mineral acid. The precipitate is filtered, washed and dried, and is readily soluble in alcohol. SHERATON MAHOGANY FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 1% ounces Black P. B 2 dr. 2 scu. Mahogany Red 1 scruple Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: After the wood is prepared by sponging and sanding, apply one good coat of stain working out with the brush. Then sand lightly and fill with filler colored as follows: For every 25 pounds of natural filler, use ten ounces of Van Dyke brown, eight ounces of burnt umber, six ounces of rose pink, all ground in oil. The shellac coat to be one-half orange and one-half white. Give one good coat of varnish (light), two are better. Can be finished in gloss or dull. SILVER OAK FIRST COAT FORMULA: Potassium Bichromate % ounce Lye such as Lewis' or Babbitt's % ounce or Sal Soda 1 ounce Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Antwerp Stain Powder No. 2 3 ounces Blue, extra Blue 1 dram Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Apply first coat and sand it lightly. Then apply second coat. When dry sand this well. Then coat with a mix- ture of zinc white, raw oil one part, naphtha seven parts, making a very thin solution. Rub this well into the pores. Clean off all the flakes and smooth wood. Then when dry, wax and rub to a polish. Do not shellac the work. This fiber oak must not be mistaken for any of the light gray oaks now so popular. It being a very dark color the pores are white. It makes a beautiful finish on ash, well adapted for grills, store fixtures, novelty furniture, and is very striking. 462 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM STRATFORD OAK If it is to be produced with stains only, proceed as in formula G. R. M. Standard Fumed Oak, using four-fifths as much water for second coat. Then fill with a thin filler colored slightly pink with rose pink. This should not fill the pores, but merely give them a pink shade. If to be produced by aid of fuming, fume the wood well, then oil with one part raw oil and three parts naphtha. When dry, wipe off any greasy spots and give coat of stain made with four ounces of No. 13 brown to each gallon of water. Fill as above, sand lightly if necessary. Finish in wax, shellac if good job is wanted and wax last, otherwise omit it. TOBACCO BROWN FIRST COAT FORMULA: Naphthol Yellow 4 ounces Potassium Bichromate % ounce Water 8 gallons SECOND COAT FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 14 ounces Mahogany Brown 1% ounces Hot Water 2 gal. 5 pints DIRECTIONS: Prepare the wood in usual manner and give good coat of first coat stain. Sand, apply second coat stain. If any of the grain is raised, sand very lightly (this may be done after the shellac has been applied, the shellac coat to be half white and half brown). Fill with filler colored dark brown by using Van Dyke brown, ground in oil. Then shellac as above given. Varnish two coats and rub dead. Some makers have put out tobacco brown and finished it as fumed oak; that is, without filling and varnishing, simply giving a good wax coat on top of the shellac. This can be recognized, the stain coat remaining the same. VAN DYKE BROWN (On Gumwood) FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 10 ounces Black P. B V2 ounce Lye M ounce Water 2 gallons DIRECTIONS: To insure complete solution, dissolve stain material in hot water. Give work one coat of stain. When dry do not sand, but rub with burlap or excelsior. Apply two coats of white shellac, giving the shellac a slight tint by adding a few drops of a Bismark brown solution. Then coat with a good white varnish. Rub dull, preferably oil rub. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULA S AND DIRECTIONS 465 VERDA GREEN FIRST COAT FORMULA: Sulphate of Iron, crystals 80 grains Oxalic Acid 30 grains Acid Green 30 grains Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Gelatine 4 ounces Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: This is usually employed on gum wood. Do not sponge the work. Apply stain; when dry, apply second coat. Let this dry 24 hours, then sand with fine paper. Apply one coat of lacquer. If surface is not smooth, sand again and wax, using a white wax. CHLORINATED SODA SOLUTION FORMULA: Solution A: Sal Soda 21 ounces Hot Water 40 ounces Solution B: Chlorinated Lime 10 ounces Water 1^/^ pints Mix thoroughly. DIRECTIONS: Stir this mixture thoroughly, then allow it to settle, and pour off the clear liquid. To the sediment, add another pint and a half of water and repeat the operation. After this second solution has settled, pour off the clear liquid into the other solution, and to the sediment add a bit more water. Let this filter into the balance of the chlorinated solution. Then pour the two solutions to- gether. The result will be a clear, pale, greenish liquid, having a faint odor of chlorine and a disagreeable alkaline taste. WALNUT BROWN FOR SOFT WOODS FORMULA: Walnut Crystals ground 10 ounces Bichromate of Potash % ounce Water 1 gallon 466 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM DIRECTIONS: Walnut stain for soft woods must penetrate the white fibers so that when the work is sanded no light colored spots appear. If stain does not penetrate, go over the work again, brushing out till color is set. The finish is a matter of choice, usually done according to style of work. Use orange shellac which can be colored brown with an alcohol soluble color such as Crysoidine brown, or any other dye that will give a brown tone to shellac. WALNUT BROWN FOR HARD WOODS FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 12 ounces Carbonate of Soda (dried) Vz ounce Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Use hot water to make a solution and strain the same when cool or pour off clear liquid. One coat usually will do the work. It is a matter of choice as to the filler. On maple or birch a thin filler should be used. This shade does not look well on oak as it resembles many other oak finishes. Therefore, no period or style is produced. Finish in usual manner for walnut. WATER SOLUBLE GOLDEN OAK STAIN FORMULA: Loutre , 3 parts Naphthol Yellow 1 part Water sufficient to produce the desired shade. DIRECTIONS: Apply the stain, sand well. Prepare the filler with color- ing with Van Dyke brown, or if a dark brown shade is desired, add asphaltum varnish to the filler. The results, however, cannot be judged until after the first coat of shellac has been applied. WEATHERED OAK FIRST COAT FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 4 ounces Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Scarlet 2RL V2 ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black 3 ounces Water 1 gallon FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOI/i YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 469 DIRECTIONS: The first coat is to be applied well so as to raise the grain. Then sand and apply the second coat. This is not sanded but the shellac applied; then use white shellac. Sand lightly to get smooth surface and wax. This finish has no filler and should not have too much finish. Great latitude may be used in the strength of the stain, as there are now so many shades of weathered oak, but the ingredients will produce any shade desired merely requiring the change of strength. WEATHERED OAK Grand Rapids Manufacturers' Standard. FIRST COAT FORMULA: Walnut Crystals 4 ounces Water 1 gallon SECOND COAT FORMULA: Nigrosine, Jet Black 6V^ drams Scarlet 2RL IVa drams Water 1 gallon DIRECTIONS: Apply first coat heavy, same to be sponging coat as well as coloring. Sand smooth, then apply second coat, but do not sand. Give one coat white shellac and wax. The proportions in this formula may be varied greatly, and thus many delightful shades of weathered oak may be obtained. WEATHERED OAK In this series of formulas are brought out the different methods and schemes for the production of weathered oaks. There is a great variation of weathered oak shades and from one or another it is hoped the artisan will get what he wants. FORMULA No. 1: x After sponging the wood and sanding, stain with the following: Nigrosine, Jet Black 1 ounce Bichromate of Potash Vz ounce Walnut Brown 2 ounces Water 1 gallon Give one coat, shellac before sanding. When shellac is dry, cut fibers with fine sandpaper, wax with uncolored wax so the pores have a grayish appearance. 470 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM FORMULA No. 2: After sponging the wood, apply a stain made up as follows: Ground Walnut 4 ounces Scarlet V2 ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black 2 ounces Water-.- 1 gallon Finish to be the same as first formula. FORMULA No. 3: For a higher grade of work, the following formulas are recommended: Without sponging, give the work a coat of sap brown, as follows: Sap brown, dissolved in hot water, four ounces to one gallon. Applying the stain warm, sand and apply second coat made of Scarlet 1 ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black..... 6 ounces This amount of powder is to be dissolved in two gallons of water. Coat the work, shellac, then cut the fibers, wax. FORMULA No. 4: A formula which is popular and might be called a single coat stain is made up as follows (note that is part of the foregoing formula) : Scarlet 1 ounce Nigrosine, Jet Black 6 ounces Loutre 3 ounces Of the above mixture, dissolve three ounces of stain powder in a gallon of water. This formula is usually used on the cheaper grade of work. The work is not sponged at all, the first coat of very thin shellac is put over the stain and then it is sanded just lightly enough to cut any fibers that may be penetrating the shellac coat. The wax is put on with a brush, by which you understand the wax as is ordinarily supplied has been thinned, a little color added to it to darken it, and when it is set, rub to a polish. FORMULA No. 5: A very good oil soluble weathered oak stain can be made as follows : Oil Red % ounce Oil Black 8 ounces Oil Brown V2 ounce Dissolve on a water bath, turpentine one and one-half pints. When the mixture is cool, add Benzole IV2 pints Naphtha 1 gallon FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 473 Use the naphtha for rinsing out the dishes so no color will be lost. Then add four ounces of acetone to set the color. A brownish shade of weathered oak can be produced by add- ing to the above amount of colors two ounces of oil brown, and using a correspondingly less amount of the oil black. In these oil formulas there is very apt to be difficulty in getting a good stain from the fact that there is so much dif- ference in the shades of the red and browns. Spirit weathered oak stains are made in much the same man- ner, but they are not recommended; they are apt to fade. How- ever, there are places where nothing else would do, therefore we give two other formulas: FORMULA No. 6: Spirit Black 4 ounces Spirit Scarlet 1 ounce Auramine 1 dram Wood Alcohol 1 gallon As this stain is apt to lift when the shellac coat is applied, the dissolving of spirit black in the shellac will help to keep the color uniform. Sand this coat of shellac lightly and then apply the wax. FORMULA No. 7: Spirit Black 4 ounces Violet BB 10 grains Orange 2 drams Acetone '. 1 ounce Alcohol 1 gallon It is seen readily that black forms a basis for this stain and that the other colors are used solely for the purpose of throwing the shade. It is recommended that in making a weathered oak stain you use the black of a standard uniform strength, and vary the shades by the addition of the other colors suggested from the results of the experiments. The same usual precautions are necessary. See to it that all the colors are thoroughly dissolved, know the strength, write it on a label and paste it on a bottle, and then carefully note the addition of each color. In that way your formula is established as the work proceeds and it is not necessary to go back and figure again the quantities you have employed. PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXIX NEW STANDARD FINISHES IN 1917 we brought out a standard finish for American wal- nut, red mahogany, brown mahogany, Jacobean and fumed oak. The finishes were demanded by many associations and are now in general use. STANDARD AMERICAN WALNUT All wood must be sponged and sanded. STAIN FORMULA: Loutre C 3381 1 ounce Brown Mahogany 3C82 % ounce Yellow H 8903 1 ounce Sulphur Brown (Swiss) 12 ounces Lye (Babbitt's or Lewis') % ounce Water 6% gallons DIRECTIONS: Give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, a coat of shellac, using about 1 part of shellac to 1 or 2 parts of wood alcohol. Then sand (before filling with fine or old sandpaper. Filling to be colored with Van Dyke brown or made as near the color of the wood as possible. If the work should be too light after filling, stain it with the same stain before shellacing. Use half white and half orange shellac and two or three coats of varnish. Rub dull with oil. STANDARD AMERICAN MAHOGANY FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 2 ounces Lye (Babbitt's or Lewis') % ounce Brown Mahogany No. 909 3% ounces Scarlet 2 R. B. % ounce Nigrosine Black T Vs ounce Water l^^ gallons DIRECTIONS: First give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, sand with fine or old sandpaper. Filling to be colored with Van Dyke brown and Rose Pink. When filling is dry, give it a thin coat of orange shellac, two or three coats of varnish. Rub dull. 476 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM STANDARD BROWN MAHOGANY STAIN FORMULA: Bichromate of Potash 12 ounces Lye % ounce Loutre C-3381 12 ounces Mahogany H 9844 1 ounce Or 3 drams Red; 5 drams Brown. Black Nigrosine T 2 ounces Water 10 gallons DIRECTIONS: Give the work a good coat of this stain; when dry, apply shellac, using one part of orange shellac to two or three parts of alcohol. Then sand with very fine or old sand- paper. Fill with filler colored with Van Dyke Brown. Then shellac with equal parts or orange and white shellac. Finish with two or three coats of varnish. Rub dull. STANDARD JACOBEAN FORMULA: H 1220 Oil Soluble IVa ounces Benzole 8 ounces Burnt Umber Mixture 2% ounces Lamp Black ground in oil 4 ounces Turpentine 1 pint Naphtha, enough to make a good Vi. gallon. DIRECTIONS: First see that the work is sanded smooth. Then give the work a light coat of this stain, using a fitch brush for applying, and use a soft brush to lay it off (2% or 3-inch chiseled ox-hair). The next day, highlight, using a very fine or old sandpaper. Then give a coat of half orange and half white shellac, sand lightly and give a coat of flat finish, or 2 or 3 coats shellac and oil; rub lightly. BURNT UMBER MIXTURE: 1 pound color ground in oil with 1 quart Turpentine. STANDARD FUMED OAK STAIN METHOD Give the work a coat of the stain made by dissolving Vz ounce of Dried Carbonate of Soda and ¥2 ounce of Bichromate of Potash in 1 gallon of water. Then dry, sand and oil the work, using 1 pint of Boiled Oil, pint Japan and 3 pints of Naphtha. Rub dry with rags or cloth. The next day give the work a coat of No. 2 stain, using a fitch brush for applying. When dry, give 1 or 2 coats of thin shellac, or if preferred, 1 good coat. Sandpaper and wax. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 479 FORMULA: For Second Coat: Jet Black % ounce Walnut Crystals SV2 ounces Mahog-any Stain Sol 2 ounces Concentrated Ammonia 4 ounces Water 1 gallon MAHOGANY SOLUTION: Made by Dissolving— IVa ounces Stain No. 9844 in 1 quart Water or 1^/4 ounces Mahogany Brown and 1% ounces Mahogany Red in 1 gallon Water FINISHES FOR INLAYS To produce absolutely fast-to-light colors on inlay wood and to dye them so the color will have completely penetrated, the application of the following formulas as a base from which to work will serve not only to establish the one color, as produced by the formula, but by varying the amount of dyestuffs, differ- ent shades may be obtained according to the difference in the amount of actual color employed. It will be noted by the oper- ator that heat is employed, but it must be remembered that inlay wood need only to be immersed in the dye solutions until the dye has thoroughly penetrated the fiber of the wood. TO PRODUCE EBONY: 6 parts Chrome Black LJ Top with 1% parts of Bichromate of Soda, or 6 parts Chrome Black LB Top with IVa parts of Bichromate of Soda. METHOD: Make up the bath with the color and 6 parts of acetic acid (30 per cent commercial). Enter the wood cold; heat slowly and dye at a gentle boil until the wood has been penetrated, then add the bichromate of soda, and con- tinue heat to a gentle boil for about 30 minutes. The amount of water can largely be governed by the size of tank and bulkiness of the wood. OTHER SHADES OF BLACK: 6 parts of Acid Black No. 1, or 6 parts of Acid Black No. 2, or 6 parts of Naphthol Black B, or 6 parts of Acid Black 10-B. METHOD: Same as above without employing the Bichromate of Soda. 480 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TO PRODUCE PEARL GRAY: 1 part of Nigrosine OP 4 parts of Sulphuric Acid and 10 parts of Glauber Salts (Sulphate of Soda) Enter the wood to be dyed cold, and increase the temper- ature until the color has penetrated the wood. Remove and rinse in clear water; lay out to dry. TO PRODUCE SILVER GRAY: Same method, using 1 part of Nigrosine J. TO PRODUCE ASH GRAY: 4 parts of Nigrosine JD 8 parts of Sulphuric Acid 40 parts of Glauber Salts or Sulphate of Soda. Use the same method as employed to produce Pearl Gray. TO PRODUCE BLUE GRAY: 4 parts of Fast Blue (Induline) 8 parts of Sulphuric Acid 40 parts of Glauber Salts or Sulphate of Soda. And the same method as employed to produce Ash Gray. TO PRODUCE NAVY BLUE: 2 parts of Alkali Blue (Nicholson) 5 parts of Borax. Immerse cold and bring to a boil. Employing the same method and formula as Standard blue. It usually requires about 40 minutes: the boiling should be gentle. As soon as the color has penetrated the wood, lift out the wood and immerse in second bath of cold water to which has been added four parts of the original formula in sulphuric acid. For example, if the parts were called ounces, it would mean approximately one ounce to every two or three gallons of water. It is the amount of material present in the water that does the work, the amount of water being governed by tha size of the material to be colored. TO PRODUCE NAVY BLUE (Violet tone) : 2 parts of Alkali Violet, concentrated 5 parts of Borax. And same procedure as navy blue. TO PRODUCE STANDARD BLUE: 2 parts of Blue R 64 parts of Sulphuric Acid 160 parts of Glauber Salts Water as required, not less than 10 gallons. Immerse the wood cold. Increase the heat and tempera- ture slowly until the color has penetrated. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 483 TO PRODUCE OTHER BLUES: 2 parts of Blue R, or 2 parts of Blue SBX, or 2 parts of Blue 2B, or 2 parts of Water Blue 2 parts of Blue 3B, or A series of Peacock blues are made by using one part of Patent blue, or 2 parts of Patent Blue, or 1 part of Azurino, or 2 parts of Azurino with 4 parts of Sulphuric Acid and 10 parts of Glauber Salts And following the general method as for Pearl Gray. TO PRODUCE EMERALD GREEN: 11/2 parts of Acid Green 2BX TO PRODUCE EMERALD GREEN (Dark): 3 parts of Acid Green 2BX TO PRODUCE OTHER SHADES OF GREEN: 1% parts of Acid Green 2GX, and a darker shade 3 parts of Acid Green 2GX In the production of these greens, the same procedure is followed as in the blues, namely, to use four parts of sulphuric acid in ten parts of Glauber salts. In no case shall the water be less than ten gallons. Each individual case will need the establishment of the operative formula to be made from the above keys, ac- cording to the size of the vat or tank employed. Wooden vats will answer, the heat being applied by steam coils. The general idea is to give sufficient information so as to enable the woodworker to have the fundamentals. Relative to the dye materials, some of them may be still difficult to obtain, but we are slowly, but surely, ap- proaching that period where our own market will give us all requirements. TO PRODUCE ORANGE: Crocein Orange 3 pounds Sulphuric Acid 4 pounds Glauber Salts 10 pounds Water sufficient to make a bath sufficient to immerse the wood, which may be left in this bath until the dye is exhausted or required shade is obtained. Temperature should be gradually raised to within boiling. The other shades of Orange which are to follow, and which are made with the same formula but produce other shades of Orange are as follows: 484 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Oranp:e A Orange Y Orange R or Orange RR. It will be noticed that the formula is identical and for small quantities it can be changed to read parts instead of pounds, and a part may be called a drahm, an ounce, or a number of ounces, as long as the formula is continued in the same proportion. Pale shades of Orange may be made by decreasing the amount of dye stuff employed. A series of Orange shades may be obtained by the use of the following formula: 3 pounds of Acetic Acid, which should be Commercial S0%, and the requisite amount of dye stuff as given below, entering the wood cold, and bringing the bath to a gentle boil, continue this for about fifteen minutes or until the bath is exhausted. AMOUNT OF COLOR REQUIRED: Eosine 3 J, V2 pound, or Eosine PB, 1 pound Eosine 3 J, 1 pound Eosine XX Crystal, V2 pound Eosine J, V2 pound, or Eosine XX Crystal, 1 pound Eosine J, 1 pound Erythrosine J, V2 pound or Eosine PB, V2 pound, or Erythrosine J, 1 pound. In the listing of the foregoing be it understood that each enumeration completes a distinct formula for the bath. TO PRODUCE PINK: Rose Bengal V2 pound or a darker shade. Rose Belgal : 1 pound, using the Acetic Acid bath. The pale pink, such as the wild rose, is made in a neulval- bath, using Rhodamine BX only in whatever strength is desired, immersing in hot water and continuing at a gentle boil from thirty to forty minutes. TO PRODUCE SCARLETS: The bath is built by using Sulphuric Acid 4 pounds Glauber Salts 10 pounds to which proportion use dyestuff as follows: Each listing constituting a formula when added to the above chemicals and the requisite amount of water. Scarlet 2 RL 3 pounds Scarlet 3 RL 3 pounds Scarlet 4 R Brilliant 3 pounds Croseine Scarlet MOO 3 pounds Croseine Scarlet 4B 3 pounds Croseine Scarlet 9B 3 pounds Croseine Scarlet lOB 3 pounds FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 487 TO PRODUCE BRILLIANT RED; Azo Rubine 3 pounds TO PRODUCE A BLOOD RED: Amaranth 3 pounds TO PRODUCE A CARDINAL RED: Bordeaux B 3 pounds The various shades of violet or purple are produced by Acid Violet 4 BNS 2 lbs. using the Sulphuric Acid Soda base, varying the amount of dye stuffs producing other shades. TO PRODUCE LAVENDERS AND DARKER SHADES: Fast Blue 26 ounces Naphthol Yellow li^ ounces or Acid Violet 4 BNS 10 ounces Fast Acid Vioiet 10 ounces employing the Sulphuric Acid Soda base. Varying of the dye stuffs gives the different tones of lavender and heliotrope. TO PRODUCE RUSSET SHADE: Yellow MXX Concentrated 14% ounces Nigrosine OP % ounce Fast Red S 1 ounce TO PRODUCE GOLDEN BROWN: Orange 2R 13% ounces Nigrosine OP 1 ounce Yellow M XX Concentrated 1% ounce TO PRODUCE VARIOUS SHADES OF BROWN: Orange Y 14 ounces Nigrosine OP 6 ounces Changing of the proportion will enable the operator to produce the various shades of brown. From these formulas for dyeing wood, rnly the regular shades are produced. The operator will know that the admixture of the different dyestuffs in their regulai- classi- fication will enable him to produce the hundreds of other shades possible by the addition of more or less color material. The only care that must be exercised is not to use a dye material recommended with acetic acid in the sulphuric glauber salt bath. The operator will further notice that the amount of water employed is left to his discretion. For instance, where large quantities of wood are to be dyed the color material can be exhausted or dyeing continued until the desired shades are no longer obtained. 488 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM SHOP NOTES. Use shellac in thin coats. A little yellow added to a black will "jet it," that is, make a jet black color. If necessary to thin varnish, pure turpentine only should be used. Oils or other varnishes should never be used. Never put a coat of shellac between two coats of varnish. This makes a very brittle finish, one that is sure to crack in time. Fillers grenerally set in 20 to 30 minutes and should then be cleaned off. Excelsior or waste may be used. Always clean off "cross" the grain, never "with" the grain. If white shellac is not soluble in alcohol, moisten the shellac with a quarter of its weight of ether, and let soak for a time. The solubility will then be completely restored. A coat of shellac should always be used between the stain coat and filler. This prevents the filler from mingling with the stain, which would produce a cloudy or muddy effect. Filler is simply intended to fill the large pores in open- grained woods, which produces a perfectly smooth working sur- face upon which to apply the finishing coats. Sometimes, how- ever, a colored filler is used to get certain color effects. When oil stains are employed, the filler should be applied first. If this is not done, when the filler is cleaned off, some of the stain will go with it, and produce uneven, or blotchy work. If varnish becomes "specky" after it has been applied, it is often due to the fact that it has become chilled. The specks look like bits of undissolved gum, but this is not the case, as the effect is caused by the congealing of the oil in the varnish. If shellac turns white under varnish, the finish may gener- ally be restored by gently applying alcohol. This soaks through the varnish coat and re-dissolves the shellac. After this is ac- complished, gently apply linseed oil. Let dry thoroughly, and then rub down and give one coat of good varnish. Remember, the best filler is made of silex, oil, dryers, a little varnish or Japan dryer and the color pigment. If you have trouble with "pitting" of the pores, very likely it is due to an inferior filler made with whiting or some such material, which shrinks when dry, drawing the oil out of the varnish, and causing minute holes. CHAPTER LXXX. LIQUID GLUES. FORMULA: 1. Glue 3 ounces Gelatin 3 ounces Acetic Acid 4 ounces Water 2 ounces Alum 30 grains Heat together for six hours, skim, and add: 2. Alcohol 1 fluid ounce Brown Glue No. 2 2 pounds Sodium Carbonate 11 ounces Water 3^ pints Oil of Cloves 160 minims DIRECTIONS: Dissolve the soda in the water, pour solution over the dry glue, let stand over night or till thoroughly soaked and swelled; then heat carefully on a water bath until dis- solved. When nearly cold stir in the oil of cloves. By . using white glue, a finer article, fit for fancy work, may be made. Or Dissolve by heating 60 parts of borax in 420 parts of water, add 480 parts dextrin (pale yellow) and 50 parts of glocuse and heat carefully vvith continued stirring, to complete solution; replace the evaporated water and pour through flannel. The glue made in this way remains clear quite a long time, and possesses great adhesive power; it also dries very quickly, but upon careless and extended heaing above 90 degrees C. (194 degrees F.), it is apt to turn brown and brittle. Or Pour 50 parts of warm (not hot) water over 50 parts of Cologne glue and allow to soak over night. Next day the swelled glue is dissolved with moderate heat, and if still too thick, a little more water is added. When this is done, add from two and one-half to three parts of crude nitric acid, stir well and fill the liquid glue in well-corked bot- tles. This is a good liquid steam glue. Or Soak one pound of good glue in a quart of water for a few hours, then melt the glue by heating it, together with the unabsorbed water, then stir in one-fourth pound dry white lead, and when that is well mixed pour in four fluid ounces of alcohol and continue the boiling five minutes longer. Or 490 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Soak one pound of good glue in one and one-half pints of cold water for five hours, then add three ounces of zinc sulphate and two fluid ounces of hydrochloric acid, and keep the mixture heated for 10 or 12 hours at 175 degrees to 190 degrees F. The glue remains liquid and may be used for sticking a variety of materials. A very inexpensive liquid glue may be prepared by first soaking and then dissolving gelatin in twice its own weight of water at a very gentle heat; then add glacial acetic acid in weight equal to the weight of the dry gelatin. It should be remembered, however, that all acid glues are not generally applicable. FORMULA: Glue 200 parts Dilute Acetic Acid 400 parts Dissolve by the aid of heat and add: Alcohol 25 parts Alum 5 parts FORMULA: Glue 5 parts Calcium Chloride 1 part Water 1 part FORMULA: Sugar of Lead 1^^ drams Alum IV^ drams Gum Arabic 2% drams Wheat Flour 1 av. lb. Water, q. s. Dissolve the gum in two parts of warm water; when cold mix in the flour, and add the sugar of lead and alum dis- solved in water; heat the whole over a slow fire until it shows signs of ebullition. Let it cool, and add enough gum water to bring it to the proper consistency. Or Dilute one part of official phosphoric acid with two parts of water and neutralize the solution with carbonate of ammonium. Add to the liquid an equal quantity of water, warm it on a water bath, and dissolve in it sufficient glue to form a thick syrupy liquid. Keep in well-stoppered bottles. Or Dissolve three parts of glue in small pieces in 12 to 15 of saccharate of lime. By heating, the glue dissolves rapidly and remains liquid, when cold, without loss of adhesive power. Any desirable consistency can be secured by vary- ing the amount of saccharate of lime. Thick glue retains its muddy color, while a thin solution becomes clear on standing. The saccharate of lime is prepared by dissolv- FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 493 ing one part of sugar in three parts of water, and after adding one-fourth part of the weight of the sugar of slaked lime, heating the whole from 149 to 185 degrees F., allowing it to macerate for several days, shaking it fre- quently. The solution, which has the properties of mucilage, is then decanted from the sediment. In a solution of borax in water soak a good quantity of g-lue until it has thoroughly imbibed the liquid. Pour off the surplus solution and then put on the water bath and melt the glue. Cool down until the glue begins to set, then add, drop by drop, with agitation, enough acetic acid to check the tendency to solidification. If, after becoming quite cold, there is still a tendency to solidification, add a few drops more of the acid. The liquid should be of the consistency of ordinary mucilage at all times. FORMULA: Gelatin 100 parts Cabinetmakers' Glue 100 parts Alcohol 25 parts Alum 2 parts Acetic Acid, 20 per cent 800 parts DIRECTIONS: Soak the gelatin and glue with the acetic acid and heat on a water bath until fluid; then add the alum and alcohol, FORMULA: Glue 10 parts Water 15 parts Sodium Salicylate 1 part GLUE FOR CELLULOID 1. Two parts shellac, three parts spirits of camp?ior, and four parts strong alcohol dissolved in a warm place, give an excellent gluing agent to fix wood, tin, and other bodies to cellu- loid. The glue must be kept well corked. 2. A collodion solution may be used, or an alcoholic solution of fine celluloid shavings. WATER-PROOF GLUES. The glue is put in water till it is soft, and subsequently melted in linseed oil at moderate heat. This glue is affected neither by water nor by vapors. Dissolve a small quantity of sandarac and mastic in a little alcohol, and add a little turpentine. The solution is boiled in a kettle over the fire, and an equal quantity of a strong hot solution of glue and isinglass is added. Then filter through a cloth while hot. 494 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Waterproof ^lue may also be produced by the simple addition of bichromate of potassium to the liquid glue solution, and sub- sequent exposure to the air. Mix glue as usual, and then add linseed oil in the proportion of one part oil to eight parts glue. If it is desired that the mixture remain liquid, one-half ounce of nitric acid should be added to every pound of glue. This will also prevent the glue from souring. In 1,000 parts of rectified alcohol dissolve 60 parts of san- darac and as much mastic, whereupon add 60 parts of white oil of turpentine. Next, prepare a rather strong glue solution and add about the like quantity of isinglass, heating the solution until it commences to boil; then slowly add the hot glue solution till a thin paste foi-ms, which can still be filtered through a cloth. Heat the solution before use and employ like ordinary glue. A connection effected with this glue is not dissolved by cold water and even resists hot water for a long time. Soak 1,000 parts of Cologne glue in cold water for 12 hours and in another vessel for the same length of time 150 parts isinglass in a mixture of lamp spirit and water. Then dissolve both masses together on the water bath in a suitable vessel, thin- ning if necessary, with some hot water. Next add 100 parts of linseed oil varnish and filter hot through linen. Ordinary glue is kept in water until it swells up without losing its shape. Thus softened it is placed in an iron ci'ucible without adding water; then add linseed oil according to the quantity of the glue and leave this mixture to boil over a slow fire until a gelatinous mass results. Such glue unites materials in a very durable manner. It adheres firmly and hardens quickly. Its chief advantage, however, consists in that it neither absorbs water nor allows it to pass through, whereby the connecting places are often destroyed. A little borax will prevent putre- faction. Bichromate of potassium 40 parts, by weight, gelatin glue 55 parts, alum five parts. Dissolve the glue in a little water and add the bichromate of potassium and the alum. This preparation permits an absolutely permanent gluing of pieces of cardboard, even when they are moistened by water. Melt together equal parts of good pitch and gutta percha; of this take nine parts, and add to it three parts of boiled linseed oil and one and one-half parts of litharge. Place this over the fire and stir it till all the ingredients are intimately mixed. The mixture may be diluted with a little benzine or oil of turpentine, and must be warm when used. GLUE FOR PAPER AND METAL. A glue which will keep well and adhere tightly is obtained by diluting 1,000 parts, by weight, of potato starch, in 1,200 parts, by weight, of water, and adding 50 parts, by weight, of pure nitric acid. The mixture is kept in a hot place for 48 hours, taking care to stir frequently. It is afterwards boiled to a thick and FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 497 transparent consistency, diluted with water if there is occasion, and then there are added in the form of a screened powder, two parts of sal ammoniac and one part of sulphur flowers. GLUE FOR LEATHER ON CARDBOARD. To attach leather to cardboard, dissolve a good glue (softened by swelling in water) with a little turpentine and enough water in an ordinary glue pot, and then having made a thick paste with starch in the proportion of two parts, by weight, of starch powder for every one part, by weight, of dry glue; mix the com- pounds and allow the mixture to become cold before application to the cardboard. FOR WOOD, GLASS, METALS, MINERALS Take boiled linseed oil 20 parts, Flemish glue 20 parts, hydrated lime 15 parts, powdered turpentine five parts, alum five parts, acetic acid five parts. Dissolve the glue with the acetic acid, add the alum, then the hydrated lime, and finally the turpentine and the boiled linseed oil. Triturate all well until it forms a homogeneous paste and keep in well-closed flasks. Use like any other glue. GLUE FOR UNITING METALS WITH FABRICS. Cologne glue of good quality is soaked and boiled down to the consistency of that used by cabinetmakers. Then add, with constant stirring, sifted wood ashes until a moderately thick homogeneous mass results. Use hot and press the pieces well together during the drying. For tinfoil about 2 per cent of boracic acid should be added instead of the wood ashes. BELT GLUE. A glue for belts can be prepared as follows: Soak 50 parts of gelatin in water, pour off the excess water, and heat on the water bath. With good stirring add first, five parts, by weight, of glycerine; then 10 parts, by weight, of turpentine; and five parts, by weight, of linseed oil varnish and thin with water as required. The ends of the belts to be glued are cut off obliquely and warmed; then the hot glue is applied, and the united parts are subjected to strong pressure, allowing them to dry thus for 24 hours before the belts are used. MARINE GLUE. Marine glue is a product consisting of shellac and catechu, which is mixed differently according to the use for which it is required. The quantity of benzol used as solvent governs the hai'dness or softness of the glue. 1. One part Para catechu is dissolved in 12 parts benzol; 20 parts powdered shellac are added to the solution, and the mixture is carefully heated. 