Mtt ^>^!f^^^^. jD V/iN MOSTRBNB CO. ZS MUftRRY ST. O o o H Z UJ I- < a. CO How TO Make Inventions; OR, INVENTING kl A MIGNGE AND AN ART. J PRACTICA L GUIDE FOR INVENTORS. EDWARD P. THOMPSON, M.E., Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers ; Member, an Examiner and an ex-Manager American Institute of Electrical Engineers ; Member New York Electrical Society. ILLUSTRATED BY WILLIAM A. COURTLAND. SECOND EDITION. Revised and Enlarged. New York : D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., 23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets. \\n=^ / TO THE United States Patent Office, THIS EDITION IS DEDICATED. First Edition, Copyrighted^ i8qi^ \ j^y Edward P. Thompson. Skcond Edition, Copyrighted^ i&pj, I CONTKNXS Chapter. Page. I Invention, the Greatest Science in the World I II The Foundation of the Science of Invention 2 III The Primary Power for Driving an Inventor 3 IV How to Learn What to Invent 3 V Hindrances to the Progress of Invention 6 VI Suggestive Ideas 7 VII The Initial Step 15 VIII Making and Developing Mechanical Inventions. 18 IX Making and Developing Scientific Inventions 27 X Acoustic Principles as Tools for Making Scientific Inventions. . - •i34 XI Principles in Heat and Light as Tools for Making Scientific Inventions 38 XII Principles in Chemistry as Tools for Making Scientific Inventions 57 XIII Principles in Electricity as Tools for Making Scientific Inventions gi XIV "I've got an Idea." 128 XV Failure and Success , 138 XVI Simultaneous Inventions 144 XVII Simplicity the Result of Specific Invention 146 XVIII The Age of Invention. — A Cause of Invention "147 XIX The Government Favorable to Inventors 149 XX Invention and Capital ^i 153 XXI Accidental Inventing Exceptional "'i54 XXII Women Inventors 158 XXI i I Problems in Invention 160 XXIV Conclusion ; Generation of Inventive Power 170 KRRATA. On^page 7, line 9 from bottbm, change " Army " to " Navy." On^'page 14, line 6 from top, change "more" to " less." On^page 17, line 9 from bottom, change " is " to " are." On page 89, line 16 from top, change " mometarily "to " momentarily. On pages 71 to 86, heat is necessary to produce nearly all reactions in- stead of only a few. Prkkack. IN early days, inventive power was attributed to the devil ; later, to the direct intervention of divine power ; later, to a special gift, whose source is not definitely asserted, and at present, according to indications, to means forming the subject matter of this treatise. "Heaven helps those who help themselves." The object of this book is to establish inventing as a science, and to treat it as a mental art or profession. Since the appearance of the first edition, no claimant has alleged priority in this field, while reviewers have alluded prominently to the novelty of the work. The author believes that the sooner inventing is recognized as a science and an art, and as due to a power which can be cultivated and enlarged, the following benefits will eventually ensue : — (i). A higher type of inventor. (2). Establishments or professional offices where manufacturers and the public may apply for the solution of in- ventive problems. (3). More rapid progress, so that the results now imagined for the twenty-first century may be expected in the twentieth. (4). More lit- erature on the subject of invention as a basis for the growth of the science. Valuable literary contributions, consisting of favorable opinions. More facts and principles now hidden and a more complete and comprehensive formula- tion of laws relating to the inventive power. (5). The establishment of greater confidence in one's power of inventing which in itself is one of the best stimulants. (6). The eradication of future duplicate inventions. If in- ventors study the science of invention as they do other sciences, they are better informed. They know more of what they ought to know. They are less likely to re-invent what has already been invented. (7). Less "cranks" and more genuine inventors. (8). Better treatment of poor inventors. The first edition was favorably received by the higher class of critics, but the less competent, and I am glad to say only one opposed the idea of science, or system or method of inventing. To that editor, who I learn is in the habit of agreeing with everything long established, and scouting everything new, and to all others who are inclined to be dubious on this point, I answer upon the authority of Bacon, and by a quotation from his Novum Oganon, section 108, Book the First : "If men who were not seeking for them, but were engaged in something else, have nevertheless found out many useful discoveries, by some chance or circumstance ; no one can doubt that men if they did seek for them, and engage themselves upon them, and that too, methodically and orderly, not by fits and starts, and desultorily, would neces- sarily discover far more things. For though it may happen once and again that any one has hit upon that by chance, which hitherto had escaped him, though he sought it with great effort and diligence, yet generally the contrary is doubtless the case. And so, far more and better things, and at less inter- vals, are to be hoped from man's reason and industry direct method and application, than from chance and animal instinct, and the like, which up to this time have originated discoveries." By " discovery," Bacon includes in- dustrial invention for, in the next paragraphs, he refers to the common silk thread, the sewing needle, and the art of printing. In a similar manner Bacon had "hope" that Chemistry, Physics, Geology, etc., would become matters of system and method, and therefore would advance with greater rapidity. Everyone knows the result. How like a prophet! He had a hope, as he says, founded on reason and facts. That hope is now realized, as to the physical sciences. How soon will the hope as to the recognition and estab- lishment of systematic, logical and scientific inventing be realized by man! As stated in the first edition, the author's object is to make a mere beginning in the establishment of inventing as a science. This second edition is a con- tinuation of the effort by the addition of new principles, facts, theories, laws, opinions, experience