LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 0aDD4ES33fl3 />^* ?-.• ^^1 ??«.• ^« -• - I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^ UNITED STATES O^AMERJCA. I I ip ^^-%,<^^.m>^<^<^ <^^<^.^<^C^' i: 1 ' > i' i^'^^^ r^Htf' CU S -'*/'"' ^* A*/^ < * ''' \u.-^ ^^^ C ^J^ '^^^-fi *«J ;55,??". ''jt.;, :^. ',;?■■■■• " -^. '■m/^'J: - V' 3^ V '.'15&:J*:^ ^■■>'j'i THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD, FROM THE iSarlicst ^txioti to tje ^reisent Cime : iSRANGED SO THAT THE WHOLE MAT BE READ BY PERIODS, OR THE HISTORY OF ANY COUNTRY BY ITSELF. EMBELLISHED WITH ©nt lliunbrtli anb qr^tntj Bufirabtb Illustrations. " - -7 BY DIONYSIUS LARDNER, LL.D. WITH EXTENSIVE ADDITIONS, BRINGING THE HISTORY OF EACH COUNTRY DOWN TO THE LATEST PERIDI>.- ^ PHILADELPHIA: CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER, G24, 626 & 628 Market Street. 1875. .K^r^ THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS WASHINGTON Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by CLAXTON, REMSEN &. lIArEELFIX(ii:E, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Extract from a iiotice of Lardner^s Universal Hisionj, hy Dr. Frost, the celebrated American Historiographer. *' It is drawn with a masterly hand. The broad lines, the cha- racteristic features, are all there. The lover of antiquity — the admirer of cliivalry — the student of modern politics — will alike be struck with its force and truth ; and the youthful reader may con- template its bold outline without fear of its corrupting his taste or misleading his judgment." ' t\ PREFACE. The object of the writer of the present volume has been to give a correct and comprehensive view of the history of the world, which accuracy of narration and chronology would render valuable as a book of reference, and in which general views and reflections would remove the dryness inseparable from a mere enumeration of facts. To the separate histories of different countries it is as a general map of the whole combined, representing in connection what they exhibit isolated, and displaying the relative pro- portions and importance of the several parts. So that the attentive reader will find himself conversant and his mind impressed wJrh most of the great characters and events which occur in the history of the world. For the plan of dividing the work into periods, the author is indebted to the celebrated Mliller, and has adopted several of the divisions employed by him in his Universal History. That work, with those of Schlosser, Gibbon, Hallam, and others, has been used in the preparation of the work, with constant reference to contemporary and national histories. ▼I PREFACE. To prevent any misconception, the reader is requested to bear in mind that this is a national and political history mankind being regarded in it as divided into great societies " Consequently, when religions are treated of, whether the true or the false, they are regarded only in their political relations and their bearings on national progress and character. Theological discussion would be entirely out of place in a work of this kind. \ There is an Index at the end of the work, by consulting "which, under the head of any country, the history of that country may be read in its historical and chronological order. This will be done by referring to the pages under its name. The wars and political relations of two countries will be best known by reading the corresponding parts of the history of each. CONTENTS. PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAP. I. Introduction. Of Man, 15. Original Seat of Man— Original State of Man, 16. Ethiopians, 17. Chinese, 18. India, 22. CHAP. 11. Ancient States of Central and Western Asia. Bactria, 23. Babylon and Assyria, 24. Egypt, 27. Phoenida, 29. Philistines, 29. Arabia — Israelites, 30. Medes and Persians, 38. CHAP. III. Greece. Early State of Greece, 45. Dorian Migration, 49. Sparta, 60. Athens, 51. CHAP. IV. Greece to her Subversion hy the Macedoniant, Persian War, 56. Peloponnesian War, 68. Lacedaemonian Do- minion, 63. Theban Dominion, 64. Philip of Macedon, 67. CHAP. V. Alexander and hie Successors. Alexander, 69. Division of Alexander's Dominions, 70. Macedon — Greece, 74. Thrace — Bithynia, 75. Pergamus — Pontus, 76. Ar- menia — Syria, 7P. Judea, 80. Parthia — Egypt, 81. Carthage, 82. CHAP. VI. Rome till the Punic Wars. Rome under Kings. 85. Tuscans — War with Porsenna, 91. Dicta- tor — Secession — Tribunes, 92. Spurius Cassius, and the Agrarian Law, 94. The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables, 97. Spurius Moelius, 98. Wars anterior to the Gallic invasion, 101. Gauls — Capture of Rome, 102. Rebuilding of the City — Manlius, 103. Licinian Rogations, 104. Samnite War — Latin War, 108. War with Pyrrhus, 109. CHAP. VIL Borne till the Time of the Gracchi. Tirst Punic War, 110. Illyrian War— Gailic War, 123. Second Punic War, 114. Macedonian and Syrian Wars, 115. Conqueat vii Till CONTENTS. of Macedon — Third Punie War, 116. Achaean War, 119. Spanish Wars, 12U CHAP. VIII. Rome till the End of the Repuhlic, The Gracchi, 121. Jugurthine War — Cimbric War, 125. State of Rome — Social or Marsian War, 126. Mithridatic and Civil Wars, 127. From the death of Sulla to that of Mithridates, 132. Cati- line's Conspiracy — The Gallic War of Csesar, 134. Civil War of Caesar and Pompeiua, 139. Events till the Death of Caesar, 143. Civil War with Brutus and Cassius, 144. War between Octavianua and Antonius, 147. CHAP. IX. Rome an Empire. Emperors of the Caesarian Family, 151. Emperors chosen by the Army, 155. Flavian Family, 156. Good Emperors, 159. From Commodus to Diocletian, 161. Change in the Form of Govern- ment, 168. Corruption of Christianity, 170. CHAP. X. Decline of the Empire. Successors of Constantine, 174. The Huns, 179. Wars with the Goths, 180. Genseric and Attila, 185. Fall of the Western Em- pire, 187. PART II. THE MIDDLE AGES. CHAP. I. Eatabliahment of the Barbarians in the Western Empire. Gotho-Germans, 192. East-Goths in Italy, 192. Lombards in Italy — Burgundians, 194. Allemanni, 195. Franks, 196. Anglo- Saxons, 199. West-Goths in Spain, 200. Byzantine Empire, 201. Persia, 206. CHAP. II. TTie Times of 3fohammed and the First Khalifs. Mohammed, 208. First Khalifs, 214. Conquest of Syria, 215. Con- quest of Persia — Conquest of Egypt, 219. Invasion of Africa. 220. Ommiyades — Conquest of Africa — Conquest of Spain, 221. Inva- sion of France by the Arabs, 222. France — Lombards, 225. Con- stantinople, 226. Germany — England, 227. CHAP. IIL The Times of Charlemagne and Haroon-er-rasheed. Italy, 227. Empire of Charlemagne, 231. Feudal System, 232. England — Constantinople, 234. Abbaside Khalifs, 237. COr^l-ENTS. is CHAP. IV. Diasohition of the Great Emjnrea of the East and West. Empire of Charlemagne, 240. Hungarians, 2-43. Northmen, 244. France — Germany — House of Saxony, 246. Italy, 250. England, 251. Russia, 252. Constantinople, 255. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Africa, 256. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia, 256. Causes of the Decline of the Power of the Khalifs, 261. Gas- nevides, 262. Spain, 263. CHAP. V. Increase of the Papal Power. Italy — Normans, 264. Italy — Popes, 269. Italy — Lombard Cities, 274. Germany — House of Franconia— France, 275. England, 276. Spain — Constantinople — Seljookians, 280, First Crusade, 285. CHAP. VI. The Papal Power at its Greatest Height. Italy — Popes, 287. Italy — Lombard Cities, 292. Italy — Naples and Sicily — Germany — Swabian Line, 293. France, 298. En- gland — Plantagenets, 299. Ireland — Spain, 304. Portugal — Al- mohades, 305. Persia — Saladin, 306. Mamelukes — Constantino- ple, 309. Crusades, 310. Mongols— Chingis Khan, 315. End of the Khalifat at Bagdad, 316. CHAP. VIL Decline of the Papal Power, and Formation of Great Monarchies. Italy — Popes, 317. Italy — Republics, 323. Italy — Naples and Sicily, 328. Germany, 330. Switzerland — France, 334. England — Plan- tagenets, 342. Wars between France and England, 349. Scotland, 355. Scandinavia, 360. Poland, 361. Hungary — Ottomans, 362. Tatars — Timoor, 367. Spain, 371. Portugal, 372. Discovery of America, 373. PART III. MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. L View of the State of Europe. England, 379. France — Germany — Russia, Poland, Scandinavia- Switzerland and Savoy, 380. Italy, 383. League of Cambray— Spain and Portugal, 384. Turkey, 385. Persia, 386. CHAP. IL Times of Charles V. Accession of Charles V., 389. Reformation, 390. Wars of Charlea V. and Francis I., 391. Affairs of Germany, 396. Renewed War ■with France, 397. Affairs of Germany, 398. England, 402. Spain and Portugal — Italy, 403. Denmark and Sweden — Turkey, 407. 2 Z CONTENTS- CHAP, in. Timea of Philip fl. Btate of Europe at Philip's Accession, 408. France, 409. Nether- lands, 416. England, 422. Portugal, 426. Germany— Poland, 427. Italy, 428. Turkey, 431. CHAP. IV. Times of the Thirty Years' War, Germany, 432. France, 429. Spain, 443. Portugal — Italy — Eng- land—The Civil War, 444. Holland, 448. Russiar— Turkey and Persia, 449. CHAP. V. Timea of Louia XIV. France to the Peace of the Pyrenees, 450. England to the Restora- tion — Wars till the Peace of Nimeguen, 453. England to the Revolution, 459. Wars to the Peace of Ryswiek, 460. England — Spanish Succession, 462. North of Europe — Peter the Great — Charles XII., 471. England, 472. CHAP. VI. Period of Comparative Repose, England — Quadruple Alliance, 475. Russia — Turkish Wars, 477. Persia — Nadir Shah, 478. CHAP. VII. Timea of Frederic II. Silesian Wars, 481. England, 487. Russia — Seven Years' War, 488. Suppression of the Jesuits, 493. First Partition of Poland, 494. Turkish War — American Revolutionary War, 495. India — Persia, 603. CHAP. VIII. Times of the French Revolution and Empire. State of Europe, 506. French Revolution, 511. Europe to the Peace of Campo Formio, 515. Affairs to the Assumption of the chief power by Bonaparte, 516. Affairs till the Peace of Amiens, 518. Affairs of Europe to the Treaty of Tilsit, 521. Affairs to the Treaty of Vienna, 522. Progress of the Peninsular War, 524. Invasion of Russia, and Fall of Napoleon, 527. CHAP. IX. Times of the Restoration and Louia Philippe. State of Europe, 536. France, 539. Great Britain, 551. Spain, 554. Portugal, 559. Italy, 564.* Germany and Prussia, 567. Netherland, 568. Austria, 570. Russia, 573. Sweden, 574. Turkey, 577. Greece, 578. United States, 582. Mexico and Central America, 590. South America, 591. CHAP. X. Times of the Continental Revolufion». France, 596. Great Britain, 598. Italy, 601. (^rmany and Prussia — Austria, 602. Russia and Turkey— The United States, 605, HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAP I. INTRODUCTION. Of Man. There are different races of our species occupying the vari- ous portions of the earth, and distinguished from each other in corporeal structure and in mental development. These nu- merous varieties are, by the ablest investigators, reduced to three principal stems, viz. the Caucasian or Europeo-Arabic, the Mongol, and the Negro or Ethiopic. The first contains the people of Asia north and south of the great mountain range of Caucasus and its continuation to the Ganges, of Eu- rope, and of Northern Africa; the second, the people of East- ern Asia and of America ; the third, the tribes with woolly hair and sable skin that people the African continent. Yet many tribes can with difficulty be brought under any one of these divisions: the endless variety of Nature is as apparent in the human race as in the animal and vegetal)le kingdoms. Original Seat of Man. It is, perhaps, a useless inquiry to search after the rejrion in which man was first placed, the paradise of his first days of innocence and happiness. The only historic clew we pos- sess are the names of the four rivers, said in the Hebrew re- cords to have watered the land in which the progenitors of the human race dwelt. But as no four rivers can be found on the present surface of the earth afi^reeing in all points with those mentioned by Moses, our safest course is to con- A^ fine ourselves to the inquiry after the region where those who J>^ escaped the great inundation which overwhelmed the earth, resumed their destined course of life and occupation. The general opinion, founded on the literal interpretation of Scripture, has long been, that at the time of the flood all 15 16 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L mfinkind perished, save Noah and liis family. Some, how- ever, contend, that the words of the inspired writer are not to be taken so strictly, and that as his information was des- tined for a particular poidon of mankind, it may have been only intended to instruct them in the history of the race to which they belonged, while that of other races may have been passed over in silence. Hence they would infer that we are not precluded by the Mosaic writings from supposing, that at the time of the great inundation other portions of mankind may have saved themselves in different manners and places. They therefore look to the higher regions of the earth, and find three elevated ranged m the neighborhood of the three distinct stems into which we find mankind divided. The lofty range extending from the Black Sea to the east of India has been at all times regarded as being, either itself or the lands south of it, the original seat of the Caucasian race. Still more east, beyond Tibet and the desert of Gobi, rises another range, regarded as the original seat of the Mongol race which dwells around it : and the Mountains of the Moon and their branches are thought to point out the primitive abodes of the Negro race. America, it is probable, was not, till long after adapted for the abode of man. These, however, are all questions of curiosity rather than of historical importance. At the dawn of all history we find the various races of mankind distinct, and no history informs us of the origin of the differences. We have therefore only to consider them in their separate states, or as intermingled with and affecting each other. Original State of Man. Another point which has given occasion to a good deal of ingenious conjecture, is the original state of mankind. Philo- sophers, on surveying the human race in its different situa- tions, have traced out four distinct states. — those of the mere fruit and plant-eater, the hunter, the herdsman, and the cul- tivator, — and have generally inferred that man has pro- gressively passed through all these states, commencing at the lowest. Yet this is still but mere conjecture, unsupported by any historic evidence. No tribe has ever yet been found to civilize itself; instruction and unprovement always come to it from abroad ; and experience would rather lead to the in- ference, that the savage is a degeneration from the civilized life. In the very earliest history, that of the Bible, we find the pastoral and agricultural life coexisting almost from the commencement of the world; at all periods we find man possessed of the useful and necessary arts, the master of ;hap. l introduction. 17 flocks and herds, the employer of the spade, the plow, and the sickle. It is in vain we seek for commencement, — all is progress. In imagination, we may conceive a time, when the human race was in the lowest degree of culture ; but, on inquiry, we everywhere meet the arts, meet men collected into societies, meet property, legislation, and government. It may perhaps be collected from the testimony of the sacred Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that man has always existed in society, and that the first societies were families, the first form of government patriarchal : and the following may be stated as the most probable hypothesis ; namely, that man commenced his existence in the social state under the mild and gentle form of government denominated patriarchal ; that his first nourishment was the fruits of trees and plants, which ripened in abundance for the supply of his wants in some temperate and fertile region of the earth, possibly that at the south of Caucasus, or where now extends the paradisal vale of Cashmeer ; that gradually he became a keeper of flocks and herds, and a cultivator of corn; that families spread and combined ; and that from their union arose monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil government. It is in this last state that we propose to consider mankmd, and to trace the great and important events that have taken place among the various stems and branches of the human race; to show how, beneath the guiding energy of the Creator and Ruler, the great machine of human society has proceeded on its way, at times advancing, at times apparently retrograding, in the patli of perfection and happiness. And the final result of our view of the deeds and destinies of man will, we trust, be a firm conviction in the mind of every reader that private and public felicity is the result alone of good education, wise laws, and just government, and that all power which is not based on equity is unstable and transient. It is to the Caucasian race that the history of the v/orld must mainly confine itself, for with that race has originated almost all that ennobles and dignifies mankind: it is the chief depository of literature, and the great instructor of philosophical, political, and religious systems. We shall re- strict ourselves, therefore, chiefly to the history of that race, briefly premising views of the state and character of the ^Ethiopians, the Mongols, and the Indians. jEthiopians. We have already observed, that under this name are in- } uded all the mhabitants of Africa whose bodily conforma- 2* 18 HISTORY Of THE WORLD. PART L tion does not prove them to be of the Caucasian race. The indefiniteness of the term JEthiopian employed by the Greeks, and applied by them to all people of a dark complexion, and the similar indefiniteness of the Hebrew Cush^ prevent our being able positively to say whether the obscure traditions of the JEthiopian power extending along the Mediterranean to the straits of Gades, and of that people having, under their king Tearcho, made themselves so formidable to the inhabit- ants of the coasts of the iEgean, are to be understood of a purely Negro empire, or of, what is much more probable, a state like that of Egypt, where the lower orders of society were of Negro, the higher and dominant classes of Caucasian race. Within the historic period of both ancient and modern times, the Ethiopian race only appears as furnishing slaves for the service of the Caucasian, to whom it has been always as inferior in mental power as in bodily configuration. Though modern travel has discovered within the torrid wastes of Africa large communities ruled over by Negro princes, and a knowledge of many of the useful arts, yet civilization and policy have- never reared their heads in the ungenial clime. As literature has never been theirs, whatever revolutions may have taken place among them are buried in oblivion, and they claim no station of eminence in the history of the world. The Chinese. The Mongols stand far higher in the scale of intellect and in importance than the ^Ethiopians. As we proceed, we shall find them striking terror into Europe by their arms and their numbers. One nation of this race, the Chinese, has long been an object of curiosity to the western world, from its ex- tent of empire and the singularity of its social institutions. The Chinese empire occupies an extent of surface equal to that of all Europe, containing within it every variety of soil and climate, and natural production ; thus rendering it in itself perfectly independent of all foreign aid. In its social institutions it has presented through all periods a model of the primitive form of government, the patriarchal, and an exemplification of the evil of continuing it beyond its just and necessary period. In China all is at a stand-still ; suc- ceeding ages add not to the knowledge of those that have gone before ; no one must presume to be wiser than his fathers : around the Son of Heaven, as they designate their emperor, assemble the learned of tlie land as his council; so in the provinces the learned in their several degrees around the governor; and laws and rules are passed from the highest down to the lowest, to be by them given to the people. Every CHAP. 1. iNTRODUCTiON. 21 even the \nost minute, circumstance of common life is reou lated by law. It matters not, for example, what may be the wc^a.ltJi of an individual, he must wear the dress and build his house after the mode prescribed by ancient regulations. In China every thing bears the stamp of antiquity; immovable- ness seems to be characteristic of the nation ; every imple- ment retains its primitive rude form ; every invention has stopped at the first step. The gradual progress towards per- fection of the Caucasian race is unknown in China ; the plow is still dra\vn by men ; the written characters of their mono- syllabic language stand for ideas, not for simple sounds ; and the laborious task of learning to read occupies the time that might be employed in the acquisition of valuable knowledge. Literature has been at all periods cultivated by a nation where learning (such as it is) is the only road to honor and dignity, and books beginning with the five Kings of Con-fu- tsee, which equal the four Vedas of India in the honor in which they are held, have at all times been common in this empire. A marked feature in the Chinese character is the absence of imagination : all is the product of cold reason. The Kings speak not of a God, and present no system of re- ligion: every thing of that nature in China came from India. The uncertain history of China ascends to about 2500 years before the Christian era ; the certain history commences about eight centuries before Christ. According to Chi- nese tradition, the founders of the state, a hundred families in number, descended from the mountains of Kulcum, on the lake of Khukhunor, north-west of China; and hence the middle provinces of Chensee, Leong, Honan, &:c. were the first seats of their cultivation. These provinces are in the same climate as Greece and Italy. Twenty-two dynasties of princes are enumerated as having governed China to the present day, the actual emperor being the fifth monarch of the twenty-second or Tai Tsin dynasty. Of these dynasties, one of the most remarkable is the Song, which ruled over the southern empire at the time China was divided into two, and fell beneath the arms of the Yver or mingled nomadic tribes, led to conquest by the descendants of Chingis Khan. This line, which reigned from A. D. 960 to 1280, distinguish- ed itself by the encouragement of the arts and sciences ; it cultivated relations with Japan, fostered trade and commerce, and in all things went contrary to the established maxims of Chinese policy, and while it lasted the empire bloomed be- neath its sway ; but the hordes of the desert levelled its glo- ries, and its fate has been ever since held up as an awful warning to those who venture to depart even a haii-'s breadth 22 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART J from the ancient manners. At an earlier period, under the dynasty of Tsin (248 — 206 B. C), China first received reli- gion from India ; but the missionaries were not artful or pru- dent enough to adapt it to Chinese maxuns of state, and they were unsuccessful in the contest between them and the, learned. At a later period, when the Buddhism of India had become the Lamaism of Tibet, it entered China as the reli- gion of Foe, and by the worldly prudence of its bonzes or priests, succeeded in gaining a favorable reception and be- coming the religion of the state. Every thing that hopes for success in this country must fall in with the national charac- ter. China has often been overcome, and its reigning dynasty changed ; but the manners and institutions of China remain unaltered, as different from those of the Caucasian race aa the features of the Chinese face are from those of the Euro- pean. India. From the Chinese, a nation of cold reason, almost no reli- gion, monosyllabic, unharmonious language, and literature full of events and valuable matter, we pass to their neighbors of India, whom every thing but color indicates to belong tc the same family with the Europeans. Here we find glowing fancy, and in Brahmanism a luxuriant system of religion, a majestic and richly inflected language, and a literature full to exuberance of the highest poetry. But India has no his- tory or chronology of its own, and it is in the time of the Persian kings that it first appears in the history of the world. Yet the testimony of antiquity, its proximity to the original land of the Caucasian race, and the primitive character of its social institutions, prove it to be one of the most ancient nations of the earth. I In India, religion and priestly influence have effected what law and tradition have produced in China — the absolute pros- tration of the intellect of the nation. The system of castes sets a bar to all ambition and to all energy. No development of mind can take place where every man's station in life is immutably marked out for him. \ The nation presents at the present day the same spectacle which excited the wonder of the Greeks who accompanied Alexander ; an immense, gentle, and peaceful population ; abundance of wealth ; all the useful, necessary, and ornamental arts of life ; a manifold, intricate system of religion, abounding in rites and ceremonies, many of them of the most lascivious character. Tiike China, India is an instance of the fatal effect of check- ing the free development of mind: here, too, every thing ir CHAP. I. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA 23 stationary. The love of country is a feeling unknown to the breast of the inhabitants, and India has b€ en at all periods the easy prey of every invader v^^hom its wealth attracted. Omitting- the fabulous expeditions of Sesostris and Seniiramis, the earliest account we have of a conquest of any part of this country is of that by Cyrus and Darius L, king-s of Persia ; next Alexander the Great with ease overthrew all that op- posed him, and, but for the refusal of his troops, would have planted his standards on the banks of the Ganges. Seleucus Nicator ruled over the provinces conquered by Alexander, reached in conquest the banks of the Jumnah, and subdued a large portion of Bengal. When the feeble successors of Se- leucus had lost their power over other subject nations, their vicegerents were still obeyed during a period of 60 years by a great part of India. A hundred and twenty years after the death of Alexander, Antiochus the Great invaded and conquered a considerable portion of India ; and when he was overcome by the Romans, all his possessions west of the Indus fell to Euthydemus, the Grecian sovereign of Bactria, and India cheerfully obeyed him. He was unable to effect the succession of his son Demetrius in Bactria ; but over the In- dian provinces that prince reigned without opposition. Eu- cratides, the fifth of the Graeco-Bactrian kings, reunited to Bactria the Indian possessions, and every succeeding reigning line hi Persia had dominions in India, till it was eventually overrun and occupied by Mohammedan conquerors. For the last thousand years it has been the prey of every foreign spoiler. Thus India seems destined never to enjoy national independence: her countless millions doomed for ever to bow beneath a foreign sceptre, she stands an instructive monu- ment of the evils resulting from fettered intellect and priestly dominion. CHAP. II. THE ANCIENT STATES OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. Bactria. According to the traditions of hoary antiquity preserved in the sacred books of the Parsees, and in the Shah Nameh, the immortal poem of Ferdoosee, there existed in the most remote ages, with sacerdotal institutions akin to those of India, a mighty and extensive empire in Bactria or Eastern Persia. Grecian writers confirm this account, and it is farther proved 24 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I, by fhe route of the Caucasian race, who, in their progress along the mountains, must have been attracted by these fer- tile regions, abounding in every production, protected by lofty impassable mountains to the north, and bordering on the realms of India and Babylonia. The branch of the Caucasian stem, called the Indo-Persian race, spread over Iran, the ' country between Babylonia and India. Its chief seat was Bactria. Here, according to Persian tradition, ruled Cayu- marath, the first of men, or of kings, and his descendants, till Jemsheed was overthrown by the Aramaean Zohak. The system of religion named from Zoroaster prevailed in Bac- tria, and the sacerdotal caste stood in rights and privileges nearly on a par with the Bramins of India, who, probably, possessed originally a similar institution. The idolatrous Aramsean priesthood united itself with that of Bactria; but when the Aramaean or Babylonian dominion sank, and the Iranian revived in the person of Feridoon, the old religion recovered its dominion. Changes of dynasty affected it not ; it passed to the Modes and Persians, and still was flourishing when the disciples of Mohammed extinguished it in blood ; and it yet lingers among the Parsees of India, the descend- ants of those. who sought refuge in that country from perse- cution. But the simple religion of Zoroaster, which wor- shipped under the emblem of light and fire the Author of life and happiness, had not the debasing effecte of the intricate idolatry and metaphysics of India ; and if Iran fell beneath foreign conquerol-s, the fault was not in her system of re- ligion. Babylon and Assyria. We now begin to tread on more solid ground, for in the earliest portion of the far most credible ancient history, that of the Hebrews, we observe a recognition of the empires of Babylon and Assyria, From them, too, we may infer, that Babylon was the more * ancient, for the city of that name is mentioned at a time while the Hebrews were still in the no- madic state. We hear not till long after of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital on the Tigris. The Babylonians dwelt on the Tigris and the Lower Eu- phrates, and their industry had made their land the garden of Asia. They were a peaceful people, as is shown by their manufactures, and their provisions for watering their lands, Herodotus describes them as a luxurious trafficking people, fond of splendid dress and ornaments. Various dynasties of kings of the surrounding nations are related to have ruled ip Babylon. This wealthy state must have been at all tunes ex 25 tHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 27 posed to the incursions of the nomadic tribes that surrounded it, and sometimes conquered by them. The city is stated to have been built in the most remote ages by the god Bel, and to have been enlarged and adorned by Semiramis, probably also a mythic personage. In the historic period, we find it farther improved and adorned by Nebuchadnezzar and the queen Nitocris. The reign of Nebuchadnezzar was the most brilliant period of Babylon. He ruled from the foot of Caucasus to the deserts of Libya. Judsea, Phoenicia, Egypt, all the tribes of the desert, did homage to his power. But the glory was transient: in the reign of his son the Babylo- nian dominion sank, never to rise, beneath the arms of the Medes and Persians. The Assyrian empire on the Tigris and the Upper Eu- phrates, rose much later than the Babylonian, which it sub- dued, but which under the father of Nebuchadnezzar cast off the yoke, and attained the power we have just described. Of the Assyrian history little is known. A caste of priests named Chaldeans, distinguished for their knowledge of the order and courses of the heavenly bodies, the objects of Babylonian worship, was to be found here ; but the early establishment of despotism permitted not a division of the people into any other castes. These Chaldeans were divided into several orders under a head appointed by the king. Birth was not a necessary qualification for admittance into their body. We find (as in the case of Daniel) Jews placed in the highest rank among them. They derived their support from lands assigned to them. The nature of the oc- cupations of the Babylonians made a race of men of import- ance, who pretended to a knowledge of the ways of the g;ods, who measured the land, marked the seasons, and announced the hours of good and evil fortune : yet almost all their boasted wisdom was mere jugglery and deceit. Egypt* The valley watered by the Nile, and inclosed between the desert on the west, and barren mountains on the east, was the seat of one of the earliest and most renowned empires of which we have any record remaining. A branch of the Cau- casian race, it would appear, crossed the strait of Bab-el-Man- deb. It mastered the JEthiopians whom it met, and founded an empire on the system of castes in Nubia; then advanced with the stream, and established that of Upper Egypt ; and, * Egypt, though properly in Africa, has been included in this chapter, to avoid needless subdivision. 28 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. labtly, spread over Lower Egypt and tlie Delta "now formed by the Nile. But this was long anterior to the commence- ment of history. So early as the days of Abranam, Lower Egypt was the seat of a rich, flourishing, and civilized state. The turn of mind of this branch of the Caucasian stem was similar to that of the branch which established itself in India. Hence some have needlessly supposed that one country was colonized by the other. Here, as in India, the priestly caste enjoyed high power and privileges. They were the deposi- tories of all arts and sciences; they not only were the di- rectors of the employments of life, but possessed the awful office of judges of the dead, who were brought before their tribunal ere consigned to the tomb ; and by numerous prac- tices and ceremonies, they for ever kept the idea and the fear of death before the eyes of the people. Their own religious system, known to the initiated alone, was perfectly simple : what they taught the people in symbol and figure was com- plex, obscene, and degrading. Independence was secured to the sacerdotal order by the immunity of their lands from im- posts. Yet priestly sway never attained the same height here as in India. Egypt was a conquered country, and numerous tribes of nomades and other classes, who never completely amalgamated with the conquerors, roamed the land, some- times independent, sometimes obedient Hence the king was in a great measure independent of the priests. The history of Joseph informs us, that the king had a fifth of the produce of the land, and, as in the case of this minister, could ap- point a stranger and an uninitiated person to the highest office of the state, and give him in marriage the daughter of the high priest. We therefore read of internal tumults and for- eign wars, the fabulous expeditions of Sesostris, the real campaigns against Judsea and more distant powers. Arabian and Nubian monarchs have ruled over Egypt ; it fell before the Babylonian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman power, yet the castes, as in India, subsisted through every shock. Where the system of castes prevails, the inferior castes are always of a peaceful, industrious character. Each per- son's walk of life being marked out for him, he pursues it with the regularity and mechanism of mere matter. All we learn of ancient Egypt corresponds with this principle : the narrowness and fertility of the land caused an excessive pop- ulation ; agriculture could employ but a small portion of the people ; the sedentary arts were therefore cultivated to a great extent, and the division of labor was carried almost be- yond any thing similar in modern times. The accounts we CHAP. 11. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA, 29 have of emigrations from Egypt are obscure, and many of them not very credible. The plan devised for preventing- the evils of over-populousness was, to accustom the lower orders to a spare diet, and employ them on the construction of huge edifices, destined for tombs, or the temples of religion. Hence the pyramids and excavated temples which still excite the wonder of the world, and prove what may be effected by thfe aid of the simplest machinery, with time, numbers, and per- severance. The knowledge of the Egyptians has been much over- rated. The great trait of a sacerdotal period is everywhere to be discerned. Every thing advanced to a certain point of perfection ; there stopped, never to advance, but rather to recede. It is remarked, that in design and execution the more ancient monuments exceed the later. Phcenicia. A portion of the Aramaean race was settled on tht Persian Gulf It was given to trade and commerce, and settled a colony on the coast of Syria. These colonists were named the Phcenicians ; their chief city was Sidon, and they after- wards built Tyre on an island near the coast. Their manu- factures, especially of glass, were celebrated from the most ancient times. While surrounded by nomadic tribes, they seem to have made little advances in wealth and power, though they had extended their settlements to some distance inland. But when the Israelites took possession of Canaan, and applied themselves to agriculture, the trade of the Phoe- nicians rapidly increased ; their ships visited the isles and coasts of the ^gean, and the distant ports of Italy and Spain. Numerous colonies, of which Carthage was chief, were es- tablished by them. In their impregnable island-city they could bid defiance to the might of Israel, Egypt, and Babylon. Luxury flourished in this city, whose " merchants were princes :" their religion was bloody and cruel, their form of government monarchical. Philistines. This people, celebrated for Rieir wars with the Israelites, dwelt on a small strip of sea-coast south of the Tyrians. They were originally, it is thought, a colony from Egypt. They possessed five cities under the government of five princes, and confederated together for mutual defence. Trade and piracy were their chief means of subsistence. Their long and obstinate resistance against the arms of the Israelites testifies 3* 30 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. their valor and love of independence. A seafaring people, the chief object of their worship was a sea-god, Dagon. Arabia. From the earliest dawn of history the Arabs have led the nomadic life, to which the nature of their country has des- tined them. The numerous tribes, under the government of their sheikhs and emirs, roam the desert apart — now in friend- ship, now in hostility. The camel and the horse are their companions and support. The strangers who penetrate their wilds hav,e always been regarded as lawful prizes. Under tlie various names of Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, &c. we find their tribes in friendly or hostile relations with the nation of Israel, with whom many of them acknowledged a kindred. Their religious worship was chiefly directed to the heavenly bodies. Israelites. At a very remote period of antiquity, when the sacerdotal caste in Babylonia had begun to spread idolatry even among the nomadic tribes of the land, a man named Abraham, dis- tinguished by wealth, wisdom, and probity, in obedience to the commands of the Deity, quitted the land of his fathers, and journeyed with his family and his herds towards the land of Canaan. His faith in the only God, and his obedience to his will, were here rewarded by increasing wealth and num- bers. His son and grandson continued the same nomadic life in Palestine which Abraham and his fathers had led. By a surprising turn of fortune, one of the sons of Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, became vizier to the king of Egypt: he brought his father and family to that country, and a dis- trict in the north-east of Egypt was assigned to them by the king for the sustenance of themselves and their flocks and herds. During 430 years their numbers increased exceedingly. A new dynasty now filled the Egyptian throne, and they feared the power of a numerous people attached to the former line, and dwelling in the key of the land towards Asia. They sought, therefore, to change their mode of life, and by impos- ing heavy tasks upon them to check their increase, and grad ually to wear them out. During this period of oppression Moses was born. The Egyptian monarch had ordered all the male children of the Israelites to be destroyed at the birth ; ard the mother of Moses, after concealing him for some time, was obliged to expose him. The daughter of the king found"him, and reared CHAP. II CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 33 him as her own, As he grew up, he was instructed in the secret wisdom of the priests ; but neither knowledge, nor the honors and splendor of the court, could make him behold with indifference the state of his native people. He mourned over their oppression, and panted to behold them in their former happy independence. Seeing an Egyptian ill-treat an Israelite, he slew him ; and, fraring the vengeance of the king, fled to Arabia, where he led a shepherd's life, near Sinai, in the service of an Arab sheikh. While here, he received the command of God to lead his people out of Egypt : he returned thither, and, by performing many wondrous deeds, compelled the reluctant monarch to let his slaves depart. But Pharaoh repented, pursued, and he and his whole army perished in the waves of the Red Sea. During their long residence in Egypt, the Israelites had gradually been passing from the nomadic to the agricultural life, and had contracted much of the impure religious ideas and licentious manners of the Egyptians. They were now to be brought back to the simple religion of their fathers, and a form of government established among them calculated to preserve them in the purity of their simple faith. It pleased the Deity to be himself, under the name of Jehovah, the King of Israel, and their civil institutions were to resemble those of the country they had left, freed from all that might be pre- judicial to the great object in view — that of making them a nation of monotheistic faith. In the midst of lightning and thunder, while Sinai re- echoed to the roar, the first simple elements of their future law were presented to the children of Israel. No images, no hieroglyphics, were admitted into the religion now given : ceremonies of significant import were annexed, to employ the minds and engage the attention of a rude people. There was a sacerdotal caste, to whom the direction of all matters relat- ing to religion and law (which were in this government the same) was intrusted : but they had no dogmas or mysteries wherewith to fetter the minds of the people ; and being as- signed for their maintenance, not separate lands, but a por- tion of the produce of the whole country, their interest would lead them to stimulate the people to agriculture, and thus carry into effect the object of the constitution. As priests, judges, advocates, writers, and physicians, they were of im- portant service in the community, and fully earned the tenth of the produce which was allotted to them. Their division into priests and Levites was a wise provision against that too sharp distinction which in Egypt and India prevailed be- 34 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. f ART I.. tween the sacerdotal and the other castes. The Levites, being assigned some lands, formed a connecting link between the priests and the cultivators. Ag-riculture being the destination of the Israelites, trade was discouraged ; for the fairs and markets were held in the neighborhood of the heathen temples. But to compensate them for the prohibition against sharing in the joyous festivi- ties of the surrounding nations, feasts were held three times in each year to commemorate their emancipation, the giving of the law, and their abode in the desert. At these festivals, all Israel was required to attend, that the bonds of brother- hood might be kept up among the tribes by participation in social enjoyment. Thus, many years before Con-fu-tsee gave the Kings to the Chinese, long ere any lawgiver arose in Greece, Moses, directed by God, gave to Israel, in the wastes of Arabia, a constitution, the wonder of succeeding ages, and ever memo- rable for the influence it has exerted on the minds and msti- tutions of a large and important portion of mankind. During forty years, till all the degenerate race who had left Egypt had died off*, Moses detained the Israelites in the deserts of Arabia, accustoming them to obey their law, and preparing them for the conquest of the land assigned as' their possession. At the end of that period their inspired legislator led them to the borders of the promised land, and having ap- pointed Joshua to be his successor, he ascended a lofty moun- tain to take a view of the country he was not to enter : he there died in the 120th year of his age. Under the guidance of Joshua, Israel passed the Jordan ; the God of Moses was with them, and inspired them with valor to subdue their foes. A speedy conquest gave them the land. No fixed govern- ment had been appointed ; the people gradually fell from the service of Jehovah to worship the idols of the surrounding nations ; and Jehovah gave them up into the power of their enemies. At times there arose among them heroes, denomi- nated judges, who, inspired with patriotism and zeal for the law, aroused the slumbering tribes, and led them to victory. Then, too, arose that noble order of prophets who, in heaven- ni spired strains of poetry, exalted the Mosaic law, and im- pressed its precepts, its rewards, and threats, on the minds of the people. After the time of the judges, the temporal and spiritual dignities were, contrary to th.e intention of the lawgiver, B. c. united, and the high-priest exercised the sovereign power *156. This lasted but a short time: in the person of the upright Samuel, a prophet, the temporal was again divided from tlw Suraj-ud-Dowlah and his Sons. 35 CHAP. II. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 37 spiritual dignity. The sons of Samuel trod not in the steps of their virtuous father. The prospect of being governed by them, and the want of a military leader to command them in their virars with the surrounding nations, made the people call g ^ on Samuel to give them a king. He complied with their 1095 wishes, warning them of the consequences of their desire, and appointed Saul. This monarch was victorious in war ; but he disobeyed the voice of the prophet, and misfortune ever after pursued him. It pleased Jehovah to take the king- dom from him, and Samuel anointed the youthful David to occupy his place. Saul was seized with a melancholy derange- ment of intellect. David, who was his son-in-law, won the af- fections of the powerful tribe of Judah ; but while Saul lived, he continued in his allegiance, though his sovereign sought his life. At length, Saul and his elder and more worthy sons fell 1055 in battle against the Philistines, and the tribe of Judah called their young hero to the vacant throne. The other tribes ad- hered during seven years to the remaining son of Saul. His death, by the hands of assassins, gave all Israel to David. 1^48. David was the model of an Oriental prince, handsome in his person, valiant, mild, just, and generous, humble before his God, and zealous in his honor, a lover of music and poetry, himself a poet. Successful in war, he reduced beneath his sceptre all the countries from the borders of Egypt to the mountains whence the Euphrates springs. The king of Tyre was his ally ; he had ports on the Red Sea, and the wealth of commerce flowed during his reign into Israel. He fortified and adorned Jerusalem, which .he made the seat of govern- ment. Glorious prospects of extended empire, and of the diffusion of the pure religion of Israel, and of happy times, floated before the mind of the prophet-king. The kingdom of Israel was hereditary ; but the monarch might choose his successor among his sons. Solomon, sup- ported by Nathan, the great prophet of those days, and by the affection- of his fiither, was nominated to succeed. The qualities of a magnificent Eastern monarch met in the son of David. He, too, was a poet ; his taste was great and splendid ; he summoned artists from Tyre (for Israel had none,) and, with the collected treasure of his father, erected at Jerusa- lem a stately temple to the God of Israel. He first gave the nation a queen, in the daughter of the king of Egypt, for whom he built a particular palace. He brought horses and chariots out of Egypt to increase the strength and the glory of his empire. Trade and commerce deeply engaged the thoughts of this politic prince : with the Tyrians, his subjects visited the ports of India and eastern Africa : he built the 4 38 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L city of Tadmor or Palmyra in the desert, six days' journey from Babylon, and one from the Euphrates — a point of union for the traders of various nations. Wealth of every kind flowed in upon Jerusalem ; but it alone derived advantage from the splendor of the monarch: the rest of Israel was heavily taxed. On the death of Solomon, the tribes called upon his son to B. c. reduce their burdens : he haughtily refused, and ten of the 975. tribes revolted and chose another king. An apparently wise a really false, policy, made the kings of Israel set up the sym- bolical mode of worship practised in Egypt. Judah, too, wavered in her allegiance to Jehovah. A succession of bold, lionest, inspired prophets, reproved, warned, encouraged the kindred nations, and a return to the service of the true God was always rewarded by victory and better times. At length 721. the ten tribes, by their vices and idolatry, lost the divine pro- tection : they were conquered and carried out of their own country by the king of Assyria, and their land given to strangers. A similar fate befell the kingdom of Judah : the house of David declined, and the king of Babylon, Nebuchad- 585. nezzar, carried away the people to Babylonia. On the fall of that state, seventy years afterwards, Cyrus king of Persia allowed to return to their own land a people whose faith bore some resemblance to the simple religion of the Persians, and whose country secured him an easy access to Egypt. Restored to their country, the Israelites, now called Jews, became as distinguished for their obstinate attachment to their law as they had been before for their facility to desert it. But the purity and simplicity of their faith were gone; they now mingled with it various dogmas which they had learned during their captivity. The schools of the prophets, whence in the old times had emanated such lofty inspiration, simple piety, and pure morals, were at an end ; sects sprang up among them, and the haughty, subtle, trifle-loving Pharisees, the wordly-minded Sadducees, and the simple, contemplative Essenes, misunderstood and misinterpreted the pure ennobling precepts of the Mosaic law. Medes and Persians. In the west of Asia the ancient sacerdotal constitutions had been now almost wholly abolished. To them succeeded des- potism ; and from the erection of the first great Assyrian and Babylonian monarchies to the present day, the same appear- ance has been repeated with little alteration. One people has constantly succeeded another in the dominion over the lands between the Indus and the Mediterranean. So long as its CHAP. n. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 39 military virtue has remained unenervated by luxury and pleasure, it has retained its sway : each dynasty has sustained itself till it sank in sloth, and a bold and powerful usurper tumbled it from the throne for his own descendants to un- derg-o a similar destiny. The Assyrian power flourished and ruled over Asia. In the country south of the Caspian, named Media, the people, as did Israel in the days of Samuel, called for a king- ; but for a judge, not a warrior. Dejoces, distinguished for his wisdom and justice, was the first monarch : his grandson Cyaxares was allied to the king of Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, and be- neath their united efforts, Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and with it the power of the empire, fell. At this period the Scythians spread their swarms over Lesser Asia, Iran, Syria, and even Palestine. The king of Media freed Asia from their destructive hordes. In Lesser Asia there had been hitherto numerous little states, attached to temples of dif- ferent gods; at these temples were held fairs and markets, and they were all closely connected with each other. At the period of the Scythian invasion these states were dissolved, and the kingdoms of Cilicia, Phrygia, and Lydia, were formed from them. Of the history of the two former we are totally ignorant. The two first dynasties of the Lydians, the Atya- b. c des and the Heracleides, are mythic : the history of Gyges, 730 the first king of the Mermnade dynasty, is in part fable. In his time began the connexion between the Greeks and Lydians, who differed not much from each other in manners and religion. His successor, Ardys, warred with the Grecian colonies planted on the coast of Asia before there was any extensive monarchy in Asia Minor ; and the Cimmerians, a horde from the Black Sea, poured over Lydia and Phrygia, and possessed them during the reign of his successor, Sadyat- tes. Alyattes, the next king, drove the Cimmerians from Lesser Asia at the time that Cyaxares expelled the Scythians from his dominions. The Lydian monarch ruled Lesser Asia, the Median from Bactria to the Tigris : war arose between them, the king of Babylon became the mediator, and a mar- riage united the rival princes. During the reign of Astyages, the successor of Cyaxares, the tribes of the Persians, a nation, in religion, laws, and manners, closely resembling the Medes, and who dwelt, partly stationary, partly nomadic, in the lands between the Persian Gulf and the mountains of Bactria, were united un- der Cyrus their native prince, and gained the dominion over the Medes. Cyrus was grandson to Astyages but his early 40 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L history is related differently by the Grecian historians. Cy- rus led to war the mass of the Persian tribes, united with the more warlike portion of the Medes, and by his conquests founded the Persian empire. He first subdued the nations of the east, next turned his arms against the Sacians and other freebooting hordes of Caucasus, then led his mingled host against Croesus, king of Lydia, who had reduced the Greeks of the coast, who so long had bid defiance to his pre- decessors. Crcesus was defeated and taken prisoner, but treated with kindness by the conqueror, whose friend and adviser he ever after continued. The whole of Lesser Asia, ' including the Grecian cities, submitted to Cyrus. Babylonia had been in alliance with Croesus : its capital shared the fate B. c. of that of Lydia. Here Cyrus found the Jews who had been 653. transplanted thither when Jerusalem was taken and plunder- ed. Similarity of religious faith, humanity, and policy, co- operated to procure them permission to return and rebuild their city. Cyrus, it is possible, now meditated the conquest of Egypt. Judsea was the key to that country, and a grateful people might favor the operations of the Persian troops. The ancient cities of Persia, Pasagarda and Persepolis, where the treasures and chronicles of the empire were kept, and the kings crowned and interred, were considered too remote to be the seat of so extensive an empire as was that of Persia. Babylon was well adapted for that purpose ; but a Persian monarch should reside in Persia, and Cyrus founded Susa on the Persian soil, at a convenient distance from Babylon. The 621 last expedition C5rrus undertook was against the Scythians ot Turks, and in an engagement with their tribes he lost his life. C)rrus possessed all the qualities of a great prince : his memory was long held in honor throughout the East, and his virtues drew forth the praises of the sages of Greece. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who invaded and conquered Egypt, aided by the Phoenicians, jealous of the favor shown by the last Egyptian kings to the Greeks. Cam- byses attempted farther conquests ; but his troops were driven back by the ^Ethiopians, and an army sent to take possession of the oasis of Hammon perished in the sands of the desert. He died by a wound fi-om his own sword — a divine judgment, according to the Egyptians, for violatmg their sacred ox Apis — as he was about to return to Persia, where a Magian had, under the name of his brother Smerdis, seized on the throne. 621. A conspiracy of seven nobles put an end to the life and reign of the Magian, and Darius Hystaspes, one of their number, related to the royal family, was made king. Under the reign of Darius, Persia flourished, religion was 4* 41 CHAP. il. CENTRAL AND WESTERN ASIA. 43 reformed and purified, the empire divided into a certain num- ber of provinces, and fixed imposts established. Babylon hdd rebelled : the loyalty and treachery of Zopyrus, a Per- sian noble, reduced it to subjection. The Persian governor of Eofypt attempted to conquer the Grecian states of Barce and Gyrene ; but Grecian valor daunted the troops of Persia. The monarch in person led an army over the Hellespont against the Scythians ; but their steppes fought for them, and he only conquered Thrace. Master of all the coast of Les- ser Asia, Darius sought to bring under his sway the islands and the continent of Greece : his fleet was shattered, and " the plain of Marathon witnessed the overthrow of the first u c Persian host that trod the soil of Hellas. He was preparing 490 another expedition against Greece : but family-feuds, and a rebellion in Egypt, occupied his thoughts, and death finally 485 surprised him. No Persian monarch, save the great Cyrus, stands on a line with Darius. Xerxes, the haughty son of a haughty mother, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, determined to wash away the disgrace the Persian arms had sustained in Greece. At the head of / countless myriads, drawn from all the provinces of his em- pire, he passed the Hellespont. At Salamis he witnessed the destruction of his fleet : his land troops, no longer supplied 480. with provisions, perished with want and disease. The mon- arch, leaving a portion of his army in Bosotia under Mardo- nius, fled to Susa, and abandoned himself to pleasure. The next year saw at Platsea the total defeat of Mardonius, and the Grecian fleet, after the victory at Mycale, sailing in tri- umph along the coast of Asia. Cruelties exercised on his nearest relatives disgraced the latter days of Xerxes, and he 461 perished, assassinated by his fi-iends and guards, Artabanus and Spamitres. The assassins accused of the murder Dari- us, the eldest son of the king, and he was put to death by order of his youngest brother, Artaxerxes, who mounted the throne. Artaxerxes soon discovered the true murderers of his father. Artabanus atoned for his treason with his life. A rebellion raised by his sons was crushed by Megabyzus, the brother-in-law of the king, who also defeated an elder brother of the king, who was governor of Bactria, and had taken arms to assert his claims to the throne. Rebellion still raged in Egypt : an army sent thither by Xerxes, under his brother Achaemenes, had been cut to pieces, and Megabyzus was now dispatched to reduce that country. He effected his object by negotiation ; but the obedience of the Egyptians was not durable, and during 100 years we read of kings of Egypt 44 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I This prince, surnamed Long-armed^ was a monarch who pos- B c. sessed many great and amiable qualities. He died after a *24. long reign, and the history of Persia presents from this, or rather an earlier period, the usual scenes of cruelty, treachery, fraud, and faction, characteristic of oriental despotism. Brothers murdered by brothers, queens exercising every species of cruelty on their rivals and their friends, eunuchs disposing of the throne, assassinating their sovereign, and perishing in their turn by justice or by similar treachery, are ordinary events, till, in the reign of the virtuous and ill-fated 331. Darius Codomanus, the Persian colossus was thrown to the earth by the. arms of Greece. For when Artaxerxes II. mounted the throne, his younger brother Cyrus, who was governor of Lydia, Phrygia, and Ionia, under pretence of quelling some disturbances in Cilicia and Pisidia, collected, an army in which were 10,000 Greeks, 401. and with it marched against him. The armies met at Cu- naxa, in the neighborhood of Babylon, and victory declared for Artaxerxes, as Cyrus fell in the action. The Greeks had on their side been conquerors : they were now deserted by their Persian confederates, deprived of their leaders by treachery ; yet without guides, they, through the midst of a hostile nation, barbarous tribes, mountains, defiles, and deserts, reached with trifling loss the coast of the Euxuie. This, when known in Greece, betrayed the internal weakness of the Per- sian empire. Agesilaus the great Spartan had collected a Grecian army in Lesser Asia, the ax was apparently laid to the root of the Persian monarchy, when Persian gold effect- ed what Persian steel could not : bribery armed a confederacy in Greece against Sparta, Agesilaus was recalled to the de- fence of his country, and the fate of Persia was delayed for a season. The Persian dominions at the period of their greatest ex- tent embraced India west of the Indus, and all the country between it and the Mediterranean, Lesser Asia, Thrace, Palestine, and Egypt: Arabia paid tribute; the mountain- tribes of Caucasus and the Turkish borderers were number- ed among its subjects. Yet, as the instance of the Cardu- chians or Koords proves, there were many tribes in the very heart of the empire who yielded but a nominal submission, maintaining nearly total independence. Under Cyrus, each subject state was left its own form of government, only bound to acknowledge the sovereign by tribute and attendance in war. Darius, by attempting to establish an uniformity of ad- ministration tnroughout his dominions, deprived his subjects of all love of independence. They ate, drank, plowed, and CHAP. III. GREECE 45 wove, heedless of who riled over them; were dragged at times away from their homes to share in wars they took no interest in ; passive machines, they paid their taxes, or carried arms; like a flock of sheep on fertile pastures, they fed heedlessly till they became the prey of wolves. They bowed as submissively beneath the sceptre of the Macedonian hero and his successors as under that of the descendants of Cyrus. CHAP. III. GREECE. # Early State of Greece. Impenetrable obscurity covers the early times of Greece Were we to believe ancient tradition, corroborated by the testimony of geology, a country named Lectonia once cov- ered a great portion of the space now occupied by the ^Egean Sea. An extensive sea was spread over the plain of Scy thia, which burst the Bosporus, and poured into the Mediterranean, submerging Lectonia, and overflowing a large part of Greece. Hence this country was long under tlie dominion of water. The tradition of the fertile vales of Thessaly and Bceotia having been lakes, was long preserved. Buildings of gigantic dimensions still to be seen in Greece, testify for its having been in a very remote period the seat of a civilized race. These ruins are long anterior to history : they are mentioned in the Homeric poems. Tradition as- cribes the erection of them to the Cyclopes, possibly the name of that ancient people. It is probable these aboriginal colo- nists were, like the nations of Asia, under the government of a sacerdotal order, — this alone raises such works. There can be little doubt of their being of the Caucasian race. They entered Greece from Thrace, and spread over the whole country : for their chief remains are in Peloponnesus. Possi- bly they were of the same race with the aborigines of Italy. To these succeeded the Pelasgians, a numerous tribe, who overran Greece, Italy, the islands, and a part of Lesser Asia; they, too, came from Thrace. Agriculture was their chief employment : the arts of peace flourished among them. The eligion of Greece was chiefly Pelasgian. The thickly-peopled regions of Thrace still sent forth its tribes. The Acheeans, the race who fought at Troy, next succeeded, and overcame the Pelasgians. Legends of the Lapithse and Centaurs, if 46 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PARTI, credit is to be given to them, may relate to contests between the Achaean and Pelasgian races, for the possession of Thes- saly. Colonies, it is said, came from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phry- gia, and civilized the barbarous, mast-eating savages who roamed the wilds of Greece. Danaus, an Egyptian, ruled at Argos ; Cecrops, from Sais, at Athens ; Pelops, the Phrygian, gave name to Peloponnesus ; Cadmus, the Phcenician, founded Thebes. Little reliance is to be placed on these accoimts there is no evidence of any race of the inhabitants of Greece having been in the savage state. The Phoenicians, undoubt- edly, early visited the coasts of Greece, and a colony did, per- haps, settle there ; yet it is unusual for a maritime people to g'o so far inland as Thebes. With respect to the Egyptian colonies, it is not unlikely that the artful and vain-glorious priests of Sa'is, and of other towns of Egypt, imposed their fables on the credulous Greeks, who first visited that country. The Achaean period is the heroic age of Greece : then flourished, or are said to have flourished, the mythic heroes Hercules, Theseus, Jason, and others : then were the Argo- nautic expedition, the wars of Thebes, and that of Troy, eter- nized by the verses of Homer. As a real historic event, the chief that this period offers is, the erection of a kingdom by Minos in Crete, three generations before the Trojan war. This monarch, at once king, prophet, and lawgiver, collected the various tribes of Crete into one state, established a ma- rine, conquered the piratic Carians, who svt^armed in the iEgean, and reduced the isles beneath his power. The Achaeans, like the Pelasgians, were devoted to agri- culture and navigation. Their government was aristocrato- monarchic : they possessed numerous slaves, acquired by war or by purchase, who performed all servile offices. Their chief amusements, like those of the Germans and Scandinavians, were gymnastic exercises, and at banquets listening to the songs of bards, who chanted the deeds of living or departed heroes. Manners, language, religion, were the same in all the states: even between the Achaeans and the Trojans no difference is to be perceived on these points. The Pytbian and Dodonean oracles tended to keep up union : no traces of castes appear : the princes and fathers of families were priests. The monarch was distinguished chiefly by his personal quali- ties: he had the command in war, a larger share of the booty, orecedence, and a portion of land assigned him. The nobles were distinguished as much by their powers of mind and body as by birtli. The people had a voice in matters of war and 47 CHAP, in GREECE. 49 peace : no law conld be made without their approbation. The elements of the future democracy were there. I The religion of Greece was the worship of deities presiding over the various parts of nature and powers of mind. Under the names of Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Hera, Pallas, &c. namet" m(»stly of unknown origin, these deities were honored by temples, sacrifices, processions : oracles were believed to an- nounce tiieir will and the future. This system of religion was Grecian, and unborrowed. The Phoenicians may have introduced some new deities ; and, when an intercourse was opened with Egypt, mysteries and new rites and dogmas were imported from that country. |" Dorian Migration, The Achsean race acknowledged a supreme head in the king of Mycense. After the Trojan war, the bonds that united them were loosed. A time of disturbance and revo- lution came: the Dorians, a brave and hardy race, left their abodes in the mountains, and came down on Greece. This movement was followed by great changes : numerous emigrations took place : Grecian colonies covered the coasts of southern Italy, Sicily, and Lesser Asia. T"he Dorians, it is said, were led by the descendants of Hercules to make good their claim to the throne of Argos, of whicli their ancestor had been deprived ; and the Dorian immigration is called the Return of the Heracleides. But Hercules is a mythic per- sonage, — one who, it is probable, never had a real existence ; and the Dorians were, doubtless, moved by other causes. They speedily overran the Peloponnesus : her mountains defended Arcadia: Achsea alone remained to the Atreidas: Laconia, •Messenia, and Argolis became the property of the Dorians : iEgina and the neighboring islands fell to them, and a portion of them settled in Crete. That branch of the Achasans named lonians, retreated to Attica, and joined its inhabitants, who were of the same race ; being pressed for room, a portion of these migrated to the banks of the Hermus, in Lesser Asia, and the adjacent isles. Peloponnesians, named iEolians, had previously settled on the coast from Cyzicus to the Hermu?. No great kingdom existed at that time in Lesser Asia : the coasts had been possessed by pirate states of Leieges and Carians. The people of the interior favored the settlement of the lonians ; a race of mild manners, less addicted to war than to trade and manufactures. The conquering Dorians afterwards came from Crete, and took from the Carians Cni- dus, Halicarnassus, and Rhodes. Thus were formed the Gre- 5 50 HISTOKY OF THE WORLD. PART 1. cian ci^^ies of liesser Asia, where poetry, philosopliy, arts, and scieiice bloomed ere they attained any height in Greece.* Sparta. The Dorian state of Laconia was, at this period, the great- est state of Greece, Two kings were at the head of it; under them stood the Dorian nobility, the Spartans ; then the Pe- riceci or Laconians, and, lastly, the Helots, or descendants at the conquered people, a body of oppressed, ill-used serfs. Disputes and unfixed relations among these orders made the want of a settled system of legislation apparent. Lyeurgus, brother to one of the kings, and guardian of his infant heir., saw this necessity, and resolved to remedy it. He went tc Crete, whose constitution, originally established by Minos, and renewed by the Dorians, was then in the highest repute ; made himself acquainted with its institutions, and formed a code of laws, such as he deemed fitted for Sparta. The Del- phic oracle, so highly venerated by all of Dorian race, ap- plauded his project, and pronounced him inspired. The object of all Dorian legislation was the maintenance of a martial character in the upper and dominant classes. To crush and grind down the ill-fated serfs, and give leisure for the practice of military exercises to the warlike race of the conquerors, was the aim of both Cretan and Spartan legisla- tion. In Crete there were but two orders, the lords and the serfs : in Laconia there were three ; the Perioeci or Laconi- ans, whether Dorians of mingled marriages, or Achseans who had been lefl some privileges by the conquerors, forming a link between the two former. Lyeurgus divided the lands of Laconia into 89,000 lots; 9000 large ones for the Spartans. and 30,000 smaller for the Perioeci, all to be tilled for them by the miserable serfs. The government was in the hands of the Spartans alone. Both Spartans and Perioeci were alike engaged in unceasing military exercises. By a fatal error in legislation, the number of the Spartan families was closed, and in default of male issue, daughters could inherit landed property ; hence there arose an inequality among the leading families, and a pernicious oligarchy, where women had pow- erful influence. At the time of the Theban war, the greater part of the land was in the hands of females. The Spartan government consisted of the two kings of the race of Hercules, and a senate of twenty-eight old men (the Gerusia,) chosen by the people. The kings were leaders in ♦ The common name of the Creeks was Hellenes, a name posterior to thf time of Homer. It is uncertain when it first came into use. CHAP. III. GREECE. 51 war, and out of Laconia their power was unlimited. The pec»- ple (i. e. the Spartans) were assembled every full moon to decide on measures proposed by the senate, which they could only accept or reject ; they decided on all crimes against the state, on the succession of the kings, and the election and dismissal of magistrates. If peace or war was the question, the PerioBci were called to the council, as they were to share in the danger. The Helots had no part in legislation, or even in religious festivals. As a counterpoise to the power of the kings, a magistracy, the Ephorate, was introduced in the time of king Thoopom- pus. The Ephori were five men selected from the people (the Spartans,) without regard to age. They alone were al- ways in connexion with the people ; they had the inspection of all magistrates, were present at every transaction, always attended the kings, directed all foreign affairs, accused kings and magistrates before the people, where they were them- selves both judges and accusers. At length they completely crushed all other power, and became the tyrants of the state. The greatest rigor of manners was enjoined by Lycurgus. He established syssitia, or public meals, at which all the male part of the citizens ate together. The most implicit obedi- ence and regard to age was impressed on the minds of youth ; the most inflexible endurance of pain inculcated ; most things, even slaves, horses, and dogs, were possessed in common. The chase was their favorite enjoyment; every species of trade was prohibited ; money was huge masses of iron. The natural result of such an education was a sternness of character, a pride and haughtiness, and love of command. While the institutions of Lycurgus continued in vigor, the Spartan character was distinguished for the sterner virtues ; when it relaxed, profligacy and corruption of every species broke in amongst them. Athens. Athens did not rise into importance till long after Sparta. Argos was a large city ; and Corinth, the entrepot of trade between the Mgesm and Ionian seas, was abounding in wealth before Athens became of any consequence ; but they and the other states of Peloponnesus oflTer at this period little to at- tract attention. The tale of the Egyptian Cecrops coming to Attica is a manifest fable, Attica had numerous petty princes, each ruling his own village. A prince, named Theseus, is said to have united several of these little states into one, and col- lected the people to Athens. But his power could not have 52 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. fA. t I. been great, as Mnestheus, the second from him, led but forty ships to Troy. At the time of the Dorian irruption into Pelo- ponnesus, the family of Theseus lost the throne ; and Melan- thius, of Achsean race, frv^m Messenia, coming to Athens, ob- tained the chief direction of affairs : his son Codrus drove back the Dorians, and forced them to be content with Megara, at that time united with Attica. The legend says, Codrus of- fered himself up for his country, and that the royal dignity was abolished out of honor to him. The republican spirit had however, from various causes, been on the increase at Athens. Towards the end of the sixth olympiad,* a regular aristocracy was established: the chief magistrate was called Archon, and his office was annual. A farther change augmented the num- ber of archons to nine, three with peculiar rank and titles, six as presidents of courts of justice. This was the foundation of a rigid aristocracy ; but as the people had all along retained the right of assembling to pass laws, it was in a condition, whenever it could get a leader, to assert its rights and better its condition. But the aristocracy, being in possession of the admin istra tion of justice, and being also invested with the sacerdotal dignities, the people had no sure place of refuge when ag- B. c grieved. Matters fell, therefore, into turmoil and confusion. 623. l)raco, in the first year of the thirty-ninth olympiad, sought a remedy in the revival of an ancient species of divine law; but its general maxims were too rigid and severe. It suited not the spirit of the times, and became generally detested. The internal troubles still continued ; and twelve years afterwards, in a struggle between two aristocratic parties, Cylon, the head of one of them, attempted, by the aid of the tyrant or ruler of Megara, to raise himself to similar power in Athens. His project failed ; the nobles, headed by the Alcmseonides, the chiefs of the rival faction, summoned their vassals from the country, and besieged Cylon and his adherents in the citadel. He and his brother escaped ; but his followers were dragged from the altars and slain. This offence brought down vengeance from the gods ; and though the chief agents were exiled, defeat and sickness visited the city. A prophet, Epi- menides of Crete, was summoned to purify and atone for the city. He regulated the religious worship, and prepared the way for the system of legislation projected by his friend Solon. In the third year of the 46th olympiad, Solon being archon, the land-owners and citizens, debtors and creditors, were in — ■ --.— — , ■■■. ■ I — ■■ -- • - ■ I ■ ^^ * The olympiads were periods of four years. The first began 1». C. 776. 6* 63 eJHAP. III. GREECE. 55 open feud. Solon was called upon to legislate. His first step was to arrange matters between debtor and creditor, which he accomplished by altering the standard, and lower- ing the rate of interest. He then deprived the nobility of a portion of their former power, by dividing all the people into four classes regulated by property : thus, while he intro- duced a democracy, founding a new aristocracy. The nobil- ity, as possessors of the largest properties, as the sole mem- bers of the court of Areopagus, as possessed of the priesthoods, and directors of religious ceremonies, still retained an ample degree of influence. By the establishment of the Council of Four Hundred, an annually rotating college, he at once gave so many families an interest in the new order of things, that there remained no chance of its being totally subverted. He finally made all the people swear not to make any alteration during the next ten years, deeming that period sufficiently long for habituating them to the new constitution. Solon's laws did not put an end to the internal broils. The nobility, being the owners of the largest properties, were in the first classes, and the contests for honors and dignities raged among them as hotly as ever. The lowest class, the Thetes, who were excluded from office, and were not liable to taxes, or to serve in heavy armor, formed in the popular assembly a portion of the sovereignty, and sat in courts of justice. They were a ready weapon for any one who knew how to employ it. The old local parties of the Paralians and the Pediseans also still subsisted. Solon had travelled to the East: Megacles, the chief of the Alcmseonides, who had now returned to Athens, was at the head of the Paralians ; Ly- curgus was the leader of the Pediseans, or country gentle- men ; Peisistratus, a descendant of the ancient kings, sought the favor of the lower class. He obtained by their means the supreme power: his rivals, however, united and expelled him. Megacles then gave him his daughter in marriage, and restored him, but again drove him away. After eleven year."' absence, Peisistratus returned at the head of an army, ana governed Athens till his death. His sway was mild and be-* neficent; the laws of Solon were observed, and Athens flour"* ished under him. His sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, who succeeded him, trod m his steps ; but an act of private re- venge deprived the latter of life, and conferred an unmerited immortality on the assassins, Harmodius and Aristogeiton. Hippias grew suspicious and cruel. The Alcmaeonides had devoted their wealth to the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi: the priestess, gained by them, incessantly commanded the Spartans to restore liberty to Athens. The latter, glad of 56 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. B. c. the pretext, obeyed the oracle. Hippias abandoned Attica, 510. and retired to his estates in Asia. Solon's constitution re- mained ; but the heads of parties, to obtain influence, attached themselves to the aristocracy or the people. Isagoras, of an- cient lineage, headed the former, favored by the Spartans. Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonide, sought to win the people. When archon, four years after the banishment of Hippias, he shook the whole Solonian constitution, and opened the way to all the future evils of unbridled democracy, by dividing the four original tribes into ten, and altering in like manner all the inferior divisions, and increasing the senate to 500 mem- bers, 50 from each of the new tribes. Prompted by Isagoras, the Spartans sent a herald to demand the banishment of those stained with the blood of Cylon's adherents. Cleisthenes was obliged to yield and retire. The Spartans attempted to re- store the old aristocracy ; the Athenians sought aid of Per- sia; Cleomenes, the Spartan, marched an army against Athens ; but his allies abandoned him, and his colleague, De- maratus, refusing to join in his project, the Spartans retired, and the democracy of Athens was fully established. CHAP. IV. GREECE TO HER SUBVERSION BY THE MACEDONIANS. The Persian War. Greece and Persia now first came into conflict. Cyrus had conquered the Grecian colonies in Lesser Asia : the love of liberty however was not extinct, and the secret advice of Histiffius, tyrant of Miletus, whom Darius detained at his court, threw the Ionian cities into revolt. They called on Athens, as head of the Ionian race, to assist them. The aid was gmnted, and the anger of the Great King thereby in- curred. Darius meditated the conquest of Greece and the islands ; he sent his ambassadors to demand homage : many islands, especially iEgina, delivered earth and water. A large army, under Datis and Artaphernes, was sent to subdue 4V0. the refractory. The plain of Marathon witnessed the defeat of the Persian vassals by 9000 Athenians and 1000 Plataeans. Datis and Artaphernes returned to Asia with the discomfited host. The Athenians resolved to punish those who had submit- ted to the Persian king. Their first enterprise against Naxoa, CHAP. IV. GREECE. 57 dnder Miltiades, failed ; the general was condemned to pay the costs, and being unable, was treated according to Athe- nian law, like any other citizen. Aristides, Xanthippus, and Themistocles, took the place of Miltiades, and by employing the proper methods of managing a democracy, raised Athens from a petty town to the rank of a leading state. The threat- ening war of the Persians showed that Athens' only hope lay in the augmentation of her navy. Themistocles awaked the ancient grudge against ^Egina ; and the produce of the sil- ver mines of Laurium, which had been hitherto divided among the citizens, was appropriated to the building of a fleet. Athens and JEgina were in conflict when intelligence arrived of the immense preparations of Xerxes, the Persian king, for the conquest of Greece. All enmity ceased ; a bond for common defence was established among the Grecian g. q states. In the spring of the first year of the 75th olympiad, 480. Xerxes led, as is said, two millions of Asiatics over the Hel- lespont. A fleet of 1200 vessels attended the march of this huge multitude. The progress of the Persian monarch was unimpeded till he reached the ever-memorable pass of Ther- mopylae, leading from Thessaly into Proper Greece. The narrow passage between the mountain and the sea was guard- ed by a resolute band of Spartans, Phocians, Locrians, and others, under the command of Leonidas, the Spartan king. Division after division of the Persian army were repulsed with immense loss in attempting to force their way. At length, a traitor revealed another passage through the moun- tains: Leonidas, on hearing it, dismissed his allies, and, at the head of his Spartans, attacked the Persian multitudes, and fell, covered with wounds, amidst the heaps of slain. Monuments, song, and story, have conspired to exalt this deed of heroes. Meantime, the Persian fleet had suffered from a storm, and had been roughly handled by the Greeks in an engagement off* the promontory of Artemisium. The Persian army marched on to Attica, took and burned Athens. The Grecian fleet lay in the strait between Salamis and the continent ; the Persian imprudently attacked them there: a total defeat was the consequence. Xerxes, who had from the land beheld the destruction of his fleet, hasted back to Asia, leaving an army of 300,000 under Mardonius. The following year the Greeks, to the number of 110,000, fought and defeated the Persians at Platsea, and but 40,000 of the latter returned to Asia. On the same day (Sept. 22.) the Grecian fleet totally defeated that of the Persians at the promontory of Mycale, in Ionia. Athens got a large share of the Persian spoils ; the city 5^ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. was rebuilt, and the port of Pirseus fortified. The insolence of Pausanias, the Spartan chief, having disgusted the allies, the command was transferred to Athens. It was resolved to prosecute the war against Persia; each of the allies was bound to supply a certain number of men and ships ; they compounded with the Athenians for the payment of an annual sum of money, instead of furnishing their contingent ; the Athenian treasurers received each year the contributions of the cities on the isles and coasts of the ^gean ; and Athens, at the expense of the allies, maintained a powerful army and navy. The jealousy of the Spartans was excited ; they were on the point of declaring war, when an earthquake levelled Sparta ; the Helots and Messenians rose in rebellion, and the haughty Spartans were forced to call on Athens for aid. But they distrusted their allies, and the Athenians joined the Ar- gives, the hereditary foes of Sparta. The rebellion of the Helots lasted ten years, and was ended by a composition with the rebels. Athens was now in the height of her power; she sent 200 ships to Egypt to assist the natives against the Per- sians, took a part in the affairs of Cyprus, beat the iEginetes, and established a democracy at Megara. The great men of Athens at this period were, Aristides, Themistocles, and Cimon ; all of whom, like Miltiades, experienced popular in- gratitude, and were driven from their country. The Peloponnesian War. Pericles was now the leading man at Athens. An Alc- msBonide by the mother's side, and son of Xanthippus, who won the victory at Mycale, he sought power by bringing in the wildest democracy. All barriers of the constitution were thrown down, and power given to the lowest rabble, by whom and over whom he hoped to rule. Of commanding eloquence, he swayed the people ; handsome, rich, generous, and brave, he was master of their affections. Magnificent in his taste, he adorned the city with stately buildings at the cost of the allies, and all the arts flourished beneath his patronage. Pericles reduced Euboea and Samos ; he covered the coasts and islands with Atheniar colonies ; he made the Athenians masters of the sea, ann already those dreams of distant con- quest, which caused their overthrow, began to float before the imagiTiation of the vain-glorious people. He sought to en- feeble the Doric confederacy, and an opportunity soon offered. Corinth and her colony Corcyra were, after Athens, the most considerable naval powers. United, they were able to cope with her ; but commercial jealousy prevented their co-ope- rating, and, at last, they went to war with each other. Cor- 59 CHAP. IV, GREECE 61 cyra addressed herself to Athens for aid ; the Corinthians complained to Sparta of the breach of the truce by the latter power : other events occurred to increase the odium against Athens, and, at length, war was declared against her by the Doric confederation, and an army, under Archidamus, one of b. c the Spartan kings, invaded Attica. The plan laid down by ^^^ Pericles for carrying on the war was, to abandon the country to the Lacedaemonian army, and then retaliate by descents on Peloponnesus, by which they would soon weary the confede- rates of the war. Unfortunately, destiny fought also against Athens : in the second year of the war the plague broke out, and swept away numbers of citizens ; amongst them, Pericles himself. The war was still carried on with various success. The most remarkable event of it in Greece, was the gallant defence of Platsea against the Peloponnesians. The greatest man that appeared among the Spartans was Brasidas, who, to the severe virtues of a Spartan, united mildness and gentle- ness of manners. Among the Athenians, Nicias and De- mosthenes were the most distinguished of the nobles ; Cleon, the leading demagogue ; but Alcibiades, of noble birth, im- mense wealth, extreme beauty, and eminent talents, far eclipsed all the men of his time. He was the ward of Peri- cles and the pupil of Socrates ; but, hurried away by his am- bition, he waited not till years had matured his judgment, engaging in politics he took the popular side, and plunged his country into the fatal expedition to Sicily. Numerous Grecian colonies had settled in Sicily, and had risen to great wealth and power : they were almost all democ- racies ; but tyrants occasionally ruled them. Syracuse was the most distinguished of these cities. Gelon had possessed himself of the tyranny, and governed with justice and mild- ness: after his death, the people fell into divisions: the smaller cities, which were oppressed, applied to Athens for help. Alcibiades, who was then in the plenitude of his influ- ence, warmly exhorted the people to attend to the call, and drew a brilliant picture of the glorious prospect of universal empire that now seemed destined for Athens. In an evil hour the people, though warned by Nicias and other men of age and experience, yielded their assent, and an expedition against Syracuse was decreed. The finest fleet that ever left Athens sailed under the command of Alcibiades, Nicias and Lamachus, and success at first attended its operations, but the enemies of Alcibiades accused him of profaning the mysteries; he was recalled, and fled to Sparta: a Spartan gfoneral, Gylippus, was dispatched to Syracuse, and though 5ie Athenians augmented their army in Sicily to 40,000 men, 6 62 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. B. c. and sent out Demosthenes, their ablest general, it was tie- ii2. feat'jd, and men and generals lost life or liberty. The news of this misfortune was at first not credited at Athens: when its truth was confirmed, the people looked around and saw themselves without horse, or heavy infantiy, or ships, with an empty treasury, their subjects in rebellion, their allies fallen oflT, the enemy in tl.'eir country, and before" their port ; yet they lost not courage, but vigorously prepared for defence. The Lacedaemonians, by the advice of Alcibia des, instead of making annual incursions into Attica, ha taken and fortified Decelia, a post half-way between Athen and Boeotia, and from thence wasted the country : still the Athenians held out for seven years : and, but for the party- spirit that prevailed, which drove again into exile Alcibiades, and unjustly put to death most of their other good generals, they might have come off victorious in the struggle. The vanity and inexperience of the Athenian commanders (warned 405. in vain by Alcibiades) gave a decisive victory to the Lacedae- monian Lysander, at the river -5Dgos, and Athens' last hope, her renewed fleet, was lost. Lysander soon appeared in the Piraeus; the people made a gallant resistance, but hunger compelled them to sue for peace. The Thebans and Co- rinthians insisted that the city should be burnt, and the in- habitants reduced to slavery. The Lacedaemonians declared they would never submit to the destruction of a city which had merited so well of Greece. But to cramp her power effectually, she was allowed to possess but twelve ships ; the Long Legs, the walls between the city and the Piraeus, were broken down ; and the government placed in the hands of an oligarchy of thirty persons. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, after a continuance of twenty-seven years, and with it the dominion of Athens, in the seventy-fifth year after the battle of Salamis. During that period Athens had acquired another and more lasting empire, of which Lysander could not deprive her : she had become the mistress of Greece in all the arts and sciences ^ that embellish and ennoble life. Poetry, philosophy, archi- tecture, sculpture, attained during the time of Athenian sway an eminence never surpassed. The philosophy of Socrates and his disciples, the dramas of Sophocles and Euripides, the stately Parthenon, and other works of the immortal Phidias, drew thither all Greece ; and nowhere were religious festivals celebrated with equal taste and splendor. Commerce flour- ished; good taste was diffused among all ranks of societ3f JHAP. IV, GREECE. 63 Lacedcemonian Dominion. When Athens fell, Sparta remained witliout a rival : she commanded at sea as at land: her Harmosts, somewhat like the English residents at the courts of Indian princes, directed the policy of the independent towns of Greece and Asia. The pride and arrogance of Sparta lost her this empire. The oligarchy established and protected at Athens by her became odious ; Athenian exiles, headed by Thrasybulus, returned to b. c their country in arms, and overthrew the thirty tyrants : the 403 Long Legs were rebuilt. Conon, the Athenian, was admiral of the Persian fleet ; Persian gold was employed to raise the city to independence, and Athenian fleets again appeared at sea. Sparta still sought to establish an oligarchy in every town; and wherever, as at Olynthps, popular liberty estab- lished itself, the Spartan commanders iiad orders to extin- guish it. During this period, Persia exercised considerable influence in the affairs of Greece. The memorable retreat of the Ten Thousand, who, opposed by all the arts of oriental treachery, by all the forces of the empire, and the difficulties of an un- known, mountainous country, had forced their way to the Euxine, revealed the secret of the internal weakness of that vast empire. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, had meditated con- quests in Asia, and had for two years carried on war with success in that country. The Persian court saw its danger, 396 and adopted the policy of subsidizing the different states of Greece, and keeping up such a balance of power among them, as would prevent any projects of invasion of Asia. Hence, as in modern times two Turkish pashas may have different foreign policies, so of the two satraps of Lesser Asia the one would support the Lacedsemonians, the other their enemies. By these means the influence of the Persian monarch was become so great in Greece, that he dictated the terms of a peace among the contending states ; in which he declares the cities of Lesser Asia, and the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus, to belong to himself, and pronounces the indepen- dence of all other cities, great and small, with the exception of Lemnos, Imbrus, and Scyrus, which should belong as of old to Athens, and menaces with war such as refuse to ac- 387 cept it. This peace, called that of Antalcidas, from the name of the Spartan who was the chief agent in bringing it 10 bear, was viewed with indignation by every man of noble mind, who compared it with the terms which Greece, when at unity with herself, had imposed on the Persians, and sav 64 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. in it loss of honor and independence by the permission of foreign interference. Tkeban Dominion. Sparta had humbled Athens; her own turn was to come from a quarter whence it was least expected. A Spartan general, Phoebidas, had, in the midst of peace, made himself, by treachery, master of the citadel of Thebes ; his govern- ment punished him, but retained the fortress, and established an oligarchy in that city. Sparta seemed at this period i the height of her power. Her king, Agesilaus, was victo- rious in Asia, she had dissolved the Olynthian confederacy, and reduced Olynthus to that state of subjection, from which Athens alone was exempt, and never less dreaded decline, when a conspiracy was formed by some of the democratic party in Thebes ; the principal oligarchs were murdered, the citadel besieged, and the garrison forced to surrender. Two great men now appeared to guide the Theban affairs, Pelopidas and Epaminondas ; the Athenians joined them ; the Thebans recovered their supremacy over the other BcEOtian towns. The Lacedasmonians were now forced to recall Agesi laus from his conquests in Asia, to oppose the Theban and Athenian generals. The power of Thebes continually in- creasing, the Athenians grew jealous, and sent ambassadors to the Great King, who directed the Greeks to make peace among themselves on the basis of that of Antalcidas. Athens and Sparta obeyed — it was for the advantage of both — and Sparta, who had lost all injfluence out of Peloponnesus, will- ingly withdrew her harmosts. Cleombrotus was marching his troops out of Phocis, when he received orders to make the Thebans restore the other Boeotian cities to independence. The Thebans, who were dissatisfied at the peace by which they were the only losers, refused compliance; the=^rmies ^ c. ^^^ on the plain of Leuctra, and the Spartans were for the 371. first time defeated in a pitched battle. The charm was now dissolved. It was proved that the Lacedaemonian arms were not invincible. Epammondas and Pelopidas now invaded the Peloponnesus at the head of 40,000 men ; the Argives, Elians, and the democratic party in Arcadia, joined the Thebans, who entered and ravaged the Lacedaemonian territory. Epaminondas ad- vanced into Messenia, called the oppressed inhabitants to lib- erty, recalled tne exiles, and raised a town named Messene, in which he placed a Theban garrison. Athens joined Sparta. Ambassadors from all the parties hastened to the Persian court. Pelopidas headed the Theban embassy, peace was CHAP. IV. GREECE. 67 dictated on the Theban terms and the stream of gold that previously flowed to Sparta was directed to Thebes. The Arcadians had now become powerful in Peloponnesus. Lyco- medes, one of their leading men, sought to detach them from the Thebans : the latter, fearing to lose their influence in Pe- loponnesus, sent an army thither under Epaminondas. A second battle for the supremacy in Greece was fought at b c Mantinea between the Thebans and Lacedaemonians, and ^^^ Epaminondas died in the arms of victory. Philip of Macedon. The republican spirit was now extinct in Greece : no state was in a condition to take the lead ; no man of any eminence was to be found except in Athens. The republican virtues had fled from those who had sunk to be the pensioners of Persia. A monarchical was the only form of supremacy suited to the present state of Greece, and Providence had provided such in a constitutional monarchy — that of Macedon. Jason, ^e tyrant of Pheree in Thessaly, had conceived this design. The Thessalians were a strict aristocracy, with a numerous body of vassals called Penestse, resembling the barons of the middle ages. Occasionally there rose a prince in some town among them who gradually united several towns under him. At this period, Jason was such in Pherse, and Polydamas in Pharsalus. Both were men of virtue, only that of Jason was not proof against ambition. They united in the project of turning the quarrels of Thebes and Sparta to the advantage of Thessaly, and by the influence of Polydamas, Jason was chosen Tagus, or commander-in-chief of Thessaly. He took the same road to power afterwards so successfully trodden by Philip ; but he was unfortunate in three circum- stances: his troops were chiefly mercenaries, and therefore not to be depended upon ; he was not an hereditary prince, and his nobility were jealous of him ; he appeared at a time when the great Theban generals were in the height of their glory, and when Athens had generals far superior to those she opposed to Philip. Fate seemed resolved to deprive Thes- saly of the glory of becoming a great power. Jason perished by the daggers of conspirators : his brothers and his nephew Alexander were tyrants, in the modern sense. The last was murdered by his own relations, and Thessaly fell into confu- sion and disorder. At this period, the celebrated Holy War broke out, and ^eatly contributed to the farther demoralization of Greece, when all reverence for the gods and every thing sacred was 'ost, and the holy offerings collected for so many years in the 68 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. temple at Delphi, were scattered through Greece, the pre- cious metals melted and coined, the crowns and other votive offerings profanely worn by women and boys of loose life. The Boeotians and Thessalians formed the great majority in the Amphictyonic Council. They caused a decree to be passed, inflicting a heavy fine on the Lacedsemonians for their ravages in Bceotia ; and when these refused payment, they, from private motives, did the same to the Phocians for having occupied the land that once belonged to the Cirrhseans, and had been consecrated to the god. Relying on the aid of Athens and Sparta, the Phocians refused obedience, and by the advice of Philomelus, one of their chief men, seized on the temple and its treasures. Greece at that time abounded in soldiers of fortune, men who made war a trade, who served any one who was able to pay them. Masters of the immense wealth of the temple, the Phocians, therefore, easily collected an army, and they carried on the contest for a space of ten years. In this war the Thessalians, being hard pressed by the Pho- cians, called Philip king of Macedon to their aid. This tal- ented prince, who had been brought up at Thebes in the time of Epaminondas, had, from the day he ascended the Macedo- nian throne, all his thoughts occupied on the means of strength- ening and extending his hereditary kingdom. He aided the Thessalians, and, after a variety of changes of fortune, the Phocians were at length destroyed. Philip made himself master of Olynthus and all the cities on the coast of Thrace, and in spite of all the efforts of Demosthenes, who did all that was in man to rouse the Athenians to energy while it was yet time, continually advanced in his plans of power and ag- •. c grandizement, and at length, on the field of Chseronea, saw 338 the independence of Greece prostrate at his feet. Philip was now at the height of his power : the Spartans had been excluded from the Amphictyonic Council, and the votes of the Phocians transferred to him : he had the right of priority in consulting the Delphian oracle, and was presi- dent of the Pythian games. He called a general assembly of the Greeks to Corinth ; and was there appointed com- mander-in-chief of the Grecian forces in the war now to be undertaken against Persia, under pretext of avenging her former violations of the Grecian temples. The Macedoniar monarch thus occupied the station for which he was fitted, and which the present state of Greece required, — that of head of the Grecian confederacy ; from which the ill-judging patriotism of Demosthenes so long sought to exclude hun. The idea of reducing Greece to a province of his kingdom CFIAP V. ALEXANDER AND HI& SUCCESSORS. 