498 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM 2. Stronger glue is obtained by dissolving 10 parts good crude catechu in 120 parts benzine or naphtha which solution is poured slowly and in a fine stream into 20 parts asphaltum melted in a kettle, stirring constantly and heating. Pour the finished glue, after the solvent has almost evaporated and the mass has become quite uniform, into flat molds, in which it solidifies in very hard tablets of dark brown or black color. For use, these glue tablets are first soaked in boiling water and then heated over a free flame until the marine glue has become thinly liquid. Th pieces to be glued are also warmed and a very dur- able union is obtained. 3. Cut catechu into small pieces and dissolve in coal naphtha by heat and agitation. Add to this solution powdered shellac, and heat the whole, constantly stirring until combina- tion takes place, then pour it on metal plates to form sheets. When used it must be heated to 248 degrees F. and applied with a brush. CEMENT TO ATTACH OBJECTS TO GLASS. FORMULA: Rosin 1 part Yellow Wax 2 parts Melt together. TO ATTACH COPPER TO GLASS. Boil one part of caustic soda and three parts of colophony in five parts of water and mix with the like quantity of plaster of Paris. This cement is not attacked by water, heat, or petroleum. If, in place of the plaster of Paris, zinc white, white lead, or slaked lime is used, the cement hardens more slowly. TO FASTEN BRASS UPON GLASS. Boil together one part of caustic soda, three parts of rosin, three parts of gypsum, and five parts of water. The cement made in this way hardens in about half an hour, hence it must be applied quickly. During the preparation it should be stirred constantly. All the ingredients used must be in finely powdered state. TO CEMENT GLASS TO IRON. FORMULA: 1. Rosin 5 ounces Yellow Wax 1 ounce Venetian Red 1 ounce 2. Portland Cement 2 ounces Prepared Chalk 1 ounce Fine Sand 1 ounce FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS 501 Solution of sodium silicate enough to form a semi-liquid paste. 3. Litharge 2 parts White Lead 1 part Work into a pasty condition by using three parts boiled linseed oil, one part copal varnish. DIRECTIONS: Melt the wax and rosin on a water bath and add, under constant stirring, the Venetian red previously well dried. Stir until nearly cool, so as to prevent the Venetian red from settling to the bottom. CELLULOID CEMENTS. To mend broken draughting triangles and other celluloid articles, use three parts alcohol and four parts ether mixed together and applied to the fracture with a brush until the edges become warm. The edges are then stuck together and left to dry for at least 24 hours. Camphor, one part; alcohol, four parts. Dissolve and add equal quantities, by weight, of shellac to this solu- tion. If firmness is desired in putting celluloid on wood, tin, etc., the following gluing agent is recommended, viz.: A compound of two parts shellac, three parts spirit of camphor, and four parts of strong alcohol. Shellac 2 ounces Spirits of Camphor 2 ounces Alcohol, 90 per cent 6 to 8 ounces Make a moderately strong glue or solution of gelatin. In a dark place or a dark room mix with the above a small amount of concentrated solution of potassium bichromate. Coat the back of the label, which must be clean, with a thin layer of the mixture. Strongly press the label against the bottle and keep the two in close contact by tying with twine or otherwise. Expose to sunlight for some hours; this causes the cement to be insoluble even in hot water. Lim6 1 ounce av. White of Egg 2% ounces av. Plaster of Paris 5% ounces av. Water 1 ounce fl. Reduce the lime to a fine powder; mix it with the white of egg by trituration, forming a uniform paste. Dilute with water, rapidly incorporate the plaster of Paris, and use the cement immediately. The surfaces to be cemented must first be moistened with water so that the cement will readily adhere. The pieces must be firmly pressed together and kept in this position foi- about 12 hours. 502 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM CEMENTING CELLULOID AND HARD-RUBBER ARTICLES. 1. Celluloid articles can be mended by making a mixture composed of three parts of alcohol and four parts of ether. This mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle, and when celluloid articles are to be mended, the broken surfaces are painted over with the alcohol and ether mixture until the sur- faces soften; then press together and bind and allow to dry for at least 24 hours. 2. Dissolve one part of gum camphor in four parts of alcohol; dissolve an equal weight of shellac in such strong camphor solution. The cement is applied warm and the parts united must not be disturbed until the cement is hard. Hard- rubber articles are never mended to form a strong joint. 3. Melt together equal parts of gutta percha and real asphaltum. The cement is applied hot, and the broken sur- faces pressed together and held in place while cooling. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXI POLISHING BY TUMBLING FOR Caster Wheels, Checkers, Etc. — After these have been stained, usually by dipping, see that they are thoroughly dried. This is neces- sary, because as a rule much end wood is subjected to moisture, and if not dried will give trouble later. Provide a slow revolving tumbler; cut up paraffine wax into inch cubes, using one-fourth pound to each bushel basketful of caster wheels, etc. Allow these to tumble several hours, when it will be found that the wax is evenly distributed over the wood. The amount of wax is governed by the nature of the wood and quality of polish desired. Other waxes may be used, a combination of bees and parafRne. This same tumb- ling process when employed to smooth small articles will be found expedient especially in turnings that are to receive no finish, but should present a smooth and satin-like surface. Toys — Dipped in a mixture of cheap mineral oil and japan, then tumbled, will give a good surface. Cheaper articles, when dipped in silicate of soda, spread out on screens to dry, then tumbled, will give a remarkable finish. This silicate of soda can be col- ored and thus will help in producing pleasing colored finishes, which are inexpensive. PROCESS FOR A POSITIVE POLISHING PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXII POLISHES IN FURNITURE FINISHING IT IS well known that by means of French polishing, an artisan can take a piece of furniture and start- ing- with the bare wood can build up a bright, level, polished surface in a few hours. However, that finish will not be permanent in its brilliancy, for the hurried work will not wear well. This is due more to the nature of the materials used than to the lack of skill on the part of the workman. The Germans also have adopted a plan of building up a surface by a succession of varnish coats. The main difference of the French and German methods of finishing lies in the final method. By the German process any change in color of the wood is done in such a manner that the original figure of the wood is often wholly lost, the figure, if there were any, being sacrificed in the production of an even color. In America a strong point is made of the endeavor to maintain the original figure. If there were no figure to begin with, the American uses his best effort to produce a figure of a beautiful grain. A good polishing formula is as follows : Raw linseed oil and golden oil, each two and one-half gallons ; water, three gallons. Stir to a cream by adding slowly one- half gallon of acetic acid ; then add three and one-half gallons of water, one quart of wood alcohol, one pint of butter of antimony. To give this mixture a pleasing odor add one pint of oil of citronella. The mixture must be stirred continually during the additions. To produce a good rubbing polish add two pounds of fine pumice or fine rotten stone to each gallon of the above. Always be sure to stir the mixture thoroughly before removing any part for use. GOOD POLISH FORMULA Paraffine Oil — - 1 part Linseed Oil 1/2 part FRENCH POLISHING POLISHING FORMULA 508 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM INEXPENSIVE FURNITURE POLISH FURNITURE CLEANER Butter of Antimony ...V2 part Vinegar 1 part Water 1 part Wood Alcohol 1 part Mix thoroughly. For a rubbing polish, add one pound of rotten stone to each gallon of the above mix- ture. Two good formulas which will make inexpensive furniture polish, and give you meritorious articles, are the following: FORMULA No. 1 : Raw Linseed Oil 1 quart Light Golden Oil 1 quart Water -— IV3 quarts Mix these well and add acetic acid .. 1/2 Pint Wood Alcohol - 1/4 pint Butter of Antimony 2 ounces A few grains of Bismark brown aniline will give it a nice color. The polish should always be shaken be- fore using. FORMULA No. 2 : Raw Linseed Oil 1 quart ParafRne Oil- 1 quart Water 1 quart Vinegar. .- 1 pint Butter of Antimony V4, pint Shake well. If a rubbing polish is desired add two ounces of powdered rotten stone to each pint of the polish. A good furniture polish and cleaner : Use light rubbing oil I41/2 parts White Vinegar 2 parts Water 3 parts Wood Alcohol 4 parts Butter of Antimony V2 Part Oil Citronella — V2 part To make rubbing polish, add one-half pound of rotten stone to each gallon of above. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS POLISHES IN FURNITURE FINISHING 511 PIANO FINISH POLISH Alcohol (grain) 10 ounces Benzole -25 ounces preserving Gum Benzoin 1/4 ounce finish on Gum Sandarac •_ 1/2 ounce pianos Mix when dissolved and use as a French polish. POLISH FOR BARS, COUNTERS, ETC. Linseed Oil (raw) 8 ounces Beer (stale) --8 ounces Muriatic Acid 1 ounce Grain Alcohol 1 ounce White of one egg. Mix all in a bottle larger than quantity to admit of shaking. Clean the work thoroughly; then apply with tuft of rag, and rub clean. Preserving the Polish. — I have often been asked the question by dealers as to what is the best method for preserving the appearance of the polish on the pianos which have to stand in their showrooms. The question is not an easy one to answer offhand, since so much depends on the quality of the polishing in the first instance. Inferior polish is without doubt a frequent cause of the troubles which dealers have to encounter in this respect. The secret of polishing is a good foundation. If the foundation is finished off too quickly and not allowed to stand long enough trouble is eventually bound to ensue. an equal Different woods vary, of course, in the amount of temperature polish required ; some soak it up so thirstily that until necessary they are really full up with polish the latter cannot stand. But even when the polish is perfect it is bound to sweat under certain circumstances, and a few general hints therefore will not be out of place. To keep pianos or any polished work in good con- dition it is very necessary to maintain the showrooms at an equal temperature and to avoid as much gas as possible; the fumes of the gas are damp, and in con- densing deposit carbon on the surfaces of the goods ex- the use of "revivers" 512 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM posed in the shape of an oily substance, which takes up the dust, etc., and in time becomes hard and difficult to remove. Great care should be taken in dusting to use a very soft cloth in a very light jnanner (in fact it would be better to blow off as much as possible), so as to take the dust off without scratching; it is then sometimes found that the surface is clammy and requires reviving, which can only be done by practice, which is easily gained in a short time. Should this treatment not be successful a good reviver is the only thing to bring it up to its natural state, but if a professional polisher is going to touch it up he would use oil and spirit. This can only be successfully accomplished by an expert. Speaking of revivers it is well to note that we do not mean that revivers should contain wax, turps and such like ingredients, as they are entirely opposed to the nature of the materials used in polishes, which is shellac, etc. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXIII VALUABLE RECIPES AND FORMULAS FOR frosted glass, letter or make your design, if any, with Damar varnish ; let dry and apply sugar of lead in linseed oil. With this process you can make very pretty designs and it is often used to coat frosted bath room windows and other windows where light is glass desired and no view from the exterior. Dissolve three tablespoonfuls of epsom salts in one pint of lager beer or vinegar and apply to window with brush or rag. As a temporary frosting, mix to- gether a strong hot solution of epsom salts and clear solution of gum arable and apply warm. To make imitation ground glass give the glass a thin coating of Damar varnish, then sprinkle it evenly all over with powdered pumice stone, and let stand to dry. This renders the glass non-transparent while per- mitting light to pass through. Paint with the follow- ing solution: Zinc Sulphate. 3 parts Magnesium Sulphate 3 parts Dextrin 2 parts Water 20 parts In drying the mixture crystallizes in fine needles, which prevents vision through the glass. To Make Paper Stick to Tin. — Take one-half ^^,^^,^,^ ounce each of nitrate of copper, chloride of copper and p^per to tin salammoniac, dissolve in a solution composed of one quart of warm water to which one-half ounce of hydro- chloric acid is added. Mix this in an earthen jar. Apply the mixture with a wide, flat brush. Let it stand until a white powder is formed over the surface, which when dry should be brushed off, and the surface is ready for use. Restoring Color to Old Mahogany. — Add half an ounce alkanet root in small bits to a pint of raw linseed oil, and when this has stood a week add a half ounce of powdered gum Arabic and one ounce of 516 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM TO REMOVE SPECKS ON MAHOGANY FINISH DISCOLORED WOODS CANNOT BE REMEDIED shellac varnish. Let the mass stand in a bottle in a warm place for a week and then strain it. Wash the surface of the wood with slightly soapy water, rinse, wipe dry, and polish with the preparation, using a soft woolen rag or chamois skin. Specks on Mahogany Pianos. — The minute specks seen, and which greatly disfigure the surface, are caused by an oil that exudes from the wood, and which cannot be held back even with shellac. Rubbing down and revarnishing is the only cure. Sprinkle pulverized rotten stone over it; rub gently and regularly, first with a circular motion and then with the grain of the wood. When the surface has become smooth and bright, wipe off the rotten stone and finish as you would after the washing with soap and warm water. Stains on Wood. — Put an ounce of oxalic acid in one gill of boiling water, and touch the stain with it. If this proves ineffectual try nitric acid (sweet spirits of nitre) . Bleaching Stains. — If, after we bleach the stain with oxalic acid, we will sandpaper the work and apply a mixture of caustic lime seven parts, and sal soda one part, the bleaching will be greatly improved, says an experimenter. White Marks on Wax Finish. — If water is al- lowed to remain on waxed surfaces any length of time it will cause them to grow white. A manufacturer of wood finishing materials says to rub with a soft rag moistened with alcohol, after which rub on a little lin- seed or sweet oil. He says this will permanently re- move the white spot, but cautions against getting water on the wax, as a wax finish is not made to stand against water. Protecting a Wax Finish. — Wax finish may be protected against water or any form of dampness by the following coat: Zanzibar copal varnish six parts, boiled oil six parts, and turpentine 10 parts, all by weight, all well mixed together, then applied. While protecting the wax it will not destroy, but preserve, the waxy look. Discolored Woods. — Woods naturally discolored cannot well be remedied, though bleaching powder may FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS VALUABLE RECIPES AND FORMULAS 519 help. Artificial or accidental discolorations may be moved in most cases by the application of a strong solution of oxalic acid, or with one part of muriatic acid to five parts of water. Ink spots may be treated with oxalic acid. A phosphoric acid, spirits of nitre, is another cure for ink on wood. Pitting of Varnish on Piano. — This may be remedied by rubbing- it over with a hard wax polish. Make this wax by melting together half an ounce Carnauba wax, two ounces japan wax, or white bees- wax will do, and two ounces ceresin wax. Put all in a pot and melt by placing the pot inside of another vessel containing hot water, then set on the stove. When melted add enough kerosene oil to make the mass, when cool, about like petroleum jelly. Test by placing some on a glass and letting it cool, and if it becomes too hard upon cooling add a little more kero- sene. Apply with a woolen pad, made by rolling up a strip of woolen-like tape. It will be necessary to give it two or more applications, the idea being to fill the little pits in the varnish. Sticky Pews. — The cause of pews and seats in churches becoming sticky is due not to the use of poor varnishes, though this may sometimes contribute to the cause, but to the damp and impure air of such places, where ventilation is almost nil, and the atmos- phere reeking with ammonia and gases. Sometimes the troubles come from revarnishing over greasy seats. In any case, where the varnish is sticky, either remove the varnish, or coat it over with very thin shellac varnish, using the brown shellac. Two thin coats are better than one heavy coat. Over the shellac you may apply a coat of best pew varnish, if desired. It is better to use pew varnish, as this is made with a view to standing the conditions met with in such a place. Some advise merely rubbing the sticky varnish with japan, but this is a very poor makeshift. OTHER RECIPES FOR COMMON FAULTS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXIV GROUND COLOR FOR GRAINING IN THE finishing room it sometimes may be neces- sary to do a little graining to match up certain parts of a piece, and it is well for the finisher to have at least a fair idea of how to proceed. The wood ground work is first coated with a mixture of the ground tints. This for graining is usually a flat paint of the desired tone for producing the flake. The following formulas will suffice in this work for giving the general information and it covers practically all of the colors that are now in vogue. Maple. — White lead tinted with a very little ver- milion and about an equal quantity of lemon chrome. Some prefer yellow ochre only, other ochre and raw umber in the proportion of four ounces ochre to one ounce umber to 30 pounds of lead. Medium Oak. — Add French ochre to white lead in the proportions of about 20 of lead to five of ochre. Add a little burnt umber. Light Oak and Birch. — Eighty parts of white lead to one, of yellow ochre produces a good ground, but 60 pounds of white lead, one-half pound of French ochre, and one ounce of lemon chrome is sometimes preferred. Dark Oak. — Sixty parts of white lead and one part of golden ochre may be used, or the following mixture if preferred : Six pounds of white lead, one pound of ^^^^ ^^ ^"^ T^ 1 1. i J- -V7 J.