and revision of similar existing elements of the first edition. By study of Chemistry, many become chemists ; of Botany, botanists ; and so on, and by study of the science of Invention, it is reasonable to conjecture that many may be better prepared to make inventions ; hence the leading title of this book, which is primarily intended for those who are desirous of becoming systematic inventors and of knowing all that inventors should know ; and for scientists and curiosity readers secondarily. If the leading title were " The Science of Invention," the latter class of men would be attracted to the book more than the former which is not so desirable, because the former by their inventions can be of more service to mankind. The general style adopted in this book is that of a lecture, and therefore, it is hoped that the use of personal pronouns may be overlooked. The author's earlier contributions on the same general subject are articles in the Electrical World during or about 1884, and a paper before the New York Electrical Society, delivered in the hall of the American Society of Me- chanical Engineers and American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1890, and printed in the Electrical Engineer, in extracts, and in the Commercial Advertiser, New York. The first one hundred and twenty pages were printed from plates made for the first edition. This will explain to those acquainted with the art of printing, why new cuts and revisions are found in subsequent pages only. The principles in physical science set forth in certain chapters are good for years, as only facts or principles {i. e. , truth) and not theories or crude apparatus, are presented. Example. "Variation of pressure of carbon con- tacts vary an electric current," is a truth settled probably for ages ; but the chapter on " The Government Favorable to Inventors," and especially that part relating to foreign patent protection is liable to change, and therefore it is asked that future readers take into account the date of publication. As to the chapter on " Failure and Success," the profits quoted are probably much exaggerated in individual cases ; but they may safely be taken as an illustra- tion that quicker fortunes are made through inventions either by inventors or promotors of inventions than by any other class. It is argued often that there is more failure than success in connection with inventions. This is also true as regards any business. Greatly over one-half of business enterprises fail ; but how foolish it would be to become discouraged and inactive in busi- ness on this account. Emerson says that a sensible man makes no apology. No apology is made for the advertisements in this book. Where would Harper's Magazine and other valuable literature be, but for advertisers. 5 Beekman St., N. Y. e. p. t. CHAPTER I. Invention, the Greatest Science in the World. Tatham has said : — " Invention is the happiness of man." Edison has said that he is happiest while inventing. The Book of Truth says : " It is more blessed to give than to receive." Inventors may say : — " We give to the world more than we receive. We are happy in inventing. We have often become poor while the world has become rich by our inventions. Even when we have made our thousands, the world has netted its millions." Of all the physical and mental sciences, which is the great- est in the world ? Is it Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Physi- ology, Mineralogy, Geology, Electricity, Mental Philosophy or Metaphysics ? Most emphatically. No ! The sun furnishes light, but of what value is the light if we use it not? The sci- ences just named furnish knowledge. Of what value is knowledge if it is not used ? Invention is the greatest science, if measured by its usefulness to mankind, because it gives to the world the practical benefit of the other sciences. It is the sci- ence which applies knowledge to useful purposes. Without invention. Chemistry and Physics are practically worthless. Physics says: — " Heat expands." Invention applies this principle and builds a steam engine whose power is due to the expansion of water by heat. Chemistry and Mineralogy result in the dis- covery of phosphorus and sulphur. Invention makes the match, one of the most useful and wonderful and almost magic-like inventions ever made. Physics teaches that speaking vibrates the air and diaphragms, and that an electric current can be rapidly varied from zero to maximum and from maximum to zero. Invention iipplies these principles to the electrical trans- mission of speech. Geology exhibits the structure of the earth. Invention produces thousands of Green's driven wells. CHAPTER II. The Foundation of the Science of Invention. Ever since the time of Bacon, any given science has been developed by classifying facts and establishing principles thereon. Before the time of Bacon, little progress was made in any sci- ence because principles were proclaimed and then facts sought to uphold the principles. The new process of Bacon is called the inductive system of developing a science ; and the earlier process, the deductive system. The development of a science by searching for and record- ing facts and establishing principles, does in itself assist the science to grow ; thus, the science of Physiology, having been recorded in publications under classified principles, enables each future generation of physicians to acquire easily the principles, and to add, from time to time, valuable facts which either strengthen old principles or show their fallacy. The science of Chemistry forms the knowledge of the chemist, who, knowing it in its present condition, can make use of the experience of others, and add to its records, because he knows the record of the past. So, also, with the more abstract sciences, as those of Political Economy, the Sciences of Civilization, Religion and Psychology. Before the time of Bacon, any one who desired to add to the knowledge of the world worked in the dark. He knew little because the knowledge before him was not intel- ligently and conveniently collected and classified for his use. Philosophical speculations occupied more time, and were considered more valuable than experiment. The Royal