62326 
 
i 
 
 UNIYERSITY OF MICHIGAN. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL PAPERS. 
 
 . First Series. No. 1. 
 
 UHIYERSITY EDUCATIOH. 
 
 .^^'' 
 
 By G S."'Morris, Ph. D., 
 
 Professor of Logic, Ethics axd the History of Philosophy. 
 
 axn arbor: 
 ANDREWS & WITHERBT, 
 
 Monograph 
 
Gm 
 
 V / . . ' 'r\ 
 
 iytg '6 
 

 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 What, specifically, does a University exist for ? One 
 answer to this question might be gathered from the follow- 
 ing words of the founder of an American University, " I 
 would found an institution where any person can find in- 
 struction in any study." Another, coming to us as a pure, 
 clear echo from the world of ancient Greece, is suggested 
 by the following passage from Plato's Republic : 
 
 " After this period, I continued, these choice charac- 
 ters, selected from the ranks of the young men of twenty, 
 must receive higher honours than the rest ; and the de- 
 tached sciences in which they were educated as children 
 must be brought within the compass of a single survey, to 
 show the co-relation which exists between them, and the 
 nature of real existence." 
 
 From these words of the modern American and the 
 ancient Greek, respectively, there might, I say, and no 
 doubt ordinarily would, be inferred two very different 
 ideals of that " higher education," of which — whatever it 
 may be held to consist in — the University is on all hands 
 held to be the instrument or the purveyor. According to 
 the Platonic sense, the school or " academy " of Plato was 
 itself a University, a University with but a single teacher, 
 and that teacher none other than Plato himself. In a 
 modern University, organized to enable " any person " to 
 
 * A new version, almost wholly rewritten, of an address delivered at the 
 founding of the Philosophical Society of the University of Michigan, to whose 
 members it is now respectfully dedicated. 
 
2 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 "lind instruction in any study," it might happen that 
 PJato, brought to life again and installed as a professor, 
 would be lost in the crowd of teachers, and that, being 
 lost, he would be seriously missed by no one. According 
 to the one ideal, the higher education would be a training, 
 not primarily of the memory, but— after the memory had 
 been already trained and stocked with detailed and exten- 
 sive knowledge respecting particular facts and orders of 
 fr^cts — of the comprehending intelligence, and this with re- 
 lation to the highest goal of intelligence, the comprehen- 
 sion of the " nature of real existence," the knowledge of 
 ultimate truth, together with the power to detect, and the 
 will to condemn, all essential shams and falsehoods. Ac- 
 cording to the other, it would consist in absorbing and 
 practically exclusive devotion to one or two out of an in- 
 definite multitude of different lines of study and investi- 
 gation, or in a more supercial cultivation of many of them, 
 o-uided by the arbitrary bent or the subjective curiosity of 
 the individual, or by the hope of a future private advan- 
 tage, but without any regard to the problems of "real 
 existence" and the application of ultimate truths to the 
 development of character. Of these ideals, the one would 
 have to be termed distinctly ethical ; the other would ap- 
 pear to have no ethical character whatever. 'J'he one 
 would summon the student to the highest and most abso- 
 lute " courage of truth." The other might, apparently, be 
 pursued in the midst of complete indifference to the nature 
 of universal and ultimate truth, or even consistently with 
 a profession of knowledge that no such truth can be known 
 by man. The ideal suggested by Plato would be termed 
 synthetic, and the other analytic. A University organized 
 in accordance with the former ideal would have, for its 
 natural motto, non muUa^ sed multum^ or, still better, 
 multum apud multa. The maxim of its rival, following the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 3 
 
 other ideal, would naturally be, simply, multa^ or a selec- 
 tion from amon^ the multa^ in the shape of one or more 
 "specialties" (a "major subject," for example, and one 
 or more "minors.") 
 
 Of the two ideals described, the one suggested by the 
 ancient philosopher would be termed philosophical, and 
 the other — according to the current use of this term — 
 scientific. The former would make the completion of 
 human culture, to which, supremely, as is obvious, the 
 " higher education " should minister, to depend on follow- 
 ing up the acquisition of a sufficient knowledge of the 
 " detached sciences " with a comprehensive view of that 
 harmonious totality which they must constitute and, above 
 all, of that absolute world of " real existence " (including 
 man himself) which they purport to reveal. The latter 
 would encourage the student, as a student^ to ignore all 
 but the most limited " views of totality " and to centre his 
 ambition and energy mainly in the attainment of the most 
 coinplete knowledge of the detailed facts of one or more 
 " special sciences," and of their particular visible relations 
 or "laws." 
 
 It is certain, now, that in each of these ideals of 
 higher education an element is insisted on, that really be- 
 longs to the completed conception of such education. It 
 ought, I think, to be admitted as equally certain, that 
 either of them, taken by itself, and interpreted as exclu- 
 sive of the other, is not merely defective, but fatally so. 
 In other words, each of the elements mentioned is re- 
 quired in order to render the conception of the higher 
 education of man not only formally but substantially 
 complete ; or, each is not merely desirable, but also essen- 
 tial, as a factor of the higher culture, which every student 
 should bear away with him from the University. 
 
 Or, am I wrong in assuming that the supreme end of 
 
4 UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 all education is humane culture — the perfected and 
 rounded development, in each of its subjects, of essential 
 manhood,— and that the like is supremely true of that 
 higher and highest formal education, which it is the recog- 
 nized function of Universities to provide for and direct ? 
 And is it wrong for me to suppose that, among the obliga- 
 tions which rest upon those who, as teachers, or otherwise, 
 are called to take a directive part in the life and work of 
 Universities, the supreme one is, to know, more fully, if 
 possible, than all others, wherein the perfect education or 
 culture of a human being consists, and, so far as in them 
 lies, to see to it that the conditions necessary for its attain- 
 ment are by themselves, as active guardians of the Uni- 
 versity and of its student" patrons, ever vigorously main- 
 tained ? 
 
 There are abundant reasons why the problems sug- 
 gested in the foregoing should receive attention among us 
 at the present time. The chief of these is to be found in 
 the circumstance that, especially within the last decade, 
 and at a number of different centres, the higher education 
 in this country has begun distinctly to take on a new and 
 advanced form, and to be avowedly directed toward the 
 realization of ideals, which are described as the form and 
 the ideals of the " true University." Tlie true University, 
 which is, by hypothesis, something other and more than a 
 high school, college, or technical school, has in the past 
 had no proper existence on American soil ; this is the 
 truth which is now coming to be currently recognized and 
 admitted. Along with this has come the consciousness or 
 conviction that the times are ripe for something higher 
 and better than the best that our educational institutions 
 have in the past been able to oifer ; that the nation needs 
 it ; that the higher practical exigencies of our American 
 civilization demand it ; and that promising students, in 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 5 
 
 sufficient, and, indeed, rapidly growing, numbers, are ready 
 to seek and receive it. To endow new foundations for 
 meeting this need, millions have latterly been given. Old 
 and strong foundations are gathering up their forces for 
 the same end. Others, while distinctly checking the as- 
 piration to occupy the new and higher field, are yet 
 brought sensibly under the influence of enlarged ideals, 
 and this influence extends with moulding eff"ect even to 
 those schools which must always continue to occupy in- 
 ferior grades, but from which the University must always 
 continue to draw its living recruits. And not only is all 
 this true, but also the important practical problems in- 
 volved have been and are receiving earnest attention on 
 the part of those, on whom most conspicuously and directly 
 responsibility rests. Noble and, in my opinion, just views 
 have been publicly expressed by them respecting these 
 problems ; and my object can not be, and is not, to try to 
 do better what has already been done so well, but only, 
 or mainly, to emphasize and develop a little more fully a 
 phase of the general subject, which I think particularly 
 deserves such treatment. 
 
 Let us look for a moment at the University, in its his- 
 toric and intrinsic distinction from the College. 
 
