, 
 
 ■. 
 
Copyright N°. 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 
 
ATHLETIC GAMES IN THE 
 EDUCATION OF WOMEN 
 
 BY 
 
 GERTRUDE DUDLEY 
 
 Director of the Women's Department of Physical 
 Education, University of Chicago 
 
 AND 
 
 FRANCES A. KELLOR 
 
 Author of "Experimental Sociology" "Out of Work" 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1909 
 
by 
 
 LIBRARY cf CONGRESS 
 Two Comes Recerved 
 
 FEB 5 1909 
 
 Copyritrnt Entry 
 6 LASS CC XXc ' No 
 
 i-*^ sat 
 
 COPY 3. 
 
 Copyright, 1909, 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 Published. February, 1909 
 
 THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS 
 RAHVVAY, N. J. 
 
i 
 
 
 : $£i & 
 
 TO 
 W. G. A. 
 
 WHOSE STANDARD AND ACHIEVEMENTS 
 
 IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSPIRE 
 
 THE BEST EFFORTS IN OTHERS 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 In offering to the public the results of our investi- 
 gation, experience and observation, we have pur- 
 posely set ourselves certain limitations. For a period 
 of ten years we have carefully studied the educational 
 value of organized games and have tested with all 
 classes of girls — in university, high school, private 
 school and social institutions — the theories and sug- 
 gestions which we have now put into tangible form, 
 in the hope that those interested in social education 
 and group welfare, based on the highest individual 
 efficiency, will find some value in them. Our experi- 
 ments with many hundreds of students and players 
 have demonstrated repeatedly that athletic games are 
 real factors in education. 
 
 We have attempted no study or discussion of gym- 
 nastics or sports, for there are many volumes which 
 deal with these subjects. Furthermore, sports are 
 individual, their purpose is primarily recreative and 
 they do not depend upon the co-operation of any 
 other individual. Walking, riding, swimming, golf, 
 bowling, archery and track events are types of such 
 sports. On the other hand, athletic games are social 
 in their nature and may be used for both education 
 and recreation. These games consist of a set of 
 actions performed according to prescribed rules and 
 depend for their success upon the co-operative action 
 
 v 
 
vi FOREWORD 
 
 of two or more persons. They include the highly 
 organized games of basketball, indoor baseball, 
 hockey, lacrosse, cricket, etc., as well as such minor 
 games as captain-ball, volley-ball, long-ball and 
 drive-ball. We have confined our discussion to more 
 highly organized games, since Mr. Johnson in his 
 excellent work on " Education by Games " includes 
 kindergarten and primary games and brings the dis- 
 cussion up to the point from which we have started. 
 Throughout w T e have maintained the educational point 
 of view which w T e believe is the only plane upon which 
 athletics for women can be w r isely conducted. 
 
 It may seem in our emphasis on athletics as a train- 
 ing for citizenship and as a part of general educa- 
 tion, that we have neglected their physical value to 
 the individual. While we do not underestimate this 
 value, we believe that it is more generally recognized 
 and that there are so many advocates in its favor 
 that it is unnecessary to emphasize it here. 
 
 Although we have restricted this discussion to 
 women, our experience in teaching boys shows the 
 need in this field to be hardly less apparent. Among 
 men the commercial and competitive spirit pre- 
 dominates and there is only a dawning conscious- 
 ness on the part of comparatively few men instruct- 
 ors of the larger educational worth of athletics. 
 Notwithstanding this, athletics as now used do tend 
 to develop among men, in some measure, a group con- 
 sciousness as well as admirable personal qualities. 
 This goes far to show that they possess an intrinsic 
 educational value. 
 
FOREWORD vii 
 
 Many instructors who sent us information and sug- 
 gestions requested that they should not be quoted. 
 Owing to these requests and the rivalry existing 
 among many schools and instructors, we have omitted 
 many of the references. It has not been our purpose 
 to criticise any school or instructor as such, but to 
 present the data in such a way as to make them gener- 
 ally useful, and suggestive to schools, instructors, 
 parents, players and those interested in community 
 welfare. 
 
 We have included a technical discussion of some 
 highly organized games now widely used by women 
 because there are some who would be willing to teach 
 athletics as a part of general education if there were 
 a way to master the details. 
 
 We acknowledge a deep indebtedness to the in- 
 structors, schools and organizations that have co- 
 operated by answering the questionnaire, making sug- 
 gestions, and sending us information about their 
 equipment, facilities and systems of work ; also to the 
 social workers who have gone over the material and 
 have made clearer its practical social significance. 
 
 The Authors. 
 
 The University of Chicago. 
 
X 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Part I 
 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Citizenship and Social Education ... 3 
 
 II. Educational Value of Athletics ... 19 
 
 III. Instructors — Their Responsibility and Train- 
 ing 45 
 
 Part II 
 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 IV. Athletics in Secondary Schools ... 69 
 
 V. Athletics in Universities and Colleges . . 96 
 
 VI. Athletics in Political and Social Organiza- 
 tions 110 
 
 VII. Competitive and Public Games . . . .149 
 
 Part III 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 VIII. General Training and Contests .... 165 
 
 IX. Basketball 179 
 
 X. Indoor Baseball 212 
 
 XL Field Hockey 237 
 
 INDEX 265 
 
PART I 
 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
CHAPTER I 
 CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 
 
 However much individuals may differ in their 
 opinions as to the position of women in society, their 
 rights, their capabilities, their future activities, or 
 the thousand and one other phases of their lives and 
 character which form topics for discussion of seem- 
 ingly never-ending interest, there are certain existing 
 conditions and well-defined tendencies in society to- 
 day which cannot be properly met by opinions or 
 prejudices but which demand and should receive ju- 
 dicial analysis, and to meet which women need to be 
 adequately prepared. 
 
 Perhaps the most significant change in society's 
 demand upon women to-day is the substitution of co- 
 operative effort for individualistic effort and the de- 
 velopment of group consciousness beyond the family 
 circle. This has been a gradual process, so gradual 
 that many women in the more secluded walks of life 
 do not see the need of a change in the training of 
 women to meet a demand, the full meaning of which 
 they fail to grasp. 
 
 Social Responsibility of Women. — The most con- 
 spicuous change has been in the industrial world. In 
 1900 more than 5,000,000 women were found engaged 
 in gainful occupations. This by no means includes the 
 
4 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 many Vho earn money in their own homes or those 
 who supplement their small incomes in one way or 
 another. Neither does it include the many children 
 who are at work. This entrance into the industrial 
 1 world creates a more complex environment, requires 
 more rapid adjustment, and above all increases 
 greatly the necessity for co-operative work, outside 
 the home. 
 
 The extension of the property rights of women in 
 many of the states, and the many estates held by 
 them, have enlarged the group of women investors, 
 capitalists and employers. This has created for them 
 broader social responsibilities and the necessity for 
 group judgments. Such unavoidable responsibility 
 is seen in the wide use which women necessarily make 
 of middlemen. Their interests and activities are so 
 varied that numerous agents are employed to carry 
 out their orders. This removal from the result of 
 their acts — for instance, when they receive rents from 
 tenements but know nothing of conditions existing 
 in them because of their entire reliance upon agents — 
 frequently makes them " tolerators but not neces- 
 sarily practitioners" of anti-social acts. 
 
 The political field also has been greatly widened. 
 Not only have women the franchise in several of the 
 >tates, but in others they vote upon educational ques- 
 tions and other public matters such as taxation. The 
 number who now hold political positions of trust or 
 who are engaged in lines of activity which have a 
 far-reaching influence upon political affairs is greatly 
 increased. 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 5 
 
 In the field of social service, including professional 
 charity and philanthropy, the ranks are filled with 
 women and many others are seeking positions. Re- 
 ligious activity in many of its forms of ministration 
 is increasingly in the hands of women. 
 
 Social life is no longer limited to the entertainment 
 of friends or families, the self-culture club or simple 
 home function. These are varied in a thousand ways 
 by more impersonal and highly organized social ac- 
 tivities, such as card parties with their competitive 
 element; club-meetings with their co-operative ele- 
 ment; civic activities with their public welfare ele- 
 ment ; and auxiliary organizations for great state and 
 national movements. Mothers, teachers and workers 
 all have some form of organized effort which calls 
 for co-operation. 
 
 This increased participation in industrial life and 
 in public affairs and variation of social responsibility 
 tends at the present time to make women take life too 
 seriously, live too strenuously, and results in a diminu- 
 tion of rest and relaxation. The play-spirit is yield- 
 ing to the work-spirit and the loss of individual play- 
 spirit has not yet found its counterpart in the pro- 
 portionate increase of the group play-spirit — an es- 
 sential thing to the best social activity and balance. 
 
 Even in the home the demand for co-operative work 
 is growing. In the cities the complexities have so in- 
 creased that its successful maintenance means de- 
 pendence upon others in a thousand forms — for serv- 
 ice, for food, for protection ; and in return additional 
 community burdens are laid upon the housewife — ad- 
 
6 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 justment to her workers, maintenance of a higher 
 standard of living and observance of laws which are 
 made for the equal protection of all. The housewife 
 in the apartment or tenement cannot make as much 
 noise, or dispose of her garbage, or use her fire- 
 escapes, as she will, without reference to the comfort 
 of others. Moreover, such are the problems pre- 
 sented by our cities that many live in the closer union 
 of the co-operative home or apartment hotel where an 
 even greater degree of co-operation is required. 
 
 But it is not only girls who marry or who earn 
 their own living who are confronted with a greater 
 necessity for adjustment. There is in every com- 
 munity a small group of girls who have just a bit too 
 much money to need to work for a living and too much 
 family to make it easy to become useful. Many of 
 these have been well educated and along with abundant 
 vitality possess the spirit of wishing to do or become 
 something worth while from the point of view of 
 efficiency in the community. Parents, whose goal 
 for their girls is so frequently marriage or social 
 success, cannot understand this new community sense 
 which is a part of the spirit of the age and the result- 
 ing moral, social and economic waste is a serious loss 
 to community life. There is enough to do, but neither 
 the training nor freedom with which to do it. 
 
 The point is that women can no longer live in such 
 a way that they influence only their own homes, family 
 and immediate circle. The mother who chats with 
 a few neighbors over a cup of tea has not the influ- 
 ence that the club-woman has when she gambles with 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 7 
 
 a party of fifty or a hundred; or who attends huge 
 conventions and runs off elections ; or that the busi- 
 ness and professional woman has who meets hundreds 
 of patrons and must often decide their moral as well 
 as business problems ; or that the thousands of clerks 
 and stenographers have who form a part of the mesh 
 of industrial and political life; or that the factory 
 worker has when she toils with a thousand others. 
 
 Upon the completion of her education, the girl thus 
 has no longer the simple choice of marriage, teaching 
 or missionary work. She has before her a wide range 
 of vocations and a great array of opportunities in 
 almost every field — all of which offer her a livelihood 
 and practically all of which, while demanding indi- 
 vidual efficiency, demand increasingly the power to 
 work harmoniously and effectively with the group. 
 
 Influence upon Social Control. — Irrespective of 
 women's occupational opportunities, broad as these 
 are becoming, there are certain forms of social con- 
 trol which they help to create and in a great degree 
 to sustain. Such are the customs, beliefs and tradi- 
 tions which make society stable. The growing pub- 
 licity given to the doings of women has largely in- 
 creased their power over the various forms of social 
 control and both by suggestion and example each 
 individual appeals to and influences a much wider 
 circle than in the past. 
 
 Chief among these forms of social control is public 
 opinion, which even more than laws makes for the 
 happiness or unhappiness of individuals and for the 
 welfare or disadvantage of the community. When 
 
8 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 women judge within a prejudiced, circumscribed 
 horizon, as where they condemn murderers but not 
 adulterators of food or officials of a trust who put up 
 the price of ice so that babies in tenements die for 
 lack of it, they fail to see that they are condemning 
 the lesser rather than the greater offender, simply 
 because the connection of cause and effect is not so 
 apparent in the latter cases. 
 
 While women as a rule are indifferent to any form 
 of morality other than virtue in their own sex, small 
 wonder is it that infractions of public morality are 
 slowly and uncertainly punished by public opinion. 
 It does not change the consequences that women's 
 false social judgments are due not so much to evil 
 thoughts and feelings as to perplexities due to incom- 
 prehension of the given elements in a situation or 
 to a defective sense of justice. There can be no 
 efficient social control by public opinion without a 
 deep sense of justice. Sympathy has long been 
 accepted as a substitute for this in women. But the 
 increasingly varied demands made upon them shows it 
 to be an inadequate substitute. Mr. E. A. Ross well 
 states this : 1 
 
 " It is obedience that articulates the solid, bony 
 framework of social order; sympathy is but the connect- 
 ive tissue. As well build a skeleton out of soft fiber as 
 construct social order out of sympathies. 
 
 " Not friendly aid, but reliable conduct, is the corner- 
 stone of great organization. Now, sympathy will stay 
 the hand of the wife-beater, but it will not spurn the 
 bribe or spare the lie. It will snatch a child from 
 
 "Ross : " Social Control," p. 12. 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 9 
 
 trampling hoofs, but it will not keep the watchman 
 awake, or hold the contractor to the terms of his agree- 
 ment. It will nerve the rescuing fireman, but it will not 
 stimulate the official to do his duty. It will relieve the 
 beggar, but it will not stop the adulteration of goods. 
 It will man the lifeboat, but it will not lead men to give 
 just weight, to make true returns of their property, or 
 to slay their country's enemies. ... A person may be 
 tender-hearted, and yet do vast harm by dodging 
 quarantine, or smuggling in coolies, or falsifying news, 
 or stuffing ballot boxes. . . . 
 
 " Sympathy, then, breaks down at just the point where 
 we are increasingly in need of security. For our social 
 development is marked by the progressive substitution 
 of fixed impersonal relations for transient personal rela- 
 tions. . . . With the advent of the time when the most 
 momentous actions will present no more obvious relation 
 to their remote social consequences than does the finger- 
 ing of the train despatcher to the fate of distant pas- 
 sengers, it will, no doubt, be realized that intermittent 
 sentiment is unable to cope with the problem of subordi- 
 nation, and that other motives must be called in." 
 
 Relation to Rules of the Game. — Women then, 
 whether approved or not, are striving for success in 
 almost every field of life and are of growing impor- 
 tance in making forms of social control. Every 
 field, like every game, has its established rules and 
 regulations, — be it domestic, social, professional or 
 industrial. The fact that women have had no large 
 direct part in formulating these rules does not excuse 
 them from sustaining them. It is a mistake to think 
 that the selfish individualist, whether man or woman, 
 can enter any field or game and play fair without a 
 knowledge of the rules and penalties and without 
 training. The welfare of society depends upon the 
 
10 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 rules being upheld or changed only with the full 
 knowledge of all. Competition is the prevailing 
 spirit and the development of co-operation is the 
 problem in every field of activity in which society is 
 concerned. Good clean success requires fair, economi- 
 cal and co-operative rules in order that players may 
 be equal before them and individual waste may be 
 avoided through team work. This being true, is there 
 any reason why women, in their respective fields of 
 activity and thought, should not abide by the rules 
 of the game or contribute to their enforcement and 
 improvement? If they are defective in the qualities 
 which make for rapid adjustment, is it not reason- 
 able to include in their education such training as 
 will increase their social understanding and efficiency? 
 
 Personal Morality and Social Ethics. — What is 
 the need? Social problems to-day are ethical rather 
 than economic. There is enough food and shelter 
 for all, such is our control over the forces of nature, 
 if only some of the unethical interferences, pro- 
 hibitions and inequalities be removed. It is in the 
 matter of social ethics that women are most unde- 
 veloped and uninstructed. Their sense of morality is 
 personal rather than social and passive rather than 
 active. To be virtuous is to be good. Vice and 
 crime may be a matter of gossip, but their treatment 
 as problems is considered to be proper only for men. 
 Personal duty obscures civic duty and there is an 
 absence of social courage when community interest 
 conflicts with personal comfort. 
 
 It is generally conceded that the standard of per- 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 11 
 
 sonal morality, based upon virtue, is higher among 
 women than among men and it has long been the prac- 
 tice to excuse many of the anti-social acts of women 
 so long as they remain virtuous. But greater indi- 
 vidual freedom, without a commensurate increase of 
 the sense of responsibility for the welfare of the com- 
 munity, has led to an alarming increase of im- 
 morality. Among races where the percentage was 
 small, this has become common when they have 
 come to our American cities to live. The leisure class 
 with not enough outlet for its energy, and industrial 
 workers with too much of a drain upon their energy, 
 both show the increase. It thus becomes clear that 
 this problem of immorality is no longer one for men 
 to solve alone or where the single standard of per- 
 sonal morality will prove all-sufficient. The tempta- 
 tions present themselves in a hundred varied, attract- 
 ive forms, half hidden under general industrial or 
 social conditions, and the training of the girl, which 
 should enable her to understand and guard against 
 force, brutality and lust, does not readily recognize 
 these in their modern insidious forms. 
 
 The Non-Ethical Group. — The socially non- 
 ethical group includes women in every station of life. 
 There is the social representative of the family, who 
 maintains an elaborate establishment or who is hos- 
 pitable, chiefly in order to surpass a rival. There are 
 the mothers, wives and daughters of some of the great 
 financiers, who enjoy the advantages of wealth won 
 under unfair, uneconomic and non-co-operative rules. 
 Women are frequently the cause of the pursuit of 
 
12 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 great wealth and accept it, without sense of responsi- 
 bility, without inquiry or protest, indeed often with- 
 out interest, so long as they are comfortable and their 
 husbands' reputations remain unsullied. There are 
 women who inherit property which they administer 
 without any sense of social obligation, indeed without 
 any desire to know whence it came or whither it goes. 
 There are others who enter professional life and be- 
 come a part of bitter professional jealousies and strife 
 and think that an increase of practice constitutes 
 success, whether won by fair rules or foul. The field 
 of politics and government service also contains many 
 who belong to this group. Among these, wages and 
 individual preferment are placed above service to the 
 community and they do not hesitate to recommend 
 themselves and strive for positions of honor and trust 
 which should be the unsought gift of the public. 
 There are working women who take the places of their 
 fellow-workers at lower wages or accept wages and 
 conditions which compel them to supplement their 
 earnings in doubtful ways, because they work for 
 themselves alone rather than for the cause of working 
 women. 
 
 The Non-Ethical Organization. — Not only this, 
 but women combine in organizations for which they 
 set the standard and which they alone maintain, and 
 there are thus formed socially non-ethical organiza- 
 tions. Clubs of this order are those which exist sim- 
 ply for the entertainment of their members. Many are 
 willing to pay to have a speaker interrupt his busy 
 hours of social service to come and entertain them 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 13 
 
 with " stories of humanity " ; but by no means with 
 the idea of doing anything or of sharing the burden, 
 as their shocked expressions reveal when they are 
 asked to render active service. There are other clubs 
 whose public-spirited leaders do the work, while 
 the members pay their dues and only come to hear 
 about the " club's work " at special and annual meet- 
 ings. There are others which undertake public work 
 but cherish it chiefly for the credit or reputation it 
 brings to the organization. Such jealously guard 
 their " own interests." The bridge whist club which 
 utilizes time and energy out of proportion to the 
 rights and needs of society, and fosters the gambling 
 spirit, falls into this group of organizations. When 
 it averages from four to ten hours of play daily, the 
 same number of hours required of working women in 
 order that they may even live, society has a right to 
 be interested in the consequent waste. 
 
 Non-Ethical Acts and Attitude. — The effects of 
 socially non-ethical acts are not so easily detected. A 
 little disparaging remark in an efficient democracy 
 may put some one out of the game or limit her oppor- 
 tunities. A lie may place some one in a position 
 where her efforts become non-productive. A cheat 
 may displace a better person and retard progress. 
 Never having a good word for any one else may dis- 
 courage others from working for humanity. Dis- 
 regard of the rights of others and selfishness set an 
 example productive of endless evil. Jealousy may dis- 
 tort the whole horizon and break the best of fellowship 
 bonds. Cowardice may leave wrongs unrighted and 
 
14 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 make friendship a mere gainful occupation. And 
 when enough women are daily guilty of these things 
 and they are distorted and magnified, there is created 
 an atmosphere of cheating, lying, suspicion and un- 
 fairness, which vitally affects every interest — the 
 home, society and the nation, for these can be no bet- 
 ter than the citizens who make them. 
 
 The socially non-ethical attitude, quite as much as 
 the act, makes possible the continuance of many con- 
 ditions detrimental to the welfare of society. One 
 cause of the slow growth of social ethics is the indi- 
 vidualistic attitude of women and their interpreta- 
 tion of Christian teaching along the narrow path of 
 individual salvation rather than as an injunction to 
 lose one's life in order to find it more abundantly 
 through effort in behalf of the community. Within 
 the family, fairness, co-operation and unselfishness 
 are kept uppermost by the ties of affection. But 
 once outside each member tends to become a bird of 
 prey. The attitude is, what can I get out of to-day, 
 or out of some one else, or what for my family, with 
 little thought of what can be put into the day for the 
 benefit of the larger group. Personal moral excel- 
 lence may become so narrow as to be socially non- 
 ethical, and while such a citizen may rank as " good " 
 she no longer fulfils the requirements of American 
 citizenship. If those who live in good homes and who 
 know the value of fresh air, sanitation and cleanli- 
 ness, do not lead the crusade against bad tenements, 
 who will? If those who know the effect on children 
 of hard hours of labor do not fight for child labor laws 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 15 
 
 and the education of ignorant parents, who will? And 
 if American-born women, with all the advantages of 
 their native country, do not lend a hand to their immi- 
 grant sisters, who will make them into good citizens? 
 Women do not protest against adulterated foods and 
 medicines because they do not happen to use them. 
 They do not inquire into the conditions in garment 
 factories because cheapness is their standard or they 
 can afford a dressmaker and tailor. They are not 
 conscientious about their hours of shopping because 
 they have no experience as clerks and have not enough 
 imagination to put themselves in another's place. 
 Irreproachable as their characters may be in their 
 own homes and circle, is their social obligation met so 
 long as they are indifferent to the welfare of the 
 group ? 
 
 There are many who mistake benevolent and philan- 
 thropic impulses for social ethics. To give to others 
 out of an abundance or even at a sacrifice may be an 
 impulse aroused through sympathy, sense of duty or 
 sometimes through a desire for self-laudation and for 
 personal power. The code of social ethics, on the other 
 hand, is founded on justice and equality and has no 
 more sense of giving than of receiving, no admission 
 of superiority, no attitude of judgment, no conscious- 
 ness of magnanimity, no reliance on patronage. One 
 is highly personal, the other impersonal; one is indi- 
 vidualistic and the other social. Furthermore, the 
 benevolent person does not necessarily see inequalities 
 and unfair application of rules as does the socially 
 ethical person. Social ethics is essentially the result 
 
16 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 of team work according to the prescribed rules of the 
 game, each player being equal, fair and co-operative, 
 so that his team or class may also be these ; each one 
 being a necessary factor in the group and realizing 
 that the whole group suffers if the enforcement of 
 rules and penalties is not the same for all, and each 
 being willing to insist upon such enforcement. 
 
 Social ethics can only be realized in a small meas- 
 ure through legislation. Stealing, homicide and arson 
 are crimes which are dramatically punishable. These 
 offenses are plainly immoral. But socially non- 
 ethical acts may affect society as disastrously as does 
 theft or homicide, though no legal punishment is pro- 
 vided. The most serious crimes, judged by results 
 upon the whole community, are not necessarily on the 
 statute books, and the awakening social conscience has 
 begun to perceive this truth. Buying supplies (and 
 women are the chief buyers) made under sweat- 
 shop conditions makes it possible for many lives to 
 be lost yearly because the workers are under-nour- 
 ished. Respectable owners of houses which are used 
 as dens of immorality make it possible for thousands 
 of young girls to be led astray each year. Hiring 
 a lawyer to help evade a law which was drawn to 
 serve a, great public purpose, but which has a techni- 
 cal flaw, may leave a whole group unprotected while 
 securing the escape of one individual. Refusal by 
 protective organizations to take in penniless and 
 homeless women at night because they bring no refer- 
 ences or because it is in violation of unwise rules, 
 needs no statute to define its consequences. 
 
CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL EDUCATION 17 
 
 While it may be granted that the social conscious- 
 ness and conscience of women are not proportionate to 
 the needs of society and while it may be admitted that 
 much of their effort will for some time remain indi- 
 vidualistic and their organized effort characterized 
 by disorder and waste, there is no need to be discour- 
 aged or to neglect social education. Movements and 
 organizations undertaken by women are not the only 
 ones that are content with attacking superficial rather 
 than fundamental evils, with using air guns where 
 only cannon will suffice, and which are so lacking in 
 courage that they retard civilization by a million pin- 
 pricks rather than by boldly destroying and rebuild- 
 ing. The socially non-ethical groups and acts are 
 human imperfections, and we have emphasized them 
 in women because it is their position, influence 
 and activities to which we have confined our atten- 
 tion, and because we believe so deeply in women's 
 importance as factors in group expression and 
 intelligence. 
 
 This glimpse of the unlovely picture of the socially 
 non-ethical group has a very bright reverse side which 
 we wish might be presented in as much detail, for 
 it holds out abundant hope for the future. The 
 increasing number of social moral leaders among 
 women, and the growing intelligence, interest and 
 activities of the mass, many of whom are consciously 
 upholding the rules of the game in the group 
 interest, give the courage and faith necessary 
 to present the less hopeful conditions. There are 
 many forces at work in the uplift, and the response, 
 
18 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 if still lacking in power, is sincere and enduring. 
 This in itself refutes any conclusion that the present 
 position of women as group factors is a question of 
 incapacity rather than of ignorance and lack of 
 opportunity. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 
 
 Obviously the demands now made upon women are 
 different from those of fifty or twenty-five years ago, 
 when home and social duties constituted the chief 
 claim. We hope the preceding chapter has made the 
 need for training clear. The question is, then, does* 
 the education of the day supply such training in ade-t 
 quate measure? 
 
 Social Education. — The president of one of the 
 city vacation school systems says : x 
 
 " Our first sin of omission is not far to seek. It is ! 
 our systematic neglect of girls. How few have looked 
 with comprehending eyes upon the less aggressive com- 
 panions of boys and seen their problem also? Modern 
 city conditions, overcrowding, lack of suitable places for 
 play and for quiet normal living are more dangerous for 
 girls than for boys. They succumb more readily to 
 group influences. It is almost impossible to keep their 
 modesty and self-poise in the constant mass living to 
 which they are subjected. They early lose their desire 
 for play. Their imagination is over stimulated in the 
 one direction and becomes nearly atrophied in all others. 
 They are sentimental, clinging, affectionate or hard, 
 cynical and worldly wise, but nearly always old before 
 they are young. Without far more wisdom than we 
 have hitherto shown in their education, their moral 
 
 1 Report on Pittsburgh Vacation Schools, 1906. 
 19 
 
20 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 nature will remain undeveloped, unequal to the fearful 
 strain of the temptations to which they are subjected. 
 We now follow the line of least resistance — give them 
 the sweet sentimental books they like to read, encourage 
 them to sit for hours prosaically sewing and allow them 
 to gather in gossiping groups for the play hour, nor 
 realize, because it all works so smoothly, that we have 
 taken the wrong course in every particular. Every- 
 where the passive, the conventional, the formal. They 
 will have need of bravery in the fight which is before 
 them. Has it ever occurred to us to help them develop 
 the sterner virtues? Have we substituted new ideas for 
 the dominating emotional ones? Have we created in 
 them the passion for a larger life and sense of the social 
 order which gives them mental and moral poise? Have 
 we tried to develop in them a healthy freedom and alert- 
 ness of mind and body ? " 
 
 It is not our purpose to criticise present educa- 
 tional methods but rather to suggest a way in which 
 they may be so extended that girls may receive a 
 better social education, thereby increasing group con- 
 sciousness and responsibility by a sympathetic interest 
 in and understanding of their play-fellows and fellow- 
 workmen. The demand for social education is met 
 now, so far as it is met at all, by instruction along 
 purely intellectual lines, by courses in economics, 
 sociology, politics, etc., in what one might call the 
 technique rather than in the spirit, and little conscious 
 effort is made to increase social efficiency by develop- 
 ing and training the spirit itself. We believe that 
 athletic games — the spontaneous yet directed ex- 
 pression of the play spirit — are peculiarly fitted, if 
 intelligently used, to increase social efficiency through 
 the development of the right social spirit. That this 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 21 
 
 efficiency falls short of the need is, in a measure, due 
 to some of the limitations placed upon the education 
 of women, rather than to incapacity. As a result of 
 her studies upon the differences in sex, Dr. Helen 
 Thompson says: 
 
 " Psychological differences of sex seem to be largely 
 due, not to differences of average capacity, nor to dif- 
 ferences in type of mental activity, but to differences in 
 the social influence brought to bear on the developing 
 individual from early infancy to adult years. The 
 question of the future development of the entire life of 
 women is one of social necessities and ideals rather than 
 of inborn psychological characteristics of sex." x 
 
 Neglect of Athletic Training. — Among these lim- 
 itations on education, none is more conspicuous than 
 that of athletics, which have received but little recog- 
 nition as a character builder or as a factor in group 
 training. Games are given a place in the kinder- 
 garten and in the primary grades, but beyond these 
 they are not only but little recognized but are fre- 
 quently discouraged. About the period of adoles- 
 cence, the tendency is to prohibit them for girls at 
 the very time when group consciousness may be best 
 stimulated or on the other hand quite lost if no effort 
 be made to develop it. 
 
 Where organized games are now given a place in 
 educational institutions, emphasis is almost invariably 
 placed upon their recreative and health values. Al- 
 though our inquiries have been extensive, we have 
 found no schools where they form a part of the edu- 
 
 1 " Mental Traits of Sex," p. 182. 
 
22 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 cational scheme for which credit is given and where 
 they are maintained as a fundamental part of the 
 social education of pupils. 
 
 Relation to Pedagogy. — The omission of athletics 
 as a pedagogical factor seems almost inexplicable 
 when it is remembered that they may often succeed 
 where other activities of the school fail, for they can 
 be used to develop mentality and character by means 
 of a discipline which other pedagogical methods do 
 not possess. Many a girl cannot attain high scholar- 
 ship or social distinction, yet success or prominence 
 may be necessary to her best development. When she 
 is sensitive, shy and socially unsought or unattractive, 
 something aside from books or society is needed. 
 Such a girl may go through life less wearily and 
 monotonously and more healthfully if she has had the 
 friends, success and social opportunity which ath- 
 letics give. 
 
 Influences Which Retard the Adoption of Ath- 
 letics. — It is by no means agreed as yet that women 
 need social education, so their training is still largely 
 individualistic. There also exists much ignorance on 
 the part of educators as to both the value and pos- 
 sibilities of athletics in a scheme of education. 9 Fur- 
 thermore, the majority of women themselves are indif- 
 ferent or content. Any new phase of education has to 
 make its way through custom, prejudice and tradition 
 before it can demonstrate its worth or win recog- 
 nition. Physical education is now making its way 
 just as mental education had to make its way, and the 
 opposition is as vigorous as that raised against the 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 23 
 
 : 
 
 so-called higher education. The arguments that ath 
 letics injure the health and unsex women were also 
 arrayed against their demand for equality of oppor 
 tunity in mental training. There have been some 
 cases of over-play, as there are many cases of over- 
 study, but they are the exception and not the 
 rule. This is true, notwithstanding that school au- 
 thorities have not only refused to make athletics a 
 proportionate part of the school curriculum or have 
 tabooed it, thereby giving it an undesirable and 
 dramatic prominence, but have also declared it not 
 to be a subject for school regulation ! 
 
 One of the greatest bugaboos that have been raised 
 and have much retarded the use of athletics as a part 
 of the educational system is the fear of public con- 
 tests. In the light of actual experience, no fear has 
 been more overworked. Adequate supervision and 
 training along educational lines have demonstrated 
 that this is a matter entirely within the control of 
 educators. 
 
 A number of schools prohibit all organized games 
 because there are no so-called " girls' games." A 
 " girls' game " almost invariably means the reten- 
 tion of a large individualistic element — a thing im- 
 possible where team work is required. This attitude 
 is based upon two erroneous conceptions. 
 
 First, it is assumed that boys' games, when used 
 by girls, are injurious to health, deportment and 
 manners. Injury to health is frequently exagger- 
 ated. When a girl is hurt in a game, the first cry is, 
 " No more games." The number of accidents to 
 
24 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 women in motors is a hundred-fold greater and no 
 such cry is raised. Neither do the casualties result- 
 ing from unprotected machinery lead to greater pro- 
 tection of women than men workers. Much has been 
 written and said about injury to health, but we have 
 found no trustworthy studies upon which such state- 
 ments can be based. In this age of facts, opinions, no 
 matter how prominent the authorities who hold them, 
 must carry their proof. Facts cannot be gathered by 
 persons spurred on by some personal grievance or by 
 those who have as an incentive some time-honored pre- 
 judice or whose point of view is obscured by social 
 barriers. Nor are they to be gathered by groups of 
 society women whose playground is the drawing-room 
 and whose sportsmanship has been learned in pursuit 
 of fads. A study to determine the physical and so- 
 cial advantages and disadvantages of organized games 
 includes the essentials of any fair test, namely, con- 
 temporaneous, impartial observations by experienced 
 and trained persons, during a representative period, 
 upon a representative number under all conditions of 
 training and supervision. Such a study will be more 
 accurate if due weight be given to hereditary and en- 
 vironmental influences and if it includes both the edu- 
 cational and recreative features of games. 
 
 Second, it is also assumed by the advocates of 
 " girls' games " that social education of women needs 
 to be of a special kind. While good citizenship re- 
 quires varying forms of expression, does it demand 
 different moral qualities of men and women, consid- 
 ered as citizens? Are not unfairness, selfishness, lack 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 25 
 
 of honor, failure to co-operate, the spirit of gain 
 overshadowing the spirit of service, disastrous to the 
 group irrespective of which sex practises them? Are 
 not public opinion and social judgments injurious or 
 beneficial according to enlightenment rather than to 
 sex? 
 
 In demanding separate games for girls, one in- 
 structor writes : " Women who play the same games 
 as men are constantly compared with them; and as 
 they can never play as well, they suffer by compari- 
 son." Nothing shows better the usual shallow con- 
 ception of the value of games. Are women discour- 
 aged in the study of mathematics because they so 
 rarely become great mathematicians ; or in music be- 
 cause they so seldom become great composers? Is 
 there any field in which women and men are not and 
 will not always be compared? This matter of play- 
 ing games is one to be determined, not by comparison 
 of the sexes, but by an educational principle. If 
 women can be trained well enough to make athletics 
 beneficial and interesting to themselves, then it is good 
 for them to play ; if athletics develop in women quali- 
 ties valuable to them as individuals and desirable for 
 them to possess as members of a social group, then 
 also is it well for them to play. 
 
 The Standard of Athletics. — A more fundamental 
 explanation of the omission of athletics is the pre- 
 vailing standard. Changes in both aims and methods 
 along the following lines are imperative before they 
 can become a part of an educational system. 
 
 Equal consideration and emphasis upon the educa- 
 
26 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 tional and health values are essential. This implies 
 that the theory as well as practice be understood. 
 
 Athletics are a means to an end, not an end in 
 themselves, and are to be conducted for the good of 
 the entire number and not for the purpose of making 
 championship teams and developing record-breakers 
 and pennant-winners. 
 
 To be educational and truly health-giving, athletics 
 need to be under the supervision of as careful and 
 well-trained instructors as is any other branch of 
 education. 
 
 The spirit to be striven for is not grim determina- 
 tion to win at any cost but the exhilaration and joy 
 of playing. Athletics thus become social and not 
 business arrangements. With such an aim competi- 
 tive games become a minor factor. 
 
 Advantages of Athletic Training. — If social edu- 
 cation by means of such a standard is possible, how is 
 it to be accomplished? 
 
 First, athletics give a sound body, good co-ordina- 
 tion, normal impulses and control of the appetites and 
 passions. Any social consciousness based upon these 
 is sound to start with. How many women with oppor- 
 tunity and leisure to obtain these can claim them? 
 How many are denied them by the demands of the 
 industrial and social systems and look at life hope- 
 lessly and pessimistically, lacking the energy and joy 
 of living which come from them? 
 
 But aside from this health value, which is more gen- 
 erally recognized, they develop on the mental side 
 keen perceptions and complex thought processes; on 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 27 
 
 the esthetic side, good personal habits and improved 
 appearance ; and on the social side, a group conscious- 
 ness, with its many varying expressions of gracious- 
 ness and power. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate all of the qualities 
 developed by athletics. It will be remembered that in 
 this training there is no theory, no text-book, no 
 shady-nook of delusion where the pupil may believe 
 she has become the ideal about which she has studied. 
 The organized game is the active expression of one's 
 natural self, the life in many essential details which is 
 lived later away from school and college and a minia- 
 ture of the democracy which envelops one in later 
 years. 
 
 Individual Qualities and Efficiency. — Some of the 
 qualities w r hich may be used as illustrations of mental 
 improvement due to athletics are observation, atten- 
 tion, concentration, memory, imagination, initiation, 
 judgment and will-power. The result of a combined 
 use of these qualities is the attainment of a presence 
 of mind and self-control in which accuracy, coolness, 
 quickness and good judgment are called into use. 
 Every one knows how essential these are in any field 
 of activity and how indispensable they are to effi- 
 ciency. 
 
 In athletics these appear to be most rapidly de- 
 veloped by the various games of ball, from the simpler 
 ones, such as long-ball, captain-ball, push-ball, volley- 
 ball and drive-ball, up to those requiring fine team 
 work, such as indoor baseball, basketball and hockey. 
 
 When girls begin to play organized games, even as 
 
28 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 late as in college, they frequently have their minds on 
 something else and lose opportunities ; their attention 
 is easily distracted and they " forget to play " ; they 
 do not execute commands promptly; they cannot re- 
 member rules or instructions ; they change their minds 
 half a dozen times while they hold the ball ; they imi- 
 tate rather than originate ; or they " play wild." 
 
 What happens as the result of athletic training is 
 clearly visible at an early period. In the first games 
 of basketball few players guard their own opponents. 
 Every one minds every one's else business and criticises 
 other players. No one can be relied upon and what 
 will occur in an emergency cannot be foretold. From 
 this, girls grow into cool, accurate, steady players, 
 use good judgment, are ready for emergencies and 
 obtain a poise which cannot be easily shaken. These 
 f can never be wholly lost except through degeneration 
 or disease and are certainly valuable qualities to pos- 
 sess in moments of industrial or social stress. The 
 advantage of learning them in a game is that limita- 
 tions and defects may be detected and to some degree 
 remedied, while in the game of life each failure brings 
 an inevitable social consequence. 
 
 Sometimes the distraction of players during the 
 first periods of training is ludicrous. One day, while 
 working with a squad of green indoor baseball players, 
 most of whom were physical education teachers, one 
 of them made a splendid hit, good for at least three 
 bases. She ran to first and when she was nearly to 
 second, turned and went back to first. When asked 
 for the reason of this amazing play, she replied, " Oh, 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 29 
 
 I noticed the first baseman was a friend of mine and I 
 went back to tell her something." 
 
 During a beginners' game of indoor baseball, a 
 good hard ball was batted past center field and went 
 under a spring board. Two men were standing near 
 and, as the fielder ran up and saw the ball under the 
 board, she hesitated and then said : " Would one of 
 you men mind getting that ball for me? " Of course 
 the result was a home run for the other side. In the 
 economic world such dependence during times of re- 
 sponsibility means inefficiency from the employer's 
 point of view. 
 
 Another time in basketball a held ball was called. 
 Taking the ball the instructor said, " Heels together, 
 so I can throw it up between you, and jump and try 
 to bat or catch it when it comes down." Just then 
 some one asked for an explanation of a play. Imagine 
 the amazement when the instructor turned back and 
 found that each player, instead of having her own 
 heels together, had turned her back to her opponent 
 so that the four heels of the two players were to- 
 gether. In this way they were waiting to catch or 
 bat the ball when it came down between them ! How 
 many times has such a lack of the use of reasoning 
 power caused social calamities? 
 
 Imagination — It may be difficult to understand 
 how games develop some of the mental qualities, such 
 as imagination. A requirement for successful plays 
 is ability to foresee the results of a given play, as well 
 as to put one's self in the place of another. The 
 penalty for not being able to do this is so instantane- 
 
30 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 ous and direct that the responsibility is immediately 
 fixed, and by emphasis upon group relation players 
 may be led constantly to place themselves in imagi- 
 nary positions. This leads directly to a sympathy 
 with other players. It is said that the " tap-root of 
 selfishness is weakness of the imagination," and 
 imagination certainly is a great aid in developing 
 sympathy with other players. In the absence of ex- 
 perience, no quality possesses more social value. 
 
 Reason. — The ability to reason developed by 
 games is more practical than that gained by mathe- 
 matics and other studies. It is not so much the power 
 of abstract thought as the control of the instincts and 
 the exercise of common sense and judgment during 
 activity. 
 
 Social Qualities and Efficiency. — However much 
 these mental qualities make for individual efficiency, 
 the social qualities which give the right spirit are 
 indispensable. One may have coolness, accuracy, 
 judgment and many other qualities, but unless these 
 are brought into an ethical adjustment team work 
 and social consciousness do not result. Thus athletics 
 have a second great power — the development of moral 
 qualities such as self-control, unselfishness, sense of 
 honor, self-sacrifice, fairness, modesty, decision, cour- 
 age and sense of responsibility. 
 
 Self-Control. — This must be learned before a game 
 can even proceed. The first lessons are in promptness 
 and obedience. Take a struggling mass of little East 
 Side children. They want to be " on the go " every 
 instant and to show off, and have hitherto done this 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 31 
 
 by chasing each other, shoving, pinching and kicking, 
 complaining, sulking, tattling or even going home 
 with a " mad on." Obedience to orders is the first step 
 out of this maze of energy — obedience when every 
 sense and perception is alert. They must listen to 
 rules, must play the position given, and fouls are 
 called unceasingly when they do not obey. In a little 
 while they are actually controlling themselves and 
 are preventing fouls and delays. At first they com- 
 plain every time they are run into that it is " on 
 purpose," and refuse to co-operate with other play- 
 ers. Later they regard being run into as an unavoid- 
 able accident and work steadily with the team, playing 
 often with rivals to whom they have hitherto refused 
 to speak. Oftentimes they have asked to play at 
 opposite ends of the gymnasium because they did not 
 like each other and threatened, " I won't play if I 
 have to be with her." With a little skill, games in- 
 variably make them forget such differences. The 
 next thing is to teach them to be cheerful under de- 
 feats and erroneous decisions. 
 