Society in olden times spent several meetings in discussing whether a pail of water, with a dead fish in it, weighed more or less than a pail of water containing a live fish. Finally, a member who was certainly ahead of his age, boldly and unexpectedly settled the question by actually weighing the pail of water under the two conditions. An inventor, who expects the greatest success in conceiving and developing an invention, should be acquainted with princi- ples of inventing, based upon facts evolved by the study of former inventions ; or else he works in the dark ; trusts to get- ting his ideas by accident ; or leaves his inventions in such a crude state as to render them practically worthless. The sci- ence of Civilization deals with the greatest events of history ; drawing therefrom the principles upon which the science is based. This book attempts similarly to establish the science of Inven- tion upon the history of the greatest inventions and inventors. 3 CHAPTER III. The Primary Power for Driving an Inventor. In becoming a business man, a professor, an electrical engi- neer, or engaged in any occupation, the first requisite is to have a love for it. If a youth is to be a lawyer, he should first determine if he believes he would enjoy that profession. If he is to prepare for college, he must first determine if he prefers a profession to a business career. Having decided what he likes, let him proceed with a concentration of all his energies, and he is sure, nine times out of ten, to succeed. The very enjoyment of his work, and belief in his own power to succeed, will do more for him than any other one element, because all other ele- ments are comparatively useless without well-directed and honest ambition. Love of inventing may be natural or acquired. It grows with practice. The more one invents, the more he loves to con- tinue. The natural love of cyling or playing games grows until it may be said to be acquired. The more one invents, the more he loves that employment. CHAPTER IV. How TO Learn What to Invent. Before the introduction of the telegraph system, the quickest communication of ideas between two points of considerable distance was by post, express or special messenger. Great in- convenience was the consequence and often ensued the loss of money and non-fulfillment of duties and obligations, in cases of death and important business transactions. Everything was done by the government and private corporations to provide means for lessening the time for transmitting messages. The public realized the importance of saving time. Probably thou- sands of people realized the inconvenience and injury done by slowness of transmission. Every one, substantially, may be said to have recognized the inconvenience, the trouble and the dif- ficulty. They knew that it would take days and even months for their letters to reach certain parts of the world. They knew that in the case of death of one of the family the funeral would occur before those at a cer- tain distance could receive the news. They knew that when a great event, such as a battle, was expected to take place in a foreign country, ten days or more would elapse before they could learn the result. They knew that during a journey of a colleague on important business through the country they could know his whereabouts and successes and failures with from one day to several weeks' delay. In short, they were strongly con- vinced of the existing difficulty. They had no doubt as to the usefulness of any means which would remove the difficulty. Some were resigned as if to a fate. Others hoped and even pre- dicted wonderful improvements. But who was it that not only realized the difficulty, but had faith that the trouble could be removed ? Who was it that not only talked with friends on his homeward ocean trip about the inconvenience of slow transmis- sion of messages, and not only believed in a remedy, but ex- pressed in words that he believed the difficulty could be re- moved ? He talked with others more educated than himself in order to glean knowledge and make use of it for the public. This is a fact, therefore, based upon history, that Morse, the in- ventor of the telegraph, recognized the existence of a certain need in the world, and not only that, but also believed there was room for improvement ; and on top of this knowledge and belief he had faith, and followed up his faith by diligence and actual work. This fact is apparent also in the study of other inventions. It is the public that realizes the existing difficul- ties, while it is the inventor who follows up his belief by his diligence. Take the case of the invention of the telephone. The public appreciated the value of the telegraph for communi- cating from one part of a country to another, but to telegraph from one part of a city to another amounted to little more than sending a special messenger. It was the inventor who not only recognized the difficulty, but also undertook a personal task of removing it. The public realized the danger of boiler explosions. In- ventors did also, but they went further and undertook to prove that they could remove the difficulty, and as a result invented the safety valve and improvements of construction and opera- tion, whereby most boiler explosions of the present date — which are exceedingly scarce in proportion to the number of boilers — arise from sheer carelessness. Public opinion at one time, and only lately, denounced electric arc lighting, because it was dan- gerous. The cry against high tension currents aroused inventors to a belief in means for eliminating the danger, and they have already and almost perfectly succeeded, whereby the accidents are fewer in actual number, although the circuits have increased hundreds of miles. Among smaller, but very important inven- tions, may be mentioned the crank-and-gearing combination with shutters or blinds. People were aware of the danger of catching a cold, letting in flies and mosquitoes, and of other difficulties connected with shutting the blinds. The inventor also realized the difficulties, but in addition believed that he was the one to remedy it, the result being means for operating shutters by merely turning a small crank inside of the