 Colleges first sprang up under the shadow of the 
 mediaeval Universities. The latter, first founded, were 
 devoted to the cultivation of the " universitas literarum et 
 scientiarum " — or the total realm of the intelligent inter- 
 ests of men. They were free and independent centres for 
 the communication, by lectures, of the ripest thought and 
 most advanced knowledge, which men of commanding 
 ability had at their disposal. The attendance, of minds 
 eager to assimilate the best wisdom of their times, speed- 
 ily reached enormous proportions. Soon other Universi- 
 ties were founded under the express patronage of the 
 
" UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 church; and when the students in attendance came to be 
 numbered by thousands and tens of thousands, advantage 
 was taken of the occasion to found " Colleges, i. e. board- 
 ing-schools for poor students, in which lectures of a merely- 
 mechanical nature were given, summae or extracts being 
 dictated to the students to be learned by rote. Persons 
 who had money were also admitted to these lectures on 
 the payment of a certain fee, and so attention was di- 
 verted, gradually, more and more from the public (or 
 University) lectures."* So in time it came about that in 
 England " the Colleges superseded the Universities," as, 
 almost in our own day. Sir William Hamilton discovered 
 to his great indignation and vexation. In Germany, on 
 the contrary, the Colleges, as appendages of the Univer- 
 sity, were early abandoned. But another independent 
 and worthy place was found for them. They could not 
 take the place of the Universities, but they could perform 
 the highlv needful and honorable function of preparing 
 students for the higher and freer studies of the Universi- 
 ties. The mediaeval College idea bore a worthy and im- 
 portant fruit in the German " Gymnasium." 
 
 Whatever defects we may think it necessary to 
 acknowledge in the German University, as actually or- 
 ganized and conducted, it can not be denied that it repre- 
 sents the completest result, to date, of the free and inde- 
 pendent development of the orginal Universitj'- idea. The 
 German University is a place for the freest, fullest, most 
 unrestricted cultivation, communication, and acquisition of 
 any and all knowledge, except, of course, that which is 
 obtained only through actual and active connection with 
 the practical affairs of life. It is a workshop both of uni- 
 versal intelligence and of intelligence specialized almost 
 
 *Brookhaus' Conversations-Lexikon, 11th ed., Art., " Universitaten." 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. i 
 
 ad i?i^nitu7n as regards its subject-matter and direction. 
 Within its walls are considered both the highest and most 
 general and also the most special and humblest of the in- 
 terests of human life which lend themselves to scientific 
 treatment. There forces have been trained and developed, 
 which have permeated, transformed and uplifted, not only 
 the German nation, but also, measurably, the other nations 
 of the civilized world. Through them, more than once, 
 the German people have learned that greatest of all les- 
 sons, the one without which all others are vain, the lesson 
 of self-knowledge. It has learned, I say, in a large and 
 deep measure, to know itself, and in learning this, to know 
 " what it must will,"* and in fact to will and act accord- 
 ingly. The spark, which kindled the spiritual fires of the 
 reformation, was first struck at the University of Witten- 
 berg. It was the Universities, according to the admission 
 of one of the defeated, that conquered at Sadowa and 
 Sedan. 
 
 The forces marshalled in a University for the purpose 
 of instruction and research are distributed, according to 
 the traditional schema, into four faculties the faculties of 
 theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. Of these, the 
 first three are organized with special reference to the re- 
 quirements of preparation for the following of one of the 
 so-called "learned professions." The philosophical 
 faculty alone has no such special aim, and represents, in 
 the organism of the University, most fully and unquali- 
 fiedly the fundamental idea of the University, the idea of 
 the freest and most unrestricted pursuit and promulgation 
 of any and all truth for its own sake alone. But it is not 
 to be supposed that the faculties of theology, law and 
 medicine exist in rigid independence of each other and of 
 
 *It has been finely said of Frederic the Great, " Er weiss was er wollen 
 muss." Trendelenburg, Kleine Schriften, I. 63. 
 
8 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 the philosophical faculty. On the contrary, they are, 
 ideally, offshoots or branches of the latter. In them the 
 University idea is not lost, but simply specified, or partic- 
 ularized. In true University faculties of law, theology, or 
 medicine the special and limited truths, laws, and facts of 
 these several departments of knowledge are not merely, 
 though, for obvious practical reasons, they must be mainly, 
 set forth in their special and limited character. The in- 
 structor, or lecturer, maintains in himself the sense of 
 their universal relations, or of their connection with the 
 realm of all knowledge and of all reality ; and he carefully 
 cultivates this sense in his pupils or hearers. Thus the 
 special school, of whatever name, organized and conducted 
 as a living member of a true University, exercises a liber- 
 alizing influence and fits for a " liberal education " ; its 
 students receive a liberal culture ; and by this sure mark 
 upon their minds and characters its work is distinguished 
 from the best that — unless by accident — is accomplished 
 by a purely " technical school," i. e., by any special school 
 organized by itself and without a close University connec- 
 tion. 
 
 Between this University ideal of human education and 
 the life, work and organization of our American institu- 
 tions for higher education it is a mild statement to say that 
 there has been in the past a decided lack of correspon- 
 dence. The semblance of a University — such has been 
 the rule of the past — and the apparent right to appropriate 
 the name of one have been secured only through the 
 grouping together, in one place and under one board of 
 formal control, of several professional and technical 
 schools or faculties, along with a College and a College 
 faculty. But the relation between the schools and the 
 College has been mainly nominal and external. The Col- 
 lege faculty has not been a " philosophical faculty," nor 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 9 
 
 has the College been qualified to function as the life-giv- 
 ing centre and (to change the figure) the standard-bearer 
 of a true University. And in England the state of things 
 has been no better. 
 
 The English and American College is a mixture and 
 development of elements contained in the mediaeval 
 "College or Boarding-school" and the German Gymna- 
 sium. Says President Gilman, " The College implies, as a 
 general rule, restriction rather than freedom ; tutorial 
 rather than professional guidance; residence within ap- 
 pointed bounds ; the chapel, the dining hall and the daily 
 inspection. The College theoretically stands in loco 
 parentis; it does not afi'ord a very wide scope ; it gives a 
 liberal and substantial foundation on which the Univer- 
 sity instruction may be wisely built." The College stu- 
 dent is treated as being under discipline ; and the College 
 instructor is a disciplinarian. To the former daily tasks 
 are set, of which it is the function of the latter to exact 
 the performance. Neither the one nor the other is free ; 
 . the student is not, for obvious reasons ; and the freedom 
 of the teacher is restricted, for the double reason that his 
 work must, alwciys and necessarily, be in a very considera- 
 ble measure mechanical and that, in proportion as it is 
 sucn, more of it can be and is required of him. 
 
 Of course, what I have said must be taken with such 
 grains of salt as the case may seem to require. Its gen- 
 eral truth is obvious enough. But there are Colleges and 
 Colleges, as we all know, and among them are some, 
 whose rapid growth and expansion, beyond the standards 
 of earlier years, are a matter of common knowledge. It 
 is two or three of the foremost of these that have begun to 
 abandon, if not completely, at least largely or mainly, the 
 restricted aims and conditions of the College and are 
 rapidly adopting those of the University. The College 
 
10 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 faculty is in process of becoming the philosophical faculty 
 of a University. That " freedom of teaching and learn- 
 ing," which the greatest Universities have proudly claimed 
 as their choicest possession, is the ideal, which these Col- 
 leges are seeking by their self-raetamorphosis to approach 
 or realize. 
 
 In addition to the old Colleges referred to, there is a 
 limited number of institutions, of more recent founda- 
 tion, which , adopting from the beginning the University 
 name, have either with growing distinctness acknowledged 
 and with constantly accelerated steps approximated 
 toward the University ideal (as in the case of our own 
 University), or (as in the single case of the Johns Hop- 
 kins University, of Baltimore) have from the start ac- 
 tually carried out, in some most important respects, the 
 University idea, as had not previously been done in this 
 country, and with a degree of success that has deservedly 
 attracted unusual attention. 
 
 It is plain that the problem of true University educa- 
 tion is upon us, and that if any one has anything to say on 
 questions like those formulated or suggested in the begin- 
 ning of this paper, now is the time for him to speak. The 
 University idea is not merely knocking loudly for admis- 
 sion into and full recognition in the arrangements for the 
 higher education in our country. It has already forced 
 open the door. It is already entering, nay, has entered. 
 It may be a welcome or an unwelcome guest; but it is 
 here, and doubtless it has come to stay ; and it is time that 
 any of us whom it concerns — and truly it concerns every 
 thinking man — should consider how we will entertain it. 
 