 Co-operation. — While competition is the underly- 
 ing principle of all athletic games, it is equally true 
 that unselfishness is the basis of all team work. It 
 may be contended that women are sufficiently unselfish 
 because they are usually self-sacrificing. But their 
 self-sacrifice ordinarily centers about emotion, as love 
 for children, home, etc. The self-sacrifice brought 
 out by team work is quite different, for it is made 
 for something impersonal, as a team victory, an in- 
 stitution or a thing entirely apart from one's close 
 
32 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 ties. It is not a supreme individual effort but is 
 shared jointly by others struggling for the same 
 end on the same plane. To share a sacrifice robs it 
 of individual glory and creates a social glory which is 
 akin to the feeling of patriotism. A necessary form 
 of unselfishness to be learned is appreciation of the 
 ability of others. In the beginning players say, / 
 want to play basket ; J want to score ; J want to play 
 with the bigger girls ; or I want to make the team. 
 After a year's team work this largely disappears and 
 quite unconsciously J is replaced by we. 
 
 Fair Play. — Closely allied with unselfishness is fair 
 play. A player enters a game with the understanding 
 that all forms of interference are adjusted according 
 to some prescribed rule. This offers good preliminary 
 training for obedience to the more complicated rules 
 of organized society. Fair play does not mean taking 
 mean advantages any more than it means that a 
 team is willing to win by the partiality of the 
 umpire ! There are some things not forbidden by the 
 rules which the spirit of fair play discourages, just 
 as there are some anti-social acts which public 
 opinion does not countenance, even though the stat- 
 utes are silent on the matter. In every game op- 
 portunities arise when a trick, some mean little 
 thing or some petty act will bring an advantage. 
 Small cheating and petty meanness are soon detected 
 by an observant instructor and girls need to be held 
 strictly to a fair spirit and to be judged solely by 
 their playing. Pettiness is often more distressing 
 than open unfairness. Small vices, such as narrow- 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 33 
 
 ness, spite, ungenerous judgment, intolerance and in- 
 ability to omit the personal element creep in and 
 should not be excused, for they are the insidious 
 enemies of fair play and can only be eliminated by 
 activities which constantly take players beyond them- 
 selves. 
 
 Fair play also means willingness to take a fair share 
 of the blame. Among new players is constantly 
 heard : " It wasn't my fault " ; " She did that " ; or, 
 " I could not help it." There is no more important 
 thing for girls to learn than how to take fair 
 criticism. Many unattractive habits, ungenerous 
 thoughts and unworthy acts are due not to ineradi- 
 cable things in the individual, but rather to her lack 
 of knowledge of their existence and portent. 
 
 Loyalty. — Loyalty and a sense of honor are 
 among the most difficult qualities to develop in girls. 
 They are on the whole not very loyal to each other 
 and are not strongly inclined to organization. In 
 games players cannot cheat or bluff through or get 
 credit for things which they do not do. They cannot 
 lay blame on others. At first when they do not win, 
 they are inclined to sneak off in tears. If a sense of 
 honor and loyalty are made to mean anything, after 
 a little training most girls will be found standing 
 bravely with their team in defeat, congratulating the 
 other team or modestly accepting their share of the 
 team's victory. It is a great thing to learn to be a 
 good loser. It is also a great thing to share victory 
 and feel that some one else has done as much as one's 
 self to win it. There are many girls who never have 
 
34 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 had this sense of sharing victory or defeat in the 
 guise of group loyalty. 
 
 At first some girls are inclined to violate the rules 
 laid down for health, such as length of practice, times 
 of playing, etc., thinking " the instructor will not 
 catch me at it," but later they come to feel, " It isn't 
 the square thing to do when I am trusted." After a 
 little training, rules come to be regarded as a mutual 
 agreement and many players even consider themselves 
 a party to their making. It is a great moral gain 
 for girls to feel that these are agreements not to be 
 broken. 
 
 Courage. — It takes the finest kind of courage to be 
 fair, to be honest and to be loyal — qualities absolutely 
 essential to good team work. Physical and moral 
 courage and especially the latter are unquestionably 
 among the greatest needs of our modern civilization 
 and among all individual qualities can least be dis- 
 pensed with in group activities. 
 
 It may be thought that prejudices, little vanities 
 and jealousies, unkind words or exaggerated state- 
 ments have little harm in themselves and that brag- 
 ging and snobbishness are perhaps pardonable under 
 some conditions. Games reveal these qualities in their 
 exact proportion and without the softening arts of 
 the drawing-room. Nothing is so good for a girl as 
 to find that money, clothes, family, prestige or influ- 
 ence do not help her in the least degree to play good 
 ball or to make a team. When a player stands or 
 falls absolutely by what she is and can do, she realizes 
 that the game makes all equal. Whenever college 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 35 
 
 clubs use " influence " to get their members on teams 
 it frequently makes not only a weaker team, but, more 
 important still, it makes it impossible for contests 
 to teach fair play, since it destroys the educational 
 value by making the basis of selection unfair. 
 V . Sense of Responsibility. — The player learns many 
 other things. She acquires a sense of responsibility 
 which makes her do her part faithfully and she does 
 not excuse herself on the ground that she thought 
 some one else would do it. All the risks, hazards and 
 opportunities are for her to use on her own initiative. 
 If she fails she must bear the blame and chaffing with 
 the simple resolve to do better next time. She is 
 prompt. Tardiness may mean not only that she will 
 have to wait her turn or not play at all, and thereby 
 lose some of the fun, but she realizes that it may also 
 weaken her team. Then, too, she acquires a sense of 
 proportion. The new player not only dissipates her 
 energy in useless plays and tires herself out without 
 accomplishing anything, but her idea of her own im- 
 portance is sadly disproportionate to her real value 
 to the team. It is this prevailing sense of difference 
 which gives an excuse for ignoring the rights of 
 others. Games so lessen this that a player soon learns 
 that essential of fairness — to judge others on an 
 equality with herself. After playing for a while 
 she comes to realize the limitations of her importance 
 as well as of her ability, for over-confidence brings 
 sure defeat. Many women who have had the advan- 
 tages of college training but not of athletics, and who 
 have not gained this sense of proportion, magnify 
 
36 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 both their importance and advantage to the practical 
 world in a way which sadly handicaps them in doing 
 effective work. 
 
 Discipline. — The discipline incident to games is of 
 the utmost value in education. One instructor writes : 
 
 " Games do provide this discipline. During a period 
 of twelve years, I can certainly say that they help to 
 create a broader point of view in the school and to 
 promote friendliness, mutual appreciation and forbear- 
 ance and to lessen the spirit which imparts personal 
 motives into every action." 
 
 Development of moral qualities necessarily means 
 control of the emotions. Here games have an especial 
 advantage for girls, for many are abnormally sen- 
 sitive, introspective or morbid and live too subjective 
 a life. The various ethical and religious cults which 
 emphasize the subjective appeal strongly to them and 
 are frequently made a substitute for healthful normal 
 work and interests. Games are largely objective and 
 afford little opportunity for analysis of feeling or 
 consciousness of the process. The attention is cen- 
 tered upon the thing to be done and not upon the 
 process of doing it. 
 
 Training for Citizenship. — These qualities are not 
 essentially masculine. They are but human qualities 
 needed for human fellowship. We have yet to see a 
 group of girls made masculine where the spirit of the 
 training has been that which we have endeavored to 
 portray. 'We do not mean to say, of course, that 
 every individual trait can be strengthened or every 
 defect removed by game work or that games alone 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 37 
 
 will do this. But we do mean to say that athletic 
 games, when put on a proper basis and under intel- 
 ligent trained instructors, will accomplish far more 
 than has ever been required of them. 
 
 It is evident that the training obtained through 
 athletics is carried over into the business and social 
 life after the girl leaves school. Other things being 
 equal, she is ordinarily a fairer competitor and better 
 citizen. The responsible, reliable player becomes the 
 same kind of a citizen, for in games moral energy is 
 stored up and habits established which govern the 
 activities in later life. The girl who has learned 
 through the experience of games not to do unfair 
 things under the stress of competition has had the 
 training which enables her to face temptations later 
 in life where the stakes involve large interests. The 
 girl who shirked responsibility on the field does not 
 alter her course in later life. The girl who gave up 
 basketball because she could not get more than her 
 share of praise will still be found baiting for this 
 indispensable necessity to vanity. The girl who was 
 unfair and intemperate in games carries these same 
 qualities over into her social or business world and 
 every one who lives or works with her is affected by 
 them. The girl who failed to do team work or re- 
 fused to play games at all continues an individualist 
 in her later activities. Whatever is acquired of 
 good social and moral qualities is taken into the 
 home and tends to raise the home standard and so 
 affects the community in a broad way ; while if pupils 
 are perrnitted to become sneaks and cheats and to 
 
38 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 cherish a mean, contemptible, selfish spirit, that like- 
 wise influences the community to its detriment. Mod- 
 ern civilization is complex, strenuous and often artifi- 
 cial and our system of education needs organized 
 games to prepare the girls for organized life and 
 activities. 
 
 General Advantages of Training. — There are also 
 some general advantages which games possess. They 
 afford a healthful, impersonal topic of conversation 
 and this is much to be appreciated in schools where 
 numbers of girls are segregated and in clubs where 
 undesirable topics may arise. 
 
 Pride in " good condition " has an ethical value, 
 for it prevents many a snare into which one indifferent 
 to it may fall. The girl who " does not care " or who 
 puts clothes above " good condition " is much in need 
 of athletic training. 
 
 The amount of real happiness given by games is 
 often underestimated and this is an important factor 
 in character-building. 
 
 More emphasis is needed on leisure, and by increas- 
 ing play requirements educational institutions may 
 do much to bring this about. The growing commer- 
 cial spirit in educational institutions so hurries stu- 
 dents that they have no time for games. Think of 
 it ! The play spirit which should characterize 
 youth has not only to be stimulated but games 
 may really have to be made compulsory in order to 
 . retain it. 
 
 Esthetic Value of Organized Play. — The es- 
 ' thetic training obtainable by means of games is 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 39 
 
 receiving an increased amount of thought. This in- 
 cludes the personal appearance of players and the 
 spirit of games. In the former, the first essentials are 
 that girls stand well, walk well, run well, throw well 
 and wear a neat and attractive costume. Dress has 
 received much attention as a matter of comfort but 
 not enough from the esthetic standpoint. 
 
 The correction of bad habits and manners on the 
 field is also a part of the esthetic training. The ab- 
 sence of uncouth language, squealing and yelling, 
 crying, disagreeable facial expressions, eating between 
 halves of games and boisterousness, is the result of 
 emphasizing the esthetic feature of games. New play- 
 ers are inclined to think that slang is the language 
 most appropriate and strength the main asset for a 
 successful game. 
 
 The dignity of play has been far too much sacri- 
 ficed to the so-called fun of playing which so fre- 
 quently develops into roughness. A matter needing 
 considerable attention is the conduct of teams between 
 the halves of match games and the attitude of their 
 friends and audience. In one of the most prominent 
 woman's colleges, it was not unusual to see the teams, 
 when resting between halves, lie down on the floor in 
 front of the audience while an army of friends rushed 
 out with lemons, towels and pails of water and began 
 feeding, rubbing and washing them. Only after pro- 
 tests on the part of the players did their captain allow 
 them to sit up. Some of the* players tried to look 
 warm and tired so as to receive more attention. This 
 kind of thing is common in match games between 
 
40 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 schools and is mere gallery play, which is often con- 
 fused with sportsmanship. 
 
 The next best thing to getting on the team is to be 
 a sympathetic friend, and this is at present an over- 
 worked part and induces players to sham exhaustion 
 and overwork, a practice which hurts the game. 
 
 Another thing which frequently occurs and robs a 
 game of dignity is interference on the part of friends 
 and audience. When a player becomes dizzy from an 
 unexpected collision, or a trifling accident happens, or 
 when a player squeals easily over small things, or the 
 instructor lets her go on playing " on her nerve," 
 then the friends and audience begin to protest. " She 
 ought not to play " ; " She will hurt herself," etc. 
 When time is called for breathing space or for trifling 
 matters, friends collect about the players and exag- 
 gerate the situation. A responsible instructor and cap- 
 tain are the best judges of when players should come 
 off the field or when they are really over-playing or 
 merely shamming. These conditions are to be con- 
 trolled by right training and responsible instructors 
 and not by the . sympathetic interference of friends 
 and audiences who cannot possibly judge the situation 
 and who thus misrepresent the effect of the game. 
 
 In the official rules for basketball appears this 
 statement : 
 
 " The greatest danger in connection with athletic 
 sports is not that men will get hurt, but that in the ex- 
 citement of the game and on account of great desire for 
 victory they will do things that are ungentlemanly and 
 discourteous. This fear is shared for girls and has to 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 41 
 
 some measure retarded the use of athletics. This fear 
 will not be realized if the object of all players is good 
 sport and not the mere winning of victory. Sport which 
 violates the principles of courtesy and good character 
 is never good sport." 
 
 When we first insisted that form be a requirement of 
 making the university class teams and that no girl 
 who persisted in careless dress and playing should 
 participate in any match game, there was considerable 
 indignation. But before the close of the year scarcely 
 a player needed a reprimand for disorderly appear- 
 ance ; some who had been exceedingly careless admit- 
 ted that improvements in street dress and manner were 
 due to this training. When a team " straggles " on 
 the field; when players chew gum; when they lie or 
 sit upon the floor or gather in groups and talk when 
 time is called ; when they call to each other ; or when 
 they clap hands or whistle for the ball, — then the 
 audience may be certain that good form is not con- 
 sidered. Few girls have thus far learned the beauty, 
 joy and science of the silent game. Grace and silence 
 are among the anticipations rather than the realiza- 
 tions, and some still confuse noise with sport and 
 having a good time. 
 
 Certainly by paying attention to the esthetic side, 
 grace can be developed. One basketball player rarely 
 stopped a ground ball without falling down and roll- 
 ing over. When this matter was brought to her at- 
 tention, she said she was " top-heavy " and could not 
 help it. Her measurements were taken and some spe- 
 cial work given, and she was told that she played well 
 
42 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 enough to make her class team but for this unfortu- 
 nate tendency. In less than two months there was 
 such a decided improvement that she made the team.' 
 The esthetic possibilities of games also appeal 
 strongly to many of the little settlement players and 
 working girls who thus have their eyes opened on a 
 new world. 
 
 Atmosphere of Games. — The spirit of playing is 
 the second essential in a beautiful game. The atmos- 
 phere makes or mars its beauty. This spirit is shown 
 chiefly by the attitude of players toward each other, 
 toward officials and toward their audience, if there 
 be one. It is also made up of the kind of interest and 
 appreciation which the audience gives. Enthusiasm, 
 unfailing courtesy, even under the most trying cir- 
 cumstances, avoidance of disputes, acceptance of de- 
 cisions, joyous rather than competitive playing, 
 friendliness — these are tests of whether a team has 
 been trained with the idea of preserving the beautiful 
 features. Later, these are also tests of whether one 
 has the right attitude toward one's vocation. 
 
 Social Value to the Audience. — We have thus far 
 considered only the education of players. It is safd 
 that " the fatal moment for a game arrives when peo- 
 ple prefer to see it played by others rather than play 
 it themselves." The day arrived long ago for women ; 
 and worse still, many do not care to see games played. 
 At the Brooklyn Bridge any evening during the sum- 
 mer, the parks and streets are densely packed with 
 men and boys. When a roar bursts forth, the 
 stranger may think it is a riot, but it is only the play 
 
EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF ATHLETICS 43 
 
 spirit of the multitude, shut out of the baseball field, 
 cheering a good play chalked on the scoreboard, — 
 a pathetic sight for one who loves games but hopeful 
 since this spirit can be kept alive under such con- 
 ditions. But in all this crowd, few passing women or 
 girls even glance at the board. It is true profes- 
 sionals are playing, but in that crowd of men and boys 
 exists group consciousness and through it surges 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 Games played by women can be taught and played 
 with a view to making them interesting and educa- 
 tional to the audience; if this be neglected, there is 
 small justification for inviting persons to attend. If 
 small groups are interested here and there many 
 women who would not otherwise attend games might 
 get back a little of the play spirit and enthusiasm 
 which enable them to understand the girls' point of 
 view. Not enough parents now know what athletics 
 mean. If they see that games are rough and in- 
 jurious they should be able intelligently to lend a 
 hand at regulation or suppression. If games are well 
 conducted and beneficial, parents can do much to fur- 
 ther good sport by their interest and approbation. 
 
 There are thousands of women not strong or young 
 or interested enough to play organized games who 
 need to understand and appreciate good, clean sport. 
 Audiences which applaud unfair plays or points made 
 on fouls unconsciously become a party to fraud, while 
 the influence of victory won by clean, fair plays is 
 equally uplifting. Every girl who cheers her team at 
 a class contest ; who gets out " grinds " to a meet ; 
 
44 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 who brings her mother and friends ; who arouses club 
 interest; who interests the neighborhood; who gets 
 up songs or otherwise stimulates interest, renders a 
 social service by opening some little corner of a 
 crusted mind or heart to a love of games, and also 
 stirs the group spirit. One of the best ways to keep 
 a good spirit is to have the audience in harmony with 
 the players, and have it respond to good clean plays 
 and discourage " dirty playing." 
 
 Because of the great educational value to the audi- 
 ence and the limited opportunities for women to play 
 games, the community or municipality has an obliga- 
 tion in providing and supervising clean games by 
 men to which admission should be free and to which 
 women should be encouraged to come. 
 
 The educational possibilities of athletic games, em- 
 bracing mental, social, ethical and esthetic features, 
 seem to the writers to be very great, and the subject 
 is one to which educators throughout the country may 
 well give thought in their efforts to adapt studies and 
 work in order that girls may be better fitted for their 
 place in life, — be it the home, the shop, the school, the 
 office or any other avenue open to them. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 INSTRUCTORS — THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 
 AND TRAINING 
 
 Whenever any activity possesses the power of 
 being either good or bad for the individual or group, 
 the question of leaders becomes of the utmost impor- 
 tance. Athletics have this power as does no other 
 form of physical activity. On the one hand they 
 are capable of being carried on in such a way as to 
 develop strength, nobility, generosity, truthfulness, 
 fairness and force of character or they may bring out 
 meanness, trickery, dishonesty, viciousness and weak- 
 ness of character. It is useless to expect that girls 
 will spontaneously develop only good qualities. It is 
 idle to urge that athletics be used for their educa- 
 tional value unless they are under the supervision of 
 teachers who are intelligent enough to understand 
 their full significance, well trained enough to teach 
 principles which make a clean, accurate game and 
 strong enough to exemplify such principles on the 
 field. It is therefore a question of competent teach- 
 ing and capacity for leadership. Those now in the 
 profession or who enter it within the next decade will, 
 to a great extent, determine the standard of athletics 
 now in the process of making. This standard will 
 depend, among other things, upon: (1) The qualifica- 
 
 45 
 
46 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 tions of instructors. (2) Opportunity and thorough- 
 ness of training. (3) The demands of employing 
 schools. 
 
 Special Qualifications of Instructors. — What con- 
 stitutes necessary qualifications are not always clearly 
 defined even in the minds of those upon whom fall the 
 selection and training of instructors. Our replies 
 from about one hundred schools and colleges em- 
 phasized qualifications of character rather than of 
 technical proficiency. Many private school principals 
 showed little comprehension of the question, while a 
 few thought our questions too general to answer. En- 
 thusiasm received the highest number of votes. The 
 others in order were firmness or decision, fairness, 
 leadership, personality, high moral character and 
 standard, good judgment, honesty, justice, tact 
 and good breeding. Sympathy, a pleasant manner, 
 thoroughness, comradeship, executive ability, common 
 sense and courage each received one mention. 
 
 In the matter of proficiency, less than twenty per 
 cent, mentioned knowledge of the game, and but two 
 per cent, specified clearly that this meant ability to 
 play the game itself. Four per cent, thought a 
 knowledge of physiology and hygiene desirable and 
 two per cent, emphasized experience. The most fre- 
 quent combinations of qualifications were: Enthusi- 
 asm and good character; decision and honesty; and 
 enthusiasm, knowledge of game and good character. 
 Among the more comprehensive ones were : " Knowl- 
 edge of game, keen sense of justice, honor, sense of 
 what constitutes good behavior, knowledge of peda- 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 47 
 
 gogy and of human nature, appreciation of something 
 better than the commercial spirit "; " honesty, judg- 
 ment, quickness, executive ability and enthusiasm for 
 the sport and not only to win " ; and " honesty, im- 
 partiality, good judgment, tact, physical ability and 
 personality." In contrast with these were: "ability 
 to teach tricks " ; " same training as any other teacher 
 in the school " ; and " attractive, graceful, refined 
 person who knows her business." The recognition of 
 the necessity for high character, fair play and other 
 ethical qualities speaks well for a high standard, if 
 they are really insisted upon. 
 
 On the instructor falls the responsibility of making 
 games educational and of giving them a place in the 
 school's plan as well as of safeguarding the health of 
 pupils. In order to meet her responsibility something 
 more is required than was included in many of the 
 replies, some of which are quoted above. 
 
 In our judgment, the qualifications least to be dis- 
 pensed with are the following: 
 
 . First and always a play spirit. Only one who loves 
 games and who has learned obedience under the stress 
 of competition can develop the best spirit in others. 
 When women are without the play spirit, supervision 
 is likely to become mere executive detail. They miss 
 the joy of playing and consequently fail to bring 
 it out in their pupils. Where instructors really dis- 
 like games they administer them in a purely perfunc- 
 tory manner. Recently a new teacher discontinued 
 games because " they made the girls more difficult to 
 control," entirely losing sight of the fact that the 
 
48 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 girls were sadly in need of discipline and of an out- 
 let for energy. 
 
 Second, ability to do the thing taught. This is the 
 surest means of winning the respect, confidence and 
 loyalty of players, who do not give these to teachers 
 whom they excel and who therefore cease to be an 
 inspiration. It would seem unnecessary to emphasize 
 such a qualification, did not a large percentage of 
 schools employ teachers who lack such ability. Who 
 ever heard of a language teacher who had received no 
 instruction in languages ; or a teacher of music who 
 did not know her notes? But a teacher who does not 
 know rules or cannot throw a ball ! " Well, the girls can 
 just be turned out to play, you know "; or, " They 
 can buy rules and teach each other " ; or " Make their 
 own rules." When schools realize that it is just as bad 
 form to make their own rules for a standard game as it 
 is to create their own French pronunciation, athletics 
 may be really taught. Often when girls are quarreling 
 over rules, the teacher who does not play thinks what 
 a good time they are having and wonders what it is 
 all about. Bad tempers and cheating thus go unre- 
 buked, and if accidents occur, bad manners result or 
 character is warped, it is " the fault of the game." 
 
 An instructor in charge of a school for girls for 
 many years writes: 
 
 " But any school makes a mistake which does not have 
 on the staff some teacher young enough to be a com- 
 panion to the girls and sympathize with their view of 
 life, and such enjoy games for their own sake and prefer 
 taking their recreation in games/ ' 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 49 
 
 Ability to teach implies that the instructor knows 
 the game so well that she is able both to classify and 
 interpret rules. It is also an advantage to know the 
 history and theory of the game ; the reasons for rules 
 and their changes; what demands the various games 
 make on the organs and vitality and what their 
 physical, mental and moral advantages are. Among 
 the questions asked in our investigation was : " What 
 rules do you use and why do you prefer them? ' A 
 
 frequent answer was : " We use rules because 
 
 they are easier to get." 
 
 In the third place, it is desirable that the instructor 
 have an ideal a little beyond that which her play- 
 ers can attain ; otherwise they soon get the idea that 
 they know all about it and have nothing to " work 
 up." This often explains lack of interest where com- 
 petition is not used to stimulate it. The instructor's 
 conception of the value of her own work is important. 
 If she regards it merely as exercise or as a subject of 
 minor importance, and if she permits others so to re- 
 gard it, she does not support the standard which 
 physical educators who believe in athletics are en- 
 deavoring to establish. 
 
 It will be conceded that the instructor needs to be 
 a disciplinarian. But it is also necessary that she 
 be able to tell when to insist upon the letter and when 
 upon the spirit of the game. A sense of humor 
 is a most helpful factor in this. There are days 
 when she works her players and others when she 
 only plays with them. A sense of humor not 
 only relieves the tension but it tends to eliminate 
 
50 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 that most undesirable feature of instruction — sar- 
 casm or ridicule. 
 
 Confidence in herself and players is also helpful. 
 The skeptic, cynic and pessimist do not ordinarily 
 make good instructors, for they have too frequently 
 lost the play spirit. Ability to give frank, honest 
 criticism of faults and appreciation of achievements 
 usually accompanies such confidence, but not when it 
 has grown into egotism. 
 
 Personality is an elusive thing. It usually implies 
 a gift for managing people and ability to compel 
 respect, to interest and to inspire. The instructor 
 needs to combine friendliness with these. Whatever 
 she has of social presence, refinement, character and 
 experience is a great help. 
 
 At the risk of being criticised for describing an 
 ideal rather than a teacher, there is one other quality 
 which we have found indispensable, that of courage — 
 courage to teach a clean, fair game in the face of 
 discouragements and defeats; courage to be a real 
 person, free from affectation and unworthy ambition 
 and to stand for the square thing even when the 
 school itself may not give its support. 
 
 In brief, then, the things to look for in the candi- 
 date are: Play spirit (often disguised as enthusiasm) ; 
 ability to play as well as teach; belief in educational 
 value of games ; a personality which has capacity for 
 leadership and ability to inspire; and a character 
 which, in addition to true culture and a spirit of fair- 
 ness, possesses the somewhat rare quality of high 
 moral courage. 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 51 
 
 General Qualifications of Instructors. — These may 
 be called special qualifications. Added to these, are 
 general training such as a fair education and knowl- 
 edge of such subjects as anatomy, physiology, hy- 
 giene, dietetics, pedagogy, psychology and sociology. 
 If it is not possible to find instructors with all of these 
 qualities and of this general training, each school 
 must decide for itself which it can best do without, 
 according to its conditions. 
 
 Relation of Instructor to Players. — Not enough 
 attention has been paid to the relation of instructors 
 to players. The athletic field is different from the 
 classroom — just as play is more natural and less 
 formal than study, and suggestion plays a large part. 
 For instance, partiality may undermine the value of 
 the game. The instructor who permits players to do 
 favors for her or who accepts homage or devotion can 
 rarely instill a spirit of fair play. In a measure, the 
 attitude of the instructor also determines that of 
 players to each other. If she is undignified and un- 
 fair she may expect these of her players. If she 
 lounges about, uses slang and nicknames, the girls 
 are likely to do so. Topics of conversation that she 
 favors will become the popular ones. Many instruct- 
 ors fail because they cannot distinguish between 
 friendliness and familiarity ; while, on the other hand, 
 harshness or indifference greatly lessens free expres- 
 sion of the play impulse. 
 
 Men as Instructors — In any consideration of this 
 subject, an important question is whether instructors 
 shall be men or women. It is frequently contended 
 
52 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 that men are better fitted for this field. This must 
 necessarily be true until the social education of women 
 becomes much broader. But there are some serious 
 objections to men instructors. 
 
 Invariably men teach according to prevailing 
 standards for men, while the type of instructor who 
 will teach athletics as a branch of education is most 
 needed. Men instructors train primarily for contests, 
 are interested in developing teams and have little pa- 
 tience with weak girls. 
 
 All careful athletic games are based upon physical 
 examinations taken by the instructor. Obviously a 
 woman should do this. 
 
 Men instructors show one of two tendencies. First, 
 if they see a real interest, they overwork women be- 
 cause they do not realize their physical limitations. 
 At times there should be a light practice or none at 
 all, and this is a matter which men cannot properly 
 supervise. Second, they go to the opposite extreme 
 and think because women cannot play as well or as 
 much as men they can play as they please ! In that 
 case they assume a gallant and indulgent attitude 
 and permit players to violate rules, " because they 
 will not become professionals and it does not 
 matter." This is really a most serious objection 
 from the point of view of the educational value of 
 games. 
 
 Where the instructor is a woman there is, moreover, 
 no possible complication from the question of sex. 
 Some persons in charge of athletics think that men 
 interest girls more in their work and are therefore 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 53 
 
 more desirable. Ordinarily the interest should be in 
 the game itself and not in the one who teaches it. 
 
 The great disadvantage of women teachers lies in 
 their narrow, individualistic training, which often 
 prevents their exemplifying or developing desired 
 qualities of character in their pupils ; their inclina- 
 tion to " baby " players and thus strengthen selfish 
 tendencies; and their willingness to teach an in- 
 accurate game. So long as specific attempts are not 
 made to eliminate these defects, men will necessarily 
 keep the lead in both quality of leadership and of 
 instruction. 
 
 Schools of Physical Education. — It is one thing to 
 set a standard, and quite another to find instructors 
 to maintain it. Naturally much is expected of schools 
 which train teachers for this field. The present sup- 
 ply comes from four main sources — schools of physi- 
 cal education, normal schools, colleges which require 
 physical training for graduation and schools of 
 elocution and oratory. 
 
 We found that the majority of trained teachers 
 were pupils or graduates of schools of physical edu- 
 cation either at their regular or summer sessions. 
 With a few exceptions, they had charge of both gym- 
 nastics and athletics. This being true, it is important 
 to know what athletic training these schools give. 
 The following are brief statements of the work offered 
 by the leading schools : 
 
 A. This school offers a two years' course. During 
 the first term of the Junior year, on a schedule call- 
 ing for five hours of work daily, one and one-half 
 
54 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 hours weekly are offered, but it is not clear if these 
 are gymnastic or athletic games. During the second 
 term, on a schedule calling for four hours of work 
 daily, the same work is offered and athletics are given 
 during one month out of doors, but the amount is not 
 stated. So far as we can learn there are no intro- 
 ductory or other lectures on athletics, no discussion 
 of their relation to other physical work or to educa- 
 tion. In the Senior year, during the first term on 
 a schedule calling for six hours of work daily, six 
 hours per week for one month are devoted to training 
 classes in athletics and during the second term some 
 time during the month of May is used for out-of-door 
 work. Doubtless there are extra hours which the 
 pupils themselves give to practice, which however is 
 not compulsory. 
 
 B. The instruction appears to be graded and the 
 course covers three years. During the first year only 
 practice work is offered in elementary athletics, which 
 is stated to include: standing jump, running jump, 
 high kick, starting in running and running vault, 
 gymnastic games, basketball and minor games of 
 ball. During the second year, practice is given in 
 games and field sports. Not until the third year is 
 any work offered in theory and it is limited to the 
 regulations governing athletic and gymnastic com- 
 petitions, construction and equipment of athletic 
 grounds and administration and management. Prac- 
 tice work is provided in running, jumping, hurdling, 
 shot put, field sports, out-of-door games, rowing, 
 hockey and in conducting contests. This school 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 55 
 
 recognizes the needs of secondary schools by providing 
 supplemental courses so that pupils may be fitted to 
 teach combination subjects, as English and basketball; 
 history and baseball, etc. The postponement of all 
 work in theory until the last year, in view of the fact 
 that many do not take the entire course, and the 
 absence of fundamental lectures are great disad- 
 vantages. 
 
 C. During the fall term of the Junior and Senior 
 years, one hour a day for three weeks is given to each 
 of the games of tennis, field hockey and golf. Dur- 
 ing one year a series of lectures was given upon physi- 
 cal training in the public schools in which the prob- 
 lem of athletics for girls was discussed. This school 
 has an outdoor field for field events, basketball and 
 hockey. The pupils are organized into an athletic 
 association which conducts the in and outdoor athletic 
 meets, under the supervision of the director of the 
 school. The catalogue also announces a special course 
 for those who wish to become physical directors in 
 Young Women's Christian Association work, as fol- 
 lows : " Conditions that have demanded this work ; its 
 beginnings and development, and the actual present 
 conditions (illustrated by charts); comparison with 
 school and college work; aims and methods of work; 
 qualifications needed in physical directors ; possibili- 
 ties of development and advancement for the physical 
 director ; the future of this department of the Y. W. 
 C. A." 
 
 D. This school provides thirty hours of work per 
 year which include lectures on the rules of games and 
 
56 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 practice in basketball, baseball, hockey, cricket, etc. 
 During the last two weeks of each year the Juniors 
 are taken to an adjacent field, where they are practice 
 material for the Seniors who instruct them. An in- 
 door and outdoor meet are held, in which the Juniors 
 enter as contestants and the Seniors run off the 
 events. The Juniors are not required to practise for 
 these events. Most of this work is crowded into a 
 short time at the end of the year, and the practice 
 of taking charge of field athletics gives just enough 
 work to enable pupils to say that they have had ex- 
 perience and received training. 
 
 Contrast with these w r hat the Y. M. C. A. offers in 
 its special school to fit officers for its work. It em- 
 phasizes the community value of games and especially 
 provides courses in construction, location and equip- 
 ment of gymnasia; object, organization, administra- 
 tion and relation of physical work to other Y. M. C. 
 A. work; organization, grading of classes and con- 
 duct of classes ; qualifications, duties and relationship 
 of physical directors ; and the philosophy of physical 
 training, school gymnastics and public playgrounds. 
 There is a course on amateur athletics which includes 
 organization and management and a course on the 
 history and literature of physical training. In addi- 
 tion to the work in theory, thorough practice and 
 training are given in playing games. The educa- 
 tional and moral values of athletics for various 
 groups, as boys, workingmen, students, etc., are em- 
 phasized. Group contests are given special attention 
 in both theory and practice. A course has also been 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 57 
 
 added on social service. The work of this school is 
 given in detail in the hope that the Y. W. C. A., settle- 
 ment associations or other public-spirited organiza- 
 tions will see the necessity of establishing a school for 
 social workers of cities, which will include physical 
 training along similar broad fundamental lines. 
 
 Summer Schools. — A number of summer schools 
 have departments of physical education which offer in- 
 struction in athletics. The following course was given 
 by the writers in a six-week period: Meaning and 
 values of games ; principles of coaching ; basketball — 
 theory and team work; instructing green squads; 
 contests — their place and management; hockey — ■ 
 theory and team work; indoor baseball — theory and 
 team work ; some problems and conditions in athletics 
 for women. In addition, arrangement was made for 
 demonstration periods when the different games were 
 taught according to the theory given. The students 
 were also taught to play. Lectures on track and field 
 events and practice were given and additional work 
 offered to pupils who were interested in special 
 games. Examinations in both theory and practice 
 were required before the student received any credit. 
 
 Another summer school offers two courses, one on 
 the " Principles of Physical Education " and the 
 other on " The Theory of Play." Practice is also 
 given in track and field events, baseball and basket- 
 ball. The short course makes it impossible to give 
 much work and is primarily intended for public 
 school teachers. 
 
 In a third school the work is arranged so that it 
 
58 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 may cover four summers. It is similar to that previ- 
 ously described under B. A distinction not em- 
 phasized in other summer schools is the following : 
 
 " Although many of the courses may be taken in 
 common by men and women, it has been deemed advis- 
 able to limit the heavier forms of gymnastics, athletics 
 and antagonistic exercises to men, while the lighter 
 calisthenics, Delsarte exercises, elementary apparatus 
 work and esthetic dancing are adapted and confined 
 largely to women. Where men are expected to in- 
 struct women, and women are called upon to teach men 
 and boys, as is the case in many of the State Normal 
 Schools, a judicious selection from both programs will be 
 allowed in order to meet the requirements of the 
 teacher's position." 
 
 The difficulty with this arrangement is that many 
 do not know whether they are to teach boys or girls 
 until they obtain their positions and thus may not 
 elect theory of athletics and practice. Later, not- 
 withstanding this, they take charge of athletics and 
 antagonistic exercises." 
 
 u 
 
 In a fourth summer school there is a department of 
 physical training which offers only such limited work 
 as " special instruction in the theory and practice 
 of basketball and hockey." 
 
 There are other schools of physical education 
 which do not provide any work whatever in athletics. 
 One was organized a half-century ago, and has a 
 long list of graduates and pupils who hold high 
 school positions where athletics are permitted. 
 
 Defects in Methods of Schools of Physical Edu- 
 cation. — The absence (1) of graded, systematic and 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 59 
 
 consecutive work throughout the year; (2) of funda- 
 mental lecture work on the history, theory, place and 
 influence of athletics ; (3) of discussions of the organ- 
 ization and administration of athletics and their rela- 
 tion to the school plan; (4) of all reference to play- 
 grounds, recreation centers and other social move- 
 ments, which employ trained teachers; and (5) of 
 special consideration of the problems which athletics 
 for women present, shows clearly that these schools 
 are not meeting the demand for trained instructors. 
 
 Little or no attempt is made to train pupils to be- 
 come good officials, although every instructor has to 
 officiate at contests. Officials, quite as much as in- 
 structors, have not only a responsibility to those who 
 engage them but also to the community for making 
 good or bad citizens, according to the standard they 
 set and to the fairness of their decisions. Women 
 are not used to positions requiring instantaneous 
 judgment based on accuracy of observation and fair- 
 ness, and many blunders costly to the cause of good 
 sport result. 
 
 Schools of physical education should be given full 
 credit for valuable training in such subjects as physi- 
 ology, anatomy, hygiene, psychology, anthropometry 
 and pedagogy — which are intended to and do make 
 the pupil intelligent upon the care and use of the 
 body. But this special training may fall on barren 
 soil, owing to the varying entrance requirements. 
 The least that can be required is a high-school train- 
 ing or its " equivalent." While most schools insist 
 upon this, the substitutions permitted under the head 
 
60 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 of " equivalents " do not always constitute a general 
 education on which specialization can be well founded. 
 The greatest defect of such schools, however, is the 
 almost total absence of any realization of their respon- 
 sibility to teach athletics as a branch of education and 
 of any emphasis upon their value as a means of social 
 education. Many teachers are called to settlements, 
 social education institutions, playgrounds, etc., with 
 little or no idea of their aim or methods or of their 
 place in the social structure. Sociology is in no case 
 included among the subjects of training. It is a 
 serious question whether a special effort should not 
 be made to include these when so many women are 
 entering this field, who ordinarily have not a fund of 
 general information which enables them to take a 
 broader view of their work than as a means to an end. 
 It is for this, among other reasons, that so many 
 instructors live within a narrow horizon and lose 
 their perspective and the relation of their work to 
 citizenship and progress. One leader in physical 
 education says : x 
 
 " I find few among my professional brethren who have 
 any far-reaching interest beyond their specialty, few 
 whose hearts throb in unison with the great movements 
 of the time. I see men and women whose minds only 
 revolve around drills and exercises, lessons and exhibi- 
 tions, visits of the superintendent and rules of the board 
 of education, the return of payday, the possibility of 
 advancement, the victory of yesterday and the contest 
 of to-morrow." 
 
 1 Jakob Bolin, " Mind and Body," Vol. XIV, p. 234. 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 61 
 
 So long as these conditions exist, schools of physi- 
 cal education constitute the greatest obstruction to 
 the adoption of athletics as a part of the educational 
 system and to raising its standard above the plane 
 of commercial competition. It is not a question of 
 their disapproving of or restraining athletics, for 
 beyond all power of their control, it is settled that 
 girls will play — just as settled as that women will 
 work. The question is, will these schools become an 
 intelligent force in creating and maintaining a high 
 standard of athletics or will they belittle, exclude or 
 ignore them and confuse the public mind as to their 
 value, because they are not strong enough to meet the 
 problem of their danger? 
 
 Schools of Elocution and Oratory. — While these 
 do not ordinarily profess to train instructors in ath- 
 letics, as a matter of fact many of their graduates 
 are required to take charge of them in conjunction 
 with other subjects of instruction. Furthermore, in 
 many private schools their training is considered suffi- 
 cient, and their graduates are unhesitatingly accepted 
 as teachers. In reality they offer no instruction what- 
 ever in either the theory or practice of athletics. 
 Furthermore, their training is opposed to social edu- 
 cation. Oratory, Delsarte, vocal expression, dra- 
 matics, music, reading, etc., and the emphasis placed 
 upon presence, grace, poise, are intensely individual- 
 istic. Valuable as these are, they do not train teach- 
 ers to develop group qualities in players. Even when 
 courses are offered in physiology, anatomy and psy- 
 chology, they retain their individualistic stamp, as 
 
62 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 where psychology is made to mean chiefly " psychic 
 development " or " soul expression." 
 
 Our purpose is not to criticise these schools, but 
 merely to point out the necessity for avoiding a con- 
 fusion of teachers of " physical culture," trained in 
 schools of elocution, with instructors of physical edu- 
 cation who are capable of teaching gymnastics and 
 athletics as a means of social education and as a basis 
 for health and recreation. 
 
 Normal Schools. — A number of normal schools, 
 including some of the best in the country, have prac- 
 tice classes and frequently maintain teams which play 
 match games with other schools. But none of those 
 answering our inquiry maintains courses of instruc- 
 tion in athletics. Basketball is usually the one game 
 played, though hockey is growing in favor. Gradu- 
 ates of these normal schools are constantly required 
 to teach " main subjects," as history, English, etc., 
 and to take charge of basketball and other games. 
 
 Universities and Colleges. — These also supply 
 teachers, but few maintain courses in athletics. One 
 of the best offers a course in physical education which 
 includes personal hygiene, school hygiene, gymnastics 
 (several courses), anatomy, anthropometry, diag- 
 nosis, corrective exercises, history of physical educa- 
 tion and kinesiology. Notwithstanding this broad 
 outline, only practice is offered in athletics and funda- 
 mental theory work is, as usual, absent. Ordinarily 
 the course in colleges gives a working knowledge of 
 games, though they are in all cases elective while 
 gymnastics are required. So the student may under- 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 63 
 
 take to give instruction upon the representation of so 
 many years of " gymnasium work " without having 
 had any practice in athletics or any theory, or lec- 
 tures on such subjects as anatomy, physiology or 
 hygiene. 
 
 It is a common occurrence for universities to re- 
 ceive a request like this from its students or gradu- 
 ates : " A good position has been offered me to teach 
 
 history and English in X high school, but I have 
 
 to teach physical culture too. Can you send me good 
 books on the subject or make suggestions? I wish 
 now I had taken some athletics while in college." The 
 college can do much to raise the standard by refus- 
 ing to recommend its untrained students for teachers' 
 positions. 
 