house. A study of the invention of the spring roller for window shades, from which fortunes have been made, exhibits the same fact. The principle derived may be stated thus : Any given individual takes a step toward becoming, or im- proving himself as an inventor, who studies the need of the public ; learns the difficulties connected with that department of art or industry in which the need exists ; excites his mind with the belief that he can provide means to remove the difficulties ; and proceeds with diligence toward the solution of the problem. The truth of this principle is strengthened by its negative aspects. Suppose the first step should be not to study the need of the public. The consequence would follow in many cases, in the production of useless inventions — /. ^., those which ac- complish results not wanted. This often does occur. As an illustration, parlor skates may be mentioned. An inventor of an improved roller skate for to-day is an inventor of that which has no market, as skating rinks have gone out of fashion and lost their popularity. It is something which the public does not want at present, even though it did formerly pay a tribute of many thousand dollars to the early inventors and improvers of the parlor skate. The second element of the principle before stated consists in learning the difficulties connected with that department of art or industry in which the need exists. If there is any one difficulty in connection with any depart- ment of art, the would-be inventor may be sure of reward if he succeeds in overcoming the difficulty. How is he to become aware of the difficulty ? He is to make a business or study to this end. If he is engaged with a manufacturer he can daily become acquainted with difficulties which prevent the manu- facturer from clearing as much profit as he should. At one time so much trouble was experienced at sea by the untimely jump- ing of the safety valve that steam navigation was well nigh abandoned. The engineer of the boiler manufacturer viewed the difficulty as something to be overcome, and solved the same by substituting a spring for the weight which controlled the valve. If he is a student or scholar, of science, he can become acquainted with difficulties by studying any particular art.^ If he is a business man he can learn difficulties by the habit of observation of difficulties met with by himself, In connection with his own business, any man can learn some difficulty if he will only keep his wits about him and be on the lookout. He may meet it in traveling, in business, in his home, in his con- versation with others, in the newspapers and in other directions. At the present moment exist problems well known to many, but yet unsolved, and of all degrees of magnitude, and in all depart- ments of every art. Since the learning of difficulties is one of the elements of the first principle underlying the science of in- vention, it seems but proper that some should be given at least for the sake of illustrating what is meant by a " difficulty " for an inventor to solve. This matter is treated in the chapter on "Problems in Invention." CHAPTER V. Hindrances to the Progress of Invention. Some are desirous of being inventors. They know they have a love for it. They admit that there is room for improvement and for original invention. They have studied the principles of science or of a particular art. They believe that others may and will invent. Ask them why they do not invent. The invari- able reply is that they believe they possess no genius or inven- tive faculty. They imply that some have been born and gifted with what they have not. This is not true. Every man has more or less power of inventing. Every day every one busily occupied uses his power or faculty of inventing when he plans, in imagination, his business of the day, or whenever he thinks of the best way of carrying out an idea. Let one once believe that he does possess the power to invent and it will not be long before he will know that the field of invention is shut against none. From observation I conclude that the following princi- ple is true : A belief of an individual that he himself does not possess genius or the power to invent is, in itself, a hindrance to the action of that power. The corollary which follows is : An individual who will admit that he possesses a power of inventing, to a greater or less extent, may become an inventor by the proper use of his knowledge. Suppose that the inventor of the device for thread- ing needles insisted previously upon the assumption that he had no genius. He did not so assume. Consequently he received an annual income of $10,000 from the sales of his patented needle-threader, which was at one time so popular a device. The inventor of the roller skate cleared nearly $1,000,000, al- though during only the last few years of the term of the patent. Will any civilized white man assume he has no inventive faculty or genius when it is a fact that the Patent Office re-\ cords shov/ that colored men are inventors ? I am personally acquainted with a colored man who has not only made electrical inventions and received letters patent of the United States, but has sold the same. His extreme confidence in his ability to invent is easily apparent to those who know him. Some of his inventions show a high type of invention ; therefore it seems but proper that due honor should be given by mentioning his name., I refer to Granville T. Woods, formerly of Cincinati, Ohio. CHAPTER VI. Suggestive Ideas. While I admit the plausibility of an inventor's working ex- clusively upon one subject, yet it is often true that he remains too long in one line of thought or channel. A certain inventor (Catling) failed in protecting a successful screw propeller, after working upon that subject for a long time ; but as soon as his attention was drawn to another line of work (guns) his enthu- siasm revived and he soon made a commercial success. Frank J. Sprague stated at a meeting of the American Institute of Elec- trical Engineers, that upon his hearing of the great success of Brush, Thomson, Edison, and others in electrical inventing, he concluded there was room for him also, and therefore made valu- able inventions, left