 It will, I think, subserve my purpose, if, before pro- 
 ceeding to the brief discussion proposed in this paper, I 
 cite some expressions coming from two of those who have 
 been most actively and responsibly connected with the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 11 
 
 work of either introducing or developing University meth- 
 ods and ideals in this country. These expressions respect, 
 as will be seen, the relation of Universities and University 
 education to the formation of character, to politics, relig- 
 ion, and civilization, as well as the more specific questions 
 regarding the particular forms and methods of University 
 work. 
 
 President Elliott, of Harvard University, said, in a 
 public address : "It would be a fearful portent if thorough 
 study of nature and man in all his attributes and works, 
 such as befits a University, led scholars to impiety. But 
 it does not; on the contrary, such study fills men with hu- 
 mility and awe, by bringing them on every hand face to 
 face with inscrutable mystery and infinite power. The 
 whole work of a University is uplifting, refining and spir- 
 itualizing; it embraces 
 
 ' Whatsoever touches life 
 With upward impulse ; be He nowhere else, 
 God is in all that liberates and lifts ; 
 In all that humbles, sweetens and consoles.' " 
 From the public utterances of President Gilman the 
 following extracts may be made: "The object of the Uni- 
 versity is to develop character — to make men. It misses 
 its aim if it produces learned pedants, or simple artisans, 
 or cunning sophists, or pretentious practitioners. Its pur- 
 port is not so much to impart knowledge to the pupils, as 
 to whet the appetite, exhibit methods, develop powers, 
 strengthen judgment, and invigorate the intellectual and 
 moral forces. It should prepare for the service of society 
 a class of students who will be wise, thoughtful, progres- 
 sive guides in whatever department of work or thought they 
 may be engagecf." " The University is a place for the ad- 
 vanced special education of youth who have been prepared 
 for its freedom by the discipline of a lower school. Its 
 
12 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 form varies in different countries. . . . But while forms and 
 methods vary, the freedom to investigate, the obligation 
 to teach, and the careful bestowal of academic honors are 
 always understood to be among the University functions. 
 The pupils are supposed to be wise enough to select, and 
 mature enough to follow the courses they pursue." 
 
 To the foregoing extracts, from men of our own time 
 and country, I add also the following, coming from the other 
 hemisphere, and of earlier date. F. A. Staubenmaier, 
 formerly Professor in the University of Freiburg, in 
 his work on " Universities and the Organism of the Uni- 
 versity Sciences," * calls attention to the profoundly relig- 
 ious spirit in which the Universities were founded. Our 
 ancestors, he declares, in establishing the " High Schools 
 or Universities," professed " to be acting, not of their own 
 motion and in their own name, but rather as instruments 
 of the divine Spirit that controlled them, and consequently 
 in the name of God. Hence they termed the Universities 
 ' workshops of the Spirit of God,' and this in view as well 
 of their origin as of their destination." The sphere of the 
 University, he declares, is " none other than that of human 
 intelligence itself," and " the sphere in which human in- 
 telligence moves is the infinite sphere of truth itself." 
 Universities are concerned with the cultivation, '' not of 
 an isolated portion of truth, but of truth itself in all its 
 extent ; nor with the development of a particular side of 
 the human spirit, but of this spirit in its entirety, or con- 
 sidered in the unity and totality of its developments." "A 
 University is nothing other than the spirit of an epoch 
 raised to its highest potency. It is the intellectual reflex 
 of the life of humanity, considered with reference to the 
 function of cognition. It is the faithful mirror, in which 
 
 *De8 Universites et de Torganisme des Sciences universitalres, etc. 
 Translated [into French] from the German by N. J. Schwartz. Li6ge, 1835. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 13 
 
 man entire — or, humanity — views himself in his true na- 
 ture and his veritable life. In other words, in a University 
 the spirit of man has not only the consciousness, but also 
 the science, of all the relations assigned to it for time and 
 eternity." Open alike to all, whether rich or poor, high 
 or low, without distinction of persons, the Universities 
 could only be the " product of the Christian spirit," which 
 emancipated intelligence by removing the obstacles that 
 the ancient world had placed in its way and bursting the 
 fetters in which it had been bound. 
 
 Finally, Dr. 0. Hoefler, in his address on "The Philo- 
 sophical Faculty," * says : " This constitutes a University 
 what it is, namely, that in it no part [no special science] 
 can dispense with its connection with the rest, or the whole; 
 different parts, or sciences, are connected with, and thus 
 dependent on, each other, either through their content or 
 their method, and all through their inclusion in that higher 
 unity, in the knowledge and comprehension of which true 
 science consists." In like spirit with Staudenmaier, 
 Hoefler regards the University as specifically that one 
 among the institutions organized for the purposes of human 
 education, in which man is to be brought to the full and 
 final knowledge of himself and from which, consequently, 
 men are to be sent forth with the best i3reparation for the 
 direction and management of characteristically human 
 affairs, whether in Church, in State, or in any other of the 
 relations of human life. A University is held by our au- 
 thor to be, not merely a '' scientific institution," but — and 
 this more essentially than any other educational institute 
 — an" ethico-scienti^G " one. 
 
 Comparing these utterances, coming, on the one hand, 
 from some of those who are now taking the initiative in 
 
 * Die philosophische Facultat, ihre Stellung zur Wissenschaft and zum. 
 Staate. Eine Rede. Prag, 1857. 
 
14 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 the development of University education among us, and, 
 on the other, from men standing, as it were, in the midst 
 of that old-world stream of University life and work which 
 has flowed on continuously since the time of its early orig- 
 ination, we observe a general agreement. All unite in 
 ascribing to the true University an ethically uplifting, a 
 " spiritualizing," character. All are at one in the senti- 
 ment expressed in these golden words : " The object of the 
 University is to develop character — to make men." Both 
 the German and the American intrepreter, again, connect 
 with the University the notion of a freedom of intelligence, 
 the one ascribing its origin to a spiritual power that unfet- 
 tered the intelligence of man, and the other finding it to 
 be an essential note of the University that there is per- 
 mitted and exercised in it a freedom, for which prior dis- 
 cipline is requisite. And if the American opinion lays 
 more conspicuous stress on the specialized character of the 
 knowledge to be sought at a University, while the German 
 emphasizes more its universal character, a little reflective 
 consideration may convince one that the difference is more 
 one of inflection, (so to speak,) than of essential thought 
 or intention. In this connection I would add, that the 
 like may be true respecting the two opinions cited and set 
 in contrast at the very beginning of this paper. Certainly, 
 an institution organized so as to enable " any person " to 
 " find instruction in any study " would, at least, not exclude 
 provision for that study, the object of which is intelligence 
 and its objects on their universal side and in their univer- 
 sal relations, or the bringing of all sciences " within the 
 compass of a single survey." And I may add that, as a 
 matter of fact, the guiding powers of the tjniversity, from 
 the words of whose founder my first citation was taken, 
 not only practically understand them in the sense sug- 
 gested,but are also proceeding not without a healthy ap- 
 
UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 15 
 
 preciation of the truth that " any study " ideally and really 
 implies all study ^ or that the spring and life of the special, 
 and the indespensable condition of its educating power, 
 are in the concrete universal^ to an appropriate study of 
 which, accordingly, every University student is to be en- 
 couraged. And Plato's idea of universal or comprehensive 
 intelligence expressly presupposes, as is seen, the previous 
 or accompanying knowledge of many sciences. 
 