 Sometimes colleges undertake to add physical edu- 
 cation departments without understanding the situa- 
 tion. One Southern college for women makes this 
 announcement : 
 
 " With the growing interest in out-of-door sports 
 throughout the country there has come an increasing de- 
 mand for trained teachers of athletics. It is our pur- 
 pose to prepare teachers to intelligently direct this 
 department/ ' 
 
 Then follows an outline of a two years' course, con- 
 sisting entirely of gymnastics with this one provision 
 for athletics: 
 
 " Students desiring this certificate must have one year 
 of physiology and hygiene and two seasons' work on the 
 hockey team. In addition all the students are or- 
 
64 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 ganized into an athletic league having for its object 
 the control of the sports." 
 
 Employing Schools. — It is undoubtedly true that 
 the present standard of athletics is, in a large meas- 
 ure, due to the foresight and conservative atti- 
 tude of some of the institutions that train teachers, 
 and some have shown much courage in preventing un- 
 qualified persons from entering the profession. But 
 this is not true of all and should not relieve the em- 
 ploying school of its responsibility. It has in too many 
 instances been content to rely upon the reputation of 
 the training school and to assume that having a 
 graduate or pupil of this or that school left nothing 
 more to be desired. The employing school can assist 
 in maintaining high standards in the following ways : 
 Before engaging an instructor, it should know fully 
 what her training has been, see her credentials and 
 know personally that she is what she is represented to 
 be. In order to select teachers intelligently, heads of 
 employing schools need to know the requirements of 
 the position and not ignore or belittle the work as is 
 sometimes done. For instance, from private schools 
 frequently come such requests as this : " Can you send 
 me some one qualified to teach mathematics and his- 
 tory, stating her experience? She must also take 
 charge of basketball." 
 
 Increased care in the selection of teachers is also 
 made necessary on the part of the employing school 
 because deceptions are sometimes practised upon 
 them. In their competitive desire to place teachers, 
 
INSTRUCTORS— THEIR RESPONSIBILITY 65 
 
 some training schools are likely to recommend pupils, 
 thinking they are more capable than they really are. 
 Again, pupils in their desire to obtain positions are 
 unsportsmanlike in trading upon the names of well- 
 known instructors and training schools, and thus 
 hurt those who really desire to place only competent 
 teachers. A person who has made charts or kept 
 class lists or schedules of swimming or has recorded 
 measurements taken by prominent instructors will 
 advertise herself in school catalogues and letters as 
 
 " assistant to Dr. X " or as assistant in " School 
 
 A ," when she knows nothing of the principles 
 
 for which they stand and was not selected by them be- 
 cause of general proficiency. Others attend athletic 
 practices on the note-book plan but do not hesitate to 
 say they have " taken the work." Such pupils have 
 missed the training which develops modesty and gives 
 a sense of proportionate value. This dishonesty may 
 be prevented by employing schools exercising more 
 care and by instructors and schools combining to 
 raise the standard and punish misrepresentation. It 
 is true misrepresentations occur in all lines of teach- 
 ing, but the person who obtains a position in athletics 
 in this way is hardly one to use games to bring out 
 the noblest qualities. 
 
 Summary. — In a word, then, if women are to re- 
 ceive social education, by means of athletics as a part 
 of their general training, the prime essentials are well- 
 qualified instructors who have received broad, funda- 
 mental training in schools of physical education ; a 
 higher standard of athletics maintained by these 
 
66 VALUE OF ATHLETIC GAMES 
 
 schools ; and greater care and honesty in recommenda- 
 tions as well as greater intelligence and discrimina- 
 tion on the part of employing schools. Without 
 these, athletics may never rise above competitive 
 games played to win — where and how players choose. 
 
PART II 
 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
 
 HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 The increasing participation of high school girls 
 in basketball and other athletic games led the writers 
 to make an inquiry into the condition in high schools. 
 Owing to the lack of supervision by school authorities 
 and the great variations in the control of athletics, 
 it was difficult to obtain a satisfactory and representa- 
 tive view of the situation. The material gathered is 
 therefore presented quite as much in the hope of 
 stimulating further investigations as for the purpose 
 of urging the adoption of a more uniform system of 
 control. 
 
 A discouraging number of schools provide athletics ft 
 for boys but none for girls. Among the others two | 
 extremes are apparent. In the first group, there 
 is an absence of school regulation, no object other 
 than to win games, and the whole matter is in the 
 hands of the girls or of the " professional coach." 
 In the second, all use of the school gymnasia or of 
 the school name by teams is forbidden. Schools out- 
 side of these two groups adopt various plans, as for 
 instance that of placing athletics under the super- 
 vision of an outside organization such as a public 
 
 CO 
 
II 
 
 70 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 school athletic league, or permitting pupils to practise 
 wherever they can find a place and to maintain teams 
 under the school name. Wide variations in control 
 are found sometimes in cities where the schools them- 
 selves are all under one management. 
 
 Conditions in Schools. — Nowhere else are to be 
 found such contrasts, lack of system and absence of 
 intelligent supervision as in high schools. This is 
 best shown by some of the answers to our inquiries : 
 
 " The girls who play basketball are formed into an 
 athletic association. The school asked me to take 
 charge of the games, which I did. I found that I had 
 no official position, the school no power, and that the 
 girls had entire control. They practised in an armory 
 twice each week, coaching themselves or paying a man 
 to come in for extra practices. They averaged one com- 
 petitive game each week with other teams, during the 
 season. There were no examinations made of the girls 
 and they played at all times and would not submit to 
 any withdrawal from contests. The permission to play 
 games and the challenges passed through the principal's 
 hands, but there was no restriction, and no teacher was 
 required to attend the games, although the girls made 
 journeys frequently to other towns to play high school 
 teams. They would start off attended by groups of 
 boys and often return late at night. 
 
 " The games were always public and many were 
 played in the evening. Any one who paid for his ticket 
 could attend. We frequently played double headers — 
 the girls' teams would play one half, then the boys' team 
 one half, etc. If both the boys' team and the girls' 
 team from the same town won, they took all the gate 
 receipts, otherwise it was divided. In this way the 
 teams covered expenses and divided the surplus if there 
 was any. The game was usually followed by a dance 
 at one of the men's clubs or in the hall where the games 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 71 
 
 were played. If in the hall, the men in the audience 
 indiscriminately joined in the dance. These games 
 were characterized by much unfairness and scrapping. 
 Coaches ran up and down the side lines giving instruc- 
 tions, roughness was unchecked, and the players boasted 
 of their ability to trip players and not be seen owing to 
 their baggy suits, or afterwards described mean tricks 
 that had won the game." 
 
 ' We have no department nor gymnasium, but the girls 
 play basketball, though not in the name of the school/' 
 
 ' We have no gymnasium or instructor, but the girls 
 have a basketball team, which is partly regulated/' 
 
 ' The captain and girls have charge of basketball 
 and use the gymnasium twice each week. The school 
 has nothing to do with the matter. The girls belong to 
 an inter-school athletic league which runs the contests/' 
 
 " The manager of the debating society has charge of 
 the games." 
 
 ' The county league arranges all details of contests, 
 players, etc." 
 
 So far as it is possible to make any general state- 
 ment summarizing the conditions, the following seems 
 to be fair : 
 
 The instructors were mostly " coaches," engaged 
 by the girls to win games, and were often without aca- 
 demic or special training. Where instructors also 
 taught other subjects, they were often untrained in 
 athletics or did not take them seriously. Where mem- 
 bers of the faculty were placed on executive commit- 
 tees and boards of control of county and inter- 
 scholastic leagues, they frequently had no general or 
 technical knowledge of athletics, and lacking a veto 
 
72 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 power had little authority. Athletics had little or no 
 part in the educational system, and were rather looked 
 upon as exerting a harmful influence upon studies 
 and the general intellectual work of the school. In 
 many schools there was not only no relation between 
 gymnastics and athletics, but in some there was con- 
 stant disagreement between the gymnastic instructor 
 and " coach " as to who should use the gymnasium. 
 Eligibility to teams was in a few instances based upon 
 academic standing, while in others this was true only 
 in theory. In most cases, contests being outside the 
 control of the school, academic standing was not 
 considered at all. General ignorance existed on the 
 part of school authorities and parents as to what was 
 going on. The officials were chiefly men, and with 
 few exceptions the games were open to everybody. 
 Many favored pay games and as a rule prizes were 
 offered. The captain, " coach " or girls selected 
 the teams, and physical examinations and tests played 
 no part in this selection. Where leagues and associa- 
 tions existed they were primarily for the purpose of 
 increasing and managing competition and for raising 
 money. 
 
 The returns from the various high schools showed 
 a general neglect of such fundamental matters as 
 preliminary gymnastics, relation of athletics to diet, 
 rest and study, limitations of practice periods, and of 
 excessive physical exertion and high nervous tension. 
 In some instances from five to twenty match games 
 were played during a season, interfering with study 
 and causing over-exertion on the part of the girls. 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 73 
 
 The increase in professionalism was clearly indicated. 
 This is detrimental to moral growth, since no standard 
 is set before the players except to win by fair or foul 
 means ; and to refinement of feeling, because of the 
 bad spirit engendered. Furthermore, in some schools 
 the monopoly of the gymnasium by the teams prevents 
 the mass of girls from receiving adequate physical 
 training. 
 
 Undoubtedly, even under these conditions, consider- 
 able experience is gained, but it may be bad or good, 
 and in either case it is at great physical cost. It is 
 not infrequent to see young girls collapse in these 
 high school contests. A typical list of refreshments 
 eaten between the halves of a hard game or immedi- 
 ately afterward includes pie, cream puffs, chocolate 
 eclairs or charlotte russe, varied with peanuts and 
 popcorn; and a championship contest is often fol- 
 lowed immediately by hours of dancing. High school 
 contests are also conspicuous for the bad spirit shown. 
 Attacks upon officials, wrangling of teams, calling of 
 names, bitter denunciatory remarks about opponents, 
 intentional roughness, fault-finding, " rattling of 
 players " by school girl or boy audiences, and per- 
 sonal characterizations are common in games where 
 players alone are in control. 
 
 There are, of course, many schools where such con- 
 ditions do not prevail, but this is a fair statement of 
 general conditions, and is indicative of the growing 
 tendency, especially in schools of the Middle West. 
 Wherever these conditions did not prevail, we found 
 not only that the school authorities had a voice in the 
 
74 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 management of contests but that they maintained 
 some supervision of practice periods. 
 
 The responsibility for these conditions rests prima- 
 rily with school authorities, but also with parents who 
 do not insist upon proper regulations. That many 
 of the former recognize the need for improvement the 
 following replies show: 
 
 ' This year I made two stands — first, that of the 
 requirement of a physician's certificate for basketball 
 practice, and second, the prohibition of practising or 
 playing during menstrual periods. These two points 
 are not insisted upon in all our high schools and I have 
 seen some girls collapse on field and suffer illness of 
 days from lack of oversight on part of coach, physician 
 or mother. Lack of observance of a girl's condition is 
 sometimes amazing. I believe that every coach should 
 be merely assistant to the physical training instructor — 
 the latter having full charge of every phase of work. 
 This for development of physical, moral, social qualities 
 of girls." 
 
 " I regret to say that no provision at all is as yet 
 made for the girls. As regards teams and match games 
 among girls, I am fully convinced that great care is 
 necessary in the selection of girls for such teams and 
 as to procedure in such contests. In my judgment no 
 match games between girls of different schools should 
 be permitted. I should encourage games between girls 
 of the same school; I would restrict admission to invita- 
 tion. We hope that we can have physical training for 
 our girls in the near future under a competent in- 
 structor.' ' 
 
 " Organized games in the open air take the place of 
 formal gymnastics for one half of the school year. 
 These games are not optional but are a part of the 
 regular school work and taught by the physical training 
 teachers. Girls are not asked whether or not they wish 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 75 
 
 to play; all the twenty-four hundred play except the 
 very few excused for good reasons by a physician. As 
 far as can be arranged, each class has two forty-five- 
 minute periods weekly during school hours for this pur- 
 pose in the last ten weeks in the spring and the first ten 
 weeks in the fall. Four teachers and four classes may 
 be seen in the yard during most of every day." 
 
 " We have considered the question of athletics for 
 girls and passed the following: ' Resolved that all inter- 
 scholastic competition is unwise under the present condi- 
 tions; that the same results can be obtained by inter- 
 class games ; thus avoiding all the adverse conditions and 
 results of inter-school contests/ We also took a stand 
 against all publicity/' 
 
 Public School Athletic Leagues. — A movement 
 which is regarded as a solution of some of these prob- 
 lems takes the form of public school athletic leagues. 
 A girls' branch was started in New York City in 
 1905, and is maintained by a group of public-spirited 
 citizens along the following lines : 
 
 " First — That it has to do with the pupil's free time 
 rather than with school activities. Second — That, 
 in the nature of the case, participation must be wholly 
 voluntary. Third — That it might be possible to co- 
 operate more perfectly with existing athletic organiza- 
 tions, both in and outside of this school system, than 
 would be possible if the organization were official. 
 Fourth — For financial reasons, for while public senti- 
 ment and precedents with reference to the support of 
 athletics remain as they are, it would hardly be possible 
 to secure from the Board of Education, nor would it be 
 justified in appropriating the very considerable sums 
 needed for the development of these athletics. If the 
 League were officially under the Board of Education it 
 would not be possible to solicit funds for the support of 
 
76 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 the League, charge admission to games, give prizes hav- 
 ing intrinsic value and the like. Fifth — It seems neces- 
 sary that there be an organization in addition to those 
 which are carried on by pupils themselves, because the 
 financial and administrative problems in such a city as 
 New York are altogether too great to be handled success- 
 fully by the comparatively inexperienced and rapidly 
 changing group of pupils. This must be done by a body 
 having the financial confidence of the business men of the 
 community, and of the school authorities themselves. " % 
 
 The aim is stated as follows: 
 
 " To devise and promote athletics for girls which will 
 make for health, stamina and grace in the elementary, 
 high and collegiate departments of public educational 
 institutions of the City. To encourage the development 
 of forms of exercise and recreation suited to the needs 
 of the mass of schoolgirls, and which will secure for 
 them the benefits and avoid the evils which have been 
 developed in connection with athletics for men. The 
 general principle followed by the Girls' Branch is to 
 develop work within the school rather than competition 
 between schools, and to select events in which teams 
 rather than individuals may compete.' ' 2 
 
 Active membership is based on subscriptions and 
 honorary members are elected. Membership confers 
 no ownership in any property. The management is 
 vested in a board of directors, elected at the annual 
 meeting of members, and consists of not more than 
 forty-eight persons. An executive committee has all 
 the powers of the board of directors when the latter 
 is not in session. The president may appoint a game 
 committee to consist of three directors which shall 
 have charge of all games authorized by the League. 
 
 1 Report of Board of Education, 1906. 
 
 2 Report of New York City Athletic League, 1906. 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 77 
 
 It is the policy to provide trophies for which the vari- 
 ous classes compete. These consist of bronze plaques, 
 silver cups, etc. Some of the girls are organized into 
 various leagues which contest for these prizes, as do 
 also the various classes. A League pin also is to be 
 presented to each public school girl who is able to pass 
 certain prescribed qualifications. 
 
 For admission to classes every girl must have at- 
 tended school for one month and must have received 
 the mark of " B " for the month previous and " A " 
 in effort and deportment. One of the interesting and 
 valuable features is the method of training teachers. 
 The Girls' Branch offers : 
 
 " A course of dancing and athletics, free of expense, 
 to public school teachers, who will give in return one 
 lesson per week to girls of the schools from which the 
 teachers severally come. It is a remarkable fact, and 
 one significant of the benefit and pleasure derived by 
 them from this training, that one hundred and seventy- 
 five teachers with endless demands upon their strength 
 and time should voluntarily elect to attend these free 
 classes, and give in return an equal amount of time to 
 the instruction of girls of their own schools, thus giving 
 up two afternoons each week to the work." 
 
 The Public School Athletic League of Cleveland, 
 which is still limited to boys, differs in its organization 
 in that it is within the school and is controlled by a 
 Senate which consists of the supervisor of physical 
 training, two members from the faculty of each high 
 school, and one representative from each elementary 
 school. The high school members are appointed by 
 the principal of the school and may be retired by him. 
 
78 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 The funds are raised by a finance committee appointed 
 by the chairman of the Senate. Membership in the 
 League consists of such athletic organizations of the 
 public schools as are approved by the principals con- 
 cerned. Honorary members are elected and all per- 
 sons contributing over $50 become patrons. 
 
 Those interested in the recreative features of ath- 
 letics will find ample cause for congratulation in this 
 movement. On the other hand, those interested in 
 social education cannot but be disappointed. We 
 have been unable to find that much emphasis is placed 
 upon the educational value of athletics for girls, or 
 that those interested in the movement are endeavoring 
 to prepare them to meet the increasing social and 
 economic demands which will be made later after 
 they leave school. The plan of excluding from classes 
 pupils not having an " A " or " B " standing, espe- 
 cially in deportment, may shut out the ones most in 
 need of them. There is a tendency, made necessary to 
 some extent by the limited space and great numbers of 
 pupils, to minimize the value of organized games and 
 to emphasize dancing and class athletics. The com- 
 petitive element and prizes are also conspicuous. 
 
 At this time, when the interest in athletics needs 
 stimulation it is perhaps necessary that a group of in- 
 terested citizens should support a work which doubt- 
 less could not otherwise have been started. But we 
 believe that the principle should not be lost sight of 
 that the control and support of this branch of work 
 should rest with the school system. The number of 
 pupils is so great and the educational possibilities of 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 79 
 
 games so broad that athletics should be included as 
 a part of the educational system and be supported 
 by taxation or by gifts directly to school authorities. 
 Their social educational value is so fundamental that 
 their continuance should not depend upon a philan- 
 thropy which must vary with stock markets and busi- 
 ness depressions and commercial fluctuations. As the 
 best exponents of democracy, games should be in- 
 corporated in our most democratic of institutions — 
 the public school. 
 
 Country School Athletic Leagues. — The public 
 school athletic movement is not confined to city 
 schools. In one state it has been extended to small 
 towns and country districts. One of the normal 
 schools started the movement, and with the co-opera- 
 tion of the district school commissioner conferences 
 are held which are attended by children and parents. 
 It is an all-day affair and practical demonstrations 
 of school work are given, including athletics in which 
 the girls participate. Besides fostering clean ath- 
 letics, it brings the schools together at least once each 
 year in a field day and picnic. At the second field 
 day held by this League there were present 1400 
 school children, 200 high and normal school children 
 and about 1400 adults. Girls as well as boys took 
 part in the contests. Owing to the expense of para- 
 phernalia, no very wide use has been made of the 
 highly organized games, but they are to be intro- 
 duced. 1 
 
 1 Scudder: " Field Day and Play Picnic for Country Children," 
 pamph., 53 pp. 
 
80 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 If the use of athletic games can be widely extended 
 in villages and small towns by some such movement 
 within the schools it will prove a strong socializing 
 influence, brightening farm and village life, and 
 training school children in many of the qualities neces- 
 sary for group work and useful citizenship. Nowhere 
 are the training and play spirit more needed than 
 among girls in small towns and rural districts. While 
 they live more out of doors and under better condi- 
 tions for health than the children of cities, these very 
 things tend to make parents feel that play is super- 
 fluous. Parents in rural districts are especially out 
 of sympathy with play, and think if a girl is strong 
 enough to work it is enough. But the country girl 
 is often unevenly developed, and sometimes organic- 
 ally weak while she is muscularly strong, and more- 
 over needs the exhilaration, interest and joy of games. 
 She is perhaps even more individualistic than the city 
 girl and more in need of group training. Games in 
 small towns and rural districts now possess little 
 variety and so give little opportunity for team work. 
 Both the girl and her parents need play, and organ- 
 ized games and country school leagues are taking a 
 long step in the right direction. 
 
 Suggestions for Improvement. — On the whole, 
 notwithstanding these and other efforts to improve 
 present conditions, athletics in high schools undoubt- 
 edly present serious dangers. There is the greatest 
 need for regulation, supervision and the relating of 
 athletics to other school work, etc. We do not be- 
 lieve this will be brought about until a thorough in- 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 81 
 
 vestigation is made of the subject, including a careful 
 and impartial study by a well-trained investigator 
 of existing methods, rules, requirements, conditions, 
 instruction, practice, competitive games, surround- 
 ings, organization, control, etc. If the results of such 
 an investigation could be laid before a conference 
 representing the various boards of education some 
 uniform standard and regulations might be adopted. 
 
 In the meantime it may be far wiser to abolish en- 
 tirely or greatly restrict all athletic competition by 
 girls in high schools unless the following minimum 
 requirements are made: All practices and contests to 
 be under the control of a trained instructor who is 
 approved, paid by and responsible to the school au- 
 thorities; no girl permitted to play basketball with- 
 out a physical examination and unless she has had 
 some previous setting up gymnastic work; abolition 
 of pay games and professionalism ; and a wise restric- 
 tion of the number of interscholastic contests. 
 
 No one wishes to see athletics for girls degenerate 
 into " win at any cost " contests, and there is yet time 
 to give them their rightful place in the high school 
 educational system, where they are greatly needed for 
 training in citizenship, if the school authorities and 
 parents will but take the matter in hand. 
 
 PRIVATE SCHOOLS 
 
 Private schools present a most important phase of 
 the question, as their pupils have less opportunity for 
 social education than girls in public schools. They 
 are freiquently spoiled and petted at home or have 
 
82 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 been so pampered with luxury that their point of view 
 is largely individualistic. The opportunity and re- 
 sponsibility of the private boarding school is greater 
 than that of the public school, for it has the entire 
 training at an impressionable age. 
 
 Whatever its size and purpose, wherever its loca- 
 tion and no matter how varying its methods, the func- 
 tion of the private school in the educational system is 
 the same from the community's point of view, namely, 
 the development of each girl as an individual factor, 
 as a social factor, and increasingly as an industrial 
 factor in our civilization; and the development of the 
 social as well as individual conscience. That some of 
 them fail so to regard their function or fail in its 
 accomplishment does not in any way change their 
 responsibility to the community which makes this de- 
 mand. The school which considers that it has no 
 obligation other than to the pupil and her parents and 
 that the community has no interest in its methods or 
 " business with its affairs " is not discharging its in- 
 debtedness to the same community which provides it 
 with facilities, protection and a hundred things which 
 make its material success possible. 
 
 Conditions in Schools. — What part have athletics 
 in meeting this opportunity and responsibility? We 
 believe that the conditions found in nearly two hun- 
 dred schools are fairly typical, since our study has 
 covered every kind of school in nearly every state, in- 
 cluding the seminary, day school, boarding school, 
 academy, co-educational institution, small college con- 
 ducted on boarding school principles, out of town 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 83 
 
 school with broad spacious grounds, and the city 
 school which uses its roof as a playground. That 
 athletics have an increasingly important place in the 
 school life is shown by three things : increased athletic 
 facilities ; wide adoption of games for recreation ; and 
 the beginning of a belief in their educational value. 
 Fully ten per cent, stated that they were building new 
 gymnasia, acquiring grounds for games or that they 
 had made arrangements to use other gymnasia. Sixty 
 per cent, had some kind of an indoor place for work, 
 but unfortunately not all made provision for games. 
 Indoor tennis, ring hockey, indoor baseball, long- 
 ball, captain-ball, etc., are therefore unfortunately 
 omitted. 
 
 The grounds of many schools afford good facilities 
 for such games. Seventy per cent, make provision 
 for games out of doors and the remainder insist upon 
 walks or individual sports ; seventy per cent, have ten- 
 nis courts; 65.7 per cent, basketball courts; 23.5 per 
 cent, hockey fields ; and nine per cent, provided for 
 baseball. The athletic field is also gaining a place, 
 and fifteen per cent, have real fields and field days. 
 One city school utilizes its roof and others maintain 
 summer camps. 
 
 When the facilities have been described, practically 
 all has been said about athletics in many of the 
 schools. There are exceptions, but the great ma- 
 jority think they have done enough when they make 
 it possible for girls to play. The prevailing senti- 
 ment is that the function of games is to provide 
 recreation. This is, however, a distinct gain within 
 
84 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 the last decade, for previously the majority did not 
 even consider games and much less " athletics ?:> as 
 deserving mention in their announcements. A few of 
 the typical announcements, taken at random from the 
 catalogues, show how very limited the idea of athletic 
 training still is : 
 
 " The object is to develop strength, elasticity, proper 
 breathing and correct position in walking and standing, 
 thus giving natural development, ease and grace of 
 manner. " 
 
 " We mean by physical culture the development and 
 refinement of the entire physical person through cultivat- 
 ing it to express the purpose and emotions of the soul." 
 
 " Our system aims at co-ordination, control and sym- 
 metry rather than over-development, provides for those 
 who wish to build up their physique and to keep in 
 healthful condition, and furnishes a series of esthetic 
 movements as a means of obtaining poise, grace and 
 suppleness." 
 
 A second group puts more emphasis upon the 
 maintenance of health : 
 
 " Our effort is to give enough physical culture to 
 maintain an excellent average of health." 
 
 " The object in physical training is all-round develop- 
 ment. In order to work intelligently and avoid injury 
 from improper exercise a careful examination is made at 
 the beginning of the year by the medical examiner. 
 The results with the various strength tests determine the 
 character and amount of exercise." 
 
 " We have a teacher, not to emphasize the athletic 
 side, but to prevent excess by her presence and influence. 
 We also recognize the importance of health and a happy 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 85 
 
 life and believe it is the foundation for the best intel- 
 lectual work and for strong character development." 
 
 In but one case was physical training decried as 
 " unladylike," but others made it clear that it was 
 merely tolerated and that a great deal of ignorance 
 exists as to its value even for purposes of recreation. 
 Some of our correspondents thought because our in- 
 quiries emphasized athletics that we were looking for 
 a school or sanitarium for a delicate girl, not realizing 
 that athletics should be a normal part of her training. 
 Typical of the replies of this discouraging group are 
 the following: 
 
 " Much injury is done girls by gymnasium work in 
 groups. During this developing and formative period 
 of a girl's life when her strength is at its lowest ebb, 
 the general course of work should be entirely individual. 
 Another means of injury is this — the stimulation and 
 competition natural in a group of girls incites the less 
 strong to overdo in order to stand on a par with the 
 others or to 6X061/' 
 
 " I should regard measurements as unwise and need- 
 less in the case of any girl whose health admits of 
 serious study. The place is really a school, but not in 
 any sense a sanitarium." 
 
 " Encouragement is given to athletics so long as they 
 do not interfere with school work." 
 
 " Pupils come primarily for work and no work time 
 can be devoted to games. " 
 
 Some of the schools make a clear distinction be- 
 tween gymnastics and athletics, the former being re- 
 quired and under supervision while the latter are 
 
86 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 not. One instructor writes: "Gymnastic drills are 
 given under competent instructors and the gym- 
 nasium is open at other times for the recreation of 
 students." In co-educational private schools the fa- 
 cilities for athletics are frequently better, because the 
 demands made by boys lead to some recognition of 
 the needs of girls. But even here girls have less op- 
 portunity. One school announcement says : " Ath- 
 letics receive proper attention but are not carried to 
 excess. Young men are taught to be manly and f air." 
 But no mention whatever is made of their ethical or 
 other value for girls. Another announcement makes 
 this rather astounding statement : " He who educates 
 a boy educates an individual merely, whilst he who 
 educates a girl educates a family." 
 
 Such statements as the following show that the 
 belief in the educational value of games is slowly 
 growing : 
 
 " Baseball, basketball, captain-ball and tennis are 
 popular. They teach quickness and loyalty to each 
 other, fairness and unselfishness and earnestness of 
 purpose and desire to do one's best for one's self and 
 team." 
 
 1 We believe that physical culture should be adapted 
 to the development of girls and should train the mind 
 to quick decision, alertness and poise, as well as give 
 strength and grace to the body." 
 
 ' The aim of the school is to develop the girl ethi- 
 cally, mentally and physically; to teach her moderation, 
 self-control and poise, to point her to the perspective 
 .which determines relations and responsibilities, to enable 
 her to meet situations, to understand life and to live.' , 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 87 
 
 " It is perfectly possible for a girl who develops most 
 in mind and body to develop also in the fine and 
 womanly art of being charming/ ' 
 
 On the other hand, we suspect that the schools are 
 somewhat hampered in their progress by the attitude 
 of parents, as is illustrated by the following state- 
 ment : 
 
 1 We did require gymnastics and athletics of all girls, 
 but found parents so indifferent and a physician's certif- 
 icate for excuse from physical training so easy to obtain 
 in spite of good results that we reluctantly gave it up for 
 day pupils/' 
 
 Many parents do not recognize play as an essential 
 part of childhood, while others are afraid that their 
 daughters will be injured. Too often the girls them- 
 selves are lazy and are excused on one pretext or an- 
 other because they do not like the work. Instead of 
 supporting the school, pupils, physician and parents 
 together frequently resort to deception to obtain an 
 excuse. If parents and physician would make care- 
 ful inquiry about the work, insist upon a high stand- 
 ard where poor work is given and support the school 
 in upholding a good system, much more could be ac- 
 complished both for health and character. 
 
 Our study shows two great defects : First, that while 
 girls have opportunity for play they are not taught 
 as is seen by the qualification and attitude of instruct- 
 ors ; and second, that the use of games is limited to 
 recreation, as is seen in the methods of instruction. 
 
 Instructors. — The first defect is clearly shown by 
 the requirements for teachers. It has been difficult to 
 
88 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 ascertain the training of instructors. In some cases 
 the replies have been full ; in others we have been as- 
 sured that the teachers " are specially trained," while 
 no details appeared in the catalogue or letter. Or- 
 dinarily in the private school catalogue the name of 
 the physical training instructor appears near the foot 
 of the list and often without the history which accom- 
 panies in full other teachers. To the lay mind the 
 school announcement may also be misleading. It 
 understands that training in Latin means Latin, and 
 mathematics means mathematics, but " physical cul- 
 ture " may mean Delsarte, oratory, musical or vocal 
 expression, gymnastics, athletics or corrective work, 
 but not necessarily any one or all of these. 
 
 We found that in fifty-seven per cent, of the schools 
 the instructor had attended schools of physical train- 
 ing; in thirteen per cent., schools of elocution; in 
 twelve per cent., seminaries, colleges or similar insti- 
 tutions ; and in twenty per cent, no training was 
 claimed other than general education. In two the 
 faculty and students had joint charge of the work. 
 
 It was found that where there were both basketball 
 and baseball, all the instructors had attended a school 
 of physical training. Where basketball and hockey 
 were played, sixty-one per cent, had attended such 
 schools. Where basketball alone was played, forty- 
 two per cent, had attended physical training schools ; 
 ten per cent., schools of elocution; ten per cent, had 
 received only academic training ; and thirty-eight per 
 cent, had no training other than general education. 
 All of these instructors took charge of the games, al- 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 89 
 
 though less than half had received training qualifying 
 them to do so. 
 
 In twenty-one per cent, of the schools, the instructor 
 taught no work other than physical training. In 
 thirty-two per cent, she had elocution, dramatics and 
 physical culture ; in fourteen per cent., physical train- 
 ing and hygiene or physiology and mathematics. In 
 the others, history, English, grade work or languages 
 were combined with physical training. In twenty- 
 four per cent, we were unable to get definite answers 
 as to whether the instructor had other duties. One 
 reply was, " The instructor is available for any serv- 
 ice she may be called upon to render." 
 
 As a number did not answer the question, we be- 
 lieve that these percentages are above rather than be- 
 low the number of those who have received training. 
 It does not always follow that those who claim train- 
 ing are better instructors. In one school where the 
 instructor had charge of baseball, basketball and 
 hockey, she appeared in the catalogue as a graduate 
 of a physical training school and also as having at- 
 tended a summer school. In the first she had received 
 no instruction in athletics and in the second she failed 
 in her examinations and could not play one of the 
 games that she " coached." 
 
 The chaperon " coach " is still a feature. She sits 
 on the lawn by the courts, reading a book and from 
 time to time observing that no bad language or dis- 
 putes occur, but what does she know of the meaning of 
 the game or of team play or of exhilaration or strain? 
 Are the girls being educated in fair play or simply 
 
90 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 finding an outlet for a pett\^, mean spirit? Are they 
 playing according to rules or making their own rules? 
 Are they gaining in discipline or simply wasting 
 energy? One correspondent sent in this definition of 
 the supervisor of games : " A person to see that the 
 girls have proper clothing and change it properly." 
 In physical and moral development w r hat is the relative 
 importance of taking a cold or of becoming a sneak 
 and a cheat? 
 
 Such a game as basketball, played in sixty-five per 
 cent, of the schools, presents such important physical 
 and ethical problems that it should not be played by 
 girls without competent supervision. It is not en- 
 tirely the fault of training schools and of teachers 
 that so many positions are filled by untrained per- 
 sons. Some private schools furnish such poor facili- 
 ties and interfere so much with the work of the in- 
 structor that a trained person cannot afford to accept 
 the position. One teacher refused to admit girls to 
 basketball practice because they were physically unfit. 
 They appealed to the principal and she decided that 
 they could play. In another instance the principal 
 objected to a strict observance of rules and upon a 
 protest from the instructor said, " Well, they can get 
 some exercise, no matter how they play." Physical 
 training is considered so unimportant in some schools 
 that the most trivial things are permitted to inter- 
 fere with the classes — a thing not tolerated in any 
 other department. 
 
 It would be a good thing if private schools would 
 abolish the use of the term " physical culture," which 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 91 
 
 has come to mean almost anything. There are physi- 
 cal culture systems, restaurants, furniture and maga- 
 zines. Less than one-fifth of the schools designated 
 their work as physical training, not one as physical 
 education, and the rest called it " physical culture," 
 whether it included Delsarte, elocution, reading, 
 dramatics, breathing exercises, medical gymnastics, 
 athletics or simply walks. 
 
 Methods of Instruction. — The prevailing methods 
 of work in many schools are open to much' criticism. 
 In a number, an extra charge is made for athletics or 
 for the use of paraphernalia. In some the girls are 
 able to pay ; in others those who most need the games 
 do not choose them, as they are considered a luxury. 
 Class distinctions, based on purchasing power, are 
 thus raised. It is desirable that schools give the mat- 
 ter careful thought and endeavor to bring athletics 
 within the regular tuition. The practice of requiring 
 pupils to furnish their own basketballs, tennis nets, 
 etc., is open to the further objection that a few con- 
 trol their use and it is more difficult to supervise the 
 work properly when the school does not own the 
 outfits. 
 
 A second defect lies in the relation of gymnastics 
 and athletics. The latter are almost invariably elect- 
 ive and girls are permitted to go into strenuous games 
 without any preliminary training. In some cases ath- 
 letics are substituted for long periods for all regular 
 gymnastics. 
 
 The importance of measurements and of examina- 
 tions of heart and lungs, in schools where there are 
 
92 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 growing girls, cannot be overestimated. Great care is 
 now taken that a girl's eyes shall be tested before she 
 undertakes study. Why not be equally sure that her 
 body is sound before she makes great demands on it? 
 Of the schools reporting, fifty-three per cent, take 
 " some kind of measurements " ; eight per cent. 
 " make examinations " ; five per cent, give " special 
 examinations for medical and corrective work " ; four- 
 teen per cent, mention no examinations and meas- 
 urements ; and twenty per cent, do not make any what- 
 ever. No instructor can intelligently work with each 
 girl without an intimate knowledge of her condition. 
 A few schools realize this and have placed special em- 
 phasis upon it, including also blood tests and detailed 
 family history. There are several percental charts 
 which make it easy to take these measurements, and 
 their intelligent use would eliminate many of the evils 
 of over- work. 
 
 The average amount of time given to physical ex- 
 ercise (if we include walks, upon which much stress is 
 placed by many schools) is fair. The prevailing 
 plan appears to be to have out-of-door sports and 
 work during late fall and early spring and gym- 
 nastics during the winter. Very few of the schools 
 give systematic daily work. It is usually two or three 
 times a week. The time required to be spent out of 
 doors averages between one and two hours daily. 
 Where gymnastics and athletics are combined, about 
 one-third of the time is given to the latter. 
 
 Some of the schools appear to have no system what- 
 ever so far as athletics alone are concerned. The 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 93 
 
 girls play when they wish or when they can find time. 
 A few city schools that have no facilities encourage 
 their pupils to use private gymnasia. This is ordi- 
 narily at the individual's expense, there is no school 
 supervision and the girl chooses both the amount and 
 kind of work. The school makes careful inquiries into 
 the reputation of the gymnasia but does not extend 
 them to an intelligent scrutiny of the work offered. 
 
 Athletic Organizations. — Not the least important 
 is the increased emphasis that is being placed upon 
 the social side of athletics. Formerly no commence- 
 ment or class day recognized them in any way. 
 The formation of athletic associations, which encour- 
 age student self-government, and the introduction of 
 field days and athletic events on social programs, are 
 now quite common. It is gratifying to find that so 
 many schools have these associations. They are help- 
 ful in stimulating interest, in developing school pride, 
 in taking the girls out of doors and in bringing 
 people together in pleasant democratic relations. 
 Where some of these results are not accomplished, it 
 is because the organization has fallen into the hands 
 of a small clique or something else is wrong. Ath- 
 letic associations accomplish many other things. In 
 some schools they have charge of the sports or fur- 
 nish the trophies for contests ; in others, where inter- 
 scholastic contests are played, they arrange for the 
 contests and entertain the visiting teams. They may 
 also arrange for field days, class games, banquets, 
 etc. One school association in Colorado is equipping 
 a small gymnasium with apparatus for one of the city 
 
94 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 settlements. The heads of schools speak well of these 
 associations, as is indicated by these statements from 
 principals : 
 
 ' The athletic club stands for the best physically, 
 mentally and morally, and by admitting to it girls who 
 have proved themselves superior it is a strong influence 
 for good." 
 
 " The athletic association maintains the rational and 
 sound love for out-of-door sports." 
 
 " They create the love for being out of doors, and 
 their moral value is in teaching self-control under defeat 
 and in being courteous to visiting winning teams/ ' 
 
 " Healthy competition within the school is encouraged 
 and is a matter of school pride and is a strong stimulus 
 to increased zeal in preparatory work. Athletic honors 
 won by our girls in college are a cause of congratulation, 
 implying as they do that examinations have been passed, 
 and a good all-around development maintained. Some 
 girls who have won such honors have also become presi- 
 dent of their class." 
 
 Most of these associations have fees varying from 
 fifteen cents per term to five dollars per year. Care 
 needs to be exercised that the fees are not prohibitive. 
 It is more important that many girls should be mem- 
 bers than that a large number of entertainments be 
 furnished with the funds. 
 
 Suggestions for Improvement. — From a careful 
 study of the situation the following needs appear to 
 merit serious consideration: 
 
 1. Increase in the variety of games, and the intro- 
 duction of minor games of ball, as long-ball, captain- 
 ball, etc., and the wider use of gymnastic games for 
 small girls. 
 
ATHLETICS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 95 
 
 2. Use of organized games to a greater extent in- 
 doors during the winter. 
 
 3. A closer connection between gymnastics and ath- 
 letics, and use of the former as preparatory work for 
 organized games. 
 
 4. Introduction of measurements,, tests and exami- 
 nations which will make physical training more intelli- 
 gent and effective. 
 
 5. Co-operation of parents and physicians in es- 
 tablishing good systems of physical training. It is 
 a question whether under any circumstances a girl 
 excused from all physical training should be per- 
 mitted to take full mental work. Some pupils ob- 
 tain such excuses in order that they may give more 
 time to their studies. The adoption of a rule that 
 any girl excused from physical training should take 
 only a minimum amount of mental work or less than a 
 full year's work would tend to lessen unnecessary 
 excuses. 
 
 6. Physical training as a part of the recognized 
 educational work and compulsory for at least part of 
 the school period and in charge of a competent in- 
 structor. 
 
 7. Abolition of athletic privileges and opportuni- 
 ties based on purchasing power. 
 
 8. Increase in the number of summer camps main- 
 tained by the schools, where girls can be out of doors. 
 In these camps, organized sports and recreation 
 should have a prominent place. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES AND 
 COLLEGES 
 
 In one respect colleges occupy a most important 
 position. Secondary schools invariably look to them 
 as guides and take pride in having their students 
 make a good showing in the college they enter. Their 
 athletic standard is therefore largely influenced by 
 the conditions prevailing in colleges. Secondary 
 schools do not lay much emphasis on social educa- 
 tion, and it is therefore in the college that the student 
 finds her last chance for character-building through 
 athletics before she becomes an active and important 
 factor in the world at large. 
 
 A few colleges have measured up to their oppor- 
 tunity by creating departments of physical educa- 
 tion with faculties similar to those of other depart- 
 ments and whose instructors are members of the 
 college or university general faculty, w T ith a voice in 
 the administration of the entire institution. But in 
 far too many of them, the " coach " idea is still preva- 
 lent and athletics are encouraged because they fur- 
 nish good exercise and maintain health. Athletics 
 are not only entirely elective, but in many instances 
 no efforts are made to make them attractive. Great 
 scholars and good libraries attract to the courses in 
 
 96 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 97 
 
 literature and philosophy, but any one will do to 
 teach athletics and any old shed or corner is con- 
 sidered good enough for practice. 
 
 When cities were smaller and there were vacant 
 lots and yards and wide halls and big rooms in which 
 to play, children received more of the much needed 
 group training in a natural spontaneous way. But 
 now many girls who go to college have been brought 
 up without a playground. The absence of the play 
 spirit and opportunity for play are bound to make 
 a difference in the character and to increase strenuous 
 living. Groups of college girls turned loose in the 
 gymnasium to play for the first time stand about awk- 
 wardly, asking each other if they know a game or what 
 to play and usually the experiment is a flat failure 
 unless a leader is provided. When girls lose the play 
 spirit so young, one cannot expect much from them as 
 mothers except a loss of companionship with children 
 and an increasing interest in nursemaids and attrac- 
 tion toward a business life. 
 
 Small Colleges. — Our problem has been to find out 
 what colleges and universities are really doing by 
 means of athletics to set a standard and to influence 
 public life by turning out good citizens. We find that 
 midway between the secondary schools and universities 
 are a large number of institutions which give degrees 
 and call themselves colleges. In athletics they are 
 best classed with private schools. Very few provide 
 systematic instruction ; some have no work whatever ; 
 while in others it is voluntary play. It is not our 
 purpose to discuss conditions in these colleges, other 
 
98 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 than to note that the conditions here are similar to 
 those previously described for private schools. 
 
 Graduate Schools. — Other institutions which neg- 
 lect athletics are graduate schools. Graduates are 
 rarely required to take physical training, have usu- 
 ally acquired the study habit and are not interested in 
 athletics, a condition as bad for them as for the com- 
 munity. The college as a rule does not make physical 
 training sufficiently interesting to attract graduates, 
 nor does it adapt it to their needs. 
 