the Army, and, as is well known, in a won- derfully short time succeeded both scientifically and financially. If success does not follow after a reasonable time in any given direction, try other departments. It has often been stated that the way to invent is to think, and keep on thinking. It is almost impossible for one to think unless he has whereof to think. He must receive certain im- pressions from without before he has anything upon which to concentrate his mind. In short, as in all cases where good is to be obtained, inventing involves systematic and diligent mental and bodily work. The inventor must be given a suggestive idea. Probablv an invention was never made except by receiving some kind of impression from outside of the mind. By study- ing past inventions and inventors it is found that certain sug- gestive ideas have prompted inventors over and over again, and continue to give to the world greater and greater reward. The following-headed paragraphs contain some of those suggestions which have heretofore prompted inventors: A device to do automatically that which has been done by hand. — An early example is that of the eccentric. A boy was obliged to turn a valve to let in the steam at each stroke of the piston. A later example is an automatic device which, exactly at the end of five minutes, in a long distance telephone system, cuts off the subscriber's line from use. The operators are apt to give subscribers too long. Such inventions are among the most valu- able known. They save cost of manual labor, prevent injury and accident due to neglect of man, and often do the work much better. Progress of invention in this direction can be made by taking note of what is at present done by hand, and considering if it would not be advantageous to have a device which will accomplish the s?.me thing automatically. The work- ing out of a device to do it usually requires only ordinary intel- ligence. As soon as the boy wanted to go out to play ball and not let the steam engine stop, it occupied but a short time to rig up a string and lever between the valve and one of the mov- ing parts of the engine and make the engine take care of itself. To make this class of invention, therefore, closely observe what is at present done by hand in the different departments of manu- facture, electrical installations, commercial traffic, at home, on the street, railroad, and everywhere. Again, if three motions of the hand are necessary to operate an apparatus, try to make the device attend to some of those motions. Preventing Loss of Life and Property. — When a serious catas- trophe occurs on a railway system, in the street, or anywhere, it is the duty, or at least the function, of an inventor to study into the cause of the accident and discover, either by personal in- spection, by official reports, or by the most reliable means at hand, the exact details of operation of the system before, dur- ing, and after the accident. An invention which will in prin- ciple prevent the same kind of accident in the future is that which is likely to become useful when fully developed and ap- plied. This has been the manner in which valuable safety de- vices and systems have in the past been invented and introduced, and therefore it will be a safe rule to follow in the future. 9 Since the invention and introduction of the automatic brake system of George Westinghouse, Jr., and his associate inventors, loss of life and property has been enormously reduced. He and they provided means for stopping a train moving at a high speed within a distance several times less than could be done by hand, and therefore in the case of emergency the train could be stopped before an accident was possible. In many other ways, accidents have been prevented by this inven- tion, which possesses utility in a very high degree. But there is a class of accidents impossible to prevent by the automatic brake system. Observation of records in the newspaper shows that two railw^ay accidents per week occur on an average in the United States, with loss of life and property or both. It has been proposed through the press that these accidents be made a sub- ject of legislation by appointing a committee to study into the cause of the accidents ; to learn if there are or maybe means in existence for preventing them; to determine if the railway com- panies shall be forced to adopt any invention or inventions adapted to prevent certain kinds of accidents ; and to consider, in general, the best welfare of the public in this connection. In a similar manner, other departments of art could be considered in regard to means for preventing loss of life and property by navigation, chemical manufacture, and electric lighting and power. Some inventions in safety devices for railway systems are ludicrously interesting, but at the same time plausible. For example, there was an exhibition in this city of a system whereby, upon two trains approaching each other, the whistles on both locomotives are automatically operated so as to notify the en- gineers of danger. The whistle of either train is operated through electric circuits by the other train, and vice versa, when the trains approach within a predetermined distance of each other. It is appropriately called " The Tooting System." How many hundreds of steam boilers would explode if equipped with only steam gauge and water signal, and not with a safety valve, which operates in case of danger, whether the en- gineer is asleep, intoxicated, careless, or entirely absent. Reducing Cost of Manufacture, or of the Cost of the Products of Manufacture. — The now well-known wire hat-and-clothes hook costs only a small fraction of the former cast iron hook and is easier to place The late embroidering machine does the work of dozens of factory girls at less cost and produces supe- rior work. The first conception of a telegraph system before Morse's new alphabet system was by having a circuit closer on the main line for each letter and figure. The cost of a line of 36 wires from New York would be so great as to discourage capital. 