69 he was too wise to entertain. In the midst of his projects for the conquest of Asia, he fell by the hand of an assassin. CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. Alexander. Alexander was in his twentieth year when his father was b. q slain : he had been educated by Aristotle, and his naturally 337 great tolents sedulously cultured. Difficulties environed him on his accession : the Athenians and Thebans, on the intelli- gence of the death of Philip, were flying to arms, when Alexander appeared in Boeotia at the head of an army. They were terrified, and desisted. The lUyrians and Triballi had made inroads into Macedon: the young prince marched against them, and conquered to the Danube. A report was spread in Greece of his death : Thebes rose in arms ; but Alexander suddenly returned, entered BoBotia, and took and levelled that city. All Greece was now at his devotion. He called on the different states for the contingents they had voted his father for the invasion of Asia ; and, at the head of 334 30,000 foot and 4500 horse, passed the Hellespont. At the river Granicus the Persian army opposed his progress : it met a total defeat, and all Lesser Asia fell to the conqueror : he restored the Grecian cities to independence, and pursued his march through Cilicia. At Issus, in the pass of the mountains 333 leading into Syria, he again encountered and defeated the Persian army. He continued his progress southwards, took 3^2. Tyre, after an obstinate resistance, and reduced all Egypt to subjection. He here founded the most permanent monument of his fame, the city of Alexandria, — a place that has exer- cised such influence on the political and moral relations of the world as ever to render it memorable, — marched with a select body of men to the oasis containing the temple of Am- mon, and obtained from the priests of the god a declaration of his divinity; acting in this, perhaps, with policy, — perhaps, with vanity. The conquests of Alexander can only be compared with those of the Arabs or Mongols in rapidity. Darius having assembled another army, his rival hastened from Egypt. On the plain between Gaugamela and Arbela, at the foot of the Armenian and Koordish momitains, he encountered the host of Darius, composed, it is said, of a million of men, while 33i 70 HISTORY OF THE WQRLD. PART I. the Grecian troops were, at most, 50,000 men. The Per- sians were utterly routed ; Darius fled to the north-eastern provinces of his kingdom, and Babylon and Susa fell into the hands of the conqueror. Persepolis and Ecbatana shared their fate. Meantime Darius was murdered by Bessus, gov- ernor of Bactria. According to oriental maxims, Alexander was now king, and he resolved to avenge the death of his predecessor : he invaded Bactria, put to death Bessus, who had assumed the diadem, and conquered the whole of those northern provinces of the Persian empire. He founded cities in Bactria and Sogdiana, and then directed his course towards India. From the southern part of Balkh he marched through Candahar,* Ghizni, and Caubul, to the Indus. Though val- iantly opposed by the natives, the predecessors of the modern Seeks, he was victorious, and still advanced, till the discon- tent of his troops obliged him to return : he proceeded south- wards along the river, sent a fleet under Nearchus from the (ndus to the Persian Gulf, and, with a great loss of men and beasts, made his way across the deserts into Persia. Shortly B c afterwards he met his death from drunkenness, or poison, at 324 Babylon, in the thirty-second year of his age. Alexander's great object seems to have been the establish- ment of one great and permanent empire, of which the dif- ferent parts would be united by mutual political and com- mercial advantages. Hence he sought to do away all nationa* prejudices, and make his different subjects feel themselves one people. To attain this object, he founded those numerous Grecian cities in various parts of his oriental dominions, and had he lived a few years longer he might possibly have, in a great measure, accomplished what he aimed at. But his early death frustrated all these great projects, and the am- bition of his generals speedily pulled down the fabric he was erecting. Division of Alexander s Dominions. Alexander died without appointing a successor. The queen Roxana, was pregnant, and he had a half-brother, named Philip Aridseus, who was simple. When dying, he had given his ring to Perdiccas. After much warm dispute among the generals, they came to the resolution that Alexander (Rox- ana's son) and Philip AridsBus should be proclaimed kings ; that Perdiccas should be guardian, and that each general should take the charge of a province. The partition of offices * The city of Candahar is said to have been founded by Alexander. Its name seems evidently derived from his. He is called in the East Tscander, »nd, rejecting the first syllable, Cander and Candakar are not unlike. 71 CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 73 and provinces was thus made: — Perdiccas had no prov- ince, but was commander-in-chief of the army: Antipater and Craterus had charge of the European dominions ; Seleu- cus, of Babylon; Ptolemy, of Egypt, Libya, and part of Ara- bia; Leonatus, of Mysia; Antigonus, of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia ; Lysimachus, of Macedonian Thrace ; Laomedon had Syria; Python, Media; Menander, Lydia; &c. &c. To the valiant Eumenes was assigned Cappadocia, whose inhab- itants were yet to be subdued. The kings were only such in name, and these Gr^sian sa- traps saw and grasped at the opportunity of making them- snlves independent princes. A period of unceasing tumult, war, and murder, formed the first sixteen years that succeed- ed the death of Alexander. Perdiccas first conceived the plan of gaining the empire by destroying the governors, one after another. This plan was facilitated by their mutual animosities, or their contests with those over wtom they ruled. Ptolemy, the most powerful of the governors, was singled out as the first object of attack. Perdiccas led an g ^ army into Egypt, but was murdered by his own mutinous 321 troops, Craterus fell in a battle against Eumenes, and Antipater remained sole regent of Macedon. He died shortly after, 319 having appointed Polysperchon to succeed him. Polysper- chon joined the party of Olympias, the mother of Alexander. Aridaeus and his wife were put to death, and the friends of Antipater persecuted. The nobles clung to his son Cassan- der, and Olympias expiated her crimes by a violent death. 315. Antigonus took and put to death Eumenes, who maintained the rights of Alexander's family. He now ruled over all Lesser Asia, wrested Syria and Phoenicia from Ptolemy, and drove Seleucus from Babylon. His valiant son Demetrius passed over to Greece, and restored the cities to freedom ; then collected a fleet, and defeated that o£ Ptolemy oif Cy- 307 prus. His father now assumed the title of ki7ig^ and his ex- ample was followed by the other governors. The family of Alexander was now extinct, Roxana and her son having been put to death by Cassander. But Antigonus's reign was of short duration : his ambition was too inordinate ; and a l«agu« was formed against him by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Antigonus fell, in his 80th year, in battle 301 against his rivals, on the field of Ipsus, in Phrygia, and the f ictors shared his dominions among them. The dommions of Alexander were now divided int« fo'ir B. C. 74 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 1 great kingdoms. Macedon, with a part of Greece ; Thrace ; Syria, with all Upper Asia ; Egypt, with Cyrene and Cyprus. Macedon. Cassander, when he had destroyed the family of Alexan- der,- took the title of king. His vicious and feeble sons lost their lives and the throne, which was seized on by Derae trius, son of Antigonus: he was expelled by Pyrrhus, th 287. Epirote ; and Pyrrhus, by Lysimachus, king of Thrace. Du ring sixteen years, twelve kings of different houses governed the paternal dominions of Alexander. In the time of these kings, an army of Kelts devastated Macedon, penetrated into Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of Delphi. The Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights ; thunder roared through the mountains; — the terrified barbarians fled, and the god got the renown of defending his temple. Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence and humanity, raised Macedon out of the rum into which it had been plunged ; and, during a reign of forty years, he was the protector of Greece. His son, Demetrius II., who suc- 243. ceeded him, emulated his virtues. Demetrius dying, lefl an infant son, Philip, whose uncle and guardian, Antigonus, sur- named Doson, married the widow of the late king, and usurp- ed the kingdom, which he governed with ability for eleven years, and then left to the lawful heir, Philip. This prince 298. mixed himself in the affairs of Greece, and was recognized as sovereign lord of that country. War took place, in conse quence, between him and the Romans, and Philip was doi feated, obliged to withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce 243 his shipping, and pay the expenses of the war. His son Per- seus renewed the war with Rome, but was taken, and died in prison ; and Macedon was shortly afterwards reduced to a Roman provmce. The Macedonian kingdom extended from the Propontis, through Thrace, to the mountains of ^Etolia, lying at the north of the country of Greece. Greece. We have seen all Greece submit to Philip and Alexander. After the death of the latter, some unavailing efforts had been made, especially by Athens, to re-establish the ancient freedom ; but they were always obliged to bow their necks, once more, to the Macedonian yoke. There was no union among them ; they pursued their old feuds and petty contests, instead of combining for a common object ; and their country CHAP. V. ALEXAIVDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 75 was continually ravaged by the armies of the contending generals of Alexander. Sparta, which had sulkily refused to take part in the con- quest of the East, and had waged an unsuccessful war against Antipater, had long since seen the decline of her Lycurgean constitution. In vain the patriotic A.gis sought to bring his country back to her former state ; his life atoned for his op- position to the tyrannic oligarchs. Sparta became the do- minion of the most odious of tyrants ; she joined the Romans against Macedon, and then changed sides, and she ended by becoming, like the other Grecian states, a part of the Roman dominions. The cities of Achsea renewed among themselves an old confederacy, named the Achaean league, which, under the guidance of Aratus, labored with vigor for the freedom of Greece against Macedon: gradually, other states, and amongst them, Athens, joined the league. The ^tolian towns formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Achaeans and Sparta prevented their arriving to any importance. Civil discord, the perpetual bane of Greece, gave the Romans the wished-for opportunity of intermeddling in its affairs, Corinth was taken and destroyed ; and Greece reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achsea. The last of the heroes of Greece was Philopcemen, the Arcadian general of the b c Achaean league, justly styled the last of the Greeks. Two 183 thousand years have rolled away since the death of Philopce- men, without Greece, till of late, producing a warrior for in- dependence. May she derive wisdom from the past, and avoid the errors by which she lost her freedom ! Thrace. Lysimachus made himself king of Thrace ; he conquered 3214, Macedon, and was also master of a part of the countries about the Euxine. His reign was the flourishing period of Thrace; but it was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in oattle against Seleucus : the Gauls ravaged the land, which sometimes obeyed Syrian, sometimes Egyptian, princes. The native chiefs recovered their power. King Cotys, one of these princes, formed an alliance with the Romans : king Sasales 4*3 gave up Thrace to them. At this period, some independent states arose in Lesser Asia, which we shall notice in this place. Bithynia. This country, stretching along the Black Sea to the Pro- lontis and the Hellespont, was, at one time, tributary to the 76 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. Lydians, and then to the Persians. After the death of Alex- ander, a native chief, named Bas, expelled Calanthus, the Macedonian governor. Internal troubles continually agitated this state. Nicomedes I., to keep his throne, allied hhnself with the Gauls, to whom he assigned a district, called, from them, Galatia. Prusias is known by Annibal's having sought in vain a refuge at his court. Nicomedes II. was expelled by B. c. Mithridates, and restored by the Romans ; to whom Nice- 76. medes IV., having no children, made over his dominions. Pergamus. The ancient Mysia vanished in the Lydian and Persian empires. While Lysimachus, king of Thrace, ruled this part of Asia, nis lieutenant, an eunuch named Philetasrus, made himself independent, and established a kingdom, called Per- 283. gamus, from its capital. He was succeeded by his nephew, Eumenes, who extended his dominions considerably. Attains II. was the first who took the title of king. The most cele- brated of these kings was Eumenes II., in whose reign the pergament, or parchment, was invented. His dominions em- braced the Thracian Chersonese, and Asia this side of Tau- rus, consequently, Mysia, Lydia, the two Phrygias, and l,y- 83. caonia. His son. Attains III., having no heirs, left his king- dom to the Romans. Pontus. This country, named from the Pontus Euxinus, on which it lay, formed a part of northern Lesser Asia, east of Bithy- nia. It was included in the Persian dominions, and was given as an hereditary fief by Darius I. to his son Artabazes. Ariobarzanes, one of his successors, having obtained also o65, Lydia, Phrygia, and Ionia, became so powerful, that he cast off the Persian yoke. Mithridates II. voluntarily surrendered his kingdom to Alexander. When, after that monarch's death, Antipater attempted to seize this state, the Pontic prince resisted, and maintained his independence. Succeed- 124. ing princes enlarged their dominions. Mithridates VII., the greatest of them, was talented and ambitious : yet, though desirous of conquest, he sought to avoid a conflict with the Romans, at that time masters of a great part of Lesser Asia. He therefore turned his arms eastwards, and conquered the tribes round the Euxine as far as the Tauric Chersonese. But two such powerful neighbors could not continue long without a rupture ; war broke out between them on account of Pam- phylia and Cappadocia, and during a space of thirty years the gallant and indefatigable king of Pontus sustained a wg.r CHAP. V. ALEXANDER AND HIS SUCCESv?ORS. 79 against the arms of Rome, conducted by Sulla, Lucullus, and b. Pompeius. Poison, administered by his own hand, terminated 6 his eventful life. His grandson Darius reigned over Pontus ; but its glory and its power were gone, and it was finally, by the emperor Nero, reduced to the form of a Roman pi-ov- ince. Armenia. This mountainous but fruitful country appears not till late in the history of Asia. It was divided into Great and Little Armenia, and had obeyed successively the Assyrian, Persian, and Syrian empires. In the reign of Antiochus III., Artaxias, 190 the governor of Great, and Zariades of Little Armei 'a, made themselves independent. Tsgranes, a descendant of the former, united the two Armenias, and was superior lord of Syria and Cappadocia, His father-in-law, Mithridates VII., involved him in a war with the Romans, and he lost Little Armenia and Syria. Tigranes II. was put to death by order of the Roman emperor Tiberius. Little Armenia had been given after the fall of Mithridates to Dejotarus, a Galatian, and then to other foreigners. After this period it vanishes out of history, and Great Armenia becomes the apple of dis- cord between the Romans and Parthians. After many con- flicts between the contending parties, it had again kings of its own in the time of the emperor Hadrian, and was finally absorbed in tlie Persian empire of the Sassanides. Syria. Seleucus, named Nicator, was, after the death of Alexan- der, governor of Babylon. He extended his power eastwards into India, and, aftei- the battle of Ipsus, he became master of Syria, and possessor of all or nearly all the countries that had composed the Persian empire. Seleucus was an active, pru- dent prince, an encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. With him the Syrian empire rose ; after his death it gradually declined. His son Antiochus obtained the name of Soter, the Saver, from having delivered Lesser Asia from the Gauls ; but he was forced to acknowledge the independence of Bi- thynia and Pergamus. Antiochus II., named, by his flatter- ers, Theos, the God, was weak and effeminate. The Parthi- 252, ans cast off the yoke of Syria, and their example was fol- lowed by the Bactrians. Seleucus II., seeking to regain the lost supremacy, died a prisoner in Parthia. Antiochus the Great fought in vain against the Parthians and Bactrians : he reduced the rebel governors of Media and Persia; but his de- feat by the Egyptians at Raphia lost him Palestine and Ccelo- 80 HISTORY or THE WOKI-D. PART I. B. c. Syria. Engaging' in war with the Romans, he invaded 190 Greece;, but was repelled ; and the battle of Magnesia checked his career of ambition. The terms on which the haughty senate dictated peace were, the surrender of all the countries on this side Taurus, payment of 15,0(X) talents to the Romans, and 400 to Eumenes of Pergamus ; the delivery of Annibal, and the sending of his son as a hostage to Rome. The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence was paramount : all efforts to shake it off were futile. Murder and treason disputed for the throne : neighbors and subjects took advantage of its weakness. Parthia rapidly extended its conquests. Judea and the Armenias asserted their indepen- dence. The empire was finally contracted to Proper Syria and Phoenicia. Tigranes of Armenia seized on Syria; and 64 the Romans gave the empire of the Seleucides its coup de grace, by declaring Syria a Roman province. Judea. Only a small portion of Israel took advantage of Cyru the year of Rome 753, while the world was enjoying peace under Augustus, and the " fullness oi" time" was come, it pleased the Almighty to send forth his Son Jesus Christ, as the announcer of a religion more pure and holy than any he had yet given to man. To relate the circumstances of the life and death of the Son of God (with which every r£ader must be supposed familiar) would be here superfluous.^ His religion, though persecuted, gradually spread over the. Roman world. Unhappily, it is in its corrupted state that it becomes a prominent object in history. Tiberius, the son of Livia, and stepson of Augustus, was 14. appointed by him to succeed. This prince was now in his 55th year. All the bad qualities of his predecessor were united in him; his good ones were ahsent. A dark and crooked policy characterized all his acts : the establishment of perfect despotism, the abolition of all forms of the republic, was his object. Restrained at first by fear of the noble Ger- manicus, when that check was removed by death, not with- out suspicion of poison, he gave a loose to all his cruel and l£ sensual propensities. In his later years, he retired to the island of Caprea in the bay of Naples, where he wallowed in every species of beastly and sensual gratification. His cruel- ties at Rome were meantime directed by his minister Sejanus, until, grown suspected by his master, he was by his order put to death. Tiberius dying left the world to a monster still more ferocious than himself. 37 Caius Caligula, the son of Germanicus, and grandnephew of Tiberius, displayed tyranny in its most appalling form. His reign commenced with mildness ; but at the end of the first year, after a violent fit of illness, which, perhaps, disor- dered his intellect, a cruelty, the most absurd and capricious that can be conceived, commenced. While he meditated raising his horse to the consulship, and fed him out of gold, he slaughtered the noblest men of Rome without mercy, drove men in herds before the judgment-seat to receive sen- tence of death, and hunted the spectators of a public show into the waters of the Tiber. Four years the empire groaned beneath the cruelty of this fi-antic savage. At length the dagger of Chaereas delivered the world of him. -^ On the death of Caius, the senate, detesting the tyranny 41. of the Caesars, deliberated on restoring the republic, and abolishing the imperial power. But ere two days had elapsed, ouAP. IX. no^TE an empire. 155 they had to learn, to their mortification, that there was now in existence a power greater than theirs or that of the em- perors. Tiberius had collected the praetorian guards, a body of 10,000 men, from the quarters in which the policy of Au- gustus" had kept them dispersed ; and, under pretext of re- lieving Italy and of improving their discipline, had fixed them in a strongly-fortified camp on the Viminal and Quirinal hills. The guards now first exhibited their power: they proclaimed Claudius, the weak-minded brother of Caius, em- peror, and the senate received with submission their feeble ruler. Not naturally bloody, yet the instrument of women and freedmen, the annals of his reign exhibit thirty-five sen- ators and three hundred knights felling by the hand of the executioner during the thirteen years that he filled the throne. Claudius was poisoned, to make room for his successor. \. d Domitius Nero was the son of Agrippina, and pupil of 54. Seneca. The first five years of his reign were mild and just. But his furious passions soon grew impatient of restraint. He put to death his mother, his brother, his tutor; set fire to the city, charged the Christians with the crime, and began the persecution of that sect. He prostituted the dignity of his station, and the majesty of Rome, by appearing as a singer on the public stage. The patience of mankind could no longer endure this combination of cruelty, insult, debauchery, and meanness: several conspiracies were formed against him, but without success; the tyrant discovering them in time. At length Galba was declared emperor, and Nero by the senate pronounced a public enemy, and sentenced to death more majorum, which sentence he avoided by a volun- tary death. Yet, vile as he was, there were those who loved his memory, and raised monuments to the monster who had per- petrated so many crimes. It is not undeserving of notice, that within a century after the death of Cato, the senate, which once gave laws to the world, was convoked on the solemn occasions of the marriage of Nero with two of his own sex. So utterly can the greatest institutions be degraded ! Ernperors chosen by the Army. Galba, a man of honorable birth and advanced age, was 68. raised to the throne by the army which he commanded ui Spain. The senate confirmed the choice of the army ; but he sought to restrain the praetorians, and he atoned for his boldness with his life. Otho, the partaker of the guilty pleasures of Nero, was f ' ? laced on the throne by the party which murdered Galba. ^he army of the Rhine had meantime proclaimed their gen- 156 HTFTOHY OF THE WORLD. PART I. eral Vitellius. Otho, though a voluptuary, still retained some noble feelings ; and when in the battle at Bedriacum victory had declared for the generals of Vitellius, Otho, to spare thf blood of citizens, put a voluntary termination to his own life. A. D. Vitellius, devoted to the pleasures of the table, viewed the 70. imperial power only as affording the means of unbounded in dulgence. But he was soon roused from his dream of luxury, by tidings of the Syrian army having proclaimed their gene- ral Flavins Vespasianus worthiest of the throne. Vitellius terminated his brief reign by a cruel death. During this period the tranquillity of the empire was dis- turbed in every quarter. The Jews, oppressed by their gov- ernors, torn by parties, deceived by a false interpretation, but flattering to their national vanity, of their ancient prophecies, broke out into rebellion, which, persisted in with obstinacy and judicial blindness, cost their nation the remnant of their independence, the lives of three hundred thousand men, their noble city, and the magnificent temple of Jehovah, the point of union and pride of Israel. Rome, too, witnessed, at this period, a second conflagration of the splendid temple of Jupi- ter Optimus Maximus, which crowned the Capitol. It seemed as if the wrath of Heaven was now poured out on guilty man and his works. At Rome were to be seen each day the ex- cesses of the soldiery, the clash of arms, and false charges brought before judicial tribunals ; war menaced or devastated the provinces; Civilis raised Gaul in rebellion; the Germans passed the Rhine ; the Partliian cavalry hovered ready to descend on Syria. The Flavian Family. 70. Vespasian was at the head of the army acting against the rebellious Jews, when he was proclaimed emperor. He re- paired to Rome, leaving his son, the mild and virtuous Titus, to carry on the war. Though raised to the throne by the army, he would receive his power from the senate, who be- stowed on him all the oflices, rights, and powers held by Augus- tus, Tiberius, and Claudius, in as full and unlimited a manner as they had possessed them ; and by his conduct during the nine years he reigned, he showed himself deserving of the absolute power he possessed. The empire now enjoyed peace. Titus had ended the Jewish war. The Parthians, seeing no internal discord, ab- stained from hostilities. Judicial persecution ceased at Rome. TSe emoeror and his son lived on terms of intimacy with the best anJ wisest men. Thft senate regained its consideration. The finances were pnt into a proper condition ; military dis- 14 157 CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 159 cipline restored; cities built, and roads constructed. An excessive frugality, hardly, in such times, to be regarded as a fault, was the blemish most observed in the character of Vespasian. His death would have been an irreparable loss to Rome, had he not left such a successor as Titus. Titus, the Delight of Mankind^ amiable, just, generous, a &. and brave, reigned but for two short years, and in that space '^^^ this virtuous prince had to witness many calamities. His heart was torn with anguish at being obliged to part with the Jewish princess Berenice, whom he loved so tenderly ; Vesu- vius raged with unwonted fury, and buried beneath its ashes the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, and wasted a large portion of Campania ; a conflagration broiie out in Rome, and destroyed a great part of the city, and this was followed by a destructive pestilence. Domitian, the brother of Titus, succeeded. The happiness 81, of the empire seemed to have expired with his father and brother, and Nero to have returned to life. Yet Domitian - dreaded to venture on tlie excesses of this last-named tyrant, and fear set some bounds to his cruelty. He exhausted the treasury, while he embellished the city with magnificent buildings, and engaged in expensive and inglorious wars. His reign was, however, distinguished by the real conquest of Britain by the gallant Agricola, whose death the jealous emperor, if he did not occasion, did not regret. After a tyran- ny of fifteen years, his life and reign were terminated by a conspiracy, in which his own wife shared. The good Emperors. The senate was assembled on the death of the tyrant, and %• the purple was oflfered to Nerva, one of their body, a just and virtuous man, but far advanced in life. To give security to his authority, and assure a virtuous successor to the empire, he adopted the valiant and upright Trajan, who then com- manded a large army in Lower Germany. The aged em- peror, at the same time, declared him his colleague for life in the empire. Nerva, during his short reign, reduced the taxes, and made a distribution of lands among the poor. Trajan was forty years of age when adopted by Nerva: ga of his virtue a decisive evidence was exhibited, for more than 250 years after his death, in the acclamation of the senate to each new emperor, wishing him to be more fortunate than Augustus, more virtuous than Trajan. The military and pacific virtues were united in this accomplished prince. Just and upright, he listened to the meanest suitor ; affable, he •vas accessible to the lowest citizen. During a reign of 160 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I nineteen years but* one senator suffered death, and he was condemned by his own order. He lightened the burdens ot the provinces, declaring- that the hearts of loving subjects should be his treasures. He selected his ministers and friends from among the virtuous and the good : he perfected the code of laws, adorned Rome with stately buildings, and founded a magnificent library. In war he extended the bounds of the empire beyond the limits set to it by Augustus ; con- quered the fruitful plains and hills of Dacia; curbed the wild hordes of Caucasus ; bowed to submission the emirs of the Arabian deserts ; avenged the fate of Crassus, and took Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital. . The ships of Trajan visited the coasts of India. He died at Seleucia, in Cilicia ; whence his body was brought to Rome, where it was received by the whole senate and people, and buried in the forum, which bore his name, beneath the lofly pillar which rises to the height of 140 feet, adorned with his deeds. 4. D. Hadrian, it is thought, had been adopted by Trajan. He 117. was also an able and virtuous prince, though not the equal of his great predecestjor. Hadrian wisely gave up several of the conquests of Trajan, and reduced the empire to its old bounds of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates, and 121. raised in Britain a barrier against the incursions of the un- tamed Caledonians. During his reign a formidable insurrec- tion of the Jews, under an impostor, named Barchochebas, broke out, which was extinguished in the blood of thousands of that obstinate and misguided people. This emperor made a progress through his dominions, redressing grievances and diminishing taxes ; and he regulated his court in the most exact manner. He was devoted to the fine arts, though his taste was none of the purest. As age came on, he grew peevish and cruel ; but the effects of these ill qualities were mitigated by the mildness and gentleness of Antoninus, whom he had adopted on the death of his favorite Lucius Verus. 138 Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, from his affection for his adoptive father, was one of those rare combinations of perfect virtue which the visions of philosophy, rather than real life, present as seated on a throne. His reign flowed on, for a space of twenty-three years, in dignified tranquillity : wars interrupted not the repose of the empire : neighboring na- tions submitted their differences to the arbitration of the virtuous Antoninus. He closed his beneficent career by leaving the guidance of the empire to an accomplished phi- losopher 161. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus would willingly have trodden the tranquil course of his predecessor ; but the restless ene- CHAP IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 161 niijes of thi; empire summoned the philosophic monarch to the defence of the frontiers, and to give a proof that the study of philosophy does not disqualify for action* Nations of Ger- manic race united, as in the days of Marius, to pour in upon Italy ; but Aurelius showed them, that the legions of Rome still retained their discipline and valor. The Parthians broke into Syria : the emperor speedily drove them back within their own limits. Foreign war was not the only calamity that afflicted the empire in this reign ; famine and its constant attendant pestilence, ravaged various provinces. The Ger- mans, though beaten, still renewed their attempts, and the emperor died during his eighth winter campaign against the Marcomanni. Aurelius was, like Augustus, unhappy in his family : his wife Faustina disgraced him by her licentiousness ; and the disposition of his son Commodus afforded slender grounds for pleasing hope. From Commodus to Diocletian. The most vicious succeeded the most virtuous of mankind, a. d. Commodus, the son of Aurelius, was a profligate, foolish boy. ^^^* His delight was in the indulgence of low sordid propensities; he sought for glory in gladiatorial skill ; while he degraded the majesty of the empire, by setting the example of pur- chasing peace from the barbarians. His father had made the Marcomanni feel the edge of the Roman steel ; his degene- rate son bestowed upon them Roman gold. Oppressive taxa- tion once more galled the subjects; the blood of the virtuous was once more seen to flow; the favor of his father availed not to save ; Salvius Julian us, the great lawyer, whom Au- relius had honored, died by the order of Commodus. The emperor had nothing to fear from the Praetorians, whom he indulged in all their excesses. These were his protectors against all others, and he might mock at all plots of the sen- ate or people ; but he carried his tyranny, whither it was rarely carried with impunity, into his own household, and a conspiracy delivered the Roman world of the wretch who oppressed it. Murder thus, after a long interval, again made its appear- ance in the palace of the Csesars, and now seemed to have made it its permanent abode. Helvius Pertinax, the prefect 193 of the city, a man of virtue, was placed on the throne by the conspirators, who would fain justify their deed in the eyes of the world, and their choice was confirmed by the senate. But the PrsBtorians had not forgotten their own power on a similar occasion ; and they liked not the virtue 14* 162 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART T. and regularity of the new monarch. Pertinax waw, there- fore, speedily deprived of throne and life. Praetorian insolence now attained its height. Regardless of the dignity and honor of the empire, they set it up to auc- tion. The highest bidder was a senator, named Didius Ju- i, D. lianus, a nephew of that very Salvius who had suffered for 193. law and virtue in the reign of Commodus. The legions dis- dained to receive an emperor from the life-guards. Those ot Britain proclaimed their general Clodius Albinus ; those of Asia, Pescennius Niger ; the Pannonian legions, Septimius ly* Severus. This last was a man of bravery and conduct : by valor and stratagem he successively vanquished his rivals. He maintained the superiority of the Roman arms against the Parthians and Caledonians. His reign was vigorous and ad- vantageous to the state ; but he wanted either the courage or the power to fully repress the license and insubordination of the soldiery. 811. Severus left the empire to his two sons. Caracalla, the elder, a prince of violent and untamable passions, disdained to share empire with any. He murdered his brother and col- league, the more gentle Geta, and put to death all who ven- tured to disapprove of the deed. A restless ferocity distin- guished the character of Caracalla : he was ever at war, now on the banks of the Rhine, now on those of the Euphrates. His martial impetuosity daunted his enemies ; his reckless cruelty terrified his subjects. But the army loved the prince, who set no value on any but a soldier. Alexander the Great was the model this profligate fratricide dared to set before him. No greater insult could be offered to the memory of the Macedonian. During a Parthian war, Caracalla gave ofience to Macrinus, the commander of his body-guard, who murdered him. 218. Macrinus seized the empire, but had not power to hold it. He and his son Diadumenianus, an amiable youth of but eighteen years, were put to death by the army, who pro- claimed a supposed son of their beloved Caracalla. 2ib This youth was named Elagabalus, and was priest of the Sun in the temple of Emesa, m Syria. Every vice stained the character of this licentious, effeminate youth, whose name is become proverbial for sensual indulgence: he possessed no redeeming quality, had no friend, and was put to death by his own guards, who, vicious as they were themselves, detested vice in him. 822 Alexander Severus, cousin to Elagabalus, but of a totally opposite character, succeeded that vicious, prince. All es- timable qualities were united in the noble and accomplished CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 163 Alexander. He delighted in the society of the learned and the wise ; the statues of the sages of all countries adorned his library ; and their works, destined for the improvement of mankind, formed his constant study. But the love of learning and virtue did not in him smother military skill and valor ; he checked the martial hordes of Germany, and led the Ro- man eagles to victory against the Sassanides, who had dis- placed the Arsacides in the dominion over Persia,* and re- vived the claims of the house of Cyrus over Anterior Asia. Alexander, victorious in war, beloved by his subjects, deemed he might venture on introducing more regular discipline into the army. The attempt was fatal, and the amiable monarch lost his life in the mutiny that resulted. Maximin, a soldier, originally a Thracian shepherd, distin- a. d. guished by his prodigious size, strength, and appetite, a 235 stranger to all civic virtues and all civic rules, rude, brutal, cruel, and ferocious, seated himself on the throne of the noble and virtuous prince, in whose murder he had been a chief agent. At Rome the senate conferred the vacant dignity on Gordian, a noble, wealthy, and virtuous senator, and on his son, of the same name, a valiant and spirited youth. But scarcely were they recognized, when the son fell in an en- gagement, and the father slew himself Maximin was now rapidly marching towards Rome, full of rage and fury. De- spair gave courage to the senate; they dominated Balbinus and Pupienus, one to direct the internal, the other the exter- nal affairs. Maximin had advanced as far as Aquileia, when his horrible cruelties caused an insurrection against him, and he and his son, an amiable youth, were murdered. The army was not, however, willing to acquiesce in the claim of the senate to appoint an emperor. Civil war was on the point of breaking out, when the conflicting parties agreed in the person of the third Gordian, a boy of but thirteen years of age. Gordian III. was an amiable and virtuous youth. In affairs 238 of state he was chiefly guided by his father-in-law, Misitheus, who induced him to engage in war against the Persians. In the war Gordian displayed a courage worthy of any of his predecessors ; but he shared what was now become the usual fate of a Roman emperor. He was murdered by Philip, the captain of his guard. Philip, an Arabian by birth, originally a captain of free- •244. footers, seized on the purple of his murdered sovereign. Two rivals arose and contended with him for the prize, but accom- plished nothing. A third competitor, Decius, the commander * See p. 57. 4rD, 164 HISTORY OF THK WORLD. PART I. of the army of the Danube, defeated and slew him near Verona. During the reign of Philip, Rome attained her thousandth year ; and the games to commemorate the dura- tion of the city of-Romulus, Brutus, and Csesar, were cele- brated by the native of a country scarcely known, even by name, to the kings and consuls ! Decius, a prince of rigid virtue and primitive simplicity of 249. manners, sought to restore its ancient tone to the Roman character ; but the time for reformation was long gone by ; a new character was now completely and fixedly formed. The well-meant projects of the emperor failed, and himself fell hi battle, in defence of his country against the invading Goths. ?51. In the space of two years reigned and fell four emperors, 253. Gallus, Volusian, Hostilian, son of Decius, and ^milian. The Germans still pressed on Italy, the Persians on Syria. 253. Valerian succeeded. His rigor and virtue as a censor had been applauded ; as an emperor, he showed feebleness and in- capacity. He associated his son Gallienus in the empire with him. In the war against Shahpoor of Persia he was defeated and taken prisoner. The haughty Persian subjected the cap- tive emperor to every indignity. The Roman spirit wai gone; he submitted with patience, and his luxurious col- league revelled heedless of his father's sufferings. 26J. . Gallienus, devoted to sensual indulgence, lived tranquilly in Italy. But in the various provinces, Britain, Gaul, Spain Syria, Africa, &c., and even in Italy, numerous claimants of the imperial dignity arose. Some of these were men of merit, almost all persons of military skill and valor. Though the empire was thus torn and confused, its constant enemies, the Germans and Persians, were unable to seize any part. This is usually denominated The time of the thirty tyrants^ though (as far as we can collect from coins) they did not ex- ceed tw^enty-one, and are unjustly designated as tyrants. But some fancied analogy to Critias and his colleagues at Athens presented itself, and mankind love analogies and round num- bers. None of these rivals gave much uneasiness to Gallie- nus, who would have been well content with Italy alone, till Aureolus threatened to deprive him even of that. He then marched to battle against him at Milan ; but ere he took the city, he was murdered, naming, with his last breath, the most worthy to be his successor. 268. Claudius was the most worthy. He delivered Italy from the Goths, by a victory such as Rome had not seen since the days of Marius. But his reign was of short duration, and would have been more deeply lamented were it not for the virtues and talents of his successor. 16:^ CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 167 Aurelian, a man bred in camps, brought to the throne the a » valor, activity, and vigor that it required. He introduced or- ^^^ der into the state, and restored the empire to internal tran- quillity. He defeated the Germans, and even pursued them into their forests, vanquished all his rivals, and among- them Zenobia, or Zeinab, the heroic queen of Palmyra, who, in chains of gold, adorned the triumph in which the emperor entered Rome. Aurelian never lost a battle : he was clement to the conquered, indulgent to the people and the army, but averse to the senate. He was murdered on his way against the Persians. The army was now cither satisfied with the long exercise of its power in appointing emperors, or it saw the evils likely tO arise to the empire in general from each army investing its leader with the purple. Accordingly, on the death of Aurelian, they restored its privileges to the senate, who, after an interreign of eight months, bestowed the purple on 27i» Tacitus, a man of virtue and probity. Tacitus was far ad- vanced in years when he was placed on the throne, which be occupied for a few months with honor, and then died a natu- ral death. After the death of Tacitus, his brother Florianus, who lit- tle resembled him, aspired to the empire. Neither senate nor army approved of him, and the latter bestowed the pur pie on their virtuous and able commander, Probus, who, to the more rigorous virtues of Aurelian, united a gentleness 276. and moderation, to which that able prince had been a stranger. The senate approved of the choice of the army. Probus de- feated the Germans on the Danabe and the Rhine. He in- troduced into their country the culture of the vine, and em- ployed the legions in the labors of the field and the vineyard. This, united with the strict discipline he sought to revive, excited their indignation: they rose in munity, murdered, and then lamented their excellent emperor. Caras, the commander of the body-guard, was raised to the 282 empire, in which he associated with himself his two sons, Carinus and Numerian, the former of a dissolute, the latter of a more gentle and cultured disposition. Carus was es- teemed a good general, but his reign was short ; he was killed by lightning in his tent, or possibly murdered by those who spread that report. His son Numerian was shortly afterwards murdered by his father-in-law Aper, the prsBtorian prefect. The traitor expiated his crime by death. Carinus was slain by a man whose conjugal honor he had insulted. 168 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. , PART I. Change in the Form of Government. 284. A fter the death of Carus and his sons, the reigns of empire fell into the firm hands of Diocletian, by birth a Dalmatian, a wise and able prince. The enemies of the empire pressed now with redoubled force on the frontiers, and Diocletian *aw that the vigilance and activity of one mind could not suffice to attend to the multifarious concerns of the state. The events of the last reigns had also taught him the danger of committing the command of the legions to officers who might so readily become competitors for the throne. He therefore resolved to share the imperial dignity with his friend and comrade in arms, Maximianus Herculius, to whom, as being of a rugged active character, he committed the West, while himself took charge of the East. Each bore the title of Augustus, and each appointed a successor under that of Csesar. The CsBsars were younger and more active men, and the more exposed parts of the empire were committed to them. Diocletian administered Asia; his Cgesar, Galerius, rough and soldierly, governed Thrace and the countries on tlie Danube. Maximian retained Italy, Spain, Africa, and the islands; his Cassar, Constantius Chlorus, a worthy de- scendant of the late emperor Claudius, governed Gaul and Britain. Rome ceased to be an imperial residence : that of Maximian was mostly at Milan ; Diocletian resided chiefly at Nicomedia. A farther innovation made by this emperor was the introduction of the oriental splendor of attire and adora- tion of the emperors. He and his colleague with great so- lemnity assumed, on the same day, the diadem and other insignia of eastern royalty. Perhaps nothing better could have been devised for main- taining the empire than this partition of power. The expe- rienced monarchs could give attention to internal affairs, while the yoimger and more active emperors elect, away from the corruption of capitals, might keep up the discipline and military virtues of the legions. Accordingly we find that the Goths were held in check, the Allemanni defeated, Brit- ain, where Carausius had in the late reign raised a rebellion, reduced to obedience, and the Persians forced to a peace ad- vantageous and honorable to the empire. But it was not to be expected that four princes could reign together in una- '^ nimity, or that Csesars would patiently wait till death made way for them to the higher rank. It was not long, therefore, before contention and war broke out among them. While Diocletian ruled, he kept his colleagues in bounds, exerting over them the influence of a superior mind. Bu- CHAP. IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 169 after a reign of twenty years, feeling the infirmities of age approach, he resolved to abandon the cares of empire, and retire to pass the evening of his life in seclusion in his native province. He signified his intention to Maximian, who re- luctantly assented to a joint abdication. The CaRsars were raised to the rank of Augusti: Constantius was assigned Severus for his Caesar ; Galerius conferred that dignity on his nephew Daza. Constantius did not long enjoy the dignity he adorned. Ga- lerius soon became odious to the Romans ; and Maximian took advantage of this circumstance to make his son Maxen- tiu 3 master of Italy. Severus was forced to yield. . In the y mean time, Constantino, the son of Constantius, had com- pletely won the hearts of the British and Gallic legions, by his' military and civil virtues, and he soon forced Galerius and M>ixentius to acknowledge him as joint-emperor. The debauchery and cruelty of Maxentius were now grown inl olerable to the Romans. The nobles fled from the city ; th<'. labors of agriculture were neglected; his own father was foi ced to fly from him and take refuge with Constantino, who had married his daughter. Bat the restless and depraved old man could not abstain from machinations against his son- in-law and protector ; and Constantino, not to be himself the victim, compelled him to end his unquiet life by voluntary death, the mode of which was left to his own choice. Invited by the Roman nobles, Constantino marched against Maxen- 312. tins. A battle took place in the neighborhood of Rome : Max- entius fell, and the whole West obeyed Constantino. Galerius was now dead, and his nephew, Maximianus Daza, whom he had raised to the rank of a Csssar, had follow- ed him. Constantine associated with himself Licinius, a man who by military merit had risen to the dignity of a Csesar. They named their sons, Crispus and Licinius, to be their Caesars. The old emperor Diocletian died, as was said, by his own hand, about this time. Constantine now openly professeH himself a Christian. He 311 put an end to the persecution whicu had raged against that sect for the last ten years with all the violence of the ex- piring storm. His conversion, perhaps, was sincere : possibly 31* he saw that the Christians were become the most powerfijl body in the empire, and that the wisest policy was to give way to what could not be resisted without imminent danger. He issued two edicts ; one assigning them the temples of the gods, in places where they had not suitable churches ; the other, giving them the preference in all appointments to civil and military offices; and thus, in less than three centuries 15 170 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. from its origin, Christianity became, in effect, the established religion of the empire. Constantine, however, deferred his baptism till a little before his death. Unanimity did not long- subsist between the emperors. Wars broke out, and Ijcinius was eventually deprived of his A. I), dignity and life by his victorious colleague, who now reigned 324. alone. Seeing that the North-east, where the powerful nation of the Goths was settled, was the quarter from which most danger was to be apprehended, and also the growing strength of Persia, Constantine deemed Rome too remote a residence 330. for the sovereign, and he fixed on Byzantium, which he en- larged and named from himself, as the seat of imperial power. This measure has been blamed, as leaving Italy ex- posed to the irruptions of the barbarians ; but continuance at Rome, or any other plan to ward off the inevitable evil, weuld have been equally exposed to censure. The virtue and energy which had gained the empire were gone ; the tribes of the North had added skill and discipline to their numbers, strength, and courage. Corruption of Christianity. The Christian religion, as given to man by its divine Au- thor, was perfect in truth and simplicity; but it was sent forth into a world in which error abounded, and the stream had hardly lefl the fountain when it became defiled with mundane impurities. Earnestly and repeatedly does the zealous Paul inveigh against those who • mingled what he called the " beggarly elements" and the " fables" of Judaism with the spiritual precepts of the Gospel ; and strongly does he warn to avoid " profane and vain babblings, and oppositions of knowledge, falsely so called." But the evil was not to be checked, and Oriental and Grecian philosophy rapidly mingled with Gospel simplicity. The heat of eastern climates inspires indolence and the love of contemplation. The human mind becomes absorbed in rapturous visions of light and expanse, and men learn to regard the soul, the commencement of whose existence they cannot conceive, as having descended from the realms of su- pernal light into the body, its present darksome dungeon, whence it was to reascend to its former blissful abode. Hence the body being a prison, and matter evil, the object of the soul was to emancipate itself from their influence. This was to be best effected, it was thought, by mortification of the flesh and senses; and hence the voluntary mutilations, the corporeal tortures, rigid abstinence, and all that system of self-torment which distinguiches the yogee, the fekeer, and 171 CHAP IX. ROME AN EMPIRE. 173 the monk. Others, but fewer in number, drew a contrary ronclusion, and maintained that the acts of its impure com- panion were indifferent to the pure soul ; and they freely in- diilg'ed in the practice of the grossest sensuality. This eastern doctrine, mixed with the Persian one of the two principles, entered, under the name of Gnosis, or knoiV' ledge, into Christianity, even in the days of the apostles; and it was, perhaps, already not unknown to the Essenes. All the heresies of which we read in the early days of tiie church were founded, more or less, on the Gnosis ; and one of the favorite doctrines of these sects was, that this world and its creator were evil, and that Jesus was a being produced by wisdom, who took the appearance of a body, in which he was apparently crucified by the agents of the creator of the world. With this knowledge of the East the philosophy of the West combined to debase the truth of the Gospel. This phi- losophy was the New Platonism, which had fixed its chief seat at Alexandria, in Egypt, a country ever fertile of error and corruption. Its followers undertook the defence of the old religion ; they allegorized all its hidecent and extravagant legends, and set it in opposition to the new faith. Some of these philosophers became Christians, and retained their love of mystery and word-straining artifices: some Christians were educated in their schools. The Jews of Egypt had, as the works of Philo show, long since been familiar with the allegorizing system, which was now unsparingly applied to the simple precepts and narrations of the Old Testament : and the sober Christian of the present day would stare with amazement at the numerous and marvellous senses they were made to bear in the writings of the learned Origen. By this system any words could be made to bear any sense; and what a field for corruption this gave, is too evident to need proof Yet, as evil has always its attendant good, this very corruption of Christianity may have aided its diffusion, by procuring it a more ready acceptance among the educated classes of society, whose taste had long lost all relish for truth and simplicity. A veneration for departed excellence is one of the most natural and praiseworthy principles of our nature ; hence no one can blame the early Christians for visiting with respect the tombs of those who died beneath heathen tortures rather than renounce their faith. But, gradually, simple respect was converted mto religious adoration; the bodies and relics of the martyrs and confessors were taken from their peaceful and obs-^.ure places of rest, and solemnly enshrined in stately char<.iivis. where, by the devout, they were viewed with aw 15* 174 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. fill veneration, and to whose sanctity they were held largely to contribute. If such honors were paid to the mortal remains of tho champions for Christ, of how much greater were they them- selves to be held worthy ! It soon became an established ar- ticle of faith, that the apostles and other eminent saints were at once admitted to the beatific vision and immediate presence of God, where they enjoyed an extent of knowledge and a measure of power to which limits could not easily be set. The transition was easy to an invocation of them, to exert their own power for their suppliant, or intercede with God in his favor; and the worship of saints was speedily dissemi- nated through the Christian world. The bodies which the saints had occupied when on earth were supposed to retain or to have acquired a portion of this power : they too were adored ; and, shortly after, this honor was extended to their images. Each saint was held to be most easily propitiated at the place where his relics lay, or his life had been spent, and hence the origin of pilgrimages. In effect, the theory devised by Euhemerus, to account for tlie origin of Grecian polytheism, was exactly applicable to a great part of the religion now called Christianity ; and we shall have completed the picture when we add the number of pretended miracles that were every day asserted with the most unblushing assurance, and the quantity of Jewish and heathen ceremonies that was rapidly introduced into the church. This is the religion which will appear in the next twelve centuries of our history, and to which our future remarks will apply. We must, however, in justice add, that the tor- rent of corruption was nobly stemmed by some, such as Vigilantius ; that many of the corrupters knew not what they did ; and that much of the gold still remained among the dross. CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Successors of Constantine. 337 Constantine II. obtained Gaul and Britain : Constans Italy, Illyria, and Africa ; Constantius had the East. Their cousins, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, had been made Ceesars by their uncle : the former governed Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece ; the latter, Armenia. CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRR 175 The Cbfifartrs were murdered by their soldiers, not without the approb»/,^ion of the emperors, each of whom thirsted for absolute sw^y. Constantine attempted to deprive his brother of Italy, and lost his life in a battle against him near Aqui- a. d leia. Constant, a prince not devoid of talent, was devoted to 340 and passed his days in the practice of unnatural lusts. Mag- nentius conspired against him, and he was surprised and slain in a wood at the foot of the Pyrenees, whither he was in the 350 habit of retiring- with his favorites. Magnentius attempted to seize his dominions; but Illyria refused obedience, and made Vetranio, an old and worthy officer, emperor. Constantius, committing the war which he was waging, with little success, against Shahpoor, king of Persia, to his cousin Gallus, whom he had made Csesar, marched to the West. Vetranio cheerfully resigned his dignity for an annual pension. Italy declared for Constantius ; and Rome suffered a cruel vengeance from Magnentius, ere he marched to meet his rival. A series of bloody engagements ensued. On the plains of Hungary the last decisive one was fought, which re- united the empire under a single sceptre. Magnentius, to save them from disgrace, slew his own mother, and one of his brothers, and then himself; and his example was followed by his brother Decentius. The Csesar Gallus was executed 354 shortly afterwards for some offences, by order of the emperor. Julian, the brother of Gallus, had been reared up at the cottrt of Constantius. His habits were studious, his senti- ments virtuous. Disgusted with what he saw around him, he sought relief in the contemplation of the noble characters of Greek and Roman story, whom he made his models. He carried his veneration for his loved antiquity so far as to re- nounce the Christian religion in which he had been reared, and secretly to embrace the ancient system of Greece and Rome, refined by the allegorizing subtilty of the school of tlie New Platonists ; and resolved to restore it to its former dignity, if ever the empire should fall to him. The Franks and Allemanni were now causing extreme un- easiness to Gaul, and the emperor was obliged to send thither, with the rank of CsBsar, his nephew, whom he held cheap as a book-learned dreamer. But Julian showed, as other men of mental power often have done, that study and learning disqualify not for action. He arranged the most judicious plan for conducting the war, and gave the Allemanni, whose troops under their chief Chnodomar were three times the number of his army, a most decisive defeat in the neighbor- hood of Strasburg. He marched all through their territory, reduced them and the Franks to sue for peace, and restored 176 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART L the frontiers of the empire. He diminished the burdens of Gaul, and caused justice to be administered with speed and impartiality. His army saluted him Augustus; and Constan- tius, on receiving- the intelligence in Cilicia, died, it is said, of grief and mortification. ^ J,; Julian, when seated on the throne, openly professed the 3C1. ancient religion of the empire. The temples of the gods were again opened, the priests restored to their ancient dignity, and the zealous emperor sought to purify their morals. All practices and institutions to which Christianity appeared to him to have owed its success were engrafted on the old reli- gion : preachers were placed in the temples ; excommunica- tion employed against obstinate sinners ; large sums distributed in alms among the poor. An example of strict and rigid mor- als was set by the emperor ; the utmost moderation prevailed in the palace; the eunuchs and other ministers of luxury were removed. Favor in the distribution of employments was naturally shown to those who agreed in sentiment with the monarch ; but Julian, though superstitious, was too politic, if not too humane, to persecute the Christians. Toleration prevailed ; bishops who had been deposed from their sees were restored ; the cessation of mutual persecution for opinion en- joined ; Arians and Athanasians — for the dispute respecting the divine nature of Jesus Christ had split the church into these parties— compelled to live in peace. The politic em- peror hoped, perhaps, by division to weaken his opponents. From these cares Julian was called away to the defence of the eastern frontier against Shahpoor, who, probably aware of the growing disaffection of the Christians, had begun to make inroads. Julian marched to Mesopotamia, where, de- ceived by a pretended deserter, who undertook to lead him by a nearer road, he got into the deserts, where his army was exposed to the attacks of the light cavalry of the enemy. He resolved on giving battle ; but just as he was preparing for action, he was mortally wounded, and he died, encouraging his officers to do their duty. A. D On the death of Julian, the army invested with the purple 363 Jovian, a Pannonian, a man of talent, and so zealous a Chris- tian, that he had thereby incurred the displeasure of the late emperor. He was compelled to surrender the strong fortress of Nisi bis to Shahpoor, as the condition of peace. Before he reached Constantinople, he diea. 3o4 The army chose another Pannonian, Valentinian, to suc- ceed ; and he, with their assent, shared the dignity with his brother Valens, to whom he committed the care of the eastern part of the empire, himself taking charge of the West. Va- 177 CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPrRE. 179 lentinian was a valiant prince ; and he distinguished himself in war against the Saxons, Allemanni, and Sarmatians, and built fortresses along the Rhine. Want of self-command was his great defect. Valens was of a less noble character, and he exercised great cruelty against those who set up claims to his empire, or diifered from his theological sentiments. The internal corruption and weakness of the empire still increased ; the court more and more every day approximated to the idle pomp, the secret influence of women and eunuchs, the inaccessibleness of the monarch, the horrid cruelty which distinguished those of the East. Barbarous punishments, such as Rome had hardly seen under the worst of her heathen monarchs, were inflicted by these emperors. The discipline of the legions continually relaxed ; their armor was lightened, the infantry diminished, and cavalry increased. The garrisons of frontier towns took to civil occupations. The best of the legions were composed of barbarians, who had been taken into the imperial pay. These often refused to fight against their own countrymen ; often betrayed the Romans ; mocked at all discipline; robbed and plundered the country; forced their emperors to give battle when it pleased them, how unfavora- ble soever the circumstances might be. When military virtue was lost, all was gone, for civil virtue had long since departed. The view given by contemporaries of the then state of the empire is heart-rending. Corruption, injustice, and oppres- sion, in the government and its officers; swarms of barbarians continually pouring in and devastating the provinces; and famine and pestilence to fill up the picture of misery. The Huns. A new enemy now appeared in Europe. Wars and com- motions in the distant East caused a tide of mingled Turks and Mongols to pour itself on the West, In the reign of Valens, the Romans heard of tribes of Mongol deformity, be- gotten, some reported, by the devil, who in countless swarms pressed on the eastern frontier of the Goths. This dreadful people was named the Huns. All the country from the Black Sea to Livonia was then ruled by the venerable Hermanric, chief of the Goths. He was shortly afterwards murdered. The Goths were divided into two great portions, the West-Goths (Visigoths,) governed by the house of t'.e Balti : the East-Goths (Ostrogoths,) by that of the Amali. The Huns rarely venturing to meet the West-Goths in battle, continually carried ofl^ their wives and children. In the confusion that ensued on the death of Her- manric, and the invasions of the Huns, the West-Gothic 180 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. princes, Alavivus and Fridig-ern, proposed to the emperor Va- lens, that if he would give their nation lands south of the Danube, they would undertake the defence of that frontier. * Valens consented ; he gave the lands, and, throug-h Ulphilas, had them instructed in the Arian form of Christianity. During a period of fifty years the Huns pastured their herds, and pur- sued the chase, in the woods and plains of Russia, Poland, and Hungary, without molesting the West-Goths. The East-Goths were among their subjects ; but Safrach and Aleth led a portion of them over the Danube. Wars with the Goths. The Goths soon found themselves straitened for room in their new abode. They applied to the emperor for permission to trade. He gave orders to the neighboring governors to conduct it, which they did in such a spirit of monopoly, that the Goths had soon sold their cattle and slaves, and were re- duced to part with their children for food. The governors attempted treachery against Fridigern, the Gothic prince ; he summoned his countrymen to arms ; blood and devastation tracked the march of 'the Goths from Moesia towards Con- stantinople. The orthodox emperor of the West refused aid to the Arian Valens ; Terentius, governor of Armenia, did the same ; the imperial general, Trajan, was defeated ; the populace despaired of victory under an emperor who was the enemy of the Son of God. Meantime the Goths advanced ; the flames of the villages were seen from the walls of Con- stantinople. Valens marched and encountered the Goths in the plains of Adrianople. Cavalry now composed the main strength of the Roman armies. They could not stand against the firm Gothic infantry ; the imperial troops gave way and fled. Va- lens, wounded, sought refuge in a peasant's cottage, which ^, D. was set fire to, along with the rest, by the pursumg Goths, 378, and the emperor perished in the flames. The Goths approached the walls of Constantinople, and the empress Domnina prepared for a vigorous defence. Un- used to sieges, and daunted by the strength of the walls, they retired. Fridigern marched mto Greece, Safrach and Aleth turned baclf to ravage Pannonia. 375. Valentinian was dead, and his sons, Gratian and Valentin- ian II., a child of four years, had succeeded him. Gratian associated in the empire Theodosius, a Spaniard by birth, a descendant of Trajan, whose virtues he emulated. The East 379. was committed to the new emperor. His first efforts were to excite discord among tlie Goths, and to gain them over lo CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 181 himself. Fridigern shortly after died, and the emperor pro- posed a conference with his successor Athanaric: a peace was agreed on, a regular subsidy assigned the Goths, and a number of them taken into pay as auxiliaries. The Gothic chief died at Constantinople ; and such was the idea the Goths had conceived of the talents and virtues of the emperor, that they declared that so long as he lived they would not appoint another prince. Gratianus was an able and enlightened prince : he fought with valor and success against the Allemanni ; but his army disliked him, because he gave a preference to foreign troops. They set up Maximus against him, and Gratian was treache- a. d. rously murdered. 383 Maximus drove the young Valentinian out of Italy. He secured the passes of the Alps, and posted himself with a large army near Aquileia ; but Theodosius took advantage of his neglect, and defeated him. Maximus fell in the action. 388. The two emperors now reigned undisturbed, till Valen- tinian was murdered by the Count Arbogastes and the secre- tary Eugenius. Theodosius speedily came to avenge him, and defeated his murderers at the foot of the Alps. 394. A few months after he had obtained the sole power, Theo- 395. dosius died, to the great misfortune and grief of the empire, which he had governed with justice, moderation, and pru- dence. He was the last who ruled over the whole Roman world. Theodosius had two sons : Arcadius, the elder, a youth of eighteen, was left the East ; and Rufinus, a native of Gaul, became his director : Honorius, a boy of eleven years, held the West, under the guardianship of Stilicho, a Vandal. These ministers, for private ends, introduced confusion into the empire. The Goths, on the death of Theodosius, had appointed Alaric, of the house of the Balti, their prince. Finding their subsidy ill paid, and perceiving that the justice and valor of Theodosius no longer swayed the sceptre, they meditated war. Rufinus deemed it a great stroke of policy to throw the evil on Italy. He secretly advised the Goths to turn their arms that way, promising to send no aid to that country. Stilicho, on the other hand, rejoiced at the prospect of war ; he took no pains to "secure the passes against Alaric, and a Gothic prince was surrounded and slain in the mountains near Fie- sole. T he nation of the West-Goths, with wives and children, 403 flocks and herds, broke up from their seats in McBsia and Hither-Dacia, and advanced through Illyrium, Istria, and the 16 182 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. north-east of Italy, without meeting any opposition. Tljey arrived within a few miles of Milan, at that time the impe- rial residence, and sent a message to inform the emperor that the West-Gothic nation was arrived in Italy, and prayed him either to assign them land, or to try the strength of the two nations in the field. Honorius replied, that they might take land in either Gaul or Spain. Alaric accepted the permission, though in the one country he might have to contend with the Franks, in the other with the Vandals and Suevians. With- out committing any act of violence, he marched towards the Alps leading into Gaul, and the Goths celebrated Easter in the mountains of Piedmont. In the midst of the festival, they were astonished to see that they were followed by a Roman army. The Goths were attacked and defeated by the assail- ants, and Alaric, filled with rage, turned back on Italy. He ravaged Liguria and all the country to Tuscany, and hastened towards Rome. Her fate was averted for a season ; but on th«=^ 26th August, of the year 1164 from the supposed era of her foundation, Rome surrendered for the first time to 4 u a foreign e»iemy, and saw herself at the mercy of Alaric. 409. The imperial palace and the houses of the great were plun- dered ; much blood was spilt, and many houses fired. He bestowed the purple on one Attalus, then stripped him of it, marched southwards, and subdued Campania and Calabria, as far as the strait. He was meditating, it is said, a passage to Sicily and Africa, and the conquest of that country, when death surprised him at Cosenzo in his 35th year. The whole West-Gothic nation mourned for him, and the neighboring river was diverted from its course to afford a grave for the Gothic monarch in its bed, and then turned back to its usual channel, that the tomb of Alaric might never be discovered. His brother-in-law, Adolf, (Athaulf) was chosen to succeed him. Adolf marched back to Rome, where his troops did great injury to the public buildings and works of art. The empe- ror was forced to give him his sister in marriage. He con- tinued his march to Gaul. All opposition gave way before 410 Gothic valor. The country bounded by the Rhone, Loire, and Pyrenees, submitted to the West-Goths, and Toloza (Toulouse) became their capital. They crossed the Pyrenees, and drove the Vandals, Suevians, and the Slavonian Alans to the moun- tains of Gallicia and Portugal. The Spaniards retained their ancient valor ; but the government of the empire was not so beneficial as to deserve to be defended. This kingdom of the West-Goths in Spain lasted till the year 711. The Caledonians meantime pressed upon Britain ; Phara- mond ( Warmund) and his Franks had settled in the Nether Wlckliffe. 183 CHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Ig5 lands ; Gundicher (Giinther) and his Burgundians, seized the country on the Upper Rhine. His capital was Worms. Heruli and Rusfians came down into Noricum (Austria ;) the Lango- bards took Pannonia (Hungary and a part of Austria ;) the East-Goths, a part of Thrace. Sebastian and Jovinus raised the standard of rebellion in the empire. Heraclianus, g-ov- ernor of Africa, kept back the corn-ships destined for Rome. In this state of the public affairs Honorius died, leaving the ^^ ^ throne of the West to his nephew Valentinian, a child of six 423. years of age. Genseric and Attila. In the reign of Valentinian III. Africa was lost to the western empire; the cause was the ambition and art of iEtius, the imperial general. Galla Placidia, the mother of the young emperor, governed for him with wisdom. Boni- facius was governor of Africa. JEtius wished to cause en- mity between him and the regent. He wrote to Bonifacius, telling him he had been traduced to her, and that she would re- call him and put him to death ; he represented to Placidia that Bonifacius was meditating rebellion, and that the only way to check was to recall him : she did so ; he refused obedience : it was resolved to make war on him. Bonifacius, diffident of his own resources, cast his eyes on the Vandals, now masters of Andalusia : he offered land on the coast of Africa, as the price of their assistance, to their princes Genseric and Gon- deric. Genseric, an able, enterprising, and ambitious youth, immediately crossed the strait. Terror and devastation tracked 427 his route. Bonifacius perceived his error : aided by some forces sent by Theodosius II. emperor of the East, he armed in de- fence of the country. Genseric defeated both him and the im- perial general Aspar. He took Carthage, plundered it, de- stroyed the nobility, and tortured all ranks to make tliem discover their treasures. Being an Arian, he relentlessly oersecuted the orthodox. His son Hunneric was married to a West-Gothic princess. As Genseric grew old, he became suspicious : he took it into nis head that his daughter-in-law meditated poisoning him, and he cut off her nose and ears, and sent her home to her own country. Then, fearing the vengeance of the West- Goths, and a union between them and the Roman emperor igainst him, he sent amjjassadors to Attila, king of the Huns, to induce him to invade the western empire. The whole nation of the Huns was united under this aoie Prince. He ruled from the Volga to Hungary; Gepidse, iangobards, East-Goths, and nations of southern Germany obeyed him ; the emperor Theodosius paid him tribute 13* ». 186 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I. 700,000 warriors marched beneath his banners, each Hun^iisn tribe under its chief. One soul animated the whole ; all yielded implicit obedience to the mandate of their great Tanjoo, Attila was generous, and not averse from mercy. Attila resolved on war. He prepared the way by ai tifico ; he wrote to Theoderic (Dietrich,) the West-Gothic king re- siding at Toulouse, inviting him to unite in a partition of the empire of the Romans, his sworn foes. He wrote to the im- perial court, exaggerating the fidelity of the Huns, and pro- posing to restore the integrity of the empire by a union of their forces to expel the West-Goths from Gaul and Spain. The imperial court saw through the artifice. Valentinian called on all the barbaric monarchs of the West to join in averting the common danger : his call was attended to. The valiant West-Gothic monarch, the Burgundians who dwelt in the modern Burgundy, Dauphine, Savoy, and West Switzer- land, Sangiban, king of the Alans, on the Loire, the towns of Armorica, the community of Paris, the Ripuarian Franks between the Maese and Rhine, the Salian Franks ruled by Mcroveus, and the Saxons beyond the Rhine, all took arms to repel the Huns. From his village-court on the banks of the Theiss, Attila pursued his march through Austria, Styria, the borders of Rhsetia and Allemannia, passed the Rhine, defeated at Basil the king of the Burgundians, rapidly advancing, till on the Marne in the plains of Croisette, not far from Chalons, he en- countered the army of the confederates. 4. D The left wing of the confederates was commanded by 450, iEtius, the Roman general, the right by Theoderic, the centre by king Sangiban. One wing of the army of AttUa was led by the king of the Gepidse, the other by the princes of the East-Goths. Attila ordered the principal efforts to be directed against the West-Goths and Alans, and desired all to fix their eyes on him. The fight was long and bloody. Theoderic fell, encouraging his men. At the approach of night, Attila found it necessary to retreat. The West-Goths burned to avenge the death of their king. ^Etius judged it more politic to reserve the Huns as a counterpoise to them: he also wished to prolong the war, and his own command. Attila, as the country was unable to support his troops, returned home. 452. Vengeance, or, as is said, the invitation of a sister of the emperor, who offered him her han^ drew Attila to Italy. Aquileia resisted in vain : it was levelled to the ground ; its male inhabitants put to the sword, the women and children led into slavery. All the towns of northern Italy were taken and plundered. He entered Ravenna through a breach made by the citizens in their walls, to testify their submission. Leo SHAP. X. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. .187 the vene-able bishop of Rome, came to meet him, bearing' gifts, and accompanied by nobles. He besought him to spare the city where the apostle had preached, and which Alaric had not violated. Attila was moved : he drew off his army, laden with spoil, to pasture their herds once more beyond the Danube. Dreaded by the East and West, Attila died soon a. d afler, on the night of his marriage with the fair Hildichunde, 463 and with him expired the power of the Huns. Fall of the Western Empire. Valentinian HI. was a luxurious and superstitious prince. He had violated the wife of Maximus, a noble Roman. Bent on vengeance, Maximus, to deprive the emperor of support, contrived to make him put the brave ^tius to death. This incensed the guards, whose prefect ^tius had been, and Valentinian was murdered by them. Maximus was made 45& emperor, and he married Eudoxia, the widow of his predeces- sor. In a moment of unguarded confidence he revealed to her the secret of his being the chief agent in the death of Valentinian. Eudoxia, who had loved the husband of her youth, resolved to avenge him. She wrote to Africa to Gen- seric, calling upon him to avenge the murder of him, who had so many years left him in undisturbed possession of the fertile regions of Africa. Genseric obeyed the summons. On intelligence of his approach, all the principal citizens of Rome fled to the Sabine and Tuscan mountains. Maximus was put to death by the people. No resistance was offered to the Vandals. Fourteen days they abode in Rome, which Leo, its bishop, with difficulty saved from conflagration. The empress and her daughters, the flower of the youth, the artists and mechanics, were brought to Africa. The works of art were embarked for the same place, but were lost on the passage. All the south of Italy was wasted by the Vandals. Avitus, a man of noble descent and virtuous life, was ele- 456. vated to the purple in Gaul, but almost immediately laid down his dignity. The Romans then chose Majorianus, a 457 brave warrior. He marched against the Alans, who were threatening a descent into Italy, but was murdered by his own 461. soldiers. His successor was Severus. The Alans, who were a tribe of Slavonian race, had settled on the Loire in Gaul. Finding themselves straitened between the Franks and the West-Goths, they abandoned that country, passed the Alps, and reached Bergamo. Here they were defeated by the imperial general, Richimir, who shortly afterwards deposed the em- peror, and raised his own father-in-law, Anthemius, to the 467 188 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART I throne. He designed to govern under the name of the em peror. Anthemius was refractory : a battle was fought near Rome. Richimir was victorious ; he put Anthemius to death, wasted and plundered the city in a dreadful manner, and sur- i. D. vived but forty days. Olybrius, married to a daughter of 473. Valentinian, was raised to the throne, which he occupied but seven months. Glycerins, a lord of the court, was chosen by the Romans ; but the Eastern emperor set up Julius Nepoa 474 against him, and Glycerius retired and took orders, and be- came bishop of Porto. The emperor sent his general, Orestes, to defend the pas- sage of the Alps against the barbarians, who were continually advancing. By means of his army Orestes forced him to re- sign, and he invested with the purple his own son, Romulus 475. Augustus, a youth of amiable manners and cultivated mind. The Heruli, a people whom we first find seated in Pome- rania, on the shores of the Baltic, had gradually proceeded southwards. They fed their herds in Pannonia, then roved into Noricam, and now appeared in Italy, with other tribes, headed by the valiant Odoacer. Pavia, defended by the father of the young emperor, resisted. It was taken, and Orestes beheaded. All the cities opened their gates at the approach ^ of Odoacer. Romulus laid down sceptre, purple, and crown, and entered the camp of the Herulian chief His life was spared, and he was sent to a castle in Campania. 476. Thus, in the days of a prince of the same name as her supposed founder, in the 1229th year of the city, fell the empire of Rome. She had by valor and prudence risen from the smallest beginnings ; had step by step enlarged her do- minions, absorbed one after another all the nations of the civilized world that surrounded the Mediterranean, had adopted their vices, had lost her strength by internal corrup- tion. The mighty colossus had long tottered on its base; each tribe of the Gotho-German stock had by turns agitated it : the last and decisive effort was reserved for the dwellers of Rligen and Pomerania, a tribe unheard of in her days of glory. We here quit the ancient world. New scenes open, new manners appear ; the gods of Greece and Rome have vanish- ed : a different religion is dominant, before which anothei ancient system also gives way ; while the wilds of Arabia send forth another religion, which, in its rapidity of diffusion and extent of dominion, will vie with that which emanated from its vicinity six centuries before. We shall meet limited monarchy the prevalent form of government ; view the amaz- ' ing fabric of ecclesiastical dominion ; and contemplate feu* dalism, with its chivalry and its martial spirit. Francis I. 189 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, PART II. THE MIDDLE AGES. CHAP. I. KSTAilLISHMENT OF THE BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. Introduction. Hitherto the stream of history has run in one nearly continuous channel, varying its appellation as the chief power fell into the hands of a different people. Assyrians, Medes, and Persians, have succeeded each other in the possession of Asiatic empire. Greece has risen on their ruins ; and all have been finally absorbed in the wide dominion of Rome. The minor streams of smaller states have only contributed to swell the current of empire. The face of history now alters ; the last great empire is dissolved ; no state will ap- pear of such magnitude as to absorb all others ; numerous states will run a parallel course, mutually affecting each other. Our plan must suit itself to the altered condition of the world : henceforth we shall divide the course of events into periods, under each of which we shall view the then state of human affairs. The middle ages occupy ten centuries of the history of man. Of these, the six first are justly denominated the dark ages. A long night succeeded to the brilliant day of Rome; whose sun had set in blood and gloom. In the four last cen- turies of this period, it will brighten more and more into the perfect day of modern cultivation and refinement. Religion will purify, law will resume its empire, manners will soften^ literature and science will revive. The Gotho- Germans. The tribes that overturned the western empire were all of this great race, which overspread nearly all the northern part of Europe. Their original seat was probably east of the (Caspian. The affinity between their languages and those of 191 192 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT. India and Persia is striking; but the date of their miration is anterior to occidental history. They were distinguished by their huge stature, blue eyes, and fair complexions. Their religious system was a deification of the powers of na;:ure ; it still subsists in the Icelandic Eddas. We shall now give a concise view of the states founded by them on the ruins of the empire of Rome. East- Goths in Italy. On the death of Attila, the East-Goths threw off their sub- jection to the Huns. Under their princes of the house of the Amali, they dwelt from the Danube to the Save. They received gifts from the Eastern emperors ; they gave hostages in return. Among these was Theoderic (Dietrich), a natural son of their king Theodemir, a youth of talent and hope. Theodemir extended his conquests to the Alps. His son re- turned at the age of eighteen, accomplished in the knowledge of the Romans, and, unknown to his father, defeated a Sar- matian prince. The Goths now extended into Illyria and Macedonia, and Theoderic succeeded his father. The em- peror Zeno, a weak prince, feared the ruler of the Goths: he invested him with the consular robe, and allowed him to tri- ■ umph. But the Goths still felt themselves straitened ; and Zeno adopted the resolution of formally bestowing on Theo- deric Italy, now bowed beneath the sceptre of the king of the Heruli. The Gothic nation, accompanied by their families, flocks, and herds, joyfully set forth under their prince, of twenty- four years of age, to take possession of the blooming region assigned them. Twice on the borders of Italy were the sub- jects of Odoacer defeated. The Gothic warriors marched through the future Venetian territory. Odoacer fled to Rome, but found its gates closed against him.. He shut him- self up in Ravenna, defended by its morasses, works, and 20,000 men. In the third year of the siege, Odoacer was mur- jj dered, and tlie city surrendered. Theoderic forthwith assum- 493, ed the Roman purple. At Rome, where he was received with every demonstration of honor, he sought to restore every thing to its state under the emperors. He governed with justice : though an Arian, he persecuted not the orthodox, but testified all becoming respect for their bishops. Though so illiterate as not to write, he encouraged learning: his chancellor was the learn- ed Cassiodorus; the philosophic Boethius was one of his min- isters. Allied to most of the barbaric princes, he was a father and mediator among them. His wife was daughter to Childe- CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 193 bert, king of the Franks ; his sister was married to Hunneric, king of the Vandals ; his niece, to the king of the Thurin- gians; his daughters to the monarchs of the Burgundians and West-Goths. Theoderic left no son. When he felt the approach of death, he summoned his nobles and officers, com- mended to them his daughter Amalaswinde, and her son Athalaric, a child of ten years ; advised regard to order, and a. Dt to the senate and people of Rome, and the maintenance of 32S. peace with the Eastern empire. The ambition of the mother of Athalaric induced her to associate with her in the regency her cousin Theudat. Her eon died of disease, and her ungrateful colleague deprived 534 her of life. Meantime the Vandal kingdom in Africa had fallen beneath the arms of Belisarius, the able general of the emperor Justi- nian, and Gelimir, its last sovereign, had been led in triumph in Constantinople. Orders were now issued to Belisarius to avenge the daughter of Theoderic. Theudat was dethroned 536. by the Gothic nation, and Vitig seated on the throne of the Amali. Belisarius denied the right of the Goths to elect a king over a country originally Roman. From Sicily, which had already submitted, he passed over to Italy, took Naples, then Rome, which he fortified ; advanced into Tuscany, and defeated the Goths at Perusia. Milan and the neighboring towns rebelled against the Arian Goths; and Vitig called from Burgundy, now under the Franks, 10,000 volunteers 538 against them. The defence of Milan was long and obstinate ; the inhabitants endured the extremities of famine; but at length the Frankish arms were successful, and neither age nor sex was spared in the carnago. Vitig lay fourteen months before Rome, which was relieved by Belisarius; Ravenna was taken, and Vitig led a captive to Constantinople. 539 The Franks fought in Italy with the success which has always attended their arms in that country — victory, then defeat. The Goths were still animated by their usual heroism : two kings were elected and dethroned. In the person of 540 Totila, the third monarch, the fame of Theoderic revived. Victory attended his arras ; he took the towns, and levelled their walls. Belisarius was absent quelling an insurrection in Africa : he returned to see Rome taken before his eyes. Her fortifications were destroyed ; her inhabitants of all ranks driven from their homes, that she might never again be able to resist the Gothic arms. Master of Italy, Totila now emu- lated the mildness of Theoderic ; he recalled her population to Rome, and lived as a father among his people. Court intrigue had recalled Belisarius ; the conduct of the 17 194 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. Italian war was committed to the valiant eunuch Narses. With the title of proconsul, and with Langobardic auxilia- 4. jy ries, he entered Italy. The Goths were defeated near Tajina, 562. and Totila slain. The nobles of the nation raised Teias to the throne in Pavia; but Nocera soon beheld his end, and that of the Gothic dominion. A feeble attempt on Italy was made by the Allemanni, now subject to the Frank?. Under the admmistration of Narses, Italy enjoyed abun- Jance, tranquillity, and happiness. Rome, too, gradually rose again. But Narses fell under the displeasure of the emperor Justin II. He left Rome and retired to Naples, whence he 568. sent letters inviting- Alboin (Albwin), king of the Lombards, to the invasion of Italy. The Lombards in Italy. The Longobards or Lombards had occupied the abandonea seats of the East-Goths in Pannonia. Alboin had lately con- quered the Gepidse, a kindred tribe, drunk from the skull of their king Kunimund, and married his daughter, Rosamund, when he received the invitation of Narses. On the 22d April, 568, the whole nation of the Lombards, with 20,000 Saxon confederates, abandoned Pannonia. On a lovely morn- ing of Spring, they with rapture first beheld, from the summit of the Alps, the magnificent region which was to become their own. Their march through the country was orderly and peaceful ; no plunder or devastation took place ; nothing was omitted to conciliate the affections of the inhabitants. Pavia fell before their arms, and became their capital. In a short time no part of Italy remained to the empire but Ra- venna, Rome, and some of the eastern sea.