- 1 1 COLORS USED French ochre, two ounces medium Venetian red and two ounces of burnt umber. Satinwood. — Mix six ounces of lemon chrome to 15 pounds of pure white lead and add a little deep English vermilion. Pollard Oak. — Tint 100 pounds of white lead with 27 pounds of French ochre, four pounds of burnt umber and three and three-fourths pounds of Venetian red. Pitch Pine. — Tint 60 pounds of white lead with 522 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM one-half pound medium Venetian red and one-fourth pound of French ochre. Italian Walnut. — One pound of French ochre mixed with 10 pounds of pure white lead and four ounces of burnt umber and four ounces medium Vene- tian red ; give this, ground. . Knotted Oak. — Sixty pounds white lead, nine pounds of French ochre, and three and one-half pounds burnt umber. OTHER Rosewood and Dark Mahogany. — Four pounds COLORS medium Venetian red, one pound of orange chrome yellow, and one pound of burnt umber, or a little less burnt umber may be used, according to the strength. Mahogany Dark. — Four pounds of medium Vene- tian red, one pound of orange chrome yellow, and one pound of burnt umber, or a little less burnt umber may be used, according to strength. Mahogany Light. — Mix six pounds of pure white lead with one pound of medium Venetian red and five ounces of burnt umber. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS bassett's method is popular one CHAPTER LXXXV THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS THE resilvering of mirrors is often put up to the finisher, especially in furniture stores away from manufacturing centers. The method given by Bassett seems to meet with universal success, and is here given : The silver on mirrors is apt to be affected by varia- tions in temperature causing it to contract or expand, and when this happens the silver falls off in small flakes. If the backing of paint that protects the silver should become loose, it may also be affected by the light. In nearly all cases it is far cheaper to resilver the mirror than to purchase a new one. The following is a list of the apparatus necessary for resilvering mirrors : Four glass bottles (one gallon each). One glass stirring-rod. Scales. Filter paper. One graduate (one quart). One china pitcher (two quarts). One enamel or agate-ware kettle (one gallon). Gas stove. The most important requirement for resilvering mirrors is a proper room in which the process is car- ried out. A room eight by 12 feet or so in size will be ^qqo ^ found large enough for ordinary work. It should be kept dust-proof as much as possible by covering wood partitions with thick cloth or canvas. All windows should be calked and never opened. The temperature of the room while silvering mirrors should be about 100 degrees F., and it may be heated by a steam coil or wood stove. No gas should be burned in the room, as some of the incombustible matter may settle on the glass. A large table is placed in the center of the room on which the silvering is done. It is best to cover the table with sheet iron, coated with an acid-proof paint. TEMPERATURE SHOULD BE 526 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THE OPERATION OF RESILVERING USE ONLY RAIN OR DISTILLED WATER The edge of the sheet iron should be bent to form a narrow trough or gutter around the table. The gutter should be slanted to one end where all liquids are al- lowed to run through a small hole into a vessel placed on the floor. The surface of the table should be as level as possible. The first operation in resilvering is to remove the backing of paint that protects the silver. This is ac- complished by laying the mirror on several small blocks of wood placed on the table in the resilvering room. A paper should be placed under the mirror on which the paint is collected on being removed. A good paint remover is applied and allowed to soak into the paint lOr a short time. It is then scraped off with a piece of cardboard on to the paper. The paint and paper should be saved, as it contains some silver. The next opera- tion is to remove the silver. A mixture of nitric acid and water (six parts acid to one of water) is used for this purpose. After removing the silver the glass is rinsed off with ordinary water. Before the silvering solution is applied the glass is carefully polished with fine silver rouge and a few drops of liquid ammonia; all the rouge should be thoroughly wiped off by suc- cessively using several pieces of linen cloth. The cloth may be placed around a piece of felt or a smooth block of wood. The mirror is now ready for resilvering. It is laid on several wedges of wood placed on the table in the silvering room, and made perfectly level. As pre- viously stated, the temperature of the room should be about 100 degrees F. To ascertain if the glass is level, hot water is poured upon its surface. When the glass is perfectly level, the water will not flow off and in that position it will retain the silvering solution. In making up the solutions for silvering only rain or distilled water must be used. If rain water is used it should be carefully filtered. Solution No. 1 is made as follows: Water 2 qt. Silver Nitrate 13 pwt. When the silver is thoroughly dissolved add slowly liquid ammonia of 26 degrees until the solution turns FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS THREE SOLUTIONS USED THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS 529 perceptibly brown. When this point is reached, con- tinue adding- the ammonia drop by drop until the white color of the solution is restored. Great caution must be used in not adding to much ammonia, as the color changes rapidly. A separate solution of Water 2 qt. Silver Nitrate 11 pwt. is now made up and the two solutions mixed together. The whole is then allowed to stand for about 12 hours, when it is carefully filtered. This solution should be kept in a large bottle and labeled Solution No. 1. Solution No. 2 is made up as follows : Water .1 gal. Silver Nitrate... 8 pwt. Rochelle Salts 8 pwt. This solution should be boiled for several minutes. Like solution No. 1 it should be allowed to stand about 12 hours and then carefully filtered. SILVERING THE GLASS Four ounces of solution to every square foot of glass is required. Equal portions of solutions No. 1 and 2 are carefully measured out in the graduate and mixed. The solution may be poured upon the glass by using a large china pitcher. After the two solu- tions are mixed they should be immediately applied to the glass. If they are allowed to stand for any length of time, good results cannot be produced. As previously stated, the glass is made perfectly level by using small wooden wedges and pouring hot water t^f^J^^^ upon its surface. When it is perfectly level it will retain the water on its surface, this being due to capil- lary attraction. The glass should be left covered with hot water until the silvering solution is applied. Be- fore pouring on the silvering solution the water is al- lowed to drain off by gently tipping up the glass. The glass should be carefully laid back in the same position and the silvering solution immediately poured on the glass for 30 minutes or longer, if desired. The residue is >then poured off and the silvered surface of the glass is washed off with ordinary cold water. The glass is now allowed to dry thoroughly and the silvered surface SILVERING SOLUTION 530 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM COATING OVER WITH PAINT ABSOLUTE CLEANLINESS NEEDED is then coated over with a suitable paint. The writer uses a paint made up as follows: Turpentine Asphaltum 1 quart Damar Varnish..... 4 ounces White Lead 2 ounces Turpentine 3 ounces The white lead is dissolved in the turpentine, and all the ingredients are thoroughly mixed together. The paint should be applied carefully with a soft brush, preferably a camel's hair brush. When the paint is sufficiently dry, the face of the mirror is examined and all silver or paint that may have adhered to it is re- moved and the glass polished with a little rouge and a few drops of liquid ammonia, using a cloth. The mirror is then ready for framing. Occasionally the jobber is called upon to resilver mirrors that are made with mercury. It is not advis- able to remove the mercury with an acid, as the heat generated will often crack the glass on account of the large amount of mercury being present. It may be scraped off with a thin piece of wood. Mercury has been used extensively in the past in making mirrors, but it is not now employed for this purpose. Some at- tempts have been made to use aluminum, on account of its cheapness, but the results are not as satisfactory as when silver is employed. Remember that absolute cleanliness is the main thing in this work. Your solutions commence to pre- cipitate as soon as they are mixed, so use them at once. You do not need to use oiled cloth to do this work but it is better and quicker than wedging up and leveling glass with water and will not drain dry as it does when water starts to run over edge of glass. Experience will make you perfect in leveling a straight glass but I always use the oil cloth and strips cup-fashion. Be sure to boil all water before putting in solu- tion. Be very careful in handling plated glass as a finger mark will turn it black. Should there be any thin places in the silvering or plating, pour on more solution, or if a piece of dirt lodged on the glass pour solution on it and wash it over on the plated glass FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF TPIE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS THE RESILVERING OF MIRRORS 533 where it is already silvered. Use up one batch or two of solution practicing before you try a large mirror. Then all these little things that cause failure will be plainer to you. Keep cool and take time in all this work until you become familiar with it. Sometimes it becomes necessary to plate a glass two or three times to cover all places. I use three solutions in most all cases, but No. 1 and 2 are suf- ficient unless the glass looks clouded on back. Ex- •11 X 11 1 J.1 i.1 • 1 • J MORE OF THE perience will soon tell you whether the job is good or pj^q^edure not by looking at the back of the plating. If not clear and good use No. 1 and 3 as described. Nitrate of silver must be kept in colored bottles as exposure to light ruins it. It takes four ounces of solution to do one square foot of glass, that is, two ounces from each bottle. Stir solutions together good with glass paddle before pouring on. Just after pouring on take hold of one end of the table and shake or agitate the solution for three to five minutes, as this will wash any specks around until solution acts some on the glass and prevents small, black specks. This can only be done when the tray system is used. In ordinary work I hardly ever agitate the solution. Allow to stand from 30 to 40 minutes. Shellac can be used to first coat in back before hand- ling it if you prefer it to turpentine. I use turpentine because if bottom edge of glass is not entirely drained dry, the brush pushes the water off without bad effects. Never heat the glass very hot or the silvering will dis- j^^,^^ ^^^^ color. These instructions are for cold resilvering. To discolor test water to be used, drop a few grains of nitrate of silvering silver in three ounces of it. If it remains clear, it is all right. If it turns milky boil water before using. When doing an oval or round glass I use a piece of leather belting or hose to make the tray vdth. By so doing you can fit any size glass instantly. Three part solution 1-2-3 requires no special heat, except in extreme cold weather. It can be used in all kinds of work. Solution 1. — Put 306 grains nitrate of silver in glass graduate with three ounces distilled or boiled water. Dissolve, using piece of glass as paddle. Drop 534 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM MAKE UP AND USE OF THREE SOLUTIONS in stronger ammonia drop by drop. The silver solu- tion will become muddy. Continue to drop in carefully until solution is just clear. Be careful not to use too much ammonia. Dissolve 250 grains silver nitrate in another glass in 16 ounces distilled or boiled water. Pour contents of both glasses in the one-gallon bottle and add enough distilled water to make one gallon. Label this bottle or glass jar No. 1. Solution 2. — Put one-half gallon distilled or boiled water in the porcelain lined vessel. Dissolve 96 grains Rochelle salts in this. Boil strong one minute, then add 96 grains nitrate of silver, dissolve in three ounces water. Boil 10 minutes. When cool put in half gallon bottle and fill up. Make a full half gallon. Label bottle No. 2. Solution 3. — Make same as solution No. 2, only use 144 grains Rochelle salts. Label bottle No. 3. To use, take equal parts No. 1 and 2 for first coat. For second coat to clear up silver plating, take equal parts No. 1 and 3. Let each coat stand on glass from 30 to 40 minutes. Always rinse off first coat before applying second coat. Always use distilled or boiled water for solutions. Let solutions stand over night just as you made them. Then filter, using a funnel and good grade filter paper. I use two sets of bottles. Make in one and filter into another. Be sure to get stronger ammonia from the druggist. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXVI WORKING WITH GLASS AND CELLULOID TO PREVENT dimming of show windows, show cases, etc., mix olein-potash soap with about 3 per cent of glycerine and a little oil of turpentine. Lettering on Glass. — White lettering on glass and white mirrors produces a rich effect. Dry zinc, chemically lettering on pure, should be used. It can be obtained in any first- glass class paint store and is inexpensive. To every tea- spoonful of zinc, 10 drops of mucilage should be added. The two should be worked up into a thick paste, water being gradually added until the mixture is about the consistency of thick cream. The paint should then be applied with a camel's hair brush. Another useful paint for this purpose is Chemnitz white. If this distemper color is obtained in a jar, care should be exercised to keep water standing above the color to prevent drying. By using mucilage as a sizing these colors will adhere to the glass until it is washed off. Both mixtures are equally desirable for lettering on block card board. Any distemper color may be employed on glass without in any way injuring it. An attractive com- bination is, first to letter the sign with Turkey red, and then to outline the letters with a very narrow white stripe. The letter can be rendered still more attractive by shading one side in black. ^„.T.