10. It never even came into use. The first incandescent lamps were half as intricate as an arc lamp. The present, machine for setting up type by striking keys like a typewriter, although practical, is no doubt as intricate in comparison to probable later improve- ments, as the first sewing machines were in relation to the present forms, which themselves are continually undergoing re- duction in cost of manufacture. Aim, therefore, to so modify any given device that the same may be manufactured in larger quantities for the same money, or so that the products of that machine may be produced more rapidly. This is accomplished most probably by a radically different construction, whereby the cost of the castings for instance may be less ; or whereby the number of moving parts, levers, wheels, &c., may be less- ened ; or whereby the result is obtained by the application or combination of different mechanical principles. Aluminium was first obtained chemically, and sold at from $3 to $6 per lb. The principle of making its oxide a conductor, by mixing car- bon with it, and heating by an electric current, was applied, so that now it costs but $1 per lb. Every now and then we learn of these wonderful inventions for getting some old results at a much less cost. It is one of the most profitable and accessible fields for those who are willing to face the problems boldly. By "less cost" or "cheaper" is evidently not meant "poorer material " or "careless work." Fair Co?npetition. — The fact that one inventor holds a monop- oly is not necessarily a reason why a second inventor cannot share the profits. There is generally a chance of inventing that which will accomplish the same result without infringing the patent. Occasionally this is impossible, but oftener it is possi- ble. It is better for the community that there should be two competing parties. It is probable that both parties will reap fortunes. The author does not encourage infrmgement, but fair competition among inventors, and therefore greater progress in the arts. The inventor who succeeds in " getting around " a certain patent, and avoids any doubt of infringement, does only right to the community — /. e., to the majority — and breaks no laws. An example is that illustrated by the great monopoly once held by the telegraph company. Prof. Bell accomplishes even a bet- ter means of rapid transit of messages for moderate distances, as measured by the profits to the company ; while the telegraph company to all appearances is not at all poor ; neither are their numerous detail patents infringed, nor would the original, but expired, patents have been infringed had the telephone been invented at the beginning of telegraphy. The same general re- sult was accomplished by non-infringing means. , There are 11 many illustrations of this principle ; so that inventors need not stop from courtesy to other inventors, from fear of injuring their business. The community demands fair competition among in- ventors as well as among manufactures and dealers. Proceed, therefore, without fear to find out just how broadly a certain patented monoply is covered, and exert the utmost power to accomplish the same or better results by non-infringing means. Slight Circu'rTistances Lead to Invention. — For example, Prof, jhort, of the Short Electric Railway Co., visited the Electrical .jixhibition held several years ago at Chicago, and while there, jecame so interested in electric railways by observing a model of one, that from that moment he became, and has continued, an inventor of electric railway systems and devices. Many years ago — i. e., in 1688 — a vessel containing melted glass broke, and a portion of the fused mass found its way be- neath a large flag-stone, which, when removed, revealed a plate of glass. This accident suggested to Thevart the idea of casting plate glass. Crandall, who obtained fame through his toy build- ing blocks, owned a large glass ball, which seemed possessed with life, always rolling where it was not wanted. This was the small circumstance which led to nis invention of "Pigs in Clover " by which he cleared over $40,000. From the foregoing facts a valuable principle is deduced, namely: A.n observation of the ordinary circumstances of the day, with a view to invent, assists the desire and attempts to invent, and suggests finally the basis of a new and useful invention. Experiment a Teacher. — Experimenting for the purpose of solving a certain problem often suggests the solution of an inde- pendent and unexpected problem. Glauber searched long and diligently for the Philosopher's Stone, and by putting certain chemicals together for this pur- pose found that he obtained a substance radically different from either of the constituents. The compound thus produced is the medicine which bears his name. It is well to listen thus to the dictates of experiment, and not to become the least discouraged. Newton tried in every possible way to solve the theory he had as to the existence of gravitation. The natural experiment or operation of nature in the falling of an apple taught him in a manner entirely unexpected. While Edison was experiment- ing in telegraphy he saw some operation occur in an experiment which taught him a scientific principle he had not before fully realized, and at once concluded that if that principle were really what it appeared, he would make a talking machine. In the early days of printing, the type was carved upon wooden blocks; 12 but often breaking off, new letters had to be glued on to take their place. This taught an inventor, who was seeking for im- provement in the art, to make our present movable type. Different inventors follow different paths in the process of inventing. In some cases they perform experiments mentally upon their conceptions. One experiment leads in their mind to another, with new suggestions, until finally they are able to decide upon the fact of the invention as to whether it is opera- tive or not. This is the most economical method. It, in itself, trains the mind to the power of intense imagination and of in- vention. Many preliminary experiments may often be dropped by studying books on the subject, to discover just what facts and principles exist that bear on the matter in hand. Many inventions have been made successful upon completion of the first device, A pencil and piece of paper will