-coast. This prov- ince was governed by exarchs or proconsuls. The authority of the emperors gradually diminished in Rome, and was trans- ferred to the popes, of whom the virtues of many rendered them worthy of the authority they enjoyed ; and Rome might justly esteem herself happy, when directed by the meekness, piety, and zeal of her more distinguished pontic. The Burgundians. Bordering on the Lombards were the Burgundians, who possessed the ancient country of the Allobroges. On entering this country the Burgundians had required of the former pos- sessors to give up to them two-thirds of the lands, one-half of the woods, houses, and gardens, and one-third of the slaves. Agriculture and pasturage were the occupation of the free Burgundians ; the arts were exercised by the servile classes They were one of the first of the barbarian nations to form a CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 195 code of laws ; and the Burg-undian code is distinguished from that of the other nations, by not allowing' a composition for blood. When they entered Gaul, they had themselves in- Btructed, during seven days, in the principles of Christianity ; •m the eighth they were baptized. The princes of the Burgundians sought and obtained fronj the court of Constantinople the Patriciate or government over the original inhabitants : their office and their large posses- sions assured them authority over their own countrymen. A powerful nobility controlled their authority. Gondebald, one of their sovereigns, attempted to raise his Roman subjects to an equality with the Burgundians, to diminish their influence; but all ranks of the latter assembled at Geneva, and forced him to abandon his project. To secure the crown to his son Sigraund, his father, Gon- debald, had him, during his own lifetime, elevated, after their a. y ancient manner, on the shields of the Burgundians, and pro- 515 cured for him the patriciate from the emperor. Sigmund was married to the daughter of the great Theoderic, the East- Goth. After her death, he sacrificed her son to the calumnies of his second wife. Theoderic sent troops to avenge his grandson, and he roused the sons of Clovis (Chlodvig) the Frank to gratify the vengeance of Clotilda, their mother, whose father had been put to death by his brother Gondebald, the father of Sigmund. The Franks entered the country : Sigraund fled to a convent he had founded; he was taken and slain. His brother Gondemar and the nation carried on the struggle during ten years. At last Gondemar was over- come, and the race of Clovis ruled over Burgundy. The 534 s national independence, the laws, and manners stUl remained. / The Allemanni, / Northwards of the Burgundians, the Allemanni had estab- ' lished themselves along both sides of the Rhine, from its source to its confluence with the Moselle and Maine. They neglected the arts of civil life ; their herds occupied and sus- tained them : they loved the agitation of war, and their rude policy caused them to demolish the walls of conquered towns. Cologne, the territory of the Ripuarian Franks, having 496 been invaded by them, Clovis, the Salian, marched to the aid of his allies. He met the Allemanni near Ziilpich. A long and desperate battle ensued ; victory was declaring for the Allemanni, when Clovis, still a heathen, raised his hands to heaven, and invoked the God of the Christians. His Roman soldiers were stimulated to increased exertion ; they threw themselves impetuously on the foe. The Allemanni were / 196 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. broken, their king was slain, and the people submitted to the rule of the king of the Franks. The Franks. In the third century, the warlike association of the Franks, seated on the marshy confines of the Lower Rhine, began to overrun Gaul. They had been gradually acquiring a firm footing in that country. They were divided into several tribes, governed by different chiefs of the family of Meroveus. Clovis (Chlodvig) son of Chilperic, succeeded, at the age of fifteen, to the command of the Salian tribe. Ambitious of conquest, he led his warriors from his little kingdom of the Batavian island into Gaul. Numerous auxiliaries crowded to a stand- ard which held forth the prospect of conquest and plunder. Clovis, with rigid impartiality, divided the booty of each vic- ^, p tory among his followers ; but indiscriminate plunder was se- 486 verely prohibited and punished. Syagrius, who ruled as king over Soissons and the neighboring country, and whose equity and justice had gained him a mild and beneficial influence over the Burgundians and Franks, was the first potentate at- tacked by the Frankish chief A battle decided the fate of Syagrius, who fled to the court of Toulouse, where his life was sacrificed to the menaces of Clovis. The district of Tongres was the next acquisition of Clovis, made in the tenth year of his reign. The battle of Ziilpich, just narrated, gave him the sovereignty over the Allemanni. His queen, Clo- tilda, Vv^as a Burgundian princess, and a Christian : her en- treaties, the victory at Ziilpich, or politic views, perhaps a union of all these motives, led Clovis to yield a willing ear to the arguments of the Christian bishops, and he was fol lowed to the font by 3000 of his warriors. The form of Christianity embraced by Clovis, was the Cath- olic. Nothing could have been more advantageous to him, at least in a temporal point of view. The West-Goth and Burgundian princes were Arians ; and though they treated their Catholic clergy and subjects with the utmost gentleness, the latter could not endure patiently the dominion of here- tics. A large portion of their subjects, therefore, looked up to the orthodox king of the Franks, and were ready to aid his enterprises against their Arian sovereigns. Alaric, king of the West-Goths, was young; his subjects had for many years enjoyed the luxury of peace; his realms were fair and fruit- ful; he and his Goths were Arian sectaries. In an assembly of his nobles and warriors at Paris, now the seat of his gov- ernment, Clovis expressed his grief, that the fairest part of Gaul should be in the hands of Arians, and invited his war- 17 197 CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 199 riors to join in the conquest and division of it. Such motives were not to be resisted ; a numerous army soon took the field. Alaric roused his Goths to arms : his troops outnumbered the Franks; but the influence and the arts of the clergy were with Clovis. Miracles, it was even said, came in aid of the righteous cause. The river of Vienne was swollen ; but a white hart appeared to conduct the Catholic army to a ford. A bright meteor hung each night over the cathedral of Poi- tiers ; and its flame,, like the pillar in the wilderness, served to guide the true believers towards the station of the infi- dels. Ten miles beyond that city the armies encountered. Alaric fell by the hand of his rival, and the rout of the Goths was complete. The whole of Aquitain was conquered and colonized by the Franks, and the Gothic dominions in Gaul reduced to the province of Septimania, a strip extending along the Mediterranean. The emperor of the East conferred on Clovis the dignity of consul and patrician; titles of no in- trinsic value, but which gave him estimation in the eyes of his Gallic subjects. a. d On the death of Clovis, his extensive dominions were di- 511 vided among his four sons. Thierry (Dietrich) had Austrasia, the eastern portion, embracing a great part of western Ger- many : his capital was Metz. Clodomir resided at Orleans ; Childibert, at Paris; Clotaire, at Soissons. These princes reduced Burgundy, in the conquest of which Clodomir fell. The dominions of Clovis had again a single master, in the person of Clotaire, his youngest son by Clotilda. The valor 558 of Thierry, the eldest, had added Thuringia to his domin- ions. The empire was again divided, and again reunited, in the person of another Clotaire, great-grandson of Clovis. His son, Dagobert I., was an able prince ; but after him the sove- 613 reigns of the Merovingian house became utterly insignificant. Their dominions were divided into two portions, Austrasia and Neustria ; the latter containing the former kingdoms of Paris, Orleans, and Soissons. Burgundy was dependent on . Neustria ; but Aquitain was separated from the time of Dago- bert, and governed by dukes descended from his brother Ari- bert. Officers, called Mayors of the Palace, whose original employment had been the presentation of petitions, gradually usurped all power, and eventually the throne. The Anglo-Saxons. On the decline of the empire, the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain. The inhabitants, enervated by civili- zation and a long peace, were assailed by the Picts and Scots, and their coasts were infested by the incursions of the tribes 200 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II of the north. Vortigern, who at that time enjoyed the su premacy over the Britons, deemed it the wisest policy to gain the alliance of some of these last, and he engfaged Heng-ist A. D. and Horsa, two Saxon chiefs, who were sailing with three 449. ships along the coast, to enter his service. With their aid the Caledonians were reduced to peace. The isle of Thanet was assigned to these useful allies. A large body of Saxons sailed from Germany and joined them in that place. The Saxon chiefs then persuaded the British king to invite over more of their countrymen, and plant them in the north. He assented, and a third fleet sailed from Germany. Peace did not long continue between Vortigern and his allies. Saxons, Jutes, Angles, poured over in vast numbers : adventurers from all parts joined them. A long and bloody contest ended in giving the Saxons possession of all the plain country of Brit- ain : the original natives could only maintain themselves in Cornwall, Wales, and the district along the western coast, in the north : a portion passed over to Armorica, and gave that country its present name — Bretagne. In the conquered dis- tricts, the original natives were reduced to a state of thral- 582. dom, and nearly exterminated. Their conquests were divided by the Saxons into a num- ber of separate and independent kingdoms. The greatest number at any time was eight ; but conquest, inheritance, or other causes, frequently reduced them lo seven, six, five, four, three, which were again dissolved, and the number increased. The usual train of murders, usurpations, tyranny, and op- pression that accompanied the various lines of barbarian princes settled in the Roman empire, distinguished the Anglo- Saxon monarchies ; but, with their barbarism and their vices, they retained their freedom, and the germs of those institu- tions of which England is now so justly proud. The West-Goths in Spain. The nature of the country has always favored the defence of Spain. Its conquest engaged the Roman legions during 171 years ; and the same period elapsed from the arrival of H 1 the Gothic king Adolph in Catalonia, before the last king of the Suevi in that country was taken, and the whole peninsula submitted to the Gothic rule. The history of the Gothic monarchs in Spain is a tissue of murders, usurpations, and all the evils attending elective monarchy among an uncivilized people. In 117 years, Leu- vigild, the first monarch of all Spain, had seventeen succes-. sors. When the monarchs embraced the Catholic faith, the influence of the clergy greatly increased; and though the ar CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 201 dent zeal of the prelates, in their numerous councils, incul- cated persecution, many laws beneficial to the people in gen- eral were enacted in them ; and the Visigoth code breathes a more enlightened policy than those of the other states founded on the ruins of Rome. During a great part of this period the coast of Spain was under the dominion of the Byzantine emperors, who encour- aged the disaffection of the orthodox subjects of the Arian Goths. When Recared, one of these monarchs, embraced the Catholic faith, the pretext for refusing allegiance was re- moved, and the Gothic monarchy had only its own internal weakness to dread. The Byzantine Empire. The eastern or Byzantine empire, so called from the an- cient name of its capital, continued to exist to the end of the middle ages ; but greatly declined from the rank of the Roman empire, and now only one among many of equal power and dignity. Through the early part of tliis period it possessed • nearly all that was apportioned to it by Theodosius ; and, in the reign of Justinian, Africa, the greater part of Italy, and the coast of Spain, were annexed to it. Its external enemies were the Persians, the Huns, and other tribes on its northern frontiers ; internally it was agitated by the contention of reli- gious parties, for which a remedy was vainly sought in the assembling of general councils of the prelates to settle by their votes what was incapable of being determined; and the conduct and character of the majority of those who met in fiolemn assembly at Ephesus, Chalcedon, and Constantinople, to decide on the nature of the Son of God, showed how small a portion of his spirit was abiding among them. The city of Constantinople was continually thrown into disorder by the furious contentions and mutual massacres of the blue and green factions of the Hippodrome, and their respective parti- sans and favorites. Arcadius, the son of Theodosius, was a weak, insignificant a. d prince, entirely governed by his empress and his faithless 395. minister Ruffinus. His son, Theodosius II., partook of his 408. father's weakness of character; and eunuchs and monks ex- ercised unlimited power over his mind. The powerful Attila threatened the throne of Byzantium, and the feeble successor »f Constantine trembled and paid tribute ; but his father had »iad the good sense and magnanimity to commend his tender youth to the regard and protection of Yezdejird, the able monarch of Persia, the enlightened tolerator of Christianity ; and during his reign the empire was unmolested on that side. 202 HISTOllY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. The hours of Theodosius were devoted to study, to the chase, and to the occupations of his court ; and he has the honor of being the first monarch who caused a collection of the laws of the empire to be made. The repose of his latter days was disturbed by the first council of E-phesus; wherein the turbu- lent Cyril of Alexandria, by violence and cruelty, settled the disputed question of the nature of the meek and lowly Jesus, in opposition to his rival, the less fortunate, but perhaps more A. D pious, Nestorius, of Constantinople. 450. Pulcheria, the wise and talented sister of Theodosius, suc- ceeded. Feeling- the necessity of masculine energy at the helm of the state, she gave her hand to Marcian, a senator, who had in early life distinguished himself in the Persian and other wars. With true Roman spirit, Marcian refused to continue the tribute of his feeble predecessor to the king of the Huns. Attila stormed and vowed vengeance; but his attention being at that time drawn towards the West, he con- fined himself to threats against the Byzantine monarch. iSTi On the death of Marcian the throne was filled by Leo, a prince not unworthy of it; but he stained his fame by his in- gratitude to Aspar, to whom he owed his elevation. His in- fant grandson succeeded, whose father, an Isaurian by birth, but who had taken the Grecian name of Zeno, governed in his stead. The infant emperor dying prematurely, suspicion fell on his father ; and Verina, the widow of Leo, drove him from his throne, which she bestowed on her brothei Basilicus. But this prince, having ofiended his sister, a conspiracy de- livered him and his family into the power of the relentless 491- Zeno, who recovered his throne. On the death of Zeno, his widow, the virtuous Ariadne, bestowed her hand and the em- pire upon x\nastatius, a domestic of the palace, whoso charac- ter is expressed by the popular cry at his accession : " Reign as you have lived !" After a reign of twenty-seven years, Anastatius diefl, leav- ing no heirs. The eunuch Amantius determined to give the purple to some one in whose obsequiousness he might confide. To assure his measures, he intrusted a large sura of money, to be distributed by way of donative among the guards, to Justin their commander, originally a Dacian peasant. Justin was false to his trust : he gained the suffrages of the soldiers 518. for himself; and the illiterate peasant was seated on the throne of the Caesars, which he occupied not discreditably during a reign of nine years. 627. Justinian succeeded his uncle Justin. The talent of this prince lay in the selection of fit persons to execute his plans of war and legislation ; foi he never himself appeared in the Don John of Austria. 203 CHAI I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 205 field, and his mind was narrow and confined. Yet Justinian has the fame of forming a regular and copious body of juris- prudence, embracing, digesting, and simplifying the mass of judicial wisdom, which had accumulated under the kings, consuls, and emperors. This important work was executed by the ablest lawyers of the age, under the superintendence of the great Tribonian. The emperor discerned also in the camp the merit of Belisarius, a general worthy to stand in competition with those of any age. The Roman arms, under the conduct of Belisarius, checked the pride of Persia; over- turned the Vandalic kingdom in Africd, and reduced that country to a province of the empire ; conquered the East- Goths of Italy, and led their king a captive to Constantino- ple. But the great military and private virtues of Belisarius were shaded by too slavish a submission to the arbitrary will of an ungrateful court, and too great blindness to the vices of his wife, the wanton and vindictive Antonina. The emperor himself was the slave of his passion for the empress Theo- dora; who, from the condition of the vilest of prostitutes and most shameless of pantomimists, had been elevated to a share of the imperial throne. Justinian had a thirst for fame ; he adorned the capital with stately buildings. The church of St. Sophia, now a mosch, remains a monument of his taste. . One of his nephews, Justin II., was the successor of Jus- a.d. tinian. In his reign Narses, the valiant eunuch, offended, as ^^^ is said, by an expression of the empress Sophia, invited the Lombards into Italy ; and that country was lost to the empire. Disease afflicted Justin: he was unable to leave his palace and attend to the affairs of his people ; his mind was over- whelmed with the magnitude and responsibility of his office ; he resolved to appoint a successor, and abdicate. The em- , press recommended Tiberius, the captain of his guard. Justin transferred to him his diadem, in the presence of the patriarch and the senate ; and during the four years he survived, he ex- perienced every attention from the worthy object of his gen- erosity. Tiberius governed with every kingly virtue. Success 578. crowned the arms of his generals in the Persian war ; but a fatal disease seized on the excellent monarch, and, in four years afler the death of Justin, carried him off, amidst the tears of his people. He gave his daughter and his diadem to Maurice, a prince worthy to occupy his throne. But in a 582. war against the Avars, a tribe of Turkish race, Maurice re- fused to redeem the prisoners who had fallen into their hands. The army mutinied, and invested Phocas, a centurion, with 18 k. p. 206 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART II. the purple ; and by his order Maurice and his children were murdered. 602. The vices and tyranny of Phocas disg-rac ed the throne which had been adorned by the virtues of his predecessors. Every province was ripe for insurrection. Heraclius, the exarch of Africa, refused tribute and obedience to the tyrannic centurion. Crispus, the son-in-law of Phocas, who trembled for his life, joined the senate in calling upon Heraclius to save the empire. The task was committed by Heraclius to his son of the same name. An African fleet appeared before Constantinople : the tyrant was deserted, taken, and put to death. 610. The reign of Heraclius was a series of struggles against foreign enemies. Chosroes (Khosroo), the Persian monarch, under pretext of avenging the death of Maurice, had made war on Phocas. The first intelligence Heraclius received was that of the capture of Antioch. Jerusalem was next . taken by the victorious Persians ; they poured into Egypt, and the Persian standard was carried as far as Tripoli. An- other Persian army lay during ten years encamped on the Bosphorus, in view of Constantinople. The Avars occupied Thrace, and pressed the capital ; and Heraclius narrowly es- caped becoming the victim of their perfidy. A peace was at length granted by the Persian king, on the condition of a most enormous tribute. During the time allotted for the col- lection of it, Heraclius prepared for a desperate struggle : he put forth the soul and energy of a hero, and in six glorious campaigns retrieved the honor of the empire ; Assyria, and the regions beyond the Tigris, then beheld, for the first time, the victorious standards of Rome. Meanwhile the heroism of the emperor was caught by his people, and the Avars and their allies were driven with loss from before Constantinople. But while Heraclius and Chosroes were thus mutually ex- hausting their strength, a new enemy, who meditated the overthrow of both, was lopking on with secret satisfaction ; and in the heart of Arabia a storm was preparing to burst over both their empires. Persia. We have seen that the Parthians had recovered the greater part of the original dominions of the Persian kings from the descendants of Seleucus, and had long proved the most for- midable enemies of them and of the Romans. Their empire had gradually declined; and Ardeshir, or Artaxerxes, a Per- sian, and an oflicer of reputation in the army of Artaban, the Parthian king, and who was, or gave himself out to be, « CHAP. I. BARBARIANS IN THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 207 lineal descendant of the ancient Persian monarchs, through his valor and conduct succeeded in wresting the sceptre from j^ u, the feeble grasp of the Arsacides, and the empire again be- 22fi. came Persian. The restoration of every thing to its original state in the glorious da3/s of the ancient monarchs, was the first object of Ardeshir. The Mobeds or priests of the national religion were summoned from their retirement to consult on the re- establishment of the worship of Ormuzd in its original purity ; for though the ancient religion had not undergone any perse- cution from the Arsacides, it had not been held in honor, and its ministers had languished in obscurity. But now, under a prince who regarded himself as the son of the Kaianides, the roligious system, which had animated the soul and nerved the arm of that illustrious housp, was again to flourish ; the disciple of Zerdusht (Zoroaster) again to combat beneath the banner of Ormuzd, against Ahriman and the powers of 'dark- ness ; and the sacred fire to flame once more on a thousand altars. By the side of religion stood military renown. Ardeshir put forth a claim to all the countries once contained in the Persian empire, and carried on heavy wars with the Romans for Anterior Asia, where, in Armenia, they still maintained on a throne the remnant of the Parthian royal family. Shah- poor (Sapores,) the son of Ardeshir, continued the wars of his father, and extended his empire towards the west. The Ro- man emperor Valerian ended his days a captive in the hands of this monarch. Galerius, whom Diocletian raised to the dignity of Csesar, forced the Persian king, Narses, to a peace, which lasted forty years, and gave Osrhoene and Nisibis to the empire. The Persian Yezdejird was the friend of the emperor Ar- cadius, and was suspected of Christianity by his orthodox sub- jects. Bahram, the succeeding king, was one of the best and greatest of the Sassanides. Feroze made war on the Neph- thalites, or White Huns, whose king had been his friend and protector, and lost his life in battle against them. His son, 488 Oobad, waged war with the emperor Anastatius. His more illustrious son and successor, known in the West as Chosroes, in the East as Noosheerwan the Just, continued the wars of his father through the reign of Justinian; but in Belisarius he met an opponent such as the empire had never yet opposed ^ to the generals of the Persian kings. The struggle was maintained throughout the life of Noosheerwan with mutual loss, and the final gain of neither. Hormuz, his son, in despite 57<» of ■]ie carefuF education bestowed by his father, became a 208 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART II. tyrant : the provinces rose in rebellion ; the Roman arms a>d ^. D. vanced on one side, the Turkish Khan on another. A hen^ 590. Bahram, saved his country, and usurped the throne. Hormut died in prison ; his son, Khosroo, fled to the protection of Maurice ; the Roman arms and his faithful subjects restored him to the throne of his fathers : Bahram fled to the Turks, and there died by poison. Khosroo, as we have just seen, took arms to avenge the murder of his protector Maurice, and 628. carried on a long- and bloody war with Heraclius. Defeated by the Romans, he was murdered by his son Siroes. The parricide enjoyed the fruit of his crimes but eight months. Twelve years longer the empire was agitated by anarchy and bloodshed, till the victorious arms of the Arabian khalifs ended the dominion of the house of Sassan in the person of Yezde- jird III. CHAP.'lI. THE TIMES OF MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. Mohammed. While Chosroes of Persia Avas pursuing his dreams of re- covering and enlarging the empire of Cyrus, and Heracliua was gallantly defending the empire of the Csesars against him ; while idolatry and metaphysics were diflflising their baleful influence through the church of Christ, and the sim- plicity and purity of the Gospel were nearly lost beneath the mythology, which occupied the place of that of ancient Greece and Rome, the seeds of a new empire, and of a new religion, were sown in the inaccessible deserts of Arabia. 66y. At the time when the sceptre of Constantinople was swayed by the pious nephew of Justinian, and that of Persia by the vigorous hand of Noosheerwan the Just, was bom in the city of Mecca, in Arabia, Mohammed, the son of Abdallah, and grandson of Abd-ul-Motallib, one of the richest and most gen- erous chiefs of the Koreish. Mohammed was early left an orphan ; his uncles were numerous and powerful, and, in the division of his grandfather's property, his share was but five camels and a female slave. His uncle Aboo Taleeb reared him : at the age of twenty-five he entered the service of KJia- dijah, a rich widow of Mecca ; and with her merchandise ac- companied the caravans to Damascus. The honor and fidelity of the factor to his mistress was exemplary ;|the person of Mohammed was handsome and dignified, his aspect majestic, CHAP. 11 MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 209 his eye penetrating, his smile irresistible, his voice harmoni- ous, and eloquence flowed from his tonguel Khadijah admired and loved ; the generosity of Aboo Taieea made up the defi- ciency of his nephevi^'s fortune : she gave him her hand and her wealth, and thus raised him to his proper rank in society. The gratitude and affection of the son of Abdallah caused the noble matron never to regret her act. Mohammed was of a serious contemplative mind. He had long been convinced of the great truth of the unity of the Deity, and he mourned over the idolatry of his countrymen, [n the solitude of a cavern near Mecca, whither he used to retire for meditation, he reflected on the best mode of bring- ing them to an acknowledgment of the truth. Arabian tra- dition spake of ancient prophets sent to reclaim men from error ; Moses and Jesus were, he knew, commissioned from heaven to teach ; he may have expected a similar commission ; his enthusiasm may have beguilcid his imagination, and in ecstatic vision the angel Gabriel possibly may have appeared to descend to him : but it is far more probable that he con- ceived that the end justified the means ; that the arguments of reason, which he had, perhaps, already tried, would have no effect on the obtuse minds of the adorers of J360 idols ; that only as the envoy of heaven could he look for attention, and that his first vision of Gabriel was as fictitious as his latter ones notoriously were. a. d In the 40th year of his age, Mohammed announced to his 60a wife Khadijah, his slave Zeid, his pupil Ali, and his friend Aboo Beker, a direct commission from God to preach the doctrine of his Unity. They may have believed, they may have seen the distant prospects of temporal power and glory that awaited them ; they acknowledged the prophet. During the next three years, ten of the principal citizens of Mecca embraced the new faith. In the fourth year, he offered the blessing to his own kindred, the race of Hashem ; and was warned in vain by Aboo Taleeb, the father of Ali, to abandon his impracticable project. Ten years longer he preached publicly and privately in Mecca to the inhabitants and as- sembled pilgrims, warning them to embrace the truth, and to remember the fate of the tribes of Ad and Thamood, whose impenitence had brought down the vengeance of offended heaven. Persecution was at length employed against him and his disciples. As long as Aboo Taleeb lived, he protected his nephew, though he rejected his prophetic claims; but he died : the faithful Khadijah soon followed him ; Aboo Sofian, 1 declared pnemy, succeeded to the place and power of Aboo 18* 210 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U Taleeb ; and the death of Mohammed was resolved on. Timely information enabled him and his friend Aboo Beker to fly to the concealment of a cavern; where, during three days, they escaped the perquisitions of their enemies. They then mount- ed their camels and fled towards Yatreb : on the road they A.D. were overtaken; but by prayers and promises they escaped. 622. This memorable event, denominated the Hejira, or Flighty gave name and origin to the era by which years are counted in all countries professing the tenets of Islam. At Yatreb, henceforth called Medinat-en-Nabi {the City of the Prophet)^ he was received with every testimonial of respect. Its principal citizens had already formed with him at Mecca a treaty of conversion and alliance; and the people had ratified the compact, and now submitted to his rule as prophet and king. War ensued between his new subjects and his foes at Mecca : the white banner of the prophet was soon seen to float before the gates of Medina ; and his sacred person was not unsparingly exposed in the tumult of the conflict. Mohammed may have been originally only an enthusiast^ and have dreamed of no other weapons for the difiiision of his faith than those of eloquence and persuasion. At the head of an army he became a fanatic. The sublime doctrine of the Unity might, he saw, be made the foundation of temporal dominion. The Koran — the book of his law — ^now breathes a fiercer tone, and the sword is to be called to the aid of the truth. Henceforth we are to contemplate the prophet as a 62a prince and conqueror at the head of armies. The battle of Beder was the commencement of his career of victory. Aboo Sofian was, with only thirty or forty followers, conducting a caravan of 1000 camels : a party of the troops of the prophet, in number 313, lay in wait for it ; the Koreish, to the amount of 100 horse and 850 foot, advanced to its protection. The prophet and his troops lay between the caravan and the troops of Mecca : he determined to assail the latter ; exhorted his men, ascended a pulpit, and called on God for the aid of Gabriel and 3000 angels. His troops were yielding; the prophet mounted his horse, cast a handful of sand into the air, crying, "Let their faces be covered with confusion." The Koreish were panic-struck, and fled ; 70 were slain, an equal number taken prisoners. A second battle was fought at Mount Ohud, near Mecca. The Koreish were 3000 strong, the followers of the prophet numbered but 950; and, notwith- standing his military skill and valor, he was forced to abandon the field, and the bodies of 70 of the saints. Next year 10,000 625 men sat down, in vain, before the walls of Medina ; tempests 211 :;HAP. 11. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 213 and dissension forced them to retire without fame, and the Koreish lost their hopes of overcoming the exile. The Jews formed several tribes in Arabia. Mohammed at first soug-ht to gain them to his faith ; but, finding them in- flexible, he unsheathed the sword against them. Everywhere their resistance was overcome, and their treasures divided among the victorious Mussulmans. The conquest of Mecca was the object next the prophet's heart : he advanced against it ; but awed by the martial appearance of the Koreish, he negotiated and concluded a truce for ten years, stipulating a permission to enter the city the following year to perform his devotions. In the pilgrimage made in consequence by him and his followers, Khaled and Amroo, the bravest war- riors of the Koreish, embraced the faith of Islam. The Kore- ish were soon accused of breach of truce ; 10,000 Moslems marched against the holy city ; resistance was not to be at- tempted ; and Aboo Soflan in person presented the keys to a. o Mohammed, and confessed him to be the prophet of the one 629 true God. The last great effort in the sinking cause of the idols was made in the valley of Honain, in the war called that of the Idols. A confederacy was formed, at the head of which stood the people of Tayef, a strong fortress, sixty miles south- east of Mecca : 4000 of the confederates occupied the valley of Honain ; 12,000 Moslems advanced with rash confidence, and were speedily thrown into confusion : the prophet was • surrounded, and only saved by the devotedness of ten of his disciples; his own voice, and that of his uncle Abbas, re- stored the battle. The idolaters were finally routed ; Tayef taken, and their temples destroyed. The whole of Arabia now acknowledged that " there was but one God, and that Mohammed was his prophet;" and a train of 114,000 True Believers attended his last pilgrimage to the Caabah. When the Moslem ambassador waited on Heraclius to invite him to the profession of Islam, a degree of amity en- sued between the emperor and the prophet. The murder of a Moslem envoy in the empire gave the Arabs the wished-for pretext for invading the country east of the Jordan. The command of 3000 men was intrusted to Zeid, and in case of his death to Jaaffer, and then to Abdallah. In the battle of Muta the three leaders fell gallantly fighting. Khaled re- stored the battle, and repulsed the Christians. At the head of 10,000 horse, and 20,000 foot, the prophet advanced towards Syria, in the hottest season of the year. Their suf- ferings were intolerable ; and when they reached the fountain of Tabook, midway between Mecca and Damascus, he de- 214 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. clared himself satisfied of the peaceful intentions of the em- peror; perhaps he dreaded the number and valor of the ^ u Roman troops. 630 In the 63d year of his age, Mohammed, afler beholding his religion spread over the Arabian peninsula, felt the approach of death: he comforted and instructed his friends and the people, manumitted his slaves, gave orders about his funeral, appointed Aboo Beker to pronounce public prayer m his place, and then calmly expired. The disconsolate Moslems would not believe him dead till their clamor was silenced by the 632. scimitar of Omar and the arguments of Aboo Beker. The First Khalifs. On the death of the prophet, it might have been expected that Ali, his cousin and earliest disciple, and who was mar- ried to his daughter Fa tema, would have been appointed Khalif, i. e. successor ; but Ayesha, the favorite wife of Mo- hammed, was his mortal enemy. Discord was on the point 632. of breaking out, when Omar proposed the election of the venerable Aboo Beker: he was accepted, and during two years governed with justice and impartiality. In his reign, the indefatigable lOialed continued his conquests in Syria, and from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean the khalif was obeyed. 634. The sceptre was bequeathed by the khalif to Omar, one of the oldest of the companions of the prophet. In the twelfth year of his reign, Omar perished by the dagger of an assas- shi. Ali still forbore putting forward his claims; and six electors, of whom he himself was one, chose Othman, the 644. secretary of the prophet. Othman was unequal to his high situation : old age had enfeebled his mental powers. The subjects became discon- tented. A large army assembled before Medina ; the khalif was forced to surrender, and he fell with the Koran in his lap. The brother of Ayesha headed the assassins. The public 655. choice now fell on Ali. Ali in old age displayed all the daring courage of his youth. Two powerful chiefs, Telha and Zobeir, erected the standard of revolt in Irak: they were joined by Ali's implacable enemy, Ayesha, and, mounted on her camel, she appeared in the thickest of the battle, encouraging the rebels, but in vain ; they were slain, and she was taken. The khalif reproached her, and then dismissed her to pass the remainder of her days at the tomh of the prophet. A more formidable enemy now appeared in Moawiyah, son of Aboo Sofian, and governor of Syria, who assumed the title of khalif, and gave himself out CHAP. II. .^lOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 215 as the avenger of Othman, whose bloody shirt he exposed in the mosch of Damascus. The cause of Moawiyah was em- braced by Amroo, the conqueror of Egypt. Ali took the field with an inferior force, and during 110 days a war was waged on the plain of Siffin, on the western bank of the Euphrates, to the advantage of Ali, till the superstition and disobedience of his troops forced him to yield to a treaty. Ali did not long survive. Three fanatics met in the temple of Mecca, and agreed to murder Ali, Moawiyah, and Amroo, as the only means of restoring peace to the church and state. Each chose his victim : he alone succeeded who selected Ali, who fell by his dagger in the mosch of Cufa, in the 63d year of his age. Moawiyah was now acknowledged khalif, and the seat of era- a d pire transferred to Damascus. 6i<). The virtues of the first four khalifs are acknowledged ; but, by a large portion of the Mohammedan church, the first three are looked on and cursed as usurpers. Those that hold this opinion are denominated Sheeahs, and it is an article of their faith, that Ali is the vicar of God. This is the estab- lished religion of Persia. The Soonees, or orthodox, to whom the Turks belong, regard all the four as rightful successors of the prophet, but they assign the lowest degree of sanctity to Ali. It is almost needless to add, that the hatred of the rival sects is most cordial and intense. Conquest of Syria. During the reign of the first four khalifs, Syria, Persia, and Egypt were conquered by their lieutenants, and the law of the Prophet embraced, -or tribute yielded, by the inhabit-* ants. On the accession of Aboo Beker, he dispatched an army, 632 under the command of Aboo Obeidah, for the conquest of Syria. The first object of their attack was the fo'rtress of Bozra, eastward of the Jordan. The false confidence of the people, and the treachery of the governor, delivered it into the hands of the Moslems. Damascus was distant but fijur days' journey ; its siege was undertaken ; but intelligence of the approach of a large army to its relief, induced the Mo- hammedan chiefs to suspend their operations till they had encountered the imperial forces. All the forces scattered on the borders of Syria and Palestine were summoned to the standard of the faith. On the plains of Aiznadin, the troops of the khalif, 45,000 633. in number, and guided by Khaled, Amroo, and their most dis- tinguished leaders, encountered the Christian host of 70,000 men. Liberal offers of peace were made by the Greeks, and 216 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART n. disdained by the Arabs. The conflict began ; it continued throughout the day with doubtful succe.ss; in the evening, Klialed made a furious onset, and victory declared for the Moslem arms : the field was covered with the bodies of the Christians, and inestimable booty rewarded the victors. Da- mascus was again invested. Animated by their brave gov- ernor, Thomas, a nobleman allied to the emperor, the garrison and citizens offered a gallant resistance ; till after experienc- ing the inutility of all the efforts of valor, they capitulated to the mild and upright Aboo Obeidah, on condition of those who chose being permitted to depart with as much as they could I \ carry of their effects, and those who stayed being allowed to 6 retain their lands, houses, and seven churches tributary to the khalifs. A large number departed. Urged by the im- portunity of a Syrian renegade, whose mistress was among the fugitives, Khaled pursued them with 4000 horse. The ill-fated Damascenes were overtaken ; not a soul, save one, escaped the Arabian scimitar ; but the traitor to his country and his faith perished by the dagger of his indignant mistress at the moment he attempted to embrace her. 63^ The following year saw Heliopolis, or Baalbek, the capital of the rich valley of Hollow Syria, and Hems, or Emessa, the chief city of the plain, in the hands of the khalifs lieuten- ants. 636 The banks of the Yermuk, a stream that flows from Mount Hermon into the lake of Tiberias, was the scene of the last g-reat battle for the possession of Syria. Eighty thousand of the imperial troops stood with 60,000 Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan against the MoslenTs. It was the most doubt- ful day the faithful had yet seen ; but the Sword of God (so Khaled was styled) was victorious. Countless was the loss of the Christians; 4030 Moslems lay on the plain. After a month spent at Damascus, to recruit their vigor and divide the spoil, the impatient host marched to invest the sacred walls of .lerusalem. The siege lasted four months ; a surrender was then offered to the khalif in person. The sanctity of the place moved Omar, and he undertook the jour- ney from Medina through the waste. The holy city received the khalif, and on the site of the temple he laid the founda- 637 tion of the mosch named from himself. 638 Aleppo and Antioch, the only remaining places of strength, submitted to the victorious arms of the Arabs, and all Syria obeyed the successor of the prophet. Heraclius abandoned that portion of his dominions in despair, and the ravages of the Moslems extended to within view of Constantinople. 19 217 CHAP. II. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS 219 Conquest of Persia. In the first year of Aboo Baker, Khaled appeared on the Q2i banks of the Euphrates. In the same year with the conquest of Syria, 30,000 Moslems engaged the numerous host of Yez- 638. dejird III., the youthful grandson of Khosroo, on the plains of Cadesia, on the edge of the desert, 61 leagues from the future Bagdad. The troops of Persia were commanded by Roostem, a namesake of the national hero; the Direfsh-e- Kawanee, or Apron of Kawah, the banner of the empire, blazed in their front. On the fourth day of the battle, the flying Roostem was overtaken and slain, and the jewel-set Direfsh-e-Kawanee was captured. All Irak, the ancient As- syria, submitted, and the city of Bassora was founded, to com- mand the trade of Persia. In the third month after the battle, the Tigris was passed ; Madain or Ctesiphon, the capital of the empire, was taken by assault, and immense plunder enriched the faithful. Yez- dejird had fled to Holwan, at the foot of the hills of Media. The loss of the fortress of Jalooia made him fly to the moun- tains of Farsistan, the country of Cyrus. At Nahavend, to the south of Hamadan, 150,000 Persians made a final effort for their country and their religion. The appellation. Victory of victories, bestowed on this battle by the Arabs, proves the fatal result. All the cities and towns of Persia submitted to the conquerors. Their banners approached the Caspian and the Oxus. Yezdejird had fled to Chorasan, and taken refuge in Merv. The governor of that city invited the khakan of the Turks to take possession, of his person. The Turks en- tered, and made themselves masters of Merv. Yezdejird es- caped during the confusion, and sought shelter with a miller, who murdered him while he slept, for the sake of his jrich 651. arms and robes. Conquest of Egypt. The year in which the conquest of Syria was completed 638 \hat of Egypt commenced. Amroo marched from Gaza with 4000 Arabs. After a siege of thirty days, Pelusium surren- dered, Memphis held out seven months against the Saracen army, now double its original number. It was taken by as- sault. The city of Cairo rose on the spot where the Arabs had encamped. Religious enmity facilitated the conquest of the country. The Egyptians hated the creed and the government of the emperors. A treaty was entered into between Amroo and Mokawkas, a noble Egyptian. It was agreed tliat, for a mod^ 220 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II erate t,ribute, the Christian inhabitants should be left in the full enjoyment of their religion and their property. The whole nation fell off from the Greeks, and every assistance was rendered to the Arabs. The city of Alexandria remained to be conquered; an achievement, perhaps, surpassing in difficulty any the Arabs had yet attempted. Its inhabitants were numerous and resolute, its supplies abundant, the sea was open, affording a facility of relief. The Saracens strained every nerve ; the tribes of the desert crowded to the standard A. D. of Amroo ; the Egyptians labored strenuously, and, at the 639 end of fourteen months and the loss of 23,000 men, the Mos- lems saw themselves masters of the capital of Egypt. The khalif rigidly forbade pillage ; a tribute was imposed on the inhabitants. The truth of the destruction of the library of the Ptolemies has been questioned. The loss of Alexandria hastened the death of Heraclius. In the space of four years two fruitless attempts were made to recover it. Invasion of Africa. 647. Under the reign of Othman the conquest of Africa was attempted by the Moslem arms, led by Abdallah, the foster- brother of the khalif At the head of 40,000 men, he ad- vanced from Egypt into the west. After a toilsome march they appeared before the walls of Tripoli ; but tlie approa ch of the prefect Gregory, with a numerous army, called the Saracens from the siege to the field. For several days the two armies encountered from morning till noon. The daugh- ter of Gregory fought by his side, and her hand and 100,000 pieces of gold were offered to the warrior who should bring the head of the Arab general. Zobeir, who afterwards fell in rebellion against the khalif Ali, joined his brethren : his stratagem defeated the army of Gregory, who fell by his hand. The town of Sufatula, 150 miles south of Carthage, was taken. The country on all sides implored the clemency of the conqueror ; but his losses and the appearance of an epidemic disease prevented a settlement being formed, and after a campaign of fifteen months, the Saracen army re-en- tered Egypt with their captives and their booty. From the battle of Beder till the death of Ali, a period elapsed of 37 years, during which the arms of the Arabs had penetrated from the heart of Arabia to the banks of the Oxus and Indus, and the shores of the Euxine and Caspian. The Nile ro led within their dominions ; Africa, Cyprus, and Rhodes, had 3een visited and plundered by their victorious warriors. CHAP. li. MOHAMMED AND THE FIRST KHALIFS. 221 The Ommiyades, When Ali was murdered, his rights passed to his son Has- san, who was induced by Moawiyah to abandon his claim and retire to Medina. The khalifat was now established in the house of Ommiyah, in which it continued during seventy years through fourteen khalifs, and extended its sway from the Pyrenees and the Atlantic to the borders of Turkestan and India, the largest empire and most powerful monarchs of the globe. This dynasty derived its appellation from Ommi- yah, one of the chiefs of the Koreish : Aboo Sofian, his de- scendant, long resisted the prophet; his son, Moawiyah, be- came his secretary, and Omar made him governor of Syria. The first Ommiyah Khalif was a man of courage, though he declined the proposal of the chivalrous Ali, who offered to decide their dispute by single combat : his son Yezid, and his successors, were princes of little merit, and never partook m the toils and glories of war. Conquest of Africa, Oppressed by the exactions of the court of Byzantium, the people of Africa invoked the aid of the Arabs. The lieuten- ant of Moawiyah entered Africa, defeated an imperial army of 30,000 men, and returned laden with booty. Akbeh, a valiant warrior, marched from Damascus with 10,000 Arabs ; his army was joined by numerous African auxiliarits; victory led him to the shor^ of the Atlantic, and he founded the city of Cairoan, fifty miles south of Tunis, to secure his con- quests. But Akbeh fell in battle against the revolted Greeks and Africans. His successor, Zuheir, shared his fate. The final conquest was reserved for Hassan, governor of Egypt, who took and destroyed Carthage, and subdued the Berbers 4. n. of the desert. Musa, his successor, bix>ke their power ef- VO'J fectually when they rose in rebellion. Conquest of Spain, The Gothic monarchy in Spain was now utterly enfeebled Having no foreign foes, military discipline had been neglect- ed, and luxury had quite altered the descendants of Theo- deric. Rod eric, a nobleman, had, on the death of Witiza, ascended his throne, to the exclusion of the two sons of thai monarch: their uncle, Oppas, was archbishop of Toledo; Count Julian, a partisan, was governor of Ceuta and Andalu- sia ; the malcontents were numerous. It is added, that Rod- eric had given farther offence by violating Cava, the daughte* of Julian. 19* 222 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. ^ ^ T. Julian had repulsed Musa from the wall? /r / »- ita, but soon after he entered into correspondence «• -tr ,^e Arab K. D. chief, and offered to give him entrance into Sy .^. The per- "•l^ mission of the khalif, Walid, was obtained. A small body of troops, commanded by Tarif, passed over and advanced to the castle of Julian, at Algeziras, where they were hospita- 711- bly entertained and joined by the Christians. The. folio wing" spring 5(X)0 Moslems, under the command of Tarik, passed over and landed at Gibraltar, named from their chief. They defeated the Gothic commander sent against them. Roderic collected an army of near 100,000 men ; the Saracens were augmented to 12,000, besides their Spanish and African aux- iliaries. On the banks of the Guadaleta, near the town of Xeres, the battle was fought which decided the fate of the (lothic monarchy. Three days were occupied in bloody but undecisive skirmishing, the fourth was the day of general conflict. The Saracens were yielding to multitudes; Tarik still animated his men, when Oppas and the sons of Witiza, who occupied the most important post in the army of the Goths, passed over to the enemy, and turned the fortime of the field. The flight and pursuit lasted three days. Roderic fled on tlie back of his swiftest horse, but escaped the battle only to be drowned in the waters of the Guadalquivir. The whole country submitted without resistance to the victorious Tarik. Toledo, the Gothic capital, opened her gates, stipulatino- only for freedom of religion and internal government. Witliin almost as short a time as a traveller could traverse Spain, the general of Musa beheld the bay of Biscay. Envious of the fame of Tarik, Musa hastened his passage to Spain at the head of 18,000 men : the cities of Seville and Merida resisted ; and the defence of the latter was obstinate, and only subdued by famine. The Tarrago- nese province was speedily overrun by Tarik, and the Goths were pursued into their Gallic province of Septimania. A valiant remnant of the Goths maintained their independence U4. in the rugged mountains of Asturia. All the rest of Spain obeyed the successors of the prophet. At the same time that the khalif Walid received intelli- gence of the conquest of Spain, messengers from the East arrived to announce the first successes of the Mussulman arms in India. Invasion of France by the Arabs. 668 The Arabs of the East had twice besieged Constantinople* 62 and Sicily of the works of art, which he collected in Syracuse, and embarked for Constantinople ; but the ships which car- ried them were taken by the Saracens and brought to Alex- andria. Their precious freight was dispersed and lost. Con- 668. stans was murdered, after a six years' residence in Sicily. In the reign ^f his son Constantine IV. Africa was lost, and 68.^. Constantinople besieged. Justinian II. succeeded, was ex- pelled, returned, and exercised "the most savage cruelty. Pnilippicus Bardanes avenged humanity on the tyrant ; but 711 was himself dethroned and blinded. Anastatius followed 713 The army raised a native of Adramyttium to the throno, bf CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROONERRASHEED. 227 cause his name was Theodosius : he laid down his dignity as a. d. soon as he safely could ; and Leo, an Isaurian, a brave man, 717. was placed on the throne of Constantinople, which he gal- lantly defended two years against the arms of the khalifs. Germany. Germany received during this period the first beams of the beneficent light of the Gospel. An Englishman, named Win- fred, went through the country preaching the faith, and drawing the people from the worship of idols : he collected them into towns, where afterwards cities rose. The pope Gregory II. beholding his zeal, bestowed on Winfred, now called Boniface, the dignity of a bishop, and the office of legate. Mentz became the see of this first bishop, whence, as the sword of Charles Martel smote the rude tribes of Ger- many, the bishops in\^ted them to receive the religion of Rome, and the more polished manners of the Franks. The sword and the Gospel went together in Germany, as the sword and the Koran in Asia. Monasteries, those asylums of peace, amidst the storms of the middle ages, were founded in Germany by the labors of Boniface. England. In the pontificate of Gregory the Great, the Gospel was preached to the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine and his com- panions, sent by the zealous pontiff" from Rome with that de- sign. Their first efforts were in the kingdom of Kent, whose king, Ethelbert, was married to a Christian princess of the house of Meroveus. The king and his nobles embraced the new faith, which was gradually extended to the other king- doms into which the Anglo-Saxons had partitioned the island. It is a remarkable feature in the character and piety of the Anglo-Saxon princes, that continually the world was edified by the sight of one of them quitting his throne, and all the pomps and cares of royalty, and retiring to pass the evening of his days in the shade of a monastery, or in the holy citv r>f the supreme pontiff!^ CHAP. III. THE TIMES OF CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. Italy. Amono other practices of the ancient heathenism which nad gradually crept into the church of Christ, was that of the worship of images. When Leo, the Isaurian, mounted the 228 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PiART II. imperial throne, either guided by reason, or by early preju- dices, he warmly espoused the side of the Iconoclasts, image- breajcers, who opposed their worship, and a council assembled at Constantinople pronounced it to be heretical. When the im- ^ 0, perial edict arrived in Italy, obedience to it was refused ; and, 728. at the exhortation of Pope Gregory 11. , all Italy, save Naples, rose in arms to oppose the profane emperor : his troops were massacred when they landed in that country ; and the pope, in the plenitude of his power, was about to direct the election of a new emperor. The authority of the Byzantine emperors in Rome was little more than nominal : the city had nearly returned to its republican form ; the bishop was considered as the first magistrate ; and thus the temporal power of the popes was founded on the best of grounds, the free choice of the people. A series of able, enterprising, and dignified pontiffs, the three Gregories, Zachary, Stephen, Paul, firmly established this sacerdotal dominion. Liitprand, king of the Lombards, took Ravenna, and men- aced Rome. This prince aimed at uniting all Italy under one sovereign ; but the policy of the popes, and the resistance of the princes and states, prevented the execution of his designs. 744. The iron crown passed, after the death of his nephew and successor Hildebrand, to Rachis duke of Friuli, who shortly after, with his wife and daughter, abandoned the cares of 749. royalty, and retired to the monastery of Monte Casino. The choice of the nation fell on his brother Astolfo (Aistulf). This prince made the final conquest of the exarchate of Ravenna, and summoned Rome to acknowledge his sovereignty. The pride of Rome and the pope disdained submission ; but their strength was unequal to the conflict : they turned their eyes for aid beyond the Alps ; and Stephen III. in person crossed those mountains to implore the compassion of the pious Franks, and of Pepin, the illustrious son of Charles Martel. He im- plored not in vain : an army, led by Pepin in person, entered Italy, and Astolfo swore to respect the possessions of the church ; but hardly was Pepin gone, when the Lombard forgot his vow. Pepin was again called on, and Astolfo was again 766. reduced to submission. Astolfo was succeeded by Desiderius, duke of Tuscany. Falling into a dispute about their frontiers with pope Hadrian XL, the latter called on his powerfull ally, Charlemagne, son of Pepin : the passes of the Alps were betrayed, the vassals fell off, the Lombard king was shut up in Pavia, his capital, his valiant son Adelgis vainly implored, in person, aid at By- 774 zantium. After a siege of two years, treachery gave Pavia 20 229 CHAIMll. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 231 to the French, and Lombardy became a part of the empire of a. d the son of Pepin. A grateful pope (Leo) crowned the French 800 monarch emperoi of the West. Rome did homage to his power: the duke of Benevento, whose duchy embraced the modern kingdom of Naples, acknowledged himself his vassal ; the Venetians, who, since the days of Attila, had dwelt in their isles and lagunes, revered his authority. The Lombards retained their laws and usages; each person and each district of Italy was governed by local or adopted laws. The great cities were governed by dukes, aided by a ' council of bishops, abbots, counts, knights, and gentlemen. The pope exercised at Rome the power possessed by the dukes in the other cities. He was chosen by the clergy and people, and the choice confirmed by the emperor. Empire of Charlemagne. On the death of Charles Martel the kingdom of the Franks was thrown into some confusion. The German provinces armed in favor of his son Grypho, against his brothers Carlo- man and Pepin. The latter were victorious in the contest, and an end was put to the duchy of Allemannia. Chilperic occupied the seat of Clovis ; the power of the monarchy was wielded by Pepin. Pope Zachary pronounced that it was lawful for the title to follow the power ; and at Soissons, where, 266 years before, the empire of the Franks had been founded by Clovis, his last descendant was formally deposed in an assembly of the nation, and sent to end his days in a l!)i. convent, and Pepin crowned in his place. The new monarch quickly destroyed his brother Carloman, and humbled the great. His chief exploits were against the Lombards in de- 768. fence of the popes. At his death he divided his dominions be- tween his sons Charles and Carloman. The latter lived but three years, -and suspicion of having hastened his end fell upon his brother. 771 Charles, afterwards called Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, early in his reign overturned the kingdom of the Lom- bards. During thirty years he carried on an obstinate war against the Saxons, on whom he sought to impose his yoke and Christianity. Headed by Wittikind, a second Arminius, the gallant nation resisted with vigor and oerseverance. Gott- fried, king of Denmark, aided and gave refuge to them ; but the Obotrites of Mecklenburg joined the Franks, and Witti- kind and his people were at last forced to receive the religion and the law of Charlemagne. Several abandoned their coun- try and took refuge in Denmark, whence their descendants united with the Northmen issued, and avenged the blood of 232 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U their fathers on the descendants of their oppressors. In Spain Charles appeared as the ally of the emir of Zaragoza, and es- tablished the Spanish March, extending from the Ebro to the Pyrenees. Barcelona was the residence of the French gov- ernor. In Germany, he extended the French dominion to the Elbe, and added the kingdom of Bohemia to the Germanic body. A conflict of eight year's against the Avars of Pan- nonia gave him the possession of that country. His empire thus extended from the Ebro to the Elbe, from the ocean to the Vistula, and the Teyss and Save. The duke of Bene- vento acknowledged his supremacy; the king of England was his friend ; the Christian princes of Spain regarded him as a patron. Haroon-er-Rasheed honored him by gifts as an equal. Master of two-thirds of the Western Roman empire, he was crowned emperor of the Romans by Leo, on the fes- tival of Christmas, A. D. 800, in the sacred temple of St. Peter. His dynasty, called the Carlovingian, from Charles Martel, formed the second in France. After a long and vic- ^, D, torious reign he left his empire, which he had widely ex- 814. tended, and to which he had given a code of laws, to his son Louis the Debonair. Feudal System. As France was the chief seat of this celebrated system, the present period seems not unsuitable for giving a slight view of it. The Franks, like the Burgundians, Lombards, and others of the barbarous nations, carried their original Germanic ideas with them into the countries they conquered. The land was divided into a number of districts, over each of which was a count to administer justice and collect the revenue in peace, to lead the military contingent in war.. Several of these counties were under a duke. These offices were ori- ginally precarious, but gradually became hereditary in fami- lies, and the foundation of power and independence. At the conquest, the lands which had been seized were distributed into portions, according to the rank of the occu- pant. That of the king was considerable, and those of the principal officers proportionably large. These lands were allodial, held in propriety on the sole condition of serving in the defence of the country. The owner of three mansi* was obliged to serve m person ; where there were three possessors of single mansi, one served, the others contributed ^c equip * A manaus contained twelve jugera of Ian I. Ducange. CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGIVE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 233 him. All served at their own expense, and the period of ser- vice was limited. Of the Romans, or original inhabitants, some retained their lands in propriety ; others farmed those of the Franks. They were governed by their own laws. But the Franks stood higher in the eye of the law, and the Weregild, or composi- tion for homicide, was always much greater in the case of a Frank than of a Roman. The demesne lands of the crown were very extensive. They were the private estate of the sovereign, whence he was to support his dignity. Portions of these lands were frequently granted by the kings to favorites, under the name of benefices, under the usual condition of military service, which service appears to have differed from that of the allo- dial proprietors in this, that that of the latter was rather na- tional, that of the former rather due to the monarch person- ally. These benefices were granted for life, and then re- turned to the crown; but the son of the beneficiary was gen- erally continued in his benefice, and under the feeble Mero- vingians the benefices mostly became hereditary. The hold- ers of hereditary benefices now began to bestow portions of their benefices on others to hold of themselves, under a simi- lar tenure of military service. This practice, called sub-in- fcudation, spread greatly after the death of Charlemagne, and we have here the germ of the whole feudal system, with its burdens and obligations. The dukes, counts, and marquisses, or margraves, who guarded the marches or frontiers, gradually encroached on the royal dignity. They made their dignities hereditary; they sought to appropriate to themselves the crown lands within their jurisdiction ; they oppressed the free proprietors. These last were hitherto the strength of the state, and shared in the legislature, owing no duty but military service against the public enemy. They now were exposed without protec- tion to the tyranny of the count or duke. The protection of a powerful man was the only security ; the allodial lands were surrendered and received back as feudal; their owner ac- knowledged himself the vassal of a suzerain, and took on him the feudal obligations. These obligations were mutual, as those between patrons and clients at Rome : the vassal was bound to follow his lord to war during a limited period, usually forty days, and that even against a superior lord or the king ; he was not to di- vulge his lord's counsel, to injure his person or fortune, or the honor of his family. In battle he was to give his horse to liis lord if dismounted, to give himself as a hostage for him if 20* 234 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART IT. taken ; he was to attend his lord's courts as a witness or a judge. He was to pay a fine on receiving", and another on alienating his fief; and he was to pay an aid to redeem his lord from captivity, to enable his lord to pay his own fine to his superior lord, on taking possession of his fief, &c. The %ids varied in number in different places, and these obliga- tions mostly grew up gradually, as the power of the lords enabled them to encroach. On the part of the lord, the prin- cipal obligation was that of protection. The church, though rich in lands, and hallowed by super- stition, did not escape the universal outrage and spoliation. Though the clergy were often martial, they could not meet the feudal lords on equal terms. The rich abbeys, therefore, usually adopted the practice of choosing an advocate in the person of some neighboring lord, on whom they bestowed sun- dry privileges, and generally some good fief; and who was, in consequence, bound to defend the interest of his clients in courts of law, and in the field of battle. The feudal system did not arrive at full maturity during the time of the Carlovingians, and we have here somewhat anticipated. It was confined to the dominions of Charle- magne, and to countries which, like England, borrowed it from them. England. Nothing remarkable happened in England during this pe- 4, D. riod, except the union of all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, un- 827. der the sceptre of Egbert, king of Wessex. The Vikingar, or pirates of Scandinavia, now began to send forth those large fleets which were soon to spread devastation on the coasts of Europe, and Charlemagne shed tears at the sight of the first of them that appeared in the Mediterranean. Constantinople. Superstition, ignorance, and. feebleness increased in the 742. eastern empire. Leo the Isaurian was succeeded by his son Constantine V., who carried on the war against the images with apparent rather than real success. The short reign of Leo IV. was terminated by poison, as was supposed ; and his widow, Irene, who governed under the name of her infant 780 son Constantine VI., gave a final triumph to the monks by solemnly establishing the worship of the images. This monk- lauded empress stained her hands with the blood of her own son, and then contrived to reign alone, the first sole regnant ^02. empress; but she lost her throne to the daring courage of Nicephorus. This emperor set himself resolutely but vainly Wallenstein. 235 CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON ERR ISHEED. 237 against the image worship ; the evil had come to too great a head. His son and son-in-law possessed the throne but three a i years. A soldier, Leo Bardanes, next ascended the throne ; 81S but court intrigues and monkish arts impeded his judicious policy. His successor, Michael of Amorium, was feeble and unfortunate. The external enemies of the empire during this period were the Arabs under the Abbasside khalifs, who ravaged Lesser Asia, and the Bulgarians, a Slavonian tribe, who ad- vanced southwards towards the Adriatic, where they subse- quently occupied Dalmatia. They were now on the southern bank of the Danube, in the country named from them. The emperor Nicephorus lost his life in a battle with this nation. 810 The Abbasside Khalifs. The house of Ommiyah failed in gaining the affections of its subjects. The family of the prophet was esteemed best entitled to his throne and pulpit. Of the line of Hashem, the Fatemites, or descendants of Ali by Fatema, the daughter of the prophet, had the prior claim ; but they were wanting in 746 courage or talent. The Abbassides, the family of the proph- et's uncle. Abbas, were numerous, prudent, and united : their partisans were chiefly in Persia, where Aboo Moslem, their chief support, first gave them dominion by the conquest of Khorassan. Persia was from east to west a perpetual scene of conflict between the rival parties of the white and the blacky as they were styled, from the colors of their ensigns. The Ommiyades unfurled the white banner of the prophet ; their rivals displayed the opposite hue. Ibrahim, the chief of the house of Abbas, was waylaid on his pilgrimage to Mecca by the troops of Damascus, and he expired in the dungeons of Haran : his brothers, Saffah and Almansor, escaped to Cufa. Saffah was there proclaimed khalif Mervan II., the Ommi- yade khalif, collected a large army, and met the host of Saflah on the banks of the Zab. The Abbasside troops were least in number ; but fortune favored them. Mervan fled to Egypt ; and in another engagement at Busir, on the banks of the Nile, he lost both life and empire. 750 The unfortunate race of Ommiyah was now sought out and slaughtered. One youth alone, Abd-er-rahman, escaped the perquisitions of the Abbassides, and he fled to Africa. He was invited over to Spain by the friends and servants of his house. The governor, Yussuf, was forced to yield to his arms; 755. and from the city of Cordova the sceptre of the Ommiyades ruled during 283 years over the eight provinces into which Spain was divided. 238 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U. After a short reign, Saflah was succeeded by his brother Almansor. The royal residence had at first been Medina : Ali transferred it to Cufa ; and Moawiyah to Damascus. Per- sia was the chief seat of the Abbasside power ; and Ahnansor A. D. laid, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, the foundations of 762. Bagdad, the royal seat of his posterity for five hundred years. The arms of Almansor were successful against the nomades of Toorkistan ; but his expedition against the Ommiyade khalif of Spain encountered only disgrace and defeat. The Greeks had taken advantage of the civil dissensions of the Moslems to recover a portion of their dominions. Mo- hadi, the successor of Almansor, retaliated during the reign of Irene and her son. Haroon, his second son, at the head of 95,000 Persians and Arabs, invaded Lesser Asia ; and from the heights of Scutari, within view of the imperial city, die- ' tated the terms of an ignominious peace. 781. Five years after this war, Haroon-er-Rasheed, or the Justf ascended the throne of his father and his elder brother. Du- ring a reign of twenty-three years, this active prince eight times invaded the Grecian territories. In vain the emperor Nicephorus sent haughty defiances and denials of tribute ; in vain he assembled large armies : his troops fled in dismay before the disciplined bands of the commander of the faithful ; and the Byzantine gold was annually poured into the treasury of Bagdad. The memory of Haroon is renowned alike in both the East and West, as the hero of history and tale ; but it is indelibly stained by the slaughter of the princely and guiltless Barmecides. 804. On his death his throne was disputed by his three sons; and, in the civil conflict, Al-Mamoon, the son of the filthy ' slave of the kitchen, triumphed over the issue of the haughty Zobeide. The memory of this prince is dear to literature and science, of which he was the zealous patron; and his peaceful acquisitions eclipse the martial deeds of his father. Under the first khalifs and the house of Ommiyah, no literature was attended to but the Koran and their native po- etry. Almansor began to encourage the acquisition of foreign literature : it was also patronized by Haroon ; but Al-Mamoon far outstripped all his predecessors in its cultivation. At his command, his agents and his ambassadors collected the best works of Grecian science, and his translators gave them an Arabic dress. The astronomy of Ptolemy, the medicine of Galen, the metaphysics of Aristotle, were read and commented on in the language of Arabia. The Ommiyade khalifs of Cordova, the Fatemites of Africa, vied with those of Bagdad- in the collecting of boqks, and the encouragement of science ; CHAP. III. CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROON-ER-RASHEED. 23,9 and from the schools established by them proceeded chiefly the medicine, physics, and metaphysics of Europe during the middle ages. But the poets, the orators, and the historians of the Grecian republics, never learned to speak the language of Mohammedan despotism. ^ u In the reign of Al-Mamoon, Crete and Sicily were con- 82?' quered by the Moslems. A piratical fleet of ten or twenty galleys from Andalusia entered Alexandria at the solicitation of a rebellious faction. They spared neither friends nor foes ; they pillaged the city, and it required the forces and the pres- ence of the khalif Al-Mamoon to expel them. They ravaged the islands to the Hellespont. The fertility and riches of Crete attracted them : they invaded it with forty galleys. They entered and pillaged the country ; but as they returned to their vessels, they found them in flames by the orders of their chief, who exhorted them to seize and keep the fertile land. They obeyed from necessity, the island subrnitted, and for 138 years their depredations harassed the eastern em- pire. A youth had stolen a nun from a cloister in Sicily. He was 827 sentenced to the loss of his tongue. He fled to Africa, and exhorted the Arabs to invade his country. They landed, in number, 700 horse, and 10,000 foot. They were repulsed be- fore the walls of Syracuse, and reduced to great straits, when they received a reinforcement from Spain. The western part of the island was quickly reduced, and Palermo became the Saracenic capital. Fifty years elapsed before Syracuse sub- 878. mitted, after a siege worthy of her old renown. The Gre- cian language and religion were eradicated throughout the island. From the ports of Sicily and Africa the Mohamme- dan fleets issued to ravage and pillage the cities and prov- inces of Italy. While the Arabs were engaged in the conquest of Sicily, 84C one of their fleets entered the Tiber, and the Moslems plun- dered the temples of St. Peter and St. Paul. Fortunately for the Romans, their pope died, and Leo IV., a man of the old Roman spirit, was chosen to succeed. By his care the city was fortified, and an alliance formed with Gaieta, Na- ples, and Salerno. Soon after, a large fleet of Saracens came from Africa, and cast anchor before the Tiber. The allies of 849. the pope soon appeared ; the engagement commenced, and a tempest finally decided it in favor of the Christians. The Saracen fleet was utterly destroyed, and those who escaped to shore were slaughtered, or reduced to slavery. 240 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES OF THE EAST AND WEST. Empire of Charlemagne. 814.* Charlemagne was succeeded in his dominions by his son Louis the Debonair, or good-natured. His eldest son, Pepin, had died before him, leaving- an illegitimate son, Bernard, who retained the kingdom of Italy, which his father had held. Re- 817. belling against his uncle, he was sentenced to the loss of his eyes, which caused his death. Louis associated his eldest son, Lothaire, in the empire, and conferred Bavaria and Aqui- taine on liis two other sons ; but having had a son, Charles, by his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he was naturally anxious to provide for him also. This could only be done at the ex- pense of Lothaire and his brothers. They rose in rebellion, and deposed their father : their discord caused his restoration. 840. At his death, all his sons were in arms against each other. A bloody battle at Fontenoy, in Auxerre, forced them to come to an agreement, and the empire was, by the treaty of Ver- dun, divided among them. 843. In this partition, Lothaire got Italy, Provence, and the country running along the Rhine, afterwards called Lorraine. Louis had all the German dominions eastward of the territo- ries of Lotha,ire ; and Charles, surnamed the Bald, had France. Pepin, their nephew, had Aquitaine, which his father had held : of this he was afterwards robbed by his uncle Charles. 855. Lothaire, filled with remorse for his rebellions against his father, retired to a convent. His three sons took arms to di- 859. vide their inheritance. By the treaty of Orbe (in the Vaudois,) Louis got the crown of the Csesars, Italy, and Rhastia ; Lo- thaire II., Burgundy, Alsatia, and Lorraine ; Charles had Provence. 868. Lothaire II. dying the victim of a lawless amour, without legitimate issue, his two uncles made a treaty of partition of his dominions, which was finally decided in favor of the king 879. of Germany. Lothaire II. had already divided with his 863. brother, Louis II., the dominions of Charles of Provence, who 875. had died without heirs ; and on the death of Louis 11. Rhsetia came to the king of Germany ; but his younger brother, the king of France, contrived to make himself master of Italy and the imperial crown. g7g The two brothers soon died. Louis the Stammerer suc- ceeded his father, Charles the Bald ; but followed him to the tomb within half a year after his accession. The legitimacy 21 241 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 243 of his children was doubted ; and in a council of Burg-undiari bishops, held at Geneva, the sovereignty of that country was offered to Boson, who was married to Imogene, daughter of a. n, Louis IL, and he was crowned king of Burgundy by the 879. archbishop at Lyons. Charles the Fat, the son of Louis of Germany, united Italy 880 to his German dominions ; and on the death of the elder sons of Louis the Stammerer, and the minority of their brother Charles the Simple, he was made king of France, and Boson received his kingdom of him as a fief The empire was now once more under one head ; but Charles becoming deranged, he was deposed, and the unity of the empire of tlie Franks 888. dissolved for ever. The German dominions of Charles were taken possession of by Arnulf, the illegitimate son of his brother Carloman, a prince deeply imbued with the best spirit of the Carlovingi- ans; but he died, leaving a son of only seven years. Eudes, count of Paris, which he had gallantly defended against the Normans, was chosen king of France ; but on his death it came to the rightful but incapable heir, Charles the Simple. After the death of Boson, two kings reigned in Burgundy; his son Louis, and Rodolph, son of the powerful Count Con- rad, and that kingdom was divided, never to be reunited. In Italy, Widen, duke of Spoleto, and Berenger, duke of Friuli, contended with each other for the restoration of the kingdom of the Lombards, and discord and turbulence agitated the whole country. Such was the internal state of the empire of Charlemagne at the close of the ninth century : externally it was harassed by the Arabs, the Hungarians, and the Northmen. The Hungarians. Beyond the Ural mountains a tribe of Turks, it is thought, had intermixed with the Finns, the original race of Northern Asia and Europe. Pressed on from the East by other tribes set in motion by war or want, they broke up their camps, and advanced towards the West. They forced their way through the Russian tribes, penetrated the passes of Mount Krapak, and spread themselves over Pannonia, their future country. They called and still call themselves' Majars : by the Euro- peans they were termed Turks and Hungarians. Their gov- ernment had been hitherto administered by a council of Voi- vodes, or hereditary chiefs ; they now chose a sovereign in the person of Almus, the father of Arpad. The empire of Charlemagne had extended to Transylva tiia. The king of the Moravians, who dwelt in western 244 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. Hungary, refused obedience to Arnulf, king of Germany, and even invaded his dominions. Unable to reduce him, i. D Arnulf invited the aid of the Hungarians, and the Moravian 340 prince was speedily humbled. Arnulf being succeeded by his infant son Louis IV., all restraint, which gratitude or fear had laid on the Hungarians, was removed. They rushed into and wasted Bavaria, overthrew the Christians at Augs- burg, swept over Swabia and Franconia, spread to the Baltic, and laid the city of Bremen in ashes. During a period of more than thirty years Germany paid tribute to these barr barians. The Hungarians passed the Rhine, and ravaged southern France to the Pyrenees. Italy attracted them : they encamp- ed on the Brenta ; but, dreading the strength of the country, they asked permission to retire. The king of Italy, Beren- ger, proudly refused, and the lives of 20,000 men were the penalty of his rashness. Pavia was soon in flames, and all Italy, to the point of Reggio, was ravaged. The Bulgarians, a Slavonic tribe, had been converted to Christianity, and they formed the north-western barrier of the eastern empire. Their resistance was overcome, and the rapid bands of the Hungarians were soon seen before the gates of Constantino- ple. By arts and presents they were induced to retire. The ravages of the Hungarians extended through a period of nearly half a century (889 — 934). The valor of the Saxon princes, Henry the Fowler and his son Otho the Great, at ength delivered Europe from them. The Northmen. Scandinavia had been originally peopled by the Finnic race. In very remote ages the Goths, whose primitive seat was, probably, the great central mountain-range of Asia, had penetrated thither, and expelled the less warlike Finns. We have already seen them recross the Baltic, and eventually establish themselves in Spain and Italy. Everj^where they appear as conquerors. In Scandinavia they were generally divided into small independent states : their land was poor * they had little agriculture and less trade to occupy them they loved war, were bold mariners, and early began to com- mit depredations on each other and on strangers. In this period, Gorm the Old in Denmark and Harold Fair- hair in Norway had reduced several of the independent chieftains of these countries, and established their respective monarchies. Several of the high-spirited reguli scorned to own as masters those whom they had regarded as equals ; they embarked in their ships, sought and colonized the dreary CflAP. IV DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 245 shores of Iceland or the Feroe, Shetland, and Orkney islands, whence they annually ravaged the coasts of their forsaken country. By these and by the younger sons of the Yarls (earls) of the north, piracy was gradually committed on a more extensive scale than hitherto : the coasts of England and France were now richer and more inviting, and annually the fleets of the Northmen spread desolation along them. Towards the time of Charlemagne their depredations on these countries had begun. The date of their appearance in England is the year 787, and shortly afterwards they rav- aged the coast of France. During the reign of Louis they were more frequent in their visits. The unsettled state of the country in the reign of Charles the Bald favoring them, they grew more bold, sailed up the navigable rivers, and plundered the interior. In 872 they pillaged Anglers ; in 888 they laid siege to Paris, which, but for the efforts of Gosselin, the bishop, and Eudes, the count of that city, would have been their prey. But the number and boldness of their invasions continually increasing, Charles the Simple was finally forced to cede to Rolf, or Rollo, one of their leaders, a. d the large province since called from them Normandy. This 918. was a wise measure, for Rolf and his subjects embraced the Christian religion, and guarded the kingdom from farther in- vasion. In England, where they were called Danes, they harassed the coasts in a similar manner, and gradually formed perma- nent settlements. Even the great Alfred was obliged to yield to them the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia, and at length they placed monarchs of their nation on the throne of England. But the Northmen also extended their name and their power eastwards. The coasts of the Baltic were among the scenes of their depredations ; and' the Russians, a Slavonian tribe, who had subdued the original natives of its eastern shores, admired and feared them. As allies they employed them in their wars against the tribes of the interior. These Varangians, as they were called, like their Anglo-Saxon 862. brethren, made themselves masters of the people that invited their aid, and Ruric, one of their chiefs, established a dynasty which endured for seven hundred years. The house of Ru- ric, at first depending on the arms of the Varangians for sup- port and safety, new adventurers continually flocked to them, and were rewarded by grants of lands and subjects; but when they felt themselves firmly seated, they found they eould dispense with these expensive auxiliaries, and Vladimir I. recommended to them the service of the Greek emperora, 21* 246 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II, as more profitable. They followed his advice, and from that period till the end of the empire, the Varangians were the faithful guards of the throne of the Byzantine Csesars. France. The power and authority of the Carlovingian princes con- tinually decreased. France was now divided among several dukes and counts, who, though acknowledging themselves vassals of the crown, exercised all the rights of independent sovereigns. Louis IV. and Lothaire, the successors of Charles the Simple, though of more energetic character, were unable to restore the royal dignity ; and on the death of Louis V., a feeble youth, though his uncle Charles duke of Lorraine was heir, Hugh Capet, son of Hugh duke of France, Orleans, and Burgundy, and descended from Eudes and Robert the Strong, who had defended Paris from the Northmen, had himself 1^. D. crowned king at Rheims, and when Charles -of Lorraine came 987. in arms to claim his right, he met with defeat and captivity. Thus, after a period of 235 years from the deposition of Chilperic (752) to the coronation of Hugh Capet (987), the Carlovingian, like the Merovingian dynasty, expired by its own feebleness. Would it not appear that great families, like fruit-trees, become with time effete, and incapable of pro- ducing the similitude of those powers to which they owed their original elevation 1 So little reason is there to be proud of a long line of noble ancestry ! Hugh, though king of France, was in reality only master of his own demesnes, and feudal superior of the great vassals of the crown. Even this superiority was not acknowledged south of the Loire, and in his own fiefs of Paris and Orleans, which by his accession were regarded as reunited to the crown, he and his successors were frequently defied and made war on by their refractory barons. He used the pre- caution of getting his son Robert crowned during his own lifetime, a plan which was followed by his two successors, Robert and Henry I. Under the reign of Philip L the monarchy was grown sufficiently strong to dispense with this custom. Germany — House of Saxony. On the death of Louis, son of Arnulf, the German branch of the Carlovingians was extinct. Charles the Simple, king of France, was doubtless of that race ; but the present situa- tion of Germany demanded a sovereign of more energetic character. The Germans were divided into five nations, Franks, Swabians, Bavarians, Saxons, Lorrainers. These 247 CHAP. rV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 24^ nations met to appoint a successor, and the choice of the as- ^. ^ sembly fell upon Conrad of Franconia, descended through 911 females from Charlemagne. Conrad did not long enjoy his dignity. Feeling the neces- sity there was for the sceptre being grasped by a vigorous hand, he sought not to perpetuate it in his own family ; but when dying, he recommended, instead of his brother, Henry duke of Saxony, also descended on the female side from Charlemagne, to the choice of the electors. Henry, surnamed the Fowler, was son of Otho, who had 91^ reduced Thuringia, and extended his dominion to the Elbe. This able and politic prince was at first obliged to continue the tribute to the Hungarians ; but he surrounded the hitherto open towns and villages with walls and ditches, obliged every tenth man in each district to reside in them, gave them privi- leges, and encouraged industry and arts of every kind: the courts of justice were held in them, and they were the de- positories of a third of the produce of the lands of the district. He established the march of Meissen against the Slaves, and erected bishoprics there for their conversion. Thus prepared, when the years of truce with the Hungarians were expired; he suffered them to come with arms to demand tribute ; and he rose from his bed of sickness to meet them, and drove 934 them out of his dominions with slaughter. On the death of Henry, the princes and people assembled 936. at Aachin, and elected his son Otho, deservedly styled the Great. It being a principle of the German empire, that an emperor should neither retain a fief nor add one to the domain, Otho bestowed Saxony on Herman, a brave warrior ; but he sought to indemnify himself by granting archbishoprics and dukedoms to his own family ; a policy that availed him but little, as they were frequently in rebellion against him. In the discord that pervaded Italy at this period, Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, son of Hugh of Provence, who had been king of Italy, invoked the aid of Otho against Berenger II., who had seized on the throne. Otho crossed the Alps, married Adelaide, and Berenger did homage to him for his kingdom. 952. Troubles afterwards breaking out in that country, Otho, at the call of Pope John XII., again descended from the Alps, deposed Berenger, and was crowned by the Lombards. The next year he visited Rome, and was there received and crowned as Charlemagne had been. But the pope, seeing the power of his ally, sought to raise up enemies against him. Otho sent ambassadors to complain, and at last came himself to Rome. The pope fled, and the people swore never to re- 963. ceive a pope without the consent of Otho and his successors. 250 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. Three days after, the emperor in an assembly of bishops and nobles, had John deposed, and Leo VIII. chosen in his place. The party of John was, however, stil] strong: the Romans rose against the Germans and their friends. Otho came a third time to Rome: an injured husband had slain John; famine forced the Romans to surrender ; and thus originated the right of the emperor to nominate the pope. During the reign of Otho I. the Hungarians, assisted by domestic faction, penetrated to the heart of Flanders. Al the forces of Germany and all the aids of superstition were arrayed against this dreadful enemy ; and the neighborhood ^ jj of Augsburg, which some years before had witnessed theii 955. triumph, now beheld the final ruin of the Hungarian might. 974. Otho II., son of Otho the Great, married Theophano, step- daughter of the Byzantine emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, who made over to him all the imperial rights and claims on Lower Italy. Otho was an able prince ; but he had many enemies to contend with, and sometimes endured the mortifi cation of defeat. 983. Otho III., educated by his mother Theophano, was a prince of amiable temper and cultivated mind. He loved to reside in Italy ; but the turbulence of the Romans gave him con- tinued uneasiness and occupation. During his minority they rebelled against him and the pope; but when he came of age he besieged and took the city. He treated it with se- verity, and hung the consul Crescentius, the leader of the popular party. i*J02. Otho dying without issue, his kinsman, Henry, duke of Bavaria, was elected to the vacant dignity. Henry II. was successful in his foreign wars. He passed less of his time in Italy than his predecessors had done. With him ended the 1024. Saxon line of emperors. Italy. The great vassals had in Italy succeeded in making them- selves independent. Of these the principal were the dukes of Benevento, Tuscany, and Spoleto, the marquises of Ivrea, Susa, and Friuli: the pope ruled the turbulent Romans: Apulia and Calabria were governed by the Catapan of the eastern emperors : the repul)lics of Amalfi and Naples ac- knowledged their supremacy ; and Salerno and Capua were under their own princes. When the Carlovingian princes had lost their power, the dukes of Spoleto and Friuli contended for, the kingdom ol Italy. Berenger of Friuli governed with the title of king, but amidst continual factions, for thirtv-'six years. His adver- CHAP. TV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 251 saries called in Rudolf II., kin^ of Burgundy. In a battle Berenger defeated him; but in the pursuit, Boniface of Spo- a. d leto, Rudolf's nephew, fell on him ; and Rudolf turning, Be- 923 renger was defeated, and soon after murdered. Rudolf was now made king of Italy, but did not long enjoy his crown. Hugh, count of Provence, who had driven the grandson of Boson out of the kingdom of Aries, laid claim to Italy ; and, supported by the clergy and the great, he forced Rudolf to 926. resign, and accept a part of the kingdom of Aries in exchange. Hugh reigned over and oppressed the nobles of Italy for six- teen years. Berenger II., of the house of Ivrea, succeeded, and was nearly as tyrannical ; and, as we have seen, the aid of Otho the Great was invoked against his oppression, and 945. the German monarchs became kings of Italy. The dukes of Spoleto and Tuscany generally directed the election of the popes. Virtue and piety were little considered in the candidates : political motives and female influence de- cided each election. The infamous Theodora and her daugh- ter Marozia disposed of the chair of St. Peter at their pleasure : mere boys were chosen : sons succeeded their fathers : scanda- lous vices disgraced the heads of the church ; and some suffered shameful deaths. Among the charges against John XII. were several which would disgrace the most licentious layman in the most barbarous age of history. The duchy of Benevento had been greatly diminished by the tbrmation of the states of Salerno and Capua ; and at this time the Normans established themselves at Aversa, a town given to them by the duke of Naples.. The Saracens possessed Sicily, and had settlements in Calabria. England. Egbert had united all England under one sceptre ; and, in- 828 ternal warfare being thus checked, the country might have advanced in civilization and the arts of peace ; but the Danes 832 now began to visit the coasts with large fleets, carrying havoc and desolation wherever they appeared. The reigns of his successors are chiefly marked by their struggles with these 87.1 formidable foes. When Alfred mounted the throne, they were masters of the greater part of England. This monarch, one of the ablest that ever adorned a diadem, spent a great part of his reign in doubtful conflict with them, which ended by the Danes embracing Christianity, and Alfred ceding to them Northumbria and East Anglia. Peace being restored, the wise king turned all his thoughts to the formation of such in.stitutions and regulations as might increase the power, the wealth, and the civilization of his subjects. He established 252 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. schools, regulated the police, built ships of war, and encour- aged trade and navigation Three able princes, Edward. Athelstan, and Edmund, pursued the victories of Alfred : under them the monarchy became coextensive with the present England ; and Edgar the Peaceable was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings. The Danes still continued their hostilities. The successors of Edgar were feeble, the great subjects intractable, the Danes in the kingdom numerous : the custom was introduced of buying them off, and then of employing the Normans against tiiem. In the reign of Ethelred II. the savage and fatal mea- sure of murdering the Danes throughout England was adopted. Filled with rage at this base treachery, Sueno, king of Den- mark, invaded and conquered the kingdom. His son Canute (Knut) was king of both Denmark and England, and he is justly placed in the list of great princes. He was succeeded by his sons Hardicanute and Harold. On the death of the last, the English nation returned to the Anglo-Saxon line, in the person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor, an amiable Dut feeble prince. An injudicious practice had been introduced of giving the gx>vernment of large provinces, the former kingdoms, to par- ticular noblemen. Hitherto each shire had been governed by its alderman, and the moderate size of a shire prevented ita governor acquiring any very formidable power. But a man who wielded the forces of such a state as Mercia or Wessex, might easily defy his sovereign. Godwin, a man of ability, had gained for himself and his sons the government of seve- ral provinces ; and on the death of Edward, his son Harold, a man of many noble qualities, had himself chosen king by the Witena-gemot, or great council of the nation, to the exclu- sion of the lawful heir. He was opposed by his own brother Tosti, by the king of Norway, and by a still more formidable rival, William duke of Normandy. The former two he van- quished : in the battle of Hastings he lost to the latter both life and crown. Russia. Russia under her Scandinavian princes became known to Europe. The Russians appeared at Constantinople at first' as traders, exchanging the furs, hides, bees'-wax and honey of the North for the productions and manufactures of the em- pire. Their cupidity was excited, and they sought to take by force the wealth of which they got but scanty supplies by trade. Their fleets repeatedly assailed Constantinople, and their armies invaded the empire and Bulgaria. Nicephorut 22 263 CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 255 fought in vain against them, but the heroic John Zimisces vindicated the honor of the empire and the wrongs of Bulga- ria, and the Russian grand-duke Svatoslof and his army, sur- ^ d. rounded by the galleys and the legions, was forced to surren- 973. der, and retire on honorable terms. Olga, the mother of Svatoslof, a princess of mind as mas- 955. culine as the Catherines or Elizabeths, had come to Constan- tinople and received baptism. At Kiov and Novogorod she persisted in her new faith. Her grandson Vladimir, at first a 980 zealous votary of the gods of his country, at length embraced the religion of his grandmother, and a marriage with Anna, . sister of Theophano, wife of Otho 11. , confirmed him in his new faith. Olga had sought to improve her country: she made roads, built bridges, and introduced social order. Vladi- mir erected schools, opened new sources of trade, had rela- 'tions with foreign courts, was active in the introduction of the Christian religion, — was, in fact, the Peter of the tenth century. Yaroslof, son of Vladimir, was the legislator of Russia. 1015 He caused books to be translated from the Greek. He was the ally of the German emperors against the Hungarians, and his daughter Anna was married to Henry I. of France. Alexius Commenus, the Byzantine em^ieror, sent the impe- rial insignia to the grandson of Yaroslof, Vladimir Monoma- chus, and Kiov swore always to choose the Tsar from his house. Constantinople. Theophilus, son of Michael the Stammerer, was a virtuous 829. prince, and an enemy to the images. On his death his widow Theodora, like Irene, during the minority of her son Michael 842. III., finally re-established them. Michael was a weak priru-e ; but his uncle Caesar Bardas administered the empire with 867 prudence and ability. Basilius murdered them both, and mounted the throne. His government was vigorous and ac- 886. tive. His son Leo followed his maxims. The sceptre passed 911. to the infant son of Leo, Constantino Porphyrogenitus, under whose name first his uncle Alexander and then his mother Zoe governed. By perjury Romanus Lacopenus obtained the 919 direction of affairs ; but he guided them with ability. Con- Btantine, apparently devoted to books and wine, managed to deprive Romanus of his power, and became sole ruler. Ro- 959 manus H. reigned after him with little credit. Nicephorus Phocas distinguished himself in w^ar against the Persians, the Saracens of Crete, and the Russians. His successor, John ZimJsces, was the conqueror of the Russian 969. 256 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TI. 4, D. duke Svatoslof. The sons of Romanus II., Basil II. and Con- 975. stantine VIII., reigned in conjunction, with reputation. Basil completely broke the power of the Bulgarians, and dying after 1025. a reign of fifty years, left the sole dominion to his brother, who left it to his daughter Zoe and her husband, the patric.an 1028. Romanus Argyrus, a man of some ability. Romanus was un- fortunate in a battle against the Saracens at Aleppo. The 1034. empress fell in love with a handsome youth. Romanus was murdered, and her favorite raised to the throne under the name of Michael IV. ; but, goaded by remorse, he abandoned- the palace to shut himself up in a convent. The empress *041. then placed his cousin Michael Calaphates on the throne. Finding him disobedient to her will, she dethroned and blinded i042.him, and then gave the dignity to Constantine Monoma- chus, who had been her first love, who governed with order 1054. and regularity. On his death, Theodora, the sister of Zoe (now dead) seized the reigns ol government, and held them 1056. for a short time with no steady hand. With her ended the dynasty of Basil I., which had occupied the throne nearly two centuries. Michael VI., a soldier, was chosen emperor, and gave one among the many examples there are of the unfitness of a man for the supreme station who may have been distinguished in an inferior one. He was dethroned, and Isaac Comnenus 1057. put in his place. Isaac ruled with wisdom, vigor, and justice ; but bodily infirmity made him retire after a short reign. Con- 1059. stantine Ducas, his successor, was just, but no Soldier. Hia 1068. widow married and raised to the throne Romanus Diogenes, a man of noble mind and military talent. He warred against the Seljookian Turks ; but by the treachery of his nobles he fell into the hands of the sultan Alp Arslan, by whom he was honorably treated and set at liberty. On his return he found 1071. treachery, revolt, and murder awaiting him. Michael VII., the son of Ducas, was weak and incapable ; he was the slave of a vicious minister, and he took orders, and attained to dig- 1078. nity in the church. Nicephorus Botoniates was a soldier, but 1081. unfit to be emperor. He gave way to the dynasty of the Comnenians, with whom a new state of things commenced. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Africa. 789. The Abbasside khalifs had never possessed Spain. In the reign of Haroon-er-Rasheed, Edris, a descendant of Fatema, fled from Arabia to the extreme west, and declared his inde- pendence. His son, also named Edris, built the city of Fez the capital of a state which soon became populous and flour ishing. CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 257 During the reign of Edris 11. of Fez, Ibrahim, the son of a. d Aglab, governor of Cairoan, one of the lieutenants of ITaroon- 805- er-Rasheed, established an independent dominion in the an- cient territory of Carthage, of which Tunis became the capital. About a century later, Mahadee Obeid Allah, a real or pre- 908. tended descendant of Fatema, founded a state on the coast of Africa, of which the city of Mahadiah, built by him on a pen- insula, running out into the Mediterranean, was the capital. He made war on and defeated both the Aglabites and the Edrisites, whose kingdoms lay to the west of his, and added their territories to those he already possessed. Moez-ladin-Allah, the great-grandson of Mahadee, had 969. wells sunk in the desert, and then marched an army to Egypt, which had ceased to obey the khalifs. He took possession of that country with little opposition, where he founded the city of Cairo (Al Cahira) henceforth its capital. His reign was one of mildness and gentleness. Armies conducted by skilful and victorious generals conquered Syria, and Damascus and Jerusalem were among the cities which obeyed the khalif of Egypt, whose dynasty — the Fatemite — ruled for two centu- ries from the Euphrates to the deserts of Cairoan. Moez, aware of the impossibility of retaining distant prov- 971 inces, separated by sandy deserts from the seat of govern- ment, wisely abandoned all thoughts of seeking to retain his conquests on the north-western coast of Africa. He therefore gave up to Yoossef Belkin, the son of Zeiri, the western con- quests of Mahadee. Zeiri was of a noble Arab family, and had headed a troop of warriors, who were solely devoted to him. His dynasty — the Zeirides — reigned till 1148 over the north-western coast during 177 years. A prophet, named Abdallah, rose among the tribes subject 1056. to the Zeirides. He taught Islam in greater purity. His followers became numerous.' Under the command of Aboo Bekr, son of Omar, they took arms to spread the faith, and carried on successful wars against the princes of Fez, Tan- giers, and the other states. Yoossef, the successor of Aboo Bekr, founded Morocco at some springs of water, and it be- came during his lifetime the capital of a state reaching to the 1069 Straits of Gibraltar. Almoravites was the appellation of the followers of Abdallah : they led a pastoral life, and their princes Yoossef and his successors were both powerful and peaceable. Decline of the Arabian Empire — Asia. Thus were Spain, Africa, and Syria lost to the house of Abbas, and at the same time their eastern possessions were rapidly reduced in extent. 22* 258 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL 4. D. Taher, an able general, had essentially served Mamoon in 813. the contest with his brother. He was dismissed in honorable exile to command in the province of KJiorassan ; but here he made himself independent, and his descendants, the Taher- ites, to the fourth generation, governed that province with wisdom and justice. 872. The Taherite dynasty was overthrown by the Suffaree, founded by Yacoob ben Leis, the son of a pewterer in Seistan (hence the name Suffaree,) who abandoned his trade for that of a robber. An accident gave occasion to his being em- ployed by the prince of Seistan, in whose service he led an army which he turned against his master, whom he sent pris- oner to Bagdad : obtaining in reward the government of that province, he gradually made himself master of Khorassan, and nearly all Persia. The khalif instigated Ismael Samanee, a Turkish chief, to seize on Transoxiana. Amer, the brother and successor of Yacoob, marched against him ; but was de- feated, taken, and sent to Bagdad, where, after some years' confinement, he was put to death. Transoxiana, Bulch, Kho- rassan, and Seistan now formed the dominions of the Sama- nians. 892. The Arabian princes of the tribe of Hamadan made them- selves masters of, and held for 109 years (892 — 1001) Meso- potamia, with the cities of Mosul and Aleppo. They were extolled by their poets for their beauty and their noble quali- ties. Their history presents the usual series of crimes. 