„,,;,xT-n»T *' ° ORNAMENTAL Spatter Work. — Some lettering which appears work very difficult to the uninitiated is in fact easily pro- duced. The beautiful effect of lettering and ornamen- tation in the form of foliage or conventional scrolls in a speckled ground is simple and can be produced with little effort. Pressed leaves and letters or designs cut from newspapers or magazines may be tacked or pasted on card. For Bronze Lettering the following is the best method for card work. Write with asphaltum thinned with turpentine or naphtha until it flows easily, and. 538 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM BRONZE LETTERING CEMENTING CELLULOID ; CLEANING MIRRORS when nearly dry, dust bronze powder over the letters. When the letters are perfectly dry tap the card, shake off the extra bronze, and it will leave the letters clean and sharp. The letters should be made with a camel's hair brush, and not with the automatic pen, as oil paints do not work satisfactorily with these pens. This same method may apply for signs on glass. To Drill Holes in Glass. — Secure a square file and grind off the small end diagonally at an angle of about 45 degrees. Grind from corner to corner, so as to leave a diamond shaped surface which will form a sharp point at the end. To use, place blunt end of file in an ordinary bit stock. Lay glass on a perfectly smooth surface with a piece of cloth under place where hole is to be drilled. Take some soft putty and make a small ring around on glass where hole is to be and fill the cup-like place with turpentine. Proceed to make a hole as you would with an ordinary bit in wood, but use less pressure. A clean cut hole can easily be made in glass of any thickness in this manner. Cementing Celluloid. — Make a solution of five parts, by weight, of celluloid and 16 parts, by weight, each of amyl acetate, acetone, and sulphuric ether. Various formulas have been given but this is the best from our experience. This will also act as a cement for sticking celluloid to wood. To color celluloid black : First dip into pure water, then into a solution of nitrate of silver; let dry in the light. Yellow, first immerse in a solution of nitrate of lead and then in a concen- trated solution of chromate of potash. Brown, dip into a solution of permanganate of potash strongly alkaline by the addition of soda. Blue, dip into a solution of indigo neutralized by the addition of silver. Red. first dip into a diluted bath of nitric acid, then into an ammoniacal solution of carmine. Green, dip into a solution of verdigris. Aniline colors may also be em- ployed but they are less permanent. To Clean Mirrors. — Rub the mirror with a ball of soft paper slightly dampened with metholated spirits, then with a duster sprinkled with whiting, and finally polish with clean paper or a wash leather. This treatment will make the glass beautifully bright. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS BE PROTECTED IN PLATING OPERATION CHAPTER LXXXVII PREVENTING BRASS FROM TARNISHING THERE is a large variety of cheap brass goods manufactured which will not warrant anything but the cheapest material being used on them. They are made of solid brass and of brass-plated steel. ^Rass must When completed and assembled they are dipped, if of solid brass, or if brass plated, left in the bright brass as they come from the plating tank. In either case, the brass must be protected from the air, otherwise it would discolor in a short time and finally turn black. Now the goods are so cheap that the use of regular lacquer on them would be out of the question, and as no finish is required and only a protection is necessary, the cheapest material for the purpose must be employed. It is customary in the metal trades which make these classes of goods to use a very weak shellac varnish for the purpose and it has been in use for mhny years. The following proportions are used : Denatured Alcohol 1 gallon Flake Shellac 1 ounce Dissolve the shellac in the alcohol and then strain it through cloth to remove the sticks and dirt in it and it will be ready for use. The brass goods after dipping and drying are im- mersed in the shellac and then dried. The goods should be warm when used. The heat of the drying over will, of course, expel the excess of alcohol and leave a film of shellac on the surface for the protection of the brass. The drip on the goods will not bother one, as the shellac is so weak that it will dry right off, although a slight spot will be left. The goods are so cheap, how- ever, that a perfect surface is not expected and pro- tection against tarnishing is all that is required. By dissolving a greater or less amount of shellac in the alcohol, a stronger or weaker material may be obtained, but it should be used weak in order to dry fast and give an invisible film on surface of the brass. PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXVIII AN ACID PROOF TABLE TOP FORMULA No. 1 : Copper sulphate, one part ; po- tassium chlorate, one part; water, eight parts. Boil until salts are dissolved. rT>i>n/.iTT a vt.t, FORMULA FOR Formula No. 2 : Aniline hydrochlorate, three parts ; acid proof water, 20 parts. table top Or if more readily procurable: Aniline, six parts; hydrochlorate acid, nine parts; water, 50 parts. By the use of a brush, two coats of solution No. 1 are applied while hot; the second coat as soon as the first is dry. Then two coats of solution No. 2, and the wood allowed to dry thoroughly. Later, a coat of raw linseed oil is to be applied, using a cloth instead of a brush, in order to get a thinner coat of the oil. A writer in the Journal of Applied Microscopy states that he has used this method upon some old laboratory tables which had been finished in the usual way, the wood having been filled, oiled and varnished. After scraping off the varnish down to the wood, the solutions were applied, and the result was very satis- factory. After some experimentations, the formula was modified without materially affecting the cost and, ap- parently increasing the resistance of the wood to the action of strong acids and alkalies. The modified for- mula follows: A MODIFIED T o 1 1- i- A u. FORMULA Iron Sulphate 4 parts Copper Sulphate 4 parts Potassium Permanganate 8 parts Water q. s. .- 100 parts or Aniline - 12 parts Hydrochloric Acid 18 parts Water q. s ...100 parts or Aniline Hydrochlorate 15 parts Water q. s 100 parts EBONIZING THE TOP 544 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Solution No. 2 has not been changed, except to arrange the parts per hundred. The method of appli- cation is the same, except that after solution No. 1 has dried, the excess of the solution which has dried upon the surface of the wood is thoroughly rubbed off before the application of solution No. 2. The black color does not appear at once, but usually requires a few hours before becoming ebony black. The linseed oil may be diluted with turpentine without disadvantage and, af- ter a few applications, the surface will take on a dull and not displeasing polish. The table tops are easily cleaned by washing with water or suds after a course of work is completed, and the application of another coat of oil puts them in excellent order for another course of work. Strong acids or alkalies, when spilled, if soon wiped off, have scarcely a perceptible effect. A slate or tile top is expensive not only in its original cost, but also as a aestroyer of glassware. Wood tops, when painted, oiled or paraffined, have objectionable features, the latter especially in warm weather. Old table tops, after the paint or oil is scraped off down to the wood, take the above finish nearly as well as the new wood. To make wood acid and chlorine proof, take six parts of wood tar and 12 pounds rosin, and melt them together in an iron kettle, after which stir in eight pounds finely powdered brick dust. The damaged parts must be cleaned perfectly and dried, whereupon they may be painted over with the warm preparation or filled up and drawn off, leaving the film on the inside. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER LXXXIX PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS THE writer wishes to state it has long been his opinion that a grave error has been made by many finishing departments of the larger manu- factories in guarding the details which are so valuable to the other industries. By other industries are meant concerns making chairs, others making sideboards, and the various lines ultimately arriving on one dealer's sales floor. The results have shown variance in shade, no matter how hard the maker strived to get the shade identical. It is almost an impossibility unless the more detailed information be at hand. What are the results? Mrs. Brown selects a dining room table, made in X, a sideboard made in Y, and chairs made in Z, only to find that there is not the uniformity of shade that there should be. This is where the salesman encoun- ters difficulty. It is a condition that should not exist; it is a condition that does not help the industry; and the reader need only attend a salesmen's meeting to obtain conformation. Foreman finishers have been prone to regard their formulas as secrets. These men have kept the finish- ing department behind the times. Had there been a free interchange of information, the possibility would have been at least greater harmony in the finished product. VARNISH AND PAINT REMOVER Dissolve 20 parts of caustic soda (98 per cent) in 100 parts of water; mix the solution with 20 parts of mineral oil, and stir in a kettle provided with mechanical stirrer, until the emulsion is complete. Now add, with stirring, 20 parts of sawdust and pass the whole through a paint mill to obtain a uniform intermixture. Apply the paste moist. REMOVE VARNISH FROM METAL To remove old varnish from metal it suffices to dip HOW VARIANCF IN SHADE IS PRODUCED REMOVING OIL AND PAINT 548 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM ANOTHER REMOVER REMOVING ENAMEL AND TIN SOLDER the articles into equal parts of ammonia and alcohol (95 per cent). TO REMOVE WATER STAINS FROM VARNISHED FURNITURE Pour olive oil into a dish and scrape a little v^hite wax into it. This mixture should be heated until the wax melts and rub sparingly on the stains. Finally, rub the surface with a linen rag until it is restored to brilliancy. REMOVING VARNISH, ETC. A patent has been taken out in England for a liquid for removing varnish, lacquer, tar and paint. The composition is made by mixing four ounces of benzole, three ounces of fusel oil, and one ounce of alcohol. It is stated by the inventor that this mixture, if applied to a painted or varnished surface, will make the sur- face quite clean in less than 10 minutes, and that a paint soaked brush "as hard as iron" can be made as soft and pliable as new by simply soaking for an hour or so in the mixture. TO REMOVE ENAMEL AND TIN SOLDER Pour enough oil of vitrol over powdered fluorspar in an earthen vessel to cover the parts from which hydrofluoric acid is generated. Dip the article by the use of a vdre into the liquid until the enamel or the tin is eaten away or dissolved, which will not injure the article at all. The action will be more rapid if the liquid is heated. Always do the work in the open air and do not inhale fumes as they are highly injurious to the health ; do not get any liquid on the skin as hydro- fluoric acid is a dangerous poison. It must be kept in earthen or leaden vessels as it will destroy glass. REMOVING PAINT AND VARNISH FROM WOOD The following compound is given as one which will clean paint or varnish from wood or stone without injuring the material: Flour or Wood Pulp 385 parts Hydrochloric Acid 450 parts Bleaching Powder 160 parts Turpentine 5 parts FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS 551 This mixture is applied to the surface and left on for some time. It is then brushed off, and takes the paint away with it. It keeps moist quite long enough to be easily removed after it has acted. PASTE FOR REMOVING OLD PAINT OR VARNISH COATS 1. Sodium Hydrate 5 parts Soluble Soda Glass. 3 parts Tni -D 4. n A. PASTE THAT Flour Paste 6 parts ^^^,r..,^c TTT i .. , REMOVES Water 4 parts old paint 2. Soap 10 parts Potassium Hydrate 7 parts Potassium Silicate 2 parts TO REMOVE OLD ENAMEL Lay the articles horizontally in a vessel containing a concentrated solution of alum and boil them. The solution should be just sufficient to cover the pieces. In 20 or 25 minutes the old enamel will fall into dust, and the article can be polished with emery. If narrow and deep vessels are used, the operation will require more time. TO CHANGE A FINISH Hardly a factory exists that does not have occasion to use a varnish remover, but still a greater demand exists for spasmodic use of this article in the retail furniture store. In the former it is often called upon because a finish has gone wrong, or the shade is not as ordered, or a piece finished one way and in stock changing a would be found preferable to change the finish rather finish than to run a new one through the factory. In the latter, we will say that golden oak chairs are on the floor, but Mrs. Brown would like them in Early English — to match a certain dining room table that particu- larly struck her fancy. It is a well-known fact that the larger furniture stores have a finisher, whose duty is to do this transformation act. He needs a bit of varnish remover, and with formulas at both of these places it is an easy matter to prepare this commodity when required. 552 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM THE FORMULAS THAT WILL DO IT HOW TO CLEAN UP A HARD BRUSH Here, then, are two formulas, either one of which may be used with success: Benzole 5 quarts Acetone 2V2 pints Carbon Bisulphide V2 pint Paraffine Wax 2 ounces Mix in order given, or Benzole 1 gallon Fusel Oil 1 pint Acetone 1 pint Paraffine Wax II/2 ounces One has only to get the market price on these articles and figure the cost of a gallon to convince him- self that the formula is an asset. That either of these formulas will do the work is a fact readily established. TO CLEAN BRUSHES AND VESSELS OF DRY PAINT The cleaning of the brushes and vessels in which the varnish or oil paint have dried is usually done by boiling with soda solution. This frequently spoils the brushes or cracks the vessels, if of glass; besides, the process is rather slow and dirty. A more suitable remedy is amyl acetate, which is a liquid with a pleas- ant odor of fruit drops, used mainly for dissolving and cementing celluloid. If amyl acetate is poured over a paint brush the varnish or hardened paint dissolves almost immediately and the brush is ren- dered serviceable at once. If necessary, the process is repeated. For cleaning vessels shake the liquid about in them, which softens the paint so it can be readily removed with paper; in this manner much labor can be saved. The amyl acetate can easily be removed from the brushes, etc., by alcohol or oil of turpentine. TO REMOVE OLD OIL, PAINT OR VARNISH COATS 1. Apply a mixture of about five parts of potassium silicate (water glass, 36 per cent), about one part soda lye (40 per cent), and one part of ammonia. The composition dissolves the old varnish coat, as well as FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS PAINT, VARNISH AND ENAMEL REMOVERS 555 the paint, down to the bottom. The varnish coatings which are to be removed may be brushed off or left for days in a hardened state. Upon being thoroughly moistened with water, the old varnish may be readily washed off, the lacquer as well as the oil paint coming off completely. The ammonia otherwise employed dis- another solves the varnish, but not the paint. paint 2. Apply a mixture of one part oil of turpentine and two parts of ammonia. This is effective, even if the coatings withstand the strongest lye. The two liquids are shaken in a bottle until they mix like milk. The mixture is applied to the coating with a little oakum; after a few minutes the old paint can be wiped off. PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER XC WOOD PUTTY AND FILLERS BY MIXING some sawdust of the wood that is to be puttied with glue-size and coloring, a filler for nail holes, etc., may be made that will defy de- tection, if skillfully used. This is the common cement making wood or putty used for the purpose, but there are others, pj^lers A very hard cement may be made by melting an ounce of brown rosin and an ounce of beeswax in an iron pan, and, when the two substances are perfectly melted, add any desired coloring, say Venetian red, yellow ochre, and so on. This cement must be used while hot, for it will become hard as stone upon cooling and will adhere perfectly to the wood. A sawdust cement may be made by dissolving one ounce of the best cabinet glue in 16 ounces of water — hot, of course — and when the glue has dissolved and the size has been allowed to become cold, stir in some sawdust of the right kind (that of the wood that is to be filled, or coloring may be added), then add some whit- ing, to form a putty. This makes a very satisfactory cement. A cement may be made of fresh dry slacked lime one part, rye flour two parts, with enough raw linseed oil to form a putty; varnish may be used instead of the oil, making the cement tougher. Add any desired coloring. cements for Still another cement : Add together equal parts of fillers red lead, white lead, litharge and pulverized chalk, all dry, and mix into a putty with raw linseed oil and a little varnish. CABINETMAKER'S STOPPING Cabinetmaker's stopping is made as follows : Place a tablespoonful of gum shellac, a teaspoonful of pul- verized rosin and a bit of beeswax, the size of a hulled walnut, all into a cup or small iron pot, and place on fire to melt ; then it may be used like sealing wax. Any 558 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM stopping for cabinet- maker's WORK CRACK FILLERS desired coloring may be added to match the wood it is to be used on. The stick form, when wanted for use. may be softened by holding in the blaze of a candle and allowing the melted portion to run into the crack or device it is desired to fill. An electric soldering iron is ideal for this purpose. The filling may be leveled off with a chisel or painter's putty knife. HARDWOOD CEMENT On hardwood finish, when it is desired to stop nail or other holes, etc., it is better to do it after one or two coats of shellac or other coating have been applied. The idea is to allow the shellac or other coating to bring out the color of the wood as it will appear in the finish, when you can match that color with your cement. If anything, the putty or cement should be' a trifle darker than the wood, for the wood will become slightly darker in time, and then the putty will be just right. Whiting putty for hardwood finish should be made from dry white lead, not whiting, for the lead gives clearer color where the cement is to be colored, besides which the white lead putty, especially if a little varnish is added, will not shrink as whiting putty will. Some, however, advise the use of a little whiting, too, though I do not know why. A good formula for such a putty would be as follows: Dry white lead, three-fourths and best Gilder's whiting, one-fourth, all mixed to a stiff paste with boiled linseed oil, or raw oil and a little rubbing varnish. HARDWOOD CRACK FILLER This crack filler can be used on any wood without discoloring the wood, that is, on light wood. For dark wood you will perhaps have to color it a little to match the wood. Where the work is to be stained it will take the color of stain. Cornstarch 1 part Wheat Flour 1 part Japan Drier 1 part Linseed Oil 1 part Mix the flour and starch first. Then stir in the japan drier to which has been added the linseed oil. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS W OOD PUTTY AND FILLERS 561 and mix as thick as putty or to be in easy working shape. It is intended for large cracks and openings. It must, however, be given plenty of time to dry. If applied before the piece is finished, it will take the stain, but if it is to be used on finished work, it should be colored with pigment or oil soluble colors. ANOTHER HARDWOOD CRACK FILLER Dissolve one ounce of borax in one-half pint of water; mix four ounces of fine hardwood sawdust, eight ounces of silex and one ounce of stucco ; pour two qn mahogany ounces of boiled linseed oil drop by drop into the borax mixture so that it creams; then beat the dry powder and the liquid into a paste. FINE CRACKS IN MAHOGANY Mix up some dry Venetian red with thick gum Arabic mucilage into a putty, and press this well into the cracks. The same remedy will apply to other woods, observing only the color the putty should be. FOR WORK PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER XCI FOR THE CLEANING OF LEATHER THE following formulas and methods are recom- mended for cleaning all kinds of leathers which are to be redressed with polish lacquer or shellac. When the color has been removed in spots or around cleaning the edges, etc., from wear or otherwise, replace it by leather; preparing a dye that matches the original shade. It ^^^^^^^^ will be found, in most cases, that a water soluble aniline will do the work. Then apply a strong solution to the worn portion and go over the entire surface. This will produce a uniform color. This will be held and brought out with a coat of lacquer, wax polish, or thin shellac. Spirit colors are good where the leather is not sub- jected to strong light. In this case, the color can be put in the lacquer or shellac coat. Here are some formulas which may be used in preparing stains of this kind and for this purpose. For Tan or Russet Leather and Light Colors. — Tragacanth, two drams; oxalic acid, three drams; water, 32 fluid ounces. Mix and dissolve. The liquid should be colored yellowish with aniline yellow or saf- fron. For Black and Dark Colored Leather. — Yellow wax, four avoirdupois ounces ; raw linseed oil, six fluid ounces ; oil of turpentine, 20 fluid ounces ; soap, two and one-half avoirdupois ounces ; hot water, 28 fluid "^^^^^^"^ ounces. Melt the wax at a gentle heat, then cautiously incorporate the two oils. The soap which may be the ordinary yellow bar should be in shavings and then be dissolved in water. Now mix the two liquids, adding sufl^cient nigrosine to color. Without the nigrosine the mixture may be used to color tan leathers. For a Combination Preparation. — Yellow wax four ounces ; potassium carbonate, four drams ; rosin soap, two drams ; oil of turpentine, eight ounces ; aniline yellow (phosphine), four grains; water q, s. To 12 ounces of water contained in a suitable pot, add the 564 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM PASTE AND POLISH HELPS WATER DRESSING wax and the soap and scrapings, together with the potassium carbonate, and boil until a smooth, creamy- mass is obtained. Remove the heat ; add the turpentine and the dye, the last named having been dissolved in alcohol. Mix thoroughly and add sufficient water to make the product measure 24 ounces. The paste which is used with the liquid application is composed of yellow wax and rosin, thinned with petrolatum 12 parts, mixed according to art. A simpler form of the liquid polish is made by dis- solving equal parts of yellow wax and palm oil in three parts of oil of turpentine : Yellow Wax or Ceresin 3 ounces Spermaceti 1 ounce Oil of Turpentine 11 ounces Asphalt Varnish 1 ounce Borax 80 grains Frankfort Black ... 1 ounce Prussian Blue 2V2 drams Oil of Mirbane I14 drams Melt the wax, add the borax, and stir until a kind of jelly has been formed ; in another pan melt the sper- maceti ; add the varnish, previously mixed with the turpentine ; stir well and add the wax ; lastly, add the colors, mix well and incorporate the oil of mirbane. For the preparation of the water dressings, as a general proposition, only those waxes are available which are capable of being emulsified, including car- nauba; beeswax, japan and insect wax and shellac. Paraffine, ceresin and mineral waxes are not available. In order to produce an emulsion, it is necessary to use a small amount of neutral soap in addition to the re- quired amount of alkali, though care must be taken to avoid an excess of soap, as this would make the resulting paste too readily soluble in water. Dress- ings of this class are made by heating the soap, alkali, wax and water to nearly the boiling point of water, stirring constantly until a uniform milky mixture is produced which, on cooling, solidifies into a mass of the consistency of an ointment. Particularly in furniture store repair shops, is FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FOR THE CLEANING OF LEATHER 567 the finisher called upon to refinish leather, sometimes to replace the color and the outer dressing. Where the leather is worn and roughened, coat with a glue size, which acts as a filler for this porous leather. It must be remembered that should a stain coat be put on this roughened surface the absorption of color would be so great as to cause a much darker shade. After the leather has been sized, prepare a stain, either a water stain or a spirit stain that will match, and apply it lightly until all of the roughened leather has been stained to match. When this is thoroughly dry, give a f^yj^, thin coat of shellac or lacquer. Where shellac is used it is better to bring the leather to a polish by repeated coats of thin wax. The oil in the wax combines with the shellac in sufficient quantity to render it elastic, so that it will not break or crack with the bending of the leather. On upholstered furniture, particularly where the edges have been badly worn or broken, it is well to attempt to rearrange the springs in such a manner that the folds will come elsewhere. In other words, so that the creases and folds of the leather will change and the repaired part not be put to the extreme use that it had been originally. Color may be incorporated either in the shellac or the lacquer, and this acts as a staining and filling coat all at once. If it is desired that either the shellac or the lacquer coat shall be the finishing coat, then give uncolored coats as such. Never leave as the final coat one that has been colored, as it is apt to crock, and as spirit colors are partially soluble in water, stains are apt to occur when any moisture comes in contact with the leather, which, of course, necessitates a final coat- ing. Leather upholstering frequently is bruised on the sales floor, in the stock rooms, or in transit. Where the bruise is slight, this treatment often will be found sufficient : Take a small piece of leather of some color, grained, moisten slight on the grained side, and work easily over the bruise. Polish with dry leather. When the scratch is deep it should be touched lightly with oil stain of color to match. Rub just before dry- REFINISHING ROUGH LEATHER AVOID COLOR IN LAST COAT OF FINISH 568 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM OTHER HINTS FOR CARE AND FINISH OF LEATHER ing with the smooth side of a soft piece of leather. Leather upholstered chairs should never be per- mitted to stand long near stoves or radiators. Heat dries the finish, which then is easily cracked. When leather shows signs of so "aging," the following treat- ment will rejuvenate it: Mix four parts of water with one of rich cream. Dip rag in this and apply to leather, rubbing the mix- ture well into the grain. Wipe off immediately after application with warm rag. Little or no pressure should be used in the rubbing to dry if the dull finish is to be retained. This treatment may profitably be given to the leather chairs in the home at housecleaning time. The housewife should know also of the livening effect of a little warm water and soap suds, quickly rubbed off with a warm rag, on her leather upholstering. Leather chairs should never be permitted to remain long on display near windows where the sun can strike them, as all leather will fade to some extent if exposed continually to sunlight. The grain leather is the more quickly affected. Leather goods received in the winter should always be allowed at least 24 hours in a warm room before unpacking or handling. After exposure to cold, leather is stiff and liable to crack when handled. A little usage now and then is better for the leather stock than long periods without usage at all. Experts frequently use kerosene oil to renovate leather. This is a difficult treatment to administer properly and for the average dealer is too likely to result disastrously. For this reason it is here omitted. FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER XCII FOR MATCHING FINISHES ONE difficulty in matching is often found in the shellac. The piece you are trying to match may have been coated with orange shellac, whereas, you are using white, or vice versa. Here is a simple formula for test : MATCHING Coat piece of glass with orange shellac and an- finishes other with white shellac. Then look through them, say at a piece of fumed oak, and the difference will con- vince you at once that the shellac coat in finishing plays an important part. SUBSTANTIAL FILLER FOR OAK Where silex, the accepted proper material for pro- ducing filler, cannot be obtained, the finisher may em- ploy the formula below. It is, however, recommended that in doing so twenty-four hours drying time be allowed and the work, when properly cleaned, be given a good coat of shellac. FORMULA: Bolted English Whiting 5 pounds Calcined Plaster 2 pounds Dry Burnt Sienna 1 ounce Dry French Yellow .1/2 ounce Raw Oil 1 quart Benzine Spirits 1 pint White Shellac 1/2 pint DIRECTIONS: Mix well and apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow and clean off with rag. PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS CHAPTER XCIII DENTS, DEFECTS AND KNOTS THE matter of "lifting" indentations has been touched upon lightly in a previous chapter, but another method will be given here and more in detail. There is a general impression that a decided dent in a piece of wood or in a piece of finished furniture cannot be corrected. Such is not the truth. Whether the dent be in a solid top or in a piece of veneer need makes no difference, it can be effectively removed. In- deed, such dents can be repaired so that even the expert eye cannot detect the location of the dent. The tools for this work are a knife, spirit lamp, sticks of various shades of wood cement and a stick SERIOUS DENTS CAN BE RAISED IMPLEMENTS FOR REPAIRING DENTS AND BRUISES of gum shellac, shown in the cut herewith. The knife is a thick-bladed shoe knife. The lamp can be bought at any hardware store, but one can be made by cutting off half the length of a machine oil can stem, using the 574 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM WOOD CAN BE REPLACED SUCCESSFULLY WITH CEMENT VENEER BLISTERS REMOVED cap of a cartridge to cover the end of the w^ick when not in use. Thus is the evaporation of the alcohol pre- vented. The cement and the shellac can be purchased readily. If the dent is in the white wood, wet the dent with water, heat the knife blade, and apply the knife to the dent until the water there evaporates into steam. Re- peat until the fibers of the dent are raised up level with or above the surface. After drying for an hour or two, sandpaper and finish as usual. This process can be followed with all woods where the surface is dented or bruised. Where a small piece of wood is gone, a knot or bad defect in the wood, this is the method : Stain the defect and all around it in a radius of an inch- or more with the same stain that the work is to be finished with. When dry, light the spirit lamp, select cement of the right color or shade, and drop hot particles into the defect. Heat the knife and press down the cement into all the parts. Cut down the cement with a sharp knife or chisel, and sandpaper smooth. The defect must be stained before the cement is put in, as the stain will not hold over the cement, for the cement in the pore of the white wood will show light under the stain. Veneer blisters can be laid down with the same knife and spirit lamp. After staining veneer work press down the blister with the heated knife, rubbing it close. The work will thus prove better than though the cabinetmaker undertook to raise the blister. Put glue under it, and clamp it down for an hour or two. The hot knife shrinks the blister and warms up the glue underneath, so that a repair is made that cannot be detected ; the surface has not been broken, as it would have been had the cabinetmaker cut it open and applied new glue to it. CHAPTER XCIV HELP OFFERED IN FIXING FORMULAS THE publishers have arranged to supply purchasers of this book with small samples of the anilines employed in the production of the formulas given here. anilines Recognizing the great importance of procuring furnished by identical shades and the identical strength of colors in publishers working out formulas, and knowing that there is a possibility of a variance when goods of different manu- facture are employed, it was thought that by rendering this service it would enable every one to first establish the correctness of shade and strength of material be- fore attempting to produce results. The following simple method of procedure will be found most satisfactory: From the sample take five grains, carefully weighed ; then take five grains from the regular stock. Dissolve sample in 10 ounces of water, and the five grains from stock dissolve in five ounces of water. The supposition is that the stock is of the same strength, but that possibly it is not. Place each solution in a bottle of same diameter. If the shade of the stock solution is darker, add water until it is an exact match. Suppose, for example, it requires but eight ounces, then it is stronger than the sample and the same percentage method of should be figured in making the stain. Eight ounces "fixing" a equaling 10 ounces of the sample indicates that only formula four-fifths of 80 per cent of the amount given in the formula is to be used. If, on the other hand, the same amount of water were used and the shade is darker, then continue the addition of water until match is com- plete, either keeping exact count of each quantity of water so added or by measuring entire amount after the match has been attained. Suppose, then, that we added two ounces more, having a duplicate of shade in 15 ounces of water, whereas the original sample was dissolved in 10. It 576 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM means that the stain you have is stronger and you^ problem is this: In the original you have five grains in 10 ounces of water, or reduced would make it one grain in every two ounces of water. Your stock, how- ever, shows that the same color is produced by using 15 ounces of the water to the five grains, or one grain to every three ounces of water. From which it will be seen at a glance that your stock is one-third stronger than is necessary to attain the color actually sought. HOW TO BE To be absolutely certain of your results procure CERTAIN OF white blotting paper, cut it into long, narrow strips RESULTS and immerse pieces in the two solutions. Let them dry in the air ; do not force the drying, also do not remove from the light; normal result is what you are after. If when thus dried the match is satisfactory, you are safe to go ahead. You may find a color that will regis- ter darker in solution, but when it has dried down in this manner it will not show this way, and as your work will require the shade when dried, this manner of testing is reliable. When a color shows this pecu- liarity it is recommended to make the same test on wood. If you wish a sample aniline to produce any shade or finish mentioned in this book, send 10 cents in silver or stamps, for postage and packing, to the publish- ers, and it will be sent you gratis. CHAPTER XCV THE BY-PRODUCTS OF COAL THE accompanying diagram should be of great in- terest to the finisher, inasmuch as it shows graph- ically the steps in obtaining aniline dyes from coal, or coal tar. Most of the colors that the finisher employs for his art at the present are those obtained from coal, and as he is using these stains nearly every day in the year, we believe he would find it interesting to trace for a moment the steps by which his colors, and other multi- tudinous products are obtained. We are indebted to Mr. James E. Spindle, an expert in the recovery and manufacture of coal tar products, for much of the following information, and the dia- gram. Starting with the raw product, coal, at the bottom of the plan, the first step is to heat or distill the coal in a closed air-tight retort, so that at the end of the operation, two products remain, coke, in