 There remains, then, a large group of private, state 
 and city institutions which represent the collegiate 
 world, to which the state looks for well-trained citi- 
 zens and secondary schools for guidance. In our 
 study we found that the usual games were basketball, 
 which was played in every college studied ; hockey in 
 fifty per cent. ; baseball occasionally ; and minor games 
 of ball in a few. In contrast with other institutions 
 most of the colleges admitted that it was necessary 
 to stimulate interest. This was done in various ways, 
 the athletic association being of most help, prizes 
 second in importance, competitive games third and 
 inter-collegiate contests last. 
 
 Instructors. — The instructor has a much greater 
 authority in the training and selection of teams than 
 in any other institution. In some there is no appeal 
 from her decisions. There is one group, chiefly East- 
 ern colleges, in which much of the authority is vested 
 in the athletic association, as is shown later. In less 
 than five per cent, the instructors were men. In 
 twenty per cent, they had had no special training and 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 99 
 
 of the remaining eighty per cent, about five per cent, 
 had had only summer school work. While this is a 
 good standard, one would hardly expect to find in this 
 group men " coaches " who trained girls for outside 
 contests ; or instructors who had had no special 
 preparation. The tendency is to require academic 
 degrees, but less than ten per cent, of the instructors 
 stated that collegiate training had been part of their 
 preparation. 
 
 The most discouraging features found were the ab- 
 sence of an educational use of games and isolation of 
 the department of physical education from other col- 
 lege activities. This is partly the fault of instruct- 
 ors who still continue to emphasize only the health and 
 recreative features and who seem to fear the power of 
 athletics. The competitive element alarms them, and 
 in some instances restriction more than regulation is 
 the method of control. 
 
 Inter-Collegiate Contests. — The colleges are di- 
 vided on the question. Most of the women's colleges 
 in the East and many of the co-educational institu- 
 tions do not play outside games but have inter-class 
 contests. Occasionally they play a game with their 
 preparatory school or with a normal school. In the 
 Middle West and West, inter-collegiate contests are 
 more common, but the percentage playing them there 
 is less than one-half. With the exception of an occa- 
 sional ball game, the officials are generally women and 
 the audience is admitted by invitation. Very little 
 of the evil of pay games exists and the spirit of pro- 
 fessionalism seems well under control. This is partly 
 
100 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 due to the financial support given by the college, 
 which is absent in high schools and only partial in 
 private schools. The college demonstrates that ath- 
 letics can be successfully conducted and large num- 
 bers interested by the substitution of inter-class 
 games, class prizes and athletic associations for inter- 
 scholastic competition and public pay games. 
 
 Systems of Work. — These vary greatly. In 
 about ninety per cent, of the colleges, uniform stand- 
 ards, with varying degrees of thoroughness, exist. 
 Measurements are made and training is based upon 
 them. Few allow girls to play basketball without 
 heart and lung examinations. Gymnastics are or- 
 dinarily required. In one institution a year of gym- 
 nastics is required before such games as hockey and 
 basketball can be played at all. In another, they can 
 play all other games but basketball without having 
 had gymnastics. The proportionate amount of ath- 
 letics and gymnastics is unequal, being about thirty 
 per cent, for the former and seventy per cent, for the 
 latter throughout the year. It is not the rule to have 
 athletics during the winter. One college requires that 
 gymnastics be taken for two years before athletics 
 are permitted, then all gymnastics may be omitted. 
 In colleges where men and women used the same gym- 
 nasium, the arrangement was usually unsatisfactory. 
 In one such institution the " only hour available for 
 women is the lunch hour between one and two o'clock." 
 Then those in charge of the work wonder why women 
 are not interested. 
 
 The variety of games which students play does not 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 101 
 
 seem to be carefully regulated. In some instances 
 they may elect as many as are offered ; in others two ; 
 in still others one " heavy game " ; and in a few they 
 are limited to one game. There is much wise super- 
 vision of practice periods, the average for basketball 
 being forty minutes twice each week. The halves 
 average twelve minutes, with ten minutes' rest. Most 
 colleges permit extra voluntary practice and this 
 privilege does not appear to be abused. The average 
 hockey practice is one hour and baseball one and 
 one-quarter hours. Only one of the colleges re- 
 ported games daily, the rule being twice or three times 
 weekly and often but once. But one college appeared 
 to be indifferent about times of playing. The others 
 required that from two days to one week each month 
 be given to rest from physical training. A half-dozen 
 insisted upon baths after practice and the majority 
 advised or urged it, while many were indifferent or 
 left the matter to the girls. 
 
 Colleges, like private schools, have difficulty with 
 girls who wish to be excused from all physical train- 
 ing, and physicians' excuses play an important part. 
 One physician asked to have a student excused on the 
 ground that she had trouble with her lungs ! After a 
 careful examination this request was refused and work 
 prescribed. Later she was put into basketball and at 
 the end of the year, upon her physician's own state- 
 ment, showed an improvement of fifty per cent. ! 
 The college, in order to work for the best interest of 
 the girl, needs to convince the family and physician 
 of the value of physical education. 
 
102 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 It is impossible to give in detail the varying sys- 
 tems, but judging from the most successful ones in 
 use, from the point of view of both education and 
 health, it would seem that the following experiments 
 have worked satisfactorily: 
 
 One college considers athletics and gymnastics as 
 of equal importance and divides the periods equally 
 on alternate days. When the teams are practising 
 for finals, the gymnastic period is reduced to one day. 
 Another college requires four periods of work each 
 week for the first three years, and in two of these 
 periods athletics may be elected. A third provides 
 graded athletics, which increases the variety and 
 makes it possible for the less robust girls and fresh- 
 men to begin on minor games of ball. A fourth in- 
 stitution has included short lectures upon the pur- 
 pose and value of athletics, and special lectures upon 
 the games played. 
 
 Some form of athletics, elective throughout the 
 year, is desirable. Ring hockey and indoor baseball 
 may be substituted during the winter for the cor- 
 responding outdoor games. This not only gives all 
 girls a chance but the group training may be begun 
 at once and carried throughout the year. Under no 
 conditions, where there is any gymnasium, should all 
 athletics be omitted during the winter semester, even 
 if the place is only big enough for volley-ball, captain- 
 ball, etc. One highly organized game and one minor 
 game is a wise limitation. An average of three days 
 excuse per month from all physical training is the 
 practice. 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 103 
 
 Athletic Associations. — It is impossible to discuss 
 athletics in colleges without considering athletic asso- 
 ciations and clubs, which exist in more than eighty per 
 cent, of the large colleges and exert a wide influence. 
 This tendency is seen also in a number of the small 
 colleges. They may have but one game, oftentimes 
 no gymnasium and but superficial instruction, and 
 still maintain flourishing associations. Some so-called 
 athletic associations have really very little to do with 
 athletics. Sometimes they are merely informal clubs 
 with no object except to stimulate interest or the de- 
 bating society adds athletics to its other activities. 
 In a few instances our correspondents described these 
 organizations as " weak " ; " inchoate " ; " demoralize 
 the school in the name of class spirit " ; " pernicious in 
 stimulating competitions " ; " ineffective " ; or, " bad 
 for the school," but in the majority of cases they 
 were considered of great assistance. 
 
 Membership is generally made up of undergradu- 
 ates, but the administration varies. Ordinarily the 
 control is vested in one of the following groups : 
 
 (1) Officers of the association and captains of 
 teams and manager. This represents entire student 
 control and is rare. (2) Officers of the association, 
 captains of teams and physical education director. 
 (3) To this second type are frequently added mem- 
 bers of the faculty, elected by the association. This 
 is the most common type and is effective. (4) Officers 
 of the association, one representative from each 
 game, including indoor gymnastic group and physi- 
 cal education director. In this last group, members 
 
104 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 of the faculty are only elected by the association to 
 the advisory committee. One college varies this by 
 having the three lower classes represented, instead of 
 the game groups; another by adding to the officers 
 and representatives from each sport a member at large 
 for each class. One university has, in addition to 
 the executive committee of the association, a faculty 
 athletic committee and a board of control appointed 
 by the president of the college, consisting of two 
 faculty members, a graduate student and the presi- 
 dent and treasurer of the athletic association. They 
 have charge of funds and grounds. Under some as- 
 sociations each game group is organized into a club 
 and the various officers who have control of that group 
 represent it on the executive committee of the general 
 association. In others, there is no formal club, each 
 team being the center of the group and directing its 
 activities through the captain. In one college the sys- 
 tem is quite elaborate. There are seven organized 
 sports, each constituting a department, which is under 
 the direction of the captain and head. Each sport 
 has its own set of regulations and the duties of its 
 officers are carefully defined. The captains and heads 
 give the instruction in each department. All of these 
 various types of organizations are found in the vari- 
 ous colleges, but (3) and (4) possess the greatest in- 
 terest for new organizations looking for a model. 
 The combination of officers of the association, physi- 
 cal director, and one representative from each game 
 group and from each class with faculty on the ad- 
 visory board is exceedingly valuable. 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 105 
 
 The duties of these executive committees or boards 
 vary, as the following show : 
 
 " Its duties are to formulate rules for governing 
 athletics and athletic honors and to enforce these rules. 
 It consults with the advisory committee regarding the 
 welfare of the association but there is no appeal from 
 its decisions." 
 
 ' To make appropriations, to appoint all committees 
 for the control of athletic fetes and contests, and to have 
 the supervision and final decision in all affairs pertain- 
 ing to the interests of the association not otherwise pro- 
 vided for by the constitution. Appeal from any de- 
 cision of the executive board may be taken to the as- 
 sociation by twenty-five members. " 
 
 " Organized sports shall come under the supervision 
 of the executive board. Each organization shall con- 
 stitute a separate department, having the power to elect 
 its own officers and make its own rules and regulations, 
 subject to the approval of the executive board. Any 
 sport may be authorized by the executive board/' 
 
 ' The executive committee shall be in charge of the 
 four regular meetings of the association and shall meet 
 the expenses of such. These regular meetings are a 
 gymnasium meet, an open meet, reception to freshmen, 
 and annual business meeting/' 
 
 Associations are usually supported by membership 
 dues and have for their object " improving conditions 
 of health " and " attracting girls to the department 
 of physical education." A few make improvements in 
 the courts and purchase paraphernalia. Some are 
 close corporations and no one can enter athletics or 
 use the courts or equipment except through their 
 doors. 
 
106 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 In one college, the association selects student lead- 
 ers who also instruct the players. Where under- 
 graduates have such a responsibility it is impossible 
 to educate girls through play. Under this system, 
 a college freshman just out of preparatory school 
 had charge of freshman basketball. She was a good 
 player but a hard one, had no knowledge of games 
 other than their physical value and while fair and 
 courageous, was far too young, inexperienced and un- 
 trained to teach a game like basketball. It would 
 seem that the selection and training of teams, deter- 
 mination of number of games and other matters af- 
 fecting the health and education of players, should 
 properly be vested in the department of physical 
 education, while field arrangements and all social 
 functions could properly be in the hands of an 
 association. 
 
 This belief is borne out by the experience that the 
 greatest service which associations now render is ex- 
 ecutive social work. The influence exerted by them 
 in selecting players, arranging schedules, etc., is small 
 compared to the need of arousing class and college 
 loyalty and spirit ; of stimulating interest ; of break- 
 ing down social lines ; and of making games fair, 
 attractive and wholesome. This is the opportunity 
 and responsibility which no instructor or depart- 
 ment can meet alone. The following are illustra- 
 tive of the annual activities of some of the active 
 associations, showing how they accomplish these 
 results : 
 
 A. (1) Freshman social and reception, given early 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 107 
 
 in the fall, to which all women in the university are 
 invited to meet the freshmen. The object is to inter- 
 est the freshmen in the department of physical educa- 
 tion and in the association. (2) A carnival, consist- 
 ing of folk dances, short local play, booths of different 
 nations and other entertainments. This is given to 
 raise money for the pins and numerals which the asso- 
 ciation presents each year to those who make the 
 teams. (3) Mid-year entertainment by the members 
 of the association to the teams. (4) May-fest, con- 
 sisting of Maypole dances and final games in basket- 
 ball and hockey. About one hundred of the associa- 
 tion members and others took part in this. (5) Ban- 
 quet at close of the season when the banners, cup, 
 pins, numerals and other prizes and trophies are pre- 
 sented. This is a formal affair with speeches, toasts, 
 etc. (6) There are contests including three inter- 
 class championship games each of basketball, hockey 
 and indoor baseball and one gymnastic contest. At 
 all of these the association has the responsibility of 
 bringing out an audience, getting up enthusiasm, 
 decorating the field or gymnasium, calling for invited 
 guests and arranging advantageous seating for them, 
 leading class and team songs and cheers, and provid- 
 ing ushers, programs, etc. 
 
 B. There are four general social days under the 
 supervision and arrangement of the association: (1) 
 Tree day, in which the dancing classes largely par- 
 ticipate. (2) Float day, in which the rowing club 
 members take a prominent part. (3) Field day, in 
 which the basketball, hockey, tennis and other sports 
 
108 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 predominate. (4) Indoor meet by the gymnastic de- 
 partment. 
 
 C The association gives a reception to freshmen 
 and has charge of all the social and executive details 
 of the under-class championship between sophomores 
 and freshmen, which includes one basketball and two 
 hockey games ; and of the college championship be- 
 tween Juniors and Seniors, and between sophomores 
 and freshmen, which includes basketball, hockey and 
 field and track events. The association provides and 
 presents the pennants, numerals and letters to the 
 winners. 
 
 D. The association has charge of the gymnasium 
 meet, the open meet and the reception given to fresh- 
 men in the fall. 
 
 Athletic associations could very well give more 
 time and thought to developing good songs for field 
 days, championship games and meets. They might 
 also induce persons interested in the play movement 
 and in games and their social expression to give lec- 
 tures or addresses under their auspices. 
 
 There is not much variety in athletic games or 
 events now used for field days. An association can 
 do much to stimulate interest in minor games and 
 class contests, and in working out athletic events 
 which will be good substitutes for such individual 
 contests as shot put, etc., which are now used. 
 
 Another function which might be undertaken by 
 such athletic associations is a field day for secondary 
 schools, similar to those now- given by universities to 
 high school boys. In place of having only competi- 
 
ATHLETICS IN UNIVERSITIES 109 
 
 tions between the various schools for prizes, the class 
 teams of the hostess college could give exhibition 
 games and the schools be invited to do likewise. A 
 prize might be offered to the school playing the best 
 exhibition game with its own teams. Perhaps one 
 inter-scholastic competitive game, for educational 
 rather than for competitive purposes, might be added. 
 If the ideal maintained by colleges is to mean any- 
 thing, their work and spirit must be presented in some 
 concrete way to the various schools and all of these 
 brought together socially under the guidance of the 
 college, but always with the social, educational and 
 esthetic values emphasized. 
 
I 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 ATHLETICS IN POLITICAL AND SOCIAL 
 ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 Is it enough that athletics be given a place in the 
 /educational system? Do not persons who have learned 
 /to play need an outlet for the play spirit after they 
 f leave school? Furthermore, many never reach the 
 high school or college, and city grade schools at 
 best offer but meager facilities for play. Aside from 
 its educational value, play bears an important rela- 
 tion to many city problems. For instance, it is a 
 great safeguard against immorality, since it provides 
 a normal, wholesome outlet for physical energy. 
 Many short-sighted city administrations leave the 
 matters of recreation to dance halls, where the fee for 
 the use of the hall consists of the drinks that are 
 bought. Speaking of their influence, Miss Jane Ad- 
 dams says : x 
 
 " The public dance halls filled with frivolous and 
 vapid young people in a feverish search for pleasure 
 are but a sorry substitute for the immemorial dances on 
 the village green in which all of the older people of the 
 village participated. . . . The modern city is content, 
 how r ever, to turn over all the public provision for danc- 
 ing to the proprietors of ' halls/ who deliberately use it 
 as a snare to vice and at the best make money from this 
 
 1 Charities, Vol. XVIII. , p. 494. 
 110 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 111 
 
 insatiable desire on the part of young people. We have 
 no sense of responsibility in regard to their pleasures 
 and continually forget that amusement is stronger than 
 vice and that it alone can stifle the lust for it. We see 
 all about us much vice which is merely a love for pleas- 
 ure ' gone wrong/ the illicit expression of what might 
 have been not only normal and recreative pleasure but 
 an instrument in the advance of a higher social 
 morality/ ' 
 
 There are no public gymnasia for women in most of 
 the cities and very little opportunity is provided for J 
 organized play for adults. 1 A number of political J 
 and social institutions are undertaking to meet this 
 need, and it may be of interest to show something of 
 the scope and methods of their activitie^and to sug- 
 gest some ways in which both the recreational and 
 educational advantages may be increased^ While it is 
 not possible to include all, some idea may be gath- 
 ered from a brief outline of athletics in municipalities, 
 settlements, vacation homes and camps, Young 
 Women's Christian Associations, industrial welfare 
 movements, trade unions, schools of philanthropy and 
 reformatory institutions. 
 
 MUNICIPALITIES 
 
 Recreation, supported and controlled by the people 
 themselves, is necessarily the most desirable because it 
 is the most democratic, comprehensive and stimulat- 
 ing. The significance of the general movement by and 
 for the people cannot be overestimated. It started 
 with a demand for " breathing spaces," until now the 
 
 1 For plan, Kellor, "Experimental Sociology," pp. 271 ff. 
 
112 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 playground, recreation center, gymnasium, vacation 
 school, athletic field, etc., are recognized as of vital 
 social importance. 
 
 Playgrounds. — It is scarcely necessary to empha- 
 size the need of playgrounds, for the movement on the 
 part of the cities to obtain them is general. But there 
 is great need to emphasize increased use of play- 
 grounds for girls. Because the boys wait around in 
 scores to get in and the girls have to be induced to 
 come is no argument that they do not want or need 
 them. A prominent leader in the school garden move- 
 ment in New York writes : 
 
 ' The first thought is always for the boy along these 
 lines, generally because he is sure to smash something 
 if space is not allotted to him in which to work off his 
 animal spirit. The girl has her domestic duties. After 
 five hours of schoolroom she must help mother by tak- 
 ing care of the baby or washing dishes; and then must 
 sit down to study her lessons before going to bed; and 
 if her animal spirits break loose and childhood's rights 
 assert themselves, she is termed a tom-boy. If she will 
 quietly walk up and down, interchanging confidence with 
 some other girl, it is considered the proper thing." 
 
 A director of a playground says in a letter to the 
 writers : 
 
 " Girls have far too little desire for play, far too 
 little imagination and do not care for active games. 
 They know very few and these are almost exclusively 
 ' ring ' games, with stupid or vulgar songs to accompany 
 them. Many children have lost the spirit of play from 
 always having the care of babies. Our efforts are 
 directed toward encouraging activity, teaching new 
 games, reforming vulgarities of street games and giving 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 113 
 
 physical, social and mental development through 
 games." 
 
 The Playground Association of America, which 
 held its first annual meeting in Chicago in June, 1907, 
 is in a fair way to crystallize the sentiment and to 
 give the entire playground movement great impetus 
 throughout the country. Its objects are " to study 
 playground construction and administration, to col- 
 lect all available publications and material, to give 
 publicity to its information and to register and keep 
 account of all trained playground workers." It is to 
 be hoped that this organization will do much for 
 girls both in the presentation and discussion of their 
 needs and in urging the use of organized games. 1 
 
 Without the playground to keep the play spirit 
 alive, maintain health and give the preliminary 
 training in citizenship, organized games reach but 
 few people. Unfortunately, so far as athletic games 
 are concerned, the city playground does not offer a 
 wide opportunity. Few are large enough to pro- 
 vide for more than a basketball court, though there is 
 a growing tendency to introduce the less highly or- 
 ganized games. The number wishing to use them 
 and the presence of mothers and babies have led to 
 the substitution of games which admit large num- 
 bers. Where playground work is not supervised, 
 graded or systematized, children, schoolgirls and 
 young women all come together and highly organized 
 group games are not possible. 
 
 Notwithstanding the present limitations in ath- 
 1 Publishes a quarterly magazine, The Playground. 
 
114 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 letics, the playground is an influential factor in social 
 ethics. It is the natural place for both girls and boys 
 to learn right from wrong and to understand their 
 rights and duties. Social morality is not inborn, and 
 if play is not directed it may not be learned until 
 too late, for to many the playground presents the 
 only opportunity. Smart tricks will take the place 
 of a square deal ; good minds will cover small morals ; 
 and the girl will grow into one who brags and bullies 
 rather than one who respects the rights and attain- 
 ments of others. " Directed play " is the ideal toward 
 which superintendents of playgrounds are aiming, 
 though they still discriminate and offer games to boys 
 and unorganized play to girls. 
 
 Park Gymnasia. — Parks offer better facilities for 
 girls than do city playgrounds. They could be used 
 even more for organized play than they are without 
 impairing their esthetic value. No city offers a better 
 illustration of what may be done in the utilization of 
 parks for play than Chicago, and so far as we know 
 no city has provided such nearly equal facilities for 
 men and boys and for women and girls. 
 
 These parks contain athletic fields where baseball 
 and tennis are played in summer and football and 
 tennis in the fall. Women do not ordinarily use these. 
 There is also an outdoor field and gymnasium for 
 men. Not far from these are smaller ones for women, 
 similarly equipped but with more provision for play 
 and less for heavy apparatus, which also contain 
 swimming pools and shower baths. 
 
 There is a separate playground with wading pools 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 115 
 
 and sand piles for small children, both boys and girls, 
 where mothers accompany them. 
 
 The most interesting features of these parks are 
 the field houses. They contain a library, restaurant, 
 club room and auditorium open to both sexes. At one 
 end is a gymnasium for men and at the other a similar 
 one for women, somewhat smaller. These are com- 
 pletely equipped and instruction is provided in bas- 
 ketball, baseball, gymnastics, etc., in winter and sum- 
 mer. Contests are played here between the various 
 teams. The regular hours are from 2 :30 to 9 :30 in 
 summer and from 3 :30 to 9 :30 in winter. On Sun- 
 days there is a special director. A report of the 
 work bears testimony to the social value of athletic 
 training. 1 
 
 ' The regular class work for girls is supplemented by 
 inter-park basketball, long-ball and other games. These 
 games are arranged in the manner of an invitation from 
 one park to play as guests of another park. 
 
 ' It is the plan to conduct out-of-door work from May 
 1st to November 1st. Much of this work will be in- 
 formal and undirected except that the gymnasiums will 
 be under the supervision of the instructor at all times. 
 In addition to the informal and undirected work, formal 
 class work in free exercise, apparatus work, games and 
 athletic events will be conducted afternoons and even- 
 ings at stated hours. 
 
 " Emphasis will be placed upon the organization of 
 track athletic teams, the holding of dual, triangular and 
 inter-park meets, arranged and conducted with reference 
 to group interests. 
 
 " Invitation athletic meets of suitable character will 
 be conducted among the girls. The guiding principle in 
 
 1 Report South Park Commission, 1906. 
 
116 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 conducting all out-of-door work will be to involve great 
 numbers, to organize, along the lines of simplicity, large 
 groups for interesting and beneficial gymnastic and 
 athletic activities. 
 
 ' The value of the gymnasium and playgrounds as 
 agencies with which to combat the tendencies toward 
 social and physical degeneration which inevitably ac- 
 company city life, has been emphasized by many 
 eminent pedagogues, scientists and sociologists. Our 
 public schools are first in combating and delaying the 
 effects of these tendencies. But the valuable physical, 
 mental and social training given by the public schools 
 ends with the vast majority of children when they are 
 still in their most plastic stages of development. 
 Their school and play time is cut short because of the 
 necessity for seeking work in office, factory or shop, 
 there to become a cog in our complex industrial life. 
 The park gymnasiums may and do at this time furnish 
 the training needed in the children's muscular and 
 neural development; and with the gymnasium conducted 
 with reference to the sociological factors involved, it 
 may be claimed that this work is a valuable adjunct to 
 the public school system/ ' 
 
 There is a growing tendency in most city parks to 
 provide athletic facilities for girls, especially in bas- 
 ketball and tennis. Hockey is used occasionally and 
 can well be urged, for by frequent changes of field it 
 is not hard on the turf. One city park provides an 
 out-of-door gymnasium with a canvas top and open 
 sides and also an open space 350 x 150 feet as an 
 exercise ground for girls. 
 
 Athletic Fields. — Outside of parks, it is only here 
 and there that much attention is paid to girls, and 
 there are few athletic fields for them. We have been 
 able to find but one municipal athletic field and that 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 117 
 
 is not in use because there is no money to put it into 
 condition. Even where facilities, such as tennis nets 
 and basketball courts, are provided, girls are too fre- 
 quently left to play by themselves. When an enthusi- 
 ast or even director or patron of athletic games is 
 asked about such work for girls, he usually looks dis- 
 tressed and says : " Well, now I don't know about 
 girls, but for boys ! " And then for five minutes there 
 will be an eloquent description of facilities provided 
 for boys. Girls have been neglected so long that it is 
 not enough to put in the equipment and say " now 
 play." The subject needs especial attention to devise 
 ways of making games attractive, beneficial and more 
 varied. 
 
 Not only are cities interested in this matter of play, 
 but there is a growing interest in town gymnasia in 
 small towns of from 1,000 to 5,000. Unfortunately 
 again, this is chiefly confined to men, and there are 
 few or no places of recreation for the girl after she 
 is out of school. 
 
 Recreation Centers, Vacation Schools, Etc. — 
 These are ordinarily a part of the school system and 
 are largely for children. The growing use of 
 schoolrooms and roofs where girls are taught games 
 is a matter for congratulation, and most of the large 
 cities make some effort to maintain recreation centers. 
 Without the use of school buildings, much of the 
 athletic work would be impossible. So rapidly has this 
 been extended that in some cities not enough super- 
 visors of play can be found to take charge of those 
 willing to come and play. 
 
118 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 In one city, there are twenty-one such centers, 
 twelve for men and boys and nine for women and girls. 
 A principal, club director and athletic instructor are 
 provided. Those who attend often form clubs and 
 sometimes assist in the discipline of unruly members. 
 The following description of the work in these evening 
 recreation centers for women and girls shows how 
 little educational work is considered even in the most 
 progressive schools: 
 
 " The work in the recreation centers was organized 
 into four distinct departments — the reading and study 
 room, the literary and debating clubs, quiet games and 
 gymnastic teams. 
 
 " The program for girls' center differs but slightly 
 from that of the boys. Their athletic exercises are 
 always taken in classes with an instructor, and their 
 club work is distinct and progressive. They care less 
 for games of skill and more for reading. The last half- 
 hour of each evening is spent in graceful dancing. It 
 required this to eliminate the romping of which they 
 are so fond, and the stately , old-fashioned minuet has 
 been serviceable in this direction. The women are quite 
 as enthusiastic as the men over their club. They are 
 fond of games and like gymnastics.'' 
 
 The vacation school has made games a large part of 
 its work in many cities and has helped to solve the 
 summer problem. Occasionally definite periods are set 
 aside for organized games. Another feature of some 
 vacation schools is the excursion, where the greater 
 part of the time is spent in playing games. 
 
 School Gardens. — Only an occasional school gar- 
 den considers play for girls. The out-of-door work 
 in caring for the garden is usually considered suffi- 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 119 
 
 cient. One superintendent of a school garden, who 
 sees the need clearly, writes : * 
 
 " After garden hours, the older boys and girls hung 
 about helplessly, looking for something to do. The 
 ground adjoining the garden is hilly and was covered 
 with a rank growth of weeds, but after weeks of hard 
 work, two tennis courts and basketball ground were 
 evolved. The boys formed a baseball team and secured 
 the use of the grounds a short distance away. Through 
 the courtesy of an owner, a plot of ground adjoining the 
 garden was laid out. 
 
 ' The main feature of the playgrounds has been the 
 team work. The garden pupils are girls and boys of 
 the grammar grades, soon to leave school and enter the 
 working world. There they have two great lessons to 
 learn; first, to do one's own work well; second, to work 
 with others, subordinating individual interest to a com- 
 mon end. The first lesson is begun in the garden, in 
 the care and responsibility for the individual plot. The 
 second is begun on the playground. The end of team 
 work is the joy of winning and to attain that end all 
 must work as one. This is a far harder lesson than 
 the first. No one save the attendant teacher knows 
 how often a team threatened to go to pieces because 
 1 Mary was mad at Kate/ or ' John told Fred last night 
 he wasn't any good anyway/ 
 
 " In spite of such difficulties, two baseball and six 
 basketball teams were organized and did very good 
 work. Scorebooks were kept to show the result of 
 each game. An examination of the scorebooks shows 
 a total of 103 children engaged in team work during the 
 season. This number does not include those children 
 using the tennis, quoits, etc. After garden hours, young 
 people from neighborhoods near both gardens used the 
 tennis and basketball grounds, bringing their own nets, 
 balls and racquets. When match games were played 
 between the two gardens enthusiasm ran high. Usu- 
 
 1 Report, School Gardens, Philadelphia, 1905. 
 
120 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 ally there was an attendance of several hundred parents, 
 friends and interested neighbors at each game. ' That 
 baseball has been the making of my boys/ remarked one 
 enthusiastic mother." 
 
 A leader in the School Garden movement in New 
 York says : 
 
 " During 1902, when I started the Children's Garden, 
 there was no provision for gymnastic exercises in the 
 neighborhood. One day the police called my attention 
 to an over-grown girl of fourteen, who was having a 
 most enjoyable time sliding head first from the roof of 
 our cottage. He asked if I thought that proper. I 
 looked over the lots. Some men were playing ball at one 
 end, some boys were intent upon their games at another. 
 I thought of this awkwardly tall girl trying to reach 
 womanhood through the environment of a poor two- 
 room home, with no fresh air or sunshine, and I replied 
 to the officer, * No one seems to be looking at her but 
 you, and if you look toward the river you will not see 
 her,' and she slid up and down that roof happily 
 oblivious of a weary world. I very soon had some 
 simple gymnasium apparatus placed, and the weather 
 never seemed too cold to keep the girls off the lot." 
 
 Summary and Suggestions. — This brief account 
 of municipal activities shows a little of what is being 
 done and holds out high hope for the future. There 
 are, in addition to extending the movements described, 
 many other things which the friends of games for 
 girls may urge: 
 
 There are many vacant lots in cities which the 
 owners, if rightly approached, would permit to be 
 used for such games as basketball, indoor baseball, 
 hockey and less highly organized games. Settlements 
 could undertake to provide supervisors of play. 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 121 
 
 Play festivals, including organized games and ex- 
 hibitions by municipalities of their work in vacation 
 schools, recreation centers, etc., would assist in stimu- 
 lating interest. One city conducts civic games for 
 men ; why not play festivals for girls ? 
 
 Germany has a " Central Committee for the Pro- 
 motion of Games," which consists of prominent gov- 
 ernment officials, physical trainers, educators, etc. 
 Its work is to study the games and sports of other 
 countries and to introduce them into Germany. It 
 has also not only systematized and graded games but 
 has urged shorter school hours so there will be avail- 
 able time for play. It has also held normal schools 
 of play, thereby training several thousand teachers, 
 conducted play congresses and published excellent 
 periodicals and reports in the interests of play. Some 
 such movement is needed to develop the play spirit 
 and provide additional training and facilities for 
 girls in this country. 
 
 The limited space available in cities for play- 
 grounds has led the Director of Physical Training of 
 the New York City schools to suggest a twenty-story 
 playground. He estimates that below Fourteenth 
 Street there are fully 225,000 children and that the 
 city provides playgrounds for only about seven per 
 cent, of them. So far as we know the need of cities 
 and the slender resources in time and money of those 
 whom it is sought to reach, smaller buildings more 
 convenient to the crowded neighborhoods, with pro- 
 visions for organized games and equal facilities for 
 girls and boys, would more adequately meet the need. 
 
122 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 In the smaller cities, a wider use of schoolhouses 
 and the establishment of small simple playhouses for 
 women are within the immediate possibilities. Any 
 floor space which will provide for a basketball court, 
 small indoor baseball diamond, ring hockey and for 
 less highly organized games and for folk plays and 
 dances is highly desirable. 
 
 SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Settlements were among the first to provide games 
 for girls. In many cities they have stood behind the 
 playground movement and have made it possible. 
 They have also acquainted the neighborhood with its 
 opportunity or taken parties of small girls to the 
 centers provided. Some of the settlements maintain 
 country houses or summer camps where games are 
 played. During the summer, excursion parties con- 
 stitute a large part of their activities and organized 
 games are made a prominent feature for boys, though 
 not so much for girls. Where settlements have a small 
 yard it is usually turned into a playground, furnish- 
 ing a practice field for the battery of the settlement 
 nine, or is used by the small children for minor games. 
 The residents also take the settlement teams off to 
 vacant fields where they can practise. This is not 
 always an easy thing to do. One of the women resi- 
 dents was invited to accompany the ball team to an 
 outlying park in one of the large cities on Sunday. 
 Thinking baseball was prohibited there, she declined. 
 After much urging she told the team to have its first 
 practice alone, and if there was no trouble she would 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 123 
 
 go the following Sunday. They returned jubilant, 
 with the announcement, " Say, you oughter gone — 
 we only got chased five times by the cop and got over 
 the fence every time. We's had a grand game and 
 can play dere." 
 
 Facilities. — In the matter of athletics settlements 
 have not only been pioneers but continue largely to 
 influence public opinion and to take the initiative. Of 
 the one hundred settlements responding to our in- 
 quiries, sixty per cent, provided some facilities for 
 organized games, independently of the neighboring 
 parks and recreation centers; twenty-eight per cent, 
 had no work; and twelve per cent, were building or 
 equipping gymnasia. Of the twenty-eight per cent, 
 a few stated that they had given up their work be- 
 cause playgrounds had been opened in their neigh- 
 borhood. Forty-five per cent, had a playground of 
 their own in addition to a gymnasium, or were near 
 playgrounds which they used. 
 
 While the amount of work provided for girls is 
 encouraging and is increasing, a considerable propor- 
 tion of the sixty per cent, which provided work did not 
 extend it to girls and did not appear to realize its 
 value, though they were sure it was " a good thing 
 for boys." Not one settlement stated that it shared 
 the gymnasium equally between girls and boys and 
 but few said that a special effort was made to interest 
 girls so they would use the time already allowed them. 
 
 Basketball is so popular that some girls will play 
 no other game. Gymnastic games are sometimes used, 
 but there is a deplorable lack of variety and absence 
 
124 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 of any educational idea. Of the sixty per cent, of the 
 settlements which have gymnasia, only a trifle more 
 than thirty per cent, provided for organized play, and 
 that chiefly in the way of basketball. 
 
 There is also a definite need for supervision and 
 trained instructors. Many settlements have not 
 enough work to afford a paid instructor. Most of 
 them are located in the crowded sections of cities, 
 where rental of floor space is very high and must con- 
 tent themselves with the use of a small room, roof, 
 or by covering a small yard. Thirty-six per cent, of 
 the instructors are college girls who may or may not 
 have had athletic training; thirty-seven per cent, 
 have had some training in schools of physical train- 
 ing ; eighteen per cent, are residents with no especial 
 training and the remainder are " professional men 
 coaches." In only about seven per cent, are measure- 
 ments or examinations required or any special study 
 made of the needs of working women and badly nour- 
 ished girls. This is perhaps the chief oversight, as the 
 dangers from over-exertion are so great. Almost 
 every settlement surely has some physician suffi- 
 ciently interested to take up this matter. 
 
 Contests. — In the matter of contests there is a 
 somewhat conservative attitude. One half do not play 
 outside teams, and of the other half, about five per 
 cent, discourage but do not prohibit them and empha- 
 size inter-class games. In one settlement we found 
 teams playing three or four match games a month, 
 during the season, with outside teams, but such excesses 
 are not common. One to three inter-settlement contests 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 125 
 
 a year seem desirable, for inter-class contests are not 
 always possible, as where the small gymnasium accom- 
 modates but one class. Inter-settlement contests serve 
 a necessary purpose, for the interest is difficult to 
 keep, owing to the competition of dance halls and 
 other places of amusement in neighborhoods filled with 
 daily dramatic incidents. 
 
 Athletic Associations. — It is regrettable that so 
 few settlements have any kind of athletic associa- 
 tions to stimulate interest, develop social qualities and 
 teach the girls self-government. At present the whole 
 matter is usually directed by residents and the social 
 features are consequently much neglected. Exhibi- 
 tion games, field days and meets have almost no place, 
 and in some cases the gymnasium is to the girl simply 
 a place where she may dance. 
 
 Systems of Work. — These vary so much that it is 
 impossible to give an accurate general account of 
 them. The usual amount of time given to girls is two 
 evenings or afternoons per week. One settlement 
 gives but one and one-half hours a week while another 
 gives three evenings a week, and some have afternoon 
 classes and grade the work. The usual plan is to have 
 the first part of the hour devoted to gymnastics and 
 the latter part to games. The classes are frequently 
 made up by the various clubs. One settlement has 
 early afternoon classes for women; late afternoon 
 classes for school girls and evening classes for work- 
 ing girls. In another the gymnasium is used during 
 the year by about five hundred different women and 
 girls and cannot meet the demand. 
 
126 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 In a few the systems, in spite of the limited facili- 
 ties and great numbers using them, are so good that 
 they may be helpful to others, whose available space 
 is perhaps limited to a single room. 
 
 In one, classes are divided into women's senior and 
 women's intermediate classes, and into intermediate 
 school girls' and junior girls' classes. Each meets 
 twice every week for an hour. The first part of 
 the hour is given to gymnastics and the latter part 
 to games. Saturday evenings are left open for 
 contests and about three contests a season are played. 
 Evening classes are reserved for those employed dur- 
 ing the day. Physical examinations are made by a 
 physician, corrective work prescribed and games are 
 supervised by a graduate of a physical training 
 school. 
 
 In another, two afternoons and evenings a week are 
 given to girls and women, one afternoon and evening 
 is given to gymnastics and the other to children's 
 games and athletics. One inter-settlement contest a 
 year is pla} T ed, measurements are taken before a girl 
 is permitted to play and the work is under the direc- 
 tion of two physical training school students. 
 
 A third, with a comparatively small gymnasium 
 for girls, has so good a system that it has eight- 
 een classes a week. One afternoon is reserved for 
 contests. 
 
 Defects and Suggestions. — The defects, if they 
 can really be called such, in view of the signal service 
 rendered to the playground movement and of what 
 has been accomplished in the face of limitations of 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 127 
 
 space and equipment and lack of competent super- 
 vision, are the following: 
 
 Not enough thought is given to work for girls. 
 The temptations due to crowded quarters of cities 
 are quite as great for them as for boys and their 
 morals quite as easily corrupted. 
 
 Too little attention is paid to the needs of working 
 girls. A variety of games, folk dances, etc., adapted 
 to their needs are essential. Basketball, as the only 
 game, is too strenuous for those who have had no 
 training and who work from eight to fourteen hours 
 per day. 
 
 Some of the disadvantages are due to the accept- 
 ance of the professional " coach." It is feasible for 
 several settlements to combine and engage a trained 
 'instructor. These instructors, as one settlement 
 worker writes, should be " trained to handle working 
 girls' classes ; if they are not, they are often failures." 
 
 Organized games have too small a place in camps, 
 country houses, excursions, etc., conducted by settle- 
 ment workers. Girls off on vacations are too much 
 inclined to indulge in " horse play," or sit about ex- 
 changing confidences, talking of young men and " re- 
 lating experiences." 
 
 There is a tendency to discontinue the gymnasium 
 when a municipal playground is started and to trust 
 to the latter to do the needed work. This seems to be 
 a mistake, for there are many mothers who will not 
 let their daughters go to a public playground and 
 are just as careful as though they could afford a 
 private instructor. The settlement that keeps up its 
 
128 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 own athletic work while assisting in obtaining a play- 
 ground has a much better chance of retaining its hold 
 upon the young girls in the neighborhood. 
 
 A w r ider use of roofs, vacant lots or vacant rooms 
 could be urged. Hockey can be played on vacant lots 
 until winter. Indoor baseball and ring hockey can be 
 played in quite small rooms. As no equipment is 
 needed, the use of some of these vacant spaces might 
 be obtained free or at a small rental. 
 
 Exhibition games, field days and meets which afford 
 social features need emphasis. Folk dances could be 
 made an attractive part of these and would help to 
 attract the girls. 
 
 The educational and social value of athletic clubs 
 could be increased by interesting lectures under their 
 auspices. There are inter-settlement associations for 
 boys, why not for girls? These could be under the 
 supervision of the combined settlements, and might 
 assist in obtaining a higher standard and in regulat- 
 ing contests and developing social features. A con- 
 ference of settlements in each city to discuss, not only 
 the value of athletic work, but to help each other work 
 out better systems, might lead to a wider adoption of 
 games, played under better conditions. 
 
 VACATION HOMES AND CAMPS 
 
 These do not offer so good an opportunity for 
 sustained education as do playgrounds and settlement 
 gymnasia. Although the period of the outing is 
 short, usually limited to one or two weeks, the girls 
 during that time are entirely under the influence of 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 129 
 
 the homes, and it can be made the most of in every 
 way. The director can introduce games at least 
 once each day, and if minor games are used, twice 
 or oftener. For working girls, suddenly having all 
 of their energy released and needing some outlet, 
 games offer a splendid opportunity. They help to 
 solve the problem of discipline ; furnish a good alter- 
 native to dancing, which is becoming far too much 
 emphasized ; make an excellent topic of conversation ; 
 and in even this short time some idea of the social 
 qualities required in group work can be gained. Em- 
 ploying a game director is an experiment worth try- 
 ing in each vacation home. 
 
 Summer camps for girls, both for study and recrea- 
 tion, are growing in favor, and many institutions are 
 establishing them. The demand for persons capable 
 of taking charge of them exceeds the supply. The 
 plan deserves a wider extension, not only to working 
 girls but to the leisure class as well. Many girls are 
 only made more individualistic by sending them 
 abroad at an early age with a chaperon, while a little 
 group training and closeness to nature would be a 
 greater benefit in many ways. Such camps ordinarily 
 have all of the individual sports, such as riding, canoe- 
 ing, swimming, etc., which are excellent recreation 
 but are not socially educational. The " athletic 
 tutor " of the right kind is much needed here. 
 
 YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 The influence these associations may have on the 
 social education of women can be paralleled by no 
 
130 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 other group at the present time. There are large 
 numbers of working girls of the middle class who have 
 no other social centers. There is a considerable 
 number of unemployed girls of the middle class who 
 are not permitted to work whose homes and social ac- 
 tivities do not satisfy them. There are girls who wish 
 to contribute to social betterment in activities other 
 than those of the church. There are also graduates 
 from high school and college who have played games 
 in school and take up work in the city. What place is 
 there for them to continue their physical and group 
 activities? There is still another group greatly in 
 need of some social outlet, namely the factory and 
 shop workers in small industrial centers. All of these 
 are in need of the training as well as the recreation 
 which athletic games provide. An investigation made 
 by one of the Association members shows something 
 of this: 1 
 
 " City life is each year crowding more people into 
 smaller space with consequently diminishing opportu- 
 nity for out-of-door work, and artificial means must be 
 provided to induce a sufficient amount of exercise indoors. 
 The total population of the United States has increased 
 twenty per cent, during the last ten years, but the city 
 population has increased thirty-six per cent, during the 
 same time. About ten million American women and 
 girls live in cities. For many of these a gymnasium 
 would provide a most wholesome health measure. It is 
 within the reach of some, though not a large proportion. 
 In this country the number of wage-earning women above 
 fifteen years of age is almost five million, and the num- 
 ber of wage-earning girls between ten and fifteen years 
 
 1 Special Report of Y. W. C. A , 1905. 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 131 
 
 is almost half a million. For most wage-earners the 
 daylight hours are the working hours. Rest and recrea- 
 tion must come after dark, when many kinds of out- 
 door exercise are out of the question. Pleasant and 
 safe and wholesome good times are needed, and for most 
 of these women the expense must not be great. Many 
 of them are supporting others as well as themselves. " 
 
 Some of these women need recreation, some educa- 
 tion, some a good time, some social expression, some 
 happiness, while others are full of pent-up energ}~ 
 which is likely to lead them to the dance hall or other 
 amusement places where they can make a noise and 
 " have a good time." It becomes a question not 
 solely of exercise and recreation but of morality and 
 public concern. 
 
 Now the girl who has worked all day in a stuffy 
 shop until her eyes and fingers and back and head 
 ache; the girl who has only a four-room apartment 
 which she shares with many others ; the girl whose 
 body is tried by physical exertion and spirit by its 
 yearning for something bright, relaxing and beauti- 
 ful, — these cannot be expected to choose the Associa- 
 tion's rooms (not because their intentions are bad) un- 
 less it has some way of understanding their life and 
 of meeting their needs. The Bible, sewing or cooking 
 classes may or may not do this, for they may not be 
 ready for them. But the gymnasium and games will 
 do it if they are open to them. 
 
 Facilities and Methods of Work. — What is being 
 done to meet this need? Their investigator says fur- 
 ther of the Association work : 
 
132 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 " Of the 100 largest cities in the United States, 43 
 have no gymnasium work; of the 77 cities having a 
 population of 50,000 or more, 33 have none, and no 
 Association gymnasium in a city often means none at 
 all. 
 
 " Between February and May, 1905, I received from 
 nearly all the Associations under the International 
 Board and under the American Committee answers to a 
 lost of questions in regard to the physical work. The 
 replies represent 139 city Associations under both 
 boards. From 10 no replies were received; 52 are at- 
 tempting no work at present; 4 send their pupils to a 
 college gymnasium; 33 have a room or gymnasium part 
 of the time; 50 have a room or gymnasium the whole 
 time. This gives 83 doing more or less work. Thirty- 
 nine of these have a teacher for part time; 37 have a 
 teacher or physical director whole time; 7 have a phys- 
 ical director with one or more assistants. 
 
 " Seventy-seven Associations report 708 weekly ses- 
 sions with an enrollment of 9j>515. As to the equipment, 
 I did not state. Eleven have none, 1 1 have ' light ap- 
 paratus ' only, 60 have small to complete equipments. 
 
 " These facts give us some cause for pride in our As- 
 sociation, and more reason for hope and courage, and 
 still more occasion to redouble our efforts. 
 
 " With only two Associations doing gymnasium work 
 sixteen years ago, we now have over 80 doing more or 
 less in this line." 
 
 The inquiries made by us verify these statements. 
 Speaking of the growth of physical training and the 
 difficulties, one of our correspondents says : 
 
 ' The beginnings of the gymnasia were necessarily 
 small. First, the Associations found a few rooms where 
 meetings for young women could be held. These meet- 
 ings were usually of a religious or social nature. As the 
 meetings grew, larger quarters were secured. Often- 
 times the boards of managers were fortunate enough to 
 raise money to erect Association buildings. Although 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 133 
 
 there were some who recognized the need of physical 
 training, the quarters given for it were the places which 
 could be converted into something else should the ' fad ' 
 pass ; or when rooms were not needed for other purposes, 
 they were used for gymnastic work. 
 
 " For the most part, in the Associations recently built 
 the gymnasium is given the proper space and place, not 
 in the basement but on the ground floor or higher up; 
 not a place that can be converted into something else, 
 but a gymnasium well equipped with locker and dress- 
 ing-room accommodations. The newer Association gym- 
 nasiums have swimming pools as well as baths." 
 
 The work being done in one or two of the associa- 
 tion gymnasia shows the possibilities. One has a floor 
 space of 65 x 45 feet, excellent shower baths, etc. 
 The work consists of Swedish gymnastics, games and 
 basketball and fencing. There are also medical ex- 
 aminations. The only objection to this plan, which 
 prevails in many other associations as well, is the 
 high fee, which in many cases makes the work pro- 
 hibitive. The initiation fee is $1 and for two lessons 
 a week is $5 from September 25 to May 5. A locker 
 costs $1 more. The average pay per week of the fac- 
 tory worker is about $5 ; the average pay of the clerk 
 in the store is $6 to $8. The average rate of board 
 is $3 for the former and $4 for the latter. Now 
 girls earning these sums and most in need of physical 
 work cannot pay $5 a season. Many of them cannot 
 even afford to go to a dance unless some young man 
 takes them. Cannot some means be found to bring 
 working women into the gymnasium without such 
 high fees ? This is not a question primarily of educa- 
 tion, as are clubs and classes — it is a question of citi- 
 
134 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 zenship, of social morality and often of virtue as well. 
 Here settlements and institutional churches are clearly 
 in advance. 
 
 Another association in the West offers some excel- 
 lent opportunities. It provides gymnastics, basket- 
 ball, center-ball, scrimmage, gymnastic games and 
 children's games. The gymnasium is open eight 
 months of the year, the classes meet twice each week, 
 and twenty minutes of class time is given to games. 
 An examination of heart and lungs is required and 
 other measurements and strength tests are taken. It 
 has classes for business women in the evening, and for 
 women of leisure, high school girls and children in the 
 afternoon. Class contests in ball games are occasion- 
 ally permitted. There are occasional meetings of 
 classes in a social way, and an effort is made to pro- 
 mote good-fellowship through the gymnasium. 
 
 Defects. — The investigations made by association 
 members and by us on the whole show discouraging 
 conditions. In the first place, there is a well-defined 
 antagonism to athletics in many associations, due to 
 the fear of the effect of competition and to an igno- 
 rance of their value as training for good citizenship. 
 Less than one-third of the eighty-three associations 
 who offer gymnastics include any athletics whatever, 
 confining their work to formal gymnastic classes. In 
 the three main seaport towns where great numbers of 
 young immigrant workers arrive yearly, and where 
 thousands of working girls live, but one association 
 offers any work in athletics. In the second there is no 
 gymnasium and in the third athletics have been dis- 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 135 
 
 continued because the director is not in sympathy with 
 games and because in her judgment they " make the 
 girls rough." 
 
 We have been unable to find any such emphasis upon 
 the educational value as exists in the Y. M. C. A., and 
 there is an utter absence of any general lectures or 
 real instruction even where games are played. Little 
 attention is paid to the qualifications of instructors. 
 
 The Young Women's Christian Associations, in 
 common with the settlements, have by far the great- 
 est opportunity for making athletics a means of edu- 
 cation. Fair play, regard for the rights of others, 
 self-reliance and toleration, honesty and many other 
 qualities previously emphasized, may be brought out 
 as in no other classes. The Golden Rule and many of 
 the precepts taught in Bible classes are but half 
 appreciated, until applied in games to daily com- 
 petition. There are no other organizations to meet 
 this great need, and the social responsibility therefore 
 rests for the present with these two organizations. 
 
 Remedies. — In the report previously quoted, some 
 valuable suggestions are made which we repeat here in 
 the hope that some, who have not seen the report, may 
 become more deeply interested in the work. 
 
 " That the physical department be an integral part 
 of the Association work. It is not just physical work, 
 and girls should be made welcome in this if they can- 
 not give time to other things. 
 
 " Our gymnasiums must provide as good work as the 
 very best if they would hold their own, and they must 
 add a real sympathetic love for each girl. 
 
 " Every class session should have in it some element of 
 
136 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 friendliness, sociability and recreation in addition to 
 well-planned exercises. 
 
 ' There are many details in which physical directors 
 need the help of each other. Could we not plan some 
 regular means of conference and mutual help? A 
 clearing house of ideas and suggestions is also sug- 
 gested! Valuable conferences are held each summer in 
 which games play a large part, as a means of recreation. 
 Could not these develop something of the educational 
 value and be made more helpful? " 
 
 To these we may add the following: 
 
 In building a new Y. W. C. A., build the gym- 
 nasium first and add the other parts of the building 
 afterward. 
 
 Obtain an instructor who believes in both gymnas- 
 tics and athletics and who can make them so interest- 
 ing that she can compete with the dance hall and other 
 places frequented by those in search of recreation. 
 
 Learn the need and shape the physical education 
 department to meet it, instead of planning a scheme 
 of work and trying to make girls fit into it. 
 
 Make the fees so low that they will not be pro- 
 hibitory. 
 
 Make some use of the gymnasium during Sunday. 
 Girls who work six days a week must be appealed to by 
 some real relaxation from the work of the week. The 
 dance hall, the picnic, the excursion all run on this 
 day. Why not be practical Christians and under- 
 stand the methods of business competitors and 
 counteract them at every vulnerable spot ? 
 
 Emphasize the social features. Encourage teas 
 and banquets and dinners and social gatherings in 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 137 
 
 the gymnasium, given by the different classes to 
 each other and to their friends. Exhibitions and 
 contests between classes can be made into attract- 
 ive social functions. Much or all of this is now 
 lacking. 
 
 Make a special effort to reach the working girl who 
 receives a low wage and who lives in a boarding house 
 amid bad surroundings and without home ties, and do 
 not have so much red tape that she cannot or does not 
 want to come in. 
 
 We earnestly urge that associations make an effort 
 to reach immigrant girls whose energy needs guid- 
 ance, but who by reason of the difficulties of language 
 and a different standard of living are not able to 
 choose their work or recreation wisely. A gymnasium 
 (which may be one large room), with classes in Eng- 
 lish, is enough of a plant to start in a neighborhood 
 where they live. 
 
 A further need is the establishment of a school for 
 the training of workers, of which physical education 
 should be an important department. Courses in 
 physical training schools are not enough, although 
 they are a fair beginning. There should be an his- 
 torical, cultural and religious background which ex- 
 isting physical education schools necessarily lack. 
 Such a training school, on the plan of schools of 
 philanthropy and of the Y. M. C. A. training schools, 
 could well be patronized by those desiring to go into 
 other institutions to teach. 
 
138 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 WELFARE WORK FOR EMPLOYEES 
 
 One of the most important phases of welfare work 
 supported by employers is the gymnasium. Many of 
 the large factories and shops have them for men, and 
 in some few instances their use is shared by women 
 employees. As a rule welfare work for women has not 
 included physical training, and welfare secretaries 
 have not much knowledge of athletics. But the 
 tendency is strong in that direction and the demand 
 is already making itself felt. There are gymnastic 
 classes on roofs, in basements and lofts and other 
 rooms of the factory during the noon hour and in the 
 evening after work, and young women from neighbor- 
 ing colleges who have had physical training are in 
 demand as teachers. While it is not possible to play 
 highly organized games like hockey and baseball in 
 the small areas at the disposal of the company, bas- 
 ketball and minor games of ball are being added io 
 the attractions. In one laundry, part of the noon 
 hour is devoted by some of the employees to reading 
 while others play basketball. The irregularity of 
 laundry work, the long and short shifts, the night 
 work and waits render it possible to make considerable 
 use of games if only the space is provided. On the 
 roof of another company's building, gymnastics and 
 handball are popular; while on a third such simple 
 games as tag, throwing the ball, etc., are permitted. 
 One firm gives the use of its well-equipped gymnasium 
 to women one afternoon each week from 4:30 to 7. 
 Considering that they employ about 1,800 women this 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 139 
 
 is a short time. Unfortunately no Instructor is pro- 
 vided and the work is disorganized. Another com- 
 pany provides a gymnasium, tennis court and athletic 
 field and has an instructor in charge. Another has a 
 roof garden where handball is played, and one end is 
 set aside for game tables. 
 
 Some of the roofs are so arranged that minor games 
 of ball can be played and varied with dancing and 
 gymnastic games. Many industries have available 
 rooms which can be used. Some of the department 
 stores have already utilized the top floors and vacant 
 rooms of their buildings for gymnastics and athletics, 
 and even employ teachers. 
 
 The use of gymnasia, roofs, etc., during the noon 
 hour keeps the girls off the streets and gives them a 
 wholesome interest as a substitute for gossip. Break- 
 ing the long five-hour period with a half -hour of exer- 
 cise or rest would be a gain rather than a loss to the 
 company. One company requires that some of its 
 employees shall have gymnastics while standing by 
 their chairs, as school children relax by their desks. 
 
 Some employers who have no facilities in their own 
 plants have set a good example by obtaining accom- 
 modations elsewhere. One English firm provides ten- 
 nis and cricket courts, a large covered ground and a 
 special gymnasium. Unless prohibited by the doctor, 
 all girls under fifteen attend two classes weekly during 
 work hours. A committee of girls entirely controls 
 the athletic club which organizes all of the games, 
 including basketball. It has also a swimming tank 
 and shower and vapor baths under its charge. 
 
140 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 Every welfare secretary, whether in direct charge 
 of the work or employing specialists, needs to know 
 the value of physical training and to urge organized 
 play among employees. 
 
 TRADES UNIONS 
 
 Combinations of working people, as well as of em- 
 ployers, can build up group activity by recognizing 
 the socializing value of organized play. The woman 
 who works in the trades has little time for recreation, 
 and practically none for education through games. 
 The problem of trades unions for women is to develop 
 the consciousness of a common cause. This may be 
 a simple matter for men but it is not so for women. 
 They change more rapidly from one occupation to an- 
 other, regard employment as a means to an end and 
 consider first whether they as individuals need the 
 union, not whether the movement for bettering con- 
 ditions needs them. Women's trades unions have an 
 opportunity open to no other organization in reaching 
 working women. At the very basis of their struggle 
 for better conditions, higher wages, more leisure and 
 better citizenship lies the necessity for team work and 
 group loyalty — two things which games are pre- 
 eminent in developing. This may seem a long way 
 around, but its effectiveness makes it a factor to be 
 considered. For this reason, these organizations 
 should be interested not only in forwarding athletic 
 movements in other institutions, but a gymnasium 
 may very properly be made the nucleus for their own 
 work. It makes a good place for meetings and 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 141 
 
 social gatherings, can be used by the children for 
 class work during the day, while its evening athletics 
 may be the direct means of bringing workers together. 
 Folk dances appeal to the various nationalities and 
 some may understand the purpose of the union better 
 through its simple appeal to their love of their home 
 country and its associations. One or two settlements 
 have understood this and provided athletic classes for 
 various local unions. The need of recreation as well 
 as of education and the present wretched amusement 
 facilities for working girls are a further plea for 
 trades unions to take an interest in games as a means 
 of making a more efficient democracy. 
 
 REFORMATORY INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Social education is not always a question of making 
 citizens ; it is frequently the problem of reclaiming 
 them. Tremendous sums and huge institutions are 
 required for this purpose. The girl who needs re- 
 claiming has usually set her individual right above the 
 social right and has refused to do " team " work. Al- 
 though athletics possess such possibilities for social 
 education, the gymnasium is about the last thing one 
 finds in reformatory institutions. Discipline by the 
 rod instead of by teaching self-control, is more popu- 
 lar. A few schools and homes use drills and simple 
 gymnastic exercises as a matter of recreation and 
 health, but directed play is rarely found. Some let 
 the good girls play in the yards, but without super- 
 vision. The amount of play time is proportionately 
 small and young girls committed to institutions enter 
 
142 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 upon a dull, monotonous, deadly routine which turns 
 out a machine, which without its operator either 
 runs amuck or becomes a mere automaton. One 
 superintendent writes : " This is not a place where 
 girls come for fun and to have a good time but to 
 be punished for their misdeeds and to learn to do 
 right. " Fortunately this does not represent the atti- 
 tude in all institutions. 
 
 It is amazing that such a large percentage — more 
 than three-quarters of the institutions studied — have 
 neglected physical training entirely, abandoned it, or 
 consider it unimportant. The physical condition of 
 many young girls, their moral obtuseness, extreme 
 individualism and mental dulness on arrival would 
 lead one to think that a bright sunny gymnasium, 
 with corrective and preparatory work and games, 
 would be regarded as a first essential. Disordered 
 emotions, pent-up energy, vicious desires and habits 
 and distorted view of life can often be understood 
 and corrected in the gymnasium when the schoolroom 
 is a failure. 
 
 It is also curious that many probation officers so 
 ignore the value of organized play. The probation 
 officer for boys puts them in settlement gymnasia, 
 takes them off to camps or goes to vacant lots and 
 plays with them. But the girl is frequently returned 
 to the same district, same home, same everything, with 
 no change in the outlet for her emotions, with no 
 effort to reclaim her as a social being — and then it is 
 said : " When a girl goes down it is almost impossible 
 to save her." Wise probation officers who have put 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 143 
 
 their wards into playgrounds and settlements and en- 
 deavored to develop the sterner qualities, tell a dif- 
 ferent story and one fraught with great public in- 
 terest. 
 
 It is truly astounding that so many institutions, 
 which have reformation for their object, do not 
 recognize that a person without self-control is not a 
 good or safe member of society and that where there 
 is no freedom there can be no self-reliance. These 
 institutions by their discipline shackle the mind and 
 body, govern the girl by fear and force, leave her no 
 power of choice and then expect self-control. The 
 game gives freedom and opportunity for choice, and 
 if players are insubordinate at first, the chance is 
 there to teach the girl to guide herself aright. Once 
 acquired this ability will continue when the removal 
 of bolts and bars opens up a great freedom unac- 
 companied by means of control other than that exer- 
 cised by the girl herself. 
 
 The best corroboration of the value and need of 
 athletics comes from some of the reform institutions 
 themselves, even where they have no trained teacher 
 and do not emphasize the social and educational fea- 
 tures of games. The testimony of the twenty -five per 
 cent, who believe in and use them is most suggestive : 
 
 ' We have a gymnasium, also playgrounds which are 
 used by girls. We have in all 312 girls between the 
 ages of twelve and sixteen years, who live in cottages 
 averaging from twenty-four to thirty-four each. We 
 have eleven classes, each of which meets three times a 
 week during the winter months and twice a week during 
 the summer months. Through the winter the work in 
 
144 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 the gymnasium consists of drills with apparatus such as 
 wands, dumb bells, Indian clubs, bar bells, etc., and 
 heavy work as on bars, jumping, climbing, etc. This 
 is lightened by games such as basketball, Newcomb, 
 center-ball, shuffleboard, ring-toss, etc. We have an 
 instructor for our work. We have public contests in 
 that we give exhibitions. Our game contests are among 
 the different classes. We never play with other schools. " 
 
 1 The results obtained from games are very valuable 
 from an educational and ethical standpoint. When we 
 began with our games the girls were wild, selfish, quar- 
 relsome and boisterous, but now we notice a great 
 change. They are gaining self-control, alertness, 
 honesty, endurance and a strong class spirit. They are 
 learning to play through a game without losing their 
 tempers or taking unfair advantages of their opponent/' 
 
 " There are playgrounds for each cottage and a 
 general baseball field, used by all the girls, where com- 
 petitive games between the groups of cottages occur. 
 There are gymnastic classes twice each week, in the 
 winter, for each of the seven cottages. The recreation 
 hours of each day are spent with baseball, basketball, 
 tether-ball, croquet, tennis and dancing. There is an 
 average of twenty-five girls in each class or cottage — 
 all girls supposed to have some part in the games. No 
 contests are held with outside teams, although visitors 
 are invited to witness the competitive meets between the 
 groups of players within the institution. The educa- 
 tional and ethical value to our girls is most apparent — 
 in the unfoldment of their better natures by giving them 
 happiness — teaching them intuitively to enjoy the vigor- 
 ous and healthful out-of-door life — balancing whatever 
 nervous tension they may have in schoolroom, sewing 
 room or kitchen by a sense of freedom and relaxation in 
 the open air." 
 
 " We have no gymnasium at the present time but 
 have the plans and expect to erect one 50 by 80 
 floor space in the near future. We have a large play- 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 145 
 
 ground about 400 by 380 feet. We have four classes 
 using wands, dumb-bells and Indian clubs. We have 
 three basketball teams; some of the girls play volley- 
 ball, lawn tennis, tether-ball and croquet. Our basket- 
 ball team is under instruction of a professional trainer. 
 We thoroughly believe in the educational value of games 
 and gymnastic work. I do not think it injurious to a 
 comparatively weak girl. We have within three years 
 had no ill effects; we have at the present time several 
 girls who a year ago were comparatively slow in their 
 movements. They are now erect and better all-around 
 students than they were on entering the institution." 
 
 1 The number of games in general use among the girls 
 are as follows: Baseball, basketball, lawn tennis and 
 croquet. The various games and clubs are under the 
 supervision and management of the family managers and 
 matrons, and under the instruction of the Superintend- 
 ent, who has had practical experience in nearly all 
 games, especially those herein mentioned. We fre- 
 quently have public contests. This is especially true of 
 the holidays. Then prizes are awarded to those suc- 
 cessful in the contests. Regarding the educational and 
 ethical value, I cannot speak too highly. The girls 
 look forward to these sports and contests with the 
 greatest expectation. It absorbs all their time and 
 energies while on the playground; it helps our discipline 
 a hundred fold ; and at the same time, gives that exercise 
 that all girls should have, and it is done in a manner 
 that does not require coercion. During the winter 
 months when the girls are largely confined to the indoor 
 life, we have similar games to fill up the long hours of 
 the winter evenings that are just as interesting and en- 
 tertaining. We also indulge in a great many entertain- 
 ments; ninety-nine per cent, of these are given by the 
 girls themselves. Would say in reference to the games 
 during the summer, that we have four families, each of 
 which have two baseball clubs, two basketball teams, 
 one tennis club, as well as the croquet club. I per- 
 sonally select these girls at the beginning of the season, 
 
146 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 keep a list of the names, select the captains of eacH 
 club, instruct and train them, and require them to 
 practise just as religiously as they eat when they go to 
 the table and sleep when they go to bed, and consider it 
 just as necessary and obligatory on them to do so as the 
 foregoing. While there may be isolated cases that 
 would demur, yet, a little common-sense, practical talk 
 along these lines by way of explanations regarding the 
 good that is to be had both from the physiological as 
 well as the psychological and ethical point of view, soon 
 brings them to easy co-operation with us in carrying out 
 our plans. We have very little or comparatively no dif- 
 ficulty in carrying these games on, especially as they are 
 interspersed during the summer by public contests and 
 awarding of prizes such as named. We remove all the 
 bars, have no locked doors, no incarceration, no bread 
 and water, nothing that will degrade the girl or detract 
 from her pride or womanhood. We lay it largely, if not 
 altogether, to the methods herein resorted to, filling the 
 girl's working hours with a healthful and reasonable 
 amount of school work and study along the lines of 
 domestic science which, of course, she should know; 
 and her hours of recreation with the methods herein 
 stated. I think that the matter of discipline will adjust 
 itself, to say nothing of the immense value of the exer- 
 cise, sunshine, fresh air that she will derive. Indeed, it 
 is these games and exercises that enable us to get good 
 results in the schoolroom, in the kitchens, dining room 
 and laundry and dress-making department and every 
 vocation that they are engaged in. ,, 
 
 No testimony could be stronger than the last letter, 
 to the effect that social morality would be greatly 
 strengthened if girls could have athletic training be- 
 fore they return from these institutions. 
 
 One reason that social and reformatory institu- 
 tions do not place more emphasis upon the value of 
 athletic training and use it as an agent of social 
 
ATHLETICS IN ORGANIZATIONS 147 
 
 morality is that the schools in which its teachers and 
 officers are trained almost wholly neglect this phase 
 of social education. Is it not feasible to add to the 
 courses in the schools of philanthropy such additional 
 ones as the value of play ; education through means of 
 games ; direction of playgrounds, recreation centers, 
 etc., and a gymnasium where practical floor work 
 and gymnastics and games can be taught and the 
 right social spirit developed? Settlements and other 
 organized social movements offer ample opportunity 
 for field and experimental work, if the preliminary 
 and fundamental work in theory be provided. The 
 Y. M. C. A. schools do not meet the need, for they 
 train especially for their own work, and can barely 
 supply their own demand. Moreover, but few of their 
 graduates teach women. The demand of the play- 
 ground and recreation center and of the settlement 
 alone, to say nothing of that of welfare work, institu- 
 tions, etc., would seem to justify some such extension 
 of work on the part of schools of philanthropy, or the 
 starting of special schools for this purpose. 
 
 These movements indicate something of the use 
 that is being made of athletics in public institutions. 
 While this use is significant, it is still a mere begin- 
 ning compared with its possibilities. One difficulty is 
 that women do not stand shoulder to shoulder and say 
 intelligently, definitely, insistently and emphatically, 
 " We want and need this thing." We believe that if 
 women really set about demanding group honesty and 
 fair play among women and the training necessary 
 for it, they would get it. If they insisted upon civic 
 
148 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 virtue as they do upon personal virtue, it would be 
 forthcoming. If the women of the community would 
 get together and do team work instead of dissipat- 
 ing energy on new clubs, or even if they would just 
 understand the great necessity and be sorry a little 
 while for their deficiencies as citizens, the problem 
 of the need of play and games in cities would be far 
 on its way toward solution. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 
 
 Much of the objection to any athletic training for 
 girls centers about the fear that they cannot play 
 games without entering into inter-scholastic competi- 
 tion. It is remarkable that the amount of such com- 
 petition is so small, compared to the number who play. 
 Less than one-fourth of the colleges and private 
 schools play inter-scholastic contests. In public 
 schools, however, where there is no school control the 
 percentage rises to seventy, chiefly basketball. 
 
 Class Contests. — It has not been found desirable 
 or necessary to eliminate class contests, and fully 
 ninety per cent, of the institutions admit their value. 
 Many reasons for the retention of class contests exist : 
 
 ( 1 ) While the greatest value lies in the daily train- 
 ing, match games played under the intense desire to 
 win are necessary to test this daily training in order 
 to see how fundamental it is. This is best ascertained 
 by contests under the control of the instructor, who 
 can thus use them for educational purposes. Rivalry 
 may run as high in an inter-class as in an inter- 
 scholastic game, so the test and training are equally 
 good. 
 
 (2) Contests of some kind are necessary to stimu- 
 
 149 
 
150 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 late a group spirit and to increase social activities 
 among classes and institutions. 
 
 (3) Match games direct the attention of those who 
 are not players or especially interested to this branch 
 of the work, and the department of physical educa- 
 tion receives recognition where otherwise it might be 
 neglected. 
 
 (4) Contests strengthen the opportunity and 
 necessity for social expression through athletic asso- 
 ciations, and the desirable group experience of stu- 
 dent government is thus made possible. 
 
 Disadvantages of Inter-Scholastic Competition. — 
 The objections to public inter-scholastic contests are 
 for the most part well taken, although there is a 
 tendency to exaggerate the danger in institutions 
 other than public schools: 
 
 (1) The physical and nervous strain upon young 
 girls who journey from school to school, or from 
 town to town, followed by a hard game is a severe one. 
 It is also difficult under these conditions properly to 
 supervise and safeguard teams and accompanying 
 enthusiasts. 
 
 (2) The lack of uniform rules and co-operation 
 between competing organizations and the emphasis 
 laid on winning prizes tend to delay placing athletic 
 instruction upon an educational basis, lead to notori- 
 ety and invite much adverse and unfair criticism. 
 
 (3) The character of the audiences cannot be con- 
 trolled where the contests are open to the public 
 upon payment of an entrance fee. 
 
 Some of the instructors in schools which encour- 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 151 
 
 age inter-scholastic contests speak in no uncertain 
 terms of their effect: 
 
 " Few girls are ready to play outside teams. They 
 lack the spirit of the sport and need to be trained in that 
 more than in the liberal construction of rules." 
 
 ' We are advocating the abolition of the high school 
 league. Girls take things so seriously and the members 
 of the defeated team cannot concentrate on studies for 
 several days, especially where prizes are offered. ,, 
 
 * There is a great danger of sacrificing some of the 
 finer traits for the peculiar boldness which outside con- 
 tests bring out." 
 
 One instructor writes at length that they do not 
 encourage contests for the following reasons : 
 
 ' There is a great tendency to overdo themselves 
 physically, which cannot be controlled as they play on 
 outside teams. 
 
 " They get interested in their game and spend so much 
 time at it that they neglect their studies. 
 
 ' Their behavior generally is demoralizing to the 
 school; they try every means to meet in the library, 
 halls and lavatory and talk game, of course. 
 
 " They very often go insane on their particular game, 
 and do not care for any all-around work. 
 
 " A team always consists of those members that are 
 naturally strong and robust. This shuts out the more 
 needy, who are anxious to use the gymnasium for op- 
 tional practice after school. 
 
 " We have hundreds who would like to use the gym- 
 nasium but are unable to do so after school because the 
 ten members of the team monopolize it. 
 
 " This training to professionalism is to be condemned ; 
 too much time is lost, carting around the country. This 
 race for the championship makes it a too strenuous affair 
 
152 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 and relations become strained. The losing team pick 
 out coaches, teachers or umpires as targets. 
 
 "If we must have contests, it would be better to have 
 them among the pupils of the school among the different 
 years. 
 
 " Our girls need good sound all-around work, work 
 suited and conducive to health, etc. ,, 
 
 Under present conditions we believe that the con- 
 servative attitude of the majority of the institutions 
 which include colleges, private schools and a small 
 percentage of high schools, is the best for the future 
 good of the girls and of athletics. 
 
 Audiences. — A question that always arises in con- 
 nection with contests is whether they shall be open 
 to the general public. The majority favor audiences 
 which are selected by invitation and not by purchase 
 ticket. The majority also favor limiting invitations 
 to men who are members of the girls' families or of 
 the faculty. Some schools issue all of the invitations 
 to men in the name of the school and carefully super- 
 vise the list. Unfortunately in the high and normal 
 schools, with a few exceptions, no such care is taken, 
 admission being by purchase, so that any one is ad- 
 mitted. As a result many boys attend and by their 
 noise, u rooting " and roughness discourage class 
 songs and cheers by the girls. The class and institu- 
 tional spirit which makes games so attractive may be 
 quite lost where outside persons, who have no particu- 
 lar interest, make up the bulk of the audience. 
 
 At the present time there seems to be no justifica- 
 tion whatever for pay games. Dues of members can 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 153 
 
 be made to cover ordinary expenses, and the schools 
 should provide the gymnasia and instructor. Aboli- 
 tion of admission fees would do away with the abuses 
 due to too many contests and to mixed audiences. 
 
 Prizes. — This is becoming a serious matter in 
 high school contests. There is a tendency to reward 
 teams with articles of value instead of those rich in 
 associations and inspiration, such as attaches to the 
 college banner or cup which the class and not the 
 team alone holds. The championship desire is thus 
 becoming a work spirit for reward rather than a play 
 spirit for the game itself. 
 
 Essentials of a Good, Clean Game. — The general 
 approval of inter-class contests narrows our problem 
 to the best way in which they can be made educational 
 and successful. There are at least three indispen- 
 sable essentials: (1) Good, clean playing. (2) A 
 well-conducted game. (3) An inspiring audience. 
 
 The ability to play a good, clean contest depends 
 upon the standard required by the school and upon 
 the character of the training. Players in perfect 
 physical condition area delight. With gathered-up 
 strength and a fair amount of muscle, good mind, 
 elastic step, good clear skin and bright eyes, they are 
 in good spirits and good humor and not too confident. 
 Contrast such a team with one which looks dull, 
 languid and listless, with slouching demeanor, a sour 
 or bored expression and a take-it-for-granted air! 
 Every one knows how distressing it is to see a player 
 collapse and be taken off the field or to have her put 
 out of the game because of " poor condition." Such 
 
154 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 scenes are long remembered and do a great deal of 
 harm to the cause of good sport. 
 
 The appearance of the team has much to do with a 
 good, clean game. If the color and style of the suits 
 is uniform and they are simply made and well put to- 
 gether, the hosiery black, and the hair dressed so it 
 will not cause trouble and if players come on the field 
 in an orderly way, a good impression is made at the 
 start. Contrast this with a team that comes on the 
 field in suits and hosiery and hair ribbons all colors 
 of the rainbow, straggling in one at a time, some 
 chewing gum, some fixing their hair, others stopping 
 to talk or wrangling with each other over positions, 
 etc.! Some players like to wear jewelry, which not 
 only looks out of place but frequently causes injury. 
 During one contest side combs were picked up twenty- 
 eight times. These and other interferences detract 
 from the appearance and good playing of the team. 
 
 Good, clean playing depends upon another thing 
 as important as fine physical condition, and that is 
 the spirit of the game. A good spirit is shown by 
 such things as the following: Allowing each team 
 sufficient time to warm up ; absence of all complaints 
 " that the other team has had more preliminary prac- 
 tice " ; greeting of the teams by shaking hands, al- 
 ways at least on the part of the captains, and at the 
 close of the game by the winning team giving the 
 school or class yell or song of the defeated team ; by 
 refraining from uncomplimentary speech and action 
 in case of interference or accidents ; by accepting de- 
 feat without grumbling, complaining, or explaining 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 155 
 
 or depreciating one's self and team; by accepting 
 victory modestly and not using it to anger or irritate 
 the defeated team. 
 
 To obtain such a spirit, the thirst for victory must 
 become secondary to the sense of joy and the exhilara- 
 tion of play. Grim determination to win and irri- 
 tability because an opponent is outplaying her in 
 place of feeling the exhilaration of having a worthy 
 antagonist, charge the atmosphere with the unmis- 
 takable spirit of bad sport. The thirst for victory 
 tempts a player to unfair and dishonorable acts, to 
 take advantage of the rules, to attempt sly violations 
 of the rules and even to make deliberate fouls. Un- 
 fair acts are more possible here than elsewhere be- 
 cause, in the excitement of the game and mass of play- 
 ers, it is difficult to detect the unfairness. But whether 
 called or not, it is the making of fouls that creates the 
 bad spirit. This atmosphere frequently breaks out 
 in personal antagonism, recrimination and anger and 
 then a good, clean game is no longer a possibility. 
 
 Essentials of a Weil-Conducted Game. — The sec- 
 ond essential to a successful contest is a well-conducted 
 game. This depends chiefly upon players and offi- 
 cials. If the players are in good form and have the 
 right spirit and the officials are competent and fair, 
 the audience will also be orderly and well conducted. 
 
 Officials are necessarily an important factor. In 
 all of the institutions, barring high schools, with few 
 exceptions women act as the officials. On the whole, 
 men are better officials at the present time, for women 
 have received no special training and a good player 
 
156 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 does not necessarily make a good official. Women are 
 also less exact, less firm and less businesslike in run- 
 ning off games. 
 
 It will not be possible to have good, clean, well- 
 conducted contests unless certain conditions are main- 
 tained during practice. These may be summarized 
 briefly: Compulsory gymnastics for every girl who 
 plays in a contest and limitation of the number of 
 contests to an average of three per season (this does 
 not include practice games within the school) ; aca- 
 demic standing above sixty-five, so a proper balance 
 between athletics and study may be maintained and 
 making the team may be considered an honor ; form 
 as well as skill and good spirit as the basis of selection 
 for the team; all arrangements for contests, rules, 
 etc., under the direction of the school authorities. 
 
 The Audience. — Hitherto very little attention has 
 been paid to the contribution the audience makes to 
 the game. Much can be made of this in institutional 
 contests in a way not possible in professional games. 
 It is of the first importance to interest the audience. 
 Too many teams think they are doing the audience a 
 favor merely to admit them, then they put up a poor 
 game which many cannot understand. It is a good 
 plan for pupils to seat themselves among the audience 
 in such a way that they can explain the game and 
 interest the spectators in it. When women so largely 
 make up the audience this is most necessary. 
 
 A good visible scoreboard, designation of opposing 
 teams by color of suits, careful announcement of fouls 
 and of the points scored so the audience can hear, will 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 157 
 
 help to interest it. One college gives a two-minute 
 talk to the audience, explaining what teams are play- 
 ing, what the prize is, which goal belongs to each team 
 and how the game is scored. 
 
 The second need is to please the audience. The use 
 of colors and other decorations, of songs and musical 
 cheers and of demonstrations of class spirit is espe- 
 cially helpful in doing this. 
 
 The officials can also contribute to the good con- 
 duct of a contest by keeping the audience in bounds, 
 prohibiting hissing and catcalls, discourtesy to play- 
 ers, and by starting the games on time and having 
 them played without unnecessary interruptions. It is 
 a great pleasure for an audience to be fresh for the 
 game instead of tired out with a long wait. On one 
 occasion when contests had just been introduced in 
 one of the colleges, about half the audience were late, 
 thinking a " girls' game would not start on time." 
 They were much chagrined and wanted the first half 
 played over. 
 
 By attention to these details the school gives to the 
 audience not only pleasure but a deeper interest in 
 games and creates among women an appreciation of 
 good, clean sport while it also lessens the skepticism 
 with which men regard women's activities — all of the 
 utmost value to the development of a good standard 
 of athletics. 
 
 Athletic Organizations. — The most influential fac- 
 tor in developing these essentials of contests is the 
 athletic association, league or club. These organiza- 
 tions are of two kinds, those within the institution 
 
158 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 to which only its students belong; and inter-scholastic 
 and inter-collegiate associations to which the teams 
 or pupils of the various schools belong. The financial 
 responsibility assumed by some of them and the 
 amount of social activity give them a wide influence. 
 Complete control of contests, financial responsibility 
 for them and absence of social activities tend to make 
 them commercial organizations and to destroy their 
 highest usefulness, by making contests, awarding 
 prizes and stimulating competition displace all other 
 functions. 1 
 
 Field Days. — Of growing popularity in many in- 
 stitutions are the field days. Their chief importance 
 is the social opportunity which they furnish as well as 
 the development of the esthetic sense. They bring to- 
 gether not only the students and faculty but friends 
 of the school or college and of the girls. The records 
 made and prizes offered are of comparatively little 
 value, as compared with this. They may also be a 
 means of education and enjoyment to the audience if 
 the athletic association is active and efficient. 
 
 When field days were first introduced, indoor and 
 outdoor meets were the type most popular. The 
 former consisted entirely of gymnastic competitions, 
 — ladder, horse, rope climbing, traveling and flying 
 rings and other apparatus, contests ; relay, obstacle, 
 club and other races; and broad and high jump, 
 hurdles, etc. The outdoor meet included dashes, shot 
 put, hurdles, relay races, etc. Basketball has now 
 been added and in some instances hockey and baseball. 
 1 For description of associations and their influence, see p. 103 ff. 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 159 
 
 Field days leave much to be desired. It has been 
 difficult to interest outside audiences of women who 
 do not especially enjoy individual contests, for at the 
 present time too much emphasis is placed upon indi- 
 vidual events and not enough on class events and team 
 play. The average field day is frequently not repre- 
 sentative of the entire department and is lacking in 
 variety and beauty, for such individual events as 
 broad jump and shot put do not possess either to a 
 marked degree. There is also an absence of fun and 
 exhilaration. 
 
 The ideal field day could with advantage substitute 
 for such individual events as shot put, hammer throw, 
 etc., which are tests of strength and for which records 
 already exist, events emphasizing skill, grace and the 
 esthetic features. A field day should represent the 
 entire work of the physical education department. 
 Gymnastics, by class exhibitions, marches, Maypole 
 or folk dances, etc. ; athletics, by team and class 
 games such as basketball, hockey, tennis, etc. ; and 
 such individual contests as hurdles, relay races, and 
 short dashes as may be needed for interest and 
 variety. 
 
 The following outlines of field days show how 
 limited some of these still are and also indicate the 
 possibilities : 
 
 School A — Outdoor meet — including competitive 
 games, races and exhibition of gymnastics ; basketball 
 game between house and day pupils for a cup. 
 
 School B — Making of records in running, jump- 
 ing, etc. ; basketball game, luncheon out of doors, 
 
160 PRESENT CONDITIONS 
 
 basketball dinner in the evening, presentation of cup 
 by the athletic association. 
 
 School C — Forty-yard dash, running broad jump, 
 relay race, running high jump, basketball throw, 
 gymnastics, shot put, potato race, basketball game, 
 luncheon out of doors. 
 
 School D — Military drill, figure march, track and 
 field events including dashes, hurdles, shot put, broad 
 and high jump and relay races. 
 
 The following rules and regulations for a tourna- 
 ment day show how well such events may be prepared : 
 
 " I. In order for a class to compete in a given sport 
 the following number of entries must have been received 
 at the gymnasium office not later than October the 
 seventh : 
 
 1. Basketball 12 
 
 2. Field hockey 15 
 
 3. Tennis 6 
 
 4. Tether-ball 4 
 
 " No class shall be allowed to compete if before 
 Tournament Day the number of regularly practising 
 members drop below the above requirements. All ap- 
 plications must be qualified by the Department of Physi- 
 cal Training. 
 
 " II. A cup shall be awarded to the class winning the 
 greatest number of points, the championship value of 
 events to be as follows: 
 
 1. Basketball, 1st place 7 points; 2d place 5 points. 
 
 2. Field hockey " " " " " " " 
 
 3. Tennis " " 3 " " " 3 
 
 4. Tether-ball " " " " " " " 
 
 " The cup shall not be the property of any one class, 
 but shall remain permanently in the gymnasium, the 
 
COMPETITIVE AND PUBLIC GAMES 161 
 
 numerals of successive winning classes to be inscribed 
 upon it. 
 
 " III. Two hours of practice each week shall be re- 
 quired of every one entering any of the organized sports. 
 Failure to comply with this rule means disqualification. 
 