greatly aid the imagination, and will save much useless experimenting. I lately visited at his home an inventor of a " Put a Nickel in the Slot and Have Your Photograph Taken." The machine did all the work. It was automatic from the beginning to the end of the process. Although marvelous to behold, and apparantly intricate, it was the result of the very first experiment, and it did its work not only well, but every time. I found that it took but two months for him to reduce the mental invention to the physical; but to devise the complete mental invention and to experiment with all the movements in the mind assisted by pencil and paper, occupied the larger portion of a year. Some begin to experiment upon the very first conception, and even build a full-sized machine at the first, and when the difficulties are found another device is built, and so on. This method is more expensive and requires more time, and does not in itself increase the power of imagination, which is one of the greatest aids to an inventor. A harmonious blending of these two methods makes the greatest inventor. The style followed by the chemist and physicist in their ex- perimenting for new principles is often copied by successful in- ventors. The former use small and almost minute quantities a,nd apparatus, costing very little. Small experiments are as positive and often more so than large experiments. Plants ex- perimented upon his secondary battery with small quantities of chemicals, costing but a few cents each. Distribute your time and money on numerous small experiments rather than upon a few large ones. Reparation. — It is well known that tons of zinc have been wasted by the telegraph companies by throwing away the stubs of crow-foot zincs used in batteries. Georges d'lnfreville has 13 made an invention whereby this waste need not exist. Other important inventions could be quoted to illustrate the same teaching, namely : — When a part of a machine wears out, and must be thrown away, let the knowledge thereof be an incen- tive to prompt to a modified construction whereby the worn-out part may be replaceable by a new part, so that time and material shall not be wasted. In some old instances, a whole valuable device was thrown away until inventions were made whereby it was only necessary to throw away that part which was worn out. Critical Inspection of Crude Devices. — Scarcely does an in- ventor see the invention of another but that it looks very crude, and that he makes valuable improvements, whereby both make more profit than either could have hoped to have made alone. The one has had practice perhaps in conceiving proline ideas, but lacks practice in making mechanical inventions. He puts the crude device upon the market. It is about to fail. The second inventor, equipped with the broad ideas, applies his practice obtained in making mechanical inventions and im- proves so greatly upon the crude device as to reap benefit in conjunction with the first inventor. A Device for doing by Electricity that which had previously been done by some other Agency. — Since the time of Cain and Abel welding has been accomplished by hammering. Only in modern times has a successful device been constructed whereby not only can ordinary welding be accomplished by the electric current, but the device will weld that which cannot be welded by the old process. Inventing is often like a horse-race. All the jockeys are endeavoring to reach the same goal first, and there is a theoretical possibility that all will get there at the same fraction of a second, but this scarcely ever happens. Possibly two arrive instantaneously apparently. In any event, the one who beats is the one who receives the prize. For the last decade inventors have been attempting to apply electric cur- rents to welding. The one who first applied the electric con- verter principle where the maximum heating current is obtained from an electrical source was the first to succeed, but soon afterwards others made the same invention independently. Other results are being sought through the electric current, arid inventors should be awake to this suggestive idea and attempt thereby to widen the usefulness of electricity. The successful application of welding by electricity is some- what similar to the introduction of the air brake. Others had attempted the solution of the problem, but fell short of success. Judges Walker and Swayne set forth in an important case (2 .-14 w. Bann and Ard., 55, 1875), that, although others had conceived the idea of air brakes before Westhinghouse, yet he is the first legal inventor and entitled to protection because the first to in- vent a practically operative air brake, which is so important to the safety of human life and property. An important principle is contained in the above illustrations. It is often more important to be the first to conceive broad ideas than to be first to produce the best. Omission. — By omitting one or more of the elements which were at first thought to be necessary, but which one finds may be omitted and the same or even better results obtained by a new mode of operation, an invention is made. If by omitting an element the device is worse than before, then there is no inven- tion. A certain party omitted the board foundation of a Nicholson pavement, but Judge Blodgett decided that these omissions constituted no invention ; but a reconstruction of a machine so that a less number of parts will perform all the functions of the greater is the invention of a high order. In a friction clutch for hoisting-machines the patentee dispensed with one of the friction cones and flanges found in the prior art, re-arranged the machine accordingly and put a spring where it was needed, and the patent was upheld by Judge Wheeler. Transposition. — An inventor may often improve the manufac- ture by changing the relative positions of the parts of a device if at the same time he accomplishes the same or better results. Permutation locks have thus been improved; also watchman's time recorders. An inventor made a new location of a hinge and spring catch in a lantern and remedied a great difficulty in manufacture and use, and its advantages were immediately recognized and other manufacturers began to copy. The patent was upheld by Judge Wallace. Change of Form. — Construct one or more of the parts of such a form or shape that an otherwise essential feature may be omitted. One by the name of Russell modified a water pump by constructing the inwardly projecting flange of such a form that it could be used wholly for the base of the pump, and thus do away with any frame-work. His patent for this improvement was upheld by Judge Colt. By a mere change of form a new result is often obtainable. A patented baby-jumper differed from other jumpers in a back- ward curvature of the suspension rod to prevent contact with the child, and this improvement in mere form was held patent- able by Judge Blodgett. The manufacture was as cheap as with- out the curvature, but as the result was improved with the change of form, more was obtained for the same money. 