900 The power of the Samanee princes extended over the north of Persia. The south obeyed the Dilemee, so called from their native village Dilem, as they were styled Buyah from one of their ancestors. A fisher of Dilem, Abul-Shujah-al- Buyah, entered the service of the governor of his native prov- ince. Under the conqueror and successor of that governor, Ali Buyah, the son of Shujah, rose to high military command ; and he defeated Yacoot, the governor of Isfahan, and gained thereby great wealth and reputation. Ali pursued and again defeated Yacoot, and made himself master of Fars, Kerman, Khuzistan, and Irak. He advanced to Bagdad, and obliged the khalif to bestow on him the government of Fars and Irak, and to make his younger brother Ahmed his vizier ; his sec- ond brother Hussun acted under himself. Ahmed dethroned the khalif, and raised Mothi to his place over whom he exercised unlimited authority during his life Ali dying, universally regretted, was succeeded by his brother Hussun, who left his authority to his son, the able and excel lent Azed-e-Dowlat, who united in his person the offices of vizier to the khalif and vicerov of Fars and Irak. William III. of England. 259 JHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES. 261 After the death of Azed, one of the brightest characters «n oriental history, the power of the Dilemee gradually de- clined. Mahmood of Ghizni stripped them of all their pos- sessions but Fars and Kerman. They retained these and the office of Ameer-ul-Omrah {chief of the nobles) conferred on Ali Buyah, which gave them authority over the country round a. d Bagdad, till that capital was taken by Toghrul-beg-Seljookee. 1055 Causes of the Decline of the Power of the Khalifs. An obvious cause of the dissolution of the empire of the Arabs was its extent, the consequent distance of several of the provinces from the seat of empire, and the absolute power with which the lieutenants of a despot must be in- vested. Hence the assumption of independence was easy, the means of punishing slight ; no principle of loyalty bind- ing the subject to the sovereign. Thus Spain was lost at once, Africa speedily afterwards. But in the case of the Abbassides there were some particular causes. Like their predecessors, their title was bad. The descendants of the son-in-law and earliest disciple of the prophet were naturally regarded as having a better claim to the khalifat than those of any other branch of the family. The rights of All's family were still, therefore, openly or secretly maintained by a numerous party. We have seen how easily Edris, and afterwards Mahadee, founded empires. The Fatemite khalifs of the latter house always affected to regard themselves as the rightful successors of the prophet. These khalifs were, it is said, at the head of a secret society, whose object was the overthrow of the khalifat of Bagdadj and its missionaries continually pervaded the dominions of the house of Abbas, making converts to the claims of Ali. The various sectaries who aimed at private aggrandizement frequently put forward these claims, and thereby attracted followers. The Ismailites were a sect founded expressly on this principle, and out of them arose the society of the As- sassins, one of the most dreadful scourges of the East. Yet the house of Abbas might, perhaps, have retained the empire of Asia, were it not that, like the contemporary Car- lovingians, the Abbassides gradually degenerated, and fell into weakness and incapacity, and at the same time formed a prsetorian guard. Motassem, the eighth khalif of this family, with whom its glory expired, perceiving how the valor and 841 virtues of the Arabs had decayed, adopted the plan of forming a body-guard from the martial hordes of the Turks who dvy^elt beyond the Jihon. Their youths, taken in war or purchased as slaves, were trained to arms, and instructed in the prin- 262 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IL ciples of Islam. Motassem collected 50,00( of them around his throne at Bagdad. Their tumultuous conduct incensed the citizens, and he and they retired to Samara, a city twelve leagues from Bagdad, on the Tigris. Motawakkel, the son i. D. of Motassem, was a cruel tyrant : he favored and relied solely 861- on his Turkish guards, and they murdered him at the insti- gation of hi« son Mostanser, whose remorse for his crime abridged his life. The guards had now felt their own power ; their numbers were kept up by regular recruiting in Turkis- 862. tan : they forced Mosteyoo, uncle of Mostanser, to whom they gave the throne, to surrender to them the right, not only of nominating their own commander, but the emir-ul- omra of the empire. They treated the commander of the faithful with every indignity and insult ; and these unhappy princes were by them beaten with clubs, dragged by the feet, and exposed almost naked to the burning rays of the sun. 907. Mohtadi Billah made a bold effort to curb them. He seized Moones, their commander, one of his ablest generals, and when they assailed the palace, flung his head out to them. They, however, burst in, and the unhappy khalif expired be- neath their feet. His brother and successor Moktader, to rid himself of them, placed them, as his best troops, on the different frontiers, and thereby hastened their becoming in- dependent. 868. A Turkish governor of Egypt, named Tooloon, had some time before made himself independent. He had, it is said, found a large treasure, and thereon raised his power. His son and successor Ahmed was the father of the poor, but in- exorable in the punishment of crime, and 18,000 persons were executed during his reign. The commander of the faithful, Motedad, married Cotr-en-neda {Deiodrop) the daugh- ter of Khemeruyah, son of Ahmed, and on her road to Bag- dad, she found each evening a tent splendid, and furnished as the palace of her father, prepared for her reception. Ha- roon, the grandson of Ahmed, fell in defence of his kingdom, 905. and with him ended the dynasty of the Tooloonides. Egypt was reunited to the dominions of the khalif Mohtadi Billah. But twenty-nine years aflerwards another Turk, Akhsheed, 934. separated it anew, and it never again obeyed the khalifs of Bagdad. The Gasnevides. 997, Sebuktajee, a slave of a minister of the Samanians, by valor and prudence obtained the government of the city and district of Gasna or Ghizni. His son Mahmood gradually extended his power from the Caspian to the Indus, and the CHAP. IV. DISSOLUTION OP THE GREAT EMPIRES. 263 4 ilif honored him with the title of Sultan. The power of Mahmood increased with eastern rapidity. India attracted his cupidity : since the days of Seleucus Nicator she had not been penetrated to any extent by a foreign conqueror : she abounded in treasure ; her people were un warlike : Mahmood and his Moslems poured down on her from her northern fron- tier : he reached the Ganges ; resistance was ineffectual ; all submitted. His religious zeal was displayed in the destruc- tion of the idols of India, and an incredible treasure rewarded his holy warfare. Twelve times did the Gasnevide monarch march to the pillage of this rich and feeble country. Spain. Family dissensions and the revolt of governors diminished the power of the dynasty fourded by Abd-er-rahman, and the Christians gradually extended their possessions from the mountains to the plain. a. d. After a contest of two hundred years a Christian kingdom 914. was founded under Ordoiio, of which Leon was the capital. The laws of the Goths were re-established ; and this was the commencement of the heroic age of Spain, when she put forth every manly virtue, and fought with religious zeal, patriotic feeling, and knightly honor. A county had been formed at Burgos by Fernando Gon- 933. zales. On the failure of iiis posterity it was formed into the kingdom, of Castile in favor of Fernando, son of Sanchez, 1033 king of Navarre. This last kingdom had been formed by the descendants of the valiant Gascon, count Acnor, who had (831) crossed the Pyrenees to conquer lands from the infidels. They had also made themselves masters of the fruitful plains of Catalonia. At the time when the empire of the khalifs of Cordova was falling to pieces, almost the entire of the Christian states were united under Sanchez of Navarre. But he again sepa- rated them, giving only Navarre to his eldest son, leaving Castile to Fernando, who had acquired Leon by marriage, and forming in the mountains about the little stream of the Aragon, the kingdom so denominated for his natural son Ra- mirez; a kingdom which, by wise laws and able rulers, eclipsed all in the Peninsula. Bernhard, of the family of the dukes of Aquitaine, whom Charlemagne had made count of Barcelona, became, in a 864. great measure, independent : his son Winfred became com- pletely so. Count Raymond Berenger obtained by marriage 1137. the kingdom of Aragon. All these sovereigns pressed on the Mohammedan emirs, 264 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. A D. who were less united. The latter, unable to withstand, 1086. called over Yoossef-ben-Takhfin the Almoravide, who had just founded the empire of Morocco. He came, repulsed the Christians ; and all Spain, south of the mountains of Castile, was united under his dominion. CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. Italy. — The Normans. After the Normans had embraced Christianity, they be came distinguished for their devotion according to the fashior of the times. Of this, pilgrimage formed a principal part, and the variety and the dangers of it were pleasing to the valiant Normans. On a visit of a number of them to the cav- 1016. em of Mount Garganus, in Apulia, they were accosted by a citizen of Bari, who held out large hopes if they would assist in expelling the Greeks from Italy. They consented, and, the following year, a large body passed the Alps in small par ties, and united in Apulia. They were unsuccessful against the Greek troops ; but they kept together, and were employed by the neighboring princes in their quarrels. The duke of 1029. Naples built for them the town of Aversa. Numbers of every nation flocked to their standard. Count Rainulf was their commander. 1038. The Saracens had now held Sicily for two centuries. They were fallen into disunion, had thrown off their allegiance to the king of Tunis : each petty chief aimed at independence. The court of Byzantium was always anxious to recover the island : the present opportunity seemed favorable. Two brothers of the Saracens being at enmity, one applied for the aid of the Christians. The Grecian governor of Italy was directed to engage the Normans, and five hundred of their knights were enrolled. On landing in Sicily, the Saracens were found united ; but nothing could resist Norman valor, and thirteen cities and a great part of the island were re- duced to the obedience of the emperor. In the division of the spoil the Normans were unjustly treated, and on their return 1040. to Italy they invaded Apulia, to indemnify themselves. Their whole forces were 700 horse and 500 foot; the imperial troops are stated at 60,000 ; yet, in the course of three years, the empire retained only the towns of Bari, Otranto, Brundu- 1043. slum, and Tarentum. The Normans divided their conquests 23 265 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 207 into twelve districts, over each of which was a count, one of whom, under the title of count of Apulia, presided in their councils, held in the town of Melfi. The first count of Apulia was William of the Iron Arm, equally distinguished in the virtues of war and peace. The rapacity and injustice of the Normans made them hated. The court of Byzantium sought to deliver Italy from them, by inducing them to take a settlement in Asia, on the frontiers of Persia ; but the wily Normans saw through and rejected the imperial munificence. The Byzantine agent Argyrus thus foiled, determined on force, and a league was formed between the pope Leo IX, and the emperors of the x t East and West, against them. The pope travelled to Ger- 104i many to seek aid. Argyrus caused a number of the Normans to be assassinated. On the return of the pope, with a small band of German auxiliaries, a force considerable in number was collected. The Normans were deserted by all; they could only muster 8000 horse ; they were reduced to great straits for want of provisions, were dispirited by famine and superstition, and offered to submit. The alternative of death or exile was given by the pope : — they resolved to die as sol- diers, engaged the enemy, defeated them, and took the pope prisoner at°Civitella. The warriors knelt and implored his forgiveness; the well-meaning pontiff" lamented his error: by i05a his right, derived from the grant of Constantine, he bestowed on them their present and future conquests in Apulia and Calabria, as a fief of the holy see, which relation the kingdom of Naples has ever since retained. Tancred de Haute ville, a valvassor of Normandy, had twelve sons; and his patrimony was small: ten of them, at various times, crossed the Alps, and joined the Normans in Apulia. Robert, surnamed Guiscard, (Wizard T) the fourth of them, soon became distinguished. He commanded a di- vision at Civitella, and gained there the prize of valor. His three elder brothers, William of the Iron Arm, Drogo, and Humphry, had successively attained to the rank of count of Apulia. On the death of the last named, leaving his song minors, their claims were postponed to those of Robert, and he was chosen count of Apulia. The pope Nicholas conferred on him and his posterity the title of duke of Apulia; but he 106a waited till the next campaign had achieved the conquest of Reggio and Cosenza, and then he called on his victorious troops to confirm what the pope had bestowed. The soldiers joyfully hailed him duke, and he henceforth entitled himself, " By the grace of God and St. Peter duke of Apulia, Cala- bria, and hereafter of Sicily." But many years elaosed before 268 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, PART II. he was master of all these dominions. The Normans were few ; the counts were not attached to him, and often conspired against him ; the scms of Humphry asserted their claims, and plotted against him ; the Greeks and Lombards defended the towns on the sea-coast with skill and courage, and the Nor- mans were unused to sieges. Twenty years were spent ic giving his dominions the extent of the present kingdom oi Naples. ^. D. The conquest of Sicily was achieved in the reign of Ro- 1060. bert Guiscard. Roger, the last of the twelve brothers, having arrived in Apulia, Robert admired, then envied his noble qualities. The Greeks had abandoned Sicily, and its con quest was proposed to Roger. With sixty followers, he crossed the strait, and drove the Saracens to the gates of Messina. The spoils acquired attracted others to his standard ; his brother aided ; small bodies of Normans overthrew large 1090. armies of the Moslems ; and at the end of thirty years Roger, with the title of Great Count, was master of the island. His government was liberal and judicious beyond the age. The Moslems were protected in their persons, religion, and prop- erty. The ambition of Robert aimed at conquest in the Greek empire. His daughter had been betrothed to the son of the emperor Michael; but the youth had died, and his father been deposed. Robert affected to be the avenger of his friend : a pseudo-Michael appeared at Salerno, and was ac- knowledged by the wily duke and the able Gregory VII. An army was collected during two years, and assembled at Otranto. Robert landed near Vallona, at the head of 30,000 men, of whom the kernel were 1300 Norman knights. Siege was laid to Durazzo, which was vigorously defended. The Norman fleet suffered from a dreadful storm ; it was defeated by that of Venice, and a reinforcement was thrown into Du- razzo. The able emperor Alexius Comnenus advanced at the head of a large army ; the English, who had left their country, now enslaved by the Normans, increased the number of the brave Verangians ; with them were joined some com- panies of Latins or Western Europeans ; and the rebels who had fled from Robert, and a body of Turkish horse, obeyed the commands of the Grecian emperor. Despair added to the courage of the Normans; the emperor injudiciously gave bat- tle ; the troops of Robert at first yielded ; the Varangians, who occupied the van, imprudently advanced too far, and ex- posing their flanks to the lances of the Norman knights, they were slaughtered. The Turks fled, and Alexius now saw liJAP. V INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER 269 the battle was lost. On the valor of his own subjects he a. d placed no reliance. l^*^l Durazzo was taken by treachery. Robert advanced through 1082. Epirus into Thessaly ; but his army was reduced to a third. The cities of Apulia were in revolt Henry king- of Germany was advancing against him. He passed over to Apulia, leav* ing the command of the army to the gallant Bohemond, his son by his first wife. Bohemond besieged Larissa. Alexius collected another army ; various indecisive engagements took place ; the counts betrayed and deserted Bohemond ; his camp was pillaged, and he was forced to evacuate the country, and return to his father. Meanwhile Henry had entered Rome, and created an anti-pope. Gregory was besieged in the Vatican : he invoked the aid of his Norman vassal. Robert 1084. displayed the holy banner; 60(X) horse and ^,000 fix)t marched beneath it to Rame. Henry retired, and Gregory was lib- erated. Thus Robert, in the space of three years, had the glory of making the emperors of the East and the West fly before him, and of delivering the greatest of the popes from captivity. Robert prepared again to attack the eastern empire. Alex- 1084 ius had collected a fleet to oppose him ; the Venetians joined their vessels to those of the empire. The Norman troops vvere, however, landed in safety in Epirus, and then Robert, with twenty galleys, sought the allied navy. Three battles were fought off Corfu : in the first two the Normans were repulsed ; in the third their victory was complete. Winter came on. In the spring Robert renewed his operations, in- tending to turn his arms against Greece ; but an epidemic disease seized him in Cefalonia, and he died in his tent in the \08& 70th year of his age. The army dispersed and retired, Ro- bert was succeeded by his second son ; Roger Bohemond being regarded as illegitimate, as his father and mother had been within the prohibited degrees of kindred : his claims, however, disturbed the nation till the crusades drew him off Co Asia. Italy — The Popes. The pretensions of the popes during this period advanced • with rapid strides. In their contests with the emperors of *^he house of Franconia they had to rely on the aid of a strong party in Germany, of the great counter Matilda in the north of Italy, and of their Norman vassals in the south. Extent of the papal dominion, and emancipation from the superiority of the emperors, were the great objects in view : the daring' 23 * 270 HISTORY OF THE WOULD. PART II temper and lofty genius of Gregory VII. almost assured tho victory, Leo IX. and Stephen IX. had adorned the chair hy theii birth and virtues. In the pontificate of Nicholas II. it was established in a synod that the popes were to be chosen by the cardinal bishops (those whose sees were near Rome), and approved of by the cardinal priests and deacons (ministers of the parish churches at Rome) and the people^ and then pre sented for confirmation to the emperor. Hildebrand, arch- deacon of Rome, was the author of this plan, the object of which was gradually to free the papacy from imperial con- trol. On the death of Nicholas he had Alexander 11. chosen and consecrated without waiting for the imperial sanction, and on the death of Alexander he was himself raised to the pontificate under the title of Gregory VIL, yet he refused to be consecrated till he had obtained the emperor's consent. The emperor was Henry IV., a dissolute, arbitrary prince The Saxons were in rebellion against him, and the princes in general disaffected. Gregory commenced his attack by excommunicating some of his ministers for simony : he then published a decree against lay investitures, or the investing of spiritual persons with the ensigns of their rank by laymen The ring and crosier were, it was said, the emblems of a power which monarchs could not bestow ; and though the estates of the church might be temporal, yet, by their insepa- rable union with the spiritual office, they might be regardec as partaking of its sanctity. The pope, after long treating with the disaffected party is Germany, saw he might advance a little, and he summoned Henry to appear at Rome. Henry was enraged : he assem- bled at Worms a number of bishops and other vassals, and had a decree passed that Gregory should not be obeyed aa pope. Gregory, when he heard this, summoned a council at the Lateran, excommunicated Henry, deprived him of the kuigdoms of Italy and Germany, absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and commanded them not to obey him. Gregory acted advisedly in this unheard-of stretch of power. Henry's subjects rejoiced at being told that what was their inclination was also their duty : conspiracies ripened into re- bellion ; the bishops were terrified at the sentence of excom- munication ; and Henry found himself alone. He adopted the resolution of going to Italy, and casting himself at the feet of the pontiff*. In the midst of a severe winter he crossed the Alps, and travelled to the seat of the countess Matilda, at Canossa, near Reggio. Here, with naked feet, in the woollen shirt worn by penitents, he stood in the outer court Louis XIV. 271 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 273 for three days, exposed to the piercing- cold. On the fourth, Gregory admitted and gave him absolution ; but ordered him to appear at a certain time, to know whether he should be restored to his kingdom. By this pusillanimous step Henry had disgusted his friends. He saw his imprudence, broke oft" the negotiation, and took to his arras : his friends rallied about him : he was victorious in Germany and Italy ; and he drove Gregory to die in exile at Salerno. Urban II. and Pascal II, carried on the contest with him : they excited his children to rebellion, but gained nothing by the unnatural contest; for Henry V., who had rebelled for the popes against his father, when he ascended his throne, clung as obstinately to the right of investiture as he had done. Being on good terms with his vassals, it would not have been safe to try with him the measures which had been adopted against his father ; and after a contest of fifteen years, the matter was settled by a compromise between him a. d and pope Calixtus II. The emperor renounced the right of 1122 investing bishops with the ring and crosier, and recognized the liberty of elections; but the election was to take place in the presence of him or his officer, and he was to confer the temporalities by the sceptre. A similar contest had been carried on and was terminated in the same manner between Pascal II. and Henry I. of England. The popes had a plausible pretext for thus seeking to free spiritual offices from lay influence. The grossest simony had been practised, and the church, as far as was possible in that age of gross superstition, thereby deprived of its sanctity. They had not the same pretext for their next measure, the injunction of celibacy. Mankind have always attached a mysterious effect to this virtue. We find it in religious honor in Peru and in Rome. The oriental doctrines early introduced a reverence for it into the church. It gradually was extolled and enjoined ; but human nature was too strong for it, and marriage was generally practised among the clergy. Leo IX. set vigorously about enforcing it : his successors followed up his measures : the laity, as might be expected, took part against the married priests, who were the most virtuous of the order ; but the abuse as it was termed, could not be remov- ed without tolerating greater evils. It is plain what a pow erfiil engine this was calculated to make the clergy in the hands of a pope, by detaching them from all the ties of social ►ife, and leaving them no attachment but to their order and ^ts head. Yet we should err if we supposed all the popes to nave been profound calculators or unprincipled graspers at pf»wer. Many of them were men of eminent virtue, and few 274 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. or them saw clearly the ultimate effect of their projects. The growth of the papacy was like that of a plant, the necessary effect of predisposing causes ; and, in the state of the human mind in the middle ages, its progress was as natural as that of any phenomenon in the physical world. The arms employed by the popes to effect their purpose wore excommunication and interdict. By the former an in- dividual, no matter what his rank may have been, was cut off from society ; it was sinful to hold any intercourse with him, and temporal disadvantages were annexed to the sen- tence. But this extended only to one person. Interdict visited the crime of one, usually a sovereign, on all in any way connected with him. When a state was laid under an interdict, the churches were closed, the dead unburied, the bells silent, no sacraments administered but baptism and ex- treme unction. The operation of this on the minds of a su- perstitious people, who attached such mysterious efficacy tc masses and sacraments, may easily be conceived ; and few monarchs had courage to dare this last effort of pontifical vengeance. With such arms, and at the head of such an army, the popes seemed almost secure of universal empire ; and we shall soon behold their power at its very climax, but yet on the point of declension, from causes that were in operation against it. Italy — Lombard Cities. The principal cities in the north of Italy had, under the Lombard and French kings, been subject, with their districts, to counts, and these again to dukes. The Saxon emperors separated from them the greater part of the territory, and the authority of the count was usually confined to the town : the bishop often obtained the government. The feudal law of Italy was not so definite as that of France ; there was frequent war between the vavassors and their superior lords; the cities were strong and populous ; bishops were elective and not hereditary, and less bold and energetic than lay princes. From all these causes the cities gradually increased in strength and povv^er, made war on each other, obtained charters from the emperors — became, in fact, perfectly inde- pendent. As the possessions of the rural nobility had been originally part of their territory, they reclaimed them, reduced the castles of the nobles, and compelled them to reside in the towns. Here the nobles aimed at obtaining the municipal offices, and the government was at this period chiefly in their hands. The policy of tlie citizens was liberal: they encour ^ CHAP.V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 275 aged settlement among them. Their mutual and bitter wars i,nd animosities were the great blemish they presented Germany — House of Franconia. On the death of Henry II. the house of Saxony became a. d extinct. Conrad, surnamed the Salic, a nobleman of Fran- 1024 conia, was chosen to succeed. This prince endeavored to increase the power of his family by bestowing several duchies on his relatives. In his reign Burgundy was annexed to the empire. His son, Henry III., trod in his steps : he disposed, 1039 at his will, of duchies, controlled the papal power, and may be regarded as the most powerful and absolute of the German emperors. Henry IV., his son, was left a minor: his mother 1056. Agnes administered the government : the nobles thought the opportunity good for recovering their power ; the archbishop of Mentz carried away the young king, and governed in his name : the education of Henry was neglected, and he grew up dissolute and addicted to low company, but brave and good- natured. The Saxons rebelled: the quarrel about investitures broke out between the pope and the emperor. Henry was excommunicated and deposed by Gregory VII., and Rodolf duke of Swabia was raised to the throne. Henry detonded his rights with vigor: Rodolf was slain in battle. The pope excited Henry's son to rebellion against him ; and at the end of thirty years of continued war, in which he had fought sixty battles, the unhappy emperor sunk in death, and his- body lay for years unburied, as he had died excommunicated. 1106. Henry V., a rebel to his father, at the instigation of the holy see, was as tenacious as any of his predecessors of the right of investiture. After a long contest the matter was, as we have seen, settled by compromise between him and the pope. 1125 With Henry V. ended the house of Franconia. France. Robert, son of Hugh Capet, neglected his father's projects 997 for extending the royal power. His successor, Henry I., at- tempted to recover Normandy during the minority of Wil- 1031. ham, afterwards the Conqueror, but without success. Philip I. took advantage of the crusades to enlarge the limits of the 1060 royal power; yet so narrow were these limits, that at the noa accession of Louis VI., the Fat, it was almost confined to the cities of Paris, Orleans, Bourges, and their districts ; and j[t cost the king no little trouble to reduce the lords of Mont Chery and other places near Paris. In the reign of this monarch properly began the wars between France and Eng- *and, which lasted three centuries and a half; Louis taking 27(k history of the world. part ii. th« part of William, son of Robert duke of Normandy, against Henry I. of England, who had usurped that duchy. England. M Di After the battle of Hastings, William's claim to the crown i066 was admitted, the inutility of opposition being apparent. He was crowned at Westminster, and took the usual coronation oath of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. His reign was at first moderate ; only, as it was necessary to gratify the rapacity of his Norman followers, the estates of those who fought against him at Hastings were unjustly confiscated as those of rebels. But these were halcyon days. In the following year he returned to Normandy: his Normans, whom he left in England, oppressed and insulted the people in the most 1067 opprobrious manner. The English rebelled. William, who, when he left the kingdom, probably knew what would take place, returned, crushed the incipient insurrection, confiscated estates, and bestowed them on his followers. The following year another rebellion, produced by the same cause, had the 10S& same result ; and William, if he ever had any regard for his English subjects, now manifested nothing towards them but hatred and aversion. Many of the English nobles fled from their country to Scotland, to Constantinople, and elsewhere^ all places of trust were in the hands of the Normans, ano gradually they were becoming possessed of all the lands. Aided by the Danes and Scots, the people rose once more in arms ; but the vigor and policy of the kmg proved too pow- erful for them. He now increased his rigor ; he laid waste the country between the Humber and the Tees, to curb the Northumbrians, and 100,000 people are said to have perished by this odious policy. Having now seized almost the whole of the land of England, he introduced all the rigors of the feudal law; he divided the kingdom into 60,000 knights' fees, which he chiefly bestowed on his Normans, to hold im- mediately of himself. A large portion of them were formed into 700 baronies, for the principal of his Norman lords, and such of the English as retained their lands found themselves subjected to the feudal burdens. Besides these baronies, 1422 manors constituted the royal demesne, the rent of which was the chief revenue of the crown. All the dignities of the church were bestowed upon the Normans ; an attempt was even made to abolish the English language, which in part unfortunately succeeded, and hence arose the mingled dialect we now speak. Great as was the suflfering caused by the Norman monarchs and their barons, it is to the tyranny cf these princes that 24 277 CHAP. V. INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 279 England is in a great measure indebted for her having pre- ceded the other nations in the establishment of popular liberty and constitutional monarchy, For while elsewhere the no- bles could defy the king and oppress the people, here they were obliged to call the people to their aid against the enor- mous power of the crown. Hence arose the dignity and in- fluence of the commons of England. William left three sons, Robert, William, and Henry. To a. d, the first he left Normandy ; to the second, England. William 1087 [I. was an oppressive, tyrannical- monarch. His brother Robert at first contested the crown of England with him, but was forced to desist from his claims. Robert was a brave, generous prince ; he was inflamed with the general mania pf the crusades, and he mortgaged Normandy to William for l0,000 marks, to equip him for the expedition. William earl of Poitiers and duke of Guienne made a similar agreement with him ; but as he was preparing a fleet and army to go to take possession of these provinces, he was accidentally shot by an arrow, while hunting in the New Forest, for the form- ation of which his father had laid waste the greater part 1100. of Hampshire. Henry on the death of his brother hastened to Winchester to secure the royal treasure, and he married Matilda, niece of Edgar Atheling, the last of the Anglo-Saxon royal family. On his return from the East, Robert claimed the kingdom ; but Henry was too strong for him ; and in consequence of the indolence and remissness of Robert, Henry soon afterwards made himself master of Normandy, and took his brother and confined him for life in the castle of Cardiff. Henry had a long contest with the popes about the right of investiture, and the matter was compromised as in Germany. This king had the misfortune to lose his only son. His daughter Ma- tilda was married to the emperor Henry V. ; and Henry dyin cr without issue, she was again married to Geoffrey son of Fulk, count of Anjou, by whom she had a son. Henry left Matilda 1135 heiress of all his dominions. Stephen count of Blois was grandson of the conqueror, by his daughter Adela. Henry I. had greatly favored and en- riched him and his brother Henry, whom he made bishop of Winchester. On the death of Henry, Stephen hastened to England, secured the royal treasure, and was crowned. The rights of Matilda were upheld by her natural brother, Robert of Gloucester, and several barons. Nearly twenty years elapsed in civil war between the two parties; the power of the crown was greatly diminished ; the great barons were rapidly attaining to independence ; the papal power was en- 280 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. croaching; and all the evils of relaxed government were felt. A compromise was at last made between Stephen and Henry, son of Matilda, to whom she had made over her rights, that j^. D. Stephen should reign during his life, and Henry succeed. 1164 Stephen did not long enjoy his reign. Spain. In Spain the Christian states continued gradually to gam on the Mohammedan territories. Alfonso VI. of Castile an 085. Leon had recovered from the Moslems Toledo, the ancien Gothic capital. Alfonso I. of Aragon pushed his conquests to 1118. the Ebro, and made hhnself master of Saragossa, which he now made the capital of his dominions. Constantinople. 1081. We have seen Alexius Comnenus valiantly defending his dominions against the Normans. With equal wisdom and good fortune he maintained himself against the Russians who assailed the empire in Europe, and the Seljookian Turks who pressed on it in the East. He also knew how to derive advan- tage from the passage over into Asia of the formidable mul- titudes of the crusaders. 1118. John, the son and successor of Alexius, was also a prince of valor, ability, and magnanimity, and while he reigned he 1143. bravely defended all the frontiers of the empire. His son Manuel partook not of the noble qualities of his family, but he transmitted the empire unimpaired to his son. The Seljookians. The Turks had from the most remote ages led a pastoral i.ife in the plains beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes, whence they continually made inroads into the empire of Persia. In the decline of the powers of the khalifs, they encroached more and more, and pastured their herds south of these rivers. They were encouraged by their countrymen, who were domi- nant at the court of the khalifs ; and Mahmood of Ghizni placed several of their tribes in Khorassan. On his death, these Turks made inroads into Persia, and ravaged to the i038. Tigris. Massood, his successor, collected an army and gave them battle on the plains of Zendecan. The Ghiznivide was defeated and driven out of the greater part of his dominions. The Turks now proceeded to elect a king. The decision was committed to the lot of arrows ; and Toghrul Beg, the son of Michael, the son of Seljook, gained the prize. Togh- rul, having made himself master of Khorassan, advanced into Irak, subdued it, and then took Bagdad, where he was, by CHAP. V INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 281 the feeble khalif, appointed vicegerent of the vicar of the proph- ^ d. et, and lord over all Mohammedans. The conquest of Ader- 1055. bijan (Media; brought the Seljookians into contact v^^ith the Romans, who had gradually recovered their former possessions as far as the eastern frontier of Armenia, and their ambassa- dors appf^ared at Constantinople, to demand tribute and obedi- ence. The Turkish cavalry ravaged the country to the city of Erzeroom, and massacred 130,000 Christians ; but Toghrul was not able to make any lasting impression. Toghrul and his subjects were zealous in the faith of Islam, and he entertained the liighest reverence for the successors of the prophet. He restored to his dominion Bagdad and its district ; and the khalif enjoyed a degree of ease and inde- pendence to which he had been long a stranger. Yet it was with reluctance that the khalif Cayem bestowed his daughter 1063. on the Turkman shepherd, though monarch of Asia. Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan (Val- 1065. iant Lion). This monarch invaded the Roman empire : the 1068. conquest of Armenia was rapid ; the Georgians of Caucasus offered a braver though as unavailing a resistance. The Turks penetrated to Phrygia : Romanus Diogenes, the val- iant husband of the empress Eudocia, marched against them. In three campaigns he drove them beyond the Euphrates; in 1071. a. fourth, he attempted the recovery of Armenia. But fortune here deserted the Roman emperor; treachery or cowardice caused the overthrow of his army ; after long fighting with desperate valor, he was forced to surrender on the field of battle, and was led captive into the presence of Alp Arslan, whose magnanimity and generosity on this occasion may al- most vie with that of the Black Pripce to the king of France. Romanus, after the kindest treatment, was set at liberty, on condition of a large ransom and an annual tribute. Alp Ars- lan now turned his arms against his countrymen beyond the Oxus : the dagger of a Carismian, maddened by the severity of the sentence threatened him, pierced the heart of the Sel- 1072. JGokian in the midst of his guards, and the remains of Alp Arslan were entombed at Merv. Malek Shah, the son of Alp Arslan, was, in noble qualities and extent of dominion, the greatest prince of his age. The Turkman tribes aclmowledged his supremacy ; and from the confines of China to those of Constantinople and Egypt his mandates were obeyed. Learning was encouraged and the calendar reformed in the reign of Malek ; but the praise must be shared with his illustrious vizier, the great and good Nizam-ul-mulk, who directed the government under him and his father. Alp Arslan. At the age of ninety -three vears, 24* 282 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT. Nizam was disgraced, and he perished by tht dagger of one of the followers of his schoolfellow, Hassan Sabah, who had just now organized the society of the Assassins. Malek did not long survive his minister, and the brief remainder of his A. D. reign was inglorious. He died suddenly at Bagdad, and his 1092 death was imputed to Hassan. On the death of Malek, his empire, after the usual course of civil war among his sons, was divided, but finally reunited in the person of Sanjar, the survivor of them, and the last great monarch of the Seljookians of Persia. Sanjar ruled from Cashgar to Antioch, from the Caspian to the Straits of Babelmandeb. During the time of these princes, the power of the Sel- jookians was established in Room, i. e. Lesser Asia. Kootel- mish, grandson of Seljook, had attempted to form an inde- pendent dominion in that country, but was defeated and slain. His son, Mansoor, paid tribute to Alp Arslan and Malek Shah, till, by the command of the latter, he also was put to death. His younger brother, Suleiman, would have had a similar fate but for the interference of Nizam-ul-mulk, on whose re- presentations he was not only granted his life, but given an 1074. army, with commission to make conquest in Room. Suleiman crossed the Euphrates : soon almost the whole of Lesser Asia obeyed the Turkish sultan, who fixed his seat of empire at Nice in Bithynia : his aid was implored by rival candidates for the purple ; and even Alexius Comnenus sought his sup- port against the Normans. By treachery Antioch fell into the hands of Suleiman. Constantinople was menaced, and Alexius sent through Europe supplicatory epistles. Jerusalem was in the hands of the Turks. Jerusalem had long been the resort of pious or zealous Christians. In the times of the early khalifs and the first Abbassides their access had never been unpeded; and Ha- roon-er-Rasheed had even presented Charlemagne with the ~Eeys of the holy sepulchre, perhaps of the city. The pil- grimages were advantageous to the subjects of the khalifs, as they brought money and trade to their coasts. When the Fatemites of Egypt got possession of Palestine, they were far from throwing any impediments in the way of western devotion, and it was only for a time interrupted by the mad 009. freaks of the khalif Hakem. Sat Atsiz, one of the lieu- tenants of Malek Shah, marched into Syria, took Damascus, and reduced the province : he advanced into Egypt, and the Fatemite khalif was about to fly into Nubia before the troops, who maintained the cause of the Abbasside, when the people of Cairo and the negro guards valiantly repelled the Turks 283 CHAP. V INCREASE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 285 from the frontiers. But Tootush, brother of Malek Shah, a. d now appeared, and Syria and Palestine obeyed for twenty 1076 years the house of Seljook ; and the rude Turks treated with the utmost insolence and cruelty the Christian pilgrims, who now flocked to the Holy Land in greater numbers than ever. First Crusade. The pilgrims filled Europe with complaints of the profana- i(y.€ tion of the sepulchre. The letters of Alexius portrayed the power of the Turks, and the danger of the Greek empire : Gregory VII. had already meditated the union of Christen- dom against Islam ; Europe was full of ardent enthusiastic warriors. Peter the Hermit proposed to Urban II., the then pope, a project of leading armies into Asia, and conquering the Holy Land. A council was summoned at Placentia; it was numerously attended by both clergy and laity, and war was resolved on. Another council was held at Clermont in Auvergne, and, on hearing the exhortations of the pope and the hermit, the whole assembly cried, It is the will of God ! and each champion devoted himself to the holy war by affix- ing a cross to his right shoulder. The kingdom of heaven was promised to all who fell in the war against the infidels : the acquisition of earthly kingdoms in Asia, of whose wealth and fertility they had heard such marvels, was to crown success. Piety, curiosity, every feel- ing was roused : all sins were forgiven to the crossed ; hos^ tilities were prohibited against the states of those who warred for Christ. Robert duke of Normandy, Hugh, brother of the king of France, Raymond count of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin, Stephen count of Blois, were the chief leaders, and an immense num- ber of all ranks and ages crowded to the sacred standard. Three hundred thousand, under the guidance of Peter the Hermit, Walter the Moneyless, and others, straggled on be- fore. In their passage through Hungary and Bulgaria, part were massacred by the inhabitants, whom they pillaged ; and the rest, on entering Asia, were slaughtered by the Turks. The great army followed, and poured into Constantinople, to the dismay of Alexius, who lost no time in passing them over into Asia. When assembled before the walls of Nice, 1097 they numbered 600,000 combatants. They besieged and took that city, defeating the Seljookian Kilij Arslan in two great battles, and took every town which lay in their way to An- tioch, of which city Bohemond", the son of Robert Guiscard, was made prince. Baldwin, at the call of its Christian in- A. D. 286 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART H. habitants, passed the Euphrates, and assumed the sovereignty of Edessa. Afdel the vizier of the Fatemite khalif Mostaali, had re- covered Jerusalem from the Turks : the crusaders were in- formed that they might now perform their vows, if they came unarmed, and that pilgrims would henceforth meet the good treatment they had hitherto experienced. The offer was re- j jected : the champions of the cross appeared before the holy 1099. city. Thirty-nine days they besieged it : on the 15th of July it was stormed : no age or sex was spared : 70,000 is said to have been the number of the victims. Various circumstances had so reduced the Christian host, that of the vast multitude that crossed the Bosphorus but 1500 horse and 20,000 foot marched from Tortosa to Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen king by his fellow-war- riors ; but he refused to bear that title in the kingdom of the Son of David : the land was partitioned into fiefs, and a code of feudal regulations, called the Assizes of Jerusalem, drawn up for the administration of it. Two religious military orders were afterwards formed for its farther defence. Before the time of the crusade there had been a society for attending .118 sick pilgrims in the hospital of St. John. Hugo des Payens, of the house of Champagne, Godfrey of St. Adomer, and seven other knights formed themselves into an order named Templars, irom their house near the site of the temple of Solomon. Their vows before the patriarch were to defend pilgrims against robbers, obedience, celibacy, and poverty. St. Bernard, at the desire of the king of France and other lords and princes, drew up a rule for them. In battle they vowed to be the first in action, the last in retreat: this ex- ample was followed by the brethren of the Hospital ; and a new order, tlie Teutonic, was soon added to these military and religious associations. The Christian empire at this pe- riod extended from the borders of Armenia to those of Egypt: but it was feeble, and encompassed by powerful enemies. Its population, though brave, was few ; and its reliance, an iin stable one, was on the West, .HAP. VI. PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT. 287 CHAP. VI. THP PAPAL POWER AT ITS GREATEST HEIGHT Italy — The Popes. From the time of Gregory VII. his successors faithfully 8 28* 330 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT. for the maintenance of peace in Italy ; and the pope and the Neapolitan parliament contirmed the succession of Forainand. A. D. But the character of this prince was dark and vindictive, and 1461. the barons offered the crown to John, son of Regnier of An- jou, who made an ineffectual attempt to obtain it. Germany. 273. After Germany had been three-and-twenty years without a head, the electors fixed on Rodolf of Habsburg, a prince of ancient family and of considerable possessions in Switzerland, and along the Upper Rhine. Rodolf was an able, sensible monarch, and he turned all his efforts to the establishing of peace and tranquillity within the empire. He naturally sought to aggrandize his family. The rebellion of Ottocar, king of Bohemia, gave him the disposal of Austria, Syria 1283. and Carniola, which, with the consent of the diet, he bestowed on his son Albert, and Carinthia on Meinhard landgraf of Tyrol, whose daughter Albert married. This was the origin of the possessions of the house of Austria. The electors refused to choose Albert king of the Romans 1291. in his father's lifetiniB ; and on the death of Rodolf they gave the imperial dignity to Adolf of Nassau. Albert, how- ever, raised a strong party against him, and got himself 1298. elected. Adolf fought for his dignity, but fell, as was said, by the hand of Albert. Albert was active, ambitious, un- quiet, but unsuccessful in his projects, and hated by his neigh- 1308. bors and subjects. He was murdered by his nephew John, from whom he withheld his inheritance. Some of the princes, are said to have been consenting to the deed. 1309. Henry VII. of Luxemburg was elected. His reign is chiefly distinguished by his attempts to establish the imperial authority in Italy. In this he met some partial success, but died suddenly in the midst of his projects. 1314 Louis of Bavaria was chosen by one part of the electors, Frederic of Austria by another. The battle of Miihldorf 1322. finally decided in favor of Louis. This emperor also crossed the Alps to contend against the pope and Robert king of Na- ples ; but he derived little credit from his expedition : his whole reign was occupied in the contest with the holy see. 1347. Charles IV,, son of John king of Bohemia, next purchased the empire. This monarch loved pomp and parade, and lived 355. in great splendor. He annexed Brandenburg' and Silesia to Bohemia. By, his Golden Bull he ascertained the preroga- tives of the electoral college. He procured his son Wences- laus to be appointed his successor. ^378, Wenceslaus was addicted to pleasure. His Bohemian no^ The Temple at Paris— Residence of the Knights Templats. 331 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 333 bles, thinking he favored the people too much, confined him, a. d. under the pretext of his violence and immorality, and gave 1394 him in custody to the duke of Austria. He escaped. The )400, spiritual electors and the palatine deposed him, and he gave a v^illing assent to this act, satisfied with his paternal king- dom of Bohemia. Frederic duke of Brunswick was chosen in his stead, but was murdered immediately afterwards by his private enemies. Rupert, palatine of the Rhine, was then chosen. On his death, the choice fell on Jobst of Luxemburg, margraf of Mo- HIO ravia. He, too, died within a short time, and all the voices declared for Sigismund, brother of Wenceslaus, and king of Hungary. Few princes have united more crowns than Sigismund. By his first wife, Mary of Anjou, he got Hungary, Dalmatia, Bosnia : his brother left him Bohemia ; the pope gave him the imperial crown, and to these he joined Moravia, Lusatia, Brandenburg, and Silesia. The chief stain on the memory of Sigismund is his violation of the safe-conduct given to Huss when going to Constance. This involved him in an eighteen 1414. years' war against Zisca, Procopius, and the other Hussite leaders. Sigismund had been engaged in war with the Otto- mans, and narrowly escaped being taken by them at Nico- 13%. polis. His poverty obliged him to sell several of the imperial rights and claims. The imperial dignity now passed to the house of Austria, there to continue. Albert duke of Austria had married the heiress of Sigismund. But the Hungarians made it a condi- tion at his coronation that he would not accept the imperial crown. The Bohemians also made conditions with him. The 1437 electors vainly tried to induce the margraf of Brandenburg to accept the crown. At length the Hungarians gave their con- sent, and Albert was elected emperor; but just as he was en- 1438. gaging in active hostilities with the Turks, he was surprised 1439 by death. Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert, succeeded his 1440 father in Hungary and Bohemia. Albert's socond cousin, Frederic duke of Styria, was chosen emperor. His long reigr of fifty-three years occupied the most interesting part of the fifteenth century. He was an insignificant prince, yet he had influence enough to have his son Maximilian electetl! king of the Romans during hir^ life ; and his posterity still possess the dominions of the house of Austria, all of which were reunited 1493 in his time, or in that of his son. S34 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11. Switzerland. Switzerland formed a part of the kingdom of Aries or Bur- A. I), gundy, and, with the rest of the dominions of R.odolf, was 1032. united to the German empire. It contained a numerous and powerful nobility, and several rich ecclesiastical lords. Its towns of Zuric, Basle, Berne, and Friburg' rose into import- ance. Among the nobles, the counts of Habsburg gradually became the most powerful : they were advocates to several convents, some of which had estates in the forest-cantons of Schwytz and Underwald. The people of these cantons re- posed confidence in Rodolf, the first emperor of the house of Habsburg : they distrusted his son Albert, who justified their suspicions ; for, not satisfied with the rights which, as advo- cate to the convents, he possessed over a part of the forest- cantons, he, when elected emperor, sent imperial bailifls to administer justice in the whole of these cantons. The people were indignant at this attempt to reduce them to servitude. Three men, Stauffacher of Schwytz, Furst of Uri, Melchthal of Underwald, each with ten companions, met by night in a secret valley, and swore to assert the liberty of their country. 1308. The three cantons rose in arms, and expelled the imperial officers. Albert was shortly afterwards assassinated by his nephew. Henry VII., the next emperor, was little inclined to strengthen the house of Austria ; but Leopold, the son of Albert, led a considerable force into the mountains, and was utterly defeated by those brave peasants at Morgarten, the 1315. Marathon of Switzerland. Lucerne now joined the confederacy : before the middle of the fourteenth century it was augmented by the accession of Zurich, Berne, Zug, and Glaris. These eight were called the ancient cantons. Friburg, Soleure, Basle, Schaffhausen, and Appenzel afterwards became parts of the body. 7'he same conflict as wds carried on in Lombardy between the cities and the rural nobility prevailed here, and with the same results. The house of Austria sold the greater part of its possessions to Zurich and Berne. The abbot of St. Gall, and the remaining lay and spiritual lords, entered into leagues with different cantons. At the beginning of the fifteenth century, Switzerland was acknowledged as a free indepen dent country. Their defeats of Louis XI. and the duke of Burgundy placed the Swiss as soldiers in the very first rank. France. 270. On the death of St. Louis, his son Philip III., the Bold, who had accompanied him, made peace with Tunis, and re- CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 335 turned to Frcnce. Philip engaged in a war with Aragon, a. d. m defence of his uncle, Charles of Anjou*s claim to Sicily; in 1270. which war he did not meet with much success. On the death of his uncle Alfonso, who had been invested with the county of Poitou, and part of Auvergne and Saintonge, and who also held in right of his wife, heiress of Raymond VII. of Toulouse, the remains of that fief, Philip reunited the whole to the crown of France. Philip IV., ^he Fair, a rapacious and ambitious prince, at- 12 tempted to reunite, by force, some of the remaining great fiefs. He outwitted Edward I. of England, and got possession of Guienne, which he held for some time. He acted with similar injustice in the case of Flanders ; but the total defeat of his army at Courtray by the Flemings gave a check to his 1302. injustice in that quarter. On a sentence of forfeiture passed against the count, Philip took possession of Angouleme and )ja Marche ; he also acquired the city of Lyons and its terri- tory, which had been given by Louis IV. with his daughter Matilda to the king of Burgundy, and had gone with that king- dom to the empire in 1(K32. Frederic Barbarossa, having given all the royal rights over the city to the archbishop, St. Louis was called in as a mediator between the chapter and the city, as also was Philip III., who forced the new archbishop to take an oath of fealty to himself At length a spirited archbishop resisted this usurpation, and Philip IV. laid siege to the city, 1310. which submitted, and was united to the crown. Philip the Fair was the first king who convoked the states- 1302. general, or the representatives of the three estates of the kingdom. They were first convened to give weight to the king's cause in his dispute with Boniface VIII. ; afterwards 1314. for the imposition of taxes. The reign of Philip was dis- graced by the suppression of the order of Knights Templars, 1311. and the barbarous tortures inflicted on its most distinguished members. Philip had three sons, Louis Hutin, Philip the Ijong, and Charles the Fair, all of whom reigned in France ; and one daughter Isabella, married to Edward II. of England. Louis X., Hutin, survived his father but a year. He left 1314 one daughter, Jane, and his queen pregnant. Louis had pos- sessed, by his mother, the kingdom of Navarre, and the coun- ties of Champagne and Brie. His brother Philip assumed the regency of both France and Navarre, and then made a treaty with the duke of Burgundy, uncle of Jane, by which it was agreed, that if the queen should have a daughter, the two princesses, or the survivor, should take the inheritance of their grandmother, and renounce all right to the crown of France. But this was not to take place till they had attained 336 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT. the age of consent, when, if they should refuse, their claim was to remain, and right to he done them,. Philip was mean- time, as governor, to receive the homage of the vassals, and govern all these realms. In case of the birth of a male heir, the treaty was not to take effect. The queen brought forth a son, who died withm four days. The treaty was now evi- dently become absolute, and Philip should have governed, as regent or governor, till Jane came of age to accept or refuse A D. the contract made by her uncle. But, instead of so doing 1317. Philip went to Rheims, and had himself crowned, though o] posed by the duke of Burgundy and by his own brother Charles. He thence went to Paris and convened an assembly of prelates, barons, and burgesses of that city, who declared him their lawful sovereign. The duke of Burgundy defend- ed the rights of his niece, till, on the prospect of a marriage with the daughter of Philip, he gave up, in her name, not only her claim to France, but her right to Navarre and Champagne. This is the first occasion on which the right of females to the crown of France was ever discussed. 1322. Philip died, leaving three daughters, and his brother Charles mounted the throne. Charles, on his death, left hia queen pregnant. Philip of Valois, grandson of Philip the Bold, took the regency, and on the queen bringing forth a 1328. daughter, he was crowned king. So that the principle of the exclusion of females was now fully established. No com- petitor appeared in France ; but Edward III. of England put in a claim in right of his mother, Isabella, sister to the last three kings. In every point of view this claim was unjust. If the Salic law was not valid, the claims of the daughters of the last three monarchs were superior to his ; if it was valid, all female claims were alike extinguished. But Ed- ward maintained that though a female could not inherit her- self, she could transmit a title to her male issue ; yet here again he was foiled ; for, admitting this distinction, which is contrary to all rule, Jane, daughter of Louis Hutin, was mar- ried and had a son who was nearer to the crown than Ed- ward. The English monarch, however, thought himself strong enough to make his claim good by force of arms, and he commenced that series of wars between France and Eng- land which lasted during a space of 120 years, and cost so much blood and treasure to both. In the reign of Philip the crown acquired Dauphine, left to it by the will of the last of its princes, on condition of the king's eldest son being styled Dauphin. ,360 After the taking of Calais by Edward a truce was con- cluded, during which Philip died, and was succeeded by his 29 837 > CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 339 son John, a prince in every way deserving of a better fortune than h(j experienced. During the captivity of Johi^ after the unfortunate battle of Poitiers, France v^^as in a most wretched state : the peasantry, driven to madness by the op- pression and insolence of their lords, broke out into the cele- j^^_ j,. brated insurrection called the Jacquerie^ and every horrid 1358 enormity was perpetrated by them. Charles, son of John, the regent of France, now agreed to the peace of Bretigni, and John was liberated. On some difficulty arising with respect to some of the articles, this honorable prmce returned to England to adjust them. He died while there at the Savoy 1364 palace. Charles V., the Wise, turned all his thoughts to restorinigr France to her former state of power and independence. He broke the peace of Bretigni, and stripped the English of nearly all their possessions in that country. This able, judi- cious, and excellent monarch was, unfortunately for France, 1380 carried off by death, leaving one son, a boy of thirteen years, under the care of three ambitious uncles, the dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy. During the minority of Charles VL the nation was dread- fully harassed by excessive taxes, which were wantonly ex- pended. Seditions broke out in Paris and elsewhere, which were severely punished. When Charles assumed the reins 1389 of government, his new ministers proved equally oppressive. A few years afterwards the intellect of the king became de- 1393 ranged, and was never fully restored. The princes returned to power. Burgundy was at the head of affairs, but was op- posed by the duke of Orleans the king's brother. The duke U04 of Burgundy dying, was succeeded by his son named John Sans Peur : he and the duke of Orleans were reconciled ; but soon after the latter was assassinated in the streets of 1407. Paris, and the duke of Burgundy avowed the deed. The queen and all the princes of the blood united against the assassin ; yet such was his power, that after making a slight apology to the king, he was pardoned, and obtained the management of affairs. The princes took arms under the father-in-law of the young duke of Orleans, the count of Armagnac, fi-om whom their party was named. The dauphin played the two factions against each other ; but he and his next brother dying, the rank fell to Charles, the king's youngest son. Armagnac, now constable of France, was at the head of affairs. His 141% severity revived the Burgundian party in Paris ; he made the queen, the infamous Isabel of Bavaria, his enemy, by detect- uig her gallantries. She joined her old foe, the duke of Bur- 340 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT- gundy, A horrid insurrection was excited in Paris, and J418. Armagnac and all his party, to the number of three or four thousand, were massacred in one day. A reconciliation now took place between the duke of Burgundy and the dauphin ; but, at their interview, the duke was murdered by some of the attendants of the latter. Henry V. had renewed the war with France, had won the battle of Azincourt, and conquered Normandy. Filled with rage against the supposed author of the murder, the whole of the Burgundian party, with Philip, son of the late duke, at their head, and joined by the queen, agreed to the treaty of 1420. Troyes with Henry, in which it was stipulated that on his marriage with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., he should become regent, and succeed to the kingdom on the death of his father-in-law, to the exclusion of the dauphin and all the princes of the blood. Henry, during two years, governed the north of France, and his infant son, Henry VL, was, on the 1422. death of Charles, proclaimed king of France and England. Charles VII. was acknowledged only in the central prov- inces and in Languedoc, Poitou, and Dauphine. The duke of Bedford governed with vigor for young Henry, and the war was carried on to the advantage of the English. Charles, though brave and talented, was sunk in despair and pleasure. At length, the heroic Maid of Orleans appeared ; the affairs of Charles took a new turn ; Burgundy returned to his duty, J449 and the English were expelled from France. Master of his kingdom, Charles turned all his thoughts to restoring and extending the royal authority. He suppressed some risings of the nobles, and he formed his celebrated companies of or- dinance, a body of about 9000 cavalry, the first standing army maintained in Europe. 1461. Louis XL, the Tiberius of France, showed the power es- tablished by his father to be a despotism. The nobility saw 1464. ^^ approaching ruin of their independence. A confederacy, named The League of the Public Weal, was formed against the crown, in which all the princes and great vassals shared, headed by the king's brother, Charles duke of Berri. By the peace of Conflans Louis was compelled to give Charles the duchy of Normandy as an appanage ;* but he soon deprived 1442 him of it, and at last gave him Guienne, where he died. • Having diverted by money the invasion of Edward IV. of England, Louis turned all his thoughts to oppose the duke of Burgundy. * An appanage was a provision made for a younger son of a king of France. It generally consisted of an extensive fief held of the crown. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 341 John h^^d given the duchy of Burgundy as an appanage to his third son Philip, and by marriage with the heiress of the count of Flanders he had gotten that province, Artois, Franche-Comte, and the Nivernois. Philip the Good, his grand- son, had acquired all the other provinces that compose the Netherlands. Charles the Bold, the present duke, was proud and ambitious : he engaged in war with Lorraine with suc- cess ; but being offended with the Swiss, he attacked them, a. d, and was defeated at Granson, in the Pays de Vaud, and again 1476k at Morat, near Friburg, with prodigious loss. This day broke the power of Burgundy : Charles, with inferior forces, gave at Nancy battle to the duke of Lorraine, and perished in the 1477 fight. Charles left an only child, a daughter, named Mary. The true policy of Louis was evidently to obtain her in marriage for the dauphin ; but he preferred setting up a claim to the duchy, as having been an appanage, and therefore incapable of descent to females ; and he seized on Artois and Franche- Comte. This and other acts of perfidy incensed Mary, and she married Maximilian, son of the emperor of Germany. Mary did not long survive: she left a son, Philip, and a daugh- 1477 ter, Margaret. At the peace of Arras, the latter was con- tracted to the dauphin, and Franche-Comte and Artois were 1482. to be her dower. In this reign Provence was united to the French crown, by the will of Charles of Anjou. ' Charles VIIL was but thirteen years of age on the death 148a of his father. Louis had appointed his daughter Anne, mar- ried to the lord of Beaujeu, to be regent. This was contested with her by the duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis XIL ; but the lady of Beaujeu stood her ground, and ruled France, in spite of the Orleans party and their ally the duke of Britany. This last duke, like the duke of Burgundy, died leaving an only daughter. Her hand was sought by the duke of Orleans, whom she preferred herself, by the lord of Albret, of the family of Foix, and by Maximilian king of the Romans, now a widower. The French regent carried on a vigorous war against Britany. The duchess Anne, having no other means of escaping Albret, was married by proxy to Maximilian; but 1489 was ultimately compelled to espouse Charles VIIL, who waa already betrothed to the daughter of Maximilian. This last v^ras enraged at the slight put on himself and his daughter, but was appeased by Charles restoring Artois and Franche- Comte. Thus was France, at length, consolidated into one great monarchy : the feudal system was at an end ; no internal dis- 29* 342 HISTORY or the world. part II. turbaiices were to be found, and she could now enter with dignity on the large theatre of Europe. England — The Plantagenets. 1274. Edward I., from the commencement of his reign, directed his attention to the correction of abuses and the exact admin istration of the laws. While thus engaged, an opportunity offered of interfering in Wales, and he reduced that country 282. under the crown of England, from which it has never since been separated. A dispute arising about the right to the snc- cession to the Scottish crown, that nation referred the ques tion to Edward. The English king appeared with a large army on the frontiers, advanced a claim of feudal superiority over that kingdom, to which the Scots were forced to submit, and he then gave the crown to the candidate whose claim 1296. appeared best founded. The Scots soon after took arms foi their independence. Edward entered and conquered the whole country ; but still the spirit of the nation rose, and Ed- ward died on an expedition against that kingdom. It is gratifying to see vice punish itself: by his eagerness in this flagrantly unjust attempt on Scotland, Edward nearly lost Guienne to the French king ; the parliament, of which the commons were now become an essential part, acquired vigor, 1299. and the king was forced to give the Confirmation of the Char- ters by which the charters of Liberties and of the Forests were confirmed, and to bind himself to levy no contributions without the consent of the people. Edward was a monarch of great talent and capacity. 1307 Edward II. was the very opposite of his father ; he aban- doned himself entirely to the direction of his favorites, at first of Piers Gavestone, and, after his death, of Hugh Spencer. In his wars with Scotland he reaped nothing but disgrace. His army was utterly defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. Edward was married to Isabella, daughter of the king of France. She and the nobles conspired and deposed the king, and he was barbarously murdered by his keepers at Berkeley castle. A mild, inoffensive prince, he was unfit for those tur- bulent times. »327. Edward HI. was but fourteen years old when his father was deposed, and the queen was declared regent during his minority. She and her paramour Mortimer governed with such tyranny, that Edward was enabled to seize the reins of government, and to have Mortimer executed for his crimes. Unjust and expensive wars with France and Scotland, in which, no doubt, brilliant victories were gained, occupied nearly the whole of this reign. Owing to the king's conse- CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER, 343 qucnt great demand for supplies, parliament increased in power and influence, and three great principles were estab- lished ; to wit, the illegality of raising money without con- sent ; the necessity of the concurrence of the two houses for any alteration of the laws ; and the right of the commons to inquire into public abuses, and to impeach ministers. Edward instituted the order of the Garter. His reign was the noon of chivalry, of which himself and his son, the Black Prince, were the mirrors. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, succeeded his grand- 137 father, at the age of eleven years. In the fifth year of his reign broke out, in consequence of oppressive taxation, the 1381 great insurrection of the villeins, headed by Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others, in the suppression of which the king showed such courage and presence of mind as gave great hopes of his future excellence. But these hopes were de- ceived : Richard was proud, indolent, fond of pomp and ex- pense, and attached to favorites. Various methods were em- ployed to restrain him, but without effect : he had succeeded in obtaining power nearly absolute, when the duke of Here- ford, who had been unjustly banished, returned, during the king's absence in Ireland, to claim the inheritance of his father, the duke of Lancaster. All ranks and orders flocked to his standard ; the king, on his return, was deserted by bis troops ; he threw himself into Flint castle, where, induced by the base treachery and perjury of the earl of Northum- berland, he surrendered. He was led to London, deposed by parliament, forced to abdicate, confined in Pomfret castle, and there murdered. 1399 Richard had no children; he had declared his cousin, Roger Mortimer, earl of March, son of Philippa, only daughter of Lionel duke of Clarence, second son to Edward III., his suc- cessor. Roger was killed in Ireland, and his eldest son was a boy of but seven years of age. Henry duke of Lancaster was son to John, third son of Edward III. ; he had therefore evidently no right to the crown. But on the deposition of Richard he made a challenge of the crown, in terms in which were strangely mingled right of descent,* conquest, and merit. At all events, he was placed on the throne by the unanimous voice of lords and commons; and as with Henry's small means it is idle to talk offeree, he was plainly a lawful * It was a vulgar notion that Edmund earl of Lancaster, and not Edward I., was the eldest son of Henry IIL; but on account of some personal dr fcrmity, he had been set aside, and his brother imposed on the nation. Thrt present duke of Lancaster was his heir by his mother; and if that stoi/ wae true he was the true heir to the crown. 344 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT, monarch, and no usurper. The constitution, however, re A. D. ceived advantage from the defect in his title, and the com- 1402. mons advanced greatly in importance and influence. The Percies rebelled against Henry ; but he defeated theii and their allies at Shrewsbury, and effectually crushed them. His government was firm and vigorous, and advantageous to thr nation ; and, but for the crimes by which the crown was ac- quired, he would be deserving of esteem as a monarch. His mind is said to have been harassed by remorse for what he had done, and no acts of unnecessary cruelty sully his reign. 1431. Henry V. succeeded with universal favor. He was young, brave, affable, and generous. He had not been long on the throne when he engaged in his wars with France, which gave England the pride of Azincourt, and placed his son on the throne of that country. In the midst of his glory he died in his thirty-fourth year at Paris. 1422. Henry VI. being but a year old at his accession, his uncles, the dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, administered the public affairs, and the bishop of Winchester had charge of the king's person. Notwithstanding the great abilities of the duke of Bedford, the English affairs declined in France, and before the king was of age, nearly all the acquisitions of his father in that country were lost. After the death of the duke of Bedford, the duke of Gloucester and the bishop of Winches- ter, now a cardinal, contended for the direction of the king's 1443. councils. In the affair of the young monarch's marriage the cardinal was victorious, and married him to Margaret of An jou, daughter of Regnier, titular king of Naples, a princess of masculine spirit and great ability and address. The duke 1447 of Gloucester was afterwards thrown into prison and mur- dered, a deed in which his uncle the cardinal, and perhaps the queen, was deeply concerned. A claimant to the crown now appeared. Richard duke of York was son to the earl of Cambridge, by Anne, sister of the late earl of March, in whom ended the ma:les of the house of Mortimer. The rights of that family, therefore, centered in the duke of York, who was thus descended by his mother from the only daughter of the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III. ; whereas the king was descended from the duke of Lancaster, third son of that monarch. The duke of York was a man of most amiable manners, of large posses- sions, of extensive connexions and influence. The loss of France, the hatred of the king's ministers, and, above all, the murder of the duke of Gloucester, had alienated the affec- tions of the people. A large body of the nobility, and the c Tunons in general, sided with the duke of York, and re- 345 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 347 course was hid to arms. The battle of St. Alban's gained a. d by the Yorkists, was the commencement of a struggle which 145f» lasted thirty years, and in which were fought twelve pitclied battles. The battles of Blore-heath and Northampton were 1460 gained by the York party. In the last the king was taken prisoner : but the spirit of Margaret was unbroken ; she col- lected a large army, to which the duke of York was impru- dent enough to give battle at Wakefield, where he was de- feated and slain. Here the queen and her friends commenced that ferocious system which, being imitated by the other party, casts on these wars such an aspect of horror and barbarity. The head of the duke of York was cut off, and fixed on the gates of York ; his son, the earl of Rutland, was murdered in cold blood ; the earl of Salisbury and other noblemen were executed by martial law. The claims of the duke descended to his son Edward, who gained the battle of Mortimer's Cross. The Yorkists were 1461 defeated at St. Alban's. Edward now assumed the crown by a somewhat irregular popular election. Edward IV. was handsome, brave, affable; but licentious, and barbarously cruel. The Lancastrians were defeated with great slaughter at Towton. Henry and Margaret fled to Scot- 1461 land ; but the indefatigable queen went to France, and in- ducing Louis XL to assist her with some troops and money, she returned and raised another army, but was again totally 1464 defeated at Hexham. Margaret fled to France, and Henry, being discovered, was thrown into the Tower. The hopes of the Lancastrians seemed now quite crushed, when a cool- ness arising between Edward and the great earl of Warwick, called the king-maker, the latter entered into a treaty with Margaret, and drove Edward out of the kingdom, and re- stored Henry ; but in less than six months Edward returned, and Warwick was defeated and slain at the battle of Barnet. The very day of this battle, Margaret and her son, prince 1471 Edward, landed at Weymouth. Though at first overwhelmed at the tidings of the defeat and death of Warwick, she re- sumed her wonted spirit, collected an army, and marched to Tewkesbury. Here fortune proved once more adverse ; the Lancastrian army was totally routed, the queen and prince taken, and the latter murdered, almost in the presence of Ed- ward. Henry soon afterwards died, murdered, as was said, by the duke of Gloucester in the Tower, and the hopes of the Lancastrians now seemed extinct. Edward V. was, it is said, with his brother the duke of 14 York, murdered in the Tower by their uncle, the duke of Gloucester, who usurped the crown under the title of Rich- 348 HISTOKY OF THE WORLD. PART TI. ard ITT. The duke of Buckingham, who had aided Richard in his projects, being discontented, invited over the earl of Richmond, who had sheltered himself in Britany ; but hav- ing taken arms before the arrival of this nobleman, he was seized and executed by order of Richard. Richmond at his landing was joined by many ; Richard hastened to oppose ^. D him : the engagement took place on the field of Bosworth. 486. Richard was slain fighting bravely, and Richmond was sa- luted king on the field of battle, by the title of Henry VII. With Richard III. ended the line of Plantagenet, which had governed England with glory, on the whole, during three cen- turies. The new house was called that of Tudor, from the family name of Henry VII. The title of Henry was exposed to all the defects in the original Lancastrian title ; and even supposing that to be good, he was not the true heir of that family ; for he claimed through his mother Margaret, sole heiress of the duke of Somerset, sprung from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster ; but the line of Somerset derived from, one of the children of John of Gaunt, by Catherine Swynford, during the life of his duchess, and was therefore illegitimate, and even adulte- rous ; and though Richard II. had legitimated these children, they were never conceived to have any claim to the crown ; and farther, the mother of Henry was still alive. Edward IV. had left daughters, of whose title there could be no doubt, and Henry was to be married to Elizabeth, the eldest of them; but he had an aversion to that family, and he would not ap- pear to owe his crown to his wife. During all his reign he was very tender on this subject of his title. i486. After a good deal of delay, he married the princess Eliza- beth, but he never loved her. The duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., raised up two impostors against him, each pretending to be Richard duke of York,* who had es- caped from the Tower ; but the vigilance of the king easily crushed all attempts against his crown. The chief defect in Henry's character was avarice ; his great object was the de- pression of the nobility, a point the more easily to be effect- ed, as most of them had perished in the civil wars. The landed proprietors obtained power to alienate their estates; and as commerce had greatly increased, luxury extended, and many of the commons had amassed wealth, the object nearest Henry's heart was rapidly effected, though we are * The fate of this prince and his brother is involved in singular mystery It may very reasonably be doubted whether Perkin Warbeck was an iinpo» tor or not. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 349 not, perhaps, to compliment his sagacity with having fore- seen it. Wars hetioeen France and England. As they were now at an end, the present seems a good oc- casion of giving a consecutive view of these useless and dis- astrous wars. When Edward III. laid claim to the crown of France,* his a. d. first care was to strengthen himself by alliances with the ^^^ duke of Brabant, the count of Hainault, his father-in-law, and other princes near the Rhine ; and as the English had been for some time connected by trade with the Flemings, and that people, who were in rebellion against their earl, were governed by James van Artiveld, a brewer of Ghent, Edward sought to gain that demagogue to his side, and he succeeded in his object. Thus supported, Edward collected an army, and entered France ; but nothing of moment oc- 1339 curred in this first campaign, and the funds of the English monarch being exhausted, he was obliged to return home. The following year Edward gained a naval victory over the French, and entered France at the head of 100,000 men ; but Philip declined engaging, and a truce was concluded for a year. During the truce, affairs took such a turn in Britany as engaged the two kingdoms again in war. Charles of Blois, nephew to the French king, had married the daughter of the duke of Britany, upon whose death the count de Montford, the next heir male, seized the duchy. Feeling he could not hold it agamst the power of France, he went over to Eng- land, and offered to do homage for it to Edward. Edward accepted the proposal, and sent over troops to assist his vas- sal. Montford had meantime been taken prisoner; but his wife maintained his cause with masculine energy. This strug- gle was terminated by a truce for three years, on honorable 1343, terms for Edward and the countess. The truce was broken the next year. Edward invaded 1344 Normandy with an army of 30,000 men. Philip advanced 1346 at the head of 90,000. The English king, fearing to be sur- rounded, retreated towards Flanders. The bridges over the Somme were broken down, and a French force was on the opposite side ; but the English, having discovered a ford, passed over and drove off the French. As the rear-guard of the English was passing, the army of Philip came up ; but, the tide rising, it could not pass, and had to go round by the bridge of Abbeville. Fearing to march over the plains of 30 • See D 226 350 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IT Picardy, exposed to the numerous cavalry of the French, Edward resolved to give battle, and he drew up his troops in three lines on a rising* ground near the village of Crecy : the French advanced also in three lines ; but they were fatigued with their march, and disol-dered. The battle began about three o'clock in the day (Aug. 26), and ended in a complete victory on the part of the English. The French lost 40,000 men, among whom were several of the nobility, 1200 knights, and 1400 gentlemen, /j; Edward now invested Calais, which surrendered after a VA" eiege of twelve months. The inhabitants were expelled, and the town peopled with English. A truce was concluded, which the dreadful plague that ravaged Europe at that time caused to be prolonged. During the truce Philip died, and was succeeded by his son John. Charles king of Navarre, surnamed the Bad, son of Jane, daughter of Louis Hutin, entered secretly into cor- respondence with the king of England, into which he drew even the dauphin ; but that prince afterwards repenting, be- trayed the king of Navarre to his father, who threw him into prison. Philip, brother of the king of Navarre, put all his fortresses into a state of defence, and called on Edward for 1356 assistance. The war was renewed. Edward the Black Prince, eldest son of the king of Eng- land, commanded in Guienne. He ventured with an army of 12,000 men to advance into the French territory. John collected a force of 60,000 men, and came up with him at Maupertuis, near Poitiers. The Black Prince offered to sur- render his conquests for a safe retreat : he was refused : he then prepared for battle, and drew up his little army with the utmost skill (Sep. 19). The usual impetuosity of the French hurried them to the attack, and the battle ended in the utter rout of the French army, and the captivity of their king. The generosity of the Black Prince to his captive, only paralleled by that of Alp Arslan,* is well known. Jolm was 1357. led to Bourdeaux, and thence to England, and a truce was concluded for two years. France was now in a complete state of anarchy ; but the truce and the want of money prevented Edward's deriving any advantage from it. At the expiration of the truce, he invaded and ravaged that kingdom ; but finding he could not make a durable impression, he concluded the peace of Bre- 13^. tigni. The terms of this peace were, that John should pay three millions of crowns of gold for his ransom ; that Edward * See p 189. Tbo Black Prince entertaining his prisoner, King John of France. 351 CHAP. VIT. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 353 should give up all claim to the crown of France, and to Nor- mandy, Touraine, Maine, and Anjou, for which he was to re- ceive Poitou, Saintono-e, Lagenois, Perigord, the Limousin, Quercy, and other neighboring places, with Calais, Guisnes, Montreuil, and Ponthieu ; all in full sovereignty, no homage for them or Guienne to be due to the crown of France. Charles V. succeeding John, who died soon after the peace of Bretigni, the terms of which were never executed, some of til . Gascon nobles appealed to him, as the superior lord, a gah st the heavy taxes laid on them by the Black Prince, in consequence of his expedition to Spain. That able monarch, who nad now terminated the disorders of his kingdom, sum- moned the prince to appear in his court at Paris to answer the complaint of his vassals. Edward replied that he would, but it would be at the head of 60,000 men. But his health was declining ; he was obliged to return to England ; and a. d. ' the war terminated in the English being stripped of Guienne. 1370. except Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and of all their conquests but Calais. During the reign of Richard II. the war was carried on lang-uidly. One of its most remarkable events was the duke of Gloucester, the king's uncle, having the hardihood to march 1380 out of Calais at the head of 2000 horse and 8000 foot, enter the heart of France, and ravage all the country till he joined his allies in Britany. The duke of Burgundy came within sight with a much superior army ; but such was the terror the French felt of the English, that he did not venture to attack them. Some years afterwards, the king of France 1386 made preparations for invading England ; but his fleet was dispersed by a storm, and many of the ships taken by the English. The Gascons put themselves, in this reign, once more under the government of England. Both parties were now anxious for peace; but as the terms could not be ad- 1396 justed, they agreed on a truce for twenty-five years, and Richard was affianced to Isabella, daughter of Charles, b princess only seven years old. On the murder of Richard, the French king made some 1401. show of avenging his death ; but on the princess Isabella being given up, he renewed the truce with Henry IV. Towards the end of his reign Henry began to take some part in the quarrels of the Orleans and Burgundy factions in France: he 1411 sent a small body of troops to the aid of the latter, and after- wards a larger to that of the former. Henry IV. had when dying exhorted his son not to let the 1415 Englisii nation remain long at rest. Henry V. therefore, 30=^ 354 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. taking advantage of the distracted state of France,* sent am- bassadors to Paris with most exorbitant proposals. He de- manded the crown of France (or at least reserved his right to it), Normandy, Touraine, Maine, Guienne, and the homage of Britany and Flanders, the princess Catherine in marriage, and 2,000,000 crowns of gold as her dower, and the arrear of king John's ransom. The French offered him Guienne and Saintonge, and a dower of 800,000 crowns. Henry forth- with prepared for war; he collected a fleet and army, con- sisting of 6000 men-at-arms and 24,000 foot, at Southampton, landed in Normandy, and took the town of Harfleur. Having dismissed his transports, he was obliged to march his army to Calais by land. An army of 14,000 men-at-arms and 40,000 foot, under the constable d'Albert, was now collected in Nor- mandy. Henry offered to give up Harfleur for a safe passage to Calais: this offer was rejected: he marched by slow jour- neys till he reached the Somme, which he intended passing where Edward had passed, but found it strongly guarded : he at length seized a passage near St. Quintin, and got safely over. He now marched for Calais; but on ascending the heights near Blangi (Oct. 25) he saw the whole French array drawn up on the plain of Azincourt. Henry's army was now reduced by disease and the sword to about 15,000 men. His situation was similar to that of Edward at Crecy, and of the Black Prince at Poitiers, and he made the same judicious dis- positions. The French acted with the same impetuosity and imprudence: the final result was similar. Of the French 10,000 were slain, among whom were the constable himself and some of the chief nobility ; 14,000 were made prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and many other nobles of high rank. The English lost but forty men. Want of funds preventing Henry, like his predeces- sors, from taking full advantage of this victory, he returned to England, having made a truce with the enemy. During this truce the animosity between the Armagnac and Burgundian parties raged with the greatest violence. Henry collected an army of 25,000 men, and landed in Nor- mandy: several towns surrendered, and, being reinforced with 15,000 more, he formed the siege of Rouen. The queen and the duke of Burgundy now made a treaty with him simi- lar to that afterwards made at Troyes ; but before it was com- pleted the dauphin and duke of Burgundy entered into a secret treaty to share the supreme power, and expel the in- vader. But the murder of the duke taking place, his son in- * See p. 228. CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAI VL POWER. 355 etantly formed a league with the king of England, and the treaty of Troyes was concluded. All the north of France was rapidly conquered, and the dauphin driven beyond the a. d. Loire. In this state of affairs, Henry V. died. 1422, The duke of Bedford prosecuted the war with vigor. The battle of Verneuil, in which the only army of the king of 1424. France was defeated with great loss, seemed to have given the finishing stroke to his fortunes. Bedford resolved to pene- trate into the south of France, and for that purpose formed the siege of Orleans. Every effort was made to defend this city, 1428 on which the hopes of France now seemed to depend. The siege was tedious, but the English were gradually gaining ground, when that wonderful visionary, Joan of Arc, appeared to restore the sinking destiny of France. A secret horror thrilled the English soldiers, which their officers either shared or could not remove ; defeat attended them everywhere ; the provinces and towns of France returned joyfully to their al- legiance ; the duke of Burgundy was reconciled to his sove- reign, and the English were, in a few years, driven out of every part of France but Calais. Thus, happily for both 1450 countries, ended all the magnificent projects of the conquest of France. Scotland. From a very early period Scotland had been governed by kings. These were frequently engaged in wars and alliances with the northern princes of the heptarchy. When Duncan king of Scotland was murdered by Macbeth, an army was sent by Edward the Confessor against the usurper, and Mal- colm, the rightful heir, was restored to the throne. This prince espoused the sister of Edgar Atheling, and many of the English fled to Scotland from the tyranny of the Con- queror. The Scots began now to make occasional inroads into England. In one of these, William king of Scotland was taken prisoner by Henry II., and, as a part of the condi- tions of his liberty, was forced to do homage for his whole kingdom, the Scottish kings having hitherto done so only for Cumberland, which they held. Richard I., however, re- nounced this right. On the death of Alexander III., near a century afterwards, 1286 a dispute arose about the succession to the Scottish throne. That monarch having lefl no descendant but a granddaugh- ter, who did not long survive him, the right fell to the de- scendants of David earl of Huntingdon, third son of David 1. ; of these John Baliol was grandson of Margaret, the earl's eldest daughter ; Robert Bruce was son of Isabel, his second 356 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. daucrhter. The rules of succession not being at that time well established, it was a doubtful question whicJi was the true heir. To avoid a recourse to arms, the parliament of Scotland determined to refer the matter to the arbitration of Edward I., a prince extolled for wisdom and prudence. Ed- ward seized this occasion of obtaining- the sovereignty of Scotland : he appeared on the frontier with a large army, and compelled all the Scottish nobles, including the two candi- dates, to swear fealty to him as liege lord ; he made them give him possession of the kingdom, and then declaring Baliol the X. D. true heir, put him in possession of it, on his renewing his 292! oath of fealty. The Scottish nation, and even their king, were indignant at being thus trepanned and degraded ; a secret alliance was formed with France; a dispensation of the king's oath of fealty was procured from the pope ; and, on being summoned to appear in an English parliament at Newcastle, Baliol re- 1296. fused to attend. Edward entered Scotland at the head of 30,000 foot and 4000 horse, and quickly overran and subdued the entire kingdom. Baliol was forced to submit and implore forgiveness, English garrisons were placed in the fortresses, and earl Warrenne left governor. This earl being obliged to return to England on account of his health, the administration was left in the hands of Ormsby and Cressingham, who oppressed the people without mercy. A gentleman, named William Wallace, was so provoked as to kill an English officer. Knowing he had no mercy to ex- pect, he fled to the woods and collected a party, with whom he continually harassed the English; numbers joined him; several of the principal barons countenanced him ; and the whole country was on the eve of rising, when Warrenne col- lected an army of 40,000 men, and suddenly returned. Mak- ing an attack on the camp of Wallace, near Stirling, the English were totally routed, and Cressingham slain. The nation now rose, and bestowed on Wallace the title of regent. The English were expelled ; but Edward, who had been in Flanders, returned, collected an army of 80,000 men, and entered the country. The Scots ventured to give him battle at Falkirk (June 22), when they were routed with great 29H slaughter. They still carried on the contest ; but Wallace was betrayed by his friend Sir John Monteith, and the intrepid 305, patriot was executed in London as a rebel. Robert Bruce, who had been in the English service, now stepped forward to defend his own and his country's rights. The Scottish nation rose once more ; the English were driven out of the country, and Bruce was crowned at Scone. Ed- 357 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 359 ward now found he had all his work to do over again ; he sent an army, under Aymer de Valence earl of Pembroke, who defeated Bruce, and forced him to take shelter in the Western Isles. The king- was himself advancing, deter- mined to wreak his vengeance on the Scots, when he sick- a. d. ened and died at Carlisle, with his last breath charging his 1301 son to prosecute the war. Edward II. was anxious to get back to England, and after a few feeble efforts he left Scotland. Bruce, who had returned, made himself master of the whole kingdom except a few for- tresses, and even made inroads into England. Edward was roused; he collected a large force, and entered Scotland. The English army was 80,000 strong; that of Bruce did not exceed 30,000. But he ventured to give them battle at Ban- nockburn, near Stirling (June 14,) where he totally defeated 1314. them. This victory, one of the most glorious ever obtained, secured the independence of Scotland, and reduced to nothing all the hopes founded on the iniquitous attempt of Edward I. One more fruitless effort was made by Edward, and a truce 1323. was then concluded for thirteen years. On the death of Robert Bruce, who left a son, a minor, Edward III. secretly encouraged the son of John Baliol to put forward his claim to the Scottish kingdom, raised a small 1332. array, with which he landed on the coast of Fife, and ad- vanced into the heart of the country, where he defeated the Scottish army of 30,000 men, under the earl of Mar. He then took Perth, and was crowned at Scone. But having dismissed the greater part of his English followers, he was soon after driven back into England. He here made large offers to Edward, particularly engaging to renew the homage which had been given up by Mortimer in Edward's minority, if he would assist him to regain his throne. Edward collected a large army ; the Scots encountered him at Halidon-hill, near Berwick (July 19), and were defeated with the loss of nearly 1333 20,000 men and the chief of their nobility. But still Scot- land was unconquered. The English forces might overrun and destroy the country ; but as soon as they retired, the na- tives repossessed it, and again bade them defiance. David, the son of Robert Bruce, had taken refuge in France, but had returned, and driven Baliol out of Scotland. 1346 At the solicitation of the king of France, with whom he had made an alliance, he invaded England. Queen Philippa, at the head of 12,000 men, met him at Neville's Cross, neai Durham (October 17,) and the Scottish king was defeated and taken prisoner. After a captivity of ten years, he was released for a ransom of 100,000 marks. 360 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. A. D. Richard II. invaded Scotland, at the head of 60,000 men 1385. and ravaged the country, as usual ; but in the mean time 30,000 Scots retaliated on the west of England, and Richard 1401. returned without having effected any thing. Henry IV. led an army into Scotland to no purpose. The Scots immediately H02. after invaded England, but were defeated by the Percies at Humbledown. The Scots afterwards aided the Percies in their rebellion. Robert III. of Scotland was a feeble prince : his brother, the duke of Albany, seized the government and aimed at the throne : to effect this purpose, he resolved to remove his nephews; and he threw David, the eWer, into prison, where he perished of hunger. Robert, to save James, his younger 1407. son, sent him to France ; but the ship was taken by the Eng- lish, and Henry IV. refused to restore the young prince to liberty. Robert died of grief; and now, by possessing the person of the young king, Henry was able to keep the duke of Albany in dependence, and secure his kingdom from in- roads. He, however, gave the young monarch an excellent education. Ever since the time of Edward III., the French and Scot- tish nations had been in strict alliance against the common enemy. When Henry V. had had such a career of success in France, the Scottish nation and the regent saw plainly that they must submit if that country was conquered, and a 1421. body of 7000 men was sent to the aid of the dauphin, who treated them with great favor. Throughout the war, Scottish volunteers crowded to the French standard ; and, in the reign of Henry VI., the duke of Bedford recommended it as the best policy, to marry the young king of Scots to the king's cousin, the daughter of the earl of Somerset, and give him 1423. his liberty. This was done, and James, during his short reign, proved one of the greatest of the Scottish monarchs. 