the retort, and raw gas in the receiving chamber. The latter, by means of suitable purifying apparatus, is washed and scrubbed ; this removes the raw tar, ammoniacal liquor, sulphur and cyanogen. The effluent used in washing the gas is put through a separator, where, because of the difference in density, the ammonia liquor and tar are mechanically separated. The ammonia thus obtained is concentrated, and then forms the basis for a number of products, such as am- monia salts, etc. The distillates of coal tar are naphtha, benzine, naphthaline and a number of other products. Benzine and benzole are used in the manufacture of aniline dyes. Branching out from the refined tar are three oils, known as light, medium and heavy oils. Following the light oil, we come to a number of products, then to aniline salt, and tracing along to mauve. This product 578 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM is interesting, because it was the first of the aniline dyes and was discovered by Perkins in 1865. It is from these isolated components of coal tar that we now pro- duce the many coloring matters which are used as dyes. Look the chart over carefully, note how many times the word "dye" occurs, along with eosine, chinolin, «:/c phc/iml Br»iac ^"W^ff ' \mSic6 \ ore \ B£/yzrL \ / ' ALCOHOL Jt^, / „ , vtNC , BCN20L THE BY-PRODUCTS OF COAL 579 indigo, etc. At first hand, it seems a long way from the black lumps of coal in the engine room to the stains for your finishing, hue by following along the lines you can readily see how closely related they really are, and what vast resources are hidden in the coal. Remember, this chart is brief ; were it fully carried out, the products obtained would doubtless run into many thousands. Those of the various colors made alone would total into the thousands. Then think of the photographic developers, the medicines, oils, perfumes, extracts, etc. Aye, verily, a coal mine is a gold mine. GENERAL INDEX Acetic Acid — Use to help set color 172 Acid Stains — Composition of, and effect. ...62-64 Acids — Used in fuming 161-164 See also Acetic Acid; Acid Stains; Carbolic Acid; Chemicals; Chromic Acid; Cresylic Acid; Gallic Acid; Oxalic Acid; Phe- nol; Pyrogallic Acid; Tan- nic Acid. Adulteration — Fish oil, adulterant 277,325 Linseed oil 324-325 Turpentine, governmental regulation 373-375 Aeron Air Brush Equip- ment 332-334 Air Brush Equipment — Advantages 329-334 Alcohol Lamp — Making 110 Alcohol Stain — Application of 92 Keep from light 92 Sanding not required 92 Alkalies — Do not combine with anilines 219 Alkaline Stains — Applied w^ith sponge 79, 80-81 Composed of, and effect 63-64 Protection of hands from. ...80-81 Ammonia — Anhydrous, use of, in fum- ing 148-150 Methods of liberating in fuming 133, 135, 137, 140, 142-143, 145-146, 147-150 Use' of, in stains 63 Anhydrous Ammonia 148-150 Aniline Dyes — Acid colors recommended 168 Alkalies do not combine with 219 Antagonism of some 73-74 Color, permanent and uni- form 73,177 Combine with certain chem- icals 219 Furnish 95 per cent of water stains 177 Groups of 178 Samples furnished for fix- ing formulas 575-576 Use recommended 167 Value of, in staining 34, 36 Anthracene — Use, in finishing room 229 Antwerp Oak — Formula 411 Antwerp Oil Stain — Formula 410 ASPHALTUM — Reduction of, for blending stain 212 AsPHALTUM Varnish — For metallic surfaces 394 For smoke stacks 393 In dipping process 113-114 Astringent — Gallic or tannic acid 162-163 Atmospheric Conditions — Factor in drying 271-272 Austrian Oak Finish — Formula 409 Banana Oil — Produces dull finish 267 Baronial Oak Finish — Formulas 410 Bars — Polish formula for 511 Bassett Method of Resilver- ing Mirrors 525-530 Belgian Oak Finish — Formula 413 Belt Glue — Formula 497 Bent Wood — Difficulty in filling 123 Benzol — Crude, refining 229-230 Refined — Properties of 231-232 582 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Uses of 233-235 Thinning agent for bronzing liquids 233 Bichromate of Potash — Use to help set color recom- mended 172 Birch — Cherry stain on 192 Formula 414 Curly, surfacer for 256 Finishes for 189-192 Fuming process possible with 192 Mahogany stains for.. .30, 57, 173, 191,450,453,454 Matching, difficulties in 189 Qualities for furniture 189, 191, 192 Toona on, formula 454 Bird's-Eye Maple — Finishes 208-210 Surfacer for 256 BiSMARK Brown — Use in producing spirit ma- hogany 170-171 Black Nigrosine — Key color 85 Black Stains — Formulas 426, 427 Bleaching — Hydro-sulphite 216 Shellac 296, 297 Stains on wood 516, 517 Walnut 193-195 Willow 197 Wood, before staining 215-216 Blending — Brush for 212 Fuming by staining process.. 155 Processes 211-214 Blisters — In veneer work, cause and remedy 105-107, 574 Bog Oak Finish — Formula 413 Bowser System of Storage Tanks 383-387 Brass — Shellac varnish for 541 Bronzing Liquids — Benzol as thinning agent 233 Brown — Potassium of permanganate formula 203 Predominating as finishing color 81 Tartnin and potash formula.. 201 Brushes — Care of, in varnishing.. ..261, 391 Cleaning 390, 552 For blending 212 For staining 58, 79-80 Preservatives 80 Burnish Powders 369-371 Burnishing — Methods 369-371 Butler Oak Finish — Formula 413 Cabinet Work — STiould be well done to insure good finish 108 Staining must correct faults of 87,90 Cage — Wire, for dipping small pieces 116 Cane — Coloring 198-139 Canvas Fuming Box 146-143 Carbolic Acid — Crude, solvent for oil stain.... 182 Use in finishing room 229 Carvings — • Staining 57 See also End wood. Case Goods — Staining inside 57, 223-224 Caster Wheels — Polishing by tumbling 505 Cathedral Oak Finish — Formula 414 Cedar Chest — Filler 123 Celluloid — Cements, formulas.. ..501-502, 538 Coloring 538 Glue for 493 Cement — Celluloid, formulas. .501-502, 538 For filling holes, formulas.. 557-558 GENERAL INDEX 583 Glass and metals 498-499 Holes in crotch veneer filled with 109-110 Wood can be replaced with.. 574 Chairs — Birch, good wood for 189 Checking — Surface 310 Chemical Stains — Application of each coat separately 74-75 Depend on chemical action on wood to produce color.. 177 For coloring willow and reed 197 Penetrating power of 85 Trend is toward 81-82 Chemicals — Atmospheric effect on 251 Combinations with vegetable extracts, Table of 220-222 Keeping 241 From air 76 To be avoided 168 Cherry Stain — Formulas 414, 417 On birch 192 On maple 209 Chinese Teak — Formula 417 Chippendale Acid Stain Fin- ish — Formula 417 Chlorinated Soda — Bleach 194, 215 Chromic Acid — Use not recommended 172 Cleanliness — See Brushes; Color Materi- als; Containers; Staining; Varnish. Coal Tar Dyes — Characteristics and uses..229-235 Quantities safe to use 35 Value of, in staining 34, 35 Coal, By-Products of 577-579 Color Materials — Addition of, to filler.. 118, 120, 128 Amount to be used depends on wood and color shade.. 172 Antagonism of some dyes and chemicals 73-75 Cleanliness necessary in dis- solving 68, 75 Heat hastens solubility 75 Keep dry 77-78 Percentage of solubility.. ..170-171 Increased by heat 76-77 Recommended 167, 168 Reduction of color value in.. 167-168, 171 Solubility must be known. ...93-96 Soluable in water not fast to light 35 Solution by water bath meth- od 26 Varying aflfinities for woods.. 111-112 Which will produce any shade on market 226-227 See also Aniline Dyes; Bis- mark Brown; Black Ni- grosine; Coal Tar Dyes; Colors; Gold Leaf; Gold Paint; Mineral Dyes; Per- manganate; Pigments; Red Lead; Vegetable Col- ors. Colorimeter 399-401 Colors — Brown stains dominating. .. 81 Combinations to produce tints in fillers 123-124 Pigment, mixtures 355-368 Mixtures 355-368 Result of chemical changes.. 164 Uniformity of shade, method of producing.. .168-170, 177-179 Water stains have highest color value 226 See also Black Stains; Brown; Color Materials; Formulas; Fuming; Gray; Green; Matchings; Poly- chroming; Stains. Containers — Cleaning 68, 75, 552 Cost Keeping 381-382 Cotton Waste — For polishing 265-266 Counters — Polish for 511 Creosote Oil — Impurities in 182-186 Cresylic Acid — Use, in finishing room 229 584 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Crotch Veneer — See Veneer. Crystallization — Effect on stain 77,94 Curly Birch — See Birch. Cylinder Sandpaper 51 Dangers^- Dipping process, with oil stains 115-116 Naphtha, use of 18 S"torage of materials 383-387 Dents — Raising 573-574 Dextrin — Filler in stain powders 171 Dipping — Advantages Ill, 114 Color uniformity, maintain- ing 111-115 Dangers 115-116 Difficulty of sap streaks in.... 90 Ebonizing solution 217 For finishing processes... .267-269 Fuming by staining process.. 155-156 Methods 111-116 Stains 112-113, 115-116 Dipping Room — Location and ventilation 19 Drawers — Staining 223-224 Driftwood — Formulas 418, 421 Drying — Atmospheric conditions im- portant factor 272-273 Chemical stains 73 Effect of light on 22-23 Filler 122,253 Systems 273-274 Varnish 253-254, 259-260, 262-288 Veneers 99-100 Dusting — Necessary before application of stain 92, 259 Dutch Brown Oak "Finish — Formula 418 Dyes — See Color Materials. Early English Finish — Antique, formula 429 Formulas '. 421-425 Ebonizing — Stain Formula 426 Tables 544 Electric Exhaust Fan 333 Electric Heater 333 Enamel — Removing, formulas 548, 551 Benzol in 235 Enameling — Process 237-238 End Wood — Staining 43-44 English Oak Finish — Formulas 425, 446, 462 Processes 187-188 Equipment — Air brush 239-334 Finishing room 25-29 Raising dents 573 Silvering mirrors 525 See also Brushes; Contain- ers; Fuming Box; Grad- uates; Hydrometer; Mor- tar and Pestle; Scales. European Processes — Smoothing with p u m i c e stone 47-48 See also French; German. Experiments — Card record for 30-32 Matching samples 247-252 See also Tests. Felt Filter 77 Felt Pad — For polishing 264, 395-396 Filler — Application of .....119, 121-122, 129, 130 Apply thin on close grain woods 174 Bent wood difficulties 123 Cements for holes 425-426 Cleaning off 127, 129 Clearness in, essential 173-174 Color combinations for. ...123-124 Color material, addition of.. 118-120,128 Cracks and holes, formulas.. 557-561 Drying 122, 253 For crotch veneer 89 For Italian walnut 319 GENERAL INDEX 585 For mahogany 130-131 For oak 119, 120, 122 Formula 571 For rosewood 130 Importance of 117, 118 Ingredients 125-127 Japan, brown, as drier 126 Kinds and qualifications.. 117-118 Lacquer 239 Linseed oil as binder 126 Mahogany, do not put black in 174 Matching 174, 248 Novelty finishes for oak 207 Oil, not good for lacquer fin- ishes 239 Omit on birch in mahogany finish 173,175 Open grain woods 390 Preparation and application, 117-124,125-131 Putties 557-561 Rub across grain 119,122,129 Silex in 119, 120, 125 Silica pigment 125 Time limit in which filler is at its best 126 Vegetable, disadvantages of, 117 White, formula 127 FlLTER- Felt 77 Finishing — Back of furniture 224 Changing finishes 227-228, 551 Cost keeping 381-382 Dipping process 267-269 Direct sunlight to be avoided in 23 Drawers 223-224 Good work in early stages counts in 253, 255 Lacquer 239-240 Materials, storage of 283-287 Preparation of woods for.. ..41-45 Rapid processes of the future 18,254 Unevenness in, cause 39-40 See also Bleaching; Blend- ing; Dipping; Drying; Ebonizing; Enameling; Filler; Finishing Room; P'ormulas Fuming; Graining; Lacquers; Let- tering; Matchings; Nov- elty Finishes, Polishing; Rubbing; Sanding; Spong- ing; Staining; Surfacing; Tumbling; Varnish; Ve- neer. Finishing Room — Equipment 25-29 Heating 19-20, 274 Hot water facilities in 23-24 Lighting 21-23 Location 17 Planning 17-24 Problems of 378-380 System 25-32 Ventilation ....! 17-19 Whitewash not desirable 21-22 See also Dipping Room; Fuming Box. Fish Oil — Adulterant 277, 325 Fitch — For applying turpentine stains 58 Flanders Stain — Formula 430 Flash — Test of varnish 285 Floors — Finishing 315 Formulas — Accuracy important 403-404 Acid proof finish for table tops 543-544 Antwerp oak 411 Antwerp oil stain 410 Birch — Fumed oak color for 190 Stained mahogany 30, 173, 450, 453, 454 Black stains 426, 429 Bleaching stains on wood 516 Blending mixture for fumed oak 213 Blending stain for golden oak 211 Browns from tannin and potash 201 Card record for 30-32 Celluloid- Cements 501-502, 538 Coloring 538 Cement — Celluloid 501-502, 538 For filling holes 55'}-558 For glass and metals. ...498-501 586 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Cherry stain — On birch 414 On pine 417 Chinese teak 417 Chippendale acid stain 417 Chlorinated soda bleach. .194, 215 Cleaner for furniture 508 Doctoring: 184-185 Driftwood 418, 421 Early English 421-425 Antique 429 Ebonizing solution 217 Ebony stain 426 Enamel, I'emovi/ig 548, 551 Filler, white 127 Finish for inside case work.. 223-224 Flanders 430 Forest green 430 Frosted glass 515 "Fumed birch" 190 Fumed oak 430-442 Limbert's No. 8 449 Oil stains 434-437 Fuming, stain for 156-157 General principles 167-172 Glue- Belt 497 For celluloid 493 For leather on card board.. 497 For paper and metal 494 For wood, glass, metals, etc 497 Liquid 489-493 Marine 497-498 Uniting metals with fabrics 497 Water-proof 493-494 Gold paint 389 Graining to match woods 521-522 Jacobean 476 Kaiser gray 446 Kenilworth 449 Leathei' — Rejuvenating 568 Renewing color 563-564 Lettering on glass 537 Mahogany 475 Mahogany stain 450-454 Antique 409 G. R. M. standard 445 Old, restoring color 515 On birch 30, 173, 450, 453 Prima vera 457 Sheraton 461 Maple — Gray 445 Matching samples 249-250, 252 Novelty finishes for oak....206-207 Oak- Austrian 409 • Baronial 410 Belgian 413 Bog 413 Butler 413 Cathedral 414 Dutch brown 418 English 425 Filler 571 Fumed 430-442 Fumed — Limbert's No. 8 449 Oil stains 434-437 Golden — Matching 252 Oil soluble stain 188,457 Water soluble stain 466 Jacobean 446 Malachite 454 Novelty finishes for 206-207 Old, oil stain 31 Oriental 454 Silver finish 461 Stratford 462 Weathered 466-473 Oxalic acid bleach 215 Paint — For coating mirrors 530 Removing 547-555 Paper, sticking to tin 515 Piano finish polish 511 Pitting of piano varnish, remedy for 519 Polish 265, 507-511 French, for hand polish- ing 398,307-308 Potassium permanganate for producing brown 203 Putties for holes and cracks 557-561 Red lead paint .- 394 Rosewood stain 458 S'ample stain, for keeping in stock 243 Samples furnished by pub- lishers 409, 575-576 Shellac 458 Substitute 458 Varnish for brass 541 GENERAL INDEX 587 Silvering mirrors 526-529,533-534 Stain powder, amount of used 172 Standard brown mahogany.. 476 Standard finishes, new 475 Standard fumed oak, stain method 476 Stopping for cabinet mak- ers 557-558 Surfacer for dipping pro- cess 268 Tin solder, removing 548 Tobacco brown 462 Toona 454 Uniform color shades, pro- ducing 168-170, 177-179 Uniform standard, maintain- ing 167 Van Dyke brown, on gum.... 462 Varnish — Reducer 259 Removing 276-277, 547-555 Surfacer 255-256 Verda green 465 Walnut- Alpine 195 Antique 317 Finishes 465-466, 475 Italian 319 Water marks on varnish, re-> moving 549 Wax- Furniture City 445 Palmetto 457 Finish protector 516 fourdrinier sandpaper 51 French — Polishing methods. .398, 307-308 Use of American bird's-eye maple 208 Fumed Oak — See Oak. FUMEXER In air brush equipment 333 FUMINE 138 Fuming — Acids used in 161-164 Ammonia process 133-150, 151-154 Birch 192 Brush, process for 381-382 Colors — Controlled by length of process 151 Strengthened by use of oil 151 Compounds which facilitate process 152 Dipping small pieces 155-156 English oak finishes 187-188 Flake difficulties in staining process 158-159 Glue joints parting, remedy.. 165 How to shorten time of pro- cess 152-153 Now becoming general 82 Oak formulas 430-442, 449 Real versus imitation 150 Soil has influence on 151 Staining process 155-160 Tanned bark extract varies color 142 Tannic acid facilities 152-153 Uniformity in result obtained 151,153 Fuming Box — Apparatus for fuming .133-138, 140, 145-146, 147-150 Canvas 146-148 Construction 133-150 Location 133, 143 Size 133, 142, 143 Temperature 138 Test box, construction 139, 141 Union Furniture Co.'s box, Rockford, 111 143-146 Ventilation 143, 148 Fusel Oil — Used in air brush coating.... 331 Gallic Acid — Nature of 162 Garnet Paper 52 Gas Oil — Impurities in 182, 185-186 Gases — Accumulation in finishing and dipping rooms 17-19 German — Method of polishing 507 Text book, quoted 48 Glass — Cement for, formulas 498-501 Drilling holes in 538 Frosted, formulas for 515 Glue for, formula 497 Lettering or ornamentation.. 537-538 See also Mirrors. 588 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Glue — Belt, formula 497 For Celluloid, formula 493 For leather on cardboard, formula 497 For paper and metal, for- mula 494 For sandpaper 51 For wood, glass, metals, etc., formulas 497 Liquid, formulas 489-493 Marine, formula 497-498 Size, use of in veneer 103-104 Uriting metals with fabrics, formula 497 Used on sap streaks 88 Waterproof, formulas 493-494 Gold Leaf — Applying 389 Gold Paint — Formula _. 389 Golden Oak — See Oak. Government Regulation — Sale of turpentine 373-375 Graduates 26-27 Graining — Formulas for various colors 521-522 Plain wood 56 Grand Rapids Manufactur- ers' Formulas — Fumed oak 438 Mahogany 445 Weathered oak 469 Gray — Maple, formula 445 Novelty finishes in 205-210 Green — Forest green, formula 430 Verda, formula 465 Gum — In varnish 275 Gum Wood — Finishes for 245-246 Finishing to match mahog- any 174,175 Van Dyke brown on, for- mula 462 Gun Metal Finish 207 Hand Polishing 263.266 Hands — Protection of, from stains.. 80-81 Heat — Aids penetration of stain. ...79, 85 Discolors silvering 533 Hastens solubility of color materials 75 Increases percentage of sol- ubility 76-77 Heat Stain — Removing 391 Heating — Electric heater 333 Finishing room 19-20, 274 With air brush equipment.... 331-333 See also Temperature. Hot Water — Colors dissolved in 75-76 Facilities in finishing room. .23-24 Hotel Furniture — Birch, good wood for 192 Humidity — Effect on varnish 272-273 Hydrometer 183 Ink Stain — Removing from wood 519 Inlays — Finishes for 479-487 Imitating 203 Iron — Precautions in use of 208 Used in fuming by staining process 158-160 Iron Spots — In wood, removing 216 Jacobean Finish — Formulas 446, 476 Process 187 Japan — Benzol in 235 Brown, as drier for filler.. 