 " IV. Every member of a class team shall be awarded 
 her class numerals and the initial letter of the sport in 
 which they were won. 
 
 " Judgment in awarding positions on the various class 
 teams shall be based on official record as follows: 1. 
 Health. 2. Submission to discipline. 3. Technical 
 skill." 
 
 Summary. — From the data submitted by the vari- 
 ous schools it would seem that the matter of inter-class 
 contests in the colleges and most of the private schools 
 is an important element, is well under control and is 
 exerting considerable influence on the total life of the 
 school. In some of the private schools, high schools 
 generally and political and social institutions, the 
 problem has not been squarely faced and many dan- 
 gers exist. Recognition, regulation and proportion 
 are far more necessary at this stage of the develop- 
 ment of athletics than is suppression, for contests 
 have their own value and place in social education and 
 the tendency is to increase rather than diminish this 
 value. 
 
PART III 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES AND 
 
 CONTESTS 
 
 To teach games so as to develop character and 
 social spirit, within the brief time at command and so 
 as to retain the play interest, is the real problem of 
 the instructor. It is difficult to offer satisfactory- 
 general suggestions, since each instructor has more i 
 or less " her own way of teaching." Nevertheless, in 
 games used for educational purposes it is necessary 
 that attention be given to many details other than 
 mere teaching of rules. From our varied experience 
 and that of co-workers we have found that certain 
 methods have been most effectual. Our suggestions 
 are the result of constant experiment, different meth- 
 ods having been tried with different groups of girls in 
 all kinds of institutions and the results compared. 
 
 Minor Games.— The full value of the use of ath- 
 letic games for educational purposes as well as for 
 recreation, we have found is best brought out by the 
 combined use of the highly organized games with what 
 are called minor athletic games. The minor games 
 which we suggest as combinations possess a high de- 
 gree of team work and have a strong social organiza- 
 tion. In schools one highly organized game a season, 
 varied with one or more minor games, is a good plan. 
 
 165 
 
166 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 The minor games are less difficult to learn and are not 
 taken so seriously as are the more highly organized 
 games, so they quicken the interest and stimulate the 
 play spirit. They can frequently be played in a 
 smaller place and in less time. A baseball practice of 
 less than an hour is not very profitable for beginners 
 and not satisfactory to players. 
 
 Among the minor games used successfully in com- 
 bination with basketball, baseball and hockey are 
 polo — hand polo, wicket polo and water polo all being 
 desirable ; volley-ball, long-ball, captain-ball, pass- 
 ball, battle-ball, center-ball and many other related 
 games of ball. 
 
 Lacrosse ranks more with hockey and highly or- 
 ganized games, but is very little played by women. 
 It may be included with great profit where the out- 
 door space will permit but is not possible in city 
 spaces. It is a game schools should consider with 
 more favor. 
 
 These and many other minor games, which will 
 occur to the reader, make a desirable variation with 
 those more particularly discussed here. 
 
 Instructors. — Opinions differ as to the prominence 
 of the instructor on the floor or field. As a rule, 
 players do better work and develop initiative, self- 
 reliance and other qualities more rapidly when they 
 are not dominated by her presence and personality. 
 Some instructors go about the field talking constantly, 
 commanding here, admonishing there or attracting 
 the girls' attention by calling while the game is in 
 progress. This distracts players, prevents them 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 167 
 
 from planning plays and makes them dependent and 
 self-conscious. The instructor should be the least con- 
 spicuous person, talking in a low conversational tone 
 to a player while the ball is in play in some other part 
 of the field or stopping the game and calling a foul 
 and explaining it. Where a player's faults are in 
 violation of the rules or cause her to make bad plays, 
 such as fumbling the ball, inaccurate throwing, etc., 
 it is a good plan to criticise her publicly so she will 
 learn to accept criticism with good spirit. On the 
 other hand, if she has mannerisms or faults peculiar 
 to herself and not likely to be held in common with 
 other players, we have obtained better results by talk- 
 ing to her alone about them. It is one thing to tell 
 a girl before others that she fumbles a ball and quite 
 another that she is selfish or cowardly. The other 
 players have a common idea of fumbling the ball, but 
 do not necessarily so easily or impersonally under- 
 stand the other criticism. It is possible also to obtain 
 impersonal criticism from class members. One in- 
 structor required all class members, not participating 
 in the practice game, to attend and at the next prac- 
 tice they were asked to criticise one bad play and give 
 the reason for its being such, irrespective of who made 
 it. It is better that the instructor give commenda- 
 tion or criticism directly to players than to others 
 with the idea of having them repeat it to the players, 
 a process through which much is frequently lost in 
 both spirit and accuracy. 
 
 When for any reason the game lags, the instructor 
 can become an inspiration by getting into it herself, 
 
168 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 for players are always ambitious to score against 
 her. 
 
 It is unwise to permit one player to instruct an- 
 other, unless at the instructor's suggestion. Even 
 this is a doubtful exception, as players like to feel 
 that they are doing equally well and such a method 
 savors of criticism rather than of real instruction. 
 
 Do not permit " answering back," and insist upon 
 deference to decisions even if they are wrong. For 
 this reason it is necessary that the instructor give in- 
 telligent, accurate rulings and not opinions. 
 
 Players should recognize each other's rights and 
 all rights should be equal. Rights of weaker players 
 who do not make the team are not respected when 
 others take their practice hour or use all of the balls. 
 
 " I can't " should be eliminated early, so that play- 
 ers may become responsive. The instructor should 
 endeavor to have a girl carry out her instructions 
 but should not insist upon plays which it is impossible 
 for the girl to make. 
 
 An unfair or mean play should not go unnoticed on 
 the field unless it is a temperamental matter to be 
 dealt with individually. Some instructors think these 
 tendencies will remedy themselves, but other players 
 feel the injustice, and if they are not corrected there 
 is a tendency to resort to similar methods. 
 
 Do not grant requests to play coveted positions 
 unless it is a " fun day." Granting such requests 
 destroys discipline, gives rise to suspicions of par- 
 tiality and hampers the instructor. This tendency 
 is easily cured by assigning to such players positions 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 169 
 
 they least like. At first they may sulk and declare, 
 " I won't play," but in a little while they take the 
 advice of the old players : " Don't ask for a thing, 
 just work for it." Trying players out in all positions 
 is a very different thing from letting a girl play the 
 position she likes even when it is not the one in which 
 she plays best. 
 
 Although not called upon to explain changes in 
 line-up or criticism of plays, the instructor should 
 always be ready to do so, as it keeps a good spirit to 
 have the faith and expectations of the players justified. 
 Nothing is more detrimental to the spirit and democ- 
 racy of games than the superior cock-sureness of the 
 instructor who, when asked for a reason for things, 
 says, " Because I ask you to do it," or, " because I 
 want it done that way." This attitude does not edu- 
 cate players. One instructor in a school of physical 
 education called players out because they dropped 
 their bats after a hit. He insisted that they carry 
 them with them to first. When the players protested 
 that this was not in the rules, he flew into a rage, and 
 said it was enough that he said so. An instructor 
 who cannot discuss and explain rules, or who has not 
 a rule for every decision, can never bring out char- 
 acter through games, though it may come out in spite 
 of such training. 
 
 As instruction progresses, persistent faults or de- 
 fects appear. A prescription card is of much help 
 when the instructor is sure these faults are character- 
 istic. Such a card may be given to each player, with 
 the request that she make a special effort to overcome 
 
170 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 the faults specified. In one college, when the plan 
 was first tried a disaffection immediately appeared 
 and then quite as suddenly disappeared. Afterward 
 it was found that each girl thought she was the only 
 one selected and did not wish the others to know. 
 When it was understood that every player had re- 
 ceived a card, the attitude immediately changed. 
 Some of the girls posted them in their mirrors as a 
 constant reminder. 
 
 The following is a typical card for basketball : 
 
 Name: 
 
 Game : 
 
 Physical: Inaccuracy — throw too hard, run too hard. 
 Practise jumping, starts and circle throwing. 
 
 Mental: Lack of attention; reaction too slow; bad 
 judge of distances. Practise line work; catching and 
 throwing ball from wherever get it. 
 
 Social: Co-operation is weak — practise with forward 
 and center. Lacking in loyalty — refrain from laying 
 the blame on others for your bad plays. Vanity — as 
 shown by choice of positions. Selfishness — sulk when 
 reprimanded or position is changed. 
 
 Esthetic: Stand badly while waiting for ball; squeal 
 when running; clap hands and call names to attract 
 player's attention; open mouth when catching balls. 
 
 A good list of don'ts for instructors to keep in 
 mind includes: "Don't scold, nag, or show impatience ; 
 don't use sarcasm or ridicule ; don't compare players 
 with each other; don't be too self-assertive and con- 
 ceited; don't make promises; don't pass judgment too 
 quickly; don't be afraid to admit yourself in the 
 wrong; don't be afraid to speak out; don't teach 
 plays you are not sure of yourself. 
 
 95 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 171 
 
 Instructors as Officials. — In inter-scholastic con- 
 tests, instructors of the contesting teams should not 
 officiate, even by mutual agreement. It is almost im- 
 possible for them to see faults equally well for both 
 teams and there is a strong temptation to " even up 
 fouls " if one side calls more than the other. Even 
 when there is a fair spirit, players and audience have 
 an air of suspicion. Where inter-class games are 
 played the danger is not so great, as both teams be- 
 long to the same instructor. It is preferable, how- 
 ever, that instructors train some of their pupils to 
 act as officials. They are thus free to observe the 
 playing and observe players under competitive stress 
 and in team work. 
 
 During a contest, there are instructors who 
 " coach " on the side lines, give tips, direct the 
 play, criticise decisions, are much in evidence and 
 talk about the teams and their playing. There 
 are no strong enough words of criticism for such 
 practices, which make a good spirit and fair play 
 impossible. 
 
 Never as instructor or official is it wise to tell a 
 player immediately after a contest that she is re- 
 sponsible for winning or losing a game. Disap- 
 pointed and inefficient instructors sometimes seek in 
 this way to lay the blame on the team. Furthermore, 
 do not allow other members of the team to tell her so. 
 If she has played well enough to make the team and 
 been rightly trained, she will discover it ; if not, it will 
 take more time and coolness to explain than is pos- 
 sible at such a time. 
 
172 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Rules. — Thoroughly know the game and teach all 
 that is known, including history and value of game, 
 reasons for the rules and their changes, etc. 
 
 Line up a class in athletics at attention, as is done 
 with gymnastic classes. This assures full attention 
 and an opportunity to see that all are in good form. 
 This is most important in settlement and other classes 
 where players like to wear jewelry, high-heeled shoes, 
 etc., which are not always discovered in the rush of 
 play. A two- or five-minute quiz on rules, with the 
 class in line, is a good practice. 
 
 Classify and teach rules in groups of similarity, 
 giving but part each lesson. Avoid going over the 
 whole game at once. It is easier to adjust individ- 
 uals and teach the necessary preliminaries before 
 the excitement of play begins, if players work 
 together on simpler parts of the game, throwing, 
 catching, running, sliding, batting up and catch- 
 ing, etc. 
 
 A practical division of playing time for new play- 
 ers is one which gradually increases the playing time 
 and shortens the preliminary practice and rule read- 
 ing, as players gain in endurance and skill : 
 
 10 minutes: (Basketball, throwing, running, passing, 
 jumping. 
 
 (Baseball, throwing, batting, catching. 
 
 (Hockey, stick positions and swings.) 
 5 minutes: Play. 
 
 10 minutes: Rest — rule instruction and verbal quiz. 
 10 minutes: Play. 
 5 minutes: Rest. 
 5 minutes: Game for points. 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 173 
 
 Managers. — An easy way to distinguish between 
 the duties of manager and captain is to remember 
 that the manager controls or arranges all details off 
 the field, while the captain has charge of the team and 
 gives all instructions on the field during the game. 
 
 The main qualifications of a manager are execu- 
 tive ability, mastery of details, tact and a genius for 
 getting other people to work. Where schedules for 
 games are arranged, she should be sufficiently clear- 
 headed to always protect her own team and should 
 be one whom all the players like. 
 
 Her duties are to see that all of the details of the 
 game are arranged, including decorations, programs, 
 music, cheers, leaders, ushers, good support for her 
 team, well-drilled rooters or encouragers and that en- 
 thusiasm and good spirit exist. She also arranges 
 schedules of games and is responsible for the good 
 appearance of her team. She selects referees and 
 umpires, and the scorer and time-keeper subject to 
 the approval of the referee. 
 
 Captains. — The captain should have personality 
 and self-control and not irritate the players with her 
 commands. Her duties are to give the signals and 
 see that they are instantly obeyed; address all offi- 
 cials ; select the team plays ; change players and posi- 
 tions ; get the best out of the players, by suggestion 
 rather than by criticism; hold the players together 
 in team work and steady their plays ; and work out 
 new plays and carry out the instructor's orders. The 
 captain has charge of all preliminaries such as tossing 
 for goal or choice of field. She also represents the 
 
174 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 team in all discussions, arrangements or agreements 
 when the game is in progress. 
 
 Officials. — In the games under discussion officials 
 include umpires, referees, time-keepers, scorers and 
 goal tenders. These are in charge of the game from 
 the time it starts until the final score is announced. 
 The referee is the superior officer and is primarily 
 responsible for the good conduct of the game. The 
 duties of umpires are primarily to call fouls or put 
 players out. It is essential in selecting umpires that 
 they be persons (1) who will not become so much in- 
 terested in the game that they will forget to see fouls ; 
 
 (2) who will be strict and impartial in calling fouls; 
 
 (3) who will call fouls clearly and indicate their 
 nature; and (4) who will keep their tempers and not 
 be overbearing in making their decisions understood. 
 
 When training girls to become officials the follow- 
 ing are among the qualifications the instructor should 
 seek to develop : 
 
 (1) Knowledge of rules in letter and spirit. (2) 
 Backbone and character. (3) Ability to interpret 
 rules and enforce decisions in such a way as to leave 
 the team and audience in a fair frame of mind. (4) 
 Ability to convince others that the decisions are fair. 
 (5) Ability to control the audience as well as the 
 players. (6) Kindness, courtesy, dignity and a busi- 
 nesslike attitude. 
 
 Having these qualifications, the duties seem clear : 
 
 (1) Stick to the interpretation of a rule unless it 
 is clearly wrong. (2) Never permit argument. 
 Listen to the captain's calling of a foul and allow or 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 175 
 
 refuse to allow the foul promptly and proceed to play. 
 Allow no one but the captain to speak. (3) Never 
 threaten a player or team. Do not lose temper but 
 persist in a quiet, dignified way, and if the game can- 
 not proceed in an ordinary fair way, call it off. (4) 
 Never permit bullying by team members or officials 
 or sulky play which delays the game. (5) Demand 
 instant recognition of the violation of a rule. (6) 
 Abstain from fault-finding. The official's business is 
 to make decisions, not to lecture players. (7) Be 
 ready to explain in a few words a questioned rule and 
 be willing to produce the rule, but know the rules well 
 enough, so reference need not be made to them when 
 giving decisions. (8) Be impartial in decisions and 
 do not exceed authority or make it obnoxious. (9) 
 Do not be too friendly with the players. (10) When 
 officiating in such games as basketball and hockey do 
 not stand rooted to the spot; follow the players, so 
 you can see the plays. (11) Do not get interested in 
 the game but follow each individual play. (12) Do 
 not undertake to officiate unless there is a thorough 
 understanding about the rules under which the teams 
 are to play and unless the official is familiar with 
 them. Patching up rules and differences, so the game 
 can go on when there has been a misunderstanding, 
 leads to bad feeling and inefficient officials. 
 
 The scorer is not generally considered of much 
 importance and is seldom trained to do her work well. 
 The score form provided for the various games, but 
 so often ignored, should be used and the number and 
 nature of the fouls and the player making them indi- 
 
176 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 catcd. This helps an audience to understand the 
 game and is a valuable record for the instructor. 
 Scorers who are also players are ordinarily the best. 
 Keeping a baseball score is so complicated that it 
 should be made a matter of careful instruction. 
 Scorers should also know how to work out percent- 
 ages, averages, etc., so that the records will be of 
 interest to the players and to the school. 
 
 There is a prevailing belief that any one can keep 
 time, and that a variation of a few seconds is im- 
 material. This is a great mistake and may lead to 
 bad feeling and charges of unfairness. It is better 
 for a timer to use her own watch or a stop-watch which 
 she understands. It is a good plan to invite some 
 one who is interested in the opposing team to keep 
 time with the official timer. Only the latter's decision 
 is accepted, but it is a pleasant little courtesy and 
 holds the official timer up to the mark. The farther 
 removed the timer is from the audience, the more 
 accurate is her work. Her whistle should be dis- 
 tinguishable from that of other officials, otherwise 
 players do not quickly recognize the time call. 
 
 Timers and other officials should work in harmony, 
 lest the timer " extend the time so as to right the de- 
 cisions of a distasteful referee." Timers should be 
 honest and certainly at all important games should 
 be experienced. There is a strong temptation to 
 throw the game or even up the score when one side is 
 being beaten, by adding time. Absolute accuracy 
 should be insisted upon and small errors never coun- 
 tenanced or excused. Class members who do not make 
 
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR GAMES 177 
 
 the team and have the spirit of fair play may well be 
 trained to become timers. 
 
 Field Etiquette. — Select competent, impartial of- 
 ficials. If there are none among women, train some. 
 
 Play with teams that abide by rules and play a 
 good, clean game. Do not play with every one for 
 the sake of a game. If a mistake is made do not 
 " slug back." If teams that play a clean game would 
 consistently refuse to compete with those who play 
 " dirty ball," a great improvement would be made. 
 There is too much getting even at the expense of the 
 sport itself. A good plan is to watch a team play 
 before challenging it. In inter-class games these 
 conditions do not arise. 
 
 It is a good plan to have each contesting team go 
 off the field between halves and rest alone. Do not 
 permit talking to the audience or to the other team. 
 Give them a real rest during which time the instructor 
 may talk to them, encouraging or shaking up the 
 team. 
 
 Numerous protests of decisions during a game are 
 bad form. In the nature of the game itself every 
 wrong cannot be seen and righted. When an official 
 is manifestly incompetent and unfair, do not have her 
 again. The great desire to play at any cost permits 
 the toleration of poor officials. 
 
 The attitude of rival teams on the field should be 
 friendly and not that of " hated rivals " until one 
 team has won, when it so often changes to magnanim- 
 ity on one hand and sullenness on the other. Teams 
 that are not friends to start with should not play. 
 
178 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Extend every courtesy in the way of quarters, rest 
 and attention and avoid hampering a team by giving 
 it poor facilities. Reserving the best seats for the 
 friends of visiting teams, and other similar small 
 courtesies, add much to good spirit. 
 
 We are confident that these few, among many sug- 
 gestions that might be made, are not only essential 
 to good training but will go a long way toward pre- 
 venting " scenes " at match games, bad feeling and 
 bad sportsmanship, and will make for cleaner playing 
 and a group interest in group contests. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 BASKETBALL 
 
 VALUE OF THE GAME 
 
 Basketball, as compared with many other games, 
 is new, having been invented in 1891. This is the 
 most popular athletic game for girls. Nearly every 
 school and institution having any facilities now has 
 this game, and there are also many independent 
 clubs. 
 
 There are three recognized sets of rules, and these 
 have so many variations that the game is sometimes 
 recognizable chiefly by the ball. These are Spald- 
 ing's Rules for Men, called the Official Basketball 
 Guide ; the Intercollegiate Rules, used chiefly by men ; 
 and Spalding's Rules for Women, adopted in 1899 
 and used by a number of secondary schools and 
 colleges. 
 
 Comparison of Rules. — In Rules for Women, the 
 field is divided into three equal parts. Forwards and 
 guards must remain in the end sections, and centers 
 in the middle section. It is a foul to cross these 
 lines. This necessitates additional officials called 
 linesmen. The maximum field contains 6000 square 
 feet. As many as nine may play on a side. The 
 time of the halves is fifteen minutes. Dribbling is 
 defined as bouncing or touching the ball more than 
 
 179 
 
180 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 three times in succession after it has been caught with 
 both hands, unless it is touched by some other player. 
 Unquestionably the most important regulations are 
 that two hands on the ball are necessary to secure it ; 
 the ball may not be batted or snatched or taken 
 away from any player's hands ; no guarding may be 
 done over the body of an opponent who has the ball ; 
 and the ball may not be held longer than three 
 seconds. 
 
 In Rules for Men there are no lines, the men play- 
 ing wherever there is an opportunity. The maximum 
 field is 4000 square feet. The number of players on 
 a side is limited to five. Any one may throw for goal. 
 Dribbling is defined as a play in which the player 
 advances more than two steps while throwing, rolling 
 or bouncing the ball against one or both hands one or 
 more times without the assistance of another player. 
 The ball may be batted or snatched from another 
 player's hands, but not more than one player from 
 each side may tackle the ball at the same time, if a 
 player from the opposite side is also tackling it. 
 There is no limit to the time a ball may be held. 
 
 The introduction of lines and the adoption of a 
 non-interference game (by prohibiting snatching the 
 ball and close guarding) are the essential differences 
 between the two sets of rules, which have provoked 
 discussion and materially changed the game. The 
 alleged advantages of the other changes do not ap- 
 pear to be of sufficient importance to justify their 
 discussion. 
 
 It is claimed that these two changes prevent 
 
BASKETBALL 181 
 
 fatigue, roughness and injury, lessen personal contact 
 and further team work. Are such claims justified by 
 the conditions ? A typical statement of the advocates 
 of Rules for Women is this : 
 
 ' Under men's rules our girls were not successful. 
 They became exhausted before time was called, due to 
 the excitement of the game, but as well to loss of energy 
 owing to confused and purposeless movements, a char- 
 acteristic of the schoolgirl age." Or, " Since each 
 player is limited to a certain territory, severe strain is 
 alleviated." 
 
 The Rule of Lineball. — Let us take, first, the use 
 of lines. The average basketball court does not ex- 
 ceed 2000 square feet. In some favored institutions, 
 like colleges and private schools where there are out- 
 of-door courts, they are larger, but the majority of 
 girls play in public schools, city gymnasia and in city 
 private schools. There are many courts having less 
 than 1200 square feet. According to Rules for 
 Women, this is divided into equal blocks, and in this 
 small area three girls are expected to remain and 
 play! 
 
 But were the area three times as great, we believe 
 that the use of lines has been advocated under a mis- 
 understanding of the possibilities of the unlimited 
 field. " Lineball " has really been created to meet the 
 defects of supervision and of training rather than the 
 defects of the game itself, and at a great educational 
 cost — that of highly organized team work. 
 
 At one university where supervision and training 
 are of a high standard, an annual average of one 
 
182 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 hundred girls have played the game by Rules for 
 Men for the past nine years, and during that time not 
 one serious accident, not one broken bone, and not 
 one collapse from overplaying have resulted. It has 
 also been used in various settlement classes with the 
 same good results, but always under careful direc- 
 tion and supervision. Rough play has been almost 
 entirely eliminated, so much so that the fouls, though 
 carefully called for this, average about four per 
 game during contests. In other institutions where 
 much attention was given to education and team work, 
 guards and forwards rarely crossed the center line, 
 except when making a five-girl team play, or in an 
 emergency, simply because it was bad playing. Line- 
 ball increases the number of fouls. We have seen as 
 many as twenty fouls called for crossing the lines, so 
 that the game was made up chiefly of fouls. Some 
 players are willing to commit a foul to which no 
 odium attaches, like crossing the line, in order to have 
 the ball go up in the center if their side has a superior 
 center, rather than have a good forward keep the 
 ball at the other end. 
 
 These good results have been brought about by 
 training the girls to play their own positions and of 
 their own volition to stay where they can play or 
 protect their goals ; not because they cannot go down 
 the field, but because it is bad team work. Of course 
 they do not do this at first, but it is made a part of 
 their training. Inhibition is invaluable as an ele- 
 ment of team work as compared with prohibition. 
 
 Nothing can be more harmful than to have players 
 
BASKETBALL 183 
 
 straining across lines in every conceivable position, 
 trying to maintain their balance, without committing 
 a foul. This is an unnatural expression, without joy 
 or exhilaration, while running freely for a ball con- 
 tains both. One player says : " Nothing tires me so 
 much as the strain of balancing across a line." An- 
 other says : " I am exhausted by the cramped-up 
 quarters and nervous expectancy." Another thing, 
 when players give so much attention to getting as 
 near the line as possible without going over, they do 
 not follow the ball or game and play " ragged ball." 
 Where lines are used, the placing of as many as nine 
 people on a side, as sometimes happens, is a dis- 
 advantage, for they are often only in the way of each 
 other and make team work impossible. 
 
 How much of the exhaustion is due to an unre- 
 stricted field and how much to unscientific training? 
 Under Rules for Women do players better direct their 
 energies or are the opportunities for its expression 
 simply limited? Are players taught enough real 
 team work to equally distribute the responsibility or 
 do one or two players do most of the work? These 
 questions are not so easily answered, for we have seen 
 better results under Rules for Men than under those 
 for women, and vice versa, depending on many things 
 other than the rules used. 
 
 There is an erroneous conception of what consti- 
 tutes team work. Simple passing of the ball, irre- 
 spective of plan or method, does not, in our judgment, 
 constitute team work. The best team work, under all 
 rules, requires guards and forwards voluntarily to 
 
184 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 play near their own goal and not to recklessly follow 
 the ball, leaving their own territory unprotected. It 
 is just as possible to teach this under one set of rules 
 as under another, making limitation by lines unneces- 
 sary. That this principle of good playing is vio- 
 lated so much under Rules for Men is the fault of 
 training rather than of rules. In order to win 
 games, beauty, science and education are sacrificed 
 and the players resort to any play which will win. 
 Massing players at one end, combining the strength 
 of all the team against a few, getting in the way, etc., 
 use of brute force rather than skill, are frequently a 
 part of the tactics taught where victory is the only 
 object. 
 
 Instead of possessing a superior advantage, the 
 greatest disadvantage of Rules for Women is that a 
 high order of team work, which equalizes strain and 
 trains individuals to work together, is impossible. 
 " Team work is as possible under women's as under 
 men's rules," say its advocates. A reference to the 
 diagrams on pages 202 ff. will show how impossible 
 three- and five-girl plays, on a mathematical basis, 
 are with lines. Why is it so difficult to teach girls 
 indoor baseball? One reason is that the order of team 
 work required is very complex. Why do one or two 
 or three women work well together, but when increased 
 to a small group they fall out? Because the team 
 work they have been taught is very elemental, requir- 
 ing few adjustments and little planning. Two for- 
 wards, having the same duties and tactics, may work 
 well together, but add a center and guard, and the 
 
BASKETBALL 185 
 
 discriminative and associative processes are much in- 
 creased. Many of the three-girl plays, even among 
 three forwards, are not possible owing to limited 
 space and similarity of positions which give little 
 variety in tactics. The tendency is to have one for- 
 ward throw most of the goals, and all the others 
 accept the simple duty of " feeding " her the ball. 
 As for lessening strain, the guard or center may 
 stand a few feet away and see her forward strain- 
 ing for the ball and be powerless to co-operate, al- 
 though the expenditure of energy on her part would 
 be much less. 
 
 In addition to preventing team work and not being 
 adaptable to a small field, " lineball " has other disad- 
 vantages. It is a less open and attractive game. 
 Short passes, aimless passing among forwards to get 
 rid of the ball and dribbling are encouraged. While 
 more persons can play, they frequently do little more 
 than stand around in each other's way. This was 
 the case in one game played by nine on a side on a 
 900-square-foot court. Add to this number an ad- 
 ditional linesman, and the floor is pretty full and the 
 game somewhat confusing to an audience. In play- 
 ing without lines, the apparent disadvantage of ac- 
 commodating a smaller number can be met in prac- 
 tice by playing ten girls and then have ten others 
 play while the first ten rest. In an hour and twenty 
 minutes, forty different girls can be played. Eight- 
 een persons are usually too many for the average 
 instructor to teach at one time, especially young 
 girls. 
 
186 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 The Non-interference Rule. — From the educa- 
 tional and esthetic standpoints, it is a matter of won- 
 der that a committee on rules could have chosen so 
 detrimental a rule as lines and at the same time have 
 selected so beneficent a one as prohibiting snatching 
 or batting the ball out of another's hands, — a rule 
 which makes the so-called non-interference game. 
 This is designed to prevent injury and rough play, 
 which it does, and it also accomplishes part of the 
 good results claimed for lines — namely, preventing 
 fatigue — for it makes the game one of skill rather 
 than of strength. In the nature of things and by 
 comparison with other games, the person having the 
 ball should in all equity be permitted to play it. As 
 a matter of ethics and sportsmanship this rule should 
 be universally adopted by both men and women. A 
 number of boys' schools have prohibited basketball 
 because of the interference game, for a great part of 
 the rough play and bad feeling engendered is due to 
 it. Officials are confused and lax in their decisions 
 because of it. It is not the man who can plan to get 
 the ball first, but the man who can pull it away, who 
 wins. With the adoption of a non-interference rule, 
 we believe Spalding Rules for Men offer the greatest 
 opportunities for both men and women for developing 
 character and the mental, moral and social qualities 
 so essential to good citizenship. 
 
 Disadvantages of Rules for Women. — One reason 
 a fair test of both sets of rules has not been made is 
 because the game has not been carefully studied under 
 competent supervision and instruction, and much 
 
BASKETBALL 187 
 
 more is claimed for Rules for Women than can be 
 substantiated. For instance, one writer says: 
 " Women's rules make the game one of enjoyment, 
 for the girls are able to play the full time, and there 
 is an increased number anxious to play." 
 
 First, there is no proof whatever that the game is 
 really more enjoyable under one set of rules than an- 
 other. From such testimony as we have gathered from 
 girls who have played under both sets of rules, they 
 favor Rules for Men, and have often refused to play 
 under Rules for Women. On the whole, it is the 
 game itself and not one set of rules or another which 
 attracts them. They are rather indifferent to discus- 
 sions of rules, for they simply want to play. 
 
 Second, " full time " is misleading. It is our ob- 
 servation that players are perfectly willing to play 
 shorter halves with more rests in between, if the total 
 practice time remains the same. It makes not the 
 slightest difference if it is ten or fifteen minutes, so 
 long as they get enough work, and it is equal for all. 
 Rules for Men provide that by agreement the time of 
 the halves may be changed and as short a period as is 
 desired played. 
 
 Although the movement for Rules for Women has 
 served to focus attention on the need for uniformity, 
 their adoption has really established a dangerous 
 precedent and complicated the situation. There are 
 not only Spalding Rules for Men, Intercollegiate 
 rules, high school rules and protective association 
 rules, but in addition to Rules for Women there are 
 modified Rules for Women which have been adopted 
 
188 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 by certain schools and called by the school name. 
 There is also " basquette." In other words, any 
 school dissatisfied with the rules feels at liberty to 
 change them, a situation not found in other games. 
 
 Where competitive games are played, such varia- 
 tions in rules become a serious matter. The first 
 question asked by teams wishing to compete is " What 
 rules are used? " In many instances the only possi- 
 ble compromise is to play one half of the game by 
 one set of rules and the other half by another set. 
 This makes one half fair to each side, but it makes the 
 game unscientific, perplexing and distressing to an 
 audience. Furthermore, the disagreements due to 
 such an arrangement create bad feeling, and players 
 invariably attribute their defeat to them. It is the 
 worst possible practice for players to be in a position 
 to blame rules for bad feeling and dirty playing. 
 
 Is it not possible in conference to agree upon rules 
 which will serve the purpose of both education and 
 recreation and more successfully bring about a uni- 
 form game, not necessarily a woman's game, but an 
 educational, sportsmanlike game? When a game is 
 widely played according to standard rules, the rules 
 should be changed only by agreement, based upon 
 wide experience and needs — not only of colleges, but 
 of all institutions of learning and of civic institutions. 
 The present Rules for Women have taken little or no 
 cognizance of the needs of settlements, Y. W. C. A., 
 playgrounds, roof and municipal gymnasia, etc., 
 which are necessarily small and present a different 
 problem. 
 
BASKETBALL 189 
 
 METHODS OF TEACHING BASKETBALL 
 
 Many of the following suggestions will seem ele- 
 mentary, and to many doubtless will be superfluous. 
 Each year a considerable group of people, without 
 experience, and oftentimes without much training, 
 undertake to teach this game. Aside from this, many 
 girls play it without instruction and do not know 
 where to obtain suggestions. Every rule has an ob- 
 ject and serves a purpose both in the technique of 
 the game and in character building. It is in the hope 
 that these suggestions may be of some value to the 
 groups mentioned and will simplify instruction, that 
 they are given at what may seem to be unnecessary 
 length. They are based upon Spalding's Rules for 
 Men, with the single change of the non-interfer- 
 ence rule, and are grouped as follows : Require- 
 ments for the game; the green squad; duties 
 and tactics of various positions; rules and team 
 work. 
 
 Requirements for the Game The physical re- 
 quirements are a sound body, good heart and lungs 
 and endurance. Anemic girls and working girls 
 with poorly nourished bodies must be played with 
 great care. Basketball almost doubles the demand 
 on the heart, and the dangers of overwork can be 
 diminished if the condition is known. The game is 
 preferably played in loose gymnasium suits or short 
 skirts and in gymnasium shoes. If played in street 
 garb injuries are likely to result. The only para- 
 phernalia needed are a sufficiently large level space, a 
 
190 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 ball and two baskets and some paint or lime to mark 
 off a court. 
 
 Basketball cannot be played with less than five on a 
 side, but a second center may be played on a large 
 floor space. There are two forwards, two guards 
 and one center. The two forwards play at one end 
 and try to throw the ball into the basket, which is 
 ten feet from the floor. The guards of the opposite 
 team play at this same end against the forwards and 
 try to get the ball and send it to the opposite end to 
 their forwards, or try to prevent the forwards 
 against whom they play from scoring. 
 
 The Green Squad. — A group of small boys can be 
 put on the floor, given a few simple rules and the game 
 started. This is not a successful way of teaching 
 girls. Before rules can be given and positions as- 
 signed, they need to learn many things. Preliminary 
 class work is needed to relieve shyness and awkward- 
 ness and to stimulate the play spirit. The first thing 
 is to teach them to throw. There are at least five 
 advantageous ways : 
 
 The ground floor ball designed to avoid tall, long- 
 armed guards. This should be a long, hard drive to 
 center, or a quick, snappy ball to the other forward 
 or guard, always close to the floor. Avoid having the 
 ball hit the floor at an angle so it will bounce. 
 
 Side-arm ball, with unbent elbow and arm swung 
 laterally to the body. Use all the back muscles. 
 The object is to deliver the ball around the body of 
 an opponent when she has her arms up for guarding 
 overhead. 
 
BASKETBALL 191 
 
 Overhead balls, with two hands over the head, start- 
 ing the ball well back. This is effective with short 
 opponents and in throwing goals. By jumping a 
 little in delivering the ball a clean throw may easily 
 be made. 
 
 One- or two-hand ball, from shoulder to chest. 
 This is a good goal throw, and may be used over the 
 heads of short opponents. 
 
 Ball passed with two hands around back of the 
 thrower's body from right to left. This makes a 
 good short pass, avoiding an opponent very cleverly, 
 and is a good return from out of bounds. 
 
 When choosing and making these various throws, 
 teach players to look at their opponents and not 
 where they intend to throw the ball. For instance, 
 when intending to throw a high ball, some players 
 roll their eyes upward, thus giving away their play. 
 
 Each instructor should make a special effort to 
 have players make as many different throws as pos- 
 sible. If they know how to throw only one way, there 
 is little variety to the game. The one throw they 
 know is usually an underhand upward ball from the 
 lap, which is slow and easily blocked. A variety of 
 throws develops not only resourcefulness but discrim- 
 ination and judgment. 
 
 They are now ready to practise long and short 
 balls. Long balls are those thrown so as to fall back 
 of a player and prevent the opponent ahead of her 
 from getting them. Short balls fall ahead, so as to 
 prevent an opponent who is standing behind or along- 
 side from running up and getting them. Each 
 
192 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 player should aim to give the advantage to her own 
 team. Throwing long and short balls necessitates 
 good judgment and precision on the part of both 
 thrower and catcher. These throws can be taught 
 to classes in line. 
 
 Line up the class and have one person at the other 
 end of the gymnasium. When she throws the ball to 
 the line have the entire line run forward or backward, 
 according to the w r ay the ball is thrown — long or 
 short. Throw swift balls along the floor and have 
 the class line take the position of stopping them. 
 Have it get under way quickly by practising starts 
 and club relay races. Throw balls sharply to the 
 end of the line over the heads of the players into the 
 corner, instructing each one to make the shortest turn 
 in that direction. Some will turn all the way around 
 in place of the correct half -turn before they start. 
 Have them practise running the length of the field 
 on their toes, forward and backward, speed and bal- 
 ance being the objects sought. Throw the balls high 
 and insist upon their jumping for them and running 
 up to meet them. Have them spin about on one foot 
 without making progress, and throw the ball from 
 whatever position they catch it. If there are three 
 or four balls, large classes can be subdivided into 
 short lines. The advantage of this work in class 
 lines is that much more can be accomplished with 
 large classes in a short time. The competitive ele- 
 ment leads each line to observe the other and stim- 
 ulates it to do its best. 
 
 In addition to this line work, a necessary exercise 
 
BASKETBALL 193 
 
 is throwing and catching balls before beginning to 
 play. One cause of sprains and falls is that green 
 players are put into the excitement of a game without 
 knowing how to run, jump, slide or otherwise use 
 their bodies. Green players have to get used to them- 
 selves in action, to the floor, to the ball and to each 
 other before they can begin to play. 
 
 We have not emphasized class practice in dribbling 
 or bouncing the ball, because the free, open throwing 
 game is much better for the players, and is much 
 prettier. 
 
 One of the most effective ways of teaching guard 
 work is to line the players up in a double line facing 
 each other, with one person back of each line, to throw 
 the balls. Have her throw the ball to a player in 
 the line facing her and require the player to get the 
 ball back to the thrower without the guards blocking 
 it. The guard whose back is to the instructor does 
 not try to block the ball until the forward receives it. 
 This is to teach interference when the forward has 
 the ball. In this way, the proper use of the hands 
 and body, various styles of throwing and of blocking 
 throws can be taught. 
 
 An interesting way to teach accurate goal throw- 
 ing is to line up the players in two rows — one at each 
 goal. At a given signal number one of each team 
 throws for goal. Immediately after throwing she 
 picks up the ball, tosses it to number two and runs 
 back to the end of the line ; number two does the same 
 and so on, until all have thrown. The side making 
 the largest number of goals in a given time, or when 
 
194 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 its line is used up, wins. In this practice insist 
 upon use of the various ways of throwing and dis- 
 courage the lap throw, which is only good on a foul. 
 
 There are one or two fouls to which special atten- 
 tion should be called, before the girls begin to play. 
 It is difficult to avoid holding and catching clothing 
 because of the loose, baggy suits, and special training 
 is needed to avoid such plays. It is difficult to detect 
 elbowing — one of the most aggravating fouls. Play- 
 ers should be taught to run with their elbows parallel 
 with their bodies and not out at right angles. Some 
 instructors even permit elbowing as a means of " keep- 
 ing track of opponents." While not a foul, falling, 
 rolling and sliding are to be discouraged. It is not 
 only poor form, but injurious and prevents good, 
 clean playing. Instruction in jumping, running and 
 throwing will do much toward having one " play 
 up." 
 
 While this preliminary work is going on, in the 
 first three or five lessons, depending on the greenness 
 of the material, from five to fifteen minutes may be 
 given to actual play. At the first practice there can 
 hardly be any play at all ; at the second ten minutes, 
 without doing more with the rules than to say " Do 
 not run with the ball," or " Do not take it away from 
 another " ; at the third increase the play time and give 
 more rules. In the meantime have each player read 
 the rules, and in the third or fourth lesson begin sys- 
 tematic teaching. The first thing is to explain the 
 field — not only the lines but their purpose. Encour- 
 age questions and give quizzes, for they help to make 
 
BASKETBALL 195 
 
 an intelligent game by having players understand the 
 reasons for various regulations. For instance, if they 
 know the purpose of the two-foot circle, it is easier 
 to observe the rule. From about the fifth lesson on, 
 care must be taken to teach new players their posi- 
 tions. In the beginning some instructors even call 
 fouls to teach forwards not to desert their goals and 
 centers that they are the middle-men. When once 
 players understand this and do it as a res\ilt of their 
 own initiative, the result is a really beautiful game. 
 Beginning with the fifth or seventh lesson, fouls 
 should be called strictly. It may take too much time 
 to have each one thrown, but they should be called 
 and explained. 
 
 This preliminary work is not a trivial matter. In 
 addition to its educational value, it makes the players 
 familiar with the atmosphere of the game ; it arouses 
 the play spirit without burdening the mind too much 
 with rules — a thing that discourages players who 
 have but little interest in games ; and it enables the 
 instructor to take a survey of the material and un- 
 derstand her players. 
 
 The green squad is now ready to learn something 
 of the science of the game. 
 
 Forwards. — Forward is perhaps the most impor- 
 tant position. As a rule, she sets the pace. In train- 
 ing, if there are some who need slower work or espe- 
 cial attention or have mental or physical defects, they 
 had better be tried here rather than on the active 
 guard line or in the responsible center's place. This 
 of course applies to preliminary training — the aim 
 
196 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 being to develop all players. There is a belief that 
 team work is not much needed by forwards. Goal 
 throwing should be tried only when there is some 
 chance of scoring, and that chance is often secured 
 by rapid passes which confuse the guards. Com- 
 pletely subjugate the desire of a forward to throw for 
 goal under any and all conditions by explaining that 
 it takes little head work to cage a random throw, but 
 it does takes a great deal to get the ball in position 
 to be caged. This develops unselfishness in the short- 
 est time. A good method of instruction is to train 
 one forward to play up field and the other back; in 
 this way they come quickly to know where to find each 
 other. 
 
 A difficult thing to teach forwards is to follow a 
 ball after they throw for goal and judge by its speed 
 and direction where it will fall. Green forwards 
 will stand as if in a trance, waiting to see what hap- 
 pens. Sometimes when a ball bounces back to them 
 they are too dazed to get it. 
 
 In free throws emphasize the underhand throw. 
 Its advantages are that the thrower can control the 
 ball and is better able to judge of the necessary 
 amount of force. Have the ball held in the same way, 
 lacing same way, fingers in certain positions on the 
 seams, etc. At least two or three forwards in each 
 class should be trained to throw balls on fouls. When 
 there is the regulation screen, caroming the ball 
 should receive attention. 
 