1437. He was murdered by his kinsman the earl of Athol. During the wars of the Roses, Scotland was too much distracted by factions to be able to take any advantage of the state of Eng- land. In the reign of Henry VII., James IV. gave counte- nance and assistance to Perkin Warbeck ; but the war was 1502. happily terminated by the marriage of the Scottish monarch with Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry. Scandinavia. Denmark and Norway we have seen early formed into monarchies. Sweden remained longer divided into small in- dependent districts. The Swedes and Goths at length agreed to foi-m one state, to be governed alternately by a Goth of the CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 361 race of Svercher, and a Swede of that of Eric. The natural a. d- consequence was endless assassination. In the 14th century 1153. the race of Odis in Sweden was extinct, and a foreigner was placed on the throne. In the same century, the ancient lines in Denmark and Norway ended with Waldemar and Olaf. Margaret, daughter of the former, mother of the latter, was heiress to both. She defeated Albert of Mecklenburg king of Sweden, and forced him to abdicate, and then, by the Union 1398 of Calmar, united the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Mar- garet, having no children, was succeeded by her nephew Eric, of the ducal house of Pomerania, but he was driven out of the three kingdoms. Christopher, a duke of Bavaria, was 1439 invited to Denmark, and the other kingdoms submitted to his government. On his death Christian, son of the count of 1448 Oldenburg, was chosen king of Denmark, and by his mother, who was sister to the count of Holstein, he obtained that country, which was now made a duchy. Norway followed 1459. the example of Denmark ; but Carl Cnutson and Steno Sture maintained the independence of Sweden against him and his two successors. Poland. The Poles are a portion of the Slavonians, the last great race which arrived in Europe. They were at first divided into several small states, for ever at war with each other. When they embraced the Christian religion, they united un- der the government of a duke. In the thirteenth century, 1295. Przemysl, of the house of the Piasti, assumed the royal dig- nity. This race ruled Poland five hundred years, and it ended with Casimir the Great, in 1370. He was succeeded by his 1370 sister's son, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, also named the Great. This king left only daughters: Sigismund of Luxemburg, the husband of Mary, the eldest, was king of 1382. Hungary, and Louis had provided for the continued union of the two crowns ; but the Poles and Hedwig, his other daugh- ter, rejected that arrangement, and that princess gave her 1386. hand to Jagellon, great-prince of Lithuania, who with his people embraced the Christian religion. The kingdom flour- ished greatly under this king : its export of corn was con- . siderable. In the reign of his son, by the choice of the Hun- 1437. garians, the two countries were again united ; but this young monarch lost both life and crown in the battle of Varna, ^444 against the Turkish sultan Moorad. His brother Casimir succeeded him in Poland, and was one of the greatest princes of his time. He made great ac- quisitions from the Teutonic order of knights. Casimir reign- 31 362 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. ed nearly half a century, and saw Vladislaus, one of his sons king of Hungary and Bohemia. Hungary. The house of Arpad ruled four hundred years in Hungary, A. D. and ended with Andrew III. On the death of this monarch, 1301. the people were split into various parties; that of Charlea 310. Robert, of the Neapolitan branch of the house of Anjou, pre- vailed, and he was called to the throne. His vigor and wis- dom, in the course of a long reign, raised the kingdom to great 343. glory ; and the long reign also of his son Louis still further increased its power and dignity. But Louis unfortunately 1382. died just as the Ottoman power was growing formidable on the frontiers, and the kingdom was again distracted by fac- 1386. tion. Sigismund, a stranger, was chosen king, and reigned for more than half a century. He lost the battle of Nicopolis to the Turks ; but circumstances prevented their attempting to follow up their victory. Sigismund was succeeded in the empire and in Hungary by his son-in-law, Albert of Austria. 1437. Albert's successor, Ladislaus, being a posthumous child, the Hungarians gave the crown, for his minority, to Vladislaus king of Poland. On his death John Hunniades was made re- 1466. gent, and at the battle of Belgrade he gave an effectual check 1458. to the Ottoman power. The young king lived but two years after Hunniades ; and the nation then chose Matthias the son of the valiant John Hunniades, to be their sovereign. Mat- thias was the greatest prince of his age, and in his wars with x\ustria and Bohemia victory always attended him. On hisi 1490. death, the Hungarians elected Vladislaus, son of Casimir king of Poland, already king of Bohemia. The Ottomans. When the Mongols of Chingis Khan had burst through tlie barriers of Khowaresm over Persia and Lesser Asia, Suleiman, 1234. one of the noblest of the Turkish tribe of Oghuz, migrated at the head of 50,000 souls from Khorassan to Armenia. Afler remaining seven years in that country, Suleiman prepared to return to his former abode ; but chancing to be drowned in crossing the Euphrates at Jaaber, his followers dispersed. A part remained in Syria, another part went to Lesser Asia. Of the four sons of Suleiman, two returned to Khorassan ; the two younger, Dindar and Ortoghrul, retired with four hundred families to the mountains east of Erzeroom, and thence roved westwards, to seek a retreat in the dominions of Ala-ed-deen, the great prince of the Seljookians of Icorium. On their way, they came to where two armies were fighting ; 363 HAP. Vri. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 365 Ortoghrul chivalrously resolved to assist the weaker, and his aid turned the scale. It wq.s Ala-ed-deen vi^hom he made victorious over an army of Tatars ; and the grateful sultan bestovv^ed honors and pasture-land on his ally. This land, the cradle of the Ottoman pov^er, is the Sanjak of Sultan Oni, the ancient Phrygia Epictetos. Here they fed their herds on the mountains in summer, and in winter descended into the plain ; and they lived in amity with the neighboring subjects of the Greek emperors. Osman, the son of Ortoghrul, resolved on conquest. His dervishes excited the courage of his soldiers, and he estab- a. u lished a kingdom in Bithynia, of which Brusa, at the foot of 1291 the Mysian Olympus, became the capital. It is from this monarch that the western Turks derive their appellation of Ottomans, or more properly Osmans. In the time of his son Orchan, a great part of Lesser Asia 1326 was subdued by the Turkish arms. The isles of Greece felt their power : the court of Constantinople was split into fac- tions ; civil war raged in the empire ; each party sought the aid of the Turks. John Cantacuzenes, a man of talent and virtue, on ascending the throne, felt that its strength was gone, and retired to the solitude of mount Athos. His suc- cessor, John Palseologus, was sunk in pleasure. Under the reign of Orchan the Ottoman institutions, one of which was the formation of the corps of Janizaries {Yeni-cheri, new sol- diers) were established, chiefly under the direction of his brother and vizier, the able Ala-ed-deen. Moorad (Amurath), the son and successor of Orchan, took 1359 Adrianople, the second city of the empire, and made it the European capital of his dominions. By marriage he acquired the greater part of Kermian, and by purchase he gained Hamid. Philippopolis was taken from the Greeks; but Moorad found a more obstinate resistance from the Servians and Bulgarians. He fell at Cossova, assassinated by a valiant 1389 Servian youth. Bayezeed (Bajezet) Yilderim, i. e. Lightning, a brave but headstrong prince, succeeded his father, and his first act was to put to death his only brother. The forces of Western Europe, Germany, Hungary, and France, commanded by Siglsmund, king of Hungary, the counts of Ne vers, la Marche, and Eu, the admiral de Vienne, the marshal Boucicault, the lord of Coucy, and several others of the prime nobility of France and Germany, with 60,000 men, advanced to Nico- J 396 polls. Bayezeed led against them a more numerous host. The Christians fought with their wonted valor, but yielded to the numbers and the discipline of the Moslems : their ai* 366 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART 11. leaders were slain or made captive. Siffismund escaped to the Danube with five companions, and thence to Constanti- nople. Bosnia was overrun by Bayezeed, and he was pre- paring to invest Constantinople a second time, when the progress of his conquests westwards was checked by the ap- proach on the east of the Tatars under Timoor. Bayezeed A. D. hastened to oppose them. On the plains of Angora he fought 1402. with a courage worthy of his race, but was defeated and taken 402. prisoner. Grief and vexation caused his death, and the con queror restored his body to the sepulchre of his fathers. The captivity and death of Bayezeed weakened and dis- tracted the Turkish power : the sons of the captive sultan contended with each other ; and it was only by the wisdom 1413. of Mohammed I. and his vizier Bayezeed that the empire re- gained its vigor. His son, Moorad 11. , a valiant and merci- 1422. fuj hero, subdued the greater part of what remained to the Greek emperors. John VII. in vain sought aid in Europe ; in vain he visited Italy, and agreed to an union of the churches. The union was rejected by the Greek clergy, and theological controversy reigned more violently than ever in the falling empire of the East. Moorad having made peace with Hungary, adhered to it faithfully. But while he was at Magnesia, in Asia, the papal legate released the Hungarians from their oath, and they seized this opportunity of assailing the Ottoman do- minions. King Vladislaus and John Hunniades marched to the Black Sea. Moorad appeared ; the battle was fought at 1444. Varna. In the front of his array Moorad displayed the vio- lated treaty. Victory was long on the side of the Christians, when Moorad, it is said, pointing to the treaty, called aloud on God to avenge their perjury, and at that moment the young kinsT rushed amid the ranks of the Janizaries and fell, and victory declared for the sultan. This excellent prince, twice during his reign, resigned his crown for the enjoyment of a private life, but was each time recalled to the throne by the danger of the state. 1451. Moorad's son, Mohammed II., joined to the valor of his father a greater spirit of enterprise. The doom of Constanti- nople was now fixed. It had stood in magnificence for 1123 years, had seen its western rival more than once open her gates to the conqueror, while itself had but once submitted, and had quickly resumed its dignity ; but now its dynasty and its religion were to change, the rovers of the steppes were to lord it in the palace of the Csesars, and the crescent was tv replace the glittering cross on the summit of its great temple. Mohammed invested the city : during fifty days the CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 367 massive walls were assailed by artillery of enormous size and power. The Turks at length burst in : Constantine, the last of the Csesars, fell at the breach, sword in hand, with a a. d. courage worthy of the greatest of those whom he represented. 1453. The city was plundered, the inhabitants sold into slavery. The Peloponnesus was speedily overrun, and the little 1461 empire of Trebizond, which had lasted 258 years, submitted at the appearance of Mohammed. The PalsBologi in the Peloponnesus were forced to yield to the Ottoman arms ; but in Albania, George Castriot (called for his valor by the Turks Scanderberg, i. e. Prince Alexander) resisted the Turkish ^ power with success as long as he lived. The battle of Bel- grade checked effectually the progress of Mohammed on the side of Hungary. The Servians were completely subdued. The voivode of Wallachia, the merciless Drakul, made a more vigorous defence ; but he was defeated, and that country also reduced to submission. Caramania was forced to submit to the rule of Mohammed ; but the knights of Rhodes repelled him from their island. The Tatars* — Timoor. Timoor (i. e. Iron) was descended from Berla, the Emir- 1335, ul-umera of Jagatai, the son of Chingis Khan. The youth of Timoor was spent in freebooting and the t;hase : in his twenty-seventh year he rendered important military service to the emir Husein of the house of Jagatai, who then ruled over Khorassan and Transoxiana, against the khan of Tur- kestan. The hand of the emir*s sister was his reward ; but on her death within four years, Timoor cast off allegiance, and war broke out between him and the emir. On the death of the latter Timoor occupied the throne, and fixed his resi- dence at Samarkund. He turned his arms first against the eultan of the Jetans (Getce?) and the shah of Khowaresm, then subdued Khorassan, and ravaged Persia during three years: with the speed of light he now swept over Great Tatary, and shortly afterwards feasted his host on the banks 1391. of the Volga. A campaign of five years wasted Persia ; and Bagdad, Mesopotamia, Koordistan, Armenia, and Georgia were conquered by the Tatars. Timoor next poured his 1398. hordes over the fertile plains of India. The plunder of Delhi rewarded their elibrts, and he pursued the flying Indians tff * We consifjer the distinction between Turks and Tatars to have been elearly shown by M. Klaprnth: the former are of Caucasian, the latter of Mongol race. Yet the Tatars of Timoor appear rather of mixed race ; at least, Timoor himself is described of a fair and ruddy complexion, very dif- ferent from that of a Mongol Tarlar, the corruption of Tatar, owes ita origin to a pun of St. Louia on Tatar and the Latin Tartarus. 36B HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART II. the sources of the sacred Ganges. The same year the Tata; conqueror wintered on the plains of Karabag-h, west of the Caspian ; in the spring he laid waste Georgia, took Sivas, one of the finest and most populous cities of Lesser Asia, and cruelly put the garrison to death; conquered all the A. D. towns to Aleppo, defeated there the Egyptian army, and took ' 401. that city ; and, at length, made a general massacre of the in- habitants of Bagdad. Tim K)r wintered once more on the plains of Karabagh. The princes whom Bayezeed had robbed of their dominions had cast themselves on the protection of the Tatar, and Ti- moor prepared for war with the haughty Ottoman. Negotia- tion was tried in vuin ; Bayezeed was hardened in obstinacy, and in the neighborhood of Angora, on the very plain where Pompeius had defeated Mithridates, the Turkish army of 120,000 men engaged the Tatar host of 700,000. Prom morn- U02. ing to night of a burning day (July 20) endured this last battle of either monarch, and it ended in the total rout of the Turkish host, and the captivity of its leader. The tale of the iron cag-e is a fabulous legend. The Tatars overran all Les- ser Asia; Timoor reached Iconium. Bayezeed died of apo- . 40-% plexy at Akshehr (March 8), and two years afterwards Ti- moor breathed his last on his march against China. Timoor left his empire to his grandson Peer Mohammed Jehangheer; but this prince was unfortunate in the contest for the crown with his brother Khulleel Sultan, and the em- pire eventually fell into the hands of Shah Rokh, the virtuous son of Timoor. But at length the fortune of the house of Timoor was forced to yield before that of the Usbegs; and after a glorious struggle against Shybuk Khan the Usbeg. the able and celebrated Baber retired to Hindoostan, and founded that great empire, the nominal sovereign of which, his lineal descendant, still sits, a monument of fallen great- ness, in Delhi, beneath the protection of a British company of merchants. It was while Baber was on the throne that the Portuguese first appeared on the coast of Malabar. The Turkman tribes of the Black and the White Wether, so named from their standards, had fixed themselves on the western frontier of Persia. On the death of Timoor they advanced into that country : the former tribe established its empire in Aderbijan and the adjacent provinces; the latter eyt^ended its power over nearly the whole of Persia. They encountered the arms both of the descendants of Timoor and the Ottoman sultans. 369 CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 371 Spain. The peninsula contained now four Christian king-duns, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal ; and one Mohamme- dan, Granada. Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Castile, was chiefly distin- a. d guished by his attachment to science, and by his code, the 1252 Siete Partidas. His son Sancho rebelled against him, and disquieted the latter part of his life. The reigns of Sancho and his two successors were periods of anarcliy and turbu- lence. Peter the Cruel surpassed all his predecessors in 1350i tyranny and crime. A rebellion, headed by his illegitimate brother, Henry of Transtamara, supported by Aragon and Portugal, broke out, and drove him from his throne. Henry was aided by Bertrand du Guesclin and the companies of adventure who had been engaged in the wars between France and England. Peter fled to Guienne, and implored the aid of the Black Prince, promising to give him Biscay in case he should restore him to his throne. The British prince en- tered Spain, recalled to his standard the companies of adven- 1367. ture, defeated Henry at the battle of Navarrete, and took du Guesclin prisoner. But Peter's ingratitude causing him to retire in disgust, Henry again appeared, and he defeated and 1369 slew with his own hand the savage tyrant. The reigns of Henry IT. and his two successors, John I. and Henry III. (1368 — 1406) were tranquil ; and these princes merited the affection of the people by their observance of the laws. John II. being but fourteen months old at his 1406 accession, the government was wisely administered during his minority by his mother and his uncle Ferdinand. On his attaining his majority, the golden period terminated ; the re- mainder of his reign was a series of conspiracies and civil 1454 wars. Henry IV., son of John, was solemnly and unjustly deposed by a party of his factious nobles, who set up his 1465 brother Alfonso against him, and a civil war ensued. These nobles had accused Henry's queen of adultery, and maintain- ed that Joanna, their only child, was illegitimate. Accord- ingly, on the death of Alfonso, his sister Isabel was regarded as the heiress. She agreed to a treaty with Henry, by which 1469 the succession was secured to her ; but Henry took the first opportunity of rescinding the agreement, and on his death the parties had to appeal to arms. Isabel, who was married 1474. to Ferdinand infant of Aragon, was supported by that power. Joanna was betrothed to Alfonso king of Portugal, and he* mother was a princess of that family ; she was, therefore, supported in her claim by the strength of that kingdom. The 372 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART U. i D. 1476 king" of Portug-al, however, wa^, defeated at Toro, and all Joanna's partisans gradually subrwitted to Isabel. Aragon, though not so extensive as Castile, equalled it in power. Its government was better, its sovereigns wiser, its trade far more extensive. The ^tilor of the Cid had given it Valencia; the Balearic isles were added to it; a long and sanguinary contest had, at the commencement of the four- teenth century, brought Sardinia under its dominion ; and in this century it acquired Naples and Sicily. 1410. On the death of Martin king of Aragon, the succession was disputed by five competitors, the count of Urgal, grandson of James, next brother to Peter IV. ; the duke of Gandia, grandson of James 11. ; the duke of Calabria, son of Violante, youngest daughter of John I. ; Frederic count of Luna, natu- ral son of the younger Martin king of Sicily ; and Ferdinand, infant of Castile, son of the late king's sister. The cortes of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia named nine persons, three of each, to hear and decide the claims; and, after solemn de- liberation, the crown was adjudged to Ferdinand of Castile. 1416. This prince was succeeded by his son Alfonso V., who wag made king of Naples, where he passed the greater part of his reign, governing Aragon by his brother and successor John 1479. II. On the death of John, the sceptre of Aragon passed to his son Ferdinand, who was married to Isabel queen of Cas- tile, and thus the two monarchies were united into one great kingdom, never again to be divided. Ferdinand now felt him- self strong enough to attack Granada, and end the conflict which had lasted for eight centuries. The war commenced , civil dissension rent the Moorish kingdom ; a party aided the Christian invaders; yet the conquest of Granada cost ten years of bloody and incessant warfare. At length it surren- 1492. dered (Jan. 2), and Spain, in full strength and vigor, was prepared for her conflicts with France. "^ The little kingdom of Navarre passed continually by fe- males to the French houses of Bigorre, Champagne, Evreux, Foix, and Albret. But the kings of Aragon had made them- selves masters of the greater part of it. Portugal. Alfonso X. of Castile, had obliged Alfonso, the Restaurador ot Portugal, to swear that, for his conquest of Algarve, he 279. would attend him in his wars with fifty lances. Diniz, the able successor of the effeminate Sancho, prevailed on the king of Castile to abolish this mark of the dependence of Por- tugal. 1357, Pedro, the grandson of Diniz, was an able, just, and vigor CHAP. VII. DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER. 373 ous prince : he contended with spirit against the power of the church, which was excessive in Portugal, and held it in check. Ferdinand, his feeble son, left an only daughter, married to John king of Castile, and Portugal was in imminent danger a. d of losing her independence. 1383 A conspiracy was formed against the queen-dowager, who was regent, and her partisans : John, a natural son of king Pedro, and grand master of the order of Avis, was at the liead of it. The conspirators rushed into the castle where the queen resided, and Ruy Pereira slew before her eyes her favorite count Ourem. The people rose ; the bishop of Lisbon was flung from the tower of his cathedral ; the queen fled to Castile ; the master of Avis was appointed regent. The king of Castile (John I.) entered Portugal with an army. Most of the nobles were on his side : the commons were for Don John, and liberty. At the battle of Aljubarrota, 7000 Portu- 138& guese defeated more than four times their number of Cas- tilians, and the master of Avis was proclaimed king of Por- tugal. His reign of forty-eight years was the most brilliant period Portugal had yet seen. The Portuguese chivalry 1415. crossed the strait, and conquered Ceuta from the Moors. Dis- covery was prosecuted along the coast of Africa, through the generous efforts of his son Don Henry, and Madeira and the Azores were added to his dominions. While his grandson 1459. Alfonso V. was carrying on war with success against the Moors of Fez, adventurous mariners had passed the line, set- tled oa the Gold Coast, and discovered Congo. The Cape of Good Hope was doubled by Diaz. Discovery of America. The progress of the Portuguese along the coast of Afiica, the discovery of new nations, and the knowledge of the in- correctness of the ideas of the ancients respecting geogra- phy, aided by the compass, and the courage and skill acquired by navigating the stormy seas of the north, had prepared men for bold and distant voyages. The great problem was, the passage by sea to India : this the Portuguese sought by the t circumnavigation of Africa. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of great naval skill and courage, by reflecting on the magnitude of the earth, now known to be globular, had con- jectured that, by sailing westwards, a ship might, after passing over a moderate space of sea, arrive at the coast of India. Pieces of carved wood, natural productions, and even the bodies of men had been thrown ashore in different places by the waves running from the west : various traditions were current of a land to the west having been formerly visited 32 374 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TI. A.11 these circumstances combined, convinced Columbus that, by sailing due- west, a ship must, within a moderate space of time, reach a country which, he was firmly persuaded, must be India. Under this impression, he made, as he thought him-, self bound to do, the first proposal of attempting the discovery to his native city Genoa. Meeting with no encouragement there, he applied to the king of Portugal, in whose capital he resided ; but Don John was too firmly bent on the course which the Portuguese had been so long pursuing to hearken to him. Columbus now sent his brother Bartholomew to Henry VII. of England : he went in person to Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain. Bartholomew was taken by pirates, and did not reach England for a long time, by which means that coun- try probably lost the honor of the future discovery. Christo- pher, after long soliciting at the court of Castile, at length obtained a small squadron from Isabel, elated with the recent ^ jj conquest of Granada. 1492 With three small vessels, carrying but 90 men, Columbus sailed from the port of Palos on the 3d Aug. 1492. He steered westwards, and proceeded a long way without meeting any signs of land : his crews began to grow terrified and muti- nous : Columbus soothed and pacified them. At length, one morning (Oct. 12), the coast and woods of St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas, rose before them, — ^and the New World was discovered. Sailing farther on, they arrived at Cuba and His- paniola, or St. Domingo ; and Columbus returning to Spain with intelligence of his discoveries, all Europe was filled with wonder and conjectures. The new country was named West- India, so convinced were men that it could be no other than a part of India, of which they had such indistinct concep- 1493. tions. The next year Columbus discovered Puerto Rico, 1498. Guadaloupe, and Jamaica. In his third voyage he discovered Trinidad, and a part of South America, which he knew not to be a continent. The ungrateful return made to the ser- vices of this great man, are too well known, and too conso- nant to the usual practices of courts, to need mention. He 1506. died four years after his fourth and last voyage, poor and neglected, at Valladolid. While Columbus was prosecuting his discoveries to the west, the court of Portugal, having now ascertained Africa to be circumnavigable, had sent a fleet under the command of Vasco da Gama, round Africa, in quest of India. He sailed from the Tagus on the 9th of July, 1497, and on the 18th May, 1498, he reached the port of Calicut, on the western coast of India. CHAP. VII. DECIJNR OF THE PAPAL POWER. 377 The middle ages here terminate. They began in ignorance, anarchy, and confusion : knowledge and order now regain their dominion. The discordant elements of theocracy, mon- archy, feudalism, and democracy, which had been in ceaseless conflict during this period, have so modified one another, as to make the fit state of transition to the blinded form which characterizes that which follows. .32* HISTORY OF THE ¥ORLD. PART III. MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. Introduction. At the commencement of the middle ag-es the great em- pire of Rome was fallen to pieces from internal corruption and decay : the stream of hardy population which poured down from the north had burst all the opposing mounds ar i dikes, and overflowed the whole of the western empu s. Taste and learning, long- declining, were almost extinct ; f le Christian religion, now that of all parts of the empire, ^ as corrupted and debased ; and in that state it was embraced by the rude conquerors, and farther degraded by the admixl ire of their barbarous tenets and practices. The clergy acqu "ed from the superstitious fears of the people wealth, influe ice, and power; they ruled the laity with despotic sway, and bishops made kings tremble on their thrones : the pop , as head of the church, sought to draw all this power to hin self, and then to make it a source of emolument. The papal do- minion had finally attained a height unparalleled in the history of man ; but, like every other empire, its ascent only led to its descent. The extravagance of the papal pretensions b came apparent when learning began to be cultivated, and its gi-adual decline has marked the last period of those ages. One great empire arose in Europe after the fall o*" Rome ; but it fell to pieces when the vigorous mind which ha/ erected it was gone. Europe was divided into small states, nd war, internal and external, raged without ceasing ; a haughty in- dependent nobility insulted kings, and tyrannized over the people. The barbarians of the North and the East, and the en- thusiastic warriors of the Koran, overran, pillaged, and de- stroyed the fairest regions of the West. The intefcourse of nations, except in war, was small ; trade and commerce hardly existed ; the merchant was subject to be plundered openly bj 378 CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STA'l fi OF EUROPE. 379 the Stranger-lord, and to be pillaged by the arbitrary taxation of his own. Gradually the night was seen to pass away ; monarchs be gan to extend their power, and to perceive that it was their true interest to protect the people against the tyranny of the nobles, and to bring these last under obedience ; the church used her extensive power for the same purpose ; the people gradually acquired wealth; their towns were secured by charters and immunities granted by the crown or the feudal lord, and where the crown was feeble, voluntary associations secured them from the rapacity of the nobles. The latter ac- quired a relish for luxury : to obtain money, they alienated or let their lands, and soon felt that they had transformed their obedient retainers into sturdy independent yeomen and citizens. The lamp of learning was relumed ; the study of the scho- lastic theology and philosophy, and of the Roman law, sharp- ened men's intellects ; travels into the East enlarged their knowledge of the earth ; the use of the mariner's compass emboldened their navigation ; gunpowder changed the face of war ; paper, and at length the art of printing, gave a more rapid diffusion to knowledge ; the taking of Constantinople scattered the learning of the Greeks over the West ; schools and universities were numerous ; men were become eager for knowledge ; classical learning was, in Italy, cultivated with ardor, and a strong feeling of admiration for the institu- tions and philosophy of antiquity excited ; the discourses and writings of Wickliffe, Huss, and their disciples awakened be- yond the Alps attention to the important topics of religion ; the discovery of India and the New World filled men's minds with vague aspirations after adventure, conquest, wealth, and knowledge. A universal fermentation was going on. Such was the state of the European mind, at the com- mencement of modern history. The political condition of Europe was chiefly that of extensive monarchies, internally tranquil, and ready to turn their entire forces against each other. We will commence this part by a view of their re- spective conditions. England. The wars of the Roses had greatly thinned the English nobility and gentry : they were weary of civil conflict, and quietly submitted to the arbitrary rule of Henry VII. All the barriers of liberty erected under the Plantagenets were thrown down, and England became in this, and still more in ihe following reign, nearly an absolute monarchy. The 380 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. daug-hters of Henry VII. were married, one to Louis XII. king of France, the other to the king of Scotland. Wales ^, D, was incorporated with England ; over Ireland she held a du- 1509. bious dominion. Henry was succeeded by his son of the same name. France. All the great fiefs had been reunited to the crown. Flushed with power, her sovereign Charles VIII. now, at the invitation of Sforza duke of Milan, put forth his claims to the kingdom 1495. of Naples. At the head of 20,000 French, and 6000 Swiss, he speedily achieved the conquest of it. But the discontent of the Neapolitans, and the league of the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Aragon and Castile, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan, forced Charles to leave that kingdom. On the banks of the Tanaro, in the Parmesan, the allied forces waited for the enfeebled French army as it emerged from the passes of the Apennines. The French, with a loss of 200 men, routed three times their number, leaving 3000 of them on the plain. 1498. Louis XII., named the Father of his People, asserted his claim to Milan and to Naples : he conquered them both, but was unable to retain them. Germany. 1493. Maximilian succeeded his father Frederic in the empire. By marriage with the heiress of Burgundy he got all the pos- sessions of that house ; and on the death of his cousin Sigis- mund archduke of Austria, the Austrian dominions fell to him. The diet of Worms, held during the reign of this emperor, established a perpetual public peace in Germany, by adopting vigorous measures for the suppression of private warfare, and by providing a paramount court of justice — the Imperial Chamber. Russia, Poland, Scandinavia. After casting off the yoke of the Tatars, the Russian princes exerted themselves to establish trade and communication 1505. with Western Europe : Vasilius kept up a good understand- ing with the emperor Maximilian, and granted great privi- leges to the Hanse towns. The Poles and Russians now engaged in war with each 615. other, and the former lost Smolensko and Pleskov. In Scandinavia the contest for the independence of Sweden was prosecuted. The Russian tsar entered into a treaty of partition against Sweden, with Christian II. of Denmark. 381 CHAJ*. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE 383 Switzerland and Savoy. Louis XL, when dauphin, had led a body of troo))s into a d. Switzerland, where the reception he met with, combined 1444. with the great victories of the Swiss over the duke of Bur- gundy, inspired him with such a respect for them, that he all his life courted their alliance. His policy was followed by his successors. The Swiss now began to hire out their troops, and they played a conspicuous part in the wars of Italy. An attempt was made by the emperor Maximilian to revive the supremacy of the empire over the Swiss, and bring them under the jurisdiction of the imperial chamber; but in the war that ensued their success was decisive, and an honorable 1499 peace was made with them. Savoy had been latterly enfeebled by minorities. Its dukes were rather good than great princes. Italy. Philip, the last of the vile race of the Visconti, dukes of 1447 Milan, left only an illegitimate daughter, married to Fran- cesco Sforza, the great condottiere who commanded the troops of the duchy. Sforza made himself duke, and gov- 1450 erned with prudence and justice. His son Galeazzo was mur- dered ; but the widow. Bona of Savoy, maintained the duchy 1478 for her son John Galeazzo. Lodovico Moro, brother of the murdered prince, destroyed his nephew by a slow poison. 1494. Fearing the king of Naples, whose daughter had been mar- ried to John Galeazzo, he excited Charles VIII. of France to assert his claims, derived from the house of Anjou, to Naples, promising him the aid of himself and other Italian powers. But Sforza afterwards joined the league formed against Charles ; and Louis XII. advanced his claims to the Milanese, derived from his grandmother Valentina Visconti. He con- 1500 quered and held the duchy twelve years. The house of Este governed as vassals of the empire, or . the church, with ducal title, Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio; the Gonzaga family ruled at Mantua, the Pico at Mirandola, the Malaspina at Massa, the Grimaldi at Monaco. At Rome, after some excellent, some indifferent popes, the papal chair was filled by Alexander VI., of the Spanish house 149$ of Borgia, a monster who might vie in vice with the Neros and Caligulas of ancient Rome. His only plan of politics was to secure a principality in Italy for his enterprising son, CaBsar Borgia ; and neither father nor son was deficient 'n the courage and iniquity requisite for the attainment of tha* 28 384 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. object. Alexander was succeeded by the warlike Julms II. who added Bologna to the papal states. Venice had acquired the kingdom of Cyprus : she was now at the zenith of her power; she carried on a lucrative trade with the East, and was highly favored by the Mameluke sul- tans ; she was rich, and her army was the best in Italy. The discovery of the route to India by the Portuguese, and the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans, gave her prosperity ita death-blow. At Florence the wealthy and magnificent family of the Medici had been gradually increasing in influence. Cosimo de' Medici, called the Father of his Country, exerted a com- manding influence in the state. After the death of his son Piero, a conspiracy was formed against his grandsons, and Ju- lian was murdered, but Lorenzo escaped. 'J'he latter was afterwards restored to his country, and completed the destruc- tion of its liberties. The independence of Florence, as it was to fall, could not fall by a nobler hand. Lorenzo's patron- A. D. age of literature and the arts is known to every one. His 1492. death was regarded as an event fatal to all Italy. Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Spain having entered into a treaty for the conquest and partition of Naples, Frederic, the king of that country, could not resist such formidable oppo- nents. Naples was speedily conquered. The French army was enfeebled by the climate and disease, and disliked by the people. The wily Ferdinand and his general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, took advantage of these circum- stances to drive the French a second time out of that kingdom. The League of Camhray. 1509. Louis XTL, Maximilian, the king of Spain, and pope Julius II. entered at Cambray into a league against the Venetians. The republic opposed to them firmness in her senate, skill and courage in her generals, fidelity in her subjects. Jealousy soon broke out among the confederates, and the emperor, the pope, the king of Spain united with the Swiss and the Vene- tians to drive the French out of Italy. Louis was forced to give way : the victory of the Swiss at Novara was decisive. '612. Maximilian, the son of Lodovico Sforza, was restored to the dukedom of Milan. Spain and Portugal. 477, Before the taking of Granada the execrable tribunal of the inquisition had been planned by the minister Mendoza, and by Salez bishop of Cadiz, and in spite of the opposition of the people, the clergy, and even at first of the pope, introduced CHAP. I. VIEW OF THE STATE OF EUROPE. 385 into Castile. It was directed against the Jews ; Torquemada, a Dominican, was the first great inquisitor ; and the tribunal, j^. ;; in its first year, committed 2000 persons to the flames. Great 148 opposition was made to it in Aragon ; but it was introduced there by force of arms. Leon, Valencia, and Sicily resisted also, but with as little success. On the reduction of Granada, liberty of conscience had been secured to the Moors ; but a council, presided over by the archbishops of Granada and To- ledo, decided that Ferdinand and Isabel were not bound to keep faith with the infidels, and the Moors were brought within this sanguinary jurisdiction. The erection of this ini- quitous tribunal, and its closfe alliance with the throne, have been the main cause of the future decline of Spain, and of her being at the present moment the most degraded of na- tions. Portugal was still in her golden age under Don Manuel, commencing her guilty but brilliant career in Asia* Turkey, Mohammed II. was succeeded by his son Bayezeed, a prmce of mild, peaceable temper. After a reign of thirty years he was forced to resign his throne to his son Selim, one of the 1512. greatest and most cruel of the Ottoman monarchs. Selim commenced his reign by the murder of his brothers and nephews, and the massacre of 40,000 Sheeahs, or dissenters from the orthodox faith, and he engaged in war with and de- feated, at Chaldiran near Tebreez, shah Ismail, the founder of the SufFavee dynasty in Persia. By force and negotiation he made himself master of Koordistan and Mesopotamia. As Kansoo Ghawree, the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, was the ally of Ismail, war against him was resolved on by Selim. The Mameluke advanced at the head of his army to the fron- tiers of Syria, and on the mead of Dabeek, not far from Aleppo, the hostile sultans engaged. The quantity of the 1516. Turkish artillery, and the inactivity of the Jelban (the second order of Egyptian troops), gave an easy victory to Selim. Ghawree, an old man of eighty years, died at a pool in the flight, and all Syria submitted. Peace was offered to and re- jected by the new sultan, Toomawn Beg. Selim crossed the desert, and entered Egypt. The treachery of Ghazalee, one of Toomawn's generals, and the superiority of his artillery, gave Selim another victory at Ridania, near Cairo, which city was taken, after a gallant resistance, and 50,000 of its inhabitants barbarously massacred. After bravely but vainly fighting for his empire, the " valiant, chivalrous, humane, uj)- right " Toomawn Beg was taken, and, at the suggestions of 33 386 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IH, A. D. the traitors Ghazalee and Khair Beg, hanged at one of the 1517. gates of Cairo ; and Egypt was reduced to a province. The last khalif of the house of Abbas was sent to Constantinople, but he died on the way. The Ottoman sultans have ever 1520. since taken that sacred title. Selim died, after a reign of eight years. Persia. During this period Persia witnessed a not unfrequent oc- currence in the Mohammedan world — the erection of empire on the basis of religion. A family of sheikhs had long dwelt at Erdebil in that country. They passed their lives in the practice of that mystic contemplation called Sooffeeism, and derived their name of Suffavee from SufFee-ed-deen, one of the most distinguished of their ancestors, who died in the be- ginning of the 14th century. At the close of the 15th cen- tury, Jooneid, one of them, began to meddle in politics, and he was driven from Erdebil by Jehan Shah, the descendant of Chingis, and then prince of the Black Wether. He took refuge with Uzun Hassan, the powerful chief of the White Wether, who gave him his sister in marriage. Under pre- text of leading his followers against the infidel Georgians, he ravaged the country of the prince of Shirwan, against whom he fell in battle. His son Haider trod in his steps. He or- ganized his followers, and made them wear for distinction red caps, whence they, and afterwards all the Persians, were called by the Turks, in derision, Kuzzil Bashes (^Red-heads). He also attacked the prince of Shirwan and besieged him in his castle of Gulistan ; but he fell in a conflict with the troops of Yacoob, prince of the Black Wether, who came to the re- 1488. lief of the besieged. His two sons were taken and confined ; the Yacoob's successor gave them liberty. The eldest, re- belling, was slain ; the younger, Ismael, then but seven years old, was saved by the prince of Ghilan. In the 15th year of his age, Ismail, at the head of 7000 of his adherents, made war on the prince of Shirwan, defeated him, and fixed his throne at Tebreez, the capital of Aderbi- 1501. Jan. He next ravaged a part of the dominions of the peace- ful Bayezced II. The princes of the Black and the White Wether, and the shah of Mazenderan, were all vanquished by him. All the land from the Caspian to the Persian gulf obeyed him : he extended his conquests beyond the Oxus, and defeated the great khan of the Usbegs. His power was now at its zenith : he engaged in war with Selim I., under pretext of supporting the claims of Selim's nephews, and avenging the massacre of 40,000 Sheahs, slaughtered by order of the A. D 7HAP. II, TIMES OF CHARLES V. 389 Sultan. T/ie Ottomans entered the Persian dominions : on the plains ofChaldiran, on the road to Tebreez, the armies of Ismail and Selim, each of 120,000 in number, encountered : 1514. victory declared in favor of the Turkish artillery, and Te- breez was taken and plundered. Want of supplies forced Selim to retreat, and Ismael subdued Georgia. He died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded by his son, Tamasp. 1523 CHAP. n. TIMES OF CHARLES V. Accession of Charles V. In the commencement of the sixteenth century the largest empire that Europe has seen since the time of Charlemagne, was ruled over by Charles, son of Philip, archduke of Aus- tria, and Joanna, heiress of Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain. From his grandmother he inherited the rich dominions of the house of Burgundy in the Low Countries ; the death of Fer- dinand gave him Spain, Naples, Sicily, and the New World. On the death of his grandfather, Maximilian, he got the pos- 1519. sessions of the house of Austria, and he and Francis, king of France, becoming candidates for the imperial dignity, the majority of the electors declared for Charles. The Turks, under the warlike Selim L, were now the enemy dreaded by Europe ; and the chief question with the electors had been, which of the rival mpnarchs would be best calculated to defend the empire against them : the circum- stance of Charles's Austrian dominions had turned the beam in his favor. The only other power of consequence in Europe was England, now governed by the vain, capricious, haught)'- Henry VIII., but whose size and situation prevented her having any idea of extensive conquest. Charles, in the views of universal empire which he early conceived, had, therefore, apparently only Francis to impede him ; but his own charac- ter, and the strength and resources of his kingdom, gave the latter such advantages, that only ambition could have blinded the emperor to the plain fact, that France was then, as ever, unconquerable. But there was just at this period a moral power arising, more effectual to check the ambition of the emperor than even the chivalry of France. The great reform- ation of religion had now commenced. 33* 390 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART lU The Reformation. The eyes of men had been gradually opened to the frauds and corruptions of the Romish church, and the rapacity of the court of Rome had alienated the minds of princes and people. The awakened love of know! edge led men to aspire after freedom of thought, and to feel heavy the yoke which the church of Rome, though never less intolerant or arbitrary imposed in all matters relating to religious doctrine. Menta emancipation was panted after. A proper occasion and a bold leader were all that were wanting to excite the flames of spiritual rebellion. The occasion was soon presented, and the leader appeared. Leo X., of the family of the Medici, now filled the papal I chair. Like his family, he was devoted to literature and pleasure, and tasteful and magnificent in his ideas and ac- tions. It is not improbable that, as he is charged, he re- garded the religion of which he was the head as merely a gainful fable ; and as he was now engaged in rearing that splendid temple, the glory of modern Rome, he found it need- ful to put in practice every mode of raising money of which the papal chancery could furnish a precedent. The sale of indulgences appearing most likely to bring in a large supply, A. D. they were issued in great quantities, and the disposal of them 1518 committed to the most active agents. The Dominicans sold in Germany. The scandalous language and conduct of some of these men aroused the indignation of Dr. Martin Luther, an Augustinian, and professor of theology in the university of Wittenburg, in Saxony. He wrote and preached against indulgences; he was listened to with admiration : opposition excited him ; he had, though not profoundly learned, a strong sense of truth, and a vigorous imagination ; his eloquence was popular, his command of his native tongue great; his soul was full of love to his country and mankind, and his courage in maintaining what he held to be true, invincible. He read, he meditated, he entered into the spirit of the Scripture, and he felt how contrary to it were the practices and the claims of the church of Rome. He fearlessly expressed what he honestly thought ; he was supported by his university and his prince, the elector of Saxony ; he was summoned to Rome ; but, at the request of the elector, cardinal Cajetan w^as sent to Germany, and Luther appeared and defended his opinions before the diet at Augsburg. When Charles obtained the empire, he was again summoned, and appeared before the diet 15ai. at Worms. He was dismissed ; and, under the protection of CHAP. II. TIMES OF CHARLES V. ^ 391 the elector of Saxony, he still continued to propagate his opinions through the north of Germany. In Switzerland, Ulric Zuinglius, a priest at Zurich, had, a d. even earlier than Luther, opposed the sale of indulgences by ^^1^ the Franciscans in that country. Not confining themselves to religious abuses, Zuinglius and his friends sought to unite religion with civil polity, and to preserve and exalt the tone of republican virtue and freedom. The opinions of the re- formers rapidly spread into France, the Low Countries, and England, already prepared for them by WicklifFe and his dis- ciples. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. Francis, count of Angouleme, on succeeding his father-in- 1515 law, the late king Louis XIL, was eager to signalize himself in tlie eyes of the world. He turned his views towards Italy, and resolved to recover Milan. The Swiss guarded the passes of the Alps against him: on hearing of his having entered boldly into Piedmont, they descended, and encountered the arms of France in the plain ; and modern times have wit- nessed fevv such obstinate conflicts as that which ensued on the field of Marignano, near Milan. The battle lasted two days, and the Swiss did not retire till one-half of their num- ber was slain. All the Milanese now surrendered ; Sforza resigned his claim for a pension, and Francis returned home, i5ia leaving Charles duke of Bourbon governor. The emperor Maximilian invaded Italy, but was repulsed, and he then made peace with France and Venice. The competition for the empire caused ill-will between Charles and Francis: each sought to gain Henry VIII. and his minister Wolsey. The art of the emperor prevailed over the frankness and generosity of the French king. The Spaniards were in rebellion ; Francis seized the op- portunity of recovering for John d'Albret, Navarre, which Ferdinand had unjustly seized. A French army entered and conquered it ; but, venturing to advance into Spain, it was defeated, and Navarre recovered. Francis invaded the Low Countries without advantage. A league was now formed, between the pope, Henry VIII. , and Charles, against the king of France. The Milanese, disgusted with the insolence and exactions of the French, resolved to expel them, and put themselves u"der Francis Sforza, brother to their late duke. The pope hired Swiss, and formed an army under Prosper Colonna to assist them. The French were defeated ; Lau ti:ec, their commander, fled to Venice, and they lost every thing but Cremona, the castle of Milan, and a few other 392 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. A. D. places. Joy at this success is said to iiave terminated the life 1522 of Leo X. Francis sent money and 10,000 Swiss to Lautrec, who in- vaded the Milanese, but was defeated at Bicocca. Genoa, which was under the protection of France, was taken by Co- lonna, and the French now retained only Cremona. The 523. new pope, Adrian VI., the Venetians, the Florentines, and the other Italian powers, joined in the league against Francis, v/ho was now without an ally ; and the emperor and the kin.9 bresis ; and as almost all the states of Europe were included in it as principals or allies, a general peace and repose was produced by it. Charles V. had died the year before ; Mary of England was dead ; Henry II. was killed at a tournament shortly after the peace ; the restless Paul IV. survived him but a few weeks. A new set of actors enter on the scene. France. Henry II. was succeeded by his eldest son, Francis II., the husband of Mary the young queen of Scotland. Protestant- 85 410 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. ism had made considerable progress in France. The king of Navarre, the prince of Conde, the admiral Coligni, his brother Andelot, and several other persons of the highest rank, were attached to the reformed faith. The powerful family of Guise, princes of Lorraine, uncles to the young queen, supported the old religion. Francis was persuaded by them to revive the laws against heresy. The A. D. Protestants (in France called Huguenots) saw their danger 1560. and resolved to anticipate it. A conspiracy was formed to seize the king. It was detected, and the accomplices pun- ished. But an assembly of the states was held, and the penal laws suspended. The Guises, however, resolved to proceed, and the king of Navarre and his brother the prince of Conde were seized and imprisoned. The sudden death of Francis checked their career. His young brother, Charles IX., came to the throne, and the queen-mother was appointed guardian. As " divide and govern'^ was the maxim of Catherine, she gave high office and power to the Protestant leaders, as a counterpoise to the influence of the Guises. 1662. The policy of the queen did not produce the desired effect. Animosity ran high between the two parties. The attend- ants of the duke of Guise insulted some Protestants at their worship, and sixty of the latter were slain. The Protestants all over France took arms ; fourteen armies were levied in different parts of the kingdom. The conflict was carried on with the most extreme virulence. Several of the principal cities of France, as Orleans, Rouen, Bourges, Lyons, Tours, were in the hands of the Huguenots. Philip of Spain sent 6000 men to aid the Catholics. Conde, the head of the Protestants, addressed himself to Elizabeth queen of England, and an army was levied in Germany by Andelot and led to Orleans. The king of Navarre and Montmorency had joined the Guise party : the former was killed at the siege of Rouen ; the latter commanded at the battle of Dreux, the first fought between the parties. 1663 I The duke of Guise laid siege to Orleans. While engaged in it, he was assassinated by a Protestant gentleman named Poltrot. His death was an irreparable loss to his party, and they now willingly came to an accommodation with the Protestants.l But the peace was intended only to lull the Protestants. Catherine, though utterly devoid of principle, had a hatred of the reformed faith, and a zeal for the ancient one. A meet- ing was concerted at Bayonne between Charles and his sister, the queen of Spain. Catherine accompanied her son ; the duke of Alva attended his mistress. Festivities and gaietie« Coligni. 411 CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 413 of every kind occupied each day. All apparently respired joy and peace : but the tempest was secretly brewed in the summer sky. A Holy League was formed between the courts of France and Spain : the glory of God was to be pro- a. d moted, heresy in the dominions of both extirpated. 1566 The Protestants of France soon learned what had been concerted. They flew to arms ; a battle was fought at St. Denis, in which they were worsted. They laid siege to 1568. Chartres, and forced the court to agree to a peace. This peace was of short duration : the queen-mother laid a scheme for seizing Condi and Culigni; they fled to Rochelle; the war was renewed. The duke of Anjou commanded the Catholics, and gained the famous battle of Jarnac, in which the prince of Conde was taken and murdered. Coligni hav- 1S69 ing placed at the head of the Protestants the young king of Navarre and the young prince of Conde, made every effort to animate his party, and at length laid siege to Poitiers, The young duke of Guise threw himself into that town, and de- fended it with such valor and skill, that Coligni was forced to raise the siege. Secretly aided by Elizabeth, he collected a considerable force ; but at the battle of Moncontour he was. wounded and defeated with the loss of nearly 10,000 men. The court deemed the adverse party now completely crushed, when, to their amazement, Coligni advanced with a large army, and prepared to lay siege to Paris, and the king was forced to make another treaty and peace with the Protestants. The treachery long meditated against the Protestants was now ripe. Charles assumed the appearance of the utmost liberality of sentiment: a marriage was proposed between his sister Margaret and the young king of Navarre. All the great leaders of the Protestants went to Paris to the celebra- tion of it. They were received with smiles and caresses by the king and the queen-mother ; all was festivity till the eve of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 24) arrived, when, by the secret I572i orders of the king, a bloody and indiscriminate massacre of the Protestants commenced. No rank or age was spared; 500 gentlemen, including Coligni, and 10,000 inferior per- sons, perished in Paris alone, and a like carnage took place in all the great towns of the kingdom whither similar orders had been sent. It is computed that 60,000 persons were massacred. The Protestants throughout Europe were filled with horror and consternation. At Rome and Spain the account was re- ceived with ecstasy, and public thanks returned to heaven But Charles did not dare to avow his real motives ; he pre- tended that a conspiracy of the Protestants had been detected, 35* 414 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. and thus prevented. Instead of losing* courage, these now only respired vengeance. They took valiantly to their arms: the town of Sancerre stood a memorable siege. Rochelle held out eight months against the whole power of France ; and J D. the duke of Anjou, after losing 24,000 men before it, was 1573 compelled to grant the citizens an advantageous peace. This was the fourth peace ; but the Protestants could put no trust in the perfidious monarch. They rejoiced at his 574. death, which soon afterwards occurred. He was succeeded by his brother, the duke of Anjou, Henry HI., who had been elected king of Poland. Henry, by the advice of his mother, sought to play the parties against each other, and thereby 1576. increase the royal authority. He gave most advantageous terms to the Protestants, now headed by his brother, the duke of Anjou, and the young king" of Navarre. The Catholic party, directed by the duke of Guise, were disgusted by this mea- 1577. sure: they formed their celebrated League; and the king-, to weaken it, declared himself the head of it. The war was renewed ; but soon terminated by a new peace. The League looked up to Philip, the Huguenots to Elizabeth : the king, sunk in pleasure and in odious vices, was despised and dis- trusted by both parties. The duke of Anjou was a restless ambitious prince : his death seemed to relieve the king from difficulties; but it only plunged him into greater. The king of Navarre was now the next heir; the League was revived ; the cardinal of Bourbon set up as a rival to the king- of Na- varre ; and the king forced to declare war against the Hugue- nots. Great valor and talent were displayed by the king of 687. Navarre. At Coutras he gained a complete victory over the royal army ; but the power of the League was still an over- match for the Huguenots. The king was driven from Paris, and threatened with degradation from his throne : his spirit was roused, and he caused the duke and the cardinal of Guise to be assassinated. The doctors of the Sorbonne declared the people released from their allegiance ; and the duke of ■ Mayenne, brother to the duke of Guise, was chosen Lieuten- 1589. ant-general of the State royal and Crown of France. The king entered into an alliance with the king of Navarre, and both sovereigns advanced to Paris at the head of their armies. James Clement, a Dominican monk, here assassinated the king", with whom ended tiie line of Valois. The holy deed was, as usual, applauded throughout the Catholic world ; and Sixtus V. compared it with the Incarnation and the Resur- rection. The royal army abandoned the king of Navarre, now Henry IV., and the League proclaimed the cardinal of Bour CHAP. II f. TIMES OF PHII IP 11. 415 bon, under the name of Charles X. Henry retired to Nor- mandy, followed by the troops of the League, under the duke of Mayenne. The queen of England sent him troops and money. His forces were inferior in number, but superior in a n valor, to those of the duke ; and at Ivry he gained a com- 1590 plete victory over him and his Spanish auxiliaries. Henry eoon afterwards invested Paris; the duke of Parma hastened from the Low Countries to its relief; the siege was raised ; but the duke declined the proffered battle. Some fresh at- tempts on Paris were baffled ; the duke of Parma left 8000 men with the League ; the pope ordered all the Catholics to abandon Henry, and sent money and troops to the duke of Savoy, who had made himself master of Provence ; the young duke of Guise made his escape from Tours. Elizabeth, on the other hand, again sent troops and money; Henry laid siege to Rouen ; but the prince of Parma forced him to raise it, and again retreated without fighting. Lesdiguieres chased the duke of Savoy out of Provence ; and victories were gained by Turenne, and other generals of Henry. At length ail parties grew weary of the war; the' duke l69Sfc of Mayenne was disgusted by the faction of the Sixteen in Paris, who were entirely in the Spanish interest; Henry was pressed by the Catholics of his party to declare himself on the article of religion, a thing he had hitherto avoided doing ; the king of Spain, too, pressed the duke of Mayenne to call a meeting of the states, hoping to gain the crown for his own daughter Isabella. The states met ; Philip's ambas- sador exerted himself in vain to get a declaration in favor of the infanta ; the parliament of Paris declared that the Salic law could not be set aside. Meanwhile Henry, though successful in arms, saw that he never could obtain the kingdom by force ; and, with the con- sent of his wisest friends, he embraced the Catholic religion. This measure was not at first productive of all the advan- tages that might have been expected : both parties were dis- trustful ; but gradually town after town and noble after noble submitted to their king. He led an army into Burgundy, ex- pelled the Spaniards, and obliged the duke of Mayenne to eeek an accommodation ; he received the pope's absolution ; ihe duke of Guise, now his friend, surprised Marseilles; the duke of Mayenne submitted, and continued ever after warmly attached to his person and government ; but the archduke Albert surprised Calais ; the Spanish governor of Dourlens took Amiens ; and the French finances were in so dilapidated a state, that Henry could not raise an army. The prudence ar.d ability of the great Sully enabled him at last to take the 416 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI A. D. field at the head of a well-appointed army of more than 20,000 1597. rnen ; and, in spite of the efforts of Albert, Amiens was forced to surrender. The duke of Mercoeur was still in arms in Britany. Henry marched against him ; but the duke offering his only daugh- ter and a large dower to king Henry's natural son, the pro- posal was accepted, and the duke submitted. All France now cheerfully obeyed its lawful monarch. To dissipate the apprehensions of the Huguenots, Henry summoned the head of them to Nantes, and gave the celebrated edict named from »598 that town, which secured them the exercise of their religion, and declared them eligible to all places of trust, profit, and honor. Peace was now absolutely necessary to France, so long torn by civil dissensions ; and Henry concluded at Ver- vins a treaty with the Spanish king. During the remaining years of his reign, Henry, aided by his wise and virtuous friend and minister Sully, was indefati- gable in restoring France to order, tranquillity, and power. He was still, however, harassed by the intrigues of the Spanish cabinet; and at length he took the occ&sion of the disputed succession of the duchies of Cleves and Juliers to undertake his long-meditated plan of humbling the house ot Austria ; but in the midst of his preparations he perished by 1610 the dagger of the assassin Ravaillac. Henry was justly styled the Great : he possessed all kingly virtues ; the blem- ish of his character was his passion for women. After the death of Margaret of Valois, he married Mary of Medici, daughter of Francis duke of Tuscany. The Netherlands. The Netherlands had grown wealthy by trade. A freedom of municipal govemnient, and consequently of opinion, pre- vailed in their cities, and the reformed doctrines easily ob- tained a footing there. Charles V. had sought in vain to suppress them. Philip disliked the people, and he detested the new opinions; he insulted and offended the counts of Egmont and Horn, and the prince of Orange. They became the leaders of the oppressed people. Philip determined to crush the nation ; and the relentless duke of Alva was sent with a large army as governor to the Netherlands. Egmont and Horn, who had been the chief agents in composing the ferment of the Flemings, were notwithstanding brought to the block by Alva. Nothing was to be heard but cries of despair, to be seen but torture and death. William of Nassau, prince of Orange, led an army out of Germany, and offered battle in vain to Alva. The Spaniards Henry IV. of France. 417 / CHAP. HI. TIMES OF PHILll' II. 419 held all the fortified towns, and the prince was forced to dis- band his troops. Alva's tyranny knew no bounds; the people dared not to oppose. The queen of England, though favor- able to the Fleming's, was, at the desire of the king of Spain, obliged to exclude their privateers from her ports. The Gueux {Beggars), as their crews were called, seized on the a. d port of tlie Brille in Holland. Alva sent a force against 1572 them ; tlie people of the neighborhood rose and defeated it, and put themselves under the prince of Orange, by whose exertions the province of Holland, and shortly after that of Zealand, cast off the Spanish yoke. The prince took Mech- lin, Oudenard, and Dendermond; the gallant defence of Haarlem convinced Alva of the inutility of strong measures. He tried in vain to induce the people of Holland to submit to the clemency of Philip; but they, who knew what the tender mercies of Alva and his master were, set them at defiance.' The duke laid siege to Alcmaar; he was repulsed: he fitted out a large fleet; it was defeated by the Zealanders: he 1563 prayed to be recalled, and left the Low Countries, boasting that in five years he had delivered 18,000 persons to the exe- cutioner. Alva was succeeded by Requesens, commander of Castile, a man of mild disposition ; but the war still raged with al- ternate success. Leyden was invested by the Spaniards; 1571. the citizens endured every extreme of famine and distress ; the Dutch opened the dikes ; a violent wind drove the waters against the Spanish works ; and the commander Valdez was, after losing the flower of his army, forced to raise the siege. Conferences were now held, but to no purpose, at Breda, un- 1575. der the mediation of the emperor. The war was renewed : the Spaniards proved too powerful for the two provinces; they had entered Zealand, and were meditating the conquest of Holland, when, in their despair, the Dutch offered the sovereignty of their country to the queen of England. Thai prudent princess declined it, but mediated for them in vain with Philip. The war raged as fiercely as ever. Meanwhile Requesens died ; and the Spanish garrison 1576. committed such atrocities at Antwerp, that all the provinces, except Luxemburg, entered into the Pacification of Ghent, whose object was the expulsion of foreign troops, and the restoration of the ancient liberties of the states. Don Jcihn of Austria, the succeeding governor, seeing the inutility of resistance, agreed to confirm the pacification, and peace was »»t length restored. The ambition of Don John violated the peace, and war broke out anew. As he had meditated marrying the queen 420 HTSTOIIY OP THE WORLD. PART III. ^ P of Scots, and claiming' the crown of England, Elizabeth nc» 1578. longer hesitated to assist the malcontents with men and money. The count palatine of the Rhine also collected an army to aid them. But discord arose among the Netherland- ers. Jealous of the prince of Orange, the duke d'Arschot and other Catholic nobles privately invited Mathias, brotlier to the emperor Rodolf IL, to take the government. Mathiaa suddenly appeared ; the prince of Orange prudently joined him ; Don John was deposed, and Mathias made the prince his lieutenant, to the great mortification of d'Arschot. Don John, bejing jomed by the prince of Parma and 18,000 veterans, attacked and defeated the army of the states at Gemblours. Dissension continued between the two parties. Mathias was despised ; the prince of Orange suspected by both on account of his moderation. By the influence of the Catholic party, the duke of Anjou was declared Defender of the Liberties of the Netherlands. Don John dying shortly afterwards, the command of the Spanish forces passed to the prince of Parma, one of the first generals and statesmen of the age. The prince of Orange saw the necessity of a closer union 1579. among the Protestant states. Deputies met at Utrecht (Jan. 15), from Holla:.-, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, ■ Overyssel, and Guelderland, and signed the famous union of the Seven United Provinces. The king of Spain sought in vain to detach the prince of Orange from the union ; he was resolved to stand or fall with his country. The prince of Parma made a treaty with the people of the southern states ; the Catholics in general favored him, and he took several towns : the states, however, continued resolute ; they again offered the sovereignty to Elizabeth, and on her refusing it, 1580. conferred it on the duke of Anjou. The duke of Anjou forced the Spaniards to raise the siege of Cambray ; but when he went to England on the bootless project of marrying Elizabeth, the prince of Parma gained great advantages in the Netherlands. When he returned, he made a rash and violent attempt on the liberties of the states, and was obliged to retire to France, where he shortly afterwards died. Mathias had retired to Germany, and the conflict was now between the two great princes of Orange and Parma. Philip had set a reward on the head of the prince of Or- ange, and the dagger of an assassin, Balthazar Gerard, de- 585 prived the states of their able and patriotic leader. Their gratitude made them appoint his son Maurice, a yoi th of eighteen years, their Stadtholder, and captain-general by sea •;HAP. fll. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 421 and land ; their rage stimulated them to renewed exertion. The prince of Parma had reduced Ghent and Brussels ; he now invested Antwerp : the citizens opened their sluices and broke down their dikes ; the prince cut a canal to carry off the waters ; he erected a fortified bridg-e across the Scheld, to prevent the town being relieved by sea. The Hollanders, expecting that the fall of Antwerp would benefit their town of Amsterdam, obstructed every measure for its relief The city was forced to surrender. It declined, and Amsterdam flourished. The loss of Antwerp was a great blow to the states. Eliza- beth saw now the necessity of aiding them effectually. The earl of Leicester was sent to Holland with 5000 foot and 1000 horse. The states made him their governor; but his inso- lence and incapacity obliged his mistress to recall him. Prince Maurice was made governor, and lord Willoughby was ap- pointed to command the English forces. The prince of Parma was now obliged, more than once, to lead his army into France in aid of the League, and he was occupied in preparing for the invasion of England ; so that the war was not prosecuted a. d. with very great vigor. His death, as he was once more pre- 1^92. paring to enter France, delivered Maurice from a powerful opponent. He was succeeded in the chief command by count Mans- feld, an able and experienced officer. The scale of the states now preponderated ; prince Maurice took Breda before the 1594. eyes of the Spanish commander, and then Gertruydenburg and Groningen. At Turnhout, prince Maurice and Sir Fran- 1S97 cis Vere gained a complete victory over the Spaniards. The states refused now to be included in the peace of Vervins. Philip XL died. He had seen how fruitless was the contest, 1598 and, as a decent mode of ending it, he had transferred to his daughter Isabella, contracted to the archduke Albert, the sovereignty of the Low Countries. Albert wrote letters to the United Provinces, entreating them to submit to their natural princes, who would govern them with justice and lenity. They returned no answer. An edict was issued, pre- « eluding them from all intercourse with the Spanish Nether- 'ands, Spain, and Portugal. Philip 11. had wisely never med- dled with their trade. The Dutch sent a fleet to cruise against the Spaniards, and they turned their views towards the East Indies, and soon possessed the far greater part of the lucrative trade which the Portuguese had enjoyed. ' The war in the Low Countries was continued with spirit Each side was strongly reinforced ; towns were taken on both Hides* the two armies came to a general engagement at, 36 422 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TTT. A. D. Nieuport near Ostend, amd after a well-sustained contest the 1630. Spanish veterans gave way. But the troops of prince Mau- rice were so exhausted by fatigue, that he was unable to un dertake any thing before Albert had collected a superior army. 1601. Overtures of peace were made to and rejected by the states. Maurice took Rhinburg ; Albert laid siege to Ostend, which was vigorously defended by Sir Francis Vere, and he was 1602. forced to turn the siege into a blockade. The states changed the garrison, putting in fresh troops ; the besiegers were re- inforced by 8000 Italians, under the marquis Spinola, who took the command, and by his skill reduced the town to ruins. 1604. An honorable capitulation was granted by him to the gar- rison. This siege cost the archduke 70,000 men, and Maurice had meantime made acquisitions equal to Ostend. It was resolved to prosecute the war with vigor ; Spinola was made com- mander-in-chief: he had during two years considerable suc- cess ; but his troops mutinied for want of pay, and he gave it as his opinion that the subjugation of the United Provinces was impracticable. The pride of Spain was reduced to treat 1607 with the Dutch as an independent nation. A suspension of arms was agreed to, and finally, though opposed by the Or- ange party, a truce for ten years was made at the Hague, un i609. der the mediation of France and England. Thus, after a severe contest of thirty-seven years, inde- pendence was assured to the United Provinces. During the conflict they had increased in wealth, had made extensive acquisitions in the East, and established a navy equal to any at the time. England. 1559. The throne of England was at this eventftil period filled by Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and sister of the two preceding sovereigns ; a princess whose many great qualities have, in despite of some defects and weaknesses, and one crime (as we must call it), obtained her the applause of suc- ceeding ages. On her succession, the Protestant religion was lastingly established in England. Philip of Spain, despair- mg of obtaining her hand, was now become her implacable foe ; and as the Catholics denied the legality of her mother's marriage, they consequently denied her right to the throne, and they asserted the priority of the claims of Mary queen of Scots, descended from the daughter of Henry VII. This last ill-fated princess, by this claim, and by her imprudence and her superior beauty, excited the envy and jealousy of Elizabeth ; her Catholic bigotry alarmed the fears of the Pro- 423 CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 425 testants; her crimes alienated from her many who pitied her misfortunes. Yet, guilty as was Mary and as was Elizabeth, their times, their situations, and other circumstances, will offer many an excuse for each ; and ipiiy will often take the place of blame in the mind of the attentive examiner of their history, especially of that of the unfortunate queen of Scots, who, brought up amid the milder manners of the court of France, was ill-fitted to contend with the turbulence and bar- barism of her native realm ; and who, imprisoned by her own subjects, and thence flying into England to seek the protec- tion of a sister-queen and relative, found another prison, and, after a confinement of nineteen years, an unjust and igno- minious death. Philip had long been making preparations for the invasion a. ». of England : 50,000 men were assembled under the prince 1^^" of Parma in the Low Countries for that purpose ; ships were built in all the ports of his dominions. The Invincible Fleet, i58a as it was proudly called, sailed at length from the port of Lisbon ; but the courage and skill of the English mariners defeated it; the winds of heaven dispersed and shattered it; and but a small portion revisited Spain. '■'- 1 sent my fleet to combat the English, not the elements. God he praised, the calamity is not greater,'''' expressed the real or affected resig- nation of Philip: ^' Affiavit Deus, et dissipantvr inirnici*^ the real or affected piety of Elizabeth, who had evinced, in the season of danger, a spirit worthy of the greatest of her predecessors. With Elizabeth ended the house of Tudor, a race of born despots. Henry VIL was subtle and oppressive ; Henry VHL barbarous and capricious ; Edward VI, died before he could show his disposition ; Mary was an odious and cruel fanatic ; Elizabeth was insincere and arbitrary, but prudent and judi cious. She loved her subjects ; but on the same principle as her contemporary Shah Abbas loved his, — ^because they were hers, and she knew that their prosperity was her power ; but woe to any of them who dared oppose her will or her caprice ! Yet, like every truly great mind,, she could yield to circum- stances, and bend before the storm which it were folly to resist. During the reign of Elizabeth, the rebellions of Desmond and O'Neal in Ireland were crushed ; a colony, called Vir- ginia, was planted in the New World; Sir Francis Drake sailed round the globe ; an intercourse was opened with the great empire of Russia. Trade and commerce were en- couraged by this great princess ; literature was held in honor and flourished. 36* 426 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART iir. Portugal. A. D. Don John III. left his dominions to his son Don Sebastian 1555. a boy under ag-e. Don Henry, grand-uncle to the young prince, was in holy orders and a cardinal : the Jesuits man- aged to have the young king- committed to their care, and they used all their influence to extend the power of the church, and of their own order. Don Alessio Meneses in vain tried to withdraw the king- from them ; in vain his grand- mother, the sister of Charles V., wished to have the young monarch married. She was threatened and insulted by the holy fathers, who sought to dissipate his mind by frequent journeys; and when the people began to murmur, excited him to an expedition to Africa. A Sheriif, i. e. a descendant of the prophet, had seized on the throne of the Merinide emir of Morocco, and founded the 1519 dynasty which still reigns in that country. His successor, Mohammed Sheriff, conquered Fez. In the reign of Sebas- tian the throne was occupied by Abdallah Sheriff. Sebastian, in the ardor of youth, and encouraged by the Jesuits, was preparing to sail for India, and have himself crowned emperor of the East, when a brother of the Sheriff, expelled from Mo- rocco, came to seek his protection. The invasion of Africa was resolved on. The old queen, who foresaw and vainly endeavored to avert its disastrous consequences, died, it is said, of grief Full of enthusiasm, but ignorant of war, the young king passed over to Africa at the head of 20,000 men. The aged Sheriff met him at Alcazar-quivir with a superior army. Exhausted by age and disease, Abdallah expired in the midst of the conflict ; but a complete victory crowned the 1578. African arms. Sebastian disappeared, most probably slain ; but his subjects long continued to believe him living, and to look for his return. Cardinal Henry mounted the throne of Portugal. On his death the succession was disputed. The only male issue left by the four sons of Don Manuel was Antonio, prior of Prato, the natural son of Antonio duke of Beja. Don Edward had left two daughters, one married to the g-reat prince of Parma ; but as she was thus become a foreigner, she was excluded by the Constitutions of Lamego : the other was married to the duke of Braganza, and he had by law a right to the crown. Philip II. was son to a daughter of Don Manuel ; but as she had become a foreigner by her marriage, she could transmit no claim. Philip, however, set up a claim. As he was by far the most powerful of the condidates, he very easily made it good : the prior of Prato alone resisted. The state of tlie con- CHAP. III. TIMES OF PHILIP II 427 tinent prevented any princes supporting the just claims of the duke of Braganza ; and he himself was a quiet, easy man, satisfied with obtaining honors and dignities. Philip was ^^ ^ crowned at Lisbon. 1581 Thus, 867 years after the fall of the Gothic kingdom, the whole peninsula was reunited under one head ; happy if that head had not been Philip II.! Germany. Charles V. was succeeded in the imperial dignity by his orother Ferdinand, king of the Romans, This excellent prince directed all his efforts to the establishment of civil and religious concord in the empire. By the diet of Ratisbon, 1377 a reconciliation was made between the houses of Hesse and Nassau. The council of Trent was reassembled : but the Protestant princes met and came to the determination of ad- 156L hering to the Confession of Augsburg whatever the council might decree. All the well-meant efforts of the emperor were in vain; the council, bent only on the now hopeless project of exalting the power of the church, would listen to none of his prudent suggestions. After passing a set of de- crees, which effectually closed the doors against unity, this 1563 last of general councils was dissolved. Maximilian II. had been chosen king of the Romans in the 1564 lifetime of his father. Immediately on his accession he was engaged in war with Suleiman I., who even meditated the conquest of the German empire. Selim II. concluded a truce with the emperor. During the remainder of the reign of this mild and excellent prince, Germany enjoyed peace and tran- quillity. His son and successor, Rodolf II., inherited his pacific 157d. temper. Poland. At this period the Polish constitution underwent a great 1572 alteration. On the death of the estimable Sigismund Au- gustus, the last male of the Jagellons, the diet, consisting of 182 deputies, met, and determined that no king should have the power of nominating his successor. The election of a king was thus regulated : — On the plain of Vola, near War- saw, the senate and the people assembled. The former was composed of two archbishops, fifleen bishops, thirty-seven voi- vodes (dukes), eighty-two castellans (senators and lieutenants of the voivodes), and ten ministers of state. The senate met m a wooden house ; the deputies and the other nobles around it, within a wall and ditch. The king assembled and pre- sided over this diet, wherein aU matters relating to internal 428 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. and external policy were transacted. The powers of the monarch were extremely limited ; but he appointed to ecclesi- astical dignities, conferred nobility, commanded the army, and his assent was necessary to give validity to the acts of the diet. The Protestant religion having made great progress in Poland, the greater part of the senate were of that persua- sion ; the most perfect toleration prevailed ; all dissidents, as the non-catholics were styled, were eligible to all offices. The Arians and Socinians were numerous in Poland; the latter, when persecuted everywhere else, found an asylum there. Racau was their chief establishment. A. D. On the death of Sigismund, a Protestant named Szafraniec 1573. ^g^g proposed as his successor ; but the choice fell upon Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to Charles IX. Henry suc- ceeding to his brother in France, unceremoniously quitted 1575 Poland, and the Poles chose Stephen Bathori, prince of Tran- sylvania, a wise and brave monarch. They insisted on his marrying Anna Jagellon, daughter of Sigismund, to prevent any prince whom she might espouse claiming the crown. Stephen was by her induced to embrace the Catholic religion. 1587 His successor was Sigismund Vasa, crown-prince of Sweden, descended on the mother's side from the Jagellons. Italy. '459 The haughty Caraffa (Paul IV.) was followed in the papal chair by the pious and zealous Pius IV. and V., and the good and well-intentioned Gregory XIII. The able, the vigorous, the resolute Montalto (Sixtus V.) next occupied the seat of St. Peter. This penetrating statesman saw clearly through the selfish policy of Philip II., whom he secretly wished no ■ success ; and he, in his heart, admired the king of France and queen of England, against whom he discharged his spir- itual thunder. He established a rigorous police in the papal territories, and curbed the excesses of the lawless nobles. His strong measures against the great were followed up by his successor Aldobrandini (Clement VIII.) In Florence, Cosimo, the first grand duke, fortunate in other respects, was unhappy in his family. His daughter Lucretia was poisoned by her husband, a duke of Ferrara ; her sister Isabella was strangled by a prince of the Orsini, to whom she was married. The cardinal John of Medici was murdered by his brother Garcia, on account of a dispute at the chase, and Cosimo put his son Garcia to death with his own hand. Their mother died of grief His eldest daughter 429 CKAP m. TIMES OF PHILIP II. 431 was, on account of improper love, poisoned by order of the grand duke. Francis, the second grand duke, also perished by poison, a. d A Florentine, named Buonaventuri, settled at Venice, had l^'^^ run away with Bianca, the daughter of the senator Capello. They came to Florence, where they lived in poverty. The ^rand duke saw Bianca, admired, and got acquainted with her. Buonaventuri acquired wealth and honors. He loved a widow, and he employed his power to oppress her brothers; the grand duke reproving him, he replied with insolence and threats ; he was abandoned to the vengeance of those whom he ha,d injured, and he was murdered. Just at this time the grand duchess, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand, died. Francis married his beloved Bianca. Soon after, she took a hatred to her brother-in-law, the cardinal Ferdinand, and at- tempted to poison him at dinner. The cardinal, put perhaps on his guard, declined the proffered viands; — the grand duke, not aware of the truth, ate of the dish to remove his suspi- cions : — Bianca saw she was lost : — she also tasted of the dish, 158'' and died with her husband. The cardinal now became grand duke. He was a prince of great political prudence and sagacity, and his maxims were adopted by some leading courts. But he gave the reins with- out restraint to every sensual indulgence, and his example was followed by his subjects. Manufactures languished, mo- nopoly and companies checked trade ; but Florence was one of the handsomest, richest, and politest cities in Europe. The dukes of Savoy were proceeding with their character- 1559- istic activity. Emanuel Philibert, secured in his dominions by the treaty of Chateau Cambresis, turned all his thoughts 1^64. to depressing the nobles and increasing the ducal authority. He established a militia, built the citadel of Turin, and forti- fied Moiioinelian and Vercelle ; he created the manufacture of silk and the culture of olives ; he greatly increased the revenues by his wise measures, and was enabled to let the assembly of the states go out of use. His son Charles Emanuel 1584 had all the talents of a great prince, and could accommodate himself to all circumstances. His fault was neglect of his word when it interfered with his interest. By exchange he obtained Saluzzo, and prepared the way for the acquisition of a part of Montferrat by his son. His reign was long and '^^ successful. Turkey. Selim II., on succeeding his father Suleiman, concluded a 1566. truce foi: twelve years with the emperor Maximilian. He 432 HISTORY OF TUE WORLD. PART lit, turned his arms without success, against Persia, and then revived an old claim of the Egyptian sultans on Cyprus. f^ D- After an heroic resistance, the island was conquered by the 1571- Turks, with the loss of 100,000 lives. A league had heer formed against Selim by the pope, the king of Spain, and the Venetians. Their fleet was too late to relieve Cyprus ; bui they encountered in the gulf of Lepanto the Turkish fleet which ravaged the coasts of Italy and Dalmatia, and gaineo over it a most signal victory. Don John of Austria command- ed the Christians ; but dissension prevented any solid advan tage being derived from it. Next year the Turks appeare' with a still greater fleet, and the Venetians made a sepu,nit» peace, by which they renounced all claim to Cyprus. Dot John had meantime conquered Tunis and Biserta, oi*t che\ were again recovered by the Turks. During the reigns of the three following sultans, who wen sunk in pleasure, the Turks made no acquisidoi.s of conse quence. Under Mohammed III., the grand v^izier managed to draw to himself all power, by abolis^iiii^ the places of the six viziers who sat in the divan. CHAP. IV TIMES OF THE THIRTY >%*^s' WAR. Germapy. 1612. The archduke Mathias succor ded Rodolf in the empire. This prince had been hitherto iavorable to the Protestants, but he now resolved to curb tln^m. He had his cousin Ferdi- nand duke of Styria chosen Ins successor in Bohemia and Hungary, and Iip. made a tajiiiy compact with tin. :oMrt of Spain. The Protestants wfjie alarmed; the Bohemians and Hungarians had recourse to arms: the latter were easily quelled; but the tormer WJifc joined by the Protestants of Silesia, Moravia, and Upper Austria, and supported by an army of other German Protestants under count Mansfield. Thus began the Thirty Years' War. 1619. Mathias died, ajid Ferdinand was raised to the imperial throne. Tlie Bohemians deposed him, and offered their crown to Frederic V., elector palatine, who, contrary to the advice of his father-in-law, James I. of England, accepted the fatal gift. He was supported by all the Protestant princes of the empire except the elector of Saxony, and by Betlilem Gabor, voivode of Transylvania, by a body of 8000 Dutch troops, and CriAP. IV TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 433 by 2400 Encrlish volunteers. Ferdinand was aided by the king of Spain, by the archduke Albert, governor of the Netherlands, and the Catholic princes of the empire. Spinola Jed 24,000 men from the Low Countries, and ravaged the palatinate ; Frederic was defeated at Prague by the duke of a. d. Bavaria and general Baquoy. He and his adherents were 162a put to the ban of the empire; Bethlem Gabor was defeated in Hungary; count Tilly completed the conquest of the pala- tinate ; Frederic was degraded, and his dignity of elector conferred on the duke of Bavaria. A league was formed, at the head of which was Christian 1625 IV. of Denmark, for the restoration of the palatine. But the troops of the league were unable to stand before the imperial- ists led by Tilly and Wallenstein, and Christian was forced to sue for peace. Ferdinand now thought the time was come for reducing the princes and prelates of the empire to the condition of" those of other countries. He resolved to begin with the Protestants; and he passed an edict ordering them 1629. to restore all the church lands, &c. that they had enjoyed since the peace of Passau. The Protestants remonstrated ; a diet was held at Ratisbon; the majority of the Catholic princes were for quieting them ; the spiritual electors second- ed the views of the emperor. The Protestants, to escape the meditated robbery, formed a secret alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. . Gustavus was a prince of the highest military and civil talents : he was animated by a rational zeal for the Protest- ant religion, and he saw through the emperor's project of extending his dominion over the Baltic. Various other rea- sons combined to induce him to engage in war. The cardinal Richelieu, now minister in France, desirous to check the power of the house of Austria, engaged to give him an an- nual subsidy of 1,200,000 livrcs. Charles I. of England al- lowed 6000 men to be raised in the name of the marquis of Hamilton, to aid the king of Sweden, and numerous English and Scottish volunteers crowde. Spanish governors. Brazil was recovered from tlie Dutch, 1640. and Portugal became once more independent. Itali/. The dominions of Spain in Northern Italy, were divided from those of the emperor by the Valteline and Venice. Be- 1618. domar, the Spanish ambassador to the latter, formed, in con- junction with the governor of Milan and the viceroy of Na- ples, a nefarious project for murdering the senate, and getting possession of Venice; but the senate, discovering in time tlie atrocious plot, executed the majority of the conspirators. 1620. Spain was more fortunate and less guilty in tiie Valteline, the Catholic inhabitants of which rose on and massacred their Protestant countrymen, and placed themselves under her pro- tection. The emperor and king of Spain each attempted to get the duchy of JVIantua, after the death of the duke without heirs; 1630. ij^it Riciielieu entered Italy with an army, and obliged the emperor to grant the investiture to Charles Gonzaga, duke of Nevers. England— The Civil War. An eventful period now commences in England. A new 1603 dynasty tills the throne, and the grand struggle begins be- tween liberty and absolute power. James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary, and descended from the elde.'^t daughter of Henry VII., was, on the doatii of Elizabeth, placed by the free-will and choice of the Engli?ii nation on her royal seat. This monarch was possessed of learning and abilities rather above the common rate; but lie was pedantic, mean, and pusillani- mous, sh;miefully subservient to unworthy favorites, and in his inglorious love of peace careless of the national honor. In the reign of this feeble prince, the English nation first learned to listen to the doctrines of the divine and ini'efeasi- * James YI. of Scotland and I. of EnglandL 88 445 CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 447 ble rights of kings ; then, too, the church began to depart from the principles of the reformers, and some of her divines to approximate in their doctrines to those of the church of Rome, so generally odious to the nation. Every thing, in short, w^as done, as it were, to prepare the materials of the coming conflagration. In the reign of James, the nation took greatly to trade and maritime enterprise, and increased rapidly in wealth, intelli- gence, and love of freedom. Public events w^ere few. The most remarkable was the Gunpowder Plot, a plan formed in the beginning of the king's reign by a few desperate Catho- lics to blow up the king and parliament, but fortunately dis- covered in time. The most laudable act of James's reign was the settlement and plantation of the north of Ireland. Charles I., of a harsh and arbitrary temper, endeavored to a. d. put into practice the speculative tenets of his father. He saw 1625 not the state of the nation. English liberty had made great progress under the Plantagenets : circumstances enabled the Tudors nearly to crush it ; but with the growth of wealth, and the freedom of religious opinion, the spirit of the nation had recovered its vigor. Charles was suspected, on account of his marriage with Henrietta, sister to the king of France, a bigoted Catholic, and his partiality towards the professors of that religion, of a secret design against Protestantism. The Puritans, now a numerous party, were bitterly hostile to the church of England ; and the persecuting violence and silly superstition of archbishop Laud augmented their rancor. Re- fused the necessary supplies by the parliament, without giv- ing some security for liberty, the king had recourse to all the illegal modes of taxation employed by his predecessors. Ton- nage and poundage were levied ; all the oppressions of feudal- ism renewed ; for more than ten years no parliament assem- bled. An attempt being made to force Episcopacy upon the 1638 Scots, that nation took arms, and entered into the solemn LEAGUE AND COVENANT. A dreadful rebellion broke out in IfrW Ireland, in which thousands of Protestants were barbarously massacred by the Catholics. The Long Parliament, which the king had assembled, advanced every day in their de- mands on him, and testified a spirit of determined hostility to the church. The impeachment, and illegal and unjust, though well-merited, condemnation of Strafford, the king's ablest and most obnoxious minister, showed him the spirit by which they were actuated. Charles, though reluctantly, still yielded to their demands ; but concession only produced further assump- tion. An invincible distrust of the king's sincerity, for which, indeed, there was abundant reason, haunted the minds of the 448 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART m. A D. parliament, and prevented all accommodation. Both parties 642. finally determined on the appeal to the sword. The king- was supported by a large proportion of the an- cient nobility and gentry of the realm, many of whom had at first been zealous in checking the royal excesses; but now, seeing the exorbitant demands of the commons, resolved to sustain the throne. The Catholics were naturally unanimous in his favor ; the western counties were in general well af fected to him. The chief strength of the parliament lay in the cities and great towns, and the eastern counties, and the lower orders were mostly on their side. It is idle to seek to extenuate the faults on either side ; to represent the one party as the champions of right and justice, the other as the inveterate foes of both. Each had much, indeed, to answer for: it was a struggle, the probable termination of which would be tyranny or anarchy ; yet impartiality will say, that the king was left no alternative, and that the balance of guilt was rather on the side of the parliament. Certainly, neither party is entitled to our unqualified approbation. But, in truth, the Civil War was inevitable ; it was the almost necessary result of the state of opinion then prevalent ; it was the tem- pest which was to purify the political atmosphere. . The royal standard was raised at Nottingham (Aug. 22). The first battle was fought at Edgehill. In the course of three years, numerous engagements occurred between the troops of the king and those of the parliament, now joined by the Scots. Lansdown Hill, Round way Down, Newbury, Nantwich, Marston Moor, and other places, witnessed the successes and reverses of either party. At length the king 1645. received a final and fatal overthrow at Naseby (June 14), and unable any longer to make head, he fled for protection to the 1647. camp of the Scots at Newark. He was by them dishonorably surrendered to the parliament. Afler a confinement of some time, he was, by means of the sect of the Independents, who were all-powerful in the army, and were, therefore, now the 649. prevailing party, brought to trial, condemned, and beheaded ; a sentence, even if morally just, which it undoubtedly was not, flagrantly illegal ; a sentence that filled Europe with amazement ; and that, even if passed with purer motives than it was, by most of his judges, was an act of useless and per- nicious folly. A republic was now established. Holland. After the truce of 1609, the United Provinces were agi- tated by religious dissensions. The opinions of Calvin were maintained in all their rigor by the followers of Gomer : a CHAP. IV. TIMES OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 449 milder system was advocated by Arminius. Prince Maurice sided with the former ; the patriotic functionary Barneveldt, who saw through the ambitious desig-ns of the prince, sup- ported the latter. The Gomerists prevailed ; the Arminian preachers were banished. Barneveldt, at the ag-e of 72, was broug-ht to the block, under the base and iniquitous charge of a. d. ' vexing the church of God." But the people saw the object 1619 of Maurice, and groans and murmurs, and the name of Bar- neveldt, attended him wherever he went. The Dutch were, during this period, usually allied with France against Spain. They extended their trade in the East and West Indies. In the former they founded Batavia, and laid the foundation of their future empire in those re- gions. Russia. That most extraordinary tyrant, Ivan IV. the Terrible, 159a was succeeded by his only remaining son, Fedor, with whom ended the house of Ruric. The boyars chose Boris, the brother of the empress. This prince governed well ; but an impostor appeared, pretending to be Dmitri, the eldest son of Ivan. After the death of Boris, the pseudo-Dmitri gained the throne, and his reign was praiseworthy. Suspected of a fondness for Polish manners, he was murdered by his boyars. Several false Dmitries appeared. At length, the nobles assembled to choose a sovereign. Three days they and tlie people fasted, and called upon God, and they then appointed 1613. Michaila Romanov, son of the archbishop Philocetus, and grandson, by his mother, of the Tzar Ivan, a boy of but fifteen years. The new Tzar spent his reign in restoring Russia to its former state of power and order. His son Alexei extended the relations of the empire. He first sent an embassy to China, and made Tobolsk the staple of the Chinese trade. 