126 Joining Room — Lax methods in, effect finish 378-379 Joints — Glued, parting in fuming, remedy 165 Kaiser Gray 205, 210 Formula 446 GENERAL INDEX 589 Kauri Gum — Used in varnish 275 Kenilworth Finish — Formula 449 Process 187-188 Knots — In wood, covering 310 In wood, filling with shellac. 294 In wood, staining 88-89 Lacquer — Chinese and Japanese 337,343-345 Enamels 239-240 Faults on metal work 339 Gloss 338 Metal 240 Metal, not used on wood 337 Nitrated cotton base 338 Rubbing of 341 Solvents 338 Spraying 340 Thinner 340 Turning white 339 Used on gum wood 245 With polychrome finishes.... 353-354 Wood, modern 337-342 Work must be clean 339 Zaponite, applying 342 See also Shellac; Varnish. Lapping 390 Laurie, Dr. A. P. — Instrument for testing hard- ness of varnish 280 Laws — Michigan act regulating sale of turpentine 373-375 Lead — Red 394 Leather — • Glue for sticking on card- board, formula 497 Renovating or recoloring.. 563-568 Lettering — Glass 537-538 Lighting — Finishing room 21-23 Linseed Oil — Adulteration 324-325 Binder in filler 126 Darkens wood 325-327 Produces richness in fum- ing 151 Refining 324 Source of 323-324 Tests 324-325 Used in varnish. 275 Liquid Filler 118 Liquid Glues — Formulas 489-493 Liquids — Care of 243 Lye — Does not help set color 172 Mahogany — Antique, formula 409 Birch stained to match, for- mulas and methods 30, 57, 173, 450-453 Blending, not much needed on 214 Carvings on, staining 57 Changing finish 228 Color shades, matching.. ..169-170 Cracks, filling 561 Defects in, correcting 107-108 Filler for 125, 130-131 Formulas for stains 450-454,475-476 G. R. M. standard formula.... 445 Graining plain wood 56 Imitation, formulas and methods 173-175 Maple stained as 209 Surfacer for 256-257 Potash in stain, questionable 219 Prima verda, formula 457 Restoring color to old, for- mula 515 Sheraton, formula 461 Specks in finish, removing.... 516 Spirit, producing with Bis- mark brown 170-171 Standard American, for- mula 475 Standard brown, formula 476 Stain formula on market.. 171-172 Stains, formulas..450-454, 475-476 Surfacer for 257-258 Veneer, preparation for staining 103-108 Malachite Oak Finish — Formula 454 Maple — Gray, formulas 445 Novelty finishes 208-210 590 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Surfacer, when staining ma- hogany 256-257 Marine Glue — Formula 497-498 Hatchings — Colorimeter for 399-401 Formula for graining to match woods 521-522 Mahogany 57 Procedure for 247-252 Shellac, test 571 System of records 25, 30-32 Testing 170 Mercury — Not used for mirrors 530 Metals — Glue for, formulas 494-497 See also Brass; Tin. Metric System — Recommended ....403-405, 407-408 Michigan Laws — Act regulating sale of tur- pentine 373-375 Mineral Dyes — Permanency of 33 Mineral Turpentine — Use in filler 120 Mirrors — Cleaning 538 Resilvering 525-534 Mission Finish — Filler for 121 Moisture — EflFect on color materials. ...77-78 Effect on sandpaper 53 Mortar and Pestle 28-29 Naphtha — Brings out difference of shade 153, 155 Danger in use of 18 Heavy, properties of 230, 232 Solvent, properties and uses 231,232 Naphthalene — Use, in finishing room 229 In oil solvents, injurious to stain 182-186 Novelty Finishes 205-210 Oak— Austrian finish, formula 409 Baronial finish, formulas 410 Belgian finish, formula 413 Bog finish, formula 413 Butler finish, formula 413 Cathedral finish, formulas.... 414 Dutch brown finish, formula 418 English finish, formula 425 Filler for 119, 120, 122 Formula 571 Formulas for novelty fin- ishes 206-207 Fumed — Ammonia process 133-150,151-154 Blending mixture for 213 Formulas 430-442, 449 Staining process 155-160 Golden- Blending processes 211 Changing finish to fumed oak 228 Filling 122 Matching 252 Oil soluble stain, formula 188,457 Water soluble stain, for- mula 466 Italian Rennaisance, formula 321-322 Jacobean finish, formula. .466, 476 Malachite finish, formula 454 Novelty finishes 205-208, 210 Old, oil stain, formula 31 Oriental finish, formula 454 Printing figures on imita- tion 257 Silver finish, formula 461 S'tain oozing, remedy 58-59 Standard fumed finish, for- mula 476 Stratford, formula 462 Tannic acid in, important color factor 177-178 Uniformity of color shade, producing 168-169 Varnish, surfacer for 255 Weathered, formulas 466-473 Oil Stains — Antwerp, formula 410 Applying * 58 Benzol in 234 Early English, formula. ...421-425 Fumed oak, formulas 434-437 Golden oak, formulas 188, 457 In dipping process.. ..113, 115-116 GENERAL INDEX 591 Jacobean finish 187,476 Nature of, is a suspension.... 96 Old oak finish, formula 31 On imitation mahogany 175 Quicker than water stain.... 175 Sanding not required on 92 Solvents for, impurities in.. 182-186 Treatment of sap streaks with 88 Use of, in cold weather.. ..181-186 Value of 62,64-65,69,226 Oils — Depth of color produced by.. 85-86 Distribution of, in factory.... 387 Do not use between coats on imitation mahogany 174 Established uniform stand- ard for 183-184 Impurities in, injurious in stain 182-186 Storage of, in factories.. ..383-387 Used in varnish 275-277 See also Banana Oil; Creo- sote Oil; Fish Oil; Fusel Oil; Gas Oil; Linseed Oil; Naphtha; Oil Stains; Pitches; Tar Oil; Toluol; Turpentine. Oriental Oak Finish — Formula 454 Oxalic Acid — As bleach 195,215 Paasche Air Brush Method OF Finishing 329-332 Paint — Aluminum 399 Coating silvered mirror 530 Not used in true staining.. ..83-84 Removing, formulas 547-555 Smoke stack 393 See also Enamel; Pigments. Palmetto Wax — Formula 457 Paper — Sticking to tin, formula 515 Paraffine Wax — Applying 391 For tumbling 505 Parchment — Finish 238 Paste Filler 117 Reducing to a liquid 128 Permanganate — Formula for producing browns 203 Peroxide of Hydrogen — Bleach 195 Petrolatum — Vaseline substitute 81 Pews — Sticky, remedy 519 Phenol — Use, in finishing room 229 Pianos — Hand polishing on 263 Keys, polishing 217 Pitting of varnish, remedy.... 519 Polish, formula 511 Preserving polish 511-512 Temperature for show rooms 511 Picture Frames — How to burnish 370-371 Pigments — •. In filler 125 Mixture of color 355-368 Permanent 365 Should not be used in stains 170 See also Color Materials; Silex; Silica. Pine — Cherry stain on, formula 417 Pitches — Use of 229 Polishing — Enamel 237 Formulas 398, 507-511 French method 398, 307-308 German method 507 Methods 263, 265-266, 395-397 Secret of, is good founda- tion 511 Tumbling process 505 See also Rubbing. Polychrome — Finishes 347-354 Method No. 1 350 Method No. 2 351 Method No. 3 352 Pigment colors used in. ...355-368 Potash — In mahogany stain, ques- tionable 219 Powders — Burnish 369-371 592 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Prima Vera Mahogany Fin- ish Formula 457 Printing — ' Oak figure for imitation oak.. 257 Varnish difficulty 253 Pumice Stone — Process of smoothing with. .47-48 Used in rubbing 263-264 Pump — For fuming box 145, 146 Putties — For wood 557-561 Pyrogallic Acid — Nature of 163 Radiators — In finishing room 20 Records — Matchings 25, 30-32 Coloring 197-198 Rockford, III. — Union Furniture Co.'s fum- ing box 143-146 Rosewood — Filling 130 Stain, formula 458 Rosin — Add to oil stain 181 In lacquer 341-342 Rotten Stone — Use in polishing 263 Royal Early English Finish — Formula 429 Rubbing — Machine 397-398 Methods ...395-397 Pumice stone used in 47-48,263-264 See also Polishing. Russian Brown Finish 210 Samples — Colors furnished by publish- ers 409, 575-576 Sanding — Block for 47,259 Cedar chest 123 Danger of "cutting through" 45 Effect of depth of color 103 Essentials 33 European process 47-48 Good finish depends on 47 Linseed oil finish 326 Preliminary to finishing 42-45 Shellac 258-259 Should be done with the grain 47 Uniformity essential 50 Varnish 50-51 Veneers 103-104 Water stains 91 Sandpaper — For shellac 258 Garnet 52 Moisture, effect of, on 49, 53 Process of making 51-52 Testing 53 Varieties 48-49, 51, 52 Sanitary Wood Work — Finishing 268-269 S'ap Streaks — Methods of overcoming 87-88 Scales — Balance of scales 26,28,32 Scratches — In varnish, obliterating 277 Sea Moss — For cleaning off filler 129 Seasoning Wood — Old and new methods 41 S'hellac — Advantages as a finish. ...309-310 As filler 117,130 As surfacer 254,255,256,258 Bleached, surfacer for ma- hogany 257-258 Bleaching process 296 "Blooming" 312-313 Brush to use 312 Classification 259-297 Climatic effect on 313,314 Filler for cedar chest 123 Finishing with 307-316 Formulas 458 Grades 295-297 History of 291-306 How gum is obtained 297-301 Making of 291-306 Matching, test 571 Moisture in 306 Purchasing 292 Rosin in 305 Rubbing down 311,314 Sanding 258-259 Size of industry 292 GENERAL INDEX 593 Sticks 316, 573-574 Stiffens ■ and holds up fuzz for sanding 104-105 Stored in wood or glass 311 Substitute, formula 458 Substitutes not as good. .291. 294 Testing 305-306 Thin with alcohol 311-312 Used thin 310 Uses 293-294 Varnish for brass, formula.. 541 Veneer checking remedied bv 100-101 Where cultivated 292-293 Sheraton Mahogany Fin- ish — ■ Formula 461 Shop Notes — For Finishing Room 488 S^LEX — In varnish surfacer 256 Makes clear filler 174 Pigment for filler 119, 120, 125 Silica — As pigment for filler 125 Silver Oak Finish 205,210 Formula 461 Silvering — Mirrors 525-534 Sixteenth Century English Oak Finish — Process 188 Smoke Stack — Painting 393 Solubility — Of color material 75, 76-78, 93-96, 170-171 Solvents — For oil stains, impurities in.. 182-186 Naphtha, properties a'^d uses 231,232 Shellac 311-312 Texico spirits, comparative with turps 375 Water, care in use of 75 See also Acids; Lacquer; Oils; Stains; Turpentine. Specific Gravity — Varnish test • 284 Spirit Mahogany Finish — Producing with Bismark brown 170-171 Spirit Stain — Early English formula 421 Nature of, is a suspension... 96 On imitation mahogany 175 Process of applying 241 Treatment of sap streaks with 88 Value of 62,64-65,69,226 Weathered oak formulas 473 See also Alcohol Stain. Spirit Varnish — Avoid for high class work.... 281 Sponging — Resinous woods 91 SI'Ray — Finishing with 239, 329-334 Staining — Application of stains 55-58, 79-81, 91-92 Acid and alkaline stains to same piece 64 Each color separately if uncertain 35, 73-74 Brushes for 58,79-80 Certainty of results, obtain- ing 67-68 Cleanliness of containers important 68, 75 Clear solution is essential.... 73-75,93-96 Definition of 83-84 Depth of color obtained by rubbing with oil 85-86 Development of art 33 Good staining not merely col- oring 93 Ideal light for 23 Inside of case good3....57, 223-224 Knotty surfaces 88-89 Large surfaces 87-90 Natural aptness for work re- quired 55 Process of fuming oak 155-160 Protection of hands 80-81 Records of experiments 30-32 Re-staining patches 58 Sap streaks, methods of overcoming 87-88 Speed necessary 55 Sponge for 79 Time between coats 73 Uniformity of method desir- able 55-56 See also Blending; Color 594 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Materials; Dipping; Dry- ing; Ebonizing; Enamel- ing; Finishing; Formulas; Fuming; Graining; Match- ings; Stains; Surfacing; Varnish; Veneers. Stains — Care of materials 243-244 Classification 61-65, 83-85 Composition 61-65 Cost of 68-69 Dipping proce-ss, prepara- tion and application 112-116 Filter for 77 Formulas 409-473 Matching, procedure 247-252 Mixed dry, shake before us- ing 243 Odd shades, producing 67-68 Penetration of 91-96 Permanency and fastness of 34-37,92 Pigments should not be used in 170 Prepared, changing shade of 225-227 Requisites of 34 Samples of, kept in stock. 243 Sediment in mahogany stain, cause 171 Transparent, essential . .173-175 Uniform standard, method of maintaining 167-168 Wood's reaction to, varied. -71-72 See also Acid Stains; Al- cohol Stain ; Alkaline Stains; Aniline Dyes; Black Stains; Chemical Stains; Color Materials; Colors ; E b o n i z i n g ; Enamel ; Formulas ; Matchings; Oil Stains; Spirit Stain; S'taining; Turpentine Stain; Water Sta;n. Steam Coil — Facilitates fuming process.. 135,137 Steam Heating 20 Steam Pipes — Location of, in finishing room 20 Stock — Raw finished, storage of..377-378 Stopping — Cabinet maker's, formula.557-558 Storage — Dark place for finished stock 23 Oils, etc 383-387 Raw finished stock 377-378 Stratford Oak Finish — Formula 462 Process 188 Sulphate of Iron — Caution about using 244 Sunlight — Avoid in storing raw stock.. 377-378 Direct rays of sun to be avoided in finishing 23 Effect of, on colors 36, 92 Fades leather 568 Spirit stain fades in 241 Surfacing 253-259 Formula, for dipping pro- cess 268 Table Top — Acid proof, formulas for.. 543-544 Tanking Process — See Dipping. Tanned Bark Extract — Strengthens fuming 142 Tannic Acid — Formula for producing browns with tannin 201 Fuming facilitated by use of 152-153 Important factor in produc- ing color 177-178 Nature of 161-162 Tannin — In wood, effects stains 71-72 Nature of 161-162 Not uniformly present in dif- ferent boards 178 Tar Oil — Heavy, use of, in finishing room 229 Teak — Chinese, formula 417 Temperature — Even, in dipping process, es- sentials 113 For varnish..253-254, 259, 272-274 Fuming box 138 Piano show rooms 511 Silvering mirrors 525, 526 Tests — Colorimeter for 399-401 GENERAL INDEX 595 For color uniformity in dip- ping 114-115 Linseed oil 324-325 Matchings 170 Sandpaper 53 Varnish 279-281, 283-285 Texico Spirits — Solvent comparative with turpentine 375 Thermostat 20 Tin— Formula for sticking paper to 515 Solder, removing, formula... 548 Tobacco Brown Finish — Formula 462 Toluol — Properties and uses....230, 231-232 TooNA Stain — Formulas 454 Toys — Polishing by tumbling 505 Trucks — Use of, in finishing opera- tion 19 Tumbling — Polishing by 505 Turned Wood — Polishing by tumbling 505 See also End Wood. Turpaline — Substitute for turpentine.... 209 Turpentine — Government regulation of sale of 373-375 Solvent for varnish 275 Substitute for 209 Turpentine Stain — Method of applying 58 Preventing lifting 255 U. S. P.— Meaning of 335 Union Furniture Co. — Fuming box 143-146 United States Pharmaco- poeia — Standard Work 335 Vacuum Heating System 19 Van Dyke Brown Finish — On gum wood, formula 462 Varnish — Applying 259-262 Benzol in 234-235 Brilliancy and lustre, de- pend on resin 281-282 Brush, care of 261, 391 Buying, testing before 283-285 Cleanliness in using 260-261 Defects in 276-278, 287-288 Drying 252-254, 259-260, 262, 288 Atmospheric conditions important 271-272 Room, location 18-19 Systems 273-274 Durability, producing 281-282 Good, qualities of 279 Hair lines in, cause of 277-278 Ingredients 275 Lustreless finish, producing 266-267 Manufacture of 275-276 Polishing 263, 265-266 Reducer 259 Refinishing 288 Removing — Benzol removes 233 Formulas 276-277,547-555 Rubbing ...260, 262-265 Sanding 50-51 Satin finish, producing 266 Scratches, obliterating 277 S'pirit, avoid for high class work 281 Sticky pews, remedy 519 Surfacer 254-257 Sweating 277-288 Terms applied to 289-290 Testing 279-281 Before buying 283-285 Water marks on, removing.. 548 Whitening, remedy 277 See also Lacquer; Shellac. Vaseline — Protects hands from stain. .80-81 Substitute for 81 Vegetable Colors — Care of 76 Samples of, should be kept.. 244 Table of combinations to produce stains 220-222 Uncertainty of 35-36, 177 Vegetable Filler — Disadvantages of 117 Good for some woods 125 Veneers — Blisters in, cause and rem- edy 105-107, 574 Changing finish 227-228 Checks in — Cause 97-100 596 PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM Remedy 100-101 Crotch- Checking, remedy 89 Filling holes in 109-110 Drying 99-100 Laying of 99-100 Preparation for staining.. 103-108 Sponging — Advantages 104, 105-108 Ventilation — Finishing room 17-19 Fuming box 143, 148 In drying varnish 262 Viscosity — Varnish test 284 Walnut — Alpine 195 Antique 317-318 Bleaching 193-195 Filler for 125 Finishes for 193-195 Gum wood substitute for.. 245-246 Italian 319-320 Stains, formulas 465-466,475 Standard American, formula 475 Walnut Brown Stain Fin- ish — Insoluble portion in 94-95 Water — Care in use of, as solvent 75 Water Stains — Advantages of 61-62,65,69 Anilines furnish 95 per cent of 177 Application of 57-58, 91-92 Color value of, highest 226 Colors which will produce any shade 226 Golden oak, formula 466 In dipping process 112-113 On filled wood practical 213 Treatment of sap streaks vdth 88 Used on high grade furni- ture largely 173,226 Wax— Formula 318 For water dressings on leather 564 Furniture city, formula 445 Palmetto, formula 457 Paraffine 391, 505 Wax Finish 121 Protection from water 516 Water marks on, remedy 516 Wayne System of Storage Tanks 383-387 Weathered Oak Finish — Formulas 466-475 Weights and Measures 403-408 Metric system 407-408 Tables, standards in United States 405-407 Variation in 26-28 Whitewash — Undesirable in finishing room 21-22 Wijs-Lang-Muir — ■ Method of testing shellac 305 Willow — Coloring 197-198 Withers, J. W. — Cost keeping 381-382 Wood — Acid proof, formula 543-544 Bleaching 215-216 Changes in, effect stain 37 Close-grained 390 Color absorption, variations in 111,112 Discolored naturally, difficult to remedy 516 Glue for, formula 497 Iron spots in, removing 216 Kept in warm place, more penetrating 91 Locality variations in 72 Open-grained 390 Porous, filling 117 Preparation of, for finishing processes 41-45 Reaction to stains varied .71-72 Seasoning and drying neces- sary ." 39-40 Stains should bring out beauties of 34,93 Stains on, bleaching 516,519 Tannin in, effects stain 71 Texture of, effects stain 72 Wood Putties 557-561 Woods — See Birch; Bird's-Eye Maple; Driftwood; End Wood; Gum Wood; Knots; Mahogany; Maple; Oak; Pine; Rosewood; Walnut; Willow. Zaponite — Wood Lacquer .... 342 FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS PROBLEMS OF THE FINISHING ROOM YOUR OWN FORMULAS FORMULAS AND DIRECTIONS YOUR OWN FORMULAS >%. ■^3 "V- ^ ' , ^ ■-00^ V .0°. -bo^ ,\ .■^'^ ■■>'-.r>N ^^ 9 o. ^% .^^'^^ ,xO -f--.