 Teach forwards to make short passes and to play 
 to each other and to their center. Few girls are 
 
BASKETBALL 197 
 
 strong enough for accurate long-distance throws. 
 Skill in dodging should be made an especial part of 
 the preliminary training. Give forwards all of the 
 principles of guard work. This is often neglected, 
 as many forwards only throw for goal and do not 
 prevent guards from getting the ball to the other end. 
 Hold forwards responsible for inaccurate throws, thus 
 making it clear that it is not always the fault of a 
 player who fails to catch the ball. 
 
 Guards. — Guard work is the least popular, for 
 they have most of the drudgery and little of the 
 credit. A goal scored by any one counts and some 
 encourage guards to throw for goal, which makes the 
 game more complicated and increases the work of the 
 guards. Guard work develops unselfishness and takes 
 out vanity and other " hindering " qualities quicker 
 than does any other position. No matter how many 
 times a guard successfully blocks a ball, every goal 
 scored by her opponent is " laid up against her." 
 
 Train a guard to get the ball first ; next to block 
 the ball or spoil the aim; and third, to jump quickly. 
 Guards, unlike forwards, must be able to divine a 
 move, and to closely follow the plays. The best posi- 
 tion for guards on the toss-up at center is alongside 
 the forwards; not in front, because this may make 
 the forward foul ; and not behind, because it is a dis- 
 advantage. It is important to keep another player 
 from fouling. 
 
 In a non-interference game, where the ball cannot 
 be knocked out of the hands, guards may wave their 
 arms and hands to spoil the aim or block a ball, but 
 
198 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 cannot hit their opponents. Some players wave their 
 hands rapidly in a small radius close to the eyes of 
 an opponent, to prevent her seeing. This and similar 
 tricks are against the spirit of fair play. 
 
 Center. — In all-around team work the center has 
 the most responsible position, requires the most en- 
 durance, and height counts for more than elsewhere 
 since she may jump and catch the ball with both 
 hands and throw it or bat it. Quickness and ability 
 are necessary to throw goals, but more emphasis 
 should be placed on the ability to do team work than 
 on good throwing. Centers require all of the skill of 
 forwards and all of the tactics of guards. The cen- 
 ter is the pivot of team work and requires the finest 
 kind of a combination of qualities, for all members of 
 the team rely most upon her. 
 
 Rules. — Basketball rules need simplification. A 
 good classification, which may be posted in the gymna- 
 sium or copies distributed, is into those which govern 
 the ball — those which govern players, and general 
 rules. The penalties should be given in each case. An 
 illustration of one which governs the ball is — a ball 
 is out of bounds only when it has completely crossed 
 the line ; of one which governs the player — there shall 
 be no shouldering, kicking, etc., or rough play; of a 
 general rule in case of a tie — the referee shall then 
 order the game to continue until each side has made 
 two points. When these rules, and especially the pen- 
 alties, have been made clear, then officials and their 
 duties and classification of fouls and keeping score 
 may be taken up. 
 
BASKETBALL 199 
 
 Another classification based on penalties may be 
 used to advantage: (1) Fouls which give free throws ; 
 
 (2) violations which give the ball to the other side; 
 
 (3) violations which give the same side another throw; 
 
 (4) general rules, as when goals count, disqualifica- 
 tions, etc. Such groups, if explained together, avoid 
 much confusion. Giving rules in sequence and using 
 illustrations are helpful. 
 
 Another detailed classification for teaching rules 
 is : Fouls on the ball ; fouls on the person ; boundary 
 rules ; rules for giving ball to the other side ; rules for 
 returning ball to the same player; dead balls; scor- 
 ing ; rules relating to officials ; and when ball is thrown 
 up between two players. 
 
 Team Work. — Nothing is so important in the social 
 education of the individual through games as team 
 work. Its absence means failure to develop the most 
 important moral qualities. When a group of people 
 play or work so well together that there is no friction 
 and their combined activity, with all its variety, re- 
 sults as accurately as though one person, unimpeded, 
 had accomplished it, it is unmistakably the result of 
 real team work. This implies on the part of each 
 player ability to use her body accurately; a knowl- 
 edge of each other's characteristics and style of 
 play ; confidence in each other ; and a willingness to 
 adjust herself. Jealousy, rivalry and distrust are 
 fatal to team work. More than anything else team 
 work develops each player and contributes to the 
 beauty of the game from the spectator's point of 
 view. 
 
200 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 There are at least five things for which an in- 
 structor should work: Coolness, quickness, accuracy, 
 good judgment and self-control. The essential prin- 
 ciple of team work is that each individual must be 
 willing to sacrifice her chance of scoring for what she 
 believes will be a sure throw by some other player. 
 The pivot of success is the captain, who must be able 
 to control herself and others, and who will discour- 
 age star-playing and insist upon co-operation at all 
 times. 
 
 Quick, continuous, short, unexpected passes and 
 getting rid of the ball quickly are the physical se- 
 crets of effective team work. Some believe that two- 
 or three-girl plays constitute all there is of team 
 work. The A. A. U. rules contain this suggestive 
 comment on team play : 
 
 " Be sure to remember these points: ' Get out of your 
 head the idea that your first thought should be the 
 basket when you get hold of the ball. Get rid of the 
 ball quickly; when the ball is coming to you have your 
 eye out for getting rid of it at once to another player; 
 don't wait till you get it and then look around; bear in 
 mind that the rules have been formulated by students of 
 the game and that their strictness is necessary to expert 
 playing; don't think that the number of goals you shoot 
 indicates your value to your team. The practice of 
 scoring goals to the credit of individual players ought 
 to be abolished^ they should be scored only in total to 
 the credit of the whole team/ ' 
 
 A difficult thing to impress upon players is to get 
 the ball on the run and to pass it to a player who is 
 making progress toward her goal. This frequently 
 
BASKETBALL 201 
 
 gives a forward the chance to throw for goal before 
 her guard can reach her. Girls are too much in- 
 clined to wait for the ball to come to them and then 
 throw it to some one who is standing still. 
 
 A principle to be taught first, last and always is: 
 When any opponent has the ball, never get away from 
 your own opponent. Make it impossible for any one 
 on the opposing team to receive or pass the ball. This 
 is more often taught guards than forwards, but it 
 applies to every player equally. There are no excep- 
 tions until after the ball is thrown, then of course all 
 make ready to get it. 
 
 The reverse of this rule is equally true and equally 
 strong. When your own side has the ball make 
 every effort to get away. One of the difficulties is 
 that instructors do not insist upon these rules, so 
 there is much wild, purposeless playing. Digressions 
 are allowed because occasionally a good play is made 
 by violating the rule, but if every player without ex- 
 ception stuck to this principle, some serious blunders 
 would be avoided. Some players never do any think- 
 ing or playing when the ball is at the other end of 
 the field and are, of course, never ready. When the 
 other side has the ball, the main thing is to prevent an 
 opponent from getting it on a pass, rather than to 
 put the whole energy into getting it oneself. 
 
 The simplest way to teach team work is to begin 
 in groups of three, using the triangle as the basis. 
 It may be said of the illustrative team plays which fol- 
 low that they cannot be carried out when the team 
 is playing against opponents. Our repeated experi- 
 
202 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 ments show that they can be carried out even in inter- 
 class contests where both teams have been taught the 
 same plays. In interscholastic contests the opposing 
 team, not knowing the formation or signals, is fre- 
 quently so confused by the rapidity and peculiarity of 
 the plays, that the complicated five-girl plays are 
 quite successful. But even when they are attempted 
 and fail, the advantages of training remain. It is 
 possible in a limited way to use the triangle for train- 
 ing in " lineball," but the plays can rarely be made 
 in a game. The three forwards do little more than 
 exchange the ball, and cannot carry out a definite 
 plan within the small space allotted to them. They 
 cannot advance far enough to complete a play, and 
 it is not possible to change off forwards with guards. 
 The following series in the order of their progres- 
 sion has been successfully used. There are many 
 possible variations of these, but the following will 
 illustrate the method. In the diagrams the solid 
 lines indicate the runner, the broken arrows the 
 ball. A, B, C 1 indicate the first 
 play, and A, B, C 2 the second. 
 
 Three players, A, B, C, are lined 
 up about ten or fifteen feet apart 
 in a triangle. A throws the ball to 
 B and immediately runs straight 
 across to X. B throws the ball to C, who throws it 
 to A in her new place. A throws it to B and runs 
 back to her former place, and the play is made all 
 
BASKETBALL 
 
 203 
 
 over again. When this can be done so rapidly that 
 A is kept running constantly in order to get to her 
 place in time to receive the ball again, the play is 
 learned. 
 
 II 
 
 Line up players as in I. A 1 throws the ball to B 1 
 and runs as before to X. B 1 throws the ball to C 1 , 
 but instead of standing still runs across a little to one 
 side of jB^s place. While B 1 is running towards 
 C 1 , C 1 has thrown the 
 
 2a> ; 
 
 C 
 
 V? 1 
 
 \ \ 
 
 \ \ 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 y\ 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 <p\ 
 
 B* 
 
 A* 
 
 A* 
 
 ball to A 1 at X and has 
 
 started for B^s place. 
 
 B 1 and C 1 pass each 
 
 other while A 2 has the 
 
 ball. B 1 will arrive in 
 
 C 19 s place in time to 
 
 receive the ball again 
 
 from A. When each 
 
 player has changed 
 
 places once they are 
 
 ready for the second play indicated as (2). A 
 
 throws the ball to B 2 and runs back again to her 
 
 first place, B 2 throws the ball to C 2 and they again 
 
 exchange places. A now has the ball and the play 
 
 begins all over again. Every one should be in the 
 
 place at which they began to play, if no error has 
 
 been made. They stop only when they throw the 
 
 ball, and always throw before starting to run again. 
 
 When this is played well they are on a continual 
 
 run except the instant they throw. The ball must 
 
204 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 be thrown high enough to avoid the heads of the 
 runners and accurately, for a dropped ball stops the 
 whole play. 
 
 Ill 
 
 In the preceding play — each player ran opposite 
 to her place. In this one the same throws are made, 
 but the thrower runs to the unoccupied place. The 
 girls call this practice " Pussy wants a corner." 
 
 It consists of four series of changes, made con- 
 secutively. The ball must be started as indicated or 
 all will run around in a circle. Two things must be 
 remembered : A always throws to B and B to C and C 
 back to A. If this order is changed, a mistake has 
 been made. Second, each player immediately after 
 throwing takes the unoccupied space, never going 
 
 straight to a point where 
 another player stands as in 
 No. II. 
 
 (1) A throws to B and 
 runs as before to X. B 
 throws to C, but now X, the 
 unoccupied space, is that 
 vacated by ^, so B runs 
 there. After C throws to A she sees that B's 
 first place has now become vacant, and runs there. 
 We are now ready for the second series and the 
 positions are: 
 
 C 1 
 
 A 1 
 
 B 
 
BASKETBALL 
 
 205 
 
 (2) A has the ball and throws as before to B 9 run- 
 ning to X; when B gets the ball she throws to C and 
 crosses straight over to the 
 place just vacated by A, 
 and C throws to A and goes 
 down to the place vacated 
 by B. The positions for the 
 third series now are: 
 
 X 
 
 C 1 
 
 (3) A throws to B and runs across ; B throws to C 
 and then runs to the place vacated by A; C throws 
 
 back to A and goes up to 
 the place where B started. 
 The positions for the fourth 
 series now are: 
 C 1 
 A 1 B 1 
 
 X 
 (4) A throws to B and 
 runs down to X; B throws to 
 C and goes straight across 
 to the place vacated by A 9 and 
 C throws to A and runs to the 
 place just vacated by B. The b\ 
 players are now in the same 
 position as when they first 
 began the series and are ready 
 to do the play all over in the 
 same way. This play is not learned until they can 
 
206 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 go through the whole four series at least three times 
 without error or dropping the ball. 
 
 I, II and III are the basis of all team work. No 
 play, change or combination will appear in any 
 team play whose principles are not found here, be it 
 three- or five-girl plays. They teach the player to 
 keep her head; to throw the balls without running 
 with them ; to catch and throw promptly ; to change 
 positions accurately ; to throw the balls from the posi- 
 tion in which they are caught ; to hold the ball away 
 from the body, etc. They offer the best practice for 
 getting the ball out of corners and taking it down the 
 field. They also teach the players to protect a weak 
 or unoccupied part of the field, and to use every op- 
 portunity. Players who have done this preliminary 
 team practice well will unconsciously, during the ex- 
 citement of the game, carry out these very plays, 
 
 even with opponents against 
 them, much to the delight of the 
 audiences. 
 
 ^F 
 
 yi 
 
 IV 
 
 G 
 
 Q 
 
 This series possesses the addi- 
 tional advantage of using all of 
 the team and of advancing the 
 ball. Guard 1 has the ball near 
 the basket, and throws to guard 2 
 and runs ahead to receive the ball 
 again. Then she throws to center and gradually 
 leads her forward back, as she is the rear guard. The 
 center throws to forward 1 , and not wishing to draw 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
BASKETBALL 
 
 207 
 
 the down field forward away from goal runs down and 
 receives the ball from the forward and then throws 
 to forward 2 , or for goal, depending on the oppor- 
 tunity. The positions may vary, but this is one of 
 the most common and simplest forms of five-team 
 play. In all of the plays where the ball is carried 
 down the field, the number of changes made depends 
 chiefly on the size of the field. Short passes can be 
 practised by lessening the distances between positions. 
 
 This series possesses the advantage of teaching a 
 team as a whole to change positions rapidly, to pro- 
 tect its field and to get away 
 from its opponents. The cen- 
 ter gets the ball under the 
 basket, which the instructor 
 has thrown. She then throws 
 it to guard 1 , who throws it to O 2 ^ 
 guard 2 . In the meantime the 
 center has run down the field 
 to receive the ball from guard 2 , 
 who after throwing to her runs 
 ahead. Center then throws to 
 guard 1 , who has advanced the latter, passing the ball 
 on to guard 2 . A little past center the forwards take 
 the ball in the same way, and the center or forward 
 nearest the basket throws for goal and starts the 
 same play back. This should be done the length of 
 the field three times in succession without error or 
 
208 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 fumble before the instructor can be sure the girls 
 know it. 
 
 VI 
 
 This is the same play as No. V except that the 
 players cross over, which is No. Ill applied to five 
 players. While rarely successful in contests where 
 teams are equally matched, it is invaluable in train- 
 ing players to change to 
 the side of the field that is 
 not protected. Guard 1 
 starts the ball to guard 2 , 
 who throws it to center, 
 and then guard 1 crosses 
 over ahead of guard 2 , and 
 guard 2 crosses ahead of 
 where guard 1 first stood, 
 and receives the ball from 
 guard 1 . The forwards 
 make the same play at the 
 other end of the field. 
 This can be combined with V and the straight field 
 played at one end and the cross field at the other. 
 Require the players to change off the second time 
 they do it, without being reminded. This play 
 should be carried uninterruptedly through the entire 
 field two or three times, and it has been done without 
 mistake, by a team, six times. 
 
 VII 
 
 An interesting variation is the straight line play. 
 In giving this the next one to receive the ball 
 
BASKETBALL 
 
 209 
 
 must not run to get into line until the girl who 
 is to throw to her receives the ball. 
 Otherwise the formation will be 
 given away and the opponents' 
 will be there, too. Guard 2 gets the 
 ball, the center who is on the other 
 side runs in behind her to receive it 
 and guard 2 then crosses over to re- 
 ceive it from center. While the 
 forwards are getting into line the 
 center runs straight toward the 
 basket. When she gets the ball 
 she starts the same play back again, all crossing to 
 the other side. 
 
 VIII 
 
 A difficult variation, which can be attempted only 
 after much practice in team work, is to have guards 
 
 and forwards take the center 
 place and have the center play 
 out. Center 1 gets the ball, 
 throws it to guard 1 ; then in- 
 stead of keeping in the center 
 field she runs out to the side. 
 Guard 1 then throws the ball 
 ahead to guard 2 , who throws it 
 to center in her new position. 
 Then guard 2 takes the center 
 position, etc. When it comes to the forward end, 
 they make the same changes with the center that the 
 guards did. If the players are not very quick 
 
210 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 guard 1 will have to follow down the field so as to be 
 ready in case the others do not get into position in 
 time. 
 
 These illustrative plays by no means represent all 
 of the possible combinations. They simply indicate 
 some of the possibilities and show the splendid mental 
 training, the superb physical control and the admir- 
 able group education which team work gives. It is 
 the training which is most valuable, whether the plays 
 are used in contests or not. Dancing and other es- 
 thetic exercises are not more beautiful and graceful 
 than the precision, form and skill with which these 
 team plays may be made. 
 
 Basketball gives girls another opportunity for team 
 practice which few other games provide, namely the 
 use of signals. These have to be comparatively sim- 
 ple. The various team plays may be indicated by 
 numerals or letters or names. These may also be used 
 to indicate a player's change of position when one of 
 her side gets the ball. For instance, if a forward sees 
 that her center will get the ball she can say seven — 
 and her center knows that an odd number means that 
 she intends to run quickly to the right side of the field. 
 The opposing guard, not knowing what seven means, 
 has to wait until she starts to run before she knows 
 the direction. It is a great advantage to know where 
 to throw a ball without turning to see. Simple visual 
 signals like throwing the head back for a long ball, 
 or holding the right hand out horizontally for a ball 
 to be thrown in that direction, etc., are effective. 
 Throwing the hand up may be taken as a signal for 
 
BASKETBALL 211 
 
 a high ball and gives the player a chance to make 
 the distance. Bending forward is a good signal for 
 a floor ball. Successful use of team plays and sig- 
 nals depends upon a strong center, and players 
 should avoid giving signals when they have a poor 
 chance. Some girls think signals are only valuable 
 to attract attention of other players and audience and 
 do it when they are in poor position. It has become 
 such a habit that calling players by their first name, 
 which means " throw me the ball," is done by girls who 
 are replacing side-combs or fastening suits, with no 
 idea that they will get the ball. This is not team 
 work. 
 
 Unfortunately these team plays and signals are not 
 used a great deal by girls. Instructors only think 
 them worth while to win games and not for individual 
 training. Clapping hands, yells, whistles, etc., are 
 more popular though not pleasing or successful, for 
 if all the players want the ball, they all do these 
 things at once. 
 
 In the use of these team plays and signals care 
 should be taken that the habit of running with the 
 ball is not formed ; that the game does not become a 
 series of passes with no try at goal ; and that the ball 
 always goes forward and is not played back into the 
 opponents' territory. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 INDOOR BASEBALL 
 VALUE OF THE GAME 
 
 Baseball is not widely played by women, but pos- 
 sesses the greatest educational possibilities, for it is 
 the most highly organized of all games. There have 
 been four causes of the lack of interest : the hard ball, 
 the heavy bat, the long-distance throws and the com- 
 plexity of the rules. While retaining all of the fun 
 and value of the outdoor game, indoor baseball has 
 solved all of these problems but one, and is admirably 
 suited to women. It was invented in Chicago in 
 1887, but was not popular at first, owing to the great 
 difficulty of devising rules enabling a base-runner to 
 get from base to base after a pitched ball. The in- 
 door game may be played outdoors by using a larger 
 diamond and the smallest ball allowed by the regu- 
 lations. 
 
 Advantages. — The ball used is soft ; the bats are 
 short and light ; curves are not much used ; the pitch- 
 ing is the straight arm, which is especially easy for 
 girls, as it is the way they ordinarily throw; gloves 
 and masks are not required, as the element of injury 
 is greatly minimized ; sliding bases is but little prac- 
 tised, owing to the rule that the base-runner cannot 
 
 212 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 213 
 
 leave the base until after the ball has passed the 
 batsman or while the pitcher holds it; bunting is 
 much used, so strength does not count for a great 
 deal; and the distances are short, so the throws need 
 cause no strain. A high degree of exertion is re- 
 quired only at intervals and then is not prolonged. 
 Above all it is a pretty game with much fun in it. 
 The only remaining difficulty is the complexity of 
 the rules. 
 
 Baseball has some advantages over basketball. It 
 can be played by girls not strong enough to endure 
 the constant strain of basketball. The order of 
 team work is higher, for every player has to learn 
 to field, bat and run bases, and she has to adapt 
 herself to more players and learn more varied plays 
 than in basketball. It also accommodates more play- 
 ers at one time. 
 
 Baseball like basketball requires a good body and 
 good lungs, but there is so little strain that almost 
 any girl can play. It develops to the highest degree, 
 concentration, observation, memory, judgment, quick- 
 ness, accuracy and the moral qualities. An illustra- 
 tion of unselfishness through team work is the " sacri- 
 fice hit," where the batsman deliberately puts herself 
 out in order that another, who has a better chance, 
 may score. No game offers better opportunities for 
 corrections in bad standing postures and general 
 carriage. The following suggestions for teaching in- 
 door baseball to girls are made at length, in the hope 
 that the game will be more widely used for both edu- 
 cation and recreation, as it so richly deserves. More 
 
214 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 information is available for those who wish to play 
 baseball than basketball, but it is also more technical. 
 Spalding's many books on outdoor baseball and 
 how to play the various positions and bat contain 
 many valuable suggestions. 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 As in basketball, there should be much preliminary 
 class work in the use of the bat, throwing, catching 
 and base-running. We have found baseball most in- 
 telligible and easily taught by dividing the instruc- 
 tion into the following groups: Duties of various 
 positions ; definition of terms ; rules applicable to 
 the various positions. The following suggestions 
 are made according to this classification : 
 
 Pitcher. — It is well to make clear to the pitcher 
 from the start that she has other responsibilities than 
 merely throwing the ball to the batsman ; that play- 
 ing the bases is important, and that she is respon- 
 sible for fielding batted balls in her territory. There 
 are second season pitchers who never go out of the 
 box because they have been instructed " only to 
 pitch." Teaching the pitcher to play second base 
 when the baseman goes after balls should be begun 
 early. Strive to develop, first, accuracy, then head 
 work, and lastly speed. 
 
 The pitcher should practise getting control of her 
 ball for a little longer distance; then in a game her 
 control remains good with shorter distances. Have 
 her observe the style of the batsman. For instance, 
 if she stands close to the plate and grasps the bat 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 215 
 
 near the handle, throw the balls toward the inner 
 side of the plate, for these are difficult to hit. If she 
 stands well back, a ball on the outer side may be 
 hard to hit. 
 
 Establish the feeling of co-operation between 
 pitcher and catcher. In order to get balls over the 
 plate, the pitcher needs something to aim at, and 
 the catcher's hands in a good position help her a 
 great deal. From the beginning, have her throw 
 careful balls, and have the ball held in the same way 
 before delivery. Although only one base can be 
 taken on a passed or muffed ball, it is most important 
 to remember in training, and the catcher should re- 
 turn the ball to the pitcher as soon as possible. 
 
 The pitcher in indoor baseball need not be taught 
 to watch the bases while she holds the ball, for no bases 
 can be stolen, but she should always know how many 
 base-runners are on bases, their location and the 
 number of outs, and should make up her mind before 
 she pitches where she will play the ball if she gets it. 
 Teach her to put out the one farthest around, and 
 when there is a runner on third, to pitch accurately 
 so the catcher will not miss the ball. 
 
 When there is not the full number of shortstops, 
 the pitcher plays this position and leads up toward 
 home immediately after delivering the ball, so as to 
 be ready for a bunt or pop-up. 
 
 Catcher. — The catcher needs to be observant and 
 cool and to have a good steady hand and be capable 
 of good head-work. Size and weight are of some 
 importance, speed is desirable, and she must be fear- 
 
216 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 less. A timid person rarely plays well behind the 
 bat at first, but it is a good place to develop physical 
 courage, as well as desirable mental qualities. 
 
 The catcher stands directly behind the bat. The 
 first thing is to teach her to stand up close and net 
 to be afraid of the bat or ball. Practice in catching 
 hard-thrown balls will help this. The second thing 
 is to insist that she " clutch " the ball when once it 
 reaches her. The large soft ball is likely to get away 
 unless much care is used in teaching players how ta 
 use their fingers in catching. The third thing is for 
 her to throw the ball accurately as soon as she catches 
 it. The fourth thing is to teach her to anticipate, 
 the ball. For instance, if it is going high, jump; if 
 wide, run to one side. Insist upon her making an 
 effort to get the ball instantly and never to take it 
 for granted that a run will be made. She must be 
 taught to watch bases and throw to the right one 
 instantly. She should always make careful note of 
 the position of each base-runner, number of outs, 
 etc., before each pitched ball. 
 
 She is the home baseman and as such has to learn 
 its tactics. This double position needs much atten- 
 tion, as it is very difficult to teach girls this com- 
 bination. 
 
 By putting hands in position the catcher can signal 
 if she wants a high or a low ball. The pitcher need 
 not throw it, but if they work together the catcher's 
 instructions are usually followed. 
 
 She always makes an effort to catch all fouls — 
 for a foul tip caught counts as a strike and a foul 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 217 
 
 hit caught is out. She has a view of the entire field 
 and knows all that is going on, and is therefore most 
 responsible for the field. She plans plays to catch the 
 runners and keeps the pitcher moving. When two 
 are out a run on a passed ball is almost always tried, 
 so the catcher must watch closely. She must always 
 know where the ball is. Sometimes when the ball is 
 in the outfield her attention is diverted by a girl steal- 
 ing in, and she loses track of it. Then when it is 
 thrown to her it often hits her because she is not 
 paying attention. The natural attitude of most 
 players is that there is nothing to do when they do 
 not have the ball. 
 
 Avoid throwing too high or too hard balls into the 
 field, as girls are not expert catchers. When catch- 
 ing a ball always give with it. Players have a tend- 
 ency to hold the body rigid and arm stiff and thus 
 receive more jar and strain. 
 
 Batsmen. — When one team goes to field, every 
 girl on the opposing team becomes a batsman and all 
 scoring is done while they are at bat. This is where 
 baseball excels every other game in its educational 
 value, for a new kind of physical control, mental 
 activity and group combination is required. The 
 girl who a minute before was using all her faculties 
 to outwit the base-runner, now endeavors to outwit 
 the very position she just played. 
 
 Coolness, a good eye for distances and good judg- 
 ment are the first essentials. While no two people bat 
 alike, it is difficult for a girl to assume an easy, nat- 
 ural attitude and use all of her muscles. She should 
 
218 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 stand so the bat will swing over the plate and a little 
 back so she can judge where the ball will pass. Un- 
 graceful positions can well be avoided. At first she 
 bats only with her arms, hugs her elbows to her sides, 
 or keeps the arms stiff. Much preliminary work has 
 to be done in teaching the free use of the body in 
 batting. Girls bunt exceedingly well, and it is worth 
 while spending considerable time on this. 
 
 When players are used to handling the bat and are 
 not afraid to use it, they are ready to discriminate 
 as to when to strike and when not to. Over the plate 
 and between knee and shoulder seems a simple instruc- 
 tion, but at first they hit at a sky-scraper or stoop 
 down to dust the plate, so anxious are they to " hit 
 something." A great deal of time must be spent in 
 teaching them to judge when a ball is a ball and 
 when a strike. The absence of curves renders this less 
 difficult than in outdoor ball. They are careless 
 about remembering how many " balls " and strikes 
 they have and " forget to run." For this reason 
 they need to be urged to get under way quickly after 
 every hit. If it is a foul, they can come back any- 
 way, and no harm is done. They have such a natural 
 aversion to starting unless they are sure, that the 
 matter of quick starts has to be overdone at first. 
 
 The lack of initiative is exposed pitilessly in base- 
 ball. The batsman always waits to be told to run, she 
 sticks to her base until forced off ; she hesitates to take 
 a risk; and waits to see if the third strike is caught. 
 Instead of running and hearing the decision after- 
 ward, she wants the decision first, and is slow to learn 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 219 
 
 to take risks. Another thing, girls are inclined to 
 start slowly and gradually increase speed. The re- 
 verse is needed. After a hit speed must be greatest 
 at the start, because the distance is short and it 
 counts for most at the beginning. 
 
 The girl can now handle her bat, she knows strikes 
 from balls and how to get away after a hit. She is 
 then ready to learn something of placing hits. She 
 looks up the outs and position of her base-runners 
 and decides what kind of hit will help most, and then 
 tries to make it. For instance, if there is a girl on 
 first, it is a good thing to bunt, as a fly may mean a 
 double out. A bunt is also a good play when there 
 are runners on first and second with no one out. As 
 a rule she hits high-pitched balls, and bunts low ones. 
 To bunt a ball successfully, slide the hand quickly 
 down the bat after the ball has started from the 
 pitcher, and let the bat give with the ball when it is 
 hit, holding the bat well in front of the body. 
 
 For a fake bunt before the ball is pitched, slide the 
 hand down the bat and get into a position as for a 
 bunt. The shortstop will begin to draw up to the 
 batsman ; then suddenly slide the hand up, swing the 
 bat back and hit hard. 
 
 With basemen and fielders who cannot hold hard- 
 hit balls well, a hard swing is not as effective as a 
 long sweeping swing or short quick chop, which gives 
 a hit that may land a base. Left-handed batsmen 
 should be encouraged, as the swing throws them in 
 direct line for first base. 
 
 Base-Runners. — It is difficult at first to make clear 
 
220 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 to a girl just when she ceases to be a batsman and 
 becomes a base-runner, with a new set of rules to reg- 
 ulate her actions and a new set of tactics. She be- 
 comes a base-runner under the following conditions: 
 (1) Immediately after four balls. (2) Immediately 
 after three strikes. (3) Immediately after she 
 makes a fair hit. (4) If pitcher does not give her 
 time to return, after she starts on a foul hit, etc. 
 (5) When a fair hit ball strikes the umpire. (6) 
 When she is stopped or obstructed by an adversary. 
 (7) On an illegal pitch. 
 
 The business of the base-runner seems simple — to 
 get from base to base without being put out — but it 
 is a perilous journey to the beginner, and she needs 
 considerable encouragement. In the first place she 
 has erroneous ideas about being put out. The aver- 
 age girl thinks it means she is out of the game, and 
 not infrequently goes home. She also thinks it a 
 humiliation if she fails to catch a ball. If she is put 
 out often she gets discouraged. 
 
 Getting around all the bases and home without be- 
 ing put out is an art. This depends upon the ability 
 — first to hit balls at all, and second to place them; 
 third to run ; and fourth upon head-work — such as 
 judging distances, seizing opportunities, etc. Base- 
 running means getting the most out of every situa- 
 tion with the least possible effort. In outdoor base- 
 ball, she can steal a base at any time ; in indoor ball 
 only after the ball has passed the batsman and then 
 only one base; or when a ball is hit, then, as many 
 as she can get. 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 221 
 
 The distance between bases is so short that bursts 
 of speed are required. Practising starts in dashes 
 is good training for this. Sometimes when a ball is 
 caught it is dropped, and unless it is a fly, the base- 
 runner should keep on going. Her business is to get 
 to the base and not to stop every instant and see 
 what is going on back of her. She should always 
 know where the ball is and must remember that first 
 is the only base that may be overrun. 
 
 When the pitcher has not the ball the runner may 
 bluff by getting off a base in order to have the bail 
 thrown there, and then run on to the next. Judg- 
 ment of time and distances plus speed make safe base- 
 running. 
 
 A runner should not get the idea that the next 
 batsman will always help her out after she gets to 
 first. Many outs are due to timidity. " I knew I was 
 all right there, but not sure of the next," said one 
 player. When the rule of two on a base is explained 
 they think it the fault of the batsman who runs them 
 off, not realizing their responsibility in making way 
 for her. When team work is dwelt upon, signals be- 
 tween batsman and runner, as to the kind of play 
 they will make together, are helpful. There is the 
 danger of being too self-satisfied. When a runner 
 makes one base she is often so pleased that she for- 
 gets all other players or that there is anything more 
 to be done to score. 
 
 Sliding bases is not much used in indoor ball and 
 is not advocated for girls, as effective slides are 
 usually head first. The game can be successfully 
 
222 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 played without them. Sliding even for small girls is 
 always to be discouraged, owing to the liability to 
 in j ury on the hard floor. As a rule they do not do it 
 gracefully, and they have quite enough to learn to 
 do well, without undertaking unnecessary tactics. 
 Where it is practised out of doors, it is best to take 
 a long slide usually, on the inside of bag, and catch 
 hold of bag in passing. This depends upon the posi- 
 tion of the baseman and sometimes it is better to go 
 on the outside of the bag. Once started on a slide it 
 is best not to look back, lest she change her mind. 
 She can usually judge by a baseman's action where 
 the ball is. If the throw is high, slide on the inside ; 
 if the baseman is in front of the base, slide on the 
 outside. 
 
 Stealing bases adds to the excitement and interest. 
 A good time to steal is : ( 1 ) When there is a girl on 
 first and the batsman is getting strikes or is a weak 
 batsman. (2) When a w T eak batsman is up and two 
 are out and the base-runner is on third. (3) When 
 the bases are full and a bunter comes to the bat. 
 Stealing third is not so often attempted. It is mostly 
 on second and home, for a hit counts for as much at 
 second as at third. 
 
 In order to become good base-runners, the follow- 
 ing should be practised constantly: getting a quick 
 start from the plate ; getting down to first with the 
 utmost diligence; cutting the bags from the inside 
 when running for more than one base ; getting under 
 w r ay quickly; avoiding changing the mind when 
 starting to run ; avoiding crowding the runner ahead 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 223 
 
 off her base ; getting away from first as soon as pos- 
 sible, for that is the only place for the batsman if she 
 makes a hit ; and dodging flies, for if they hit the 
 base-runner she is out. 
 
 Basemen. — With the exception of first, the busi- 
 ness of the baseman is to catch the ball and tag the 
 base-runner with it, either between bases or on the 
 base. Each baseman is responsible for putting base- 
 runners out at the base she is holding down. The 
 mistakes most commonly made are: Basemen think 
 base-runners are out: if they throw the ball at them 
 and hit them before they reach the base ; if they hold 
 the ball in one hand and touch them with the other 
 or their feet ; if they catch the ball and touch base 
 before the runner gets there, and then throw the ball 
 again, before the runner arrives. This last holds 
 good only at first. 
 
 Basemen must be good catchers, able to pick up 
 grounders and to use the underhand throw so much 
 despised in basketball. A good practice for second 
 and third basemen is to throw left-handed balls. It 
 is quicker and decreases the likelihood of colliding 
 with or hitting base-runners. Remember to tag 
 every runner and field every ball that comes near, 
 and not hug the base as though it might get away. 
 When fielding a ball, allow time to return to the base 
 before it can be reached by the base-runner. Some 
 basemen have to be urged to get balls in their terri- 
 tory. On one occasion the first baseman missed a 
 high, hard ball from third. She jumped up and down 
 on the bag squealing for help until all her team began 
 
224 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 yelling that it was her business. The three base- 
 runners in the meantime started for home. Then she 
 started on a dead run, picked it up and instead of 
 throwing it ran with all her might toward home, 
 hugging the ball and calling to the runners, " Wait 
 a minute, wait a minute." This tendency to carry the 
 ball instead of throwing it is a hard one to over- 
 come. 
 
 The fact that a baseman has not only the ball 
 to watch but the pitcher or catcher and base-runner 
 as well, develops in her a high degree of co-operation. 
 Double plays are unusual and triple plays rarely 
 occur. The head-work and quickness required for 
 these come with long practice, and girls have not 
 played games enough to reach this high degree of 
 team work. It is, however, worth striving for in 
 team practice. 
 
 To be able to play the various bases well requires 
 much versatility, for the same tactics are not em- 
 ployed at all bases. At first, the main thing is to get 
 the ball and touch the base. At second and third 
 a baseman may have to play fielder if a ball comes 
 her way while the pitcher or shortstop takes her 
 place. When the bases are full she has to put out 
 the runner w T ho is on her way to the base she is guard- 
 ing, and to put out another who may be on her way to 
 the next. At third, there are a few things worth re- 
 membering constantly. Never block a runner unless 
 you have the ball. Avoid mix-ups. When a runner 
 gets on third the excitement is intense, as a score is 
 likely and too many people try to get the ball. This 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 225 
 
 is especially true of flies. With bases clear the third 
 baseman may field wherever she thinks the ball may 
 be hit. When the bases are empty a good position 
 while waiting for a ball is inside between second and 
 third bases. In fielding grounders, keep knees to- 
 gether and body low, so as to block the ball if the 
 hands miss it. The third baseman should make a 
 special effort to catch foul hits in her direction. 
 
 Shortstop. — Shortstops play inside the diamond 
 and give attention to foul hits, bunts, short flies or 
 " pop*ups " and grounders. Practice should empha- 
 size : Learning quickly to catch " pop-ups," to field 
 grounders and to make quick underhand throws to 
 basemen. Shortstops may have to play basemen if 
 the basemen turn fielder ; and so need to know the tac- 
 tics of this position. Close team work is required 
 among the shortstops, catcher, pitcher and base- 
 man. 
 
 Outfielders. — They need to be able to catch flies 
 and to practise hanging on to the ball. When they 
 miss it they need to get under way rapidly so as to 
 return it with the least delay. Learn to run up on 
 the grounders and to pick up and throw balls quickly. 
 Fielders need good eyes to be able to judge distances. 
 They are required to make the longest throws and 
 need good strong arms. 
 
 Never take the eyes off the ball from the time the 
 batter is ready to hit. It is not enough to see it when 
 it comes your way. 
 
 An outfielder must back up the bases. Whenever 
 there is a throw to bases try to get in line to stop it 
 
226 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 if the baseman misses. If the hit is over the head too 
 high to catch, turn instantly and run back so as to be 
 on the spot where the ball drops. 
 
 Stand squarely facing the batter so a run can be 
 made in any direction. Never give up trying to get 
 a ball and do not forget to jump for balls over the 
 head. 
 
 When catching, keep the thumbs out of the way. 
 A low ball, which is anything below the waist-line, 
 should be caught with the thumb line toward the ball. 
 
 The following suggestions from Spalding rules 
 are applicable to the indoor game for girls : 
 
 " Always keep in front of the ball ; always go in to 
 meet the ball; when running to the right pick up the 
 ball with the left hand; unless there is plenty of time, 
 always throw on the run; return a throw to the catcher 
 underhanded, to stop a double steal; never throw the 
 ball unless your chance of catching the runner is good; 
 have the catcher or others who throw to you aim to 
 reach you about shoulder high — you are then in a better 
 position to return a throw; where time is scarce, scoop 
 the ball to the player covering the bag with the same 
 motion that you field it." 
 
 Coaching is not used to any degree in indoor ball, 
 as the small area of the diamond makes it little needed. 
 The coacher is usually a player who goes to first or 
 third base, watches the plays and position of ball, 
 and encourages or advises the base-runner when to 
 steal a base and when to run. It is helpful at third 
 base, for the runner cannot very well turn around to 
 see what is going on in the field. 
 
 If the main part of the game — as pitching — is 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 227 
 
 played by the instructor while the girls are green 
 players, good results are obtained in understanding 
 the game and in speed. 
 
 Baseball Rules. — Because of its high organiza- 
 tion and complicated and badly arranged rules, base- 
 ball must be taught in a very elementary way by per- 
 sons who understand and love the game sufficiently to 
 be patient with the slowness and many faults and 
 misplays of new players. It is not a game the rudi- 
 ments of which can be taught in a half-dozen lessons, 
 as is basketball. 
 
 In basketball a girl can play, if she learns the 
 tactics of but one position, and the maximum is three. 
 In baseball, she cannot play until she has learned the 
 tactics of at least three — batsman, base-runner and 
 a field position, and she may try seven positions, all 
 requiring variation — pitcher, catcher, baseman, 
 shortstop, fielder, batsman and base-runner. Not 
 only this, but she is compelled to change positions 
 rapidly, resulting sometimes in ludicrous confusion. 
 On one occasion a hit was made, letting in three base- 
 runners. After the excitement was over it was found 
 that the third baseman was standing among the vic- 
 torious group of base-runners on the other side. 
 " What are you doing with the opposing team, help- 
 ing them score? " asked a fellow baseman. 
 
 Helping them score ! " said the bewildered girl. 
 
 Why, I saw everybody running and I thought I 
 ought to run, too, so I came along with Miss J ." 
 
 On another occasion after changing sides, one 
 team was found to be a player short. One of the 
 
 
228 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 basemen volunteered to go and look her up, think- 
 ing she might have been hurt. She was found dress- 
 ing and saying unkind things about baseball. " Are 
 you going to stop playing? " asked the baseman. 
 " We are short a player without you." " Stop play- 
 ing ! " retorted the girl. " Didn't the umpire put me 
 out? Baseball is the worst game I've ever tried to 
 play. Can't play ten minutes without being put out 
 of the game ! " 
 
 There are so many things to learn in the early 
 stages of the game that dire confusion often prevails. 
 We have seen seven players all on second base — the 
 baseman who belonged there and the two shortstops, 
 the pitcher and one fielder — all trying to shut out the 
 base-runner coming from first and another base- 
 runner who had started to third, but changed her 
 mind and was coming back. The tendency is for all 
 players to gravitate in the direction of the ball. 
 
 The following definitions and classification may 
 serve as a ready guide for instructors, and if given 
 to the players in this way are readily learned and 
 remembered. 
 
 Definition of Terms. — Number of players is 
 usually nine, as follows : pitcher and catcher, consti- 
 tuting the battery ; two shortstops ; three basemen — 
 first, second and third ; and two fielders — right and 
 left. By tossing up a bat or a cent the sides choose 
 whether they will go to bat or play in the field. 
 
 Going to bat means that all the members of one 
 side take their turn in regular order one after the 
 other at batting, while all the members of the other 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 229 
 
 side play in the field, on bases and pitch and catch. 
 The team in the field tries to put out the team at 
 bat. 
 
 Innings. — Baseball is scored by innings. There 
 are two halves in each inning — one for each team. A 
 half lasts until three members of one team are put 
 out ; an inning lasts until three members of both 
 teams are put out. There are nine innings in a game 
 unless it is a tie, or otherwise changed by agreement 
 of both teams. 
 
 Runs. — Baseball is scored by runs. A run is when 
 a batsman succeeds in going around all three bases 
 and home and is not put out before the third out is 
 called. 
 
 Overrunning base. — Overrunning a base is when a 
 base-runner goes beyond the bag and no part of her 
 body touches it. 
 
 Foul line. — The foul line is back of the base line 
 from home to first and from home to third — all the 
 space on the other side is the field. 
 
 A fair ball is one which is over any portion of the 
 home plate between the knee and shoulder of the bats- 
 man. Such a ball is called a " strike," whether hit 
 by the batsman or not. 
 