1645. Turkey and Persia. The Turkish sultans Ahmed, Mustafa, Osman, Moorad IV., and Ibrahim were, all but the ill-fated Osman and Moorad, sunk in pleasure and sensual indulgence, and took little part in the affairs of Europe. Moorad conquered Bagdad, and restrained the power of the janizaries, Persia, under the rule of Abbas the Great, attained to con- siderable power. This truly great monarch was victorious 1582 in his wars against the Ottomans and the Usbegs; and he es- tablished a degree of tranquillity throughout his dominions, to which Persia had long been a stranger. After his death the 1627 Persian power began to decline. 38=^ 450 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. France, to the Peace of the Pyrenees. A. D. Louis XIV. was a minor, his mother, Anne of Austria, re- 648. gent, and cardinal Mazarin minister. De Retz (afterwards cardinal) coadjutor archbishop of Paris, a man of unprincipled ambition, endeavored to excite the nobility and people against the minister. The parliament of Paris joined him. The queen was insulted whenever she appeared. Mazarin or- dered the president and some of the most factious members of the parliament to be arrested. The populace rose, and barri- 1577. cadoed the streets till the prisoners were released. Such was the commencement of the celebrated Fronde. The parliament of Paris proclaimed the cardinal a public enemy. The prince of Conti, the duke of Bouillon, and other nobles, joined them. Other parliaments followed their exam- ple. The great prince of Conde, at the request of the court, dispersed the undisciplined troops the parliament had raised. Matters were settled for a time ; but Conde, Conti, and others were afterwards, by the advice of de Retz, arrested at the council-table. Their partisans took arms : the duke of Or- leans, uncle to the king, set himself at their head. The car- dinal was obliged to fly to Cologne. By the intrigues of him and de Retz the duke of Bouillon and his brother Turenne were detached from the malcontents, and Mazarin returned, 1651. escorted by 6000 men. Conde threw himself on the protection of Spain, and en- tered Paris at the head of a body of Spanish troops. Turenne led Louis within sight of his capital, and these two great gen- erals engaged each other in the suburb of St. Anfoine. The combat was long ; but the heroism of the daughter of the duke of Orleans, who ordered the guns of the Bastille to fire on the king's troops, decided it in favor of Conde. 1653. At length the king dismissed Mazarin, and the nation re- 1655. turned to its allegiance. Mazarin was, however, afterwards recalled, the nobles were punished, and the parliament hum- bled. The war with Spain had still continued ; it was now prose- cuted with vigor. Turenne and Conde were opposed to each 1656. other. At Arras and Valenciennes the talents of the rivals were fully displayed. The balance was even between the two parties; but Mazarin formed an alliance with Cromwell; Oliver Cromwell. 451 CHAP. V. TIMES OF L0UI3 XIV. 453 w'ho now governed Enoland, and the beam was turned. Dun- kirk was taken from Spain, and given to England. Ypres, Gravelines, and several other towns, surrendered to the arms a. » of France. Spain saw the necessity of peace. Mazarin and 1659 Don Louis de Haro, the Spanish minister, met in the Isle of Pheasants, in the Pyrenees, and settled the terms of a peace. Philip agreed to pardon the Catalans, and renounce all claim to Alsace; Louis to pardon Conde. The succession of Juliers was secured to the duke of Neuburg, and the hifanta Maria Theresa was given in marriage to Louis. Mazarin died within less than a year after concluding the 1661 peace of the Pyrenees; and Louis, now 21 years of age, took the reins of government into his own hands. Englnnd, to the Restoration. The parliament now governed England, and the strength the nation exhibited at this period is astonishing. Cromwell led an army into Ireland, and rapidly overran and contiuered 1649 the whole kingdom. The Scots having proclaimed Charles II., Cromwell invaded and reduced that kingdom also. Charles 1660 entered England with a Scottish army ; but the battle of Wor- cfcjster put an end to his hopes. Cromwell now dissolved the parliament, and governed alon(% under the title of Protector. 1653 Success attended all his measures of Ibreign policy. He beat tlie Dutch, and forced their ships to strike their flag to the English. He took Jamaica from the Spaniards. Mazarin acknowledged him. The Venetians ami Swiss sought his friendship. The; northerti courts resjiected his power. But at home his government was rigorous in the extreme; and the despotism of C'hurles I. had never ventured on the tyr- anny and injustice exercised by this chief of the republic. On the death of Cromwell, his son Richard succeeded him 1658. in the protectorate; but he soon resigned his dignity. The eyes of the nation, wearied of change and tu rmoil, were turned to the ancient line of their princes. General Monk, who commanded in Scotland, marched to London; and the parlia- ment, reassembled under his protection, restored Charles II. 1660. to the throne of his ancestors. Wars till the Peace of Nimeguen. The Dtitch had, on the death of William II. of Orange, 157(1 abolished the dignity of stadtholder. The family of Orange being connected with the royal family of England, Charles II. wished to restore his nephew, William III., to the power of his ancestors, and he also hoped to make money by a war. The people of England were jealous of the commercial wealth 454 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, PART III. A D. of Holland. War was, therefore, declared under false pre. 1664. texts. Squadrons were sent out to Africa and America. De Witt, pensionary of Holland, who directed the republic, fore- seeing the designs of England, had formed an alliance with France. A large fleet was collected under admiral Opdam. 1665. It^ engaged the English fleet under the duke of York, but was totally defeated. Louis XIV. and the king of Denmark now came forward to aid the Dutch. The following year two most desperate sea-fights took place : the first lasted four days, and the fleets separated, leaving victory undecided. The next month the Dutch were defeated. Both parties growing weary of the war, negotiations were opened at Breda ; but de Witt refused to consent to a suspension of hos- tilities. A Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and burned sev- 1667. eral ships of war at Chatham ; and de Ruyter, the Dutch ad- miral, rode triumphant in the Channel. The treaty of Breda was now concluded, in which England receded from some of her demands. She retained New-York, which she had con- quered ; she ceded her settlement at Surinam. Louis XIV. now commenced his career of war, the struggle between absolute monarchy and constitutional liberty. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain, who left only one son, 1665. Charles, a sickly infant, Louis, who, though at his marriage with the infanta he had renounced all title to the succession of any part of the Spanish dominions, still secretly cherished the hope of obtaining them, had retracted the renunciation, and even laid claim, in right of his wife, to the immediate possession of the duchy of Brabant. This claim could only be decided by arms. At the head of 40,000 men Louis en- 1667. tered Flanders. Tournay, Douay, Lisle, and other towns sur- rendered. Another campaign, it was feared, would make him master of the Low Countries. All Europe was alarmed. A triple alliance was formed between England, Holland, and 1668 Sweden, to oblige Louis to adhere to, and Spain to accept of, the terms offered by the former at the end of the first cam- paign. France and Spain were equally displeased at this treaty, but agreed to treat; and a treaty was negotiated at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which Spain allowed Louis to retain the towns he had taken, and which he had had strongly fortified by the great Vauban. By a treaty with Portugal at this time, Spain acknowledged the independence of that crown. Louis was bent on revenge on Holland. A secret treaty 670. WQ-s made with the king of England, whom Louis engaged to assist in his project of establishing popery and despotism in that country, if he aided in subduing the United Provinces ; and Louis prepared to invade the States. As he could not CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 455 obtain a passage through the Spanish provinces, he, contrary to the faith of treaties, seized on the duchy of Lorrain. Charles, who was now become the pensioner of France, ob- tained under false pretexts a large grant from his parliament; and a base and unsuccessful attempt was made on the Dutch Smyrna fleet, while the treaty subsisted with the States. At a. d length both monarchs, under the most frivolous pretences, do- 1672 clared war against the United Provinces. The combined fleets of France and England were more than 100 sail. A French army of 120,000 men appeared on the frontiers. The States put forth all their energies. The command of the irmy was intrusted to William III. of Orange, now 23 years of age. De Witt and de Ruyter attended to the navy. The latter put to sea with 90 sail of large, and 40 of small vessels, to take vengeance on the English for their perfidious attempt on the Smyrna fleet. The English had been joined by the French ; and their combined force was 120 sail, when de Ruyter came in sight of them in Southwold Bay. A despe- rate engagement terminated in no decisive advantage to either side. Louis divided his army into three bodies, under Tarenne, Conde and Chamilli, and Luxemburg : the bishop of Miinster and the elector of Cologne were his allies. Several towns surrendered. He passed the Rhine. Nimeguen and Utrecht opened their gates. All the provinces but Holland and Zea- land submitted. Holland opened its sluices, and inundated the country ; but the councjls of the state were distracted by the Orange and republican parties. Offers were made to surrender Maestricht and all the frontier towns beyond the limits of the seven provinces, and to pay the expenses of the war. They were haughtily rejected. The prince of Orange was declared stadtholder, and in a moment of popular frenzy the great and good de Witt and his brother were torn to pieces. It was resolved never to submit : ships were even prepared to carry these modern Phocseans to the East Indies, if unable to retain their country and liberty. The combined fleets, with an army on board, approached 1673 the coast of Holland. In a manner almost miraculous they were carried out to sea, and afterwards prevented landing their forces by violent storms. Those who regarded this as the interference of providence cannot justly be accused of su- perstition. Meanwhile, Lou is had returned to Versailles. The emperor and the elector of Brandenburg had shown a dispo- sition to assist the States. The king of Spain had sent them some forces, and the aspect of their affairs was brightening The Dutch fleet, under van Tromp and de Ruyter, engaged 456 HISTORY OF the world. part ni the combined French and English fleets under prince Rupert, in three actions, off the coast of Holland. They were, as usual, long and obstinately fought, and, as usual, undecisive. The French took Maestricht. The prince of Orange re- took Naerden. The imperialists under Montecuculi having vamly attempted the passage of the Rhine, laid siege to Bonn. The prince of Orange joined them. Bonn surrendered. The greater part of the electorate of Cologne was conquered ; and the communication being thus cut off between France and the United Provinces, Louis was obliged to recall his forces and abandon his conquests. A congress held at Cologne could settle nothing. The house of Austria was terrified at the projects of Louis; the emperor and the king of Spain signed a treaty with the Dutch, and Spain declared war. A. D. Charles, unable to get supplies from his parliament, made 1674. peace with Holland. Louis also was desirous of peace; but the allies were eager for war. Charles in vain tried to me- diate. In the next campaign Louis exerted great energy. At the head of one of his armies he conquered Franche- Comte. A furious but indecisive battle was fought at Seneffe in Brabant, between Turenne and the prince of Or- ange. The prince took Grave, the last town the French held in the United Provinces. Turenne was successfbl on the side of Germany : he overran the Palatinate ; but his laurels were tarnished by the horrible cruelties and excesses com- mitted by his troops. 1675. Louis again vainly sought peaee. In the next campaign nothing of importance took place in Flanders. In Germany Turenne was killed by a cannon-ball, and the French army forced to recross the Rhine. ^76. The next year the French were successful in Flanders, taking Conde and Bouchain. The imperialists took Philips- burg. The French fleet defeated the combined Dutch and Spanish fleets in the Mediterranean, and rode triumphant in that sea. »677 The Dutch were now as anxious for peace as Louis ; but the prince of Orange wishing to continue the war, another campaign was opened. Louis took Valenciennes, Cambray, and St. Omer, and defeated the prince at Mount Cassal, when he attempted the relief of this last town. The French arms under Crequi and other generals were successful on the Rhine. Spain was torn by factions. A congress had been sitting all this while at Nimeguen, and a conditional treaty was entered into between France and the Dutch. The prince of Orange mai ried in this year the daughter of the duke oi York Charles II. of EnglancL 39 467 kAIAV. V. . TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 459 In the following- year, Louis took Ghent and Ypres. The a. d Dutch were terrified, and signed a separate peace at Nime- ^^''^ guen. The allies clamored : the prince of Orange sought to break it by an attack on a French army ; but all were finally obliged to accede to it. By this treaty Louis retained Franche- Comte and Cambray, Tourney, Valenciennes, and several other towns in the Low Countries, and his power was now by far the most formidable in Europe. England, to the Revolution. The object of Charles IL was to establish absolute power and popery ; and the people, recovering from their delirium of loyalty, gradually became jealous and suspicious of him. Episcopacy having been restored, an iniquitous attempt was 1668. made to force it on Scotland. The detestable barbarity of the government was opposed by the fierce bigotry and fanati- cism of the people, and horrible cruelties were exercised to subdue them. The awakened fears and bigotry of the nation caused a Popish Plot to be got up in England, and several 1678. innocent Catholics were judicially murdered. The jealousy of the commons against the designs of the court was ever alive, and it drove them into some measures not compatible with justice and policy. It was attempted to exclude the duke of York, a known papist, from the crown, and the Test Act was passed. But the court, by taking advantage of circumstances, particularly of the Ryehouse Plot, and secretly supplied with money by Louis, advanced rapidly in the career of despotism, or rather approached nearer the precipice over which it was to be whirled. Russel and Sidney were publicly executed ; 1683 passive obedience was preached; justice was perverted. In this state of affairs the king died. He expired in the 1685. faith of the church of Rome, which he had long secretly pro- fessed. It was indeed, morally speaking, a matter of little importance what the religious sentiments were of such a heartless, selfish profligate. It is an instance of the effect of popular manners and showy qualities on the minds of the vulgar, that this prince, the mean pensioner of France, the conspirer against the religion and liberties of his people, every one of whose acts tended to disgrace the nation, was, like Edward IV. and Henry VIII., instead of being detested, rather a favorite with the country at large. James II., in his fanatic zeal for popery, would hearken to no remonstrance of prudence. The duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the late king, took up arms in the west of England ; but was defeated, and he and numbers of his ad- herents executed by order of the relentless tyrant. The king 460 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TTT. proceeded in his design of changing the relig, :j of the coun- try, arid attempted to place Papists in the chu Ci< and univer- sities. Having ordered his declaration of indulgence to be read in the pulpit, the primate and six bishops petitioned against it. They w^ere committed to the Tow^r, tried, and acquitted. The joy of the people at this event ^s no warn- ing to the king. The Whigs and Tories (the parties into which the nation was now divided) coalesced o^ he birth of a young prince, and invited over the prince of (Grange to de- liver the nation. The prince embarked with a large force. A. D. The troops of James deserted him. He and his queen and 688. son fled to France. The throne was declared vacant, and the prince and princess of Orange proclaimed king and queen of England. The Bill of Rights, and, at a subsequent period, the Act of Settlement, were passed for the security of the nation. Such was the resolution of 1688, justly called Glorious ; the noblest instance history presents of the salutary and ir- resistible power of public opinion, directed by wisdom, and aiming at just and worthy ends. It is an event to which Eng- land, as long as her name and her language exist, must look back with pride and gratitude; it stands a noble monument of bloodless resistance, amidst the scenes of cruelty, slaugh- ter, and oppression which deform the domains of history. Be- fore its radiance, absolute power, passive obedience, and their kindred doctrines, fled like spectres of the night, to conceal themselves from human view. Wars to the Peace of Ryswick. After the peace of Nimeguen, Louis proceeded to act in the most arbitrary and insolent manner. He treacherously made himself master of Strasburg, and demanded Alost from the 1683. Spaniards. The Turks had at this time invaded Hungary, and occupied the imperial arms. Joined by the Hungarian malcon- tents, who had invited them, the Turkish army advanced towards Vienna. The vizier laid siege to that city ; but the German princes collected their forces, and, under the command of 1684. John Sobieski, king of Poland, came to its relief The Turks were seized with a panic, and fled ; and they were finally driven out of Hungary. Louis, who had suspended his ope- rations during the siege of Vienna, now reduced Luxemburg, Courtray, and Dixmund. The emperor and Spain were forced to conclude a truce with him. He was now at the height of his power : he had a most extensive marine ; had chastised the pirate states of Africa, trampled on the power and inde- pendence of Genoa, and insulted the dignity of the pope. In CHAP.V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 461 the ignorance of his big-otry, he revoked the edict of Nantz, a. d. treated his Protestant subjects with all the injustice and cru- 16B5 elty that blind fanaticism could dictate, and thereby lost to France thousands of industrious citizens, who augmented the wealth and the armies of his enemies. A league was formed at Augsburg, to restrain the en- 1687 croachments of France. Spain and Holland joined it, as also did Denmark, Sweden, and Savoy, and, finally, England, now governed by William. The emperor Leopold was at the head of the confederacy. Louis assembled two large armies in 1689 Flanders ; a third was opposed to the Spaniards in Catalonia ; another entered and ravaged the palatinate in a most barbar- ous and fiendish manner, a conduct almost peculiar to the French among civilized nations. But this detestable policy did not avail Louis : his troops were unsuccessful on all sides ; and he lost Mentz and Bonn. In the next campaign he was 1690. more fortunate : the mareschal de Catinat reduced all Savoy ; Luxemburg and Boufflers defeated the allies at Fleurus, and Catalonia was thrown into confusion. The Turks were suc- cessful in Hungary. The French fleet defeated the com- bined Dutch and English off Beachy-head. The following 1691. year, though Louis took Mons, he and his allies the Turks, made little progress. Louis, the ensuing spring, took Na- mur; and the king of England made an unsuccessful attack, on the French army at Steenkirk; Catinat was driven back, 1692 and the duke of Savoy ravaged Dauphine. Waradin was taken from the Turks. The French fleet was defeated off La Hogue. Next year, Luxemburg defeated, at Landen, the 1693. allies, commanded by the king of England ; and Catinat, those under the duke of Savoy, at the river Cisola. A French squadron dispersed and captured several ships of the Smyrna fleet. Meanwhile, France was internally suffering the effects of war. Agriculture and commerce languished ; and, in the next campaign, nothing of importance was done. In the cam- paign of 1695, William recovered Namur. In the following, 1696. no signal event occurred. All parties were now tired of war. A congress was opened at Ryswick, near Delft, and a treaty 1697. concluded, by which Louis made great concessions, acknow- ledging William III., and restoring to Spain almost all the places that had been united to France, and giving back Lor- rain and Bar to their native princes. The gallant sultan, Mustafa II., was totally defeated at Zenta, in Hungary, by 1699 prince Eugene of Savoy, and forced to conclude a peace at Carlo witz. Tranquillity was thus for a time restored. 39* 462 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART 11*, England. A. D. The cause of James was supported in Scotland by the brave 1689. but cruel viscount Dundee. At the battle of Killicranky, he was killed in the midst of victory. The Presbyterian religion was re-established in that kingdom. James himself passing over to Ireland, the Catholics armed in his favor. They were repulsed in their attempt on Derry, and William soon landed 690. in Ireland, and gained the decisive battle of the Boyne. James fled to France. William invested Limerick without success; but the following year, his general, de Ginckel, defeated the 1691. Irish at Aughrim, took Athlone, and Limerick surrendered on conditions which were not subsequently very rigidly ad- hered to by the victorious party. The government of William III., the ablest prince of his age, and one of the best and greatest monarch s that have sat Oil the English throne, was now firmly established with tlie consent and support of the majority of the British nation, tliough a strong faction still clung to the cause of the banished yrant. Spanish Succession. Charles II. of Spain had no children, and his health was declining. The claimants of the crown were Louis XIV. and the dauphin, and the emperor and the king of the Ro- mans. Both Louis and Leopold were equally related to Charles: they were grandsons of Philip III., and married to daughters of Philip IV. A third competitor was the electoral prince of Bavaria. Right of birth was with the Bourbons, as the king and the dauphin were descended from the eldest in- fantas; but the imperial family pleaded the renunciations made by Louis XIII. and XIV., and, as the descendants of Maximilian, the right of male representation. The electoral prince claimed in right of his mother, the only surviving child of the emperor Leopold by the infimta Margaret, second daughter of Philip IV., who had declared her descendants heir to the crown, in preference to those of his eldest daugh- ter. It was for the interest of Eurof)e that the Bavarian prince should succeed ; but he was unable to contend with his rivals. No power was inclined for war. Louis and Leopold secretly intrigued at Madrid. The body of the Spanish nation was for the former; the queen and her party for the emperor. 698. Meantime France, England, and Holland secretly signed a treaty of partition, to give Spain, America, and the Nether- lands to the electoral prince ; Naples, Sicily, some places in Queen Anne, of England. 463 CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 40)5 Italy and Spain to the dauphin ; and the duchy of Milan to Charles, the emperor's second son. Tiiis treaty coming- to the knowledg-e of the court of Spain, filled it with rag'e. The king- made a will in favor of the electoral prince. England and Holland were well pleased a. d. at this; but the sudden death of that prince revived their 1*>99 apprehensions. A second treaty of partition was secretly sig-ned by the same powers, g"iving the electoral prince's part 1700 to the archduke Charles, and Milan to the duke of Lorrain, who was to cede his territories to the dauphin ; and care was taken to prevent, in any case, the crown of Spain being united to that of France or the empire. The emperor rejected the treaty of partition, and the king- of Spain nominated the archduke his heir. The nobles and clerg-y of Spain were for the Bourbons. The archbishop of Toledo prevailed on the king- to write to consult the pope ; and Innocent XIT,, aware tha.t the liberties of Italy depended on restraining- the imperial power, required him to prefer the family of Bourbon. A new will was secretly made, in which 1701 the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, was declared heir. Charles died soon afterwards, and Louis, after some hesitation, accepting- the succession, the young king was crowned, under the title of Philip V. ; and England and Hol- land found it necessary to acknowledge him. Leopold dis- puted his title, and sent an army into Italy, to support his claim to Milan. He met there with signal success : the Eng- lish and Dutch, after some fruitless negotiations with France, resolved to support him. He gained the elector of Branden- burg by creating him king of Prussia ; and the king of Den- mark was ready to aid him. A treaty, called the Grand Alliance, was signed by the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, the States General, .and the king of England. The avowed objects of it were, to procure the emperor satisfaction respecting the Spanish succession, to prevent the union of the French and Spanish monarchies, &c. Neither England nor Holland would agree to support the emperor in his demand of all the Spanish dominions. On the death of William III., his successor, queen Anne, nos declared her resolution to adhere to the Grand Alliance, and war was declared by the three powers against France. In the first campaign, the French defeated the imperialists on the Upper Rhine ; but the earl of Marlborough made great progress in Flanders, and the combined fleets of England and Holland captured the Spanish galleons, and took and burned a Frernch fleet in Vigo bay. The duke of Savoy, long irreso- no? lute, at length joined the allies, as did also the king of Por 466 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PARI IIL tug-al. The electorof Bavaria and Marsha] Villars defeated the imperialists at Hochstadt. The French had the advantage in Italy and Alsace. In Flanders, the genius of Marlborough kept them in check. The emperor now directed his son Charles to assume the title of king of Spain. D, The emperor was almost besieged in his capital by the 70i. Hungarian malcontents on one side, and the French and Bavarians on the other. Marlborough, as the United Prov- inces were now secured, resolved to march into Germany, to the aid of Leopold. He crossed the Rhine at Coblentz, and meeting prince Eugene at Mondelsheim, a junction was agreed on between the allies and the imperial troops under the duke of Baden. They forced the intrenchments of the elector of Bavaria at Donawert. The elector was reinforced by 30.000 French under Tallard: prince Eugene joined Marlborough with 20,000. Each army consisted of about 60,000 men, when they engaged (Aug. 13) near the village of Blenheim, on the banks of the Danube. The victory of the allies was signal; 30,000 French and Bavarians were killed, wounded, and taken : the loss of the allies was 5000 killed, and 7000 wounded. All Bavaria was overrun; the victors crossed the Rhine, and entered Alsace. ■ In Italy and Spain the advantage was on the side of the French ; but the important fortress of Gibraltar was taken by the English. 1705. Next year the French maintained their superiority in Italy; but in Spain almost the whole of Valencia and Catalonia sub- mitted to Charles. In Flanders Marlborough was unable to effect any thing. Leopold died this year. 1706. liOuis now resolved to strain every nerve to maintain an army in Germany, support his grandson in Spain, strip the duke of Savoy of his dominions, and act offensively in Flan- ders. The ardor of Villeroy in the latter country destroyed all his projects: this general, though with a superior force, gave battle to Marlborough at Ramillies, and was defeated, with the loss of 7000 killed, and 6000 prisoners. All Brabant, and neai ly all Spanish Flanders, submitted to the conquerors. In Italy the French, under the duke of Orleans, were attacked and driven out of their camp before Turin, by prince Eugene ; and the house of Bourbon in consequence lost all the territo- ries it claimed in Italy. In Spain the French and Spaniards were repulsed in their attack on Barcelona, and the English and Portuguese entered Madrid, which they were, however, unable to retain. Most advantageous terms were now offered by Louis to the allies; but the self-interest of Marlborough, Eugene, and the pensionary Heinsius, prevented their being Louis XIV. accepting the Crown of Spain for his Grandson, Philip V. 467 CHAP. V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 469 accepted, though without any farther effusion of blood all the objects of the grand alliance might now be attained. Louis collected all his energies : his troops being obliged a d to evacuate Milan, Mantua, and Modena, he sent them to the 1''07 aid of his grandson ; and (April 26) the duke of Berwick (a natural son of James 11.) gained a most decisive victory over the confederates, under the earl of Galway and the marquis las Minas, at Almanza. The duke of Orleans re- duced Valencia and part of Aragon. Prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy entered France and laid siege to Toulon, but were forced to abandon the enterprise. Enraged by a 1708. futile attempt of Louis in favor of the son of James IL, the English parliament adopted most vigorous measures for con- tinuing the war. Marlborough passed over to Flanders, where the French had taken Ghent and Bruges ; and though not yet joined by Eugene, he crossed the Scheld, and came up with the French army, comma nded by the duke of Vendome, at Oudenarde. The battle was obstinate, and lasted till night, during which the French fled, leaving the glory of the victory with the allies. Prince Eugene now formed the siege of and took Lisle; and Ghent and Bruges were recov- ered. The French had rather the advantage in Spain and Italy ; but Sardinia and Minorca surrendered to the English admiral Leake. Again Louis offered the most honorable and advantageous 1709. terms to the allies : he was willing to cede all the Spanish dominions to Charles, to give back to the emperor all his conquests on the Upper Rhine, to acknowledge the succession established in England, the king of Prussia, &c. — in a word, to do every thing that justice could possibly demand. Again the passions and selfishness of those three above-named per- sons retarded the repose of Europe, The French monarch appealed to his people, and, though wasted by famine, they resolved on new efforts. The allied army, 100,000 stronsr, was formed on the plains of Lisle, Villars, who commanded the French forces, covered Douay and Arras. Eugene and Marlborough, deeming it imprudent to attack him, drew off, and sat down before Tour- nay. That strong city was reduced. They invested Mons. Villars encamped within a league of it, at Malplaquet. The allies attacked him (Sept, 11.) in the strong position he occu- pied: the contest was obstinate and bloody: the allies re- mained masters of the field, with the loss of 15,000 men ; the PVench retreated, with the loss of 10,000, the armies having been of nearly equal strength. Mons surrendered. liittJe of importance was done elsewhere. Louis again applied for 1710. 40 470 HISTORY OF THE WORLD, PART III. peace, and a conference was appointed at Gertruydenbiirg". He was willing to make still farther concessions; but the in- solence and extravagance of the demands of the States, to whom the negotiation was committed, were such, that it was not possible for him with any honor to accede to them. Eu- gene and Marlborough reduced Douay, and other towns. Villars declined a battle. In Spain, Philip and Charles en- gaged each other at Almenara and Saragossa, and Charles was victorious in each conflict. He entered Madrid. More troops arriving from France, the Spanish nobles made every effort for Philip. Vendome took the command, and forced the English general Stanhope to surrender, with 5000 men, at Brihuega, but was himself beatten at Villa Viciosa by count Staremburg, with a far inferior force. A great portion of the English nation was now grown tired of the expenses of the war ; a change had taken place in its A. D. ministry, the Tories having come into power; the emperor •'''ll- Joseph was dead, and his brother Charles had succeeded him in the empire. As by the grand alliance the imperial and Spanish crowns could not be held by the same person, a great difficulty in the way of adjustment was now removed. After an inactive campaign, conferences for peace were opened at Utrecht, where the treaties were at last signed, on the 31st of March, 1713, by the plenipotentiaries of France, England, Portugal, the United Provinces, Prussia, and Savoy ; the em- peror and the king of Spain refusing to be included. It was stipulated that Philip should renounce all title to the crown of France, and the dukes of Berri and Orleans to thai of Spain; that in case of the failure of male issue of Philip, the duke of Savoy should succeed to the crown of Spain ; that Naples, Milan, and the Spanish territories on the Tuscan coast should be ceded to the house of Austria, and that house secured in the pa^isession of the Spanish Netherlands ; ■ that the Rhine should be ,he boundary between France and Ger- many, &-C. &:.c. The acquisitions of England were chiefly in America : she was to retain Gibraltar and Minorca, to have the Asiento or contract for supplying the Spanish settlements with negroes for thirty years ; and Louis acknowledged the settlement of the English throne. But the real gain was on the side of Louis, who obtained all that the war had been en- gaged in to prevent his acquiring. This treaty brought well- merited odium on the English ministry. 1714 The following year the emperor made peace at Rastadt, on less favorable terms than were offered him at Utrecht. The king of Spain also acceded to the pacification, and Europe rested from war. CHAT V. TIMES OF LOUIS XIV. 471 In this year died Louis XIV., the disturber of Europe for nearly half a century. His grandson and successor being a minor, the duke of Orleans was appointed regent. North of Europe — Peter the Great — Charles XIL The people of Denmark, to escape the tyranny of the no- a. j,. bles, solemnly surrendered their liberties to Frederick III., in 1670 1661. His successor. Christian V., made war on Charles XI. of Sweden, whose father, Charles X., had been called to the tlirone, on the abdication of Christina, daughter of Gusta- vus Adolphus. Charles XIL, a minor, succeeded his father, 1697 Charles XL Alexei of Russia was followed by his son Theodore, who, dying early, appointed his half-brother Peter to succeed; but 1682 his sister Sophia, aided by the Strelitzes, attempted to secure the power for herself Peter being but ten years of age, she made his imbecile brother Ivan tsar, and associated Peter with him. At the age of seventeen Peter succeeded in sub- verting the power of Sophia, and obtained the full royal dig- nity and influence. He defeated the Turks at Azoph, which 1696. opened to him the Black Sea. He formed vast plans for the improvement of his empire, and he spent a year in Holland and England, making himself acquainted with the useful arts. Eager to distinguish himself in war, he joined the kings of noi. Poland and Denmark against the young king of Sweden. Charles, though a youth, showed himself a hero. He made an alliance with Holland and England, landed in Denmark, laid siege to Copenhagen, and forced the king to a peace. The Russians had, meantime, besieged Narva with 80,000 men. Charles hasted thither with 10,000, forced their in- trenchments, killed 18,000, and took 30,000 prisoners. Next year he defeated the Poles and Saxons on the Duna, and 1702L overran Livonia, Courland, and Lithuania. Augustus elector of Saxony was king of Poland : his new subjects were dissatisfied with him. Charles formed the de- sign of dethroning him by their means. He defeated him at Clissau, between Warsaw and Cracow, and this last city sur- rendered. Augustus engaged him again at Pultausk, and was again defeated. He fled to Thorn. The throne was 1703 pronounced vacant by the diet, in which the intrigues of Charles prevailed, and Stanislaus Leczinzky was chosen king. 1704. Peter, having retaken Narva, sent 60,000 men into Poland : a Saxon army entered it under general Schalemburg; but Charles soon drove the Russians out of the country, and his general Renschild defeated Schalemburg at Frauenstadt with 1706. great slaughter. The king of Sweden entered and overran 472 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ITI. A. D. Saxony, and forced Augustus to recognize Stanislaus. Having 1707. made the emperor comply with his demands, Charles re- turned to Poland, with 40,000 men. He attempted, though it was winter, to march to Moscow; but the Tsar had de- stroyed the roads. Urged by Mazeppa, chief of the Cossacks, who offered to join him with 30,000 men, and supply him 1708. with provisions, he entered the Ukraine. Here he encoun- tered nothing but disappointment. Mazeppa's plans had been discovered ; no supplies were provided : general Lewenhaupt, whom he had ordered to join him with 15,000 men from Livo- nia, arrived with his army reduced to 4000 men. Though urged by his ministers to retreat, or to winter in the Ukraine, he madly resolved to proceed. He laid siege to Pultowa, a strong town. His army was now reduced to less than 30,000 men ; the Tzar, at the head of 70,000, approached to its relief. Charles, leaving 7000 to conduct the siege, advanced to give 1739. him battle. (July 8). The result of the conflict was that Charles, with 300 men, sought a refuge with the Turks at Bender. The entire Swedish army were killed or tjiken. Augustus recovered Poland; and, but for the emperor and the maritime powers, Sweden would have been dismem- bered. After an abode of nearly five years in Turkey, Charles re- turned to his own dominions, and conducted the war against the Danes and Saxons. He was at length killed before the 718. fortress of Fredericshall, in Norway. His sister Ulrica was crowned queen. Peter, justly styled the Great, having given his country a rank among European powers, introduced into her civilization and the arts, and founded a capital in the north of his domin- ions, took the title of emperor. But he never was able to subdue the native ferocity of his own temper, and he put to death his son Alexis for no just cause. He left his crown to J 725. his wife, the famous Catherine I. England. The chief domestic events in Great Britain were the union with Scotland, accomplished in 1706, and the settlement of 701. the crown on Sophia, duchess dowager of Hanover, and her heirs, being Protestants. This princess was daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., who wa? married to the un fortunate elector palatine. Rising of the Scottish Clans, in 1715. 40* 473 CHAI.VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. 475 CHAP. VI. PERIOD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. F^gland. On the death of queen Anne, Georg'e elector of Hanover a. d was, by virtue of the act of settlement, proclaimed king. The ^'i'* power of the state was now committed to the Whigs, and the late Tory ministers, who had been desirous of securing the succession of the son of James IL, now ealled the Pretender, were impeached of high treason. Louis XIV. had refused to take any share in the projects of the Pretender, bat, on his death, the regent of France secretly encouraged him. His partisans rose in arms in the Highlands of Scotland and the 1715i west of England. The English rebels were forced to surren- der at Preston; and the battle of Sheriif-Muir, though not de- cisive, crushed the ho[>es of the northern rebels. The Pre- tender himself landed in Scotland, b«t> finding his affairs des- perate, retired. In this reign was passed the act for making parliaments septennial instead of triennial, which they had previously 1727. been. George II. succeeded his fsiih&r. The Quadruple Alliance, » Philip V, had, afler the death of his first queen, married 1714. Elizabeth Farnese, presumptive heiress of Parmai, Placentia, and Tuscany. She was a woman of spirit, and governed that weak monarch ; she w^as herself directed by Alberoni, a na- tive of Placentia. This bold statesman formed the project of recovering all the dominions ceded at the peace of Utrecht, especially those in Italy. He labored to put the finances of Spain on the best footing; he intrigued in every court; he persuaded Philip that his renunciation of the crown of France was invalid, and that be had even a right to the regency of that kingdom. Alberoni encouraged the Scottish Jacobites, and inflamed the French malcontents, and a plot was formed for a rising in Poitou, and a seizure of the person of the regent. The exorbitant ambition of the court of Spain determined the regent to enter into an alliance with England, Holland, and the emperor, to maintain the treaty of Utrecht. This was called the Quadruple Alliance. One of its articles was, that the duke of Savoy should exchange Sicily with the emperor for Sardinia, of which he was to take the title of king ; and by another, Don Carlos, son of the young' queee 47G HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III of Spain, was to succeed to Parma, Placentia, and Tuscany on the death of the present possessors without issue. A. D. This alliance made no change in the conduct of the court I'ilS. of Spain, who had already taken possession of Sardinia and a part of Sicily, and France and England declared war against her. An English fleet, under Sir George Byng, entered the Mediterranean, defeated the Spanish fleet near Sicily, an that island and Sardinia were recovered. The duke of Ber wick reduced St. Sebastian and Fontarabia, and Philip wa obliged to dismiss Alberoni, and accede to the terms of th 1720. quadruple alliance. 1725. A private treaty was afterwards concluded between the emperor and the king of Spain at Vienna. This treaty gave umbrage to England, France, and Holland ; and to counteract it, one was concluded at Hanover between them and Prussia, 1726. Denmark, and Sweden. The emperor and the king of Spain remained quiet ; but the English fitted out three fleets, one of which, under admiral Hosier, was sent to the West Indies to block up the galleons at Porto Bello ; but the attempt was a complete failure. The Spaniards, in return, laid seige to Gibraltar. By the mediation of France a treaty was made 1729. at Seville, by which it was agreed that all the stipulations of the quadruple alliance should be fulfilled. 1731. Tlie treaty of Seville was confirmed by the emperor, and the Spanish troops took possession of Parma and Placentia Tlie contracting powers agreed to guaranty the Pragmatic Sanction, or law by which the emperor secured to his female heirs the succession of the Austrian dominions in case of his dying without male issue, and the peace of Europe was now restored. 1733. But, on the death of Augustus king of Poland, Stanislaus, who was recommended by the king of France, who had mar- ried his daughter, being a second time chosen king, the em- peror and the Russians made the Poles proceed to another election, and choose the elector of Saxony, son of Augustus. The king of France entered into an alliance with the kings of Spain and Sardinia, and war was commenced against the emperor in Germany and Italy. The French arms were suc- cessful in Germany. In two campaigns the Spaniards be- came masters of Naples and Sicily ; the troops of France and Savoy took Milan and other places, and gave the imperialists two complete defeats at Parma and at Guastella. The em- peror was now desirous of peace ; and as the pacific Fleury directed the councils of France, a treaty was easily brought 735. about. Stanislaus was to resign his claim to the crown of Poland for the duchy of Lorrain, the duke of Lorrain being Cm\P. VI. PERPDD OF COMPARATIVE REPOSE. 477 secured by Louis an annual pension of 3,50(),0(J0 livres till the death of John Gaston, the last of the house of Medici, and in that event the duchy of Tuscany ; the emperor was to ac- knowledge Don Carlos as king of the two Sicilies, and to re- ceive the duchies of Parma and Placentia ; Novara and Tor- tona were to be given to the king of Sardinia ; France was to give back her conquests in Germany, and to guaranty the a. d Pragmatic Sanction. Peace was made at Vienna on these 1738 terms. Russia. Catherine reigned but two years after the death of Peter. She died in the 38th year of her age, and her son Peter became 1727 emperor. After a short reign of three years, Peter also died. The Dolgoruki family, as the male line of the house of Romanov 1730 expired in him, thought this a favorable occasion for gaining the love of the nation by limiting the imperial authority. Deputies were sent to offer the crown, on certain conditions, to Anne, the widow of the duke of Courland, and daughter of the Tsar Ivan, brother of Peter the Great. She accepted the conditions; but when she found herself fixed on the throne, she tore the contract, and ruled with absolute power. Having no children, Anne fixed on marrying the daughter of her sister Catherine, duchess of Mecklenburg, also named Anne, to some foreign prince, and settling the succession on the oflfspring of their marriage. The princess was, therefore, united to Anton Ulrich of Brunswick-Bevern, by whom she bare a son named Ivan, who succeeded the empress. 1740 Turkish wars. The Turks had, in 1669, taken Candia from the Venetians. By the peace of Carlowitz (1699), the Venetians obtained the Morea, and some places in Dalmatia. While Charles XII. was in Turkey, a war broke out between the Turks and Russians; but the Tsar, who had advanced to tlie Pruth, be- ing greatly outnumbered by the army of the vizier, was glad to conclude a treaty. 1711 Immediately after the peace of Utrecht, sultan Ahmed III. 1715 declared war against the Venetians, and overran the Morea. The emperor Charles VI., as guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, declared war against the Turks, and prince Eu- gene gave the troops of the sultan a total defeat at Peter- waradin. He laid siege to Belgrade, defeated an army that 1717 came .0 its relief, and compelled it to surrender. A peace was made at Passarowitz. by which the Turks '"18 478 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TIT. surrendered Belgrade and the Bannat of Temiswar, but re- tained the Morea. 4 D. Under the pretext of the incursions of the Nogai Tatars 1736. not being checked, the empress of Russia declared war against Turkey. A Russian army, under Miinnich, took pos- session of the Crimea. In the following campaign the town 1737. of OczacoiF was taken by storm. The emperor now joined the Russians, as he was bound to do by treaty ; but the im- . perial arms met little success, and a peace was concluded, to which the Russian empress, though her forces had gained a great victory at Chotin, was obliged to accede. Belgrade, 739. Sabatch, and the Austrian part of Servia, were ceded to Turkey ; Russia retained Azoph. Persia — Nadir Shah. The dynasty of the Suffavies had occupied the throne of Persia for 220 years. Their latter princes had been effemi- nate sensualists, and capricious tyrants. In the reign of 1722. Shah Hoossein, Mahmood, an Affghan prince, invaded Persia, defeated the troops of Hoossein, and forced him to abdicato in his favor. Tamasp, the son of Hoossem, straggled inef- 1725. fectually against the usurper. The Turks and the Russians invaded Persia. Mahmood dying, was succeeded by Ashraff, a valiant Affghan chief : but Tamasp was now supported by Nadir Kooli, who, from a low rank in one of the Turkish tribes in Khorassan, had, by his valor and talents, raised him- self to power and importance. The fortune of war was ad- ^"29. verse to the Affghan monarch; he was defeated, and after- wards slain. Nadir was presented by Shah Tamasp with the four finest provhices of the empire. He turned his arms with success against the Turks ; but while he was absent in Khorassan, Tamasp marched against them, was defeated, and reduced to make an ignominious peace. Nadir, inveighing against this national disgrace, dethroned the unhappy priTice, and occu- 732. pied his place. He then commenced operations anew against the Turkish forces, and defeated them. Offended at a breach of friendship by the emperor of India, Nadir invaded that country. One great victory, near Delhi, laid the power of 1738. the descendant of Timoor at his feet. Upwards of 30,000,000 sterling of booty, and the annexation of the country west of the Indus to his dominions, rewarded the victory of Nadir, who committed less crimes in so great a conquest than almost any Asiatic victor. He afterwards subdued the kings of Bok- hara and Kliovvaresm, and gained a final victory over the Turks in Armenia. For the last five years of his life, Nadii 479 A. D CHAP. Vri. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 481 exercised the most dreadful tyranny : he blinded his brave son, Riza Kooli, massacred his subjects by thousands, and was at length assassinated by his own officers. His nephew, 1747 Adil Shah, seized on the supreme power, and murdered all the family of Nadir but his grandson, Shah Rokh, who ruled Khorassan while Persia was struggled for by contending chiefs. CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. The Silesian Wars. The emperor Charles VI. was succeeded in his hereditary 1749 dominions by his daughter Maria Theresa, who was in her twenty- fourth year, and married to Francis duke of Lorrain, now grand duke of Tuscany. Various princes laid claim to the wnole or a part of her dominions ; but allegiance was readily sworn to her by all her subjects, and by her volunta- rily taking the oath of their ancient sovereigns, she com- pletely gained the affections of the Hungarians. The first power by which she was assailed was Prussia. n4„ Frederic William, the late king, had amassed a considerable treasure, and formed an army of 60,000 men. His son, Fred- eric II., was young, talented, and ambitious: he resolved to take advantag-e of the present state of the queen of Hungary, and he revived an antiquated claim to a part of Silesia. At the head of 30,000 men he overran a great part of that prov- ince, and took Breslau, its capital. He offered to aid the queen with men and money to protect the rest of her domin- ions, and to assist in obtaining the imperial throne for her husband, if she would cede to him Lower Silesia. Maria re- fused, and sent an army against him : their forces met at Molwitz, near Neiss, and the superiority of the Prussian in- fantry won the day. France had guarantied the Pragmatic Sanction, and Fleury wished to observe it ; but the princes and the young nobility were eager for war, and represented that the time was come tor humbling the house of Austria, and exalting that of Bour- bon, by diminishing the Austrian dominions, and raising to the imperial dignity the elector of Bavaria, the stipendiary of France, The moderation of Louis yielded to these brilliant pros- pects: treaties of spoliation and division were made v^^ith the 41 482 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ITL elector of Bavaria and the kings of Prussia and Poland. The French forces were put in motion ; Louis appointed the elec- tor of Bavaria to be his lieutenant-general, with the marshals Belleisle and Broglio under him. The king of England, fear- ing for his German dominions, concluded a treaty of neutrality for Hanover. The elector of Bavaria, being joined by Broglio, surprised Passau, and entering Upper Austria, took Lintz and menaced Vienna. The queen fled to Hungary, and, with her infant son in her arms, called on the assembled nobles for protection. They swore to defend her cause till death.* These were not idle words ; crowds of warriors rushed to the field. To the astonishment of her enemies, 30,000 Hungarians marched to the relief of Vienna. The elector retired into Bohemia, where, joined by 15,000 Saxons, he took Prague, and having ^ D. been crowned king of Bohemia, proceeded to Frankfort, where 1742. he was chosen emperor under the name of Charles VII. The English nation was eager for war; the pacific Sir Robert Walpole was obliged to retire from the helm of the state ; his successors resolved to assist the queen of Hungary ; troops were sent to the Netherlands, and a subsidy voted to the queen. Meantime, the Austrians had recovered Lintz, and they entered Bavaria, and took Munich. Another army advanced against the king of Prussia, who had entered Mo- ravia, which was to be a part of his share of the spoil. He retired before it, abandoning Olmutz which he had taken. The Austrians now intended uniting all their forces against Broglio and Belleisle ; but the king of Prussia, having been reinforced, marched to their aid, and gave battle to prince Charles of Lorrain at Czaslau, where, after an obstinate con- flict, the prince was forced to retire with the loss of 4000 men. Immediately after this battle, the king of Prussia made at Breslau a separate treaty with the queen of Hungary, who ceded to him Silesia and Glatz, on condition of his neutrality. A treaty was at the same time concluded with the king of Poland. The court of France was filled with indignation at the conduct of the king of Prussia. Broglio and Belleisle retired under the walls of Prague, and oifered to surrender all their conquests in Bohemia for permission to retire. The queen insisted on their surrendering as prisoners of war. They in- dignantly refused. Maillebois, who commanded on the Rhine, marched with 40,000 men to their relief! Being joined by 30,000 Bavarians and French, he entered Bohemia ; but, un- * Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa. CHAP VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 483 able to join Broglio and Belleisle, he was obligee to retire to tbe Palatinate. The French were blockaded in Prague. Belleisle made a most g-allant defence, and at last secretly left the city, and conducted his army in safety to Egra in the mid- winter, and through a country possessed by the enemy. The Spaniards had sent an army to seize the Italian do- minions of the house of Austria ; but by the active exertions of the English fleet, and of the king of .Sardinia and the Austrian general Traun, they gained little advantage. The court of Versailles now made offers of peace on most equi- table terms ; but the queen, elated with success, rejected all pacific measures. The imperialists were defeated at Bran- nau; the French were driven towards the Rhine; and the emperor was obliged to take refuge at Frankfort, where he lived in indigence and obscurity. The British and Hanoverian troops under the earl of Stair and the Austrians under thedukeof Aremburg, marched from the Low Countries towards Germany. The French army under the duke of Noailles was posted near Frankfort. The king of England had arrived in the camp of the allies. Noa- illes had cut off all their supplies. It was expected that they must surrender, or be cut to pieces in their retreat. The re- treat began: their route lay between a mountain and the Main. Noailles had taken possession of the village of Det- tingen in their front. His dispositions were admirable ; but having repassed the river, his nephew, the duke of Gram- mont, advanced (June 26), into a small plain to engage the allies. Noailles saw, but could not remedy, this act of im- prudence : the impetuosity of the French was forced to yield to the steadiness of the allies, and they were driven over the Main with the loss of 5000 men. The victory was produc- tive of no important results. The haughty conduct of Maria Theresa began now to give great offence in the empire ; several princes entered into a private negotiation with Charles VII. ; the king of Prussia promised his aid on his usual terms — increase of territory. A a. ». family compact was entered into between France and Spain, -'''*4 and an invasion of England attempted in favor of the pre- tender. In Italy, the French and Spaniards were successful. A treaty was formed at Frankfort between the emperor, the king of Prussia, the elector palatine, and the landgraf of Hesse Cassel. The French arms were victorious in Flan- ders : the king of Prussia invaded Bohemia ; but he was driven out of it with the loss of 20,000 men, and all his bag gage aud artillery. The emperor had recovered his domin- 484 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ITI. ions and capital ; but, on the retreat of the Prussians, he was A. D. a^a,in expecting to lose them, when death came to his relief. '745. His son Maximilian, being only seventeen years of age, con- cluded a treaty of peace with the queen of Hungary. She agreed to recognize the imperial dignity of his late father, and to put him in possession of all his hereditary dominions; and he renounced all claim to any part of the Austrian suc- cession, and promised to give his vote for the grand duke of Tuscany at the ensuing election of an emperor. France and Spain resolved to continue the war. Elizabeth Farnese, who still directed the councils of the latter, was de- termined to gain" a sovereignty in Italy for her second son Philip. The republic of Genoa concluded an alliance with the house of Bourbon : the army of the confederates was more than double that opposed to it, and Milan, Pa via, and several other towns were taken. A large French army marched to the Main, to hold the queen of Hungary in check ; another of 76,000 men, under marshal Saxe, invested Tour- nay. The allied arniy of 50,000 men resolved to attempt its relief. The king and dauphin were in the French camp, and Saxe posted his troops strongly behind the village of Fonte- noy. (April 30). The allies attacked : the action commenced at nine, and lasted till three. The efforts made by the British infantry were incredible ; but not being duly supported by the Dutch and Austrians, they were obliged to retire, after having lost 10,000 men. The victory of the French cost them nearly an equal loss. But Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and * several other towns, became their reward. The grand duke was meanwhile elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. l^he king of Prussia gained two bloody victories over the Austrian troops, and he entered Saxony and took Dresden. Peace was then concluded between him and the queen of Hungary, and the king of Poland. /'<46 Brussels was taken by marshal Saxe, and all Flanders, Hainault, and Brabant reduced. Prince Charles of Lorrain was unable to check the progress of Saxe ; Namur surren- dered, and the indecisive battle of Roucoux ended the cam- paign. In Italy, the arms of France and her allies were less successful : an attack on the camp of prince Lichtenstein at St. Lazaro failed, with great loss. The king of Sardinia formed a junction with the Austrians ; the French and Span- iards were driven under the walls of Genoa, and forced to • retire into France and Savoy ; and Genoa surrendered, and was treated in worse than the usual Austrian mode in Italy. The Austrians, under count Brown, 50,000 strong, invaded 41* 485 0^ CHAP. VIT. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 4f^7 Provence, but were soon obliged to retire, and the Genoese rose and expelled them from their city. The French, under Lowendahl, invaded the United Prov- x. p. inces, and took several towns. The Dutch, become suspi- 1747 cious of their rulers, renewed, in the person of William Henry, prince of Orange, the dignity of stadtholder, which had been discontmued since the death of William III. New energy was mfused into their councils. The allies, under the duke of Cumberland, gave battle to Saxe at Val, on his way to in- vest Maestricht; but, the British not being properly supported, the advantage remained with the French. Bergen-op-Zoom was besieged, and carried by assault by Lowendahl. Nice and Villafranca were meanwhile taken by Belleisle in Italy, and an army of Austrians and Piedmontese formed, but were forced to raise the siege of Genoa. The English were suc- cessful at sea. Louis became anxious for peace. A congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle. Saxe laid 1743 siege to Maestricht : while he was occupied in it, a cessation of arms was ordered, and peace was concluded at the end of the year. Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla were ceded to Philip, with provision against their being united to the crown of Spain, or of the Two Sicilies. Silesia and Glatz were guarantied to the king of Prussia, whose selfish policy began the war, and who was the only real gainer by it. France and England, by all their waste of blood and treasure, gained — nothing. England. During these continental wars, England had enjoyed inter- nal tranquillity, till, in 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pre- tender, landed in the north of Scotland, and was joined by several of the Highland clans. There being no adequate force there to oppose them, they took possession of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. At Preston Pans they de- feated the royal troops. After some delay, they marched into England, took Carlisle, and advanced As far as Derby. But not finding themselves to be joined by the English Jacobites, they retreated homewards. Carlisle was retaken by the dukei^ of Cumberland ; but Stirling fell into the hands of the rebels, and general Hawley, who was coming to its relief, was routed by them at Falkirk. On the advance of the duke of Cum- berland, the pretender retired northwards, followed by the royal army. The final and fatal battle to the hopes of the pretender was fought at Culloden (April 16). After long 174€. skulking in various disguises, and experiencing a fidelity and' honor creditable to the national character he made his escape 488 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART lit to France. The barbarity exercised by the victors would dis- gfrace the best of causes. Perhaps, few greater instances of human folly could be shown than this blind attachment to an obstinate, tyrannical, and bigoted family. Russia. In the semi-barbarous court of Russia^ revolution succeeded revolution, and ended in placinj^ Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine, on the throne. 8he nominated as A. D. her successor Charles Peter Ulrick, duke of Holstein, son of 1744 her sister Anna. She had him styled Grand Prince, and he espoused Sophia Augustus, princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, who took the name of Catheruie Alexievna. This prince had had his choice of the crowns of Sweden and Russia. He unfor- tunately chose the latter. The Seven Years* War. Europe enjoyed but short repose after the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle. France and England still quarrelled about boundaries in America, and still carried on war in India. England, as war seemed inevitable, wished to make it solely a naval one ; and it was arranged to put Hanover under the protection of the king of Prussia. The court of France was displeased at this project; and the court of Vienna hoped, by means of this displeasure, to recover Silesia, and to free itself from the fears it entertained of the ambition of Frederic. The 1755. houses of Bourbon and Habsburg laid aside their jealousy, of two hundred and eighty years.' standing, and concluded an alliance: they were joined by Sweden and Saxony. The empress of Russia, who was bound to aid the king of Prussia in protecting Hanover, declared against him. Spain, Portugal, the Italian powers, and the United Provinces remained neu- tral. Prussia and England stood alone. 1756, The island of Minorca was taken by the French ; and their arms were successful in India and America. The king of Prussia entered Saxony, and made himself master of Dresden : he invaded Bohemia, and routed the Austrians at Lowesitz ; ^ the Saxon army surrendered at Ebenhert. 1757 The marshal d'Estrees passed the Rhine, with eighty thousand men, to invade Hanover. The duke of Cumber- land, with forty thousand Hanoverians and Hessians, attempt- ed its defence, but was driven across the Weser ; and the French became masters of the electorate. The Prussians entered Bohemia in four divisions : that commanded by the - prince of Bevern obliged the Austrians to retire at Reichen berg. This division, and that of marshal Schwerin, united CHAP VI l. TIMES OF FREDERIC 11. 489 with the one led by the king, eng^ao^ed the Austrian army under prince Charles of Lorrain and count Brown, at Prague. The Prussians were victorious, and besieged the Austrians in that town ; but having been defeated at Colin, they raised the siege, and evacuated Bohemia. The combined German and French army had meantime advanced into Saxony: the king of Prussia hastened to Dresden, assembled an army, and at the village of Rosbach (Nov. 5) gave them battle, with but half their number of men. His victory was brilliant, his loss being but five hundred, while that of the enemy was nine thousand killed, wounded, and taken. The Austrians had de- feated the prince of Bevern, and taken Breslau. Frederic gave them battle, and defeated them at Lissa : Breslau was recovered. The Russians, who had entered the Prussian do- minions, were forced, by want of provisions, to return home : the Swedes were driven under the walls of Stralsund : the Hanoverians rose against the French ; but the English were unsuccessful in North America, and at sea. At the head of the Hanoverians, prince Ferdinand of a. d ]>runswick obliged the French to cross the Rhine, and de- 1758. feated them at Crevelt. The king of Prussia recovered Schweidnitz, and invested Olmutz ; but the approach of a large Russian force obliged him to raise the siege. At Zorn- dorf he defeated them with great slaughter. At Hochkirchen he was himself defeated by the Austrians : he afterwards forced them to retire into Bohemia. Marshal Daun was obliged to retire from before Dresden, and Frederic entered it in triumph. The English admirals Hawke and Anson restored the lus- tre of the British arms at sea. In America, the islands of Cape Breton and St. John's were taken by general Amherst; the French settlements on the coast of Africa were reduced. In India, the advantage was on the side of the French. At the commencement of the next campaign, the Prussian 1759 arms were victorious on all sides. The French had made themselves masters of Frankfort on the Main. Prince Fer- dinand, with an inferior force, attacked the duke of Broglio at Bergen, in its vicinity, but was forced to retire with some loss. The French reduced Minden, Miinster, and some other places. To save Hanover, the prince found it necessary to give them battle: the conflict took place (Aug. 8) at Minden : the French were defeated. The blame of the vic- tory not being complete was laid on lord George Sackville, the English commander. The Russians defeated the Prussian general Wedel in Sile sia. Frederic attacked the combined Austrian and Russian 490 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. arm}', of eig-hty thousand men, at Cunersdorf; and the hor- rible carnage of the day ended in tlie defeat of the Prussians : yet Frederic, almost immediately after, forced his enemies to act on the defensive. The French army in Westphalia was extremely numerous : a portion of it was defeated by prince Ferdinand at Warburg but the French remained masters of Hesse. The Austrian and Russians poured into the dominions and conquests of Frederic, and in his camp at Lignitz he was in danger of be ing surrounded by three hostile armies. He advanced to meet, and defeated that of general Laudohn, and thus escaped but the Russians and Austrians entered Brandenburg, and pillaged Berlin. Frederic rushed into Saxony at the head of fifty thousand men, followed by Daun with seventy thou- sand men ; and at Torgau the Prussian monarch gained a hard-fought battle. The English took the island of Guadaloupe, in the West Indies : Crown Point and Ticonderoga were taken by gene- ral Amherst. Quebec, after the defeat of the French army by general Wolfe, surrendered. The British arms were vic- torious in India. Admirals Boscawen and Hawke defeated the French fleets off Cape Lagos and Belleisle. A. D. George II. died ; but his successor- resolved to continue the 1761. war. A family compact was concluded between the courts of Versailles and Madrid. Prince Ferdinand repelled an at- tack of the French armies at Kirche Denkern; and Belleisle was taken by a British force. 1762. War was now mutually declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Portugal, refusing to join the alliance against England, was invaded by the Spaniards; but they were driven out of it by the British and native troops. Prince Ferdinand was everywhere successful in Westph;ilia. The death of the empress of Russia relieved the king of Prussia from his apparently desperate situation. Peter III. was mild and pacific : he made a peace and alliance with the Prussian monarch. Frederic carried on the war with vigor against the Austrians ; but the dethronement and death of his Russian ally perple.xed him, as he knew not what the policy of Catherine II. might be : she continued the peace, but recalled her troops. Frederic recovered Silesia. A ces- sation of arms was made for Saxony and Silesia. Frederic ravaged Bohemia and Franconia. The British fleets and troops took Martinique and the Havannah, in the West Indies, and Manilla, in the Philippine islands. Negotiations for peace had long been going on, and 1763. the definitive treaty was signed at Paris (Feb. 10) ; and General Wolfe. 491 YSAP VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 493 -"Dout the same time another at Hubertsburg, between tlie em- ffess-quecn anc ^he king of Prussia. England obtained all Canada, and the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, great part of Louisiana, her conquests on the Senegal, the island of Grenada : all her other conquests she restored. Prussia and Austria agreed to place themselves on the footing they were on at the commencement of hos- tilities. Thus ended the Seven Years' War — a war which had caused such an effusion of blood and treasure : it ended with- out being productive of any real advantage to any one of the parties. Suppression of the Jesuits. Europe now reposed from war. This period of tranquillity is marked by the suppression of the order of the Jesuits. This order was founded by a soldier, Ignatius Loyola, in the time of Charles V. Retaining his military ideas, Ignatius imposed on the members of his new order the .strictest obe- dience ; but his rules were simple and innocent. His suc- cessors, Lainez and Aquaviva, formed it into an institution which might vie with any of ancient or modern times. It speedily developed its powers ; the Jesuits became directors of the consciences of the great, and teachers of the young ; they excelled in learning ; they were the most zealous of missionaries. Forming a body, whose soul was the generaL of the order at Rome, they were the chief stay of papal power, and on them rested the remaining faint hopes of regaining spiritual dominion. But with all its great qualities and high aspirations, the order was fated to meet with no final suc- cess; the spirit of the age was against it; its assumptions were too high, its moral system too lax, its intrigues and movements too dark and complicated. The marquis of Pombal, the Richelieu of Portugal, hated the order, which stood in his way: vile calumnies were forged against them, and they were expelled from Portugal. The example was followed by France, then by Spain, Na- ples, and finally by Austria. Their property was seized by the rapacious governments: Spain and Portugal, the most bigoted nations, were their most relentless persecutors. It was the expulsion of the Moriscoes on a minor scale. The unhappy fathers were forced on shipboard, and landed in the papal states. The good Clement XIII. remonstrated — he a.d. could do no more — in their favor: the excellent Clement 1773L XIV. yielded *o the torrent, and suppressed the order *42 494 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. First Partition of Poland. An event now occurred which throws into the shade all that we have previously seen of injustice and ag-g-ression. A. D. The empress Catherine II. the northern Clytemnestra, had 762. ascended the throne of her deposed and murdered husband, and had piously restored to the clergy their beards, pictures, and revenues, of which he had deprived them. Augustus III. king of Poland dying, the diet assembled at Warsaw to choose a successor proved a stormy one : the pacific empress considerately sent a body of troops thither to preserve the peace; and Stanislaus Poniatovsky, the candidate whom she 764. favored, was of course elected. He mounted the throne in tranquillity ; but that state did not long endure. Animosities broke out between the Catholic party and that of the dissi- dents, who demanded an equality of rights : the latter were supported by the empress of Russia and the king of Prussia. Catherine fomented the disorders ; her troops behaved with the greatest insolence ; a civil war, and a war against the Russian intruders, agitated the unhappy country. At length the time seemed to be arrived for the execution of a projectf first conceived by the royal philosopher of Sans Souci, — the tranquillizing of Poland by its dismemberment. Religion ex- cited some qualms in the mind of Maria Theresa ; it was, however, forced to yield to the arguments of her enlightened son, Joseph. On the part of Catherine, no one looked for scruples. The plunderers would act with some faint semblance of justice; some ridiculous old claims were therefore trumped up against Poland. The king and people appealed to justice ; a weak appeal against Russian bayonets. All good men be held with abhorrence the flagrant breach of divine and human laws, and the hypocrisy employed to veil it: the remaining powers of Europe were not in a condition to 'nterfere. A third part of Poland was divided among the diademed rob- bers. A diet was called to sanction the dismemberment of their country ; three foreign armies were at hand to prevent tumult : money and promises were distributed, and a majority of six votes in the senate, of one in the assembly of nuncios, sanctioned this detestable iniquity. The ravished provinces were, perhaps, better under their new owners; for Frederic and Catheruie were both wise sovereigns, and Joseph thought himself an adept in legislative wisdom ; but eternal infamy will pursue their names, and th«. partition of Poland disgrace the eighteenth century of the Christian era. UHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 495 Turkish War. The affairs of Poland involved Russia in a war with Tur- key. Large armies on both sides advanced towards the Dan- a. n ube. The war commenced with the ravage of the frontiers. 1769 In the sprinu- tlje standard of the prophet was displayed. The Russians were driven by the vizier beyond the Dneister. The able vizier was recalled ; his successor crossed the Dneister, and was defeated : Chotin and other fortresses were taken. A Russian fleet sailed round Europe, and appeared in the 1770 (jrrecian seas. The Turks had driven the Russians out of Moldavia and Wallachia ; but the vizier was defeated near the rnouth of the Pruth. Bender was stormed, after a siege of two months, and experienced Russian barbarity. The Greeks of the Morea rose at the call of Russia ; the pasha of Bosnia entered it with 30,000 men; at Modon the hopes of Greece were crushed. The Turkish fleet was defeated at Epidaurus, and again defeated at Chios, and burnt at Chesme. Syria and Egypt were in rebellion. The plague broke out at Yassy, and spread to Moscow, where 90,000 persons died of it. The Russians broke into and seized the Crimea. The jani- 1772 zaries rose, murdered their aga, and set fire to their camp. Ali, the Egyptian pasha, fell in battle against his brother-in- law Mohammed, and his head was sent to Constantinople. The Russians crossed the Danube : they were twice forced 1773 to raise the siege of Silistria, and they lost at Varna the greater part of their artillery. Hassan Pasha swore to the sultan to drive them over the Danube, and he performed his oath. Mustafa III. died, and appointed his brother Abd-ul-Hamed 1774 to succeed, instead of his young son Selim. As no largesses were distributed, the janizaries would serve no longer. " Peace is necessary," said the mufti to the sultan, " since thy people will fight no more." Catherine was also anxious to end the war, and peace was concluded at Kainargi. The free navigation of the Black Sea and some territory were ceded to Russia. American Revolutionary War. Northern America had been chiefly colonized by the Eng- &h; the settlements of the Dutch and French were acquired by conquest. All these colonies were in the enjoyment of liberal and popular constitutions; the country was highly fertile, population rapidly increased, the energy and the bold- ness of youth animated the people, and crowds of colonists 406 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TTI. from Europe annually arrived on their shores. 'I'he mother country being oppressed by debt, a plan was devised to make ^ P the colonies contribute to her relief, and a stamp-duty on va- . 765. rious articles was imposed. The Americans remonstrated ; a 1766. change took place in the ministry, and the act was repealed. The spirit of oppression on the one hand, and of resistance on the other, still continued ; and when the parliament im- posed a duty on tea, the Americans refused to pay it, and at Boston the tea was flung- into the sea. The British parlia- ment passed bills for shutting up the port of Boston, and al 774. tering the constitution of Massachusetts. The colonists called a provincial congress, and addressed a manly petition to the king. It was not received. The king and parliament in their wisdom, or rather in their pride, determined on what are called strong measures^ and a civil war began. 1775. In the contest between England and her American colonies, the first blood was shed at Lexington, in New-England. Eight hundred British grenadiers and light infantry were sent out from Boston, for the purpose of destroying some military stores collected at Concord. On receiving intelligence of this movement, the provincials of that neighborhood rose en masse. A small body of them, appearing at Lexington, were fired upon by the British, who then proceeded to Concord and destroyed the public stores; but they were here attacked with such spirit by the provincials, as to compel their imme- diate retreat to Boston, with the loss of sixty-five killed and two hundred and eight wounded and prisoners. From this day, (April 18th,) the British were ibrmally besieged in Boston. On the 17th June, the provincials, having thrown up a re- doubt on Bunker's Hill, a position which commanded Boston, wfere attacked by 3000 British, under generals Howe and Pigot. The British were twice repulsed with heavy loss. On the third attack, being reinforced, and the Americans having exhausted their ammunition, the redoubt was carried with the loss of 1054 British, and 450 Americans. General Montgomery entered Canada with a small force, and fell in an unsuccessful attempt on Q,uebec. The first provincial congress had assembled at Concord, Massachusetts, in 1774. A second assembled at Philadelphia (May 1775), appointed John Hancock their president, and George Washington commander-in-chief of the provincial forces. He joined the army at Cambridge in July, and held the British under general Howe closely besieged in Boston till March, 1776, when the town was evacuated, and Washing 1776. ton entered it in triumph. The British admiral Sir Peter Parker, with a heuvj nava Surrender of Burgoyne. 42* 497 CHAP. Vn. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 499 force, was defeated in an attempt on Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, by four hundred militia and soldiers of the line intrenched on Sullivan's Island, under colonel Moultrie. On the 4th of July, 1776, the congress declared the inde- pendence of the United States of America. New-York was occupied by the British, under general Howe, and the Americans were compelled to retreat from New-Jersey. The latter, however, was soon recovered by a. d. general Washington, in the decisive actions of Trenton and 1777 Princeton. General Washington, with an inferior force, hazarded an engagement with Sir W. Howe, near the river Brandywine, and was defeated with the loss of 1200 men. This was the first action in winch the marquis de La Fayette was engaged. He was a young French nobleman, who had abandoned his brilliant prospects at the court of his sovereign, to embrace the cause of liberty. The English took Philadelphia, and defeated the republic- ans, who attacked them at Germantown ; but general Bur- goyne, who, having reduced Ticonderoga, was advancing to join general Howe, was attacked at Saratoga, by colonel Ar- nold: general Gates coming up with a considerable force, prepared to surround Burgoyne, who, after a fruitless attempt to force his wny, was obliged to fall back on Saratoga, and there to capitulate. His troops, 5790 in number, were to be sent to England, and not to serve again in North America during the war. The killed, wounded, and prisoners in the preceding part of the expedition, amounted to upwards of 4000 men. France had long been watching the progress of the con- 1778 test. This last event decided her, and an alliance was formed with the infant republic. The court of Spain soon after fol- lowed her example. An indecisive engagement took place between the British and French fleets off LFshant : Sir Henry Clinton took the chief command in America: he forthwith abandoned Philadelphia, and retired to New- York. An at- tempt on Rhode Island, by the American general Sullivan &nd the French admiral d'Estaine, proved a failure. Com- missioners were sent out from England to treat with the Americans ; but as the latter insisted on the recognition of heir independence, nothing could be efifected. Savannah, the capital of Georgia, having been taken by colonel Campbell with 2000 British troops, the whole prov- ince of Georgia seemed reunited to the British crown. An 1779 unsuccessful attempt was made to recover Savannah by gen- eral Lincoln, aided by a naval force under d'Estaine. oOO IIISTOIIY OF THE WOULD. PART IIT. A. D. . 780. Charleston capitulated to g'eneral Clinton, and the province of Smth Carolina vvas forced into a temporary submission to the British. A provincial force, consisting- principally of mi- litia, under general Gates, was defeated at Camden by the British under earl Cornwallis and lord Rawdon. In this cam- paign occurred the defection of Arnold, and the detection and execution of the British major Andre as a spy. Sir George Rodney defeated the Spanish fleet oflT cape St. Vin- cent, and thrice engaged, though not with decided success, the French fleet under count de Guichen. The jealousy of the continental powers of Europe now showed itself, by the armed neutrality, which they all, under the guidance of the tsarina of Russia, now entered into to resist the right of search and blockade claimed by England. A correspondence between Holland and the United States relating to a loan and treaty being discovered, England de- clared war against the Dutch ; and the island of St. Eustatia, a rich magazine of wealth, was taken and plundered by a nr "8l force under admiral Rodney. While his fleet was weak- ened by a detachment sent to England with the produce of the sales of confiscated property, the French were enabled to gain a superiority on the American coast, which led to the total ruin of the British army in America. .781. The Spaniards laid siege to Gibraltar, which was gallantly defended ; but Minorca was forced to surrender. Indecisive sea-actions were fought between. Sir Hyde Parker and the Dutch, and between Sir S. Hood and the count de Grasse. The island of Tobago surrendered to the French. The French admiral now resolved to assist the Americans with vigor. They had defeated colonel Tarleton at the Cow- pens, in Carolina, and, though not victorious in their attack on Cornwallis at Guilford, had caused him considerable loss. General Greene was defeated by lord Rawdon at Hobkirk ; but soon after attacked the British force under colonel Stew- art at Eutaw Springs, and overthrew them with a loss on their side of eleven hundred men, including prisoners and wounded. This action terminated the war in South Caro- lina. Earl Cornwallis having retreated from Carolina, took a sta- tion at Yorlvtown, on York river, in Virginia, and had fortified it and Gloucester on the opposite bank. The count de Grasse, with a French fleet of 28 sail, having entered the Chesa- peake, prevented admiral Greaves affording any relief to Cornwallis, and general Clinton failed to send any aid from New- York. A combined American and French army under Washington and Rochambeau, besieged him, and after some 501 CHAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 503 weeks Cornwallis was compelled to capitulate. The troops, 7000 in number, were made prisoners of war ; the ships be- came prizes to the French. j^ p The war in America was now ended. The British ministry 1782. was changed. England saw the folly of protracting a useless and destructive contest. She acknowledged (Jan. 20) the 1783 independence of the United States. A new constitution of government was formed, and Washington was chosen presi- dent. Of the injustice of this war on the part of England, few now have any doubt ; its importance, as an example, has been felt in every subsequent struggle for liberty which the world has witnessed. India. The conquests of the Portuguese in the East were amaz- ingly rapid. At the time they fell under the yoke of Spain, 158« they were all-powerful on the coasts of India, possessed the Moluccas, the coast of Ceylon, the isles of Sunda, and the trade of China and Japan. The Dutch used to purchase the products of the East at Lisbon, and distribute them over Eu- rope. Philip II. having prohibited all intercourse with them as rebels, they made their way to India, and formed a settle- ment in Java, and an East India company was established. While Portugal was united with Spain, they made constant 1595. war on her in the East, and in a few years they left her no- thing there but Goa. The English appeared in India a few years after the Dutch. 1600 They also had formed a company. Their first settlements were in Java, Banda, Amboyna, and Poleron. The Dutch were jealous of them, and the rival companies carried on war against each other. A treaty was concluded to arrange their 1623. differences; but the Dutch, regardless of it, barbarously mas- sacred the English at Amboyna and otlier places, and ex- pelled them from the Spice Islands. The supineness of James I., and afterwards the civil wars of England, prevented the nation attending to the East. Cromwell had a British spirit; the company throve in his time : Charles II. betrayed and oppressed it. The great Colbert had formed a French East India com- 1661 pany; their chief settlement was at Pondicherry, on the Coromandel coast. Thus the three greatest maritime powers were established in India, and the wars of Europe were now to be extended to that distant region. During the war of the succession, the French had taken 1746 the English settlement of Madras. At the peace o*" Aix-la- 504 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. Chapelle it was restored. M. Dupleix, the governor of Pon- dicherry, formed a grand plan for gaining territory for the French India Company. Having a good body of troops undei him, he, by their valor, and his own intrigues, managed tc have the candidate he sided with appointed subahdar of the Decan, and to get the nabobship of the Carnatic for Chunda Sahib, for whose life he was himself appointed nabob of that province. Dupleix aimed at obtaining all the country be- tween Masulipatam, Goa, and Cape Coinorin. Mohammed Aii, son of the late nabob of Arcot, implored the assistance j^ p_ of the English, who gave him some reinforcements, and sev- 751. eral actions took place. In this war the famous Clive first appeared ; with a small force he took Arcot, and wJien Chunds Sahib besieged it with a large army, he defended it with amazing talent and courage, and repelled the assailants. Re inforced by colonel Kirkpatrick, he pursued and defeated the enemy on the plains of Arni. The rajah of Tanjore, and other princes, joined the English : Chunda and the French were several times defeated. Mohammed was acknowledged nabob of Arcot ; the French lost the greater part of their ac- quisitions ; and peace was about to be made, when a new wai broke out in Europe. The three rival companies had early established factories ir Bengal; but the good policy of the Mogul government pre- 1696. vented their having any garrison or works of defence. O: i occasion of a rebellion of the rajahs west of the Hooglee, th^ factories augmented their soldiery and declared for the nabob, who gave them permission to put their settlements in a state of defcncp. The Dutch then fortified their factory at Hoog- lee, the Frencli theirs at Chandernagore, and the English theirs of Fort Willifim at Calcutta. The English obtained some advantages from the court of Dnlhi, and increased their wealth and power. Suraj-ud- 1756. Dowlali, the subahdar of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, oflended at their abuse of their privileges, and by their protecting a nobleman who had fled from his vengeance, suddenly marched with 50,000 men against Calcutta. After an ineffectual re- sistance, the governor and all but 200 of the garrison of Fort William escaped on shipboard. Mr. Holwell, who now took the command, soon saw himself and his unhappy companions 'mmured by the cruel subahdar in the Black Hole, where nearly the whole perished. The affairs of the English in Bengal seemed now entirely ruined. T'>7. But the affairs of the company on the coast of Coromandel being now settled, admiral Watson took on board colonel Clive and some troops, and sailed for Calcutta. That town CTIAP. VII. TIMES OF FREDERIC II. 505 was recovered, Hooglee reduced, and the subahdar obliged to sue for peace. He agreed to restore every thing, and to allow the presidency to extend over thirty-eight neighboring villages. The English now turned their arms against the French, and besieged and took Chandernagore. Clive aimed at farther humbling the subahdar, who was backward in ful- filling the treaty. In artifice, dissimulation, and what else is dignified with the name of policy, he was a full mutch for an Asiatic: he secretly gained Jaffier, the commander of the troops of the province, and he persuaded the subahdar to dis- band the forces he had collected at Plassy. Clive advanced to take that important post ; but the subahdar had reassembled his army, and occupied it. His forces were 50,000 foot, and 18,000 horse; those of Clive 1000 Europeans, and 2000 Se- poys ; yet he ventured to give battle, and gained a victory. Jaffier was acknowledged by him subahdar, Suraj-ud-Dowlah was taken and put to death by order of the son of Jaffier; and the latter agreed to pay his allies the sum of 2,750,000 pounds sterling, and to enlarge their territory. The war was carried on between the French and English ^ ^^ in the Carnatic. Count Lally, the French commander, being 1758 largely reinforced from home, reduced Cudalore and Fort St. David. Next year he failed in an attempt on Madras. The 1759 British now took the field, and reduced Masulipatam and Con- jeveram. Wandewash w^as reduced by colonel Coote, who defeated a strong army led by Lally to attempt its recovery. Surat was taken by an English force from Bombay ; and the Dutch were well castigated in Bengal for their designs against the English in that quarter. The English had deposed their ally Jaffier in Bengal (1760), and placed Co^sim on the musmid. Their cupidity made them seize a pretext for making war on this prince : they de- prived him of the whole province of Bengal, and Jaflier was again declared subahdar. The Great Mogul and the nabob 1765 of Oude in vain supported Cossim : they were obliged to sue for peace. In the Mysore a war was carried on, mostly to the advantage of the English, against Hyder Ali. Durino- the American war, the French lost all their set- tlements in India. The company carried on a vigorous war against Hyder Ali and the Mahrattas. Colonels Baillie and 1778 Fletcher were with their whole force taken or slain by Hyder and his son Tippoo; but Sir Eyre Coote defeated them in 1781 several engagements. After the death of his father, Tippoo continued the war. The English had now an extensive empire in India. Much is it to be deplored tha^ '*" the acquisition and management 43 506 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III of it, the rights of humanity and justice were so frequently trampled upon. It is an important inquiry what has been or is to be the advantage or evil to India and Britain from their close connexion. Persia. A. D. When the dynasty of Nadir had been extinguished in Per- • '^^^ sia, the sovereignty of that country was contended for by the different rival chiefs, whose claims were all successively forced to yield to the power and the merit of Kerreem Khan, a chief of the native Persian tribe of Zend. The reign of this excellent prince, who occupied the throne twenty-six years, is a delightful object of contemplation amid the scenes of barbarity characteristic of eastern despotism. Justice, clemency, moderation, goodness of heart, distinguished all his actions. He lived and died happily amidst a grateful and 1779. contented people. On the death of Kerreem Khan, his brothers and nephews contended for the vacant throne. After the usual series of 1789. atrocities attendant on such an event, the power remained in the hands of Lootf Ali Khan, a youth of astonishing military talent and courage ; but having behaved with ingratitude to the able and virtuous Hajee Ibrahim, governor of Sheeraz, to whom he was chiefly indebted for his throne, the latter, seeing that he had no security for his life but in depriving the kmg of the power to injure him, entered into a secret treaty with Aga Mohammed Khan, chief of the Kajirs, a Turkish tribe, settled in Mazenderan by Abbas the Great, who was now grown so powerful as openly to aspire to the empire. Lootf Ali Khan, after struggling for his crown with a heroism 1795. rarely paralleled, fell at length into tlie hands of his cruel rival, by whom he was put to death, with every refinement of barbarity. This unliappy prince was but twenty-five years old. Aga Mohammed was uncle to the present king of Per- 1796 sia ; and by his vigor and cruelty, he left the kingdom to his successor in the state of obedience it has ever since main tained. CHAP. VIII. TIMES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. State of Europe, Literature now exerted a much more powerful mfluence over the public mmd than it had done at any preceding period. A set of men, many of them of talents of the first order, ar 507 CHAP VJII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 509 rogating- to themselves the exclusive title of philosophers, and actuated at first, perhaps, by a zeal for truth, carried on an incessant warfare against all that they were pleased to de- signate as superstition and vulgar prejudice. But theirs was not that philosophy which, elevated above all low and grovel- ing passions, and irradiated by light from heaven, views with pity rather than contempt the aberrations of man, and seeks by mild and gentle methods to lead him into the way of truth. It was heartless, cold, and cheerless; its surnmum bonum was sensual indulgence or literary fame, and few of its pro- fessors displayed any real dignity of soul : its favorite weapon was ridicule ; it attacked not alone the absurdities of the popular faith, but it levelled its shafts at the sublimest truths of religion ; it shook the firmest bases of social order, and sought to rob man of all lofty hopes and aspirations. Every mode of composition, from the highest science and most seri- ous history down to the lightest tale, was made the vehicle of this philosophy, with which was often joined a sickly, affected sensibility, calculated to gain it admittance even into the female bosom. The consequence was, as might be ex- pected, a general laxity of principle. The chief seat of this philosophy was France, where a court, corrupt and profligate beyond, perhaps, any which Europe had yet witnessed, had utterly degraded the minds of the upper classes of society. The efforts of the virtuous Louis XVI. to stem this torrent were unavailing : national vice was not to escape its merited chastisement. The middle orders were disgusted and galled by the privileges of the noblesse, and their excessive pride and insolence; the writings of the philosophers, and the scandalous lives of many of the clergy, had shaken their reverence for religion ; the abuses and oppression of arbitrary and extravagant government were keenly felt ; the glorious struggle of the English for liberty in the last century, and the dignity and prosperity consequent on it, awaked the aspirations of the better disposed; the achievement of American independence filled the minds of many enthusiasts with vague ideas of freedom and happi- ness beneath republican institutions ; and the lower orders in general looked forward to any change as a benefit. It was a time of innovation, turmoil, and violent change. The English colonies had thrown off the bridle of the mother country, whom she curbed too straitly. The kingdom of Poland had been most nefariously dismembered. Gustavus III. of Sweden had overthrown the aristocracy, and made himself absolute. A contest arose in the United ProvinceSy a r between tlie partv of the stadtholder and those who wished H^a 43^ 510 HISTOR'S OF THE WORLD. PART IIT. to make the government of a more republican form, which drew the attention of all tlie principal powers: the respective ^, 1). parties appealed to arms, and by Prussian aid the republicans 1787. were crushed. All these were but preludes to the storm which was soon to burst over Europe. 1787. The east of Europe was meantime precipitated into war. The Turkish sultan, apprehensive of the designs of the tsarina and the emperor .Toseph, declared war against Russia. The Turks commenced by the bombardment of Kilburn, *m the Dneiper; but, while forming the trenches, they were at- tacked by Suvaroff, and nearly their whole force destroyed. Joseph now took part in the war, and opened it by a treach- erous attempt on Belgrade : he entered the Turkish domin- ions at the head of a considerable force; but he reaped little 1788. military fame, and could only boast of the reduction of Choczim. The king of Sweden now entered into the war at the in- stigation of the king of Prussia and the Porte, and severe naval conflicts took place in the Baltic ; but several of Gus- tavus's officers refused obedience to him, and the Danes pre- pared to attack him on the side of Norway. A Russian flo- tilla, under the prince of Nassau Siegen, defeated Hassan, the capudan-pasha, off Oczakoff! In three other conflicts lie was equally unfortunate. The siege of Oczakoff* was formed by prince Potemkin : the town was taken by assault, and the inhabitants butchered and pillaged by the soldiery. 