 In view of this so general agreement among thought- 
 ful men, in responsible positions, respecting the true char- 
 acter and functions of a University, why do I venture to 
 offer an additional word on the subject? It is, I repeat, 
 because there is one phase of it, which, owing largely, or 
 solely, to special local conditions, needs, in my judgment, 
 especially to be emphasized and developed. I aJlude to 
 the question regarding the distinct place and function of 
 philosophy in the University. On this question, in its 
 practical bearings, we are, I think, on this side of the ocean, 
 less clear than regarding the other one, respecting the right 
 and place of all the special sciences in the University's 
 domain. The healthy tendency of the American mind 
 toward the definite and the (supposed) " concrete," (in 
 opposition to the supposed " barren abstractions of philos- 
 ophy,) and the practical exigencies of our growing national 
 life, have been the united occasion of the far more rapid 
 development among us of special, than of general knowl- 
 edge. In special and technical sciences, America may 
 fairly be said to have rendered, or be rendering, herself 
 illustrious. In philosophy — which is the coordination of 
 all knowledge, the science of science itself, the compre- 
 hension, by intelligence, of its own nature and of its uni- 
 versal relations, with the accompanying power to give to 
 nature her universal interpretation and to define for 
 human life and activity their supreme ideals, whether in 
 
16 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 society, in politics, in the world-life of humanity, in art, 
 or in religion — one may say, without excessive exaggera- 
 tion, that scarcely a beginning has been made. Now, while 
 one of our most esteemed American writers of fiction has 
 recently s^id, that " we are misled most of all by success, 
 which seems the test of merit, but is never given as a re- 
 ward ; it is only the most inscrutable of the dispensations 
 of Providence," yet I think few of us will be diverted by 
 this coruscation of epigrammatic wit from pinning much 
 of our faith to the more vulgar adage, that "nothing 
 succeeds like success." A healthy instinct, which pro- 
 founder knowledge confirms, assures us that, independently 
 of all questions of " merit" and "reward," success is not 
 only the law of nature's operations — science is showing us 
 that the universe is a growing success — but also of human 
 intelligence, when applied seriously, perseveringly, and 
 without bias to the cognition and interpretation of reality. 
 On the like basis is founded our reasonable assurance that 
 the test of real success in the afi'airs of intelligence is to 
 be found in its fruits, or in the accession it bi^ngs to man 
 of power over nature and over himself. Under these cir- 
 cumstances it is no wonder if the men of our generation 
 in our own land, dazzled by the successes of the special 
 sciences, and unable to discover any corresponding or equal 
 fruits of philosophical inquiry, are often inclined to look 
 upon the latter with an indifi"erent or, even, an unfriendly 
 eye. Such persons are likely to think that any success 
 that may have ever, in any place, accompanied the culti- 
 vation of philosophy, must have been ephemeral and su- 
 perficial — a profitless success of mere words, of hair-split- 
 tings, and the like. Fruitful success, they may say, is the 
 test of reality, of importance, of truth. Before claiming 
 a place, and, especially, an all-important place, in the 
 scheme of a great University's life and work, let philosophy 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 17 
 
 first demonstrate its right to do so, by showing, according 
 to the above-mentioned test, that it really exists, as a sta- 
 ble, important, and fruit-bearing science. 
 
 I have thus forcibly stated the grounds of possible hes- 
 itation concerning, or even positive objection to, the em- 
 phatic recognition of philosophy in the organization of the 
 work of our rising Universities, because I am thoroughly 
 in sympathy with the principles involved in them. Unless 
 philosophy can claim and hold her place by a right of the 
 kind above described, her only dignified and reasonable 
 course must be to remain silent. Her praises will never 
 be rightly and effectively sung, until, like the praises of 
 the special sciences, they are sung by others than adepts. 
 Unless the lesson of her worth is, in a sense, known and 
 read of all men, she will make but a sorry appearance in 
 proclaining it herself. In spite of all this, nay, really in 
 consequence of it, I am prepared to urge the indispensa- 
 bleness of philosophic culture as an element in University 
 education. 
 
 However, I become conscious, on reflection, that in the 
 foregoing I have in part been tending toward over-state- 
 ment. The indispensableness of philosophic culture, and 
 all that this implies, as an element in University education, 
 does not really need to be so much urged, as explained. 
 There are few among those, whose life and work bring 
 them into close practical connection with the problems of 
 the higher education, who would meet the claim of philos- 
 ophy for that place in a University that really belongs to 
 it, with such an unqualified challenge as that above sup- 
 posed. It can not be comx)lained that the stream of Uni- 
 versity development, at some of our older educational 
 centres, has been directed into so narrow a channel, that 
 philosophy has been washed ashore. On the contrary, the 
 development of technically philosophical instruction and 
 
18 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 the growth of the philosophic spirit have gone hand in 
 hand with, or have followed closely after, the rapid expan- 
 sion and elevation of other branches of University educa- 
 tion.* And at other centres, of more recent origin, or yet 
 to be created, philosophy has no need to fear that she will 
 be rudely received. The American sense of " fair play," 
 if nothing else, would protect her in her natural rights. 
 Besides, the American mind has already given evidence of 
 qualities that, in my judgment, peculiarly endow it for the 
 creative dexelopraent, as well as the responsive reception, 
 of philosophic truth. Its very tendency, above mentioned, 
 toward the definite, experimental, and concrete, will serve 
 — are already serving — to keep it, when occupied with 
 philosophical problems, from entertaining hospitably those 
 unfruitful, uninstructive abstractions, which have consti- 
 tuted so large a portion of the currency of philosophy 
 among our English-speaking ancestors and contemporaries. 
 That there is at the present time a positive drawing of the 
 American mind toward philosophic study and reflection, 
 is made evident by many phenomena, conspicuous to an 
 observing eye. Abundant reason why this should be so is 
 found — apart from any thing that may be peculiar in the 
 present stage of our national development — in the fact 
 that the American nation is a child of ideas. Religious 
 and political ideas, and ideals, cradled our nation in its in- 
 fancy, and have been the spring and the strength of all its 
 growing life. In no country is character more honored 
 than among us. And nowhere, in spite of all our moral 
 shortcomings, is there a stronger sense of responsibility for 
 the subordination of all things — all victories of science, all 
 conquests of material power, all the relations, all the 
 adornments, of life — to the service of truth, goodness and 
 
 * See Appendix. 
 
UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 19 
 
 beauty ; and truth, goodness, and beauty are the deposit, 
 incarnate in nature, and proposed, through nature and 
 through the nature of man and of his intelligence, to man 
 as the supreme norm and ideal of his conscious and volun- 
 tary activity, that it is the highest function of philosophy 
 to comprehend and interpret. 
 
 The ultimate end of human education is, unquestion- 
 ably, human wholeness, completeness, perfection. The 
 attainment of this end is human self-mastery, and self- 
 mastery is steadfast liberty. Human self-realization is the 
 realization of a not merely formal but substantial freedom ; 
 or, of a freedom that is not simply negative, consisting in 
 the absence of unwelcome interference with one's powers 
 of thought and and action, but positive, and regulated — 
 self- regulated — by a fixed principle within. It is not de- 
 liverance from control, but the positive establishment of a 
 steady and successful self-control. Now, human nature, in a 
 very obvious sense, is a decidedly mixed and varying value. 
 A thousand diiferent springs, of feeling, appetency, desire, 
 volition, are centred in it, and in diverse proportions in 
 different individuals. It is this diversity of proportion 
 that gives to individuality its specific and diff'erentiating 
 color. The end of education can not be to efii"ace this color. 
 Its object is not to introduce a colorless uniformity among 
 men. But the theory of education proceeds on the hy- 
 pothesis that the common end of all men is self-mastering 
 freedom, and that the realization of the latter is condi- 
 tioned on intelligence. The freedom of man is a ''freedom 
 through the truth" — the only complete freedom that is 
 thinkable. In proportion as men attain to this freedom, 
 they are indeed " of one mind," but this " one mind " con- 
 tinues to be reflected in their individual experiences, dis- 
 positions, and characters with hues indefinitely more mul- 
 tiform than those of the rainbow. 
 
20 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 The University, in the order or institutions establishecl 
 for human education, is the one devoted to the fullest and 
 freest cultivation of this universal condition of human 
 freedom. It is devoted to the fullest and freest cultivation 
 of universal intelligence, or to the quest and ^pcognition 
 of any and all truth, and this for the sake of truth alone, 
 and of the freedom which is through the truth. With 
 what reason its intrinsic or immanent end can be said to 
 be " to develop character — to make men," is obvious. 
 
 But the University, as we have seen, is the place 
 where a great variety of so-called " special sciences " — a 
 variety constantly and rapidly increasing — have their 
 natural and rightful home. The " special " character of 
 these sciences is founded on the fact that in each of them 
 inquiry is primarily directed only to some particular phase 
 or department of the whole realm of possible objects of 
 knowledge. Attention is abstracted from all but a special 
 and definitely restricted order of facts, phenomena, or re- 
 lations, to the analytic comprehension of which the in- 
 telligence of the inquirer is particularly directed. The 
 prime object here is not the knowledge of all truth, but of 
 a portion of truth. It is not the development of universal, 
 but of special intelligence. Besides, each one of these 
 sciences subserves some special practical end of human 
 existence, other, apparently, than the universal one of de- 
 veloping character or enabling the adept in it to be 
 simply true to himself and to the nature of man. The 
 student who approaches the special study of it is presumed 
 to have this special end particularly in mind. He chooses 
 his study with reference to its prospective practical bear- 
 ing on the accomplishment of some particular personal 
 ambition or end in life. 
 