15 A similar case is that of a carbon filament for incandescent lamps being made with a curve like a horseshoe, instead of straight. They are equally cheap to make and they possess the improved result or advantage of having the leading-in wires enter the same end of the lamp bulb, and of exposmg more illuminating surface per volume of vacuum space. Combined Inventio7is. — An inventor may often obtain inven- tion by" combining the merits of two or more devices into one. If the result is an invention of equal convenience, cheaper than both elements and as meritorious as both, the single invention is a true invention according to Judge Lowell. As an illustration, the preserving of meat may be taken. Enveloping meat in a covering of fibrous or woven material is old. Subjecting the meat to the action of a current of air of suitably low or regulated temperature is also old. Combining the two elements is pronounced new and patentable by Judge Nixon. CHAPTER VII. The Initial Step. It is not enough to have a love for inventing. You may ad- mire other inventors and inventions, and may think how satis- fied and prosperous you might be if you could make a success, and you may even realize some problems which need solving, and yet not be an inventor. More is needed than mere desire. In order to get there, one step must be taken at a time. What, therefore, is the first step ? An inventor deals with positive results and absolute condi- tions, and not with chaos and creation. He proceeds in a man- ner peculiar to itself, and not in a common way with other workers. Mathematicians, physicists, chemists, carry out con- ditions, and obtain a result ; and the fulfilment of the same con- ditions always produces the same result; 2X3X4 always equals 24. There is positively no exception. The physicist follows the same law. If he wishes to transfer electricity from one point to another he must fulfil the proper conditions. An elec- tric current of about two volts always decomposes water into hydrogen and oxygen gases. The result is sure to come, and there is but the same result. With the inventor everything is just the opposite. His given quantity is the result, while the unknown quantities are 16 the conditions. In the above arithmetical problem his known quantity corresponds to 24, and it is to find the conditions which, when obeyed, will give 24. It is evident that the result might be obtained in many independent ways ; thus 2X3X4 equals 24 6X3+1+S " 24 30 — 6 " 24 (2X6)+ (6X2) " 24 and so on indefinitely, and limited only by the capacity and patience of the mathematican. Does it not follow, therefore, that an invention has different answers, and that a problem in arith- metic has only one answer ? Yes ! this is the general rule. The product 24 may be obtained by carrying out many conditions, or by few. i-j-i + i + i) etc., will eventually result in 24 as the answer, or simply 2X12 = 24. The inventor should aim for the fewest conditions. The result should be obtained by as few steps as possible. Analysis. — The result sought is usually compound, not ele- mental. There is scarcely an exception to this, although before the trouble is taken to analyze it the result seems elemental and not compound. The first essential step consists in analyz- ing the problem into two elements and if possible into more than two. Each element may itself be a compound. This analy- sis is exceedingly important, and will aid in systematic work. Nothing is more important in inventing than to have a target. He who has a definite aim is the one who conquers. To illustrate the point, let an example be taken — e.g.^ the type- writer — J20 on every Remington typewriter sold are said to go to the inventor. The claims cover only the particular construction of the machine, the elementary ideas being public property. Sup- pose it is desired to invent a radically different typewriter from the Remington or any other form found in practice. The initial step is to analyze the problem. The following example will serve to illustrate how a result is divisible into its elements: I. The general result is a machine which will write or print words and sentences when properly controlled by an operator. The elementary results are (a) means for making the type to strike the paper at proper intervals of space ; (b) means for moving the paper through the proper space after each letter is printed; (c) means for being able to see the printing during the operation, as in handwriting; (d) means for retracting the pa- per when a mistake is made ; (e) means for making, simultaneously, multiple copies of the printed matter; (f) means for moving the 17 paper at the end of each line; (g) means for giving a signal near the end of each line; (h) means for easily replacing a filled sheet by a new sheet; (i) means for adjusting the machine to print the lines at any approximately desired distance apart; (j) means for beginning the lines at a given margin; and (k) means for printing both capitals and small letters, figures, and punctuation marks, and possibly for printing French, German, or some other language besides English. By this analysis a complex problem is divided into eleven independent simple problems, which upon further consideration may be found divisible. The power of analyzing results comes by practice. Sometimes the inventor needs to obtain a new result — /.