1789 Abd-ul-hamed, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his nephew Selim III. ; but success did not revisit the Ottoman arms. On the plains of Rimnik they failed before the Austrians and Russians, and Belgrade surrendered to the Austrian general Laudohn. But disease and chagrin at the resistance offered to his innovations in the Netherlands, and the discontents in ^790. Hungary, terminated the existence of Joseph ; and his brother Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany, who succeeded him, after some unsuccessful efforts, concluded an armistice with Selim. On the part of the Russians, Ismael, a strong town in Bes- sarabia, was taken by assault by Suvaroff", during the very middle of winter. The ferocious warriors massacred in this assault fifty thousand Turks : their own loss was, according to their veracious commander, four thousand three hundred ; according to others, fifteen thousand. In the Baltic, the Rus- sian fleet was completely defeated by that of the Swedes commanded by Gustavus in person ; and preliminaries for a peace were soon afterwards agreed on. The war was carried on with vigor in Turkey: the Moslems were defeated at CHAP.Vm FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 511 Maczin, and Bahada, and the tsarina at length agreed tliat f a. d congress should be held at Yassy to arrange the terms of a 1791 peace, which was concluded in the following year. An attempt made by the patriotic portion of the Pdisfi nation to regain their independence was crushed by the arm8 of the Russian despot, and the nation fell back into its former tato of degradation. Frederic II. of Prussia had died in 1786. Catherine sur- vived him ten years, and lived to witness the horrors of the French revolution. The French Revolution. The disordered state of the French finances induced the 787 court, displeased with the parliament of Paris, to assemble the Notables; that is, persons selected from the privileged orders. This measure produced no advantage, and all classes called for a meeting of the states-general. This national council was at length convoked, and met at Versailles; but 1789 the commons were thought to assume so much power, and to encroach so on the other orders, that the king dismissed Necker, his minister of finance, and ordered some regiments to advance towards the capital. The populace, excited by the democrats, committed several outrages, and tliey took and demolished the fortress named the Bastile. The privi- leges of the nobility and clergy were soon abolished. The king was obliged to recall Necker, and to transfer the assem- bly to Paris, where the mob was at the devotion of the demo- crats. The property of the church was now transferred to the nation ; the kingdom was divided into departments ; change followed change without intermission ; the king, for peace sake, assented to every thing; but commotion and bloodshed prevailed in different parts of the kingdom. The power of the democrats still increased, and the famous 1790. Jacobin club was formed by them. Several of the nobility and of the royal family quitted France. A project being formed for the emperor and other powers to assist the king in the recovery of his authority, of which he was now nearly 1791. deprived, he and the royal family endeavored to escape out of France ; but they were stopped at Varennes, and forced to return to Paris. The Jacobin and Cordelier factions loudly demanded his death, and a violent riot took place in the Champ de Mars. A constitutional code was at this time completed. Brissot, the leader of the Jacobins, procured a declaration 1792 of war against Austria, and La Fayette invaded the Nether- lands, but he was unsuccessful. A Prussian army, undei 512 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III- the duke of Brunswick, approached the French frontier; but toe violent and silly manifesto he put forth served only to in- jure tlie cause it advocated. The Jacobins, urged on by their atrocious leaders, excited the populace ; the king and royal family were put into confinement. Numbers of the nobility and others were murdered to prevent their joining the Prus- sians. Royalty was abolished. The Jacobins split into the Girondists, headed by Brissot and Roland, and the Jacobins, led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, three daring men wJiose bosoms knew not remorse. Disease and want of sup- plies forcing the Prussians and Austrians, who had nearly reached Paris, to retire, Dumouriez invaded the Netherlands, and, as the people were in his favor, speedily reduced them. Savoy was conquered, Germany invaded. The measure of ^ jj Jacobin guilt was now nearly filled up : they brought their 1733. amiable and unhappy king to trial, and judicially murdered him. This iniquitous act was followed by a declaration of war against the kings of England and Spain and the stadt- holder of Holland. Dumouriez invaded Holland, and reduced several towns; but he was defeated by the Austrians at Neer-Winden. The French arms were unfortunate also in Germany. Dumouriez formed a plan for restoring a king and constitutional govern- ment to France; but it being detected, he was forced to take refuge with the Austrians. An English army, under the duke of York, was now in Holland. Dampierre, Dumou- riez's successor, was defeated and slain. The French lost almost all their conquests; their raw levies were cut to pieces ; yet, under Hoche, they were again successful. The English filled in an attack on Dunkirk: the Austrians were driven within their own boundaries. The French and Spaniards fought with various success at the Pyrenees. A savage civil war now broke out in the island of St. Domingo, At home, the Brissotine party was overthrown, and all the heads of it executed : the infamous duke of Orleans also suffered the fate he had so long merited. The monsters now too shed the blood of the unhappy queen. A revolt having broken out in the south of France, it was quenched in blood ; and the city of Lyons had a bitter expe- rience of republican humanity. A war was carried on in La Vendee by the friends of royalty and religion ; but for- tune favored the enemies of both. The English, aided by Spain and Naples, had taken possession of Toulon ; they were forced, however, to abandon it. /94 The war in the Netherlands was carried on with great vigor : the French troops were commanded by Pichegru and louis XYI. and Marie Antoinette 613 CHAP. Vf II. FRENCH REVOLTITION AND EMPIRE. 515 Jourdan. After a variety of fortune, and the battle of Fleunis, • g-ained by the latter, the tide ran in favor of the French, and the whole of the Netherlands were subdued. In Germany, lourdan defeated Clairfait, and reduced Juliers and Cologne. In France, the guillotine was pouring out blood in all quar- ters at the command of Robespierre and his ruthless asso- ciates ; but at last Justice awoke a little from her slumber, and the tyrant himself met the fate he more than deserved. Danton had already cxp-' rienced it, and Marat had fallen by the hand of Charlotte Corde. Howe on the 1st of June defeated the French fleet. The Corsicans placed themselves under the king of England. But the French were victorious at the Pyrenees, and in Holland they met with uniform success. The middle ranks of the Dutch were in their favor ; a revolution took place, and the 4. i> people of the United Provinces, under the name of allies, be- J'^S.n came the subjects of France. Europe, to the peace of Campo Formio. While exclaiming against the horrors of the French revo- 1792. lution, the royal spoilers fell again on unhappy Poland, and tore away some more of her limbs. The Poles, led by the brave Kosciuszko, took arms, and made a brave resistance ; but the defeat at Matchewitz broke their hopes, which tinally expired when Warsaw was taken, and its garrison massacred by the ferocious Suvaroff. A new division of plunder now 1792 took place. How rarely are uncontrolled power and a due setise of justice to be found in union ! Glutted with spoil, and now desirous of repose, the king of Prussia made a peace with France. In that country there nad been a reaction, and the Jacobins were murdered and guillotined in their turn. The king of Spain was forced to seek for peace. In Germany there was some severe fighting between Jourdan and Clairfait. The Vendeans rose again, but were speedily crushed. Lord Bridport and admiral Corn- wallis were successful against the French fleets. Most of the foreign possessions of the French and Dutch were re- duced by the English. An insurrection broke out in Paris, but it was easily quelled. The constitution was now re- modelled. Numerous conflicts took place in Germany; but the 179C French, under Jourdan and Moreau, were unable to withstand the Austrians, commanded by the archduke Charles. The retreat of Moreau to the Rhine, ranks as one of the most mas- terly in history. Brilliant success attended the arms of the republic in Iral> 516 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART III. under the yoimcr Bonaparte. The victories of Monte Notte and ?»Ionte Lezino compelled the king- of Sardinia to sue for peace, with loss of territory. The forcing, with excessive loss, of the bridge of Lodi, opened Lombardy to the French. The pope, the princes of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, were obiio-ed to purchase safety by money, books, pictures, and statues. Mantua was besieged : the Austrians, who had been reinforced, approaching to its relief, were defeated at Lonato and Castiglione, and Mantua was reinvested. The Trans and Cis-Padane republics were at this time erected. The English were deprived of Corsica. Spain was now at length induced to join in the war against England, and a mutiny which broke out in the navy of the latter power seemed to threaten her existence. *. D. Every attempt was made to relieve Mantua, and several ''^^'^- actions were fought. At Rivoli the Austrians, under Alvinzi, struggled in vain with the utmost heroism, and Mantua was at length obliged to capitulate. The territories of the pope were next overrun, and he was forced to surrender the greater part of them, and pay large sums of money. Bona- parte then led his army northwards, resolved to invade the hereditary dominions of the emperor. He overran Carinthia and part of Styria, Carniola, and Istria ; but by the desire of the directory, who now governed France, he made proposals of peace, and articles were signed at Leoben. Venice now was to be favored with a new constitution by the French empirics. The vile oligarchy who ruled it were paralyzed with terror : while they negotiated, French troops seized all their towns, and Venice, after an independent ex- istence of more than 1000 years, submitted, without striking a blow, to be blotted out of the list of nations ; and who will deplore the fate of an oligarchy of whom history records hardly a single noble or generous action 1 Genoa, a name dearer to liberty, underwent a similar fate, and beca^ne the Ligurian republic. Peace was at length concluded at Campo Formio. Austria got Venice and the greater part of her territory; but she lost the Netherlands and her Italian dominions. The Ionian isl- ands fell to France. Affairs to the assumption of the chief power by Bonaparte. 198 Rome was pillaged, and a republic erected there. Tho machinations of the French produced a revolution in Switzer- land, and that republic was united to France. Some of the cantons refused submission : they fought with the valor of patriots, but they were constrained to yield to superior power. CHAP VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTIOIV AND EMPIRE. 517 Malta was now treacherously assailed and taken by Bona- parte, on his way to Egypt, whither, with their usual regard to good faith and justice, the directory had sent him. He landed near Alexandria, stormed that town, and massacred the inhabitants. The Mamelukes were routed at Embaba, and Cairo submitted. Meanwhile the English admiral Nel- son destroyed (Aug. 1) the French fleet at Aboukir. A rebellion broke out in Ireland ; but after a short strug- gle, the insurgents, not being aided by France, were forced to submit. The tsar now took share in the war, and the em- peror of Austria and the king of Naples also prepared to en- gage in it. The Neapolitan troops invaded the Roman territory, but a. d were driven back. The French advanced ; the king fled to ^'799 Palermo ; Capua surrendered. The peasantry and populace of Naples fought, but in vain, in defence of their country. Naples was entered. The French were anxious to obtain possession of the Grison country. At Ostrach and Stockach, Jourdan was defeated by the archduke Charles. A Russian army under Suvaroff" entered Italy, and in union with the Austrians defeated the French at Cassano, and drove them to Milan and Genoa. Al- exandria was taken, and the French, under Joubert and Mo- reau, were routed at Novi. Suvaroff marched into Switzer- land, where there had been some severe fighting. Korsakoff' had led another Russian army into that country. Massena, the French commander, attacked and defeated this last offi- cer, and Zurich was taken by storm. The Austrians in Italy reduced Coni, and invested Genoa. Bonaparte having reduced Egypt, turned his thoughts to Syria. General Regnier, with 12,000 men, was sent towards that country, ruled over by the sanguinary Jezzar, who was aided by Sir Sidney Smith, and some troops of the Porte. At Al-Arish, Regnier defeated a body of Mamelukes. Bonaparte soon joined the army; Al-Arish and Gaza surrendered: Jaffa was taken by storm. Acre was, as of old, gallantly defended by a Christian hero. Sir Sidney Smith, and Bonaparte was obliged to raise the siege, and return to Egypt. Desaix had been there engaged against the Mamelukes in Upper Egypt, and had driven them beyond the Cataracts. A Turkish army under the vizier having landed in Egypt, ind taken Aboukir, Bonaparte attacked and defeated them, and recovered the fort. Soon afterwards, seeing that nothing more was to be gained in Egypt, he secretly returned to France, leaving the command to Kleber, who defeated a Turkish divisi )n ; but his troops being in want of every thing, 44 A. D. 518 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. he signed a convention with the vizier to quit the countiy. Lord Keith declared it should not be executed, and Kleber again attacked and defeated the Turks. The English, Austrians, and Neapolitans recovered the papal territories. The English and Russians landed in Hol- land ; but after obtaining some advantages over general Van- dan;me, they were obliged to negotiate a retreat. The joy of the directory at this success was damped by the .1 ppearance of Bonaparte. A revolution in the government was effected; it was made consular, and Bonaparte was chosen first consul, with Cambaceres and Le Brun for his colleagues. Affairs till the peace of Amiens. 1800. Bonaparte, anxious to consolidate his power, made pacific overtures to England, which were rejected : the minister and the nation were bent on war. The long-sought union with Ireland was proposed this year, and in the following year car- ried into effect. The first consul resolved to prosecute the war with vigor. He joined the army assembled at Geneva, crossed Mont St. Bernard, and descended into Italy. The country to the Po was speedily subdued, and that river passed. Genoa had sur- rendered to the Austrians. The Austrian general Melas was defeated at-Montebello. On the plains of Marengo, between Alessandria and Tortona, the armies fought (June 14) again : victory seemed ready to declare for the Austrians, when the arrival of the divisions of Monnier and Desaix turned the for- tune of the day, and gave the first consul the glory of a con- queror. A truce, and the surrender of Genoa and other strong places, were the immediate result. In Germany, Moreau penetrated into Bavaria : a negotia- tion was ineffectually entered into ; the war recommenced, and the defeat of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3) led to the treaty of Lu- neville, by which Francis gave up more territory in Germany, and consented to the transfer of Tuscany to the duke of Parma. 801. The fickle tsar Paul had been gained over by the French. He detained the ships of the English, and prevailed on Den- mark and Sweden to engage in an armed neutrality. The English, who considered their existence to depend on their maritime superiority, sent a large fleet to the Baltic, under Sir Hyde Parker, to break up the confederacy. The Danes were first attacked ; lord Nelson destroyed their line of de- fence before Copenhagen, and they sued for peace : the king of Sweden agreed to treat. The tsar Paul was murdered by Death of Nelson, at the Battle of Trafalgar 519 CHAP. Vm. FRENCH RE\'OLUTION AND EMPIRE. 521 conspirators, and his son Alexander was inclined to Eng-land, The kinai" of Prussia, who had seized on Hanover, now de- clared himself ready to renev; his amity with Great Britain. An Enoflish army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, had ar- rived in Egypt. Immediately on its landing a battle ensued, which the English gained with the loss of their general. Grand Cairo surrendered. Its example was followed by Alexandria, and the French agreed to evacuate the country. Peace was signed at Amiens. The English consented to a d. give up all their conquests but Ceylon and Trinidad ; the 1602 Ionian islands were to form a republic ; Malta to be restored to the knights. Affairs of Europe to the treaty of Tilsit. Bonaparte was now declared chief consul for life. He re- stored the Catholic religion, and gave new constitutions to France, Gnnoa, and Switzerland. A force was sent to St. Domingo, where Toussaint I'Ouverture, a negro, had erected a republic. That chief was treacherously seized and sent to France , out the French were unable fully to recover the island. Disputes arising respecting the fulfilment of the treaty of 1803. Amiens, tne war was resumed. Hanover was invaded and reduced by the French; Holland was dragged into the war, and immediately lost her colonies. In St. Domingo the French power was finally overthrown, and Dessalines made 1804. chief of the republic. Bonaparte at length ventured to assume the imperial dig- nity, and thp. princes of Europe mostly acknowledged their new associate, who insulted and domineered over the greater part of the continent. The following year, afler bestowing a new constitution on 1805. Holland, Napoleon made himself king of Italy, adding the Ligurian republic to his kingdom. This last act of injustice induced the emperors of Austria and Russia to enter into a confederacy with Great Britain, and the glorious victory gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Oct. 21) over the combined fleets of France and Spain, gave spirits to the allies; but the French poured over the Rhine, and drove back the Austrians. At Ulm 20,000 Austrians surrendered. Vienna was entered by Napoleon : the Austrians and Russians were completely defeated at Austerlitz (Dec. 2). Francis lost courage, and concluded a treaty at Presburg, by which he gave up more territory, including Venice, acknowledged the king of Italy and two new kings, namely, those of Bavaria and Wiirten!^- burg • 44* 522 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TIL The French invaded Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte was seated on the throne of that country. A victory was gained at Maida (July 4) by the English, and the Calabrians rose ; but the power of the usurper was too great for resistance. Holland was also made a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte. At the command of Napoleon, his two new German kings, and some other princes, detached themselves from the Germani body, and fornied the confederacy of the Rhine, in alliance with France. The king of Prussia, who had been encouraged *o seize Hanover, finding that in some late negotiations be- tween France and England its restoration had been offered, and otherwise disgusted with his friend the emperor, rushed precipitately into a war : he imprudently gave the chief command to the duke of Brunswick. The French advanced with rapidity. A Prussian army of 6000 men was defeated at Saalfeld. Near Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 14) the Prussian and Saxon army of 110,000 men was attacked by that of the French of 150,000, and defeated. Erfurt was taken ; prince Hohenlohe and his army surrendered at Prentzlau : Berlin was entered. The king of Holland conquered to the Weser : Jerome Bonaparte subdued Silesia: general Bliicher and 9400 men capitulated at Ratkau : the Poles were excited to rise. The Russians, who were now advancing, met and de- feated the French at Pultusk, and repulsed them at Golomyn. At Berlin, Bonaparte declared the British isles in a state of blockade, and, by what he called the continental system, pro- liibited all intercourse with them. A. D. The Turks now shared in the war. The Russian emperor ^^'''- foolishly quarrelled with the Porte, and overran its nortliern provinces. An English fleet fruitlessly menaced Constanti- nople, and an ineffectual attempt was made on Egypt. The war was renewed in the north, and a desperate but indecisive battle was fought at Prussian Eylau ; Dantzig was taken by Lefcvre. The allies sustained a defeat at Friedland (June 14), which was followed by the capture of Konigsburg, and the treaty of Tilsit, which deprived the king of Prussia of one-third of his dominions, and erected the kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte. Affairs to the treaty of Vienna. An expedition, little creditable to England, was sent out against Denmark, a power with whom she was at peace. Copenhagen was bombarded, and all the ships and naval stores carried away. A rupture ensued between Russia and England. 1808. 'i'lie demands made by France on the regent of Portugal CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 523 were so unjust, that that prince, at the desire of the Britisn cabinet, departed for the Brazils. Portugal was occupied by the French. Intrigues were set on foot in Spain ; the king-, Charles IV., resigned in favor of his son Ferdinand. The a. d royal family were decoyed to Bayonne ; both father and son 1808 were terrified into abdication, and the crown transferred to Joseph Bonaparte. Large bodies of troops had already been sent into Spain, and no opposition was dreaded ; but the peo- ple rose in all quarters, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII. : the French fleet at Cadiz was obliged to surrender, as also the army of Dupont at Baylen. Saragossa was heroically de- fended against the troops of Joseph, who at length raised the siege. The Portuguese rose also against the French. A British army landed and defeated the French general Junot at Vi- meiro (Aug. 21). By a convention made at Cintra, the French evacuated that kingdom. A Russian fleet was taken in the Tagus. In the north of Europe, Sweden was hard pressed by the Russians and Danes. The conduct of Gustavus bordering on insanity, he was the next year dethroned, and his uncle made king in his place. The French were victorious in Spain, defeating Blake at Reynosa, and Castanos at Tudela. Napoleon arrived, and Madrid was taken. An English army, under Sir John Moore, had advanced as far as Salamanca ; but it was forced to re- treat. At Corunna it was attacked (Jan. 16), and general -^^ Moore mortally wounded. Encouraged by the resistance made by the Spaniards, the emperor of Austria resolved anew on war : it commenced in Bavaria. Napoleon having driven back the Austrians at Eckmuhl, advanced rapidly and occupied Vienna. At Aspern and Essling, after dreadful slaughter on both sides, the victory remained with the Austrians, The battle of Wagram ter- minated in favor of the French. A most ill-conceived project of creating a diversion in Hol- land was formed by the British cabinet. An army of 39,000 men, under the earl of Cathcart, sailed to Walcheren, and took Middleburg and Flushing ; but a large force being col- lected at Antwerp, and a fever breaking out among the troops, nothing further could be effected by such a waste of lives and treasure. The emperor Francis was now constrained to make peace, with additional loss of territory. In the preceding year, Selim III. had been murdered, and Mahmood, the present 524 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III sultar, was seated on the Turkish throne. Peace was con- cluded between England and the Porte. Progress of the Peninsular War. The French were now masters of Spain to Old Castile. Saragossa had stood a second siege with less success than formerly, 20,000 of its defenders being said to have perished. Marshal Soult entered Portugal, and took Oporto. Sir A. Wellesley advanced against him, and drove him back into Spain. The Spaniards defeated marshal Ney at San Payo in Gallicia. Sir A. Wellesley entered Spain and defeated the French at Talavera de la Reyna (July 28) ; but the enemy being reinforced, and the co-operation of the Spaniards not to be depended on, he fell back. Gerona was taken by tht French, after a gallant defence. One Spanish army was de- feated at Ocana, and another at Alba de Tormes. A. D An army of 30,000 Portuguese was raised and paid by the 18.0. British government. The French army approached Portugal, took Astorga and Ciudad Rodrigo, and, under Massena, passed the frontier and reduced Almeida. At the pass of Busaco they were repelled. A fortified line was made from the Tra- gus to the ocean, behind which ^he allies were posted. Mas- sena feared to assail it : after a month's inaction he fell back to Santarem. In the south Seville was taken by the French ; but Cadiz, now the seat of government, was secured against them. 811. Massena at length commenced his retreat, closely followed by the allies. A sharp action occurred at Fuentes d' Honor, after which Almeida surrendered. Badajoz having been captured by Mortier, Sir W. Beresford laid siege to it. Soult advancing with 23,000 men to its relief, the combined armies of 26,000 gave him battle at the Albuera (May 16), and gained the honor of the day. The siege was resumed by Sir A. Wellesley, now lord Wellington ; but on the approach of Soult and Marmont he retired across the Tagus. In An- dalusia the French were defeated at Barrosa by genejal Gra- ham. They had the advantage in the north of Spain, and Tarragona, Murviedro, and Valencia fell into their hands. The revolution commenced this year in South America. 812. A change having taken place in the government of Spain, the war was resumed with spirit. Lord Wellington reduced Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. Salamanca also fell, and a de- cisive victory was gained (July 22) over Marmont in its vicinity. Madrid, Seville, Valladolid were recovered ; the French raised the siege of Cadiz ; but lord Wellington failed in an attack on Burgos. The Empress Josephine. 425 CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 527 77ie Invasion of Russia, and fall of Najwleon. Alexander was mortified at the condition to which he wag a. ». reduced, and he defied Napoleon. The latter formed the bold l^i^ project of invading Russia : an immense army was assembled ; Tiithuania was occupied; Napoleon advanced to Smolensk; Oudinot and Macdonald were directed to join, and to g-et be- tween the great Russian army and St. Petersburg. The for- mer was defeated by Wittgenstein at Polotsk; prince Ba- gration engaged Davoust at Mohiloff; Wittgenstein com- pletely routed Oudinot a second time at Polotsk. Smolensk was abandoned to the enemy. At Borodino (Sept. 7) a general battle was fought, and the French re- pulsed with a loss of 40,000 men ; but Napoleon being rein- forced, pushed on for Moscow, and Kutusoff, the Russian commander, not feeling himself strong enough to contend with him, he reached that city, but found it in flames. Thus disappointed of supplies, he offered in vain to treat He then commenced his retreat. It was mid-winter ; the sufferings of the army were dreadful. The Russians closely pursued ; and of the immense host which had entered Russia, not more than 30,000, exclusive of the Anstrians, passed the frontiers. The dead and prisoners exceeded 300,000 in number. Alexander had already concluded a league with Sweden, whose councils were directed by the French marshal Berna- dotte, who had been chosen crown-prince. He now roused the king of Prussia to resistance. A treaty was formed be- tween them. The combined armies fought the new levies of Napoleon at Lutzen ; the action was indecisive, and they 1813 were repulsed at Bautzen. A truce was made ; during its continuance the emperor of Austria joined the alliance, as did Sweden now openly. The allied army of 180,000 men was commanded by the Austrian prince Schwarzenburg. The battle of Katzbach, gained by the Prussian general Bliicher, delivered Silesia. An indecisive action took place at Dresden: Vandamme was defeated at Culm, and Ney at Juterbock. Napoleon concen- trated his forces at Leipzig, where (October 18) the allies attacked and totally defeated him. The city was taken : the king of Bavaria joined i^he league ; and his troops, combined with the Austrians, defeated, at Hanau, the French as they were retreating from Leipzig. Holland now flung off the yoke, and recalled the prince of Orange. At Frankfort the allied monarchs put forth a declaration of the justice and moderation of their views. In Spain, lord Wellington being reinforced, and now well 1813 528 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ITI. supported by tlie Spaniards, crossed the Douro, and marched northwards. At Vittoria (Jwne 21) he engaged and totally defeated the French army, commanded by marshal Jonrdan. Pampeluna was blockaded; St. Sebastian besieged ; marshal Soult in vain endeavored to check their progress. St. Seotis- tian fell, and the allies entered France. A. D France was now invaded north and south. The arnnes 4814 from Germany met little check. Murat, the king of Naples, abandoned Napoleon. The allies appeared before Paris, and that haughty capital capitulated. In the south the allied arms were still crowned with success ; and Bourdeaux proclaimed Louis XVm. Napoleon was obliged to sign an act of abdication ; and the island of Elba, with a sufficient income, was assigned him for his residence. Louis XVIIL was restored ; as were the pope, and the other sovereigns who had been deprived of their do- minions. All Europe was now at peace. 1816 While a congress was engaged in arranging the affairs of Europe, news arrived that Napoleon had left Elba, and landed in France. He was received everywhere with enthusiasm by the army, and Louis was obliged to quit France, and to seek a refuge in the Netherlands. The allied princes issued a strong manifesto, and large armies were assembled to op- pose the usurper. Some partial advantages attended his first operations; but on the field of Waterloo (June 18), his last battle was fought. The genius of Wellington and the steadi- ness of the British troops were triumphant. After a brief reign of 100 days, he fled to the sea-coast, where he surren- dered himself to a British naval commander : and six years afterwards, he who had lorded it over the nations expired a captive on a rock of the Atlantic. Louis XVIII. was recon- ducted to his capital by the allied armies, and firmly seated on his throne ; and the convulsions which had agitated Eu- rope for a quarter of a century at length terminated. After the destruction of the power of Napoleon, the allied sovereigns undertook to remodel difi^erent parts of Europe, and they proceeded to their object with what they deemed expe- diency in view, but with too little regard to popular feelings or to national and hereditary rights. Denmark was forced to yield Norway to Sweden, and take in exchange Rijigen and Pomerania ; and then to give these to Prussia, for Lauenburg. Prussia, always grasping, received a large portion of the do- minions of the king of Saxony, who had been guilty of the crime of fidelity to Napoleon. Austria extended her sway, now odious to the people, over the north of Italy. Genoa wag forced to submit to become a part of the dominions of the 45 529 CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 531 king- of Sardinia. The Netherlands and the United Prorinces were formed into a kingdom for the prince of Orange : a large part of Poland composed one for the emperor of Rus- sia. A new confederation for mutual defence, and the pre- vention of internal war, was entered into by the sovereign states of Germany, who promised representative constitutions to their subjects, — a promise which but few of them have kept. England, the choragus of the great drama which was now concluded, who had shed her blood, and lavished her treasure so unsparingly, remained covered with glory, but deeply immersed in debt She had, during this period, ex- tended her dominion over nearly the whole peninsula of In- dia ; and the realms, once ruled by the house of Timoor, now bow beneath her commercial sceptre. United States of America. During the wars which convulsed Europe, after the ac- complishment of their freedom, the Americans had been ad- vancing in a steady march of national prosperity. An attempt of the French directory to enlist them in their struggle with the other powers of Europe, led to a short war with France, which was not attended with any important consequences. The second president, John Adams, directed his efforts to the formation of a navy ; and two of the American frigates, the a. d. Constellation and Constitution, captured French frigates of 1799 superior force, in the war with the republic. From this pe- riod a strict neutrality being observed, the Americans acquired most of the carrying trade of the belligerent powers in Eu- rope, and extended their commerce into every part of the world. Napoleon was the first to invade this privilege of the 1806 Americans in the Berlin and Milan decrees, issued to prevent them from trading with Great Britain ; which were followed by the British orders in council, prohibiting them from inter- course with France. A farther cause of irritation against Great Britain, existed in the custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impressing from them British seamen. This was even i807 carried so far, that the commander of a British frigate, the Leopard, after demanding four seamen from the American frigate Chesapeake, and being refused, fired a broadside into her, and compelled her commander, taken by surprise, to sur- render the men. Three of their number were Americans. The depredations of both the French and English on Anieri- can commerce, had become so extensive, that the congress, on the recommendation of the third president, Mr. Jefferson, ordered an embargo, prohibiting all commerce with foreign 532 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART ITT. countries. This measure, however, being found to operate ^ P too harshly on the interests of the commercial states of the 809. union, tlie embargo law was repealed, and a non-intercourse with France and England was substituted. An offer was made on the part of the United States, that the non-intercourse s,hould be discontinued towards either France or England, as soon as they respectively should cease to violate the commerce of the republic. Napoleon's mmister having informed the American agent at Paris that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked, the non-intercourse law, as 811. regarded France, was annulled. But as the official notice of this act was withheld, Great Britain, with good reason, doubted the revocation of the French decrees. When a formal an- nouncement of their revocation was made by France, the British orders in council were also revoked. But in the mean- time, the United States had declared war with Great Britain 1812. (June 18), and as the questions of search and impressment were still unsettled, the war was continued, notwithstanding the revocation of the orders in council. Tiie first object of the United States was the conquest of Canada. General William Hull, with a force sufficient for the reduction of Upper Canada, passed into that province, but after wasting some time in parade and indecision, he sur- rendered his whole force, the fortress at Detroit, and the en- tire territory of Michigan, to the British. For this act, he was afterwards tried, sentenced to be shot, and pardoned. On the 19th of August, the American frigate Constitution, captain Hull, captured the British frigate Guerriere, reducing her to a complete wreck in 1-3 minutes. This was the first of a series of naval victories which have completely destroyed the proud claim of Britain to the empire of the ocean. Tt was speedily followed (Oct. 25), by the capture of the British frigate Macedonian, by the American frigate United States, under the command of captain Decatur, off the Western Isles. In November an attempt was made on Queenstown, in Up- per Canada, which, afler a severe action, and a heavy loss on both sides in killed and wounded, resulted in the capture of 1000 Americans. In December, the frigate Constitution, captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil, after an action of one hour, in which the Java was reduced to an unmanageable wreck. General Winchester, with 750 men, 13 was attacked near the river Raisin, by a superior force of British and Indians, under general Proctor ; and afler being sur- rendered prisoners of war, many of his men were massacred CHAP. VIII. FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE. 635 by the Indians. (Jan. 22). An attack on fort Meig^, by Ihe British, was successfully resisted by general Harrison (May). An expedition against York, in LTpper Canada, under the command of general Pike, was completely successful. After an obstinate defence, the place was carried with a loss of 750 on the British side. The heroic Pike was mortally wounded by the explosion of a magazine. Fort George and fort Erie were shortly afterwards taken by the Americans, after a brisk action. An attempt was made by the British naval force which blockaded the Chesapeake, on Norfolk; and, on its failure, Hampton, a village 18 miles from Norfolk, was taken and given up to rapine and plunder. The American frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British frigate Shannon, offBoston harbor, under circumstances which, fairly considered, tend materially to diminish the glory of the victory. Fort Sandusky was most ably defended against general Proctor, with 1200 British and Indians, by major Croghan, with 160 Americans. (Aug. 1). In September, the American fleet on lake Erie, under the command of captain Perry, captured the whole British squad- ron under captain Barclay, after a well-contested action of three hours. Detroit was soon after retaken, and a superior force of British and Indians, under general Proctor, routed by the Americans under general Harrison. The fortune of the day was decided by a mounted regiment under colonel Johnson, who slew with his own hand, during the action, the celebrated Indian warrior Tecumseh. Extensive preparations were made for renewing the inva- sion of Canada, during the autumn ; but the expedition was abandoned, apparently for want of concert among the leading officers, and fort George and fort Niagara fell into the hands of the British. Overtures of peace being made on the part of Great Britain, a.d commissioners on both sides were appointed to meet at Ghent 1^^* for the purpose of negotiating a treaty. A part of the district of Maine, east of Penobscot river, was occupied by the British. Naval victories were achieved by the American commanders. Porter, Warrington, and Bid- die, and the victories at Chippeway and Niagara witnessed the improved discipline and coolness of the American land forces. A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake, and, conducted by general Ross, succeeded in penetrating to the city of Washington, where they destroyed the public buildings, library, and records ; a piece of vandalism which 536 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TTT. has scarcely a parallel in modern warfare, and which one of their own ablest statesmen has pronounced a disgrace to the British nation. A subsequent attempt on Baltimore resulted in the defeat of the British, and the death of general Ross. The British squadron on lake Champlain, consisting of 17 vessels, under the command of captain Downie, was defeated by the American squadron of 14 vessels, under captain M'Donough ; and on the same day, the British army under general Pre vest was repulsed, with heavy loss, in an attemp to storm the forts at Plattsburg. .815. Sir Edward Packenham, with 14,000 men, made a descent on New-Orleans, (Jan. 8), which was defended by genera] Jackson with six thousand men, principally militia. After a well-contested action, the British were repulsed with the loss of 700 killed, 1400 wounded, and 500 prisoners. The Ameri- can loss was 13 killed, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. The treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814, and ratified by the prince regent of England Dec. 28. It was ratified by the president of the United States, Feb. 1815. From the events of this war, the Americans have learnt that their land forces are more fit for the resistance of inva- sion, than for foreign conquest; and that their best instru- ment of national defence is a well-disciplined navy: the same events have taught other nations, that this people, once sup- posed to be for ever wedded to commerce and peace, has some claims to a character for ability and courage in war. CHAP. IX. TIMES OF THE RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILLIPPE. State of Eurcype. The ideas of liberty and equality which had heen gene- rated by the French Revolution now began to progress towards their true development. The mass of the people were gradually becoming more enlightened, and in most of Europe, though they were compelled to suffer the existence of kings and nobility, they discussed more freely the cha- racter and tendency of monarchy and aristocracy. They had seen men, sprung from the humblest stations of life, achieve, by their own exertions, the proudest and most glorious actions, and had seen some of them sit upon the 637 CHAP. TX. RESTORATION ANT) LOUTS PIITLTPPE. 539 thrones to which they had long believed their hereditary kings had a divine right. This, almost as much as the more extensive spread of education and refinement, broke the charm by Avhich they had so long been held, and made the seats of kings and nobility very unstable. Violent storms and short calms were the principal features of the time. France. The evils and distress produced by long and expensive wars were now apparent. Lyons and Grenoble were dis- tracted by riots, and conspiracies were detected in every quarter. The foreign troops left France, and at the Con- gress of Aix-la-Chapelle, she was admitted as a party to the Quadruple Alliance. In the mean time, the ministry was divided into factions, and continually involved in dis- sensions with the king. Disputes were 'frequent between the nobility, the chambers, and the people, and infringe- ments upon the liberty of the press and derangements in the administering of 'the laws were as constantly com- plained of by all whose rights were concerned. The royal- ists and the liberals were continually striving to advance the particular interests which they favored. The murder of the duke of Berri caused party spirit to rage beyond all bounds, and violent commotions occurred in the chamber of deputies. Laws were passed, authorizing the arrest of persons merely suspected of treason, the censorship of the press, and infringement of the election laws. In conse- quence of these acts, it was announced at the session of the chambers that conspiracy continually existed in France. In 1821, further restrictions of the press were proposed, but in consequence of the strength of the opposition, the ministry resigned. Several insurrections occurred during the year 1822. A conspiracy was detected having for its°object the promotion of the interest of young Napoleon, and a few more insurrections occurred. In 1823, 100,000 men were sent into Spain to arrest the progress of democracy in that country, and to force its government to reconcile its sentiments to those of the other governments of Europe. The war terminated favorably for France, of which circumstance the king availed himself in order to gain some popularity with the army and the people. Though it lasted but six months, the expense was more than two hundred millions of francs, which caused loud complaints from the liberal party. In Septemb'}r, 1824, Louis XVIII. died. His brother 540 Hir-TORT OF THE WORLD. PART III. Charles X., "became king, and was crowned at Rheims in May, 1826. The independence of Hayti was acknow- ledged and commercial intercourse established with the Spanish American republics, a treaty of commerce con- cluded with Great Britain and another with Brazil. The opposition gained a great triumph (1827) in defeating the bill for the further restriction of the press. The ministry dissolved the chamber with force, thereby hoping to secure a large majority at the next election. But the liberal party triumphed, and Paris was filled with rejoicings. France interfered (1828) in the dispute between Turkey and Greece, and sent a force to the assistance of the latter country. In the organization of a new ministry, (1829,) prince Polignac, an unpopular ultra-royalist, was intrusted with the portfolio of foreign afikirs. This hastened the crisis which had become inevitable. Though France was prosperous in her external appearance, yet the people were irritated beyond endurance by seeing their most valued liberties trampled upon and torn from them. At the opening of the session of the chambers, (1830,) the king announced his determination to maintain his policy, if necessary, by force of arms, and also announced the declaration of war against Algiers. The deputies being firm yet respectful in their declaration that concurrence no longer existed between the government and the nation, the chamber was prorogued. The new election produced a still stronger majority against the ministry. An ordinance being presented to the king by the ministry, which sus- pended the liberty of the press, several of the liberal journals refused to obey. This brought on the revolution of the Three Days. The king abdicated, and, at the invita- tion of the deputies, Louis Philippe of Orleans ascended the throne. Many alterations favorable to popular rights were made in the constitution, which Louis Philippe swore to maintain. The first event under his reign was the trial of the ministers of the late king for high treason. They were found guilty, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. Alarming riots occurred in Paris, (1830,) in consequence of an attempt to celebrate the anniversary of the assassina- tion of the duke of Berri. A change of ministers succeeded. Riots still occurred in Paris and Lyons, and in his tour through the kingdom, Louis Philippe found it in a condi- tion bordering on anarchy. War was declared against Portugal, but it was of short duration. Amid the frequent riots, the anniversary of the Three Days occurred, and it was celebr^,ted in the most splervdid manner. Fifty thou- CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 541 sand men were sent to Belgium, to assist that country in its struggle with the Dutch. On the arrival of the news of the fall of Warsaw, riots broke out in every direction. Mobs attacked the hotels of the ministers, and revolution again threatened. But the army and the ministry con- tinuing loyal, concessions were made ana the danger averted. The most important acts of the assembly during its session were, the abolition of the hereditary peerage, an appropriation of a lai-ge sum for the relief of the working classes, and the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon and Napoleon families. Great distress among the workmen of Lyons produced an insurrection, which was suppressed by the duke of Orleans and marshal Soult. Measures were taken to relieve the workmen. In 1832, the difficulty with the United States was adjusted. The Asiatic cholera appeared and spread so rapidly that the chambers were obliged to adjourn, and the prime minister was attacked and died. The terror and distress caused by this disease could not suppress the spirit of insurrection. Riots occurred in Paris at the funeral of general Lamarque, and continued several days; being suppressed only with bloodshed. The expedition into Belgium and the war in Algiers both j)roving successful, rendered the government popular for a time with all classes. An attempt was made to assassinate the king, in November, but the person who made the attempt escaped in the crowd. The year 1833 was one of comparative calm. No out- breaks occurred, both parties contenting themselves with warring upon each other through the journals. Some of the leading members of the republican associations were arrested and tried for conspiracy, but found to be innocent of the charge. In March, 1834, the chamber of deputies annulled a treaty concluded in 1831, by the duke de Broglie and general Sebastiani with the American minister, by refusing to pay the indemnity to the United States for the injuries inflicted upon American ships and commerce. In conse- quence, the ministry was reorganized, under the presi- dency, how(;ver, as before, of marshal Soult. Manufactures and trade l^eing greatly depressed, serious riots occurred; first at Lyons and Marseilles, and then at Paris. In April a "-reaty was concluded at London, between Great Britain^ France, Spain and Portugal, which was commonly called the Quadrjple Alliance. A difficulty occurring between the king and marshal Soult, the latter resigned his post as president of the council, and was succeeded by marshal 46 542 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART III Girard. The prisons were filled with persons accused of pai'ticipating in the various insurrections, and the number was so great that government was at a loss to know how to dispose of them. The president of the council was of opinion that an amnesty should be granted ; and that mea- sure being resisted by the king and other members of the council, the president resigned his post. The whole ministry was dissolved, and a new one formed, under the presidency of Maret, duke of Bassano. This lasted but four days, and gave place to the former one, under the presidency of marshal Mortier, with Guizot and Thiers as leading mem- bers. In February, 1835, a difference with the chambers was the cause of the dissolution of the ministry. Marshal Soult formed a new ministry, after a great deal of exertion, but it fell to pieces in four weeks. The deputies expressed a desire that the former ministers should resume their places, and the king assented, naming the duke of Broglie as pre- sident of the council and minister of foreign affairs. In April, the chamber of deputies acknowledged the validity of the American claims, and made no further difficulty in providing for their payment. Of about 1200 prisoners held for being concerned in the riots, only 164 were tried. The trials lasted till the middle of August, when 52 were sen- tenced to imprisonment for life, and the Paris prisoners escaped from the place where they were confined. In July, at the anniversary of the Revolution of 1830, while the king was reviewing the troops of the line and the national guards, an " infernal machine'^ exploded near where the king was standing, killing forty persons, among whom was marshal Mortier. The king escaped without injury. The assassin was arrested, and, with two accom- plices, executed. Attempts were made by the ministry to strengthen the power of the king, by presenting to the chambers three laws for their approval. One almost anni- hilating the liberty of the press, another allowing the jurors to vote by ballot, and a third empowering the minister of justice to constitute as many courts of assize as may be necessary to proceed simultaneously against rioters. The laws were sanctioned by the chambers after much opposi- tion. In 1836, the trial of the Paris insurgents was concluded, and nineteen or twenty condemned to be transported for life. A deficit occurring in the revenue, a difficulty was brought about between the king^ and the deputies. The result was the resignation of the ministry, in February. /V. 543 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 545 oew one was formed under the presidency of Thiers. In June, a third attempt was made upon the life of Louis Philippe. He was shot at as he was leaving the Tuileries in his carriage. No injury was done, and the assassin, an enthusiastic young republican, was tried by the peers, and guillotined on the 11th of July. The new ministry was very active, and their policy was of a bolder tone than the preceding one. But a difficulty soon ensued between the king and his ministers, and Thiers and five of the others resigned. In September, a new ministry was formed, with count Mole as president and minister of foreign affairs. ' They endeavored to tranquillize the public mind at home and maintain friendly relations abroad. The ministers of Charles X. who had been imprisoned, were set at liberty. In October, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte made an attempt at insurrection at Strasburg, but having few followers, he was taken and shipped off to America. The other conspirators were arraigned before the court of assize of the Lower Rhine, but the jury refused to convict them. In December, another attempt was made upon the life of Louis Philippe by a workman named Meunier. The king narrowly es- eaped. Meunier was brought to trial and banished for ten years. In January, 1837, the ministry made new attempts to fortify the executive branch of the government. Several measures, with that object, were rejected by the chamber of deputies. The ministry were divided upon the pro- priety of a dissolution of the chamber, and Guizot and three others resigned their places. A new organization took place, but it was far from satisfactory. In the course of the summer, an improvement took place in the affairs of the French in Algiers, and the course of events in Spain appeared more propitious. The chamber of deputies still continuing at variance with the ministry, it was dissolved on the 4th of October. The government had expectations that the newly elected chamber would be more favorable to them than the other had been, but its expectations were disappointed. They met in December, but nothing impor- tant occurred. In February, 1838, a measure was presented by a liberal member, for reducing the interest on the public debt, which was adopted. The government sustained a defeat of the nleasures which they recommended. Another plot to destroy the king's life was discovered, and the person in whose hands the machine that was to do the work was found, was tried and sentenced to deportation. The minis- 46* 546 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART in. try pursued a very dictatorial course towards some of the weaker sovereign states. Prince Louis Napoleon had re- turned from America to Europe, and published a pamphlet under an assumed name, setting forth his claims to the throne of France. The person whose name he had assumed was arrested and condemned to imprisonment for five years, and to pay a heavy fine. The government then demanded of the Swiss confederacy the expulsion of the prince from their territory, where he had taken refuge on his return. The Swiss were not disposed to yield to the demand, and hostilities would have commenced had not prince Louis voluntarily quit Switzerland. War was declared against Mexico, and the republic of La Plata. The ministry met with the most strenuous opposition in most of their mea- sures, and Guizot and Thiers, at the head of their respective parties, exerted themselves to effect its overthrow. In January, 1839, the ministry thought it prudent to retire before the storm would break upon them, and they resigned their places. Marshal Soult was commissioned to organize a new ministry ; but he declared it impossible without the ministry could comprehend Theirs. The king would not agree to that, and recalled his former ministers, and dissolved the chamber of deputies. The appeal to the electors was unsuccessful; the opposition triumphed, and count Mole and his colleagues once more resigned. (March 9th). For two months, the greatest confusion pervaded every department of the government. A ministry could not be organized till the middle of May, when marshal Soult was prevailed upon to accept the J>^t of president of the council and minister of foreign anairs. The council was composed of widely different elements ; the only thing they could agree upon to keep them together was the non- action upon all the questions of difference between the parties which divided the chambers and the country. In consequence, nothing of moment occurred during the legis- lative session, which ended in August. On the re-assem- bling of the chambers in December, the state of French aff'airs in Africa and Syria, and the feeble and uncertain policy of the ministers, produced great embarrassment. In the course of a month, the government found themselves in a minority on a question of appropriation of 500,000 francs to the duke of Nemours, on his marriage. In February, 1840, the ministers resigned their places, and the king found a council decidodly liberal his only resource for carrying on the government. Thiers was ap- pointed president of the council and minister of foreign OH A 1. IX. RESTORATION A jfD LOUIS PHILIPPE.. 547 affairs, and the rest of the ministry were of the same party. Great expectations were entertained by the people in regard to the new ministry, but they were disappointed. The measures and policy of the ultra-royalists who had pre- ceded them were continued. The severe laws against the liberty of the press, and the narrow confinement of the right of suffrage, were not attempted to be repealed or modified. The reduction of the interest on the public debt was rejected by the peers. A considerable sum was ap- propriated by the chambers during the session, for the con- struction of railroads and steam vessels ; and another, of 1,000,000 francs, for the purpose of bringing the remains of Napoleon from St. Helena, to be interred with great pomp and ceremony in the capital of his former empire. Towards the close of the session, Thiers made great efforts to induce the great European powers to allow the pasha of Egypt to retain possession of Syria ; but he failed in accom- plishing his object. The other powers of Europe concluded a treaty among themselves, without waiting for the acqui- escence of France. The announcement of this treaty pro- duced the greatest excitement in France, and war was generally demanded. The army and navy were augmented, and great activity prevailed at all the ports and arsenals of the country. In the mean time, events occurred which prevented the king from assenting to the design of declaring war against four of the great powers of Europe. One was the landing of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte at Boulogne, with the hope of producing a revolution in his favor. No one joined him, and he was arrested and imprisoned in the fortress of Ham. The other was the fifth attempt to as- sassinate the king. He was fired at with a musket loaded with six balls, while reviewing the national guard, in Octo- ber, but, as before, escaped all injury. The assassin was injured by the bursting of the gun, and afterwards was guillotined. The king's being unwilling to denounce the treaty by which France had been dishonored, was the cause of the resignation of Thiers and his colleagues. A new ministry was organized, with marshal Soult as its presi- dent, and Guizot as minister of foreign affairs, and deci- dedly the most influential member. This ministry was well supported and gradually gained the confidence of the nation. The emperor Napoleon's remains arrived in France in December, and the deposition of them in the dome of the Invalids produced far less excitement than expected. "the year 1841 opened with brilliant prospects for the new ministry. The plan for the fortification of the city ot 548 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TH. Paris "w^as submitted to the chambers and approved in February. The object of tlie ministry was the preservation of the peace of Europe, as they proclaimed, and their policy was systematically directed to that end for the rest of their term of service as a council. The most important events which occurred between the close of the session of the chambers in June, and their assembling in December, were the tumults at Toulouse and other places in the South, on occasion of a new assessment of taxes, which were promptly quelled by a militarj'^ force; an unsuccessful attempt on the lives of three of the king's sons, for which the guilty Avas condemned to deportation ; and the diminution of the army by about 100,000 men. In April, 1842, Hermann, the minister of finance died, and was succeeded by Lacave-Saplagne ; but the policy of the administration continued precisely as before. In May, while the deputies were discussing a law authorizing the construction of nine hundred leagues of railroad, a shock- ing accident occurred on the railroad between Paris and Versailles, by which two hundred persons lost their lives, among whom was the circumnavigator, Dumont d'Urville, and his family. The passage of the law, however, was not prevented by this accident. The duke of Orleans, heir ap- parent to the throne, was thrown off the carriage in which he was riding and killed. This caused much discussion in the chamber of deputies in regard to the regency, in case of the death of the king before the count of Paris should become of age. It was finally decided that the duke of Nemours, who was personally unpopular, should be the regent. For three or four years after the settlement of this question, France remained comparatively calm; the Guizot ministry growing stronger every day, maintaining peace with the rest of Europe, and developing the resources of the nation. The only events of importance that occurred were the taking of the Marquesas and Society Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and the interchange of visits between Louis Philippe and queen Victoria. The latter is some- thing anomalous in French history. After the short calm, the factions resumed their disputes; and, with the aid of the clubs and an ultra-democratic press, they kept the populace of Paris in a constant excitement. On the part of the king, either from necessity or the desire of power, the 'principles which he had recognised in 1830 were violated and disowned by him. Great efforts were made by the ministry to give as much power to the king as was possible Andrew Jt k en 649 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 551 This, and the spread of the socialist and communist prin- ciples, hastened the progress of things to a crisis. Great Britain. The peace of 1815 found the poorer classes, particularly those inhabiting the manufacturing districts, in a state of destitution. Extensive failures of the crops in 1816 and 1817 increased the distress to such an extent that in June, 1819, serious riots broke out through a large extent of country. These were followed by mass meetings, at which radical measures of reform were proposed and advocated by popular speakers. The government interfered, and at Manchester, a large mob was dispersed and many persons killed. This increased the excitement. Parliament forbade the keeping of fire-arms by the populace, private military exercise, the unauthorized assembling of*mass meetings, and the publication of inflammatory or irreligious writings. The death of George III., in January, 1820, was produc- tive of very little change in the social condition of the nation. The return of agricultural prosperity, the increase of the foreign demand for manufactures, and the renewal of specie payments alone caused discontent to subside. A conspiracy to assassinate the ministers, of which Arthur Thistlewood was the leader, was detected soon after the return of prosperity, and Thistlewood executed. The disgraceful trial of the queen tended to exasperate all classes and parties. But the pursuing malice of her enemies was arrested by her death in August, 1821, and the king, George IV., regained a portion of his former popularity by making a tour through the country. But the diminution of one evil only increased another. By in- creasing the value of money, parliament had decreased the value of every thing else. Bents rose, and thousands of the peasantry, of Ireland especially, were unable to pay their landlords. Ireland was already torn by social and religious differences, and it now became a prey to riots, secret mur- ders, and every species of violence. Nor has its condition materially improved up to the present time. During the Greek struggle for independence, the subjects of Great Britain were allowed to aid the patriots, and many availed themselves of the privilege. In 1825, the nation- ality of the new American republics was acknowledged^ and, during the same year, the king prohibited the formei privilege of assisting the Greeks. The year 1826 was sig- nalized by mammoth schemes of speculation, followed by a sudden collapse, and ruinous bankruptcies. Bank after 552 -^ HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. Dank broke, the currency became disordered, and the con- sequent distress was so great that it called for the imme- diate interposition of government. The same year, Great Britain united with Russia to induce or compel Turkey to acknowledge the freedom of Greece ; and, in the next year, the treaty of London, for the settlement of that question, was concluded between Great Britain, Russia, and France. In 1829, the Catholic Relief Bill was passed, which, in a great degree, removed the civil disabilities from the Roman Catholics. In June, 1830, George IV. died, and was suc- ceeded by his brother, William IV. In 1831, after the Whigs came into power, the Reform Bill, regulating parlia- mentary representation, was passed. The first session of the reformed parliament was opened on the 29th of January, 1833, and brought to a close on the 29th of the following August. Among its most important acts, were two, regulating the juries and the clergy of Ire- land, together with the "Irish coercion act," which im- posed stringent regulations upon the inhabitants of that country. The act for the abolition of slavery in the West India colonies was also passed — twenty millions of pounds being granted to the proprietors as an indemnification. The charter of the East India Company was renewed for the term of twenty years, under certain restrictions. The second session under the new Reform Bill was occupied with the afi"airs of Ireland, where much disorder continued to prevail. The king, being opposed to the changes introduced by the Whigs, dismissed the ministry, and engaged Sir Robert Peel to form another. But the Whigs kept the favor of the nation and a majority in parliament. The new ministry, therefore, kept their places but a short time. They resigned their places, and Viscount Melbourne was employed, and succeeded in forming a ministry which continued during the rest of the reign of William. The most important acts passed during the remaining two years of the reign were — one reforming the municipal corporations; the marriage act, which permitted marriage by any ceremony that the parties preferred, or merely before a magistrate; an act for the registering of births, deaths, and marriages, and regula- tions respecting Canada and Ireland. On the 20th of June, 1837, the king died. William was succeeded by his niece, Alexandrina Victoria, under the title of Victoria I. . She was in her nineteenth year. The immediate consequence of the accession of a female to the throne, was the separation of Hanover from the rest of the kingdom, and its retrocession to the male line of the family. CHAP. IX. EESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 553 The queen found Canada in revolt; Ireland in agitation; England discontented ; parties exasperated ; and every other cause of disorder aggravated by the movements of the Re- Eeal Associations, organized and conducted by O'Connell. lOrd Durham was appointed governor-general of Canada, and given almost dictatorial powers. Bills for the relief ot Ireland were passed. But discontent was not suppressed. In 1808, a large portion of the population banded themselves together under the name of Chartists, claiming the adop- tion, as fundamental law, of a charter, which would grant universal suffrage, vote by ballot, annual parliaments, the abolition of property qualifications in members of the House of Commons, and their remuneration by money. The same year, the Anti-Corn-Law League was formed, the members of which strenuously advocated the doctrines of free trade. The influence of these two associations has been felt se- riously in England to the present day. On the 10th of February, 1840, queen Victoria married prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, to whom parliament voted thirty thousand pounds. Soon after this event, diflS.- eulties occurred with the United States, with the Afghans, and with the Chinese. The latter occurred in consequence of the efforts by the Chinese to suppress the illicit intro- duction of opium into their empire by British vessels. Collisions between the natives and the English followed, and war was soon declared. Sir Henry Gough, the English commander, after various triumphs over the Chinese, ap- peared before the city of Nankin, when a treaty of peace was concluded, (August, 1842.) Great Britain received twenty-one millions of dollars, the island of Hong Kong, and admission into several Chinese ports. In the same year, the difficulties with the United States and with Af- ghanistan were settled by treaty. The Melbourne ministry continued under Victoria till 1841, when it lost the confidence of parliament, and a new ministry was formed, with Sir Robert Peel at its head. The parliamentary session of 1842 was distinguished by the enactment of a new corn-law, in which the duties previously imposed were in some degree reduced. In 1843 the Free Church of Scotland was instituted, byabout four hundred clergymen, who would no longer submit to civil interven- tion in religious affairs. In Ireland, affairs had reached a crisis, and O'Connell, with a number of the leading re- pealers, was arrested. After trial, O'Connell was sentenced to imprisonment for twelve months, to pay a fine of two thousand pounds, and to give sureties in the sura of ten 47 554 fflSTORY OF THE WORLD. PART Tli. thousand pounds to keep the peace for seven years. In 1844, this decision of the judges was reversed by the House of Lords. The Peel ministry continued in office until December, 1845, when a difference occurring among ita members, lord Wellington resigned his post, and he was followed by the entire cabinet. But from the difficulty of organizing another. Sir Kobert Peel was again called to resume his office. In 1846, the Oregon treaty was concluded with the United States, and the British corn-laws were repealed. The most important events of the year 1847 were the distress and agitation in Ireland, the war in India, the efforts to repress the disorders in Canada, and the ten- dency of the masses towards the causes which produced the convulsions of the following year. Spain. For six years after his restoration, Ferdinand VII. pur- sued a career of absolute despotism. The officers and sup- porters of Joseph Bonaparte were driven from the country or thrown into prison ; the Inquisition Avas re-established ; monkish tyranny resumed its sway, and every, form of justice or of popular right was openly violated. This head- Ion;;; course of blind bigotry was the cause of violent com- motions. The army became discontented ; bands of guerillas ravaged different quarters; and various conspiracies were formed, either for petty revenge or the overthrow of the government. While growing weaker at home, the govern- ment was rendering itself contemptible abroad. In 1820, Florida was ceded to the United States for five millions of dollars. The ministry was changed twenty-five times in five years. During this period, the American colonies re- volted, and an attempt to send an army against them was attended by the defection of four battalions, who chose their own leaders, proclaimed the constitution of 1812, and took possession of La Caracca. The attempts made to dislodge them failed; and advancing through the country, they ex- cited a spirit of revolt among the people, and called upon them to re-establish the constitution. They were joined by the royal troops ; so that Ferdinand, as contemptible for his weakness as he was odious for his tyranny, declared him- ^-elf willing to summon the Cortes of 1812, and submit to Jie constitution of that year. A new ministry was ap- pointed, the Inquisition abolished, and an entire change effected in the offices of the government. But the country- was torn by factions, and these popular victories failed tc restore peace. The Emperor of China. 555 CHAP. IX. REBTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 557 In March, 1821, the cortes declared the whole country in danger. In September, an extraordinary cortes was summoned, and about the same time, news was received that Mexico had declared herself independent, that Lima was occupied by the Chilians, and that other losses had occurred in the West Indies, The troubles abroad quieted, in some degree, the dissensions at home. The king sanc- tioned a few vigorous measures passed by the cortes ; but they did not render the Spanish arms successful in America, nor increase the popularity of Ferdinand. Military riots occurred, even in the royal palace; and an attempt to restore despotism by overthrowing the constitution, was defeated by the national guards. A new ministry, favor- able to liberal principles, was appointed, and the king, whose authority was now extremely weak, made every concession demanded of him. Not long after, the apostoli- cal party favorable to despotism and monkish rule was defeated, and its leaders driven from the country. The other European poAvers interfered ; and the French ambas- sador at Madrid demanded the restoration of Ferdinand to power, pi-eparatory to his effecting permanent arrangements with the people. The ministers of Prussia, Austria, and Russia made similar demands ; while England advised the cortes to yield, offering her mediation. The Spanish go- vernment answered in a note, indignantly repelling the foreign interference. The French stationed 100,000 men near the Pyrenees, from whence they marched towards Madrid, proclaiming that they came to deliver the country from the evils of civil war. Ferdinand, who had entailed wretchedness upon the nation, was now passive. The French declared the sove- reignty of the king, and nullified all the acts of the cortes. War being declared against France, Ferdinand prosecuted it with his usual weakness, vacillation, and blindness. In a short time, his army of 120,000 men was beaten, and the greater part of the country in the hands of the French. A guerilla warfare succeeded, which was conducted with all the circumstances of crime and barbarity usually attendant upon a desultory warfare. In June, the theatre of war was transferred to the southern provinces. On the 15th of July, the heights of Corunna were carried by general Bourck after a bloody action of five hours. Skirmishes occurred from time to time until the 1st of October, when Ferdinand, under the protection of the French, returned to the capital. His first act was declaring the proceedings of the provi- sional cortes void. In November, the war terminated. 47* 558 HISTOllY OF THE WORLD. PART III Forty-fi\ e thousand French soldiers remained in Spain until the national army could be organized. The defeated re- publicans were imprisoned and executed in great numbers, feut the re-establishment of the Inquisition was successfully resisted. As the king was suspected of being favorable to the con- stitutionalists, some of the adherents of despotism formed a plot to displace him and raise Don Carlos to the throne. These were called Carlists. They caused much disturb- ance during the three following years ; and, with the fre- qaent change of ministers and the conduct of the king, were the source of much distress among the people. In 1825, Spain lost the castle of St. J t-iu'i ^3 UUoa, and early in the next year, Callao, near Limn -iiei last possession on the American continent. In 1829, the army in Mexico sur- rendered to the patriots, under general Santa Anna. The same year was signalized by the birth of a royal princess, on which occasion the cortes declared the crown hereditary in the female lines. But two years after, while Ferdinand was suffering from a violent attack of sickness, Calomarde, the minister, induced the weak monarch to revoke the decree, and transfer the right of succession to Don Carlos. The king recovered unexpectedly, and Calomarde was dis- missed. The right of succession was restored to the infanta Maria Isabella, and her mother appointed regent of the kingdom. Ferdinand died in 1833. This brought on civil war, which was commenced by Don Carlos, who claimed the throne, and continued with variable success, until 1839. Through the energy of the queen's generalissimo, Don Baldomera Espartero, it resulted in her favor. In the mean time, the court was in a distracted condition. Ministers resigned almost as soon as they were installed. The regency, the Carlists, and the queen's adherents struggled for the mastery. The constitution of 1812 being adopted under a modified form in 1837, revived the old constitutional party, w^hich was again divided by the secession of the extreme liberals. In 1840, the queen regent resigned, and her office fell upon the new minister, Espartero. He displayed the same energy which had distinguished him on the battle- field. Charges of cruelty while suppressing the insurrec- tionists were soon brought against him, and they affected his popularity. Quarrels with the cortes and the new ministry followed, and in 1843 he was driven from the country. In October of the same year, the young queen attained her majority, and was acknowledged as queen of CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUTS PHILIPPE. 559 Spain by all the European powers under the title of Isa- bella II. A new and more aristocratic constitution wa8 adopted, and a new ministry formed under general Narvaez, the great opponent of Espartero. Since that time, Spain has enjoyed an unusual degree of tranquillity — only broken by an occasional quarrel of the factions that continue to exist, the intrigues of the minister, or the childish squabbles of Isabella and her royal consort. Portugal. _ Soon after arriving in his kingdom from his long exile in Brazil, the Portuguese monarch swore to maintain the new constitution. By this were secured freedom of person and of property, the liberty of the press, legal equality, the abolition of privileges, the admission of all citizens to any office, and national sovereignty. Several attempts at insur- rection Avere suppressed, and in 1823, the different depart- ments of government were re-organized. In the mean time, Brazil had separated from the parent country; and the queen and several of the nobility formed a plot to over- throw the government. Dom Miguel, with a party of nobles and officers, declared against the cortes, and general Sepulveda attempted to carry off the king. The army joined the malcontents, and the king was compelled to name a new ministry and to nullify the constitution of 1822. The king was then requested to resume absolute power, the promotion of which was declared to be the object of the counter-revolution. He refused, and propo- sals were made for drafting a new constitution, but they were opposed by the queen, assisted by French influence. The king still adhering to the system of moderation and liberalism, the queen resolved to annihilate it at a single blow. On the 30th of April, 1824, Dom Miguel put himself at the head of the army, and declared his intention to com- plete what he had begun before. On the same day, more than a hundred ministers and officers were arrested, and none allowed access to the king. The foreign ambassadors protested against this violence, but Dom Miguel declared that his object was to frustrate a conspiracy which aimed at the lives of the king and queen. The king ordered the troops to retire, and the release of the imprisoned persons. But the infant issued orders on his own authority, and the king was kept in a condition little better than imprison, oient. The foreign ambassadors interfering, John, with his two daughters, and the diplomatic corps, was secretly con- 560 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. veyed on board an English ship, where he summoned the infant to his presence. The prince obeyed, confessed that he had been deceived, and was pardoned. Soon after, the king returned ashore and resumed his liberal policy ; but his designs were baffled by Spanish intrigue, which revived the opposition of the queen and the bigoted patriarch of Lisbon. Conspiracies were detected^ and several changes of ministers occurred. On the 13th of November, 1825, the independence of Brazil was acknowledged^ and four months after, the king died. In April, 1826, a new constitution was granted, by which the cortes was divided into two chambers. In May, Dom Pedro offered the throne to his daughter, Donna Maria, on condition of her marrying her uncle Miguel. But, by the assistance of Spain, a party had already been formed to overthrow the new constitution and proclaim Dom Miguel king. Aramante and the mai'quis- of Abrantes headed the insurgents, while a Spanish arnay assembled on the frontier. An appeal being made to England, 15,000 British troops were landed at Lisbon, and in a short time the in- surrection waa suppressed. Next year, Dom Miguel was appointed regent. His arrival from Vienna in 1828 occa- sioned another insurrection, the object of which was to place him on the throne. At the same time^ the officers of the garrisons favorable to the liberal policy were removed, and an arrangement made for sending Dom Miguel to Villa Vicosa, where he might be proclaimed king while protected by Aramante's troops. This scheme was frustrated by the energy of Mr. I^imb, the British minister. The order for the departure of the English troops was counteracted, and prevented the payment of the loan made to Dom Miguel under the guarantee of the British government. Subse- quently, when the troops were withdrawn, the prince svic- ceeded in crushing the constitutional party. Miguel directed all his efforts towards consolidating his own power, and the only means he employed was cruelty. The prisons were filled with his late opponents, and the roads were crowded with fugitives, flying from home and their country. The cortes declared him lawful king of Portugal. In 1830, the number of prisoners confined for political causes had svrelled to 40,000, and the other countries of Europe were filled with Portugueae refugees. By his arbi- trary acts, the king drew upon him the opposition of Great Britain, which sent a fleet to the Tagus in 1831, which forced from him some humiliating concessions. Two months after a S'rench fleet appeared in that river, and demanded Thomas Jefferson. 661 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 563 redress for injuries committed by the Portuguese on French subjects. All the demands of the French were submitted to. Soon after an insurrection occurred, which was only suppressed with bloodshed. Meanwhile, Dom Pedro was preparing an expedition whose object was the expulsion of his brother and the promotion of his own daughter, Donna Maria da Gloria, to the throne. On the 8th of July, 1832, Dom Pedro landed at Oporto, and seizing that city, maintained it against the efforts of the opposite faction. In July, 1833, the fleet of Dom Miguel was totally defeated off Cape St. Vincent by Sir Charles Napier, and in the same month his army was routed by the count da Villaflor. Lisbon was speedily reduced, and Dom Pedro assumed the government in the name of his daughter. The Miguel faction was still in arms, and its forces led by general Bourmont, a Frenchman. This leader made a des- perate attempt to carry the city of Oporto, but being repulsed, his forces retired to two strong fortresses, where they would have protracted the war, but for the union of a Spanish army with the queen's troops. On the 26th of May, 1834, Dom Miguel signed a capitulation, by virtue of which he abandoned Portugal. The cortes re-established the constitution of 1826, and gave their sanction to his holding the regency. When order was in some degree restored, Dom Pedro suddenly died. His death gave rise to dissensions between the queen and her faithful ministers, in consequence of which marshal Saldanha, a democratic leader, became prime minister. The object of this appoint- ment was to gain favor with the masses; but it failed. Saldanha lost his former influence, and factions became more violent than ever. In March, 1835, the queen's hus- band died. In April, 1836, she married duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Cohary, who was disliked both by the cortes and the people, and new troubles were the consequence. Five months after the second marriage of the queen, an insurrection occurred, which was joined in by the troops, and the queen was compelled to dismiss her ministers. The constitution of 1822 was again proclaimed. Lisbon was ruled by the national guard and the clubs, which sup- pressed all counter-revolutionary efforts. The new constitu tion was constructed principally upon democratic principles. Difficulties occurred with England and Spain, which occa- sioned the dissolution of the cortes, and the organization of another, which speedily came to terms with the British government. In 1841, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the pope acknowledged the title of Donna Maria, which con 564 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. tributed to give stability to her throne. Early in 1842, the friends of the late Dom Pedro, aided by the troops at Lisbon, effected an overthrow of ministers, and restored the guardians of the queen, vrho had been appointed by the late regent. These were the duke of Ferceira and Costa Cabral. Under their management, a new treaty was concluded with Eng- land, the public expenditure lessened, additional taxes imposed, and the number of the cortes lessened. Some of these measures being found oppressive, the people strove to prevent their execution by plots and insurrections. The most formidable of these occurred at Torres Novas, in February, 1844. The insurgents, mostly of the army, seized the fortress of Almeida. This was besieged by the government troops, and captured after an obstinate resist- ance. Civil war continued to distract Portugal, and her government is still in the hands of rulers who evince a total ■ incapacity for the duties of their stations. Italy. Italy enjoyed a degree of prosperity under Napoleon un- known to her for ages; but with the old state of things, returned misery and anarchy. According to the regula- tions of the congress of Vienna, the king of Sardinia was reinstated, and received, as additional territory, the duchy of Geneva. The new Lombardo- Venetian kingdom was given to Austria; the Po was constituted the boundary between Parma and the Popedom; Ferdinand of Austria became grand-duke ©f Tuscany; Ferdinand IV. was recog- nised as king of the Two Sicilies, and the minor states were principally given to Austria. Thus Italy was little more than a province of that empire. But the desire of liberty led to the formation of various clubs and secret political societies, of which the principal were the famous Carbonari. Their object was the deliverance of Italy from foreign rule, and the establishment of a democratic government for the whole peninsula. The leaders of these institutions were men of talents, influential with the people, and controlling, in a great degree, the popular press. From the year 1820 till the expulsion of the pope in 1848, these men devoted their whole efforts to the accomplishment of their object; their exertions producing serious riots in Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont. In the month of March, 1820, more than 600,000 mem- bers were added to the Carbonari. In the next year, they nttempted to revolutionize Naples and Piedmont, but were «!.uppres8ed by an Austrian army. At the congress of Lay- 505 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 5G7 back and Verona, the sovereigns of Europe resolved upon an armed intervention to quell the revolutionary spirit. Yet, in 1825, a conspiracy was detected at Rome, having for its object the overthrow of Austrian rule and the esta- blishment of a consolidated government. Soon afterw ards, all secret societies were prohibited, tribunals supported by columns of troops were appointed to punish the authors of revolutions, and proscriptions, banishments, and executions followed. The press, schools, and universities were closely watched, and the education of youth confided to the Jesuits. These measures, however, did not prevent occasional out- breaks. Meanwhile, some changes had taken place in the Papal States. In 1823, pope Pius VII. died. He was succeeded by cardinal Annibal della Genga, under the title of Leo XII. He died in 1829, and was succeeded by cardinal Castiglione, who died in 1830. In the next year, Gregory XVI. became pope. The French revolution of 1830 revived the spirit of in- surrection in Italy. The Austrian government took prompt and vigorous measures to crush any outbreaks in the Lom- baAlo-Venetian kingdom, and the other parts of Italy were ea,sily approached by the troops in that quarter. The out- breaks at Bologna and Modena were speedily quelled, and were followed by a period of external tranquillity. When Ferdinand I. ascended the throne of Austria, he liberated the imprisoned Italians, and granted an amnesty for politi- cal offences ; but the country continued in a disturbed con- dition until the death of Gregory XVI., in 1846. He was succeeded by Pius IX., whose accession was the signal for the movement of many of the elements which produced the stormy events of 1848. Germany and Prussia. In 1815, the Germanic League was formed of the states composing the old German empire. The principal objects of this confederacy were the independence of the constituent states ; prevention of hostilities between one state and another; the security of each state from civil war; the es- tablishment of representative constitutions ; legal equality of religious sects; the exercise of a common civil law, by which the citizens of one state may enjoy civil and religious privileges in another. These states were too loosely held together, either to be formidable in war or tranquil in peace. From 1816 to the present time, Germany has bcea 568 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. Buffering from internal distractions, and, with respect to the control of Europe, politically dead. The political history of Germany, apart from its most powerful states, Austria and Prussia, has been of little importance since 1820. Some commotion was caused in the states by the French revolution of 1830, but it subsided when it was ascertained that the policy of Louis Philippe was favorable to peace. In 1831, the diet prohibited all interference of the subjects with the affairs of the govern- ment, either by petition or otherwise. A censorship of the press was also recommended. In 1834, authors of liberal pamphlets were forbidden to publish their productions. In 1840, the people united with the government in preparing for a war with France, in consequence of the hostile attitude assumed by that country concerning the eastern question ; but the storm passed away, and Germany fell back to her former inefficiency.! In 1840, the preaching of John Runge, a Catholic priest, against an exhibition of the so-called Holy Coat at Treves, excited a commotion throughout Germany, and resulted in the secession of large numbers from the Catholic communion, and their subsequent formation of a new religious body, called the German Catholic church. |[ The Netherlands. The union of the states composing the Netherlands did not produce tranquillity. The bitterness of feeling engen- dered by religious differences and the remembrance of the old national hatred produced, on the one part, stringent measures of government against the French Catholic mis- sionaries who had been the cause of much disturbance; and, on the other, an excommunication from the pope against some distinguished ecclesiastics who had sworn allegiance to the king. Amid insurrections and disturb- ances of various kinds, the government found time to esta- blish pauper colonies for the relief of the poor, to build canals, and organize agricultural societies. Troubles oc- curred with the natives of the East Indies, but all were settled advantageously for the Netherlands. Trade revived, and a joint-stock company, for the promotion of various branches of industry, was founded by the king. The Nether- lands rendered great aid to Great Britain in suppressing the slave trade. By a treaty with that power, in 1824, the Netherlands received full possession of the English portion of Sumatra in exchange for the Dutch territories on th© main land of India. In 1829, religious and political animosities became so CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 569 violent, that government resolved to change its polic;^ from concession to firm resistance. The Belgian petitions for redress were thrown aside, and laws passed against the liberty of the press. Some editors were arrested and tried for treason; and being found guilty, were banished. Amid the uproar caused by these proceedings, news of the French revolution arrived. All Brussels took arms instantly. The troops fired on the mob, but they were driven back and the people took possession of the arsenal. On the 27th of August, the royal arms were torn down, and the people chose new municipal officers. The revolution spread through southern Netherlands, and an address was presented to the king, asking for a complete change in the administration. The king refused, and sent an army towards Brussels, under command of his sons, prince Frederick, and the prince of Orange. The latter entered Brussels with his troops, and after consultation with the deputations from the city and from Liege, became satisfied of the necessity of a separation of Holland and Belgium. He laid the matter before the king, and he declared his determination to refer all to the states-general. The people again took to arms; so that when the states-general met in September, they had to choose between anarchy and separation. On the 29th of September, they declared, by a large majority, the legisla- tive and administrative separation of Holland and Belgium. When the news of this declaration reached Brussels, another outbreak ensued, which resulted in the triumph of the people and the choice of popular officers. The burghers, appealing for aid to the king, prince Frederick, after issuing a proclamation, advanced upon the city. Every preparation was made for resistance by the insurgents, headed by the political clubs and factious Frenchmen. The battle began on the 23d. The people fought behind their barricades, and boiling oil, rockets, stones, and every variety of missile were used against the troops. Part of the city was reduced to ashes. Women armed themselves and fought behind the barricades ; and, after a four days' struggle, the prince was driven ofi", with the loss of 4000 men. After the victory of the people, the provisional government declared the provinces separated from Holland should form an independent state. Three parties immediately appeared ; one favorable to an alliance with France ; one desiring a regency under the prince of Orange; and another, headed by De Potter, a banished editor, anxious for a democracy, with the Catholic religion as the religion of the state. The country was in a state of 48 570 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IIL anarchy, brutal violence and rapine being paramount every- where. Some Belgian troops irritated the commandant of the citadel of Antwerp, lieutenant-general Chasse, and he bombarded the city for seven hours, with the most destruc- ti^'e effect. On the 3d of February, 1831, the new congress elected the duke of Nemours, son of Louis Philippe, king of Bel- gium; but the French monarch declined the crown for his son. A regency was appointed, and the government went into operation. At length prince Leopold was elected king, and war with Holland ensued, which, but for the interfe- rence of France, would have ended in the total conquest of Belgium. In 1832, the leading powers of Europe acknow- ledged the independence of Belgivim, and recommended to the king of Holland a suspension of hostilities. But Hol- land being dissatisfied, both countries prepared for war. France and England agreed in convention, that Belgium should surrender Venloo, and Holland Antwerp, by the 2d of November; and that if Holland refused to comply, England should blockade her ports while a French army marched against Antwerp. Both events occurred. M?a"shal Gerard, with a French army, gained possession of Antwerp at the close of the year 1832, after which hostilities were suspended. But it was not till 1839, that, through the mediation of the five great powers, Holland acknowledged the Belgic nationality. King William abdicated the throne of Holland the next year in favor of his son, William II. Austria. The influence of Austria over the other countries of Europe has been increasing since the congress of Aix-la- Chapelle. Her domestic policy is cruel and despotic. In 1819, a censorship of all literary institutions was established, with a law intended to suppress liberal opinions, liberal writings, and secret societies. In the same year, a congress at Vienna adopted' a constitution, which was subsequently acknowledged as law by the whole Germanic body. Austria possessed the strongest influence in the congresses of Trap- pau, Laybach, and Verona, which decided the political affairs of Italy, Spain, and Greece. In all these, the principles of legitimacy and armed interference with the small states were established as rules of conduct by the Holy Alliance. Austria was opposed to the recognition of Greek indepen- dence, and bore a full share in exciting the troubles in Portugal and Spain. She acted as mediator between Russia and Turkey, in the war between those powers. In th€» 671 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 573 mean time, every means were adopted to banish liberal opinions. The subjects were forbidden to speak of the government, even in praise. Learning and education were discouraged. In 1820, while the emperor Francis was at Laybach, he said he wanted no learned men, but good, loyal subjects. The military force successfully resisted all the attempts at revolt consequent upon the French revolution of 1830. On the 2d of March, 1835, Francis II. died, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I. No change followed in the Aus- trian policy. In November, 1846, Austria united with Russia and Prussia in annihilating the nationality of Cra- cow, the last relic of the old Polish kingdom. The territory around Cracow was annexed to Austria. This event, which produced a great sensation in Europe, increased the discon- tent and spirit of insurrection which had long existed in the central provinces, particularly Hungary and Bohemia. When Pius IX. ascended the papal chair, he was suspected of favoring liberal opinions ; and Ferdinand poured his best troops, by large detachments, into Italy. In the summer of 1847, an Austrian army seized Ferrara. Another army appeared on the borders of Sardinia, and all the northern provinces were in like manner watched and occupied. The plot to avssassinate the pope was believed to be the result of Austrian intrigue. The commotions in Vienna continu- ing, the designs of Austria upon Italy were in a great degree checked. Eussia. The subsiding of the violent commotions which attended the destruction of the power of Napoleon found Russia a power of the greatest influence. After the peace of Vienna, Alexander directed his attention to the development of the resources of his country with energy and success. His military power was a source of terror to the neighboring nations, and his domestic affairs were directed in such a manner as to re-organize the various branches of govern- ment and society. He died December 1st, 1825, and was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. As the elder brother, Con stan tine Csesarowitsch, renounced his right to the throne, a revolt occurred in the army, during which a conspiracy of the old Russian nobility, which had existed for years, was detected. The disturbance was suppressed and several of the conspirators executed. The next year, a war began with Persia, concerning the Persian succession. Russia prosecuted it with vigor, and by treaty, in 1827, gained a 674 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART TIL large accession of territory and the payment of all expenses In 1828, war was declared against Turkey, caused by the relations of Russia with the Greeks. An army of 115,000 men, entering Turkey, took possession of the Upper Danube. The mountain fortresses of Choumla and Varna, where the flower of the sultan's army was concentrated, were attacked, and Choumla taken, after a two months' siege ; but an early winter and the prevalence of disease exposed the Russians to great losses. Another division of troops marched through Caucasus into Asiatic Turkey, seized several strongholds, and destroyed a flotilla on the Black Sea. When winter had terminated the campaign, various attempts to settle the difficulty were made by the European powers, but to no effect. In the middle of winter hostilities recommenced. In Europe, the Turks lost several fortresses and a portion of their fleet. In Asia the contest was more serious. A great deal of hard fighting took place, but the Turks were every- where defeated. In August, 1829, the great city of Slivno was taken. A week later, Adrianople fell. On the 14th of September, a treaty of peace was signed, by which the boundaries of Turkey were adjusted, and an indemnity made to Russia for all expenses. This war was soon followed by the revolution in Poland, which crushed the hope of freedom in that country. Since the peace of Adrianople, Russia has taken advantage of every opportunity to extend her influence over Turkey. She has made repeated attacks upon Persia. The war waged with the brave mountaineers of Caucasus has been a series of defeats and humiliations to Russia for many years. In the mean time, the emperor Nicholas has displayed great zeal for internal improvements and the cause of education in his dominions. SiDeden. The union of Sweden and Norway is a mere political relation — the habits, feelings, and interests of the people of the two countries being rather antagonistical. Swedish society presents the predominating feature of aristocracy ; Norwegian, that of democracy. Charles XIV. appeared to be peculiarly fitted for the reconciliation of difi"erence8, which, under a less enlightened and more bigoted monarch, would have produced serious results. He possessed the confidence of the army and a majority of the nation; and he pursued a policy marked with moderation and wisdom. In 1823, some conspiracies for restoring to the throne the exiled house of Wasa were detected, and their design frus- General Scott. 