 How, now, is the cultivation of special sciences to be 
 connected with, and made subsidiary to, the universal, 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 21 
 
 humane, ethical end of all education ? For it is perfectly- 
 plain that this connection will not necessarily establish 
 itself spontaneously, as it were, and of its own accord. The 
 special sciences may be, for they often are, cultivated with- 
 out any express reference to the end mentioned, and when 
 they are thus cultivated it depends on nothing better than 
 accident whether their bearing on this end shall be merely 
 negative or positively perverting. 
 
 Now, I assert that if the special sciences are to be cul- 
 tivated purely as such, with reference, I mean, only to 
 themselves and to the particular ends or applications 
 which they may subserve, the right place for them is not 
 in a University, but in special technical or professional 
 schools, or in colleges in which various " studies " are 
 grouped together in a loose aggregate, on no higher prin- 
 ciple than that of immediate convenience, and without 
 any pretence of realizing the catholic idea which is fun- 
 damental for the University, the idea of the unity of all 
 truth. Only thus can such cultivation of these sciences be 
 carried on without false pretence and the ethical perils 
 consequent thereon. For, the University idea is this of 
 the essential unity of all truth and the inclusion, as Hoef- 
 ler has expressed it for us, of all sciences " in that higher 
 unity, in the knowledge and comprehension of which true 
 science consists." And the unity of all truth is the fun- 
 damental idea of philosophy. The conception of the Uni- 
 versity is a specifically philosophical one. All sciences 
 have their place in the University because they really bear 
 out this conception, for which reason also the Uliiversity 
 is their only true and perfect home. And it is through 
 the active, virile comprehension and exhibition of all 
 sciences in this their relation to the unity of all truth that 
 not only true mastery of them is demonstrated, but that 
 they acquire their true educational value. 
 
22 UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 It is often cradely said of the special sciences — as if 
 this' were their peculiar and proudest distinction — that 
 they are concerned with " facts." This distinction is not 
 peculiar to these sciences, as contrasted with universal, or 
 philosophic, science. But to be concerned only with facts 
 is a source, not of scientific strength, but of weakness. In- 
 deed, thought occupied with pure fact, were this possible, 
 would not take the first step toward scientific intelligence, 
 comprehension, or real knowledge. It is an old story that 
 facts, taken by themselves, are " brute." To get at them 
 in their (imagined) purity, you must isolate them, and 
 contemplate them in their isolation. But the more you 
 isolate them, the more completely do you cut yourself off 
 from the possibility of comprehending them. It is not the 
 mere apprehension of facts, but the perception of them in 
 their relations, that constitutes science. It is only in their 
 relations that facts are intelligible. Now, it is the un- 
 doubted tendency of special science, as such, to exalt fact 
 and to neglect relation, or, in the technical language sanc- 
 tioned by philosophy, to regard more the "particular" 
 than the " universal." This is a tendency, and a danger, 
 that results from one of the fundamental necessities of 
 special science, the necessity of a division of labor, of 
 restricting the field of individual inquiry, in order to the 
 attainment of the greatest possible " precision of knowl- 
 edge." How real and great this danger is, is forcibly ex- 
 pressed in the following recent utterance of Professor 
 Huxley's: "The man who works away at one corner of na- 
 ture, shutting his eyes to all the rest, diminishes his 
 chances of seeing what is to be seen in that corner; for," 
 he adds, " as I need hardly remind my present hearers, 
 that which the investigator perceives depends much more 
 on that which lies behind his sense organs than on the ob- 
 ject in front of them " The exactest apprehension and 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. , 23 
 
 most careful tabulation of any number of facts does not of 
 itself constitute science. The memory charged with all 
 the contents of an encyclopaedia is a certain preparation 
 for comprehending intelligence, but can not take its place. 
 The complete scientific identity of any the least fact is not 
 established by mere cognizance of the fact, but by the 
 comprehension of its relations. And the lines of its rela- 
 tions run out into all the ends of the universe. " Tota in 
 minimis existit natural You may, as an investigator, 
 make it your special task to investigate nutshells ; but you 
 will never arrive at the end of your work till you find and 
 recognize " tota natura " in a nutshell. This is one of the 
 truths implied in the words quoted from Professsor Hux- 
 ley. It is the truth of the unity of nature — the compre- 
 hension of all "facts" in one whole, in each of which facts 
 the nature of the whole is present and revealed in a specific 
 form. 
 
 The science which has to do with wholes, especially, 
 is philosophy. Philosophy is the science of totality, and, 
 ultimately, of the totality of existence, and this, of course, 
 not in (a really impossible, but oft-essayed) abstraction 
 from the parts, members, or particular " facts " that con- 
 stitute it, but in vital unity and organic identity with 
 them. It is the science of principles, and, ultimately, of 
 the universal principle, in the like vital and concrete re- 
 lation to the varied facts of known reality. And so it is, 
 in aim and tendency, and, I think, in substantial achieve- 
 ment, the science of absolute, or of the universal, reality, 
 viewed as the power and substance of the whole realm of 
 " phenomena." 
 
 It follows from the foregoing that, so far from a schism 
 existing by nature between the special sciences and phil- 
 osophy, the former naturally tend toward, seek, and de- 
 mand the latter for their own completion and perfection, 
 
24. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 while the latter requires the former as the material, out of 
 which, so to speak, its own body is to be constituted. And 
 so it is, that the greatest and most successful efforts at 
 philosophic comprehension have always followed upon and 
 grown out from the more or less vigorous and successful 
 prosecution, during a considerable portion of time, of 
 special and " exact " inquiry. The greatest men of special 
 science have been, and are, among the first to recognize 
 the need of philosophic science. And, on the other hand, 
 the greatest philosophers, the Platos and Aristotles, the 
 Leibnitzes and Hegels, (and I am willing to leave a blank, 
 to be filled up by the ''courteous reader" with the name 
 of any British philosopher whom he may think deserving 
 of mention) have been those whose knowledge of the 
 special facts of nature, man, and history could fairly be 
 termed encyclopaedic. The particular and the universal, 
 not simply repel, they also, and even more irresistibly, 
 solicit each other. 
 
 Thus any study ideally and really implies all study, 
 some science all science, and partial intelligence com- 
 pleted intelligence. Totalit}^ of view, unity in multipli- 
 city, the essential — but not abstract, or numerical — one- 
 ness of the manifold — this is presupposed in all knowledge. 
 The consequence is that he who has taken some steps in 
 the path of such knowledge is moved by the very law and 
 the inherent impulsp of intelligence to generalize, to uni-, 
 versalize, and by an " anticipation of nature " to form and 
 entertain a conception of the totality of nature or of real 
 existence, on the basis and after the analogy of that which 
 he already sees. If the anticipation is premature, not being 
 under the strict control of scientific intelligence, the result 
 will be a one-sided and superficial conception or '' philoso- 
 phy " of nature and all reality, having only the value of a 
 fractional truth, and sure, in its consequences, to bear all 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 25 
 
 the character of a falsehood. Such half-truths, or fragmen- 
 tary conceptions, are the purely " physical," materialistic, 
 mathematical, and mechanical views, or " philosophies," 
 of all existence. To protect students against such crudi- 
 ties should be one of the functions of University instruc- 
 tors. And this is to be done, and can effectually be done, 
 not by discouraging the philosophic tendency, not by 
 placing all comprehensive views under a ban, but by en- 
 couraging them to the utmost and at the same time show- 
 ing, or allowing to be shown, what the truly comprehen- 
 sive and total views are, and how they are to be reached. 
 
 The method of the special and " exact " sciences pre- 
 vents their adepts, as such^ (that is, so long as they 
 rigidly confine themselves to the limitations of what is 
 termed the ••• scientific " method) from carrying these 
 sciences forward into the sanctuary of philosophic inter- 
 pretation and so rendering them ideally complete. This 
 method is abstract, formal, and (the term is to be under- 
 stood in no invidious sense) superficial. It abstracts, in 
 considering the relations of phenomena, from all but the 
 relations of space and time, of co-existence and sequence.* 
 These relations belong, or are held to belong, only to the 
 "form," and not to the essence or substance, of phenom- 
 ena. In this sense they are superficial, or lie on the sur- 
 face of things^ are external to them, mechanical, mathe- 
 matical. So the modern sciences seek methodically to ef- 
 fectuate a provisional divorce between appearance (under 
 the more dignified name of " phenomenon ") and ultimate 
 reality, or between the partial, and apparent or approxi- 
 
 *" The business of science is simply to ascertain in what manner phen- 
 omena co-exist with each other or follow each other, and the only kind of ex- 
 planation with which it can properly deal is that which refers one set of 
 phenomena to another set." (John Fiske, The Idea of God, etc., pp. 101-102.) 
 The foregoing is one of the common-places of the logic of modern " science." 
 
26 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 mate truth of sensible fact and the essential and whole 
 truth as it would appear to complete knowledge. They 
 abstract, in fact or in tendency, from quality, so as to regard 
 only quantity, i. e., quantitative relations.* So they become 
 exact, after the ideal of mathematical exactitude, but at 
 the expense of being abstract and one-sided. 
 
 That which thus constitutes the strength and the merit 
 of the sciences, considered in their special and exact char- 
 acter, marks their limitation and defect, from the point of 
 view of complete intelligence, or philosophy. The rela- 
 tions, which are the immanent soul and life of phenomena 
 and the inner ground of their final explanation and com- 
 prehension, are more than relations of co-existence and 
 sequence. The world is more than one immense and com- 
 plex case of the quantitative '• re-distribution of matter 
 and motion." The diiferences among things — between 
 the so-called inorganic, for example, and the organic, or 
 the natural and the moral — are more than differences of 
 quantitative distribution. That this is so, and that the 
 ground of the complete explanation of all phenomena — 
 that, the knowledge of which would simply be the knowl- 
 edge of the phenomena themselves in their full value and 
 significance — is to be found, if found at all, in an order of 
 relations, by which all quantitative relations are them- 
 selves conditioned, all men, instinctively and practically, 
 if not explicitly and theoretically, recognize. The con- 
 spicuous leaders of British thinking, the Lockes, Humes, 
 Mills, and Spencers, have recognized this. But, the limi- 
 tations of the modern scientific method having, in one way 
 or another, become to their intelligence as a second nature, 
 it has been impossible for them in their treatment of phil- 
 
 *" This which we call exact science is in reality quantitative prevision.'' 
 Science may be " considered as the development of qualitative prevision into 
 quantitative prevision." (Spencer, P&ychology, Vol.1, pp. 339-340.) 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 27 
 
 osophic questions, to go beyond them. The interior truth 
 of nature and of all existence has remained to them a con- 
 fessedly insoluble problem. And their " philosophy " has 
 consisted in the emphatic assertion — it could scarcelj^ be 
 said to have even simulated the form of a demonstration 
 — that the problem was insoluble for all and every human 
 intelligence. And the result has been the familiar nom- 
 inalism, scepticism, subjective idealism, phenomenalism, 
 agnosticism — to mention the diiferent names, under which, 
 alternately, one and the same spectre of philosophical 
 negativism has been paraded — of some of England's "sober 
 thinkers." 
 
 It were a theme worthy, for its instructiveness, of a 
 separate and exhaustive treatment, to trace the connec- 
 tion between the nominalistic negativism of the national 
 philosophy — the seeds of which appear away back in the 
 middle ages — and the early decay and persistently sus- 
 pended animation of the English University. The connec- 
 tion is assuredly not accidental. The national intelligence? 
 in the sphere of theoretic knowledge, having thus willfully 
 and avowedly abdicated its highest function, the Univer- 
 sity, according to the conception of it which we have 
 above had before us, was not only without reason for 
 existing, but unable to exist and be maintained, otherwise 
 than in name. For the University is, as it were, the ex- 
 ternal sign and embodiment of that unity of all science, of 
 which philosophy is the conscious, inward substance. 
 Without positive philosophic science, held in the firm 
 grasp of clear and reasoned knowledge and with mascu- 
 line conviction, the University becomes a mere sign with- 
 out signification, a dead body whose scattered members 
 are no longer held together by the power of a single life. 
 It becomes only a name^ bearing out, thus far, that spectral 
 theory of nominalism which is the sorry fruit of philo- 
 
28 UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 sophical atony. The connection between the sciences be- 
 ing lost, or, rather, not having been once grasped, they 
 may be, and are, cnltivated in the current " exact," but 
 ideally incomplete, way, apart from the common centre of 
 a University, and the problem, how to derive from them 
 their true educational value, remains unsolved. They can 
 be prosecuted and studied from motives of curiosity, or for 
 the sake of prospective material advantage, or even with 
 the higher and purer motive of the special investigator' 
 but their ethical quality, their relation to the development 
 of spiritual perfection in man, is unapparent. 
 
 The knowledge of nature has its distinct and priceless 
 importance for the supreme ends of human education, be- 
 cause nature, like man, is a spiritual value. Such phrases 
 as, " The communion of man with nature," " The reaction 
 of natural conditions on the character of human life," and 
 the like, are not mere phrases without objective meaning 
 (like "Jack and the Bean-stalk "), but the expression of 
 truths of high significance, just because of the real spiri- 
 tual kinship of man and nature. It is in this kinship that 
 the unity of man and nature resides, as it is also on it that 
 the unity of science is founded. Philosophy is the scien- 
 tific comprehension of this spiritual unity, in itself, in its 
 conditions, in its implications. It is by virtue of this its 
 spiritual character that all existence has ultimately, for 
 human knowledge, a dynamic quality, at once real and 
 ideal — nay, real, just because it is ideal, and ideal, be- 
 cause real. It is in this that all things "consent together," 
 so that, in spite of their specific and individual diff"erences, 
 they are yet one, and so that each smallest existence, in 
 the remotest corner of nature, when not merely " seen," 
 but hiown^ becomes a " mirror of the whole universe." It 
 is the instinct of this spiritual unity that is the real motive 
 power of all discovery of the laws of nature. This instinct, 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 29 
 
 to Professor Tyndall, is the " scientific imagination," com- 
 parable to a " lamp, which indeed does not burn and give 
 any light till it has been lighted by the wick of observation 
 and experiment. But the light which subsequently 
 streams forth may, in consequence of the mind's own 
 power, exceed a million times the original light of the 
 wick. Indeed, we may say that the two lights are incom- 
 mensurable: a few apparently unimportant and isolated 
 facts may sutfice, through their effect on the mind, for the 
 development of principles, the range of whose application 
 is incalculable."* To Professor Stuart, of Cambridge, it 
 is the " electric spark of genius," which " calls together " 
 that "mere valley of dry bones," to which he likens even 
 the best-tabulated " facts " and " makes a living body of 
 them."f And it is this that "-lies behind the sense organs " 
 of the investigator, and on which, according to Professor 
 Huxley, " that which the investigator perceives depends 
 much more than on the subject in front of them.";): This 
 instinct, this divining power of the mind, which enables 
 the investigator at the beginning of his labor to put to na.- 
 ture the'"' prude)is quaestio^^ which, is '"' soientiae dlmid- 
 ium^'' is apt, if recognized at all by the ordinary man of 
 science, to be treated by him simply as something " mys- 
 terious." It is a convenient faculty of " subjective 
 thought," an exclusive property or instrument of the 
 thinking inquirer, indispensable indeed for his progress, 
 but without any objective correlate in nature. It is a pri- 
 vate and exceptional means of investigation, to be applied 
 externally in scientifically manipulating the j)henomena 
 
 * From. Professor Tyndall's Lectures on Light, cited in a German work, 
 from wliicli the above is a re-translation. 
 
 iJ. Stuart, A Cliapter of Science ; or, What is a Law of Nature ? Lon- 
 don, p. 22. - 
 
 X See above, p. 22. 
 
30 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 that nature presents to observation, but to which nothing 
 verifiably corresponds in nature herself. For nothing, by 
 the abstract, partial, and arbitrary methods of modern 
 " exact science," is capable of being objectively verified, 
 except bare co-existences and sequences, abstract identi- 
 ties and differences, equalities and inequalities, consid- 
 ered as emptied of all ideality, thought, or dynamic life, 
 and as mere abstract facts of existence. 
 