575 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUTS PHILIPPE. 577 trated by the vigilance of the p^iblic officers. Their repeti- tion was prevented by an amicable arrangement with the crown. The judicial power was separated from the execu- tive, and various reforms were made with regard to com- merce, agriculture, and the administration of justice. Treaties were entered into with Great Britain and tlie United States, which served to strengthen the government. In 1824, the king of Norway endeavored to prevail upon the storthing, or congress of the nation, to give him an abso- lute veto and the appointment of the president of the stor- thing, to create a hereditary nobility, and other acts. The proposals were unanimously rejected, although the king was personally popular. The tumults of 1830 did not dis- turb the tranquillity of the Scandinavian empire. Internal improvements of various kinds then occupied the attention of government, and several important canals were con- structed. In 1834, the proceedings of the national diet were opened to the public. In 1840, a law was passed, by which the diet meets every three years, instead of every five, Charles XIV, died on the 8th of March, 1844, aged 80 years, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I. Latterly the history of Sweden presents nothing of importance, save the government's protestation against the incorporation of the territory around Cracow with the dominions of Austria, Turkey, In 1817, Mahmoud VI. seized Moldavia and "Wallachia, which had partly been ceded to Russia by the treaty of 1812, under pretence that Russia favored the rebellion of the Greeks, The moderation of the emperor Alexander, joined with the mediation of Austria and England, served to prevent an outbreak immediately. When the emperor Nicholas succeeded Alexander, he demanded and obtained satisfaction. In 1826, the measures pursued by the sultan in exterminating the janizaries caused an insurrection in Constantinople, during which 6000 houses were burned. Military despotism being established, Mahmoud conducted himself with equal ferocity against his own subjects and the rebel Greeks. At the same period he re-organized his army after the European form, and, among other improve- ments, adopted the European dress. But these reforms rendered him so unpopular with the people that he was obliged to suspend them. The war with Russia began in 1828, and at the close, by the treaty of Adrianople, Turkey surrendered Moldavia and Wallachia, acknowledged the 49 578 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PART TTL independence of Greece, and lost a district of Asiatic Turkey. Mahmoiid then resumed his projects of civil and military reform ; but they caused insurrections which required two ye:i.rs to suppress. Then followed the war with Mehemet All, pasha of Egypt. That officer had refused to pay tribute^ in virtue of the assistance he had given the sultan dviring the Turkish war ; and when irritated by the high* tone of the Turkish court, he sent his son, Ibrahim pasha, with an army into Syria. Ibrahim reduced Acre, routed 25,000 Turks, and then advanced against their main body. In December, 1832, the army of the sultan was totally defeated at Konieh ; and though Russia assisted Turkey by a squadron and a military force, Mahmoud was compelled to surrender Syria to the pasha. In 1839, hostilities were renewed, and in June the Turks were routed at Nezib, near Aleppo, Mahmoud died before the news reached him. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Abdul Medgid, a youth of sixteen. Two weeks after, the Turkish fleet, under the capudan pasha, went over to the enemy. On the 15th of July, 1840, the war terminated. By a treaty concluded at London, between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Aus- tria, Syria was restored to Turkey, and Mehemet Ali obliged to content himself with Eg^^pt. After the settlement of this difficulty, the sultan directed his attention to the introduction of European customs ; but his designs were everywhere opposed, and the people were excited to hatred and the more active to sedition. For five years, some of the provinces were in revolt; and the utmost exertions of the sultan to restore order and re-organize the social and political systems only produced mortifying re- sults. In 1846, war occurred with Greece, and it was con- ducted with all the barbarity and devastation usual with the Turks and the Greeks. Greece. The revolution by which the Greeks threw off the Turkish yoke was the first great event in that country after the congress of Vienna. The first attempt at rebellion was made in 1821 ; but not- receiving the expected aid from "•Russia, the Greeks were suppressed. Then the patriots ind their wives and children were treated w\\h the greatest iegree of cruelty. Soon after, the inhabitants of the Morea evolted, and some skirmishes ensued, followed by massacre \nd devastation. In Cyprus, where no insurrection had ..aken place, the Turks murdered most of the inhabitants 679 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 581 and burned sixty-two villages. Like outrages were com- mitted at Rhodes, Pergamos, and Smyrna. The Greek fleet blockaded all the ports of the Mgesm Sea. A Greek force took Tripolissa by storm, and massacred 8000 Turks. The Turks desolated the peninsula of Cassandra and slaughtered 3000 persons. In January, 1822, deputies from various parts of Greece formed themselves into a provisional government and pro- claimed a constitution. A Turkish fleet and army appeared before Scio, and after wasting the island and massacring thousands, sold 41,000 of the people as slaves. Forty Greeks, devoting themselves to death, fired a part of the Turkish fleet, and more than 2000 men perished. In Cara- Veria, 5000 Christian families were slaughtered. Skirmish- ing of a severe character was carried on in the Morea, until August, 1823, when the Greeks united their forces and routed 20,000 Turks, with great slaughter, near Napoli. Numbers of the Turkish vessels were destroyed by tempests and the Greek fire. The sultan resolved on a war of ex- termination. He sent a second army into Greece; but part of it was defeated at Thermopylae, by the Greek Ulyssus, and soon after another detachment was routed at Cheronea by the same leader. On the 20 th of August, Marco Boz- zaris defeated 20,000 Turks at Agrapha, in a night attack. The victory cost the Greeks the death of Bozzaris. The Turks attacked Ipsara; but after an obstinate and bloody contest, they were driven ofi". On the main land, the Greeks were equally successful. The third siege of Missolonghi, which l&,sted from April till October of the year 1825, terminated in the defeat of the Turks, with the loss of 9000 men, A fourth attack was attended with the same result. But it was taken finally, in 1826. The sufiierings of the Greeks on this occasion awakened the sympathy of Europe. The three great powers united in their favor, and societies were everywhere formed for their relief. In the mean time, the Egyptian allies of the sultan overran the Morea, and the Greeks were reduced to extremity. The sultan rejecting the mediation of the three great powers, the Turkish and Egyptian fleet of one hundred and ten vessels was annihilated, in the bay of Navarino, by an English, French, and Russian fleet. In 1828, a body of French troops entered Greece, and, through the influence of France and England, the Egyptian pasha withdrew his troops from the Morea. In the next year, the sultan signed the articles submitted to him by the three great powers, acknowledging the independence of Greece, 49* 582 HISTORY OF TTIK WOP^LD. PAKT IH. Some skirmishing occurred after this, but the independence of Greece was secured by the treaty of Adrianople, in Sep- tember. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen by the allied powers to be the king of Greece. But he declined accept- ing it, and Otho of Bavaria became the king. The country was in a state of anarchy, which continued until 1843, when the king was compelled to call a national assembly for the purpose of forming a new constitution. This con- Btitution, which is monarchical, was completed in 1844. The intrigues of European powers and the quarrels of factions have prevented the realization of the hopes the friends of Greece conceived in 1829. The United States of America. James Monroe, the fifth president of the United States, was inaugurated March 4th, 1821. In 1824, a treaty was concluded with Russia, by which that power abandoned that part of Oregon south of 54° 40^. In the same year, a treaty was concluded with England, for the suppression of the slave trade. In 1825, Lafayette visited the land whose independence he had helped to establish, and was every- where received with demonstrations of respect and grati- tude. The sixth president of the Union was John Quincy Adams, under whose administration several treaties were concluded with the Indian tribes, by which portions of Georgia, Arkansas, and Missouri were ceded to the United States. Other treaties were concluded with the republic of Colombia, Denmark, and Central America. On the 4th of July, 1826, two ex-presidents, Jefferson and Adams, died. In 1828, the passage of a new tariff bill caused violent com- motions in the Southern States ; and in the same year, general Andrew Jackson was elected president by a large majority. The tariff question continued to be agitated, and during the sessions of congress from 1829 till 1832, it formed the principal subject. In 1832, a new bill was passed, lowering the rate of duties considerably. But the South were dissatisfied, and demanded its repeal. A convention was held in South Carolina, which declared both tarifi" acts null and void, and declared, that if the national government endeavored to enforce them, the Union would be dissolved. The advocates of these measures were called Nullifiers. The president issued a proclamation, declaring his intention to maintain the integrity of the Union. Civil war seemed in- evitable, when Henry Clay proposed his Compromise Act, which. met with the support of the Southern members. John QuiQcj Adams. 583 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 585 This danger was scarcely averted, when a new source of contention arose from the president's vetoing a bill for the re-charter of the United States Bank. This virtually abo- lished the institution, which produced derangement and distress throughout the mercantile world. The large cities were opposed to the measures of the president; and petitions from the great trading and moneyed interests, praying for a restoration of the charter of the bank, poured into con- gress. The president maintained his opposition to the Lank, and wound up its concerns. The warlike attitude of the president towards France was modified by the opposi- tion of congress, and the difficulty was adjusted, through the mediation of Great Britain. An outrage of some whites, in Florida, caused the Seminole war — a protracted and un- satisfactory contest. The al)olition of the national bank caused the chartering of a vast number of state banks, which produced a great deal of wild speculation and a paper currency of enormous amount. Amid social and political troubles, general Js kson's second term of office expired. The next president, Alartin Van Buren, was a strenuous advocate of the Jacksoi policy. The Seminole. war continued, attended with all the (lorrors of Indian warfare. The everglades of Florida afibi led the Indians a secure refuge. Another Indian war, wit a Black Hawk and his followers, in the west, was ended in 1832, by the capture of that chief. In the same year, the cholera visited the country. The government acknowledged the independence of Texas, and a number of volunteer.) joined the Texan troops opposed to the army of Mexico. At the battle of San Jacinto, the Mexicans were defeated a; d Santa Anna, the Mexican president, was captured and c( nducted to Washington, where he signed a treaty acknovledging Texan independence. The year of president Van Buren's inauguration saw the bursting of the storm which i ^ad been pending over every department of industry since the aboli- tion of the national bank. Almost all the banks in the country either broke or suspended specie payments. Busi- ness of every kind was brought to a stand, and mechanics and laborers were reduced to extreme distress. The Florida war was continued, and Osceola, the most prominent Semi- nole leader, captured. Petitions for the convening of an extra session of congress were laid before the president, but were disregarded. At the regular session, in December, little was done with the object of relieving the general distress, the attention of congress being directed to aflFairs on the Cauada border 586 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI. Canada had revolted, and parties of Americans crossed the boundary to assist the insurgents. A special message waa issued by the president, forbidding the citizens to cross the boundary with the object of assisting the Canadians, and general Scott, with some New York troops, was ordered to the border. On the night of the 28th of December, a party of British militia burned the steamboat Caroline, and sent it over Niagara. An angry correspondence with the British minister was the consequence of this affair, but nothing serious occurred. In 1838 the banks resumed specie pay- ments. Another difficulty occurred with Great Britain, on the Maine boundary question, during which war was anti- cipated by both countries. In 1839, the banks again suspended. Next year, general Harrison was elected to the presidency by a large majority. A complete change of policy was the consequence. A spe- cial session of congress was called to meet in May, and it was expected the cardinal principles of the Whig party would be carried out. General Harrison died in one month after his inauguration, and was succeeded by vice-president Tyler. In May, congress met. Its first great measure, the bill for the establishment of the United States Bank, was vetoed by president Tyler. A second bill met the same treatment, and the consequence was, the resignation of the cabinet, with the exception of Mr. Webster. A new tariff bill was passed, and its effect was soon seen in the revival of trade and business. In 1842, the Maine boundary ques- tion was settled by Mr. Webster and lord Ashburton. In 1844, James K. Polk was elected to the presidency by the Democratic party. Next year, Florida and Iowa were admitted into the Union, and the treaty by which Texas was annexed became a law. In 1846, a treaty was con- cluded with Great Britain, by which the parallel of 49° was recognised as the boundary of the territory of Oregon. Congress passed bills reducing the tariff, establishing the warehouse system, and the sub-treasury. In the mean time, Mexico protested against the annexation of Texas, and her minister declared it a cause of war. The president ordered colonel Taylor into Texas, with a corps of observation. In March, 1846, orders were given him to take a position on bhe Rio Grande, the disputed boundary line between Mexico md Texas. Colonel Taylor built Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras, against which the Mexicans protested. The VIexican army finally crossed the Rio Grande, and attacked he small American force, on the road leading from Fort 5rown.. They were defeated in the two battles of the 8th 587 CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 589 and 9th of May, and driven across the river, with much slaughter. At the same time, Fort Brown was bombarded, but made a successful resistance. Matamoras was taken on the 18th, and then war was declared against Mexico by the United States. Colonel Taylor was raised to the rank of major-general, and received a large reinforcement of troops. During the summer, Mier, Reynoso, and Camarge were taken, and on the 19th of September, the American army, numbering 7000 strong, appeared before Monterey. This strong fortress and city was defended by 12,000 men, under general Ampudia. After a four days' battle, the city capitulated. Saltillo, Parras, and Victoria were next taken, and on the 22d of February, general Taylor, with about 5000 men, encamped at the strong mountain pass of Angos- tura, near Buena Vista. Here he was 'attacked by general Santa Anna, with 20,000 men. The battle began early on the 23d. The Americans relied principally on their artillery, which did great execution among the Mexican cavalry. The nature of the ground prevented the cavalry from acting pro- perly. The battle was obstinately contested, and at night both armies occupied the same ground they did when the battle began. During the night, Santa Anna retreated, his army being in a starving condition. His loss was 2000 men ; general Taylor's, about 700. From want of military stores, general Taylor retired to Monterey, where he re- mained till the close of the war. In the mean time, general Kearny, and colonels Fremont, Price, and Doniphan conducted expeditions against Ncav Mexico and California. Several battles were fought, and the principal towns fell into the hands of the American troops. Colonel Doniphan's march through the enemy's country, with but 900 men, displayed great military resolu- tion and perseverance. During the march, he encountered and defeated 4000 men, on the banks of the Sacramento, (February 28th, 1847.) In March, 1847, general Scott, commander-in-chief of the American army, landed near Vera Cruz, with 11,000 men. Batteries were opened upon the city of Vera Cruz and the castle of St. Juan de Ulloa, and, on the 27th of March, both surrendered. Soon after, Alvarado and Zacotalpam were captured. Early in the next month, general Scott marched ^or the Mexican capital. On the 17th he reached the moun- tain pass of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna was posted, with 11,000 men. Next day, the Americans, numbering 7000, stormed the works and routed the Mexicans. They pressed forward, and Jalapa, Perote, and Puebla were cap 50 590 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART HI. tured without resistance. Six thousand prisoners and a great quantity of military stores were taken. On the 18th of August, the Americans reached San Augustin, near the city of Mexico. On the 19th and 20th, Contreras, San An- tonia, and Churubusco were taken — the latter after an ob stinate struggle. In these battles, 15,000 Mexicans were posted in almost impregnable positions, while the attacking force numbered altogether but 7000 men. An armistice was concluded, which lasted till the 6th of September. On the 8th, general Worth stormed the works of Molino del Rey, and carried them, but with a heavy loss. On the 12th, the batteries opened upon Chapultepec, one of the strongest fortresses in Mexico. Next day, it was carried by storm. At the same time the assault on the city commenced. Gene- ral Twiggs bombarded the southern walls, general Worth swept the works on the San Cosme road, and general Quitman those on the Tacubaya. Night found both columns in the city, and before morning Santa Anna, with his remnant of an army, fled. On the 14th, the Americans entered Mexico in triumph. This, however, did not close the war. On the 25th of September, Santa Anna appeared before Puebla, and bombarded it until the Ist of October, when he retreated. On the 9th, general Lane won the battle of Huamantla, and soon after captured Atlixco. These were the last important events of the war. Mexico and Central America. From the year 1813 till 1821, various Mexican chiefs struggled for the independence of their country. In the last mentioned year, Iturbide and other chiefs united against the Spanish army. Next year, Iturbide assumed the title of emperor Augustin I. After a reign of ten months, he was driven from the country, and a federal republic esta- blished. Vittoria became president, but party spirit pre- vented the restoration of peace. In 1828, the two factions came to open war, each advocating the claims of a candidate to the presidency, and in the end appealing to the sword. Spain attempted to regain her authority, but was frustrated by general Santa Anna. A civil war followed, during which Guerrero was deposed and general Bustamente elected vice- president by the army. Under his rule, order was, in some measure, restored, and business revived. In 1831, president Pedrazza returned from France. Bustamente ordered him to leave the country. Santa Anna revolted in Vera Cruz, and another revolt occurred at Tampico. Santa Anna be- tame president in 1833. In the next year, congress abo- CHAP. IX. RESTORATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 591 lished convents and abrogated the authority of the pope. This caused insurrections so serious that congress adjourned, and the power of Santa Anna increased. Several of tht states declared themselves independent, but, with the ex- ception of Texas, they were soon reduced. The army under Santa Anna was routed at San Jacinto, in April, 1836, and the independence of Texas was virtually secured. General Bustamente regained power, and by his miserable policy, involved the country in a war with France. In November, 1838, a French squadron reduced St. Juan de Ulloa. Santa Anna displayed some energy in defending Yera Cruz ; but through the mediation of the British minister, the dispute was soon settled. At the expiration of Bustamente's term, he was succeeded by Santa Anna. Since that time, with the exception of the period of the war with the United States, civil broils have occupied the history of Mexico. Central America, once Guatemala, declared itself inde- pendent of Spain in 1821. It was united to Mexico, under Iturbide, but when he fell, it became a separate government. On the 22d of November, 1824, the constituent congress completed the organization of the government, adopting a constitution similar to that of the United States, Arce was elected first president. The quarrels of factions, civil war, and social misery of every kind, marked the period of his administration. The people of St, Salvador marched against those of Guatemala, but were defeated by Arce, who per- petrated the greatest outrages. In 1829, general Morazon, of St. Salvador, captured the city of Guatemala, which se- cured his election to the presidency. He endeavored to restore order, and develope the domestic resources of the country. In 1838, an insurrection occurred, under Carrera, a half-Indian. To political animosities he added the hatred of one race to another. In 1842, Morazon v/as taken and shot; and since his death the country has been torn by civil dissensions. The war between the United States and Mexico produced no disturbance in Central America. It is thought that foreign industry will yet develope the resources of the country, and make it a great commercial mart. South America. The republic of Colombia comprises three provinces — Venezuela, Quito, and New Grenada. The first general congress met in March, 1821, and decided upon the adop- tion of a representative constitution. In June, the Spanish army was totally routed at Carabobo. Next year, Bolivar took Panama, and defeated Murgeon, at Curiaco. A month ,^92 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PAM* ^ii. afterwards, Sucre gained the battle of Pichincha, after which the Spanish authorities surrendered. In 1824, Boli- var marched to assist the patriots of Peru, and in his ab- sence, the government was administered by Santander. The country was rapidly advancing in prosperity, when the revolt of Paez occurred. That ofi&cer kept all the northern provinces in turmoil until the return of Bolivar, in 1827. In March, 1828, a convention for redressing grievances was summoned to meet at Ocana ; but it did nothing. Bolivar then assumed the supreme authority, abolished the constitution, and appointed a series of officers. The republican party were aroused, and attempts were raade to assassinate Bolivar, but they failed, and the con- spirators were executed. Bolivar endeavored to make him- self perpetual president of Peru, which brought on a war with that country. Through the influence of Paez, Yenu- zuela declared herself independent, an event which caused the resignation of Bolivar, after he had formally denied all intention of aiming at the kingly dignity. In the same year, Quito declared her independence, and the remainder of Colombia was formed into the republic of New Grenada. The three states soon after entered into friendly relations with each other, with regard to trade and national policy. But, like most of the states of South America, their later history is made up of petty quarrels, unworthy of a record. Peru declared itself independent in 1821. General San Martin was appointed dictator, and in 1822, a congress met at Lima. This body adopted a constitution, which, from its monarchical character, gave great dissatisfaction. In 1823, La Serna, the Spanish commander, defeated the re- publicans, but was prevented from improving his victory by dissensions in his army. Peru was then assisted by Colombia, which sent Bolivar and Sucre to their aid. The Peruvians were divided into/factions, and the weakness of the enemy alone saved the country. Bolivar became dic- tator. In December, 1824, Sucre gained the great battle of Ayacucho, which secured the independence of Peru. Bolivar tried to impose a monarchical constitution on the country, but his design was opposed, and he afterwards instigated the war against Colombia. Peace was concluded in 1829, after the Peruvians had experienced several defeats. Gamarra became president, but his intrigues with the presi- dent of Bolivia led to his overthrow, in 1836. Santa Cruz seized the government, but was compelled to abdicate, in consequence of a war with Chili. War was declared against Bolivia., and it continued until 1842, when, through tb* 50* 693 CHAP. IX. K RATION AND LOUIS PHILIPPE. 595 mediation of Chili, peace was restored. Since that time the country has been a prey to faction and domestic misrule. After the failure of the attempt of Bolivar to impose a constitution upon the people of Bolivia, that country re- mained in a very unsettled condition until 1829, when the elevation of Santa Cruz to the chief magistracy restored order. During two years, prosperity attended his policy; hut, thirsting for power, he involved the country in a war with Peru. He conquered that republic, and endeavored to unite it with Bolivia ; but the interference of Chili caused his overthrow. Since the last war with Peru, which termi- nated in 1842, the country has been very unsettled. Brazil remained a monarchy until 1820, when it obtained a constitution similar to the one adopted at that time in Portugal. The example of surrounding countries soon roused a republican spirit among the people. Serious riots broke out at Rio Janeiro. In May, 1822, the prince-regent assumed the title of perpetual defender of Brazil, and con- vened a national assembly to frame a constitution. This was pronounced null and void by the cortes of Portugal, and the prince-regent ordered home. The assembly then declared the separation of Brazil from Portugal, and Dom Pedro was named constitutional emperor, in October, 1822. The first acts of Dom Pedro were well calculated to aug- ment the difficulties he met Avith on his ascending the throne. The republicans were gaining ground. Dom Pedro forbade secret societies, and the suspected republicans were thrown into prison. In November, 1823, the assembly was driven from its hall by armed force. In 1824, a new constitution was framed, upon principles of hereditary and constitutional monarchy. The emperor and the assemljly mutually restricted each other's powers. The press was free, and other religions, besides the Catholic, were tole- rated. Pernambuco opposed this constitution, but was taken by assault, after an obstinate resistance. In Novem- ber, 1825, Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil, and the example was followed by other European powers. A short war with La Plata followed, concerning the Banda Orienta, and it resulted in the independence of that province. Disputes between the emperor and the assembly were frequent, and they increased to svich an ex- tent, that, in April, 1831, the emperor abdicated in favor of his son, Dom Pedro II., then only nine years oil. The prince maintained his authority until his death, within a few years, amid the quarrels of parties, which kopt society in a state of anarchy. 596 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART III. In 1819, the provinces of La Plata adopted a constitution modelled after that of the United States. The country, however, continued unsettled until May, 1822, when a con- gress met, and by a series of acts restored public tranquil- lity. Trade revived very fast, and the country seemed to "be free from faction. In 1822, the independence of La Plata was recognised by the United States, and Great Britain en- tered into a treaty with her in 1825. In December of 1825 war broke out with Brazil, which resulted in the formation of a new republic from the Banda Orienta. Civil war disr tracted and desolated the country in 1829, and it continued until 1835, when general Rosas was unanimously called to the presidency. He assumed dictatorial powers, and since that period, factious strife has only been suspended during hostility with other countries. The independence of Chili was secured in 1817 ; but the new government was not able to establish order. Three congresses assembled at different periods, for the purpose of framing a constitution, but they failed in accomplishing their object. The country was agitated by the disputes between the advocates of a central government and those who favored a federal constitution. In 1828, the constitu- tion was adopted, under the administration of general Pinto. Prieto, the successor of Pinto, restored order, and procured the passage of many useful laws. In 1837, Chili declared war against Peru, and successfully prosecuted it until 1839, when Santa Cruz was expelled from Peru. Chili is at pre- sent the most tranquil and prosperous of the South American btates. CHAP. X. TIMES OF THE CONTINENTAL REVOLUTIONS. France. Thb! approach of an outbreak among the people of Paris might, have been easily gathered from the movements of the democratic leaders. They instituted reform-banquets, a1 which the measures of government were freely discussed, and attempts made to excite a veneration for the men who had fallen martyrs to the popular cause, and an emulation of their actions. Feeling certain of their strength, and CHAP. X. THE CONTINENTAL REVOLUTIONS. 597 anxious to bring things to a crisis, the democrats appointed the 22d of February, 1848, for a monster banquet. This was forbidden by the ministry. The opposition deputies protested against the prohibition, and the ministry yielded, permitting the banquet to be held, under certain restrictions. Every measure was adopted by the government to prevent an outbreak. The troops in Paris were increased to 100,000. On the day appointed for the banquet, crowds collected in the principal streets, and the mob attempted to erect barri- cades. At the same time, Odillon Barrot'laid before the chambers a proposition for impeaching the ministers. The next day the excitement increased, and Guizot and his col- leagues resigned. A new ministry Avas formed under count Mole. The municipal guards joined the people, but by sunset, order was restored. During the night, the soldiers, after being pelted and fired upon by the people, fired upon them in turn. This was what the democrat leaders had been aiming to efi*ect. By parading and exhibiting the dead bodies, the people were excited to fury, and that fury was turned against the king. On the 24th, barricades were constructed, houses and public edifices stormed and demolished, and arms seized in every quarter. The troops joined the people in denouncing the king. The Tuileries was taken and plundered. Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the count of Paris, and fled to England. In the mean time, the duchess of Orleans, mother to the count of Paris, appeared in the chamber of deputies, but her title as regent and that of her son were disregarded. A number of deputies proclaimed a republic, and organized a provisional government. This consisted of Dupont de FEure, Lamartine, Arago, Ledru Rollin, and Garnier Pages. From the steps of the Hotel de Ville, the republic was announced to the people. It was received with enthusiasm by the majority, but there was still a strong minority opposed to it. The penalty of death for political oifences was abolished, every slave on French soil emancipated, and the qualifications for citizenship de- termined. By the 1st of March, order was, in a great measure, secured, and the- new government went into opera- tion. During the elections in April, the ^d Republicans were somewhat turbulent, but Lamartine criumphed. Ai executive committee of five members took the place of th provisional government. It consisted of Arago, Pages, Marie, Lamartine, and Rollin. Riots continued until the 15th of May, when 50,000 persons invaded the assembly and declared the government at an end. The army, how- 698 HISTORY OP THE WORLD. PAltr lit pver, remained true to the government, and the mob was dispersed. On the 23d of June, an insurrection occurred, instigated by clubs of workmen, discharged from the public workshops. It was the most terrible outbreak France had witnessed since the Reign of Terror. In a few hours, strong barri- cades were thrown up in and around. Paris, and 200,000 insurgents were in arms. General Cavaignac was appointed commander-in-chief of the French army, and after a four days' battle, he succeeded in driving the insurgents from their works and restoring peace. About 30,000 persons were killed, the loss of the military being very great. Many distinguished officers were among the killed. General Ca- vaignac was subsequently appointed president of the coun- cil, and his vigorous measures secured tranquillity. On the 12th of November, the constitution was proclaimed, and at the general election held the same month, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was chosen president by a large majority. Soon after the election, it was determined to send a French army into Italy, under general Oudinot, for the purpose of restor- ing the exiled pope to his dominions. This caused numerous riots in France, and at Lyons the municipal authorities were driven from the city, and a temporary Ked Republican government formed. About 1000 persons were killed or wounded before order was secured. A conspiracy was discovered about the same time, the object of which was the overthrow of the government and the establishment of a democratic and social republic. Towards the close of 1849, the ministry was dissolved by president Bonaparte, and the designs of the president to concentrate power in himself were very apparent. Great Britain. In 1848, the evils to which Ireland had long been a prey reached their climax. Famine and pestilence desolated the country, and brought about a state of things almost impa- ^^lleled in history. The principal cause of the misery of tlx people was the failure of the potato crops — ^that being theii staple article of food. Thousands died daily. The scarcity of provisions upon the continent prevented the arrival of any aid from that quarter. Government took means to alleviate the distress, and large quantities of provisions were sent from the United States. But the relief was only partial. In India, a war with the Sikhs was the conse- quence of disputes with the native chiefs, and the English experienced a humiliating defeat. But, in the end, the •« CHAP. X. THE CONTINENTAL REVOLUTIONS. 601 Sikhs were routed and the Punjaub territory annexed to British India. Great Britain entered her protest against the annexation of the Cracow republic to Austria. She in- terfered in the domestic affairs of Spain, endeavoring to restore order. Vigorous measures suppressed the repeal agitation in Ireland, the Chartifyt effort in England^ and the riots in Scotland. The war with China was quickly broughi to a close. The new republic of France was recognised ae Buch soon after its formatioa, though Louis Philippe wag received by the government with every mark of attention and condolence. Great Britain remonstrated against the atrocities committed by Austria upon the Hungarian and Polish patriots. She promptly supported the sultan of Turkey in his refusal to deliver the Hungarian refugees into the hands of Russia, and, united with France, undoubt- edly prevented a war between Russia and Turkey, Italy, In 1848, Pius IX. gave a new constitution to his people, and reformed many abuses. He also resisted the interfe- rence of Austria, Still the people of the Papal States were so oppressed, that in the latter part of that year, they rose in insurrection, drove the pope from the country, abolished the college of cardinals, and proclaimed a republic. A cod stitution was framed, and a provisional government esta- blished. While all were watching the result of the movement, the French army, under general Oudinot, landed at Civita Vecchia, and marched for Rome, On the 26th of April, the constituent assembly declared its permanence, and pro- tested against French interference. A triumvirate of dis tinguished republican leaders formed the executive of the government. The siege began on the 30th of April. The Romans, filled with the most heroic and determined spirit, were commanded by Garibaldi, Mazzini, and other distin- guished chiefs. The French were repulsed in three suc- cessive attacks. On the 13th of May, Oudinot attempted to cross into Rome by a bridge, but the bridge was blown up and the French repulsed. A blockade followed, which lasted until June, when the French, after hard fighting, obtained possession of several important points. A storm- ing of the city was tried on the 15th, but the French were compelled to retire. Towards the close of the month, the triumvirate opened negotiations with Oudinot. A capitula- tion was the consequence, and on the 3d of July, the French entered Rome. The republican leaders fled. A temporary gQvcrnment was established, the cardinals restored to power, 602 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART in. and the pope invited to return. Vigorous measures were adopted for the suppression of liberal opinions, and the In- quisition re-established. The pope has at length returned to his dominions, and a calm has succeeded the attempt of the masses to choose their own government. Germany and Prussia. The revolutionary spirit developed throughout Europe, in 1848, powerfully affected both Germany and Prussia. Every part of these countries was agitated by riots for some months after the revolution in France. The king of Bavaria was compelled to abdicate, and other rulers were driven from their dominions. An outbreak in Prussia forced the king to disband a large part of his army, to grant a new consti- tution, and to appear to take the lead in reforming abuses. The diet at Frankfort was the scene of .violent debates, con- cerning a union of all Central and Northern Germany. The imperial crown was offered to the king of Prussia, but he declined it. The country is still in a distracted state. Its division into petty states, destitute of national sympathy, prevents it from occupying the position among the European powers to which it is justly entitled. Belgium and Holland were affected by the revolutionary spirit, but the succeeding calm left both countries in the same condition as before the disturbance. Austria. Insurrections occurred in Vienna soon after the revolu- tion in France, and the people so far succeeded, that prince Metternich fled from the country, the emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his son Joseph, and a liberal constitu- tion was given to the people. In the mean time, the diet of Hungary adopted measures for securing to the people of that country their ancient privileges. In May, 1848, the pope having declared war against Austria, several skirmishes took place, in which the heroism of the Italians was credit- ably displayed. The dissensions in Hungary increased to civil war, so that the government was compelled to send a large army into the province. But the Hungarians, stimu- lated by the eloquence of Kossuth, and led by Bem, Dem- binski, and Georgey, displayed the greatest heroism and enthusiasm for their country's cause. The ablest Austrian • generals were everywhere defeated by them, and their cause seemed to be triumphant. But the emperor of Russia, anxious to crush the spirit of revolution and of liberty, sent an army of 120,000 men into Hungary, to assist the Aus- Kossuth. 603 CHAP. X. THE CONTINENTAL REVOLUTIONS. 605 trians. The Hungarians struggled against such odds with considerable success, until the latter part of 1849, when general Georgey surrendered a force of 30,000 men to thG Austro-Russian army. This opened to the latter the key of the Hungarian position, and produced a disastrous ter- mination to the insurrection. The Hungarian army was disbanded, its leaders escaped, and the country was again brought under Austrian authority. Kossuth and his fellow chieftains fled to Turkey. The emperor of Russia demanded their surrender, but the sultan refused to comply. Since the crushing of the insurrection, the Austrians have in- flicted the most cruel and barbarous treatment upon the unfortunate patriots, which has awakened a feeling of in- dignation throughout the greater portion of Europe and America. Russia and Turkey. Russia took a decided part in the events of 1848, on the side of legitimacy. The emperor was opposed to the revolu- tion in France, and frowned upon the struggles of the republicans in Italy and Germany. When the war between Austria and Hungary was raging, he declared his intention of applying the strength of his empire to resist the attempts of the republicans. When the Hungarian leaders took refuge in Turkey, he demanded their surrender, and threat- ened war in case of refusal. But his demand was not com- plied with, nor did he carry his threat into operation. The sultan gave Kossuth and the other Hungarian leaders a place of residence in his dominions, and some of them, em- bracing the Mohammedan faith, received office in the army and other marks of his favor. The United States. Early in 1848, a treaty of peace was concluded between the United States and Mexico. The Rio Grande was ac- knowledged by the Mexican government as the boundary of Texas, and the valuable territories of California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States. In November, the same year, the Whigs elected general Zachary Taylor to the presidency. The discovery of the immense mineral wealth of California caused a vast number of emigrants from all parts of the world to seek that territory, and cities and states are springing up on the shores of the Pacific, which, till within a few years, were almost unknown. The quantity of gold obtained in California has realized the most sanguine expectations, and rewarded the hardest toil. In 1849, the 51* 606 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. PART IH. country was visited by the scourge of the cholera, which, among thousands of victims, carried away many who had filled distinguished situations, among whom were generals Gaines, and Worth, and ex-president Polk. Since that event, the exciting debates in congress, upon the subject of slavery, the dismissal of M. Poussin, the French minister to the United States, and some unsuccessful attempts to gain possession of Cuba, by citizens of the United States, have been the only events which have disturbed the internal peace, and external relations of the country. During the congressional session of 1849-50, the excite- ment upon the slavery question increased to an extent which threatened the dismemberment of the Union. In the Senate, a committee of thirteen of the most prominent statesmen, at the head of whom was Henry Clay, was ap- pointed to bring about an adjustment of the vexed question. They reported a Compromise Bill, providing for the ad- mission of California into the Union, the recapture of slaves fleeing from one state into another, the settlement of the claim of Texas on New Mexico, and giving a territorial government to Utah. This bill was discussed in the Senate for two months, and the ablest statesmen displayed their talents in speaking upon either side of the question. Finally, the Compromise measure was defeated. But each of the objects of the bill was afterwards provided for sepa- rately. While the bill was pending, the nation was suddenly called upon to mourn the loss of its chief magistrate. Pre- sident Taylor died on the 9th of July, 1850. Millard Fill- more, the vice-president, then became president. The members of the cabinet appointed by general Taylor im- mediately resigned ; and president Fillmore framed a new cabinet, at the head of which was Daniel Webster, as Secretary of State. TABULAR VIEW OF ROYAL DYNASTIES. Israel. Saul 10l»J David and Ishbosheth 1055 Davi(t sole king 1148 Solomon 1015 JUDAH. B.C. Rehnboani . . . 975 Abia 958 Asa 955 Jeliosapliat. . 914 Jorain 88U Ahaziah 885 Israel. B. c. Jeroboam I. . 975 Nadab 954 Baasa 953 Ela 930 Zimri 92;» Ahab 918 JuDAH. B. C. Athaliah 884 Joasli 878 Amaziah 838 Uzziah or Aza- riah 809 Jotham 757 Ahaz 741 Hezekiah . . . 72() Manasses 697 Ainon 642 Josiab 640 Jehoakaz ) ^..o 608 697 Jelioiakim Zedekiah . . Israel. B. c. Ahaziah 89? Joram....... 896 Jehu 884 Jehoahaz .... 856 Joash 839 Jeroboam II.. 823 Zachariah... 771 Menaliem . . . 770 Pekaiah 760 Pekah 758 Hoshea 729 Samariah. . . . 721 Persia, Kings of. , B. c. Cyras 559 Cainbyses 529 Smerdis Magus 522 Darius I. son of Hys- taspes 521 Xerxes 1 485 Artaxerxes 1 464 Xerxes [1 425 Sogdiauus 424 Darius II. Nothus. . 423 Artaxerxes II 404 Artaxerxes III '^58 Arses or Arogus . . . 337 Darius III. Codoma- nus 335 Under the Greeks and Parthians from 33Ib.c. to 226 A. D. Sassanian Dynasty. A. D. Irdisheer Babigan, called by the Ro- mans Artaxerxes 226 Shahpoor 1 240 Hoormuz 1 271 Baharam 1 272 Baharam II 276 Baharam III 293 Narsi 2i)3 Hoormuz II 303 Shapoor II 310 Ardislieer 11 381 Shahpoor III 385 Baharam IV 390 Yozdejird-Ulathim . 404 Baharam V 420 Ye/.di^jird II 4.3,-' Firnze 458 Pallas 484 Kobad 488 Noosheerwan 531 Hoormuz III 579 Baharam-Choubeen 590 Khoosroo Purveez • 5'Jl Sheruveh 62H Shah-Sherrendeh... 631 Arzem-dokht 632 Yezd6jird III 632 Modern Persia. Suffavean Dynasty. Shah Ismail 1504 Tamasp 1523 Ismail II 1576 Mohammed Meerza 1577 Abbas the Great . . 1582 Sam Meerza, or Shah Suflee Abbas II Suffw Meerza, or Shah Suleiman. . Hoossein Mahmood (the Aff- gliaii) ••••• Ashraff (the Aff- ghaii) Tamasp II. son of Hoossein Nadir Shah Adil Shah Interregnum Kerreem Khan. ... Interregnimi Lootf Ali Khan . . Aga Mohammed . . Fulteh Ali Khan (the present king) 1627 1641 1666 1694 1722 1725 1729 1732 1747 1750 1753 1779 1789 1795 1796 M.'K.cEDON, Kings of. B. c. Philip, son of Amyn- tas 360 Alexander the Great 336 Philip Aridaeus. ... 323 Cassander 316 ^"tip<'vtfr j 293 Alexander | 607 608 ROYAL DYNASTIES. B. C. Demetri us 294 Pyrrhiis 286 For JG years 12 kings 278 Antigoiiusl.Gonatus 277 Demetrius 11 243 AiitigonuslI.Doson 232 Philip 221 Perseus 179 Fergamus, Kings or. Philetserus 283 Eumenes 1 263 Attalus 1 241 Eumenes II 197 Attalus II. Pbila- delphus 159 Attalus III. Pbjlo- uietov 138 312 2^0 261 246 Syria, Kings of. Seleucus Nicator. . . Antiochus I. Soter. . Antiochus II. Qets- Seleucus II. Calli- nicus Seleucus III. Cerau- nus 226 Antiochus III. the Great 223 Seleucus IV. Philo- pater 187 Antiochus IV 175 Antiochus V 164 Demetriusl. Soter. . 162 Alexander Balas-.. 150 Demetrius II. Nica- tor 146 Antiochus VI 144 Diofiotus 143 Antiochus VII 139 Demetrius II. resto- ration of 130 Alexander Zebina. . 127 Antiochus VIII. ... 123 Philip and Deme trius Tigranes, king of Armenia 83 Antiochus IX. Asi- aticus 69 93 Egypt, Kings or. Ptolemy T 323 Ptolemy II. Phila delphus 284 Ptolemy III. Ever- getes 246 Ptolemy IV. Philo- pater 221 Ptolemy V. Epipha- nes 204 Ptolemy VI. Philo- metor 180 Ptolemy VII. Philo- metor 150 Ptolemy VIII. Phys- con 145 Ptolemy IX. La-) thyrus i Cleopatra J Alexander / Cleopatra j ' Ptolemy Lathyrus, restoration of. .►• Cleopatra II. ) Alexander II. \ "" Ptolemy Alexander III Ptolemy Dionysitss ) Auletes \ Ptolemy Dionysi us 1 11 > Cleopatra III J 116 106 81 51 JuDEA, Kings of. Hyrcanus I. (High Priest) 136 AristobulusI lOS'Decius Emperors. Augustus 31 A. D. Tiberius 14 Caligula 37 Claudius 41 Nero 54 Galba 68 Otho 1 Vitellius V 69 Vespasian J Titus 79 Domitian 81 Nerva 96 Trajan 98 Adrian 117 Antoninus Pius 138 Marcus Aurelius'l and I 161 Lucius Verus J Commodus 180 Pertinax and Julia- nus 193 Septimius Severus . 193 Caracalla and Geta 211 Opilius Macrinus.. 217 ElagabalusAntonius 218 Alexander Severus. 222 Maximinus 235 The two Gordians . 236 Maximus.Pupienus, and Balbinus Gordian junior .... Philip the Arabian Alexander Jannai. . 104 Alexandra 78 Hyrcanus II. and ) ^q Aristobulus II. . . j ^^ Hyrcanus II 63 237 238 244 249 251 Galliis,Hostilianu8 Volusianus ^milianusValeria- nusandGallienus 254 Gallienus alone 260 Antigonus 40:0iaudii!s 268 Herodes the Great. Archelaus Judea, a Roman province 8 Agrippa 37 Rome, Kings of. B. c. Romulus 753 Numa Pompilius. .. 715 Tullus Hostilius... 672 Aneus Martins 640 Tarquinius Priscus 616 Servius Tullius .... 578 Tarquinius Superbus 534 Republic for 461 years. 276 Aurelian 270 Tacitus 275 Florianus Probus ftlarcus AureliusCa- rus 282 Dioclesian 284 Dioclesian andMax- imianus 281' ConstantiusChlorus Galerius Maximi- anus 304 Constantine I. tlie Great 306 Constantine Il.Con- stans, and Con- stantius 337 Julian .361 Jovian .363 Valentinian I. and Valens 364 ROYAL DYNASTIES. 609 B. C. Sratian, Valentini- an II. and Theo- dosius 1 375 Honorius 395 Valentinianlll 424 Maximus 455 A Vitus 45fj Majorianus 457 fieverus 461 Antliemius 4(37 Olybrius 472 Glycerins 473 Julius Nepos 474 Ronmlus Augustus. 475 Bishops of Rome. A. D. St. Linus t)7 St. Cletus, or Ana- cletus 78 St. Clement 1 91 Evaristus 100 Alexander 1 108 Sixtus I Ill) Telesphorus 12() Hys'nus 137 PiusI 141 Anicetus 157 Soter ItiS Eleutherus 177 Victor 1»2 Zephirinus 201 Caiixtus 21!) Urban 1 224 Pontianiis 23J Aiiteriiis Fabianus. 235 Cornelius 251 Lucius 253 Stephen 255 Sixtus II 257 Dionvsius 259 Felix" 1 271 Eutyciiianus 275 Cains 2H3 Marcellinus 29G Marcellus 304 Eust'bius 309 Melchiades 311 Silvester 314 Marcus 33'o Julius 337 Liberius 352 Dauiasus 3(37 Siricius 3^^5 Anastatius 308 innocent 1 402 Zosinius 417 Boniface 1 418 ?ffilestinus 423 Sixtus III 432 Leo the Saint 440 Hilary 461 4iniplicius 467 Felix II 483 A. D. Gelasius 492 Anastatius 496 Synimachus 498 Hormistlas 514 John 1 523 Felix III 526 Boniface II 530 John II 5.32 Agapetus 535 Sylverius 536 Vigilius 540 Pelagius 1 556 Johi. Ill 560 Benedict 573 Pelagius II 577 Gregory the Great. . 5'JO Popes. Sabinianus 604 Boniface HI 606 Boniface IV 607 Deusdedit 614 Boniface V 617 Honorius 1 626 Severinus 639 John IV 639 Theodorus 641 Martin 1 649 Eiigenius 655 Vitatianiis 655 Adeodatus 669 Doninus 676 Agatlion 678 Leo II 683 Benedict II 684 John V 685 Conon 686 Sergius 687 John VI 701 John VII 705 SinsiniusI.Constan- tine 708 Gregory II 714 Gregory III 731 Zaciiary 741 Stephen II. and III. 752 Paul 1 757 Stephen IV 768 Adrian 1 772 Leo If 1 7i!5 Stephen V 816 Pascal 1 817 Eugenius II 824 Valentin 827 Gregory IV 827 Sergius II 844 Leo IV 847 Pope Joan, accord- "j ing to some > 854 Benedict III. J Nicholas 1 858 Adrian II 867 John VIII 872 A. D. Martin 1 882 Adrian III 884 Stephen VI 885 Fonnosus 891 i Boniface VI. ) „ ! Stephen Vil. \ •••• 8y7 I Theodorus II. ) r,M i John IX. J...-901 Benedict IV 905 Christopher ( ^^^ Sergius HI 907 ! Anastatius III 910 ILando 912 John X 913 Leo VI 928 Stephen VIII 929 John XI 931 Leo VH 936 Stephen iX 939 Martin III 943 Agapetiis II 946 John XII 955 Leo VHI 963 I Benedict V 964 jjohn XIII 965 I Doninus II. ) q.j, i Benedict VI. j •••• -"^ ! Boniface VII 974 Benedict VH 975 John XIV 984 'John XV 985 Gregory V 996 Silvester II 999 : John XVI. ) ,„f,o John XVH. i ••• ^""-^ Sergius IV 1009 Benedict VHI 1012 John XVIII 1024 Benedict IX 1034 Gregory VI 1044 Clenieiit 1046 Damasus II 1048 I Leo IX 1049 'Victor II 1054 ' Stephen X 1().'>7 Nicholas 1 1 1059 1 Alexander II 1061 I Gregory VII 1073 Victor HI 1086 Urban II 108^ Pascal 11 1099 iGelasusII 1118 Caiixtus II 1119 I Honorius II 1124 I Innocent H 11.30 Celestine II 1143 Lucius II 1144 Eugenius III 1145 Anastatius IV 1153 Adrian IV 1154 Alexander III 1159 LuciusHI 1181 Urban III 1185 610 ROYAL DYNASTIES. A. D. Gregory VITI 1187 Clement III 1188 Celestin III 1191 Innocent III 1198 HonoriusIII 1216 Gregory IX 12-27 Celestin IV 1241 Innocently 1243 Alexander IV 1254 Urban IV 1261 Clement IV • • 1265 Gregory X 1271 Innocent V. ^ Adrian V. V ... 1276 John XIX. J Nicholas III 1277 Martin IV 1281 HonoriusIV 1285 Nicholas IV 1288 Celestin V. ) -.oqa Boniface VIII. ]'• ^^* Benedict X 1303 Clement V 1365 John XX 1316 Benedict XI 1334 Clement VI 1342 Innocent VI 1352 Urban V 1362 Gregory XI 1370 Urban VI 1378 Boniface IX 1389 Innocent VII 1404 Gregory XII 1406 Alexander V 1409 John XXI 1410 Martin V 1417 Eugene IV 1431 Nicholas V 1447 Calixtiis III 1455 Pius II 1458 Paiilll 1464 Sixtus IV 1471 Innocent VIII 1484 Alexander VI 1492 ^T^^h I 1503 Julius II. ) Leo X 1513 Adrian VI 1522 Clement VII 1523 Paul III 1534 Julius III 1550 Marcellus II. ) -.rrtr Paul IV. ]■•• ^^^^ Pius IV 1560 Pius V 1566 Gregory XIII 1572 Sixtus V 1585 Urban VII. } j^.q Gregory XIV. j •• ^^^" Innocent IX 1591 Clement VIII 1592 Leo XI. ) -pn^ PaulV. i ^605 Gregory XV.... 1621 A. D. Urban VIII 1623 Innocent X. . . . 1644 Alexander VH .. 1655 Clement IX. . . . 1667 Clement X 1670 Innocent XI 1676 Alexander VUL . . 1689 Innocent XII 1691 Clement XI 1700 Innocent XIII 1721 Benedict XIII 1724 Clement XII 1730 Benedict XIV 1740 Clement XIII 1758 Pius VI 1774 Pius VII 1800 Leo XII 1822 Pius VIII 1829 Emperors of the East. Arcadius 395 TheodosiusII 408 Marcianus 450 Leo I. the Thracian 457 Leo junior II. Zeno 474 Anastatius the Si- lentary 491 Justinl.theThracian 518 Justinian 1 527 Justin II 565 Tiberius IL...'.... . 578 Mauricius the Cap- padocian 582 Phocas 602 Heraclius 610 Constantine III. ... 641 Constans II 642 Constantine IV. Po- gonatus 668 Justinian II 685 Leontius 694 Absimerus Tiberius 697 Justinianllrestored 704 PhillipicusBardanes 7il Anastatius II 713 Thodosius III 715 Leo III. Isauricus. . 717 Constantine V. . . . 742 Leo IV 775 Constantine VI. ... 780 Irene 797 Nicephorus 802 fliichael 1 811 Leo V.the Armenian 813 Michaelll.the Stam- merer 821 Theophiius 829 Michael III. the Sot 842 Basiliiis the Mace- donian . . 867 A. D Leo VI. the Philos- opher 88C ConstantineVII.Por- phyrogenitus .... 912 Romanus with Con- stantine 919 Romanus II 959 Nicephorus II. Pho- cas 963 John Zimisces 969 Basilius II. and Con- stantine VIIL ... 975 Romanus lU 1028 Michael IV 1034 Michael V 1041 Constantine IX. . . 1U42 Theodora 1054 Michael VI 1056 Isaac Comnenus . . 1057 Constantine X.Du- cas 1059 Romanus Diogenes 1068 Michael VII 1071 AicephorusIII 1078 Alexius Comnenus 1081 John Comnenus, KaXoff 1118 Manuel Comnenus 1143 Alexius II 1180 Andronicus 1 1183 Isaac AngelusCom- nenus 1185 Alexi us m. the Ty- rant 1195 Isaac Angelus re- ) lo^^ stored j ^^"^ Theodore Lascaris 1204 JohnDucasVataces 1222 Theodore Lascaris II 1255 John Lascaris .... 1258 MichaelPalaeologus 1259 Andronicus II 1283 Andronicus IIL.. 1320 John Palffiologus. . 1341 John Cantacuzene 1347 JohnPalaeologus re- stored 1355 Manuel 1391 John Palaeologus. . 1424 Constantine Palse- ologus 1448 Khalifs. Aboo Beker 632 Omar 634 Othman 644 Ali 656 Moawiah 660 Yezid 67& Moawiah II 683 ROYAL DYNASTIES. 611 A. D. AMalla 684 Merwan 1 684 Ahduliiielek 685 Walid 1 705 Suleiman 714 Omar II 717 Yezid II 719 Hashem 723 Walid II 742 Yezid III 743 Ibrahim 744 Merwan II 745 Saffah 750 Mansiir 754 Mohadi 775 Hadi 785 Haroon-Er-Rasheed 786 Amin 809 Mamiin 813 Motasim 833 Watliek 842 Motawakel 847 Mostanser 862 Mostain 862 Motaz 866 Mohtadi 869 Mo tamed i o-jn Muaffek 1 ^^" Motadhed '.... 892 Mohtafi 902 Mnktader 908 Kaher 932 Radhi 934 Motaki 940 Mostakfi 944 Moti 946 Tai 974 Kader 991 Kaim 1031 Moktadi 1075 Mostadher 1094 Mnstarshed 1118 Rasheed 1135 Moktafi 1136 Mostanjed 1160 Mosladhi 1170 >faser 1180 Dhaher 1225 Mostanser 1226 Mostasein 1242 Aragon, Kings op. Ramires 1035 Saticho 1067 Peter 1 10!>4 Alfonso 1 1104 Ramires II. the Monk 1134 Petronilia 1138 AlfonsolI.theChastel 1(;2 P3terII 1196 A. D. I James I. the Con- i qneror 1213 Peter III 1276 Alfonso HI. the Be- neficent 1285 James II. the Just 1291 Alfonso IV 1327 Peter IV. the Great 1336 John 1 1387 | Martin 1395 Ferdinand 1 1410 Alfonso V 1416 John II 1458 Ferdinand II 1481 Castile, Kings of. Ferdinand theGreat 1035 Sancho 1065 AlfonsoVI.the Val- ' iant 1072 Urraca 1109 Alfonso VII 1122 Sancho III 1157 Alfonso VIII. the Noble 1158 Peter II 1196 Henry 1 1214 Alfonso IX 1217 Ferdinand III 1226 AlfonsoX.the Wise 1252 Sancho IV 1284 Ferdinand IV 12v*5 Alfonso XI 1312 Peter the Cruel 1350 Henryll.theBastard 1369 John 1 1379 Henry til 1390 John II 1406 Henry IV. the Im- potent 1454 Isabel and Fer- ) ,.-.,. dinant V... ' ^^'^ Spain, Kings of. Charles 1 1516 Philip II 1555 Philip III 1598 Philip IV 162] Charles II 16G5 Philip V 1700 Ferdinand VI 1746 Charles III 1756 Charles IV 1788 Ferdinand VII 1808 Portugal, Kings of. Alfonso 1 1139 Saucho 1 llfcS A. O. Alfonso II 1^12 Sancho II 1233 Alfonso II 1 1246 Dionysiiis 1279 Alfonso IV 1325 Peter the Cruel... 1357 Ferdinand 1367 Interregnum for 18 months 1383 John I. the Bastard 1385 Edward 1433 Alfonso V 1438 John II 1481 Emmanuel 1495 John III 1521 Sebastian 1557 Henry the Cardinal 1578 United with Spain 1580 John IV. Duke of Braganza 1640 Alfonso VI 1656 Peter II 1668 John V 1706 Joseph 1750 Maria Francisca. . 1777 John VI 1799 Naples and Sicilt, Kings op. Roger U 1 102 Roger III 1129 William I. the Wicked 1153 Williainll.theGood 116G TancredtheBastard 1189 William III 1192 Constance and ) ,.q. Henry VI j ' **"* Subjected to the German Empe- rors, till 1250 ... 1 198 Conrad 1250 Interregnum 1253 Manfred... 1254 Conrad II. ) .„^ Charles of Anjou j Naples alone. CharlesII.theLame 1284 Robert the Wise . . 1309 Joan I 1343 Charles III 1382 Ladislaus 1386 Joan II 1414 Jfaples and Sicily. Alfonso, king of Aragon 143^ Ferdinand J461» Alfonso II 149'' Ferdinand II 149b 612 ROYAL DYNASTIES. A. D. Frederic 1506 Becaiioe subject to Spai n for 250 years Charles VII 1755 Ferdinand IV 1759 Francis 1825 Denmark, Kings of. Canute II.theGreat 1014 Canute III 1036 Magnus 1041 SuenoII 1048 Harold 1074 CanutelV.the Saint 1076 Olaus, surnamed Hunger 1086 Eric III. the Good 10J6 Nicholas 1107 Eric IV. Harefoot 1135 EricV. the Lamb.. 1139 SuenoIII.theGreat 1147 Magnus III., resto- ration of 1147 Waldemar 1157 Canute V 1182 Waldemar II 1202 Eric VI 1242 Abel 1250 Christopher 1252 Eric VII 1259 Eric VIII 1286 Christopher II 1321 Waldemar III 1333 Margaret 1375 EricIX 1412 Denmark and J^orway united. Christopher IIL... 1438 Christian 1 1448 John 1 1481 Christian II 1513 Frederick 1 1522 Christian III 1533 Frederick II 1559 Christian IV 1588 Frederick III 1648 Christian V 1670 Frederick IV 1699 Christian VI 1730 Frederick V 1746 Christian VII 1766 Frederick VI 1808 Sweden, Kings of. Amund II 1019 Anuind III 1035 Haqujn HI.theRed 1041 A. D. Stenchill and Ingo III 1059 Halstan 1064 Philip 1080 Ingo IV 11]0 Ragnald 1129 Svercher II 1140 Eric X. the Saint . 1160 Charles VII 1162 Canute 1168 Svercher III 1192 Eric XI 1210 John 1218 Eric XII. the Stut- terer 1222 Waldemar 1250 Magnus II 1276 Birger II 1282 Magnus III 1326 Albert 1363 Margaret 1388 Eric XIII 1396 Christopher,King of Sweden,Denmark, and Norway 1438 Charles VIII 1448 Interregnum, thir- teen years 1470 John, King of Den- mark 1483 Christian II 1513 Gustavus L Vasa. . 1523 Eric XIV 1560 John III 1568 Sigismund, king of Poland 1592 Charles IX 1598 Gustavus II. Adol- phus 1612 Christina 1632 Charles X 1654 Charles XI 1660 Charles XII 1696 FrederickandUlrica 1718 Adolphus Frederick 1751 Gustavus III 1771 Gustavus IV 1792 Charles XIII 1H09 Charles John 1818 Poland, Kings or. Premislaus 1295 Vladislaus IV 1296 Wenceslaus 1300 Vladislaus IV 1305 Casimir III. the Great 1333 Lewis, King of Hungary 1370 Interregnum of 3 vears 1383 A. O. Jagellon and Vladis- laus IV 1.386 Vladislaus V 1434 Interregnum of 3 years 1444 Casimir IV 1447 John I. Albert 1492 Alexander 1501 Sigismund 1 1507 Sigismund II. Au- gustus. 1548 Henry of Anjou . . . 1573 Stephen Balore 1576 Sigismund III 1587 Vladislaus VI 1632 John II. Casimir. . 1648 Michael 1669 John Ill.Sobieski. 1674 Augustus II 1697 Frederick Augus- tus III 1734 Russia, Tsars op. Fedor. 1585 Boris Godunof 1598 Interregnum 1C04 Michael 1613 Alexi 1645 Fedor II 1676 Sophia, Ivan, and ) ,pa„ Peter the Great \ ^^"'^ Peter the Great alone 1696 Catherine 1725 Peter II 1727 Anne 1730 Ivan III 1740 Elizabeth 1741 Peter III. 1762 Catherine II 1762 Paul 1796 Alexander 1801 Nicholas... 1825 France. Merovingians. Clovis 481 Childebert .. 511 Ciotaire 558 Caribert 562 Chilperic 567 Ciotaire II 584 Dagobert 628 Clovis II 644 Ciotaire III 660 ChildericII 668 Thierri 673 Clovis III 690 ROYAL DYNASTIES. 613 A. D. '^hildpHerl II. . - . . 695 L*»40l>»;lt 11 .. 711 Ch.lDe-ic II. . . .. 716 IL.erri II .. 720 Childeric lei. . ...742 Carlovingiuns. Pepin 751 Charlemagne 768 Lewis I le Deboiiaire 814 Charles tlie Bald. 840 Lewis II. the Stam- merer 877 Lewis III. and Car loman 879 Charles tke Fat 884 Eudes 888 Charles the Simple.. 898 Rodolph 923 Lewis IV. Outremer 936 Lothaire 5 54 Lewis V 986 Capetians. Hugh Capet 987 Robert I. the Wise. 996 Henry 1 1031 PhilipI.TAmoureux 1061 Lewis VI. the Fat. 1108 LewisVII.theYoungll37 Philipll. Augustus. 1180 LewisVni.theLion 1223 Lewis IX.the Saint 1226 Philip III the Bold 1270 Philip IV. the Fair 1285 Lewis X 1314 John I. {lived but 8 days) 1315 Philip V. the Long 1316 CharlesIV. the Fair 1321 House of Valois. Philip Vl.ofValois, the Fortunate . . 1328 John I'i 1351 CharlesV^. the Wise 1364 Charles VI. the Be- loved 1380 CharlesVII.theVic- torious 1422 LewisXI 1461 Charles VIII 1483 Lewis XII 1498 Francis 1 1515 Henry II 1547 Francis II 1559 Charles IX 1560 Henry III 1574 House of Bourbon. Henry IV. the Great 1589 Lewis XIII 1610 Lewis XIV 1643 52 A. D. Lewis XV 1715 Louis XVI 1774 Louis XVII 1793 Louis XVIII 1796 Charles X 1824 England, Kings op. Anglo-Saxon Line. Egbert 828 Ethelwolf 838 Ethelbald 857 Ethelbert 860 Ethelred 1 866 Alfred the Great ... 872 Edward the Elder. . 900 Athelstan 925 Edmund 1 941 Edred 948 Edwy 955 Edgar the Peaceable 95i) Edwardll.theMartyr 975 Ethelred II. the Un- ready 978 Edmundll.lronside 1016 Canute the Great, King of Denmark 1017 HaroldHarefoot... 1036 Canute II. Hardi- canute 1039 Edward III. the Confessor 1041 Harold II 1066 J^orman Line. William the Con- queror 1066 William IL Rufus 1087 Henry 1 1100 Stephen of Blois.. 1135 House of Plantagevet. Henry II. Planta- genet 1154 Richard 1. Cceur de Lion 1189 John Lackland 1199 Henry III. of Win- chester 1216 Edward I. Long Shanks 1272 Edward II. of Caer- narvon 1307 Edward III. of Windsor 1327 Richard II. of Bour- deaux 1377 Henry IV.ofBoling- broke 1399 Henry V. of Mon- mouth 1413 A. D. Henry VL of Wind- sor 1422 Edward IV 1461 Edward V. 1 Richard in. V... 1483 Crook Back J House of Tudor. Henry VII 14a5 Henry VIII 1509 Edward VI 1547 Mary 1553 Elizabeth 1558 Great Britain. House of Stuart. James 1 1603 Charles 1 1625 Commonwealth... 1649 Charles II 1660 James II 1685 William IIL and Mary 1689 Anne 1702 House of Brunswick. George 1 1714 George II 1727 George III 1760 George IV 1820 Scotland, Kings of, Malcolm II 1004 Duncan 1034 Macbeth 1040 Malcolm III. Cean Mohr 1056 Donald Bane 1093 Duncan II 1095 Edgar 1098 Alexander 1 1107 David 1 1124 Malcolm IV 1153 William 1166 Alexander II 1214 Alexander III.. .. 1249 Interregnum of 7 years 1286 John Baliol 1292 Interregnum 1301 Robert Bruce 1306 David II 1329 Robert II 1371 Robert III 1390 James 1 1406 James II 1437 James III '. . 1460 James IV 1488 James V 1513 614 ROYAL DYNASTIES. ▲. D. Mary 1542 James VI 1507 Germany, Emperors of. Arnulf 888 Lewis III yOO Conrad 912 Henry I. the Fowler 920 Otho I. the Great . . 936 Otho II. the Bloody 973 Otho III. the Red . . 983 Henry II. the Lame 1002 Conrad II. the Sa- lique 1024 Henrylll.the Black 1039 Henry IV 105G Henry V llOti Lotliario the Saxon 1125 Conrad III 113f^ Frederick I. ) - ^ _^ Barbarossa \ HenryVI.theSevere 1190 Philip 1198 Otho IV 1208 Frederick II 1212 William 1250 Interregnum for 17 years 1256 Rodolph of Habs- burg, first of the Austrian Family 1273 Adolphus of Nassau 1291 Albert I. of Austria 1298 Interregnum I year 1308 Henry VII. of Lux- eniburgh 1309 Lewis IV. the Ba- varian 1314 Charles IV. of Lux- enihtirgh 1347 Wenceslaus 1378 Rupert 1400 Jossus 1 Sigismund, King > 1410 of Hungary J A. D. Albertll.of Austria 1438 Frederick III 1440 Maximilian 1 1493 Charles V 1519 Ferdinand 1 1558 Maximilian II .. 1564 Rodolph II 1576 Mathias 1612 Ferdinand II 1619 Ferdinand III 1637 Leopold 1658 Joseph 1705 Charles VI 1711 Charles VII 1741 Francis 1 1745 Joseph II 1765 Leopold n 1790 Francis II 179^ Prdssia, Kings of. Frederic 1 1701 FredericWilliam L 1713 Frederic II 1740 FredericWilliamll. 1786 Frederic Wilm. in. 1797 Ottoman Emperors. Osman 1298 Orchan 1325 Moorad, or Amu- rath 1 1358 Bayezeed 1 1389 Interregnum 1402 Mohammed 1 1413 Amurath II 1421 Mohammed II 1451 Bayezeed II 1481 Selim 1 1512 Suleiman 1 1520 Selimll 1566 A. D Amurath III 1574 Mohammed III. . . 159^ Ahmed 1 1604 Mustafa 1C17 Amurath IV. . , 1622 Ibrahim 1640 Mohammed rV 1655 Suleiman II 1687 Ahmed II 1690 Mustafa II 1695 Ahmed III 1703 Mahraood 1 173C Mustafa HI 1757 Abdul Ahmed 1774 Selim III 1789 Mustafa IV. ) .^na Mahraood XL J ' ' ' ^°^° Chinese D\KAt>TiES. Hia B. c. Chang Chew 35 Emperors 1122 Tsin 4—248 Western Han 25 — 206 Eastern Han . 2 • Eastern Tsin . 10 Song 8- Tsi 5 Leang 4 Chien 5 Song or Svee. 3- Tang 20 Second Leang 2- Second Tang. 5- Second Tsin.. 2- Han 2- SecondChew. 3- Song 18- Yven 9- Ming 16- TaiTsin 5- A. D. - 238 - 265 - 420 -480 - 502 - 5t - 590 - 618 - 911 - 924 - 937 - 948 - 951 - 960 -1280 -1368 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. Floarished. B. C. Homer 907 Hesiod 907 Elijah 896 Lycurgus 883 Elisha 846 Isaiah 768 Eiiniehu 736 Sappho.. 601 Name. Flourished. Epimenides of Crete 594 Jeremiah 594 ^sop 578 Cadmus 562 Solon 561 Thales 559 Ibycus 552 Anaximander 550 Name. Flourished. n. c. Theognis 548 Pythagoras 522 A nacreon 520 Zoroaster 519 Heraclitus 516 Diogenes 476 .(Eschylus 475 Zeno the Elder 4''4 Name. Flourished. B. C. Pindar 455 Aristarchus 453 Leticippiis 452 Anaxagoias 452 Cliaroxi of Lainpas CDS 449 Herodotus 444 Aristippus 432 Euripides 427 Sopiiocles 42() Socrates 41i) Tliucydides 417 Aristopliaiies 41ti Ctesias 41ti Metoii 415 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. Flourished. B. C. Damon and Pythias 397 Lvsias 3';)() ^Pelopidas 395! Hippocrates 381 Xenoplion 379 Plalo 313B Eudoxus 352 Aristotle 351 Xenocrates 314 Euclid 2:i8 Theoplirastus 2t^5 Epicurus 28rt Calliniachus 244 Arcliiniedes 239 Terence 179 615 Name. Flourished. P. C. Critolaus HiO Lucilius 128 Ciuna 100 Possidonius H5 JuUusCffisar. 64 Cicero 63 Sallust 55 Diodorus Siculus. . . 44 Cornelius Nepos ... 43 Virgil 42 Horace 28 Livv 20 Ovid 10 Celsus 10 Strabo • 5 NamCk Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Dante.. l-2»5. 1321 Petrarch 1304. 1374 Boccacio 1313. 1375 Chaucer 1328. 1400 Froissart. ■*•• 1339. 1400 Gower 1402 Mullor 147*) Lorenzo de Medici 1448. 1492 Gawin Douglas 1474. 1522 Machiavel 1409. 1527 D'Ercilla i532 Ariosto 1474. 1533 Erasmus 1407. 1530 Paracelsus 14 '3. 1541 Cloueniicus 1473. 1543 Luther 1483. 154G Howard, Earl of Surrey 1515. 1540 Rabelais 14<~3. 1553 J. (\ Scalii?er 1484. 1558 Melancthon 1497. 151)0 Vesalius 1514. 1504 Vida 1480. 1560 Aschani 1515. 15(58 Peter Ramus 1515. 1572 Conimaudine 1509. 1575 Cardan 1501. 1570 Canjnens 1524. 1579 Buchanan 1500. 15.'^2 Sir P. Sidney 1554. 1580 Montaigne 1533. 1592 Tasso 1544. 1595 Henry Stephens 1528. 1598 Spenser l-i53. 15)9 Tycho Brahe 1546. 1001 Henry Carey, Earl of Monmouth 1596. 1616 J. J. Sealiiier 1540. 1(109 Clavius ..^ 1537. 1012 Beaumont 1586. lOlo Shakspeare 1564. 1616 Cervantes 1547. 1016 Napier 1550. 1617 Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D Paul Sarpi 1552. 1619 Camden 1551. 1625 John Fletcher 1576. 1625 Bacon 1500-1. 1026 Sir W. Temple 1626 Mallierbe 1555. 1628 Kepler 1571. 1030 Da Vila 1576. 1031 Drayton 1503. 1031 Carey 1033 Lopez de la Vega 1562. 1035 Ben .lonson 1574. 1037 Martin Opits 1597. 1039 Massinger 1584. 1040 Sir John Suckling 1009. 1041 Galileo 1504. 1042 Chilliiigvvorth 1002. 1044 Grotius 1583. 1645 Torricelli 1008. 1047 Drunimond 1585. 1049 Des Cartes 1596. 1050 [nigo .loues '•• 1572. 1053 A rch. Usher 1580. 1(555 Lovelace 1018. 1058 Harvey 1569. 1658 Scarron 1610. 16()0 Pascal 1023. 1662 Cowley 1018. 1667 Davenant 1605. 1068 Moliere 1020. 1673 Milton 1008. 1674 Spinoza 1623. 1677 Barrow • • • 1030. 1678 Rochefoucault 1013. 1680 Butler 1034. 1081 Corneille lOOfi. 1684 Otway 1052. 1085 Boyle. 1020-7 169] Puffendorf 1031 1694 Huygens 1629. 1635 Fontaine 1021. 1095 De la Bruyere 1044. 1690 616 EMINENT PERSONS. Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Racine 1639. 1699 Dryden 1631. 1700 Hooke 1635. 1702 Locke 1632. 1704 Beir.ouilli 1654. 1705 Aline Dacier 1651. 1707 Farqiiliar 1678. 1707 Boileau 1636. 17J1 Fcnelon 1651. 1715 Charles Montague, Earl of Halifax 1661. 1716 Gionovius 1645. 1716 Flainsteed 1646. 1719 Addison 1672 1720 Prior 1664. 1721 Sir Christopher Wren.. 1632. 1725 Rapin 1661. 1725 Newton 1642. 1727 Steele 1671. 1729 Congreve 1670. 1729 Atterbury 1662. 1732 James Hermann 1678. 1733 Boerhaave 1668. i/38 Wolfe 1739 Halley 1656. 1741 Rollin 1661. 1741 Bentley 1661-2. 1742 Massillon 1663. 1742 Pope 1688. 1744 Swift 1667. 1745 Walpole 1676. 1745 Maclaurin 1698. 1746 Thomson 1700. 1748 Giannone 1676. 1749 Monroe 1715. 1751 Berkely 1684. 1753 Fielding 1707. 1754 Montesquieu 1689. 1755 Fontenelle 1657. 1757 Colley Gibber 1671. 1757 Allan Ramsay 1685. 1758 Kleist 1715. 1759 Richardson 1689. 1760 T.Simpson 1710. 1761 Lady Montague 1690. 1762 Bradley 16U2. 1762 Shenstone 1714. 1763 Sinison 1687. 1768 Sterne 1713. 1768 Chatterton 1752. 1770 Smoliet 1711. 1771 Reiske 1716. 1774 Goldsmith 1728. 1774 Haller 1708. 1776 Hume 1732. 1776 Rousseau 1711. 1777 Linnteus 1707. 1778 Voltaire 1694. 1778 Garrick 1716. 1779 Lessing 1729. 1781 Name. Birth. Death. A. D. A. D. Metastasio 1698. 1782 William Hunter 1718. 1783 Euler 1707. 1783 Dr. Johnson 1709. 1784 D'Alembert 1717. 1784 Diderot 1713. 1784 BufFon 1707. 1788 Cullen 1712. 1789 Dr. Franklin 1706. 1790 Warton 1728 1790 Adam Smith 1723. 1791 Snieaton 1724. 1792 Robertson 1721. 1793 J. Hunter 1728. 1793 Condorcet 1743. 1794 Lavoisier 174.3. 1794 Sir W.Jones 1746. 1794 Gibbon 1737. 1794 Goldoni 1707. 1795 Burns 1759. 1796 Macpherson 1738. 1796 Raid 1710. 1796 Horace Walpole 1718. 1797 Marmontel 1723. 1799 Black 1728. 1799 Cowper « 1731. 1600 Blair 1718. 1800 Lavater 1741. 1801 Fordyce 1736. 1802 Darwin 1721. 1802 Alfieri 1749. 1803 Klopstock 1724. 1803 Herder 1741. 1803 Priestley 1733. 1804 Kant 1724. 1804 Paley 1743. 1805 Cottin 1772. 1807 Porson 1759. 1808 Holcroft 1744. 1809 Cumberland 17.32. 1811 Hevne 1729. 1812 Lagrange 1736. 1813 Wieland 1733. 1813 Sheridan 1751. 1816 Kirk White 1785. 1816 Richter 1792. 1817 De Stael 1766. 1817 Stolberg 1715. 1818 Playfair 1749. 1819 Wolcot 1738. 1819 Watt 1736. 1819 Kotzebue 1761. 1819 Herschel 1738. 1821 Shelley 1792. 1822 Byron 1788. 1824 Voss 1751. 1826 Volta 1743. 1826 Laplace 182? Woilaston 1828 Young IMPORTANT EVENTS. 617 CHRONOLOGICAL VIEW OF IMPORTANT EVENTS. B. C. The First Olympiad 776 Commencement of the Decen- nial Archons at Athens 754 Foundation of Rome 753 The Rape of the Sabines 750 Xth Olympiad 747 Commencement of the Nabonas- sariEra 747 The first Messenian War 743 Foundation of Tarentum 707 Foundation of Corcyra 703 XXth Olympiad 700 The second Messenian War. . . . 685 Commencement of the Annual Archons at Athens 684 Junction of Babylon and Assy- ria by Esarhaddon 681 Combat of the Horatii and Cu- riatii 667 XXXth Olympiad 660 Foundation of Byzantium 658 Foundation of Cyrene 630 Establishment of Draco's Laws at Athens 623 XLth Olympiad 620 Connnencement of Necho's Canal between the Nile and Red Sea 610 Destruction of Nineveh 606 Separation of the Medes and Lydians in Battle by an Eclipse of the Sun 601 (Newton's Chron. 585) Establishment of the Pythian Games 591 Restoration of the Isthmian Games 582 Llh Olympiad 580 Restoration of the Nemean Games 568 first Comedy performed at Athens 562 LXth Olympiad 540 Tragedies first acted at Athens 535 Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses 525 The Temple of Jerusalem fin- ished 515 Restoration of the Democracy at Athens 510 Expulsion of the Tarquins, and Abolition of Regal Govern- ment at Rome 509 First Alliance between the Ro- mans and Carthaginians .... 508 LXXth Olympiad 500 Institution of the Saturnalia at Roma 497 Creation of the first Dictator at Home 496 52* B. C. First Tribunes of the People created at Rome 494 Banishment of Coriolanus 491 Institution of the Q,ujEstors at Rome 484 Defeat of the Spartans at Ther- mopylae and Saiamis 480 Rebuilding of Athens by The- mistocles 476 Foundation of Capua 469 The third Messenian War ..... 465 LXXXth Olympiad 460 Number of Tribunes at Rome increased from Five to Ten . . 453 Creation of the Decemvirs at Rome 448 First Sacred War concerning the Temple of Delphi 448 Death of Virginia 448 Institution of the Censorship at Rome 437 Meton's Nineteen Years' Cycle of the Moon 432 Commencement of the Pelopon- nesi an War 431 XCth Olympiad 420 Agrarian Law first moved in Rome 416 Athens governed by the Council of 400 412 Conclusion of the Peloponne- sian War 405 Athens governed by Thirty Ty- rants 404 The Expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants 401 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brcnnus 385 Cth Olympiad 380 Commencement of the second Sacred War 357 End of the Sacred War 348 Commencement of the War be- tv\'een the Romans and Sam- niles 343 CXth Olympiad 340 Destruction of Thebes by Alex- ander 336 Division of Alexander's Em- pire 323 iEra of the Seleucidae 312 Foundation of Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea 300 CXXth Olympiad 300 Athens taken by Demetrius Fo- liorcetes 298 The first Division of Time into Hours by the Sun-dial of Pa- pirius Cursor 293 618 IMPORTANT EVENTS. B. C. Astronomical ^ra of Dionysius of Alexandria 285 Foundation of the Alexandrian Library 283 The first Punic War 264 CXXXth Olympiad 260 First Naval Victory of the Ro- mans over the Carthaginians 260 End of the First Punic War ... 242 Comedies first acted at Rome . • 240 Temple of Janus closed for the first Time after Numa 235 CXLth Olympiad 220 The second Punic War 218 End of the second Punic War. . 201 The first Macedonian War . . . . . 200 OLth Olympiad 180 The second Macedonian War. . 171 The third Punic War 149 Destruction of Carthage by the Romans 146 CLXth Olympiad 140 The Jugurthine War Ill CLXXth Olympiad 100 Cyren6 bequeathed to the Ro- mans by Ptolemy Appion 97 The Social or MarsicWar begins 91 Beginning of the Mithridatic War 89 Syria reduced to a Roman Provi nee 65 The Catiline Conspiracy de- tected 63 CLXXXth Olympiad 60 Ponipey, Crassus, and Csesar, the first Triumvirate 59 First Invasion of Caesar in Brit- ain 55 His second Invasion 54 The iEra of Antioch com- mences 49 The second Triumvirate 43 Mauritania reduced to a Roman Province 33 End of the Commonwealth of . Rome 31 CXCth Olympiad 20 ▲. o. Birth of our Savior, Decem- ber 25, four Years before the Common JEra 4 The End of the Passover 8 The Jews banished from Rome by Tiberius 19 CCth Olympiad 21 CCIst Olympiad 25 End of the Olympiads 26 Christ crucified 33 Conversion of St. Paul 36 The Name of Christians first given to the Followers of Christ 40 Caraciacus brought in Chains to Rome . • ■ 51 A. D The first Persecution of .he Christians 63 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus 70 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii by an Eruption of Vesuvius 79 Agricola's Invasion of Britain 80 The second Persecution of the Christians... ... 95 Reduction of Dacia to a Roman Province 103 The third Persecution of the Christians 107 The fourth Persecution of the Christians 113 Jerusalem rebuilt by Adrian. .. 130 The Persecutions against the Christians stopped by Anto- ninus 152 War with the Marcomanni .... 169 The Saracens defeat the Romans 189 Fifth Persecution of the Chris- tians 201 The Goths receive an annual Tribute not to invade Rome . 222 The sixth Persecution of the Christians 235 The seventh Persecution against the Christians under Decius . 250 The eighth Persecution of tlie Christians 257 Period of the Thirty Tyrants . . 258 The ninth Persecution of the Christians 272 Partition of the Roman Empire between two Emperors and two Caesars 292 Tenth Persecution of the Chris- tians 302 Christianity tolerated 313 The first general Council as- sembled at Nice 325 The seat of Empire removed to Constantinople 329 The Empire divided between the three Sons of Constan tine. .• 337 Council of Rimini held 359 The second general Council held at Constantinople 381 The final Departure of the Ro- mans from Britain 426 The third general Council held at Ephesus 431 The Saxons first come to Britain 448 The fourth general Council of Chalcedon 451 Foundation of Venice 452 Rome taken by Genseric 455 Paris the Capital of the French Dominions 510 Introduction of the Computa- tion of Time by the Christian ^ra 516 IMPORTANT EVENTS. 619 A. D. Rome taken by BHisarius 539 Suppression of the Roman Coiisalship 542 The fifth general Council 555 Birth of Mohammed 571 Jerusalem taken by the Per- sians 616 The Alexandrian Library burned 640 Cyprus taken by the Saracens. 648 The sixth genera! or CEcumeni- cal Council of Constanti- nople 680 Spain conquered by the Sara- cens 713 Foundation of Bagdad 762 Charlemagne puts an End to the Kingdom of the Lom- bards 774 The seventh general Council, or second of Nice 787 New Empire of the West 800 The Saxon Heptarchy united, • called England 828 Origin of the Russian Mon- archy 839 The Scots and Picts united un- der the Title of Scotland ... 843 Oxford University founded .. . 886 Cambridge University founded 915 Rise of the Republic of Pisa . . 931 The Danes get Possession of England 1013 Rise of the Guelfs and Ghib- illins 1061 William the Conqueror begins Doomsday Book 1079 The first Crusade 10^6 Institution of the Knights Templars 1118 The Canon Le«w introduced into England 1140 The second Crusade 1147 Institution of TeutonicKnights 1J64 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II 1172 The third Crusade 1J89 The fourth Crusade 1202 Establishment of the Inquisi- tion 1204 Magna Charta granted 1215 The Orders of St. Dominic and Francis instituted 1226 The fifth Crusade 1248 Deputies of Boroughs first sum- moned to Parliament in Eng- land 1264 Jonquest of Wales by Ed- ward 1 1283 End of the Crusades 1291 The first Celebration of the Ju- bilee at Rome 1293 The Establishment of theSwiss Republics ..... 1307 A. D. Removal of the Seat of the Popes to Avignon 1.^08 The Institution of the Order of the Garter 1.349 Return of the Popes to Rome. 1377 Foundation of the University of St. Andrew's in Scot- land 1411 Discovery of the Island of Ma- deira 1420 TheCourt of Session insti4:uted in Scotland 1425 Rise of the Medici family 1431 Pragmatic Sanction in France 1439 Invention of Printing 1440 Establishment of the Author- ity of Lorenzo de Medici . . . 1478 Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope 1487 Discovery of Hispaniola 1492 Discovery of America 1492 Discovery of Brazil 1500 Discovery of Madagascar 1.507 League of Cambray 1509 Luther commences the Reform- ation 1517 First Voyase round the World 1522 Treaty of Madrid 1526 Peace of Cambray 1529 Reformation in England 1534 The Council of Trent, which continues eighteen Years. . • 1545 Treaty of Chateau Cambresis. 1559 The Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew 1572 The Union of Utrecht 1579 Discovery of Virginia 1584 The Spanish Armada destroyed 1588 Foundation of Dublin Univer- sity 1591 Rebellion of Tyrone in Ireland 1598 English East India Company established 1600 Union of the Crowns of Eng- land and Scotland 1603 Hudson's Bay discovered 1610 The first Baronets in England 1611 Foundation of Batavia 1621 The first English Settlement in the West Indies 1625 The French Academy instituted 1635 Rebellion in Ireland 1641 Civil War begins in England . 1642 First War between the Eng- lish and Dutch 1652 The Royal Societv instituted. 1682 The Second Dutch War 1664 Great Plague in London 1665 Fire of London 1666 Institution of the Academy of Sciences in France 1666 Carolina planted by the Eng- lish 1676 Habeas Corpus Act passed 1678 620 IMPORTANT EVENTS. A. D. Foundation of Petersburg 1704 Consummation of the Union be- tween England and Scotland- 1706 Peace of Utrecht 1714 Quadruple Alliance 1718 The Order of the Bath instituted 1725 Pragmatic Sanction 1732 Peace of Vienna 1738 Defensive Alliance between Great Britain and Prussia- •• • 1742 Alliance between Great Britain and Russia 1743 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 Foundation of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm 1750 The British Museum established 1753 Destruction of Lisbon by an Earthquake 1755 Quebec taken by General Wolfe 1759 Montreal and Canada taken by the British 1760 Foundation of the Royal Aca^ demy of Arts in London 1768 Commencement of American War 1774 Declaration of American Inde- pendence 1776 — 1783 French Revolution 1787 Louis XVI. beheaded 1793 Rebellion in Ireland 1798 Bonaparte First Consul 1799 Union of the Irish and English Parliaments 1800 Insurrection in Dublin 1803 Bonaparte Emperor 1804 Abolition of the Slave Trade- • • 1806 Divorce of Bonaparte from Jo- sephine 1809 Appointment of the Prince of Wales to the Regency 1811 The Burning of Moscow 1812 Bonaparte returns from Russia 1812 Creation of the Office of Vice Chancellor of Great Britain- • 1813 Abdication of Bonaparte 1814 A J ubilee Festival, in Celebration of Peace, and the Centenary of the House of Brunswick 1814 Congress at Vienna 1814 Treaty of Peace between Eng- land and America 1814 Bonaparte from Elba takes pos- session of Paris 1815 Battle of Waterloo 1816 Commencement of the Revolu- tion in Spain 1820 Death of George III. 1820 Trial of Queen Caroline 1820 Death of Napoleon 1821 Commencement of the Greek Revolution 1821 A. D Battle of Navarino 1827 Repeal of the Test Act 1828 Bill passed for the Emancipa- tion of Roman Catholics 1829 Revolution in France 1830 War between Holland and Bel- gium 1831 Civil War in Portugal 1832 Meeting of the Reformed Parliar ment in England 1832 Asiatic Cholera appears • • 1832 Civil War in Spain 1833 The Quadruple Alliance con- 1834 eluded 1834 Francis II. of Austria dies 1835 Seminole War in the United States 1836 Victoria becomes Queen of Great Britain 1837 War between France and Mexico 1838 War between Russia and Turkey renewed 1839 Removal of Napoleon's Remains to France 1840 War between Great Britain and China 1841 The Maine Boundary Question settled 1842 Espartero driven from Spain- • 1843 Texas annexed to the United States 1845 War between Mexico and the United States 1846 General Taylor repulses Santa Anna at Buena Vista 1847 General Scott captures the City of Mexico 1847 Overthrow of the French Mo- narchy 1848 Republic established at Rome- - 1848 Insurrections of Democrats throughout Germany 1848 Destructive Famine in Ireland- 1848 California and New Mexico an- nexed to the United States- • 1848 Discovery of the immense Mine- ral Wealth of California 1848 Great Chartist Demonstration in England 1848 Terrible Insurrection in Paris- • 1848 Louis Napoleon Bonaparte elected President of France- • 1848 Capture of Rome by the French 1849 Hungarian Struggle for Nation- ality 1849 Return of Pius IX. to Rome 1849 Asiatic Cholera appears 1849 Passage of the Bill for Compro- mising the Slavery Question in the United States 1850 Death of President Taylor 1850 INDEX. Abbas the Great, 449. Abbasside Khalifs, 237. Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, 443. Abco Beker, 209. 214. Aboo Taleeb. 208. Abraham, 30. AchEcans, 46. Addicti. 93. Adolf. 182. Adrian VI., 403. .Ethiopians, 17. Africa, 221. Agathocles, 113. Agesilaus, 64. Atrrarian law, 94. Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of, 487. Alaric, 182. Alcazar-quivir, battle of, 426. Alcibiades, 61. Alexandt^r the Great, 69. Alexander VI., Pope, 383. Alexander of Russia, 527. Alexandria, 69. 220. Alexius of Constantinople, 285. Alfonso X., the Wise, of Castile, 371. Alfonso of Portugal. 305. Alfred of England, 244. Ali. 214. Alj iibarrota, battle of, 373. Allenianni, 195. Alliance, the Grand, 465. Alliance, the Quadruple, 475. Almohades, the, 305. Almoravites, 257. Alp Arslan, 281. Alva, Duke of, 419. America, discovery of, 374. Amphictyonic Council, 68. Amroo, 215. Anastasius, 202. Andrew III. of Hungary, 362. Anglo-Saxons, 199. Angora, battle o^ 368. Anne, Queen of England, 465. Annibal, 114. Antalcidas, peace of, 63. Antigonus Gonatus, 73. Antiochus the Great, 116. Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, 160. Antoninus the Pious, 160. Antonius, Marcus, 147. Appius Claudius, 98. Apulia, Duke of, 267. Arabia, 30. Khalifs of, 261. Aragon, Kings of, 372. Archon, creation o^ 52. Ardeshir, 206. Aristidep, 68. Armenia, 79. Arsacides, 81. Ariaxerxes I., 43. Artaxerxes II., 44. Asdrubal, 114. Assassins, Society of, 261. Assyria, 24. Astolfo, 228. Astyages, 39. Athens, 51. 56. 62. Attila, 186. Augsburg, recess of, 401. Augustus, title of, 159. Augustus (vid. Octavianus), 151. Aurelian. successor to Claudius, 167. Authar, king of the Lombards, 225. Avitus, 187. Ayesha, wife of Mohammed, 214. Azincourt, 344. B. Babylon, 24. Bactria, 23. Baliol, of Scotland, .365. Bannockburn, battle of, 359. Barcelona, Count of, 263. Basil 1., dynasty of, 256. Battle of Marathon, 43. Citnaxa, 44. Platsea, 57. Leuctra, 64. Mantineia, 67. Clissronea, 68. 128. Granicus, 69. Issus and Arbela, 69. Ipsus, 73. Allia, 103. ^gatian Islands, 113. Trebia, 114. Traesimene, 114. Cannae, 114. Pharsalia, 140. Philippi, 147. Actium, 148. Chalons, 186. Zulpich, 200. Beder, 210. Cadesia, 219. Xeres, 222. Tours, 223. Foutcnoy, 230. 484. 621 622 INDEX. Battle of Hastings, 252. L«gnauo, 293. Evesham, 303. Navas de Tolosa, 305. Ourique, 305. Wollstadt, 316. Meloria, 324. Morgarten, 334. Bosworth, 348. Crecy, 350. Poitiers, 350. Azincourt, 344. Bannockburn, 359. Nicopolis, 366. Varua, 366. Belgrade, 367. Angora, 368. Navarrete, 371. Aljubarrota, 373. Marignano, 391. Pavia, 392. Cerisoles, 398. Flodden, 402. Mohacs, 408. St. Quintin, 409. Jarnac, 413. Coutras, 414. Ivry, 415. Alcazar-quivir, 426. Buitenfeld, 433. 438. Liitzen, 434. Nordlingen, 434. 438. Naseby, 448. Seneffe, 456. Boyne, 462, Aughrim, 462. Blenheim, 466. Bamillies, 466. Almanza, 469. Malplaquet, 469. Narva, 471. Pnltowa, 472. Dettingen, 483. Culloden, 487. Minden, 489. Neer-VVinden, 512. Lodi, 616. Rivoli, 616. Marengo, 518. Hohenlinden, 518. Trafalgar, 521. Austerlitz, 521. Jena, 522. Friedland, 522. Vimiero, 523. Aspern, 523. Wagram, 523. Talavera, 524. Albuera, 524. Salamanca, 524. Borodino, 527. Leipzig, 527. Vittoria, 627. New Orleans, 536. Waterloo, 528. Battle of Napoli, 581. Agraphia, 681, Navarino, 581. Buena Vista, 589. Cerro Gordo, 589. Contreras, 590. Churubusco, 690. Mexico, 590. Paris, 598. Becket, Thomas a, 300, Beder, battle of, 2l0. Belgrade, battle of, 367. Belisarius, 192. 205. Benedict XI., 318. Bithynia, 75. Blenheim, battle of, 466. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 616. Bonaparte, Joseph and Louis, 522. Bonaparte, Jerome, 522. Boniface VIIL, Pope, 317. Bretigni, 353. Brissot, 511. Britain, 138. 159. Bruce, Robert, 356. Brutus, 144. Burgundians, 194. Burgundy, Duke of, 337. Byzantine Empire, 201. C. Caepio, 126. Calmar, union of, 361. Cambray, league of, 384. Cambray, peace of, 396. Cambyses, 40. Camillus, 102. Campo Formio, peace of, 516. Canute (Knut), 252. Caracalla, 162. Carinus, 167. Carthage, 82. 110. 116. Cams, 167. Cassander, 74. Cassius, Spurius, 94. Cassius and Brutus, 144. Catiline, 134. Catherine I. of Russia, 477. Catherine II., 494. Cato, 140. Csesar, 134. 139. 144. Caesar, title of, 159. Chaldeans, 27. Chalons, battle of, 186. Charlemagne, 231. Charles Martel, 227. Charles I. of England, 447. Charles II. of England, 453. Charles Edward, the Pretender, 476. Charles V. and VI. of France, 339. 363 Charles VII. of France, 340. Charles VIII. of France, 341. Charles IX. of France, 410. Charles of Anjou, 328. Charles III, of Hungary, 391. INDEX. 623 Charles IT. of Naples, 328. Charles XII. of Sweden, 471. Chateau Cambresis, peace of, 323. China, 18. Chingis Khan, 306, Christ, 162. Christian II. of Denmark, 380. Christianity, corruption o^ 170. Cicero, M. Tullius, 134. Cimbri, 125. Cincinnatus, 101. Clarendon, constitutions o^ 300. Claudius, Emperor, 167. Clement III., Pope, 310. Clement V., Pope, 318. Clement VII., Pope, 403. Cleopatra, 143. 148. Clinton, Sir Henry, 500. Clive, Colonel, 505. Clusium, battle of, 103. Coligni, 413. Columbus, Christopher, 374. Commodus, 161. Couon, 63. Courad of Swabia, 198. Constantine the Great, 169. Coustantine II., 174. Constantinople, 170. 176. 226. 234. Constaiitinus, 169. Coutras, battle of, 414. Crassas, 134. Crecy, battle of, 350. Crespi, peace of, 268. Critolaus, 120. CIroesus, 40. Ci-omwell, 453. Crusades, 285. 310. Cyrus, 44. Dandolo, Henry, Doge of Venice, 327. Danes, or Northmen, 244. 252. Darius Hy.^'taspes, 40. Darius Codomanus, 44. 56. David, 37. David, son of Robert Bruce, 359. Daza, 113. Decemvirs, 97. Decius, 109. Decius, successor of Philip, 164. Dejoces, 39. Demetriu , 51. Denmark, 407. 471. Demosthenes, 62. 68. Dermot, M'Murrough, 304. Dettingen, battle of. 488. Dictatorship, 92. Dido, 82. Diocletian, 161. Dionysius of Syracuse, 86. Domitian, 159. Domnina, 180. Dorian migration, 49. Draco, 52. . Duillius, 113. Dumouriez, 512. E. EastrGoths, 192. Edward I. of England *•! Edward II. and III oi ifingland, 342, 359. Edward IV. of England, 347. Edward V. of England, 347. Edward VI, of England. 42d. Egbert of England, 234. Egypt, 27. 81. 219. Elagabalus, 162, Elizabeth of England, 122. Emperors of Rome, 151-170. England, 227. 234. 251. 276. 297. 330. 379, 402. 422. 444, 453. 462, 475, 487. 551. 598. Epaminondas, 64. Ephori, 51. Ephesus, 136. Europe, 378. P. Fabian gens, 102. Ferdinand I. of Aragon. 372. Feudal system, 232. Flavian family, 126. Flodden, battle of, 402. Florence, 323, France, 225. 246. 275. 298. 349, 38a 409. 439. 450, 511. 539, 596. Francis I., 391. .397. Francis II. of France, 402. Franks, the, 196. Frederic 1. ( Rarbarossa), 294. 310. Frederic II. of Germany, 297. Frederic, Elector "of Saxony 398. Frederic 11. of Prussia, 481, French Revolution, 511, Fronde, the, 450. Fulvia, wife of Antonius, 147. G. Gates, General, 439. Galba, 155. Gallienus, 164. Gasnevides, 262. Gauls, 102. 113. Genoa, 324. Germany, 227. 246. 285, 293, 330, 38a 396. Genseric, 123, Godfrey of Bouillon, 192. Gondebald, 131. Gordian III., 163. Gorm the Old, 164, Goths, 180, Gotho-Germans, 191. Gracchus, 122. Granada, conquest of, 374. 624 INDEX. Greece, 45. Gregory I., Pope, 225. Gregory II., Pope, 222. Gregory VII., Pope, 270. Guelfs and Ghibillins, 293. Guise, Duke of, 416. Gustavus Adolphus, 433. Gustavus Vasa, 407. Gustavus III., 509. H. Hadrian, 160. Ilardicanute, 252. Harmodius and Aristogeiton, 65. Harold, 252. Harold, Fair-hair, 244. Haroon-er-Rasheed, 238. Henry I. of England, 279. Henry II. of Eugland, 299. Henry III. of Eugland, 303. Henry IV, of England, 343. Henry V. and VI. of England, 344. Henry VII. of England, 894. Henry VIII. of England, 402. Henry II. of France, 409. Henry III. of France, 414. Henry IV. of France, 415. Henry I. (the Fowler) of Germany, 249. Henry II. and III. of Germany, 275. Henry IV. of Germany, 270. Henry V. of Germany, 293. Henry VI. of Germany, 297. Henry VII. of Germany, 330. Heraclius, 206. Hernicians, 109. Herod, 80. Heruli, the, 138. Hildebrand, Archdeacon of Rome, 270. Hippias and Hipparchus, 55. Hippodrome, blue and green factions of, 201. Holland, 448. Holy War, 74. Honorius. 182. Howe, General, 499. Hungary, 362. Hungarians, the, 243. Hunneric, 135. Huns, the, 180. Huss, the Reformer, 333. Hjfder Ali, 605. I. lUyrians, 113. India, 22. 503. India, discovery of a passage to, 373. Innocent III., Pope, 287. Ireland, 300. Ismail, 386. Israel, 37. Italians, 127. Italy, 192. 194. 227. 250. 264. 269. 287. 292, 317, 323. 383. 403. 428. 444. 664 601. Ivry, battle o^ 415. J. James VI. of Scotland, 444. James II. of England, 457. Janus, temple of, 151. Jarnac, battle of, 413. Jason of Pherae, 67. Jerome of Prague, 323. Jerusalem, 138. Jesus Christ, 152. Jesuits, 493. Jews, 156. 173. Joan of Arc. 340. Joanna I. and II. of Naples, 329. John of England, 302. John XXII. Pope, 321. John III., Don of Portugal, 403. Judea, 80. Jugurtha. 125. Julian, 175. Julius II., Pope, 403, Justin, 203. Justin II., 203. Justinian, 202. K. Kelts, 103. Kerreem Khan of Persia, 506. Khadijah, wife of Mohammed 209 Khaled, 213. Khalifs, 214. Khalifat at Bagdad, 316. Khosroo, 208. Knights at Rome, 126. Koran, 210. I" Laconia, 50. J^a Fayette, 511. Latins, 108. Leo IX., Pope, 273. Leo X., Pope, 390. Leonidas, 57, Lepidus, 147. Licinius, 104. Ligurians, 114. Lothaire, 246. Lothaire II., 246. Lombards, 194. 225. Louis VII. of France, 298. Louis VIII. of France, 299. Louis IX. of France, 299. Louis X. of France, 335. Louis XI. of France, 340. Louis XII. of France, 380. Louis XIII. of France, 439. Louis XIV. of France, 454. Louis XVI. of France, 612. INDEX. 62d Loui>s XVIII. of France, 539. L-.Kullup, 133. l^uther, Dr. Martin, 390, Liitprand. 226. 228. Llitzen, battle of, 434. Ly(airgus, 50. Lysimachus, 75. M. Macbeth, 355. Maccabees, 80. Macedonian War, 115. Macodon, CO. 90. Marrinus, 162. Mselius, Spurius, 201. Magna Charta, 303. Majoriaiius. 187. Mahmood of Ghizni, 2^1. Mamelukes, b09. Man, 25. Manfred, 338. Manlius, lOS. Marcian, 202. Maria Theresa, 481. Marius. 126. Marlborough, Earl o:^. .350. Marj' of Eiiglaai, -l'^. Mary of Scotland, ■i.Qb. Matthias, 432. Maxentius, 169. Maurice, 169. Maarice, successor to tV»v- Irtnce of Oiange, 449. Maximianus, Herculiwj, )nyS. Maximilian of Germaa^ V^. Maximilian II., 427. Mede«, 38. Melaucthon, 396. Metellus, 126. Miltiades, 57. Mithridates VII., 127. Mohammed, 208. Mongols, 315. Moorad (Amurath), 365. Moore, Sir John, 349. Moriscoes, expulsion of, 3V2. Moses, 30. Motassem, Khalif, 262. N. Nadir Shah, 478. Naples, 293. Narva, battle of, 371. Narvarrete, battle of, 371. Navas de Tolosa, battle of, 305. Nebuchadnezzar, 27. Necker, minister of Louis XVI., 511. Nelson, Admiral, 517. Nero, Domitius, 155. Nerva, 152. Netherlands, 416. New-Orleans, battle of, 536. Next, 93. t)0 Ney, Marshal, 524. Nicholas, Pope, 267. Nicholas III., Pope, 220. Nicopoiis, battle of. 36f». Ninieguen. peace of, 306. Normans. 264. Northmen, or Danes, 244. Numerian, 111. Octavius, consul, 128. Octavianus, 144. Odoacer, 188. Ofella, 132. Omar, Khalif, 214. Ommiyades, the, 221. Opimius, 125. Orchau, 365. Orleans, Duke of, 339. * O'Ruarc of Breffney, 304. Othman, Khalif, 214. Otho, Emperor of Rome, 155. Otho I., II., III., of Germany, 260. Ottomans, the, 278. Ourique, battle of, 305. Papal power, 269. 287. 317. Parthia, 81. Paulus iEmilius, 718. Paul III., Pope, 403. Pavia, battle of, 392. Peace of Antalcidas, 63. Verdun, 240. Constance, 293. Bretigni, 353. Cam bray, 396. Crespi, 398. Passau, 402. Chateau Cambresia, 409. Westphalia, 439. Breda, 454. Aix-la-Chapelle, 487. Nimeguen, 4.i9. Utrecht, 470. Vienna, 477. Carlowitz, 477. Paris, 490. 528. Campo Formio, 516w LuneviUe, 518. Amiens. 521. Tilsit, 522. Pedro, of Portugal, 372. Peisistratus, 55. Pelopidas, 64. Peloponnesian War, 58. Pembroke, Earl of, surnamed Strongs bow, 304. Peninsular War, 524. Perdiccas, 73. Pericles, 58. Persia, 206. 219. 306. 386. 449. 478. Persians, 38. 626 INDEX, Peter tbe CraeL 3T2. y«ter the Great, 4T1. Petsr the Hermit, 285, Philip of Macedon, 67. Philip II. ©f France, 298. 311, Philip in., the Bold, 334. Philip IV., the Fair. 835. PhiJip, SKceessor to ©ordoa III, 163. Philip II. of Spain, 408. Philip III. and IV. of Spain, 443. Philistimes, 2». Phcenidans, 2&, Pharsalia, battie o^ 140. Pisa, 324. Planens, 144. Plantagenets, the, 299. 342. Poland, 380. 427. 494. Pompeiua, Caeius, 134. 143. p0BLtU3, 76. PopeS;, the, 269. 287. 21%. Popish Plot, 439. Porseuna, 91. Portugal, 305. 372. 384. 403. 426. Pragmatic Sanction, 476. Probu9, 167. Protestants, mgim &f, 39&. Ptolemy, 81. Ptolemy II. and III., 82. Publilius Philo, 109. Pmnic War, I., 110. 11., 114. Ill, 116. Pyrenees, peace o^ 453. Pyrrhus, 109. B. Raymond of Totilouse^ 285. 29&. Reformation, 390. Regulus, 113. Republics, Italian, 323. Revolution, English, 460. Richard I. of England, 300.311. Richard II. of Englaaid, 343. 353. 360. Richard III. of England, 347. Rieheiieu, Cardinal, 440. Robert, son of Wiliiam the Con- queror, 279. Robert IIT. of Scotland, 360i Robespierre, 512. Rodolf of Hapsburg, 330. Rogations, the Licinian, 104. Rome, 85. 110. 121. 151. 174. 187. Russia, 252. 380. 449. 471.477. 488. 527. 573. 605. Ryehouse Plot, 459. S. Sabelliaa Race, 127. Saladin, 236. 239. * ■?amnite War, 108. Samuel, 37. ^assanian Kings, 207. ilaul, 37. 'avoy, 383. tcaudinavia, 360. 380. Seipio, 119. Si otiand, 35&. Seleucns, 73. Selim I. of Turkey, 385. Selim II. of Turkey, 431, Selim III. of Turkey, 51©. 52* Seljookians, 280. Sertorius, 132. Servius TuUius, 87, Severus, Alexander, 162. Severua, Septimius, 162. Shahpoor, King of Persia, 207. ' Sheeahs and Soonees, 215. Sicily, 293. Sigmund, 195. Sigismund, King of Hungary, 3^ Silesian War, 481. Simon de Montfort, 303. Solomon, 37. Solon, 55. Spain, 120. 200. 221. 263, 280. 304. 30, 384. 403. 443. 462. 6^. 554. Sparta, 50-63. Spartaeus, 132. Spurius MasliBS, 98. Stephen, King of England, 279^ Stolo, e. Licinias, 104. Suffavee, 386. Suleiman, 407, 408. Sulla, 127. Sultan, title of, 263. SuTaroff, 340. Switzerland, 334. 38®^. Sweden, 407. 471. Syracuse, 110. Syria, 79. 115. Syrian Wars, 11&. T. Tacitus, 167. Tadmor, 38. Tarik, 222. Tarquin, 87. Tarqisinius, 92. Tatars, 367. Templars, 286. Test Act, 459. Thebes, 52. Theioistocles, 57. Theodorie, 192. Theodosius, 181. Theodosius II., 201. Thermopylae, 57. Thetes, the, 55. Thrace, 75. Tiberius, successor to Augttstus, 152. Tiberius, successor to Justin II., 20&. Timoor, 367. Tippoo, son to Hyder All, 6©5. Titus, son to Vespasian, 159, Tooloon, 262, Toghrul Beg, 281. Totila, 193. Trajan, 159. INDEX. 62: rribrinate at Rome, 92. Triumvirate, 147. Turk<'y, 385. 407. 431. 449. 477. 495. 577. 605. Tuscans, 91. U. Umhrian Kace, 127. Urban II., 191. Urban VI., 321. Utrecht, peace of, 470. V. Valens, 180. Valeutinian III., 187. Valerian, 164. Varna, battle of, 366. Vasa, GustaTUS, of Sweden, 407. V.5ii, 104. Venice, 327. Verdun, treaty of, 240. Vervins, treaty of, 416. Vespasian, 156. Virginia and Virginius, 98. Viriatus, 120. Vitellius, 156. Vortigern, 200. W. ' Wales, union of, 342. Wallace, William, 358. Washington, General, 499. Waterloo, battle of, 528. Wellington, Lord, 524. West-Goths in Spain, 200. Westphalia, peace of, 439. Wickliffe, the Reformer, 322. William I., or Conqueror, 252. 27(L William II. of England, 279. William III. of England, 462. William of Sicily, 298. X. Xanthippus, 113. Xerxes, 57. T. Tacoob-ben-Leis, 258. Yezdejird, 207. Z. Zeno, 192. Zuinglius, the Reformer, 891. XHE END. H 96 8 9 4 .Ji ^ 'A^^' r-v"*!*,-'-.' ■>*• s^' ' '-^ry^ •f^T J^ ■^ r ' -, • ■ i " ■ 4 4 4 -S i^'Ht^ . ■•■..; * I' $t^ t^' •;v ,^.*/'-''^^^3i ^fji^ ' *i.'\''^.*. ' >A''f^ — i A.'^^ ^ "'. . o.-^**. c.>-