 But it so happens that now, when the " drift toward 
 Universities " has fairly and finally set in among us, the 
 sense, conscious or blind, of all that is arbitrary, unnatural, 
 and strained in the state of things just described is being 
 developed by the very growth of the sciences themselves. 
 If the development of the doctrine of mechanical evolu- 
 tion has marked a growing, healthful, and necessary ten- 
 dency of mtidern science toward the recognition of the at 
 least formal and mathematical unity of all the sciences, it 
 could at no time but be evident to a really philosoi3hical 
 judgment that the period must rapidly follow, when the 
 need would be felt of going further and recognizing their 
 substantial unity through their common relation to the or- 
 ganic thought that is immanent in all natural existence. 
 That this need is already felt, there is no lack of signs.* 
 And it will be met, if met at all, by the establishment — 
 or, rather, by the re-habilitation, development, and per- 
 fecting — of the philosophy of nature, in which it will be 
 shown that to thought subjective, or " within the mind," 
 answers thought objective, or incarnate in nature; that 
 the sufaciency of the former to fathom, with any degree of 
 success, the latter arises from the fact that both are organ- 
 ically one (man the head of nature, and nature, tc use a 
 
 *One of the most interesting of these is John Fiske's The Idea of God as 
 affected by Modern Knowledge, which has come into my hands during the 
 preparation of the foregoing pages. 
 
UNIVEKSITY EDUCATION. 31 
 
 borrowed figure, becoming "conscious of itself in man "); 
 and that both constitute a growing revelation of the abso- 
 lute tnought of the Perfect, the Divine Being, who is the 
 immanent spring of all their life, and the transcendent 
 goal of all their separate and joint labor. 
 
 Thus I have sought just to intimate how, and with 
 what result, the final, substantial unity of the " detached 
 sciences'' of nature is found in the philosophy of nature, 
 and in this alone. And I have treated of this order of 
 studies at such length for the reason that they absorb, in 
 these days, so large a portion of the interest and attention 
 of inquiring minds. But what I have thus argued, or 
 urged, applies with undiminished force to every order «f 
 study and investigation. 
 
 The upshot of my argument is that, in a University, 
 every student of a special science of nature should be- 
 come conscious of the universal science of nature, and 
 should not cease from his labors until, in addition to a 
 masterly proficiency in following and pursuing the lines of 
 his special investigation, he has something of a really cul- 
 tivated and virile intelligence respecting the spiritual sig- 
 nificance of the whole Cosmos, in which he is placed, of 
 which he is an organic member, and of which the subject 
 of his special investigation is but one aspect abstracted 
 from the whole. In like manner, every student of partic- 
 ular historic events should be trained, or should train him- 
 self, to comprehend the universal logic of events, as an 
 immanent law of spiritual progress, having God, man, and 
 nature for its organic factors. In other words, beside 
 knowing the facts of history, as determined by detailed 
 investigation, he should also know their comprehensive 
 relations and, therein, their largest ascertainable signifi- 
 cance, as exhibited in the x)hilosophy of history. Need I 
 add that the "philological student," to the greatest possi- 
 
32 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 ble knowledge of the phenomena of language and litera- 
 ture — grammatical and rhetorical forms — must add the 
 comprehension of that thought which is their animat- 
 ing soul and substance? Well may he take to heart the 
 words of Schelling : " It is a misuse of terms to call the 
 mere grammarian \^Sprachgelehrte^ a philologist. In 
 the philologist the artist and the philosopher are united. 
 His work is the historic interpretation of the works of art 
 and intelligence." So, too, the student of human laws, of 
 social relations, of political economies, should not stop 
 short of appreciating, in the investigation of lawSy the uni- 
 versal nature of law, in the study of social relations, the 
 universal, ethical character of these relations as founded 
 in the spiritual nature of man, and in the examination of 
 economies (whether actual or theoretical), the instrumen- 
 tal relation of all economies to the ethical ends and 
 grounds of social existence. The student of religions 
 should know the philosophy of religion. And is it too 
 much to suggest, that the student of medicine should aim, 
 not simply at knowing the empirical laws of disease and 
 cure, but also at comprehending, through the philosophy 
 of nature, the philosophy of cure? 
 
 I contend that, in addition to the most exact and most 
 copious practicable information regarding the special facts 
 and empirical laws of his particular studies, the Univer- 
 sity student should be held to the necessity of developing 
 a distinct consciousness of the universal nature of that 
 whole, thought-conditioned world of human experience, 
 to which all facts and laws are related. And it is my no- 
 tion that this latter " consciousness " will, in proportion to 
 its genuineness, not appear as a mere external and arbi- 
 trary addition to the special knowledge, but as growing 
 out of it, the latter being simply completed in the former. 
 For, according to the results of all really positive pliilo- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 33 
 
 sopliic science ever since s^^stematic thought began — as 
 well as according to all the really concrete facts of human 
 experience, when viewed in their wholeness and complete- 
 ness — the universal is not simply separate from the par- 
 ticular, — in our minds, for example, or in the mind of God, 
 — but also immanent in it. The universal is the final 
 truth and reality of the particular itself. 
 
 And the results of such union, in the scientific and 
 •educating work of the University, of the one and the 
 many, the universal and the particular, will be — what? 
 First, and negatively, the avoidance of a certain most 
 grievous sham, or false pretense, which consists in sending 
 forth from the highest sanctuary of human education, with 
 the title of " Doctor," or Teacher, of half-educated per- 
 sons, presenting to the world, as the ostensible products 
 of a liberal education, men, the narrow one-sidedness or 
 specialism of whose training reveals itself in that illiber- 
 alism which consists in the riding of hobbies, the putting 
 of fractional truths of fact in the place of the all-compre- 
 hensive truths of life. In this connection I am glad to 
 <3ite the words of the recent Rector of Marburg, himself a 
 specialist, in his Inaugural Address.* Dr. Schmidt-Rim- 
 pler, after illustrating abundantly the dangerous and even 
 ridiculous effects of extreme and exclusive specialism, 
 urgeji that "in the midst of special studies the inherent 
 ■connection of all knowledge must not be forgotten. Let 
 the hobbies be reserved for the later domestic and private 
 use of those who have first learned to ride fn the saddle 
 of universal, living science! This is the thing to be 
 learned; to provide that it may be, is the first duty of 
 Universities. He who proposes to neglect the univer- 
 
 *Universitat und Specialistenthum. Rede gehalten von Dr. Herm. 
 Sichmidt-Rimpler, Professor der Medicin, etc., 1881. 
 
 3 
 
34 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 sal side of knowledge and devote himself at once to a 
 thoroughly special subject, does not need the University at 
 all. He will do better to enter into apprenticeship under 
 some master, it matters not whether his workshop be 
 called Hospital, Laboratory, Library, or Study !" 
 
 Secondly, and positively, the result, as I predict, will 
 be the realization of the more comprehensive aim of the 
 University, which is the development in its members — 
 along with symmetrical and catholic culture — of intellec- 
 tual and moral self-mastery, and the contril)ution to church 
 and state, to science, literature, political life, and religion,, 
 of leaders capable of recognizing the true ideals and of in- 
 telligently and effectively directing the nation's energies 
 to their accomplishment. 
 
 But can this substantial, ethical result be anticipated,, 
 under conditions such as those that have been hereinbe- 
 fore described ? Can it be expected, without more speci- 
 fically ethical and religious study and training^ The last, 
 in any well-regulated feast, is "always the best. And 
 though I liave not the temerity to liken this discussion to a 
 feast, the rule holds good here. I Mo indeed hold, not,^ 
 certainly, as a merely personal opinion, but as one of the 
 highest truths of science, that the intrinsic condition, and,, 
 rightly understood, the extrinsic completion, of all true 
 and perfect science is ethical and religious. By ethical 
 knowledge I understand the broadest and completest and 
 deepest human self-knowledge, and by religious knowledge 
 the comprehension of that saying, in which all religion 
 and philosophy are summarily expressed, "The Spirit is 
 Truth." In the former I conceive the individual as know- 
 ing himself, not alone in his i^ersonal peculiarities or in 
 his individual diiferences from all other men, but also, and 
 much more, in his organic unity with all' existence — with 
 nature, with humanity, and, in proportion to his perfec- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 35 
 
 "tion, with God. In the latter I conceive him as becoming 
 ^ware of his supreme connection {'■''religio''') with God, 
 the absolute and universal Spirit, as the eternal ground of 
 the sufficiency of his own thought (2. Corinthians, 3: 5) 
 and of his own and all other being, and as the final law 
 and goal, of all his self-directing activity. And both of 
 these, I repeat, speaking in the name, not only of concrete 
 and historic fact, but also, and especially, in the name of 
 the demonstrations which philosophic science has accom- 
 plished and which it has in the future still further to per- 
 fect, are the natural completion of all other knowledge, 
 and not a merely external and ideally irrelevant addition 
 to them. There is no science whatever, which, taken in 
 its ideal wholeness and completeness, is "godless." There 
 are, indeed, "sciences" which are abstract and special, and 
 whose abstract and special character consists i3recisely in 
 the circumstance that in them, provisionally and for spec- 
 ial purposes, abstraction is made from the fundamental 
 conditions and supreme ends of all science^ and from the 
 sphere of "real existence" considered as a whole, while 
 attention is methodically confined to a particular sphere 
 or aspect of phenomena and to the rules of order that are 
 found to hold good among them. But when, abstracting, 
 so to speak, from the foregoing arbitrary abstraction, the 
 very lines of any special science are followed up to their 
 ideal termination in the unity of all sciences, they are 
 found to be connected, without a break, with the larger 
 ethical and religious knowledge above mentioned. And 
 so, in the name and in the form of philosophic science I 
 would have special ethical and religious knowledge culti- 
 vated in the University for every reason, for the sake of 
 the ideal completion and the educating power of all other 
 sciences, for their own sake, and for the sake of their im- 
 mediate unity with the highest aim of all human educa- 
 
36 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 tion. And so will the University become in fact a "work- 
 shop of the Spirit of God." 
 
 The view taken in this paper implies that, in addition 
 to a competent force of special teachers of philosophy^ 
 the University should possess in every member of its 
 teaching staif a person permeated with the philosophic 
 spirit and enlightened by a truly philosophic culture. Can 
 such teachers, of philosophy, in particular, and then of 
 the varied special sciences, be had ? This is, in a sense, an 
 irrelevant question. The main point is, that they must he 
 had, if the real University is to exist. And in the midst 
 of all our plans and ambitions for the development of the 
 University among us, we must have this indispensable con 
 dition constantly in mind. My own conviction is that the 
 condition will be fulfilled. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 At Harvard College, in the academic year 1860-1861, 
 there was a ''Professor of Christian Morals" and a "Pro- 
 fessor of Natural Religion, Moral Philosophy, and Civil 
 Polity." The courses of instruction were announced as 
 follows : 
 
 Religious Instruction (first half of the Freshmen 
 year). Whately's Morals and Christian Evidences. 
 
 Logic and Philosophy (Senior year,first term). Bo wen's 
 Ethics and Metaphysics. Thomson's Outline of the Laws 
 of Thought. Hamilton's Metaphysics. Forensics. 
 
 Philosophy (Senior year, second term). Butler's Ser- 
 mons and Analogy. Bowen's Political Economy. Ham- 
 ilton's Logic. Forensics. 
 
 Now (1885-1886) there are three full "Professors of 
 Philosophy'' and one Assistant Professor of Philosophy at 
 Harvard. In addition to the courses of instruction offered 
 by them, the "Parkman Professor of Theology" gives two 
 courses on religions philosophy and ethics. Political 
 Economy, or the "Civil Polity" of 25 years ago, consti- 
 tutes now a separate department of instruction, in which 
 ten courses are offered, by three instructors. The courses 
 in philosophy, according to the catalogue of the current 
 year, are now as follows : 
 
 1. History of Philosophy. — Ferrier's Lectures on 
 Greek Philosophy. — Outlines of Modern Philosoph3^ — 
 Lectures. (Three times a week.) 
 
 2. Psychology and Logic. — Bain's The Senses and 
 
38 APPENDIX. 
 
 the Intellect. — Jevons's Elementary Lessons in Logic. 
 (Three times a week.) 
 
 3. Elementar}^ Philosophy in connection with ethical 
 and religions questions. — Royce's Religious Aspects of 
 Philosophy. — ^Lectures. (Three times a week.) 
 
 •1. Ethics.— Earlier English Ethics. — Mill's Utilitari- 
 anism. — Kant's Theor}^ of Ethics. — Lectures and Theses. 
 (Three times a week.) 
 
 5. English Philosoph5^ — Locke. — Berkeley. — Hume. 
 (Three times a week.) 
 
 0. Earlier French Philosophy, from Descartes to 
 Leibnitz, and German Philosoph}^ from Kant to Hegel. — 
 Lectures. (Three times a week.) 
 
 7. German Philosophy of the Present Day.— Scho- 
 penhauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. — ^^Hart- 
 mann's Philosophie des Unbewussten. — Lotze's Metaphy- 
 sik. (Three times a week. Omitted in 1885-86.) 
 
 13. Modern Discussion of the Philosophy of Nature. 
 — Spinoza. — Modern Monism. — Spencer's Theory of Evo- 
 lution. (Three times a week.) 
 
 8. Hegel's Phanomenologie. (Once a week. Omit- 
 ted in 1885-86.) 
 
 9. Scecial Advanced Study and Experimental Re- 
 search in Phychology. (Once a week.) 
 
 10. The Philosoph}^ of Religion. — Lectures. (Once 
 a week.) 
 
 11. The Practical Ethics of Modern Society. — Studies 
 of Social Reforms, Temperance, Charity, Labor, Prison 
 Discipline, Divorce, etc. — Lectures and Essays. (Once a 
 week.) 
 
 12. Philosophical Theism, — History of the chief 
 philosophical controversies about the Being and Nature of 
 God. — Discussions and Theses. (Three times a week, for 
 one-lialf year. Omitted in 1885-86.) 
 
APPENDIX. 39 
 
 The University of Michigan, twenty-five years ago, 
 had one teacher of philosophy, who was also the President 
 or "Chancellor" of the University — Dr. Tappan, well 
 known through his books as an able logician and metaphy- 
 sician. According to the Catalogue of that date, he gave 
 instruction in "philosophy'' to the students five times a 
 week throughout the Senior Year, by means of "Text- 
 books and lectures." 
 
 To post-graduate students Chancellor Tappan offered 
 the following courses : 
 
 First Semester: History of Philosophy. I. Locke 
 and the Developement of the Sensational School. II. 
 The System of Kant, and the Developement of the Ger- 
 man Speculative School. 
 
 Second Semester: History of Pliilosophy. I. Reid, 
 and the Common Sense School. II. Hamilton as the Ex- 
 pounder of Reid. III. Cousin, and Eclecticism. 
 
 But the Catalogue does not indicate that there were 
 were any post-graduate students at the time when these 
 courses were offered. 
 
 At present the University of Michigan has one Pro- 
 fessor of Philosophy and one Instructor in Philosophy, 
 and the courses in philosophy, as announced in the Calen- 
 dar of the present year, are the following : 
 
 FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 1. Emi^irical Psychology. Murray's Hand-book of 
 Psychology. (Three times a week, in two sections.) 
 
 2. Real Logic, or the Principles of Philosophy. 
 Lectures. (Three times a week.) 
 
 4. The History of Philosophy: Ancient and Medi- 
 aeval. Lectures. (Three times a week.) 
 
 7. Seminary (Plato's Republic.) (Twice a week.) 
 
40 APPEiilDIX. , 
 
 8. The Philosophy of the State and of History. 
 Lectures. (Twice a week.) 
 
 11. Aesthetics; or, the Philosophy of the Beautiful 
 in Nature and in the Products of Human Art. Lectures. 
 (Twice a week. Omitted in 1885-86.) 
 
 12. Experimental Psychology. Lectures. (Twice a 
 Aveek.) 
 
 SECOND SEMESTER. 
 3. Formal Logic. Jevons's Lessons in Logic. (Twice 
 a week, in three sections.) 
 
 5. The History of Philosophy : Modern. Lectures. 
 (Three times a week.) 
 
 6. Ethics, historical and theoretical. Lectures. 
 (Twice a week.) 
 
 9. Seminary. Hegel's Logic. (Twice a week.) 
 
 10. The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Lectures. 
 (Twice a Aveek.) 
 
 13. Speculative Psychology. Lectures. (Twice a 
 week.) 
 
 14. Seminary. Aristotle's Ethics. (Twice a Aveek.) 
 Here, too, as at Har\^ard, political economy and cog- 
 nate subjects, once falling within the province of the pro- 
 fessor of philosophy, are now represented by a distinct 
 corps of instructors. 
 
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