 A " ball " is called by the umpire when a pitched 
 ball does not go over any part of the plate or is below 
 the knee or higher than the shoulder, and is not 
 struck at by the batsman. When the batsman bats 
 at such a ball, no matter how badly thrown, it counts 
 as a strike. When four balls have been thrown be- 
 fore three strikes are called, the batsman is given a 
 
230 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 base, that is, allowed to go to first without being put 
 out. 
 
 A strike is (1) when any ball is batted at; (2) 
 when it is a fair ball and not batted at; (3) a foul 
 tip caught; and (4) a good ball interfered with by 
 the batsman. 
 
 A foul tip occurs when a ball is hit and the bat 
 knocks it back of the foul line, no higher than the 
 batsman's head. Such a ball, if caught, counts as a 
 " strike." 
 
 A foul ball is one striking back of the foul line, 
 higher than the head and not caught. Where a 
 ball hits first and not where it rolls is the test of a 
 foul. 
 
 A foul strike occurs when a ball is hit, and any 
 part of the person of the batsman is outside her box. 
 
 A fair hit is one which goes into the field. 
 
 A bunt is a ball struck soft, so as to fall near the 
 home plate. 
 
 A fly is a ball batted high enough in the air to be 
 caught before touching the ground. A grounder is 
 one which skims along close to the ground. 
 
 An illegal ball is one pitched when any part of the 
 pitcher's body is out of her box ; or when she fails to 
 heel the line; or when she takes more than one step 
 forward. Any one of these mistakes entitles the bats- 
 man or base-runner to a base. 
 
 A balk occurs when the pitcher makes a motion to 
 deliver the ball and does not do it ; or holds the ball 
 too long and delays the game. 
 
 A dead ball is caused by a pitched ball hitting the 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 231 
 
 batsman, but does not entitle the batsman to a base. 
 If it is the third strike, the batsman is out. 
 
 A one-base hit is one which enables the batsman to 
 get to first ; two-base hit, or " two bagger," one which 
 enables her to get second ; and three-base hit, to third 
 without stopping. A home run is made when the run- 
 ner goes all the way round without stopping. An 
 umpire calls " out " when the batsman is to retire ; 
 and " safe " if she has reached the base before the 
 ball or has not been tagged, or slides with the bag 
 and clings to it. 
 
 A double out occurs when the ball reaches first base 
 before the batsman and then is thrown to second base 
 before the base-runner from first gets there. In this 
 way two are put out. This may occur on any 
 base. 
 
 A forced run is where a base-runner holds a base 
 and is forced on to the next base to make room for 
 another base-runner or batsman. 
 
 A sacrifice hit occurs when the batsman hits the 
 ball so that she will be put out, thus enabling a base- 
 runner who is on third or second to score. While she 
 is being put out at first, it may be quite easy for a 
 runner to get home. 
 
 The ball is not in play, L e., no one can run or 
 score, (1) when there is a foul strike; (2) when there 
 is a foul hit ball not legally caught; (3) when there 
 is a dead ball; and (4) when the base-runner is put 
 out by being hit by the ball. In these cases the ball 
 is in play again only when it is held by the pitcher in 
 the box. 
 
232 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Rules for Batsmen. — The batsman is out : ( 1 ) If 
 a third strike is caught by the catcher. (2) If there 
 is a base-runner on first, the batsman is out on a third 
 strike whether it is caught or not; except when two 
 are already out. (3) If the ball is not caught by the 
 catcher, but is thrown to first base and is held by the 
 first baseman while some part of her body touches the 
 base — before the batsman gets there. (4) If, as a 
 base-runner, she is touched with the ball in the hands 
 of a fielder before she reaches a base. (5) If she 
 bats out of her turn and makes a fair hit before it is 
 discovered. The order of batting is made up before 
 the game begins, and must then be adhered to. (6) 
 If she fails to take her position within one minute 
 when it is her turn to bat. (7) If a foul hit or a 
 fair hit is caught. (8) If she makes a foul strike, 
 i. e. 9 bats while any part of her body is outside the 
 batsman's box. (9) If she interferes with the 
 catcher or intentionally fouls the ball. (10) If 
 she intentionally gets in the way of a pitched 
 ball. (11) If she is hit by the ball on the third 
 strike, i. e. 9 intentionally fouls the ball and it hits 
 her. 
 
 Rules for Base-Runners. — A base-runner can 
 leave her base only when the ball has left the pitcher's 
 hand and reached or missed the catcher. If she leaves 
 at any other time she may be put out or called back. 
 A base-runner who, at any time after she overruns 
 first, is off base, may be put out if she is touched with 
 the ball in the hands of a player. Only one base may 
 be taken when a ball passes the batsman or is fum- 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 233 
 
 bled, except when it is the third strike or four balls, 
 then she takes all she can get. 
 
 A base-runner may take one base under the fol- 
 lowing conditions : ( 1 ) Immediately when the umpire 
 calls four balls she goes to first. (2) If the pitcher 
 does not give her time to return. (3) When a fair 
 hit ball strikes the umpire. (4) If she is stopped or 
 obstructed by an adversary. 
 
 When a fair or foul ball is caught the base- 
 runner can only advance from the base after the ball 
 is caught. If she starts before she must go back and 
 touch base, or if touched with the ball before return- 
 ing to the base, she is out. On a fair hit ball a base- 
 runner runs all the bases she can get. A base-runner 
 must be on base when the pitcher is ready to deliver 
 the ball. 
 
 The base-runner must return to her base under the 
 following conditions : ( 1 ) When there is a foul hit not 
 legally caught. (When it is caught it is a strike and 
 the base-runner can advance.) (2) When there is a 
 foul strike. (3) When a dead ball is called. (4) 
 When the umpire is struck by a ball thrown to the 
 baseman. (5) When she leaves her base too soon. 
 
 The base-runner may be put out under the fol- 
 lowing conditions: (1) If a foul hit or fair hit is 
 caught. (2) If third strike is caught. (3) If she 
 interferes with ball, as kicking it. (4) If after three 
 strikes or fair hits she is touched with the ball in 
 hands of a player, or the ball reaches the first base 
 before she does. (5) If she runs more than three feet 
 either side of the base line. (6) If she fails to avoid 
 
234 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 a fielder trying to field a batted ball, or obstructs a 
 fielder. (7) If at any time, except when she over- 
 runs first, she is touched with the ball in the hands 
 of a fielder when no part of her body touches the base, 
 except when she goes back on a foul, or is ordered 
 back by the umpire or given a base. If a base- 
 runner overruns first and goes on to second, then she 
 is not entitled to exemption for overrunning. (8) 
 When a foul hit or fair hit is caught, not only is the 
 batsman out, but the base-runner also if the ball 
 reaches the baseman before she returns to the base 
 and touches it after the ball was caught. (9) When 
 a hit ball strikes a base-runner, who is running be- 
 tween the bases. (10) If she fails to touch bases as 
 she runs and the ball is returned first to the base that 
 she did not touch. 
 
 A baseman on first need not touch the batsman 
 running to first; on a double play where a fair hit 
 or foul hit is caught, the ball need only be held 
 by the baseman. At all other times she must be 
 tagged. 
 
 Illustrative Hypothetical Questions. — The only 
 way to make baseball popular and interesting for 
 girls is to have them thoroughly understand it. A 
 series of hypothetical questions helps them in this. 
 The following are some illustrations: 
 
 If there is a base-runner on first and on second and 
 a grounder is hit to third, what will the third baseman 
 do with the ball? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on second and the short- 
 stop gets the ball, where will she throw it? 
 
INDOOR BASEBALL 235 
 
 If there are base-runners on first and on second 
 and the right fielder catches a fly, where will she 
 throw it? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on third and the ball is 
 hit to second baseman, what does she do with it? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on third and the ball is 
 bunted, and the catcher gets it, what will she do with 
 it? 
 
 If all the bases are full and the ball is batted to the 
 pitcher, what does she do with it? 
 
 If a hit grounder misses the pitcher and goes three 
 feet one side of second base, what should the second 
 baseman and pitcher do ? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on third and the umpire 
 calls four balls, where should the catcher throw the 
 ball? 
 
 If all the bases are full and the umpire calls three 
 strikes and the ball is caught, where should the 
 catcher throw it? 
 
 If a pitched ball is missed by the catcher and she 
 runs for it, what does the shortstop do? 
 
 When a base-runner has started from second and 
 the ball gets to third before she does, who plays and 
 where ? 
 
 If there are base-runners on first and on second and 
 the third strike is caught, where is the ball to be 
 thrown ? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on first and a hot 
 grounder comes to the second baseman, where will she 
 throw it? 
 
 If there is one out and base-runners on first and 
 
236 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 third and the third strike goes over the catcher's 
 head, to whom is the ball thrown? 
 
 If there is a base-runner on each base and a 
 grounder goes to the third baseman, what does she 
 do with it? If it is a fly caught by her, what does 
 she do? 
 
 When no base-runner is on bases and a hard single 
 grounder goes out to the left field, where should the 
 ball be returned? 
 
 When there is a base-runner on third and a single 
 goes to the right fielder uncaught, where should it be 
 returned ? 
 
 When there is a base-runner on first and a 
 grounder gets to first before the batsman, what 
 should the baseman do with the ball? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 FIELD HOCKEY 
 VALUE OF THE GAME 
 
 Field hockey was first introduced into this coun- 
 try by Miss Constance Appleby in 1901. The game 
 is of English origin, and played to a large extent by 
 women's clubs in England and Ireland, where the 
 bright greens and reds of the club costumes add much 
 to the picturesqueness of the game. Ordinary street 
 clothes, however, with a skirt at least six inches from 
 the ground, are suitable, and make hockey espe- 
 cially adaptable to schools where only an unenclosed 
 field is available, and where outdoor work is desired 
 till late in the fall, or in the early spring. 
 
 The game can be played on any large, fairly level 
 lot. The more evenly graded the turf, of course, the 
 more accurate passing is possible and the better 
 game results. The regulation field is fifty or sixty 
 by one hundred yards, though smaller dimensions can 
 well be used. The only paraphernalia necessary are 
 the regulation ball and a hockey stick for each player. 
 A great deal depends on the kind of stick used. If 
 it is too light, a hard stroke will jar the hands and 
 may, with repetition, cause injury. A good average 
 weight is 22 ounces. The weight depends somewhat 
 
 237 
 
238 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 on positions, forwards generally using lighter sticks, 
 halfbacks the medium weight and fullbacks the heav- 
 iest sticks. 
 
 Hockey has an especial advantage because of the 
 chance it gives to so many different types of girls to 
 play, the forward, halfback, fullback and goal posi- 
 tions each calling for special qualifications. With 
 eleven players on a side, the offense and defense so 
 finely differentiated, the need of team work as an abso- 
 lute necessity to scoring, the many chances of clever 
 strokes and of outwitting opponents — with all of 
 these — the educational possibilities are manifold. 
 Speed, accuracy, good judgment, fearlessness, deter- 
 mination, discrimination, precision, all must be devel- 
 oped to make good hockey players. 
 
 It is surprising that hockey is so little played 
 among girls in this country. In a short while even 
 comparatively poor players become very fond of the 
 game. Wholly apart from the instructor, the game 
 itself seems to awaken a spirit of play and fun which 
 brings a glow and healthy excitement to even the most 
 sluggish natures. A squad of girls from the class- 
 room who, before practice, have been lifeless and dull, 
 never fail to return full of spirit, every one chatter- 
 ing as hard as she can. 
 
 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 From the point of view of the instructor, hockey is 
 a difficult game to teach for two reasons — the size of 
 the field and number of players. There are eleven 
 players on a side, five forwards, three halfbacks, two 
 
FIELD HOCKEY 239 
 
 fullbacks and a goal. To watch each one of these 
 twenty-two players on such a large playing space, 
 with the ball traveling so quickly back and forth, is 
 almost a physical impossibility. Before the in- 
 structor can reach a girl who has made a bad play, 
 the ball may be down at the other end, and the in- 
 structor have missed two or three plays. Individual 
 coaching must be done while the game is in progress. 
 Girls who are at fault must be corrected while the ball 
 is in other territory. The usual plan of stopping the 
 practice for criticism is not generally desirable, for 
 that would mean constant interruption and loss of 
 the spirit of the game. There are, of course, rules 
 for forwards and backs as a whole which must be 
 taught in this manner, but all fine points of coaching 
 must be individual while the ball is in play. 
 
 Rules. — In contrast to basketball and baseball, the 
 rules are simple, and by the following classification 
 easy to learn : 
 
 Fouls. — 1. Rough play. 2. Carrying ball. 3. 
 Kicking ball (except goal). 4. Using back of stick. 
 5. Sticks. 6. Crosschecking. 7. Off side. 
 
 Penalties. — I. For fouls: 1. Committed outside 
 striking circle. 2. Committed within striking circle: 
 a, by attacking; b, by defending. II. For sending 
 ball out of field of play: 1. Over side lines. 2. Over 
 goal lines, a, by attacking; &, by defending; «r, 
 intentional; ?/, unintentional. 
 
 Preliminary Work with the Green Squad. — The 
 preliminary work of teaching girls to hold the stick 
 correctly, to hit accurately, stop the ball by foot or 
 
240 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 stick, execute the dribble, to stop and hit immedi- 
 ately, use the back-handed and never the left-handed 
 play, to execute well the short hit to right and run 
 around left of an opponent, to hook sticks, is slow 
 and uninteresting with a large squad of girls where 
 many are unoccupied much of the time. It is well in 
 such a case to warm the girls up by putting them 
 into a game right away, and giving the necessary 
 practice in passing " between halves." 
 
 One way of giving practice in passing, and also 
 of developing team play, is to line up only one side, 
 as at the beginning of a game, start the ball at the 
 goal and tell the girls to advance it as rapidly and 
 accurately as possible towards and through the oppo- 
 site goal. This sort of practice develops quicker re- 
 action than the ordinary class practice in double line 
 passing. 
 
 Another manner of teaching accurate hitting is to 
 divide a large class in half, each half forming a circle, 
 the girls to stand from fifteen to twenty-five feet 
 apart ; start one ball in each circle, and have it passed 
 as quickly as possible from one girl to another, the 
 circle first finishing one or more rounds being the win- 
 ner. This element of competition adds interest to 
 otherwise rather tiresome but very necessary work. 
 
 Before the green squad is put on the field to play, 
 two things are necessary. The girls must be shown 
 how to hold the stick and make the wrist stroke, and 
 must have a short talk on the principal rules. It is 
 just as well not to have two full teams at first. Five 
 forwards, three halfbacks and a flying goal can be 
 
FIELD HOCKEY 241 
 
 played, or three forwards, two halves, a fullback and 
 a goal. When the rules are violated, immediately 
 stop play, explain and penalize the offender. 
 " Sticks " and using the back of the stick should sel- 
 dom occur after the first three or four practices. 
 
 In these beginning hockey periods, all girls will be 
 so anxious to play the ball that what will seem hope- 
 less confusion will at first result. Four or five or 
 even six girls will be on the ball at the same time. 
 Girls will make hits to right or left and follow up 
 the ball, or repeatedly straight ahead into the hands 
 of opponents ; will stand stock-still after playing the 
 ball ; right wings will play on the left side of the field ; 
 center halves outside of right or left halves. Slowly 
 the principles of correlating offense and defense and 
 of playing their own positions must be taught. 
 
 Offense and Defense. — The offensive work is done 
 largely by the forward line and to some extent by the 
 halfbacks. It is the forwards who score points by 
 sending the ball between their opponents' goal-posts. 
 The defense is taken care of by the halves, fullbacks 
 and goal. The halves must attack the opposing for- 
 ward line, recover the ball and feed it to their own 
 forwards. If the halves allow the ball to get past 
 them, it is the fullbacks who must keep the ball 
 out of the striking circle and must return it quickly 
 to their halves. The goal-keeper is sole guardian of 
 the twelve feet of goal line between the posts. Hers 
 must be the foresight, agility, determination and 
 courage which prevent the actual scoring of a point. 
 Between the twenty-five-yard lines defensive work 
 
242 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 falls somewhat to the hands of the forwards. At the 
 twenty-five-yard line, however, defending forwards 
 stop. Beyond that, it is entirely up to the backs to 
 break up the team work of the attacking forwards, 
 to regain the ball and send it to their waiting forward 
 line on the twenty-five-yard mark. The tendency is 
 for beginners in the forward line to do too much de- 
 fensive work, to play on top of their halfback line in- 
 stead of ahead of it. It is expedient to give general 
 rules to green players which, later on, even with in- 
 creased efficiency, are occasionally broken. In de- 
 fense, require players to stay back of the ball, namely 
 between the ball and the goal they are defending, 
 whether the ball is in their territory or not, at the 
 same time watching closely the particular girl op- 
 posed to them, to prevent her receiving a pass. In 
 offense, require forwards to play on a line with each 
 other or only slightly ahead of the girl with the ball 
 (cautioning against off side), halves between full- 
 backs and forwards, fullbacks between halves and 
 goal. It is remarkable how often these very obvious 
 and simple rules must be repeated. 
 
 Forwards. — Because the forwards do all of the 
 aggressive playing and cover practically the whole 
 field, they must have above all things sound lungs and 
 great endurance. Speed, alertness, agility, quick re- 
 action are essentials. These qualities must find their 
 highest development in the center forward, about 
 whom the whole line swings, who is the pivot for team 
 work and the very life of the attack. She should be 
 a sure, accurate hitter, able to make passes to left 
 
FIELD HOCKEY 243 
 
 or right with equal ease, and to receive from either 
 direction. She must not be too fond of the ball, at- 
 tempting to carry it down the field alone, but must 
 know just when to pass it and in what direction most 
 advantageously. " The inside forwards act as pivots 
 between center and wings. They also want to be 
 accurate hitters and should be able to pass the ball 
 as easily to one side as to the other, ever on the alert 
 for chances, watching the half and fullback lines for 
 passes, and prompt to pass the ball on to the wings or 
 center." 
 
 Wing Position. — This, like the guard in basket- 
 ball, is probably the least appreciated, for the tend- 
 ency is to pass toward the center of the field. The 
 wise player, however, uses her wing to good advan- 
 tage, as that position is the most open and unpro- 
 tected on the field. The wing of all forward posi- 
 tions, because of the great distance to travel, needs 
 girls with a high amount of endurance. The left 
 wing is especially hard to play, because of the skill 
 needed for receiving passes from the right and re- 
 turning in the same direction. 
 
 Halfbacks. — These do not need quite such endur- 
 ance or speed as the forwards. Nevertheless, they 
 must have good lungs. They must be heavier girls, 
 for they must be, above all, hard, accurate hitters. 
 They must never fail in energy or resource, for theirs 
 is the duty of first defense, of attacking the onrush- 
 ing opponents in the forward line. If these succeed 
 in passing them, they must be quick to turn and 
 resume defense once more with tireless insistence. 
 
244 METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 Center Halfback. — This player is probably the 
 busiest girl on the team. She must watch the oppos- 
 ing center forward and halfback, back up her own 
 center and know always the best forward to send the 
 ball to. She must be cool and very sure and have 
 absolute grasp of the new situations as they develop. 
 
 Right and Left Halfbacks. — These must watch the 
 opposing inside forwards and wings, must be quick to 
 receive passes from their fullbacks, and take them 
 away from opposing forwards. They must be able 
 to send long, hard balls, for at times diagonal passes 
 across the field are necessary. 
 
 The most reliable girls at stopping the ball and 
 hitting should be the fullbacks. A firm, quick, hard, 
 sure stroke from the fullback exactly to the right girl 
 often prevents a score and saves the day. Here speed 
 is not an essential. A girl of slow temperament, upon 
 whom her team-mates can always depend, is the de- 
 sirable fullback. Her stability gives a sense of se- 
 curity to the whole team. When she rescues a ball 
 from the striking circle and passes it accurately on to 
 her waiting halves or forwards, new spirit enters the 
 attack, and half the game is won. The fullback, 
 though slow of temperament, must be an adept at 
 stopping the ball with the foot and instantly shooting 
 it away from the danger line. She must be quick of 
 eye and indefatigable in defense of the goal line. 
 
 Goal-tender. — The goal-tender must be a girl of 
 absolute fearlessness and instant reaction. Her 
 chances do not come often, but when they do, they 
 bring the most critical tests of nerve, eye, body and 
 
FIELD HOCKEY 245 
 
 brain on the field. No timid, shrinking girl will do 
 for a goal-tender, unless she is put there to overcome 
 these qualities. 
 
 Team Work. — The final great task in hockey is to 
 develop team work, without which the game seems 
 crude, aimless and uninteresting to spectators and 
 players alike. It is only after constant repetition of 
 " stick to your own position," " follow your position, 
 not the ball," that bunching is done away with and 
 girls are taught the meaning of team work. Stop 
 the game in order to make a right wing who may be 
 left of her center play her own side of the field ; or to 
 call back a center-half who may be rushing toward 
 the side lines after the ball. There is nothing more 
 exasperating than not having a girl in her proper rel- 
 ative position when some one wants to pass her the 
 ball. In learning to play her own position, she will 
 learn her neighbor's and not to interfere with it. 
 When finally each girl realizes that she is one of 
 eleven players, each one of whom has a special part 
 to play, all of whom have one end in view, and with- 
 out any of whom that end cannot be accomplished, a 
 really beautiful game results which is a pleasure to 
 all spectators and players alike. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 PRINTED FORM OF INQUIRY USED FOR 
 SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 1. Name of School or College. 
 
 2. How much physical work is required? 
 
 S. How many instructors in Athletics? Men or 
 Women ? 
 
 4. Give name of each sport played. 
 
 For what length of time during the year is each 
 
 jDlayed ? 
 Name exact title of the rules used for each game 
 
 and state reasons for preference. 
 
 5. What are the requirements for playing each sport? 
 
 6. What preliminary measurements or examinations 
 
 are invariably made? 
 
 7. State average age or range of ages of girls playing 
 
 under your supervision. 
 What regulations exist in regard to dress ? 
 Times when a girl should play, especially the 
 
 menstrual period? 
 Baths? 
 Length of practice period? 
 
 8. What percentage is athletic work and what gym- 
 
 nastic of the required work? 
 Of elective work? 
 
 9. May a girl play games without taking gymnastic 
 
 work? 
 
 247 
 
248 APPENDIX I 
 
 10. In how many sports can she play in a quarter or 
 
 term ? 
 
 11. What is the maximum amount of practice allowed? 
 
 12. Is it necessary to stimulate interest in athletics? 
 
 13. Give all the various means, contests, prizes, or- 
 
 ganizations, etc., by which interest is stimu- 
 lated. 
 How are prizes supplied? 
 
 14. What is your system of coaching, student, pro- 
 fessional? 
 
 15. Give in detail the arrangement of your work. 
 
 16. Do you have a field? 
 
 17. What is the object of coaches, to develop teams or 
 
 individuals ? 
 
 18. What has been the previous training of your coach 
 
 or instructor? 
 
 19. What do you consider to be the qualifications of a 
 
 coach ? 
 
 20. Do you select teams and play match games? 
 
 21. Do you play outside teams? 
 
 22. Do you play for prizes? 
 
 23. If you play only in your own school or college, who 
 
 are the opposing teams? 
 
 24. Who arranges for these contests and under what 
 
 organization ? 
 
 25. State the average number of contests per season for 
 
 each sport. 
 
 26. Are all players permitted to take part in contests 
 
 or only first and second teams? 
 
 27. Are the officials men or women? 
 
 28. Are the contests public? 
 
 29. On what conditions are men permitted to attend? 
 
 30. Is admission by purchase of ticket or invitation? 
 
APPENDIX I 249 
 
 31. When teams travel about the city or from city to 
 
 city, under what supervision are they? 
 
 32. Is eligibility to play in contest based on standing 
 
 in academic work? 
 
 33. Have you any kind of athletic organization or 
 
 association ? 
 
 34. If so, please enclose constitution, regulation, and 
 
 other details. 
 
 35. What is their object? 
 
 36. How are they maintained? 
 
 37. In what way do they influence school or college life 
 
 as a whole? 
 
 38. In what way is the social side of athletics em- 
 
 phasized ? 
 
 39. Suggestions and experiences. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 SOME ILLUSTRATIVE CONSTITUTIONS OF 
 COLLEGE AND HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC 
 ASSOCIATIONS 
 
 1. The name of this Association shall be "The 
 Athletic Association of College." 
 
 2. All members of the Undergraduate Association 
 shall be members of this Association. 
 
 3. The officers of the Association shall be President, 
 Vice President with the duties of Treasurer, and Secre- 
 tary. The duties of the President shall be to call and 
 preside at meetings. The duties of the Vice President 
 shall be to assume the duties of the President whenever 
 necessary, and to act as Treasurer. The duties of the 
 Secretary shall be to keep the minutes of the Association 
 and a list of the members, to post notices of the meetings 
 and to attend to the correspondence of the Association. 
 
 4. There shall be two managers, one for indoor, and 
 one for outdoor athletics, who together with the officers 
 of the Association shall constitute an Executive Board 
 of which the President shall be chairman. 
 
 5. The constitution and a report of the proceedings 
 of the previous year shall annually be read by the Secre- 
 tary of the Association at a meeting held within the first 
 week of the first semester. 
 
 6. A meeting may be called at any time by the Presi- 
 
 250 
 
APPENDIX II 251 
 
 dent on her own motion and must be called on the 
 application of five members. When the President is 
 unable to call a meeting on application it shall be called 
 by the Vice President or some member of the Executive 
 Board. It shall be the duty of the Secretary, twenty- 
 four hours previous to any meeting of the Association, 
 to post on the bulletin board in each hall a notice stating 
 the time of said meeting and the subject to be discussed. 
 
 7. The Executive Board shall be annually elected by 
 ballot during the first week of May, and shall enter upon 
 their duties immediately. 
 
 8. To defray the expenses of the Association every 
 member shall pay an annual due to be fixed by the 
 Executive Board. To defray expenses of intercollegiate 
 athletics every member shall pay a due to be fixed by 
 the Executive Board subject to the approval of the As- 
 sociation. If any member find herself unable to pay 
 the whole or part of the assessment she shall make 
 known her case to the Treasurer and, if she fail to do 
 so, shall be held responsible for the whole. 
 
 9. One-fourth of the members of this Association shall 
 constitute a quorum. 
 
 10. To amend this constitution a majority of three- 
 fourths of the members of the Association shall be 
 required. 
 
 II 
 
 ARTICLE I NAME 
 
 This club shall be known as the Athletic 
 
 Association. 
 
 ARTICLE II OBJECT 
 
 The object of this Association shall be to promote an 
 interest in gymnastics and athletic sports among the 
 
252 APPENDIX II 
 
 students of College, and to hasten the preparation 
 
 of a playground. 
 
 ARTICLE III MEMBERSHIP 
 
 § 1. Only students of College who are regu- 
 lar attendants of the gymnasium, shall be eligible for 
 membership. 
 
 § 2. Members shall register and pay dues before 
 November first; no new members shall be admitted into 
 the Association after the second week preceding the 
 second meet. 
 
 ARTICLE IV DUES 
 
 The annual dues shall be fifty cents. This does not 
 include the additional fees for outdoor sports. 
 
 ARTICLE V OFFICERS 
 
 § 1. The officers shall be President, Vice President, 
 Secretary, and Treasurer. 
 
 § 2. Duties of Officers. 
 
 1. The President shall call all meetings of the Asso- 
 ciation and preside at the same. 
 
 2. In the absence of the President, the Vice President 
 shall fulfil the duties of that officer. 
 
 3. The Secretary shall take charge of all the cor- 
 respondence of the Association, keep the records of 
 meetings, give due notice of same, and prepare a report 
 to be read at the annual meeting. 
 
 4. The Treasurer shall be in charge of the finances 
 of the Association, and shall prepare a report to be read 
 at the annual meeting. 
 
 § 3. Election. The officers shall be elected by 
 double ballot at the annual meeting for the term of one 
 year. A majority of the members present shall be suf- 
 
APPENDIX II 253 
 
 ficient for election, but for re-election a vote of two- 
 thirds shall be necessary. The quorum shall be fifteen 
 to carry on this business. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 § 1. The Executive Committee shall consist of the 
 officers of the Association, the Physical Director, and a 
 representative from each of the three lower classes. 
 
 § 2. Duties. 1. The Executive Committee shall be 
 in charge of the four regular meetings of the Associa- 
 tion, and shall be empowered to determine and meet the 
 incidental expenses of the Association and to appoint all 
 other committees. 
 
 2. Meetings of the Executive Committee shall be 
 called at the discretion of the President, who shall act 
 as Chairman. 
 
 ARTICLE VII MEETINGS 
 
 § 1. There shall be four regular meetings. 
 
 1. The first gymnasium meet to be held the second 
 Saturday in January. 
 
 2. The open meet to be held on the second Saturday 
 before the spring vacation. 
 
 All members of the Athletic Association will be 
 eligible to compete in these meets. The members of the 
 four college classes shall compete for their respective 
 classes. Specials will compete for the four college 
 classes according as they are first, second, third, or 
 fourth year students. No student who has been at col- 
 lege more than four years shall be eligible to the meets. 
 
 3. The Reception to the Freshmen to be held during 
 the last two weeks of November. 
 
 4. The Annual Business Meeting to be held during 
 the last week in May. 
 
254 APPENDIX II 
 
 § 2. All other meetings shall be called at the discre- 
 tion of the President. 
 
 § 3. A quorum consisting of eleven members shall be 
 necessary for the transaction of business with the ex- 
 ception of that of the election of the officers. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII AMENDMENTS 
 
 Amendments to this Constitution shall be passed by 
 two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 ARTICLE IX SPORTS 
 
 § 1. Basketball. 1. All candidates for class and 
 college teams and the Business Managers shall be mem- 
 bers of the Athletic Association. 
 
 2. Captains shall be chosen by the members of the 
 teams for a term of one year. 
 
 3. The College Team shall be selected by the Cap- 
 tain, the Physical Director and the Physical Instructor. 
 
 4. The expenses of the College Team shall be met by 
 the Athletic Association. 
 
 5. Regulations for competitive class games shall be 
 left in charge of the Physical Director. 
 
 § 2. Tennis. 1. A Chairman of the Tennis Section 
 shall be elected at the Annual Business Meeting of the 
 Athletic Association, who shall be in charge of the 
 Tennis interests of the Association ; and she shall be em- 
 powered to collect the annual dues of the Tennis Section, 
 and to appoint committees. 
 
 2. The outdoor courts which belong to the Association 
 may be used by members of the Athletic As- 
 sociation who have paid their Tennis Section dues, and 
 by any college girl who does not belong to the Athletic 
 Association, on payment of her tennis dues. The latter 
 
APPENDIX II 255 
 
 persons will have no voice in the management of the 
 Tennis Section. 
 
 § 3. Hockey. 1. A Chairman of the Hockey Section 
 shall be elected at the Annual Business Meeting of the 
 Athletic Association; and she shall be empowered to col- 
 lect the annual dues of the Hockey Section and appoint 
 committees. 
 
 2. The outdoor grounds which belong to the Associa- 
 tion may be used by members of the Athletic Associa- 
 tion who have paid their Hockey Section dues, and by 
 
 any student who does not belong to the Athletic 
 
 Association, on payment of her hockey dues. The 
 latter persons will have no voice in the management 
 of the Hockey Section. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ARTICLE I NAME 
 
 The name of this organization shall be the Woman's 
 Athletic Association of the University of . 
 
 ARTICLE II PURPOSE 
 
 The purpose shall be co-operation with the Woman's 
 Department of Physical Culture for the promotion of 
 the physical and social activity of university women. 
 
 ARTICLE III OFFICERS 
 
 The officers shall consist of a President, Vice Presi- 
 dent, and Secretary and Treasurer. 
 
 President 
 
 The President, and in her absence, the Vice President, 
 shall call, and preside at all meetings of the Association, 
 Executive Committee and Advisory Board, and shall per- 
 
256 APPENDIX II 
 
 form such other duties as the Association may assign 
 
 her. 
 
 Secretary-Treasurer 
 
 The Secretary-Treasurer shall conduct all correspond- 
 ence^ keep the minutes of the meetings, and all athletic 
 records, and shall have charge of all funds of the As- 
 sociation. She shall have all disbursements authorized 
 by the Executive Committee, and shall notify persons of 
 their election to membership. 
 
 Executive Committee 
 
 The Executive Committee shall consist of the Presi- 
 dent, Secretary-Treasurer and Director of the Woman's 
 Department of Physical Culture or some one appointed 
 by her. They shall have charge of all funds and prop- 
 erties of the Association, and decide such matters as the 
 Advisory Board may refer to them. 
 
 Advisory Board 
 
 The Advisory Board shall include the Executive Com- 
 mittee, and the chairmen in charge of the various sports 
 and branches of organized work. They shall supervise 
 all movements for the promotion of athletic spirit and 
 interests, including all features of public games (except 
 as provided in Rule II of the By-Laws), mass-meet- 
 ings and social functions. They shall control all mat- 
 ters not otherwise provided for. 
 
 ARTICLE IV MEETINGS 
 
 A meeting of the Association may be called at any 
 time by the President, or upon the written request of 
 any twenty-five members of the Association. 
 
 There shall be an annual meeting held the second 
 
APPENDIX II 257 
 
 Tuesday in December for purposes of election and other 
 routine business. 
 
 ARTICLE V ELECTION 
 
 § 1. All nominations for officers shall be made by a 
 nominating committee selected by the Advisory Board. 
 There shall be at least three nominations for each office. 
 
 § 2. The remainder of the Advisory Board shall be 
 elected as follows: Each branch of organized work shall 
 nominate and elect from the floor a committee of five, 
 whose duty shall be to supervise and represent the sport 
 so electing it; and to have charge of the matters desig- 
 nated to it by the body electing it. The chairmen of 
 these committees constitute, with the officers designated, 
 the Advisory Board. 
 
 § 3. All nominations shall be posted one week prior 
 to the meeting, all voting shall be by ballot, and a ma- 
 jority vote shall be required to elect. For all meetings 
 of the Association seventy-five persons shall be deemed 
 a quorum. 
 
 ARTICLE VI TERM OF OFFICE 
 
 § 1. All officers and members of the Board shall hold 
 office for the period of one year. Committees shall 
 serve for the same length of time. 
 
 § 2. All vacancies for President, Vice President and 
 Secretary-Treasurer shall be filled by the Advisory 
 Board appointing one of its own members. All other 
 vacancies shall be filled as provided in Article V, 
 Section 2. 
 
 ARTICLE VII MEMBERS 
 
 The Association shall be open to all women in the 
 University under the following: 
 
258 APPENDIX II 
 
 § 1. Active. All women registered in all organized 
 sports, track athletics and indoor competitive work, 
 conducted by the Women's Department of Physical 
 Culture. 
 
 § 2. Associate. All women registered for gymnasium 
 work, but not included in Section 1. 
 
 § 3. Honor. All women who make the University and 
 College teams, who win points and make records in 
 athletic and gymnastic contests and tournaments. 
 These members must be without university conditions. 
 
 § 4. Honorary. University faculty and alumnae. 
 
 § 5. All applications for membership, other than 
 honorary, shall be made to the Secretary, who shall refer 
 them to the Director of the Woman's Department of 
 Physical Culture, who shall decide upon eligibility and 
 membership. 
 
 Recommendations for honorary membership shall be 
 sent in writing to the Secretary and referred to the Ad- 
 visory Board, who shall pass upon and refer them to an 
 Association vote. 
 
 § 6. Active and associate members shall not have vot- 
 ing powers or right to hold office. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII FEES 
 
 There shall be no regular membership fee or tax, but 
 contributions may be solicited by a committee appointed 
 by the Advisory Board, for purposes designated by 
 them. 
 
 ARTICLE IX AMENDMENTS 
 
 This Constitution may be amended by a two-thirds 
 vote of the members required to be present at the meet- 
 ing. These amendments shall be posted in the gym- 
 nasium at least ten days prior to such a meeting. 
 
APPENDIX II 259 
 
 IV 
 HIGH SCHOOL CONSTITUTION 
 
 ARTICLE I NAME 
 
 The name of this Association shall be the 
 
 High School Girls Athletic Association. 
 
 ARTICLE II OBJECT 
 
 The object of this Association shall be to encourage 
 gymnasium work and such sports as girls may properly 
 enter into. 
 
 ARTICLE III MEMBERSHIP 
 
 All girls and lady teachers of the High 
 
 School shall be eligible to active membership. Grade 
 teachers may also be elected. 
 
 ARTICLE IV MEETINGS 
 
 § 1. The annual meeting of this Association for the 
 election of officers shall be held on the third Tuesday of 
 September. 
 
 § 2. Special meetings shall be held at the call of the 
 President or upon the written request of five members. 
 
 article v 
 
 Quorum. A quorum shall consist of three-fifths of 
 the active members. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 § 1. The officers of this Association shall be a Presi- 
 dent, Vice President, Treasurer and Secretary. 
 
 § 2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the 
 President, Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer, and 
 one member of the faculty elected from those holding a 
 preliminary certificate. 
 
260 APPENDIX II 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 § 1. Duties of the officers. The President shall 
 preside at all meetings of the Association and Executive 
 Committee. 
 
 She shall appoint all sub-committees, not otherwise 
 provided for, whenever duly requested or when in her 
 judgment she may deem it necessary. 
 
 § 2. The Vice President shall, during the absence of 
 the President, perform all the duties of the President as 
 specified in § 1. 
 
 § S. The Secretary shall keep the minutes of all the 
 meetings of the Association and Executive Committee. 
 She shall conduct all correspondence except such as may 
 be in the hands of the managers and shall be responsible 
 for all the books and papers of the Association except 
 those belonging to the Treasurer. 
 
 § 4. The Treasurer shall have charge of all money 
 belonging to the Association. She shall pay all bills on 
 order signed by the President and Secretary, and shall 
 submit a written report of her transactions at the annual 
 meeting of the Association or whenever called upon to 
 do so by one of the Executive Committee. 
 
 § 5. It shall be the duty of the managers of the 
 several teams to prepare a schedule of games. 
 
 § 6. All schedules of games and expenditures of 
 money shall be submitted to the Executive Committee for 
 ratification. They shall also have supervision of all 
 matters relating to the Association, not otherwise 
 provided for in the Constitution, and shall have 
 power to remove captains and managers by four-fifths 
 vote. 
 
 § 7. The Executive Committee shall hold at least one 
 meeting each month during the school year. 
 
APPENDIX II 261 
 
 § 8. The Executive Committee shall hold a special 
 meeting at the request of three members. 
 
 § 9. Three, one of whom shall be a teacher, shall con- 
 stitute a quorum of the Executive Committee. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII ELECTIONS 
 
 § 1. The President, Vice President, Secretary and 
 Treasurer shall be elected by ballot at the annual Sep- 
 tember meeting. 
 
 § 2. Team officers shall be elected when necessary. 
 
 § 3. The elections of captains shall be confirmed by 
 the Executive Committee. 
 
 § 4. All vacancies occurring among the officers of the 
 Association shall be filled by the Executive Committee. 
 
 ARTICLE IX FEES 
 
 § 1. The membership dues of this Association shall be 
 ten cents a month, payable monthly. 
 
 § 2. The dues for honorary members shall be the 
 same as for active members. 
 
 § 3. Any member failing to pay her dues shall cease 
 to be a member of the organization. 
 
 ARTICLE X RESIGNATIONS 
 
 All resignations shall be made in writing to the 
 Secretary of the Association and shall be acted upon 
 at the next meeting. 
 
 ARTICLE XI SUSPENSION AND EXPULSION 
 
 § 1. The Association shall have power to punish any 
 member by suspension or expulsion for any failure to 
 comply with the articles of the Constitution or By-Laws 
 
262 APPENDIX II 
 
 or for any conduct that will bring discredit on the 
 Association. 
 
 § 2. The vote for suspension or expulsion shall be by 
 ballot. A three-fourths vote of the members present at 
 a meeting shall be necessary to expel or suspend. 
 
 ARTICLE XII REINSTATEMENT 
 
 Members, after suspension, may be reinstated by a 
 three-fourths vote of the members present at a meeting. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII AMENDMENT 
 
 § 1. This Constitution may be amended by a three- 
 fourths vote of the members of the Association present 
 and voting. 
 
 § 2. Notice of such proposed amendment shall be 
 made at a previous meeting. 
 
 by-laws 
 
 1. The business meetings of this Association shall be 
 carried on according to parliamentary law. 
 
 2. Admittance to membership. Names may be pro- 
 posed to the Membership Committee, who with the 
 Executive Committee shall discuss and vote upon such 
 names, after which the name or names may be brought 
 before the Association with the recommendation of these 
 two committees. Two-thirds of membership vote shall 
 be necessary for election. 
 
 3. No member of this Association shall play or 
 practise basketball with any boy or boys from the 
 High School or town. The least penalty for this offense 
 shall be suspension from the privileges of this Associa- 
 tion. 
 
APPENDIX II 263 
 
 4. No public games shall be held to which men may 
 be admitted. 
 
 5. All questions of policy must be submitted to and 
 passed upon by the Executive Committee before being 
 put to vote by the Association. 
 
 If not passed upon favorably by this committee they 
 shall be rejected. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Anatomy, courses in schools, 
 59 
 
 Associations, high school 
 leagues, 72; athletic, in col- 
 leges, 103; in private schools, 
 93; functions of, 106; in set- 
 tlements, 125, 128; social and 
 educational value of, 128; 
 influence upon contests, 157 
 
 Audiences, social value of 
 games to, 40; and contests, 
 152; influence of on players, 
 156 
 
 Battle-ball, value of, 166 
 Baseball, see Indoor baseball 
 Basketball, in private schools, 
 88, 90; in colleges, 100; in 
 settlements, 123, 127; in 
 high schools, 70; in school 
 gardens, 119; in welfare 
 work, 138; rules for men and 
 women, 179; lineball, 181; 
 non-interference rule, 186; 
 physical requirements for, 
 189; training green players, 
 190; training forwards, 195; 
 training guards, 197; train- 
 ing center, 198; teaching 
 rules, 198; team work, 199; 
 use of signals, 210 
 Boarding schools, athletics in, 
 
 82 
 Board of Education, and N. Y. 
 athletic leagues, 75; and 
 conferences, 81 
 
 Camps, athletics in, 128 
 Captain-ball, value of, 27; in 
 colleges, 102, 166 
 
 Captains, qualifications and 
 
 duties of, 173 
 Center-ball, value of, 166 
 Citizenship, athletics and, 24; 
 training for, 36; in country 
 and village, 80 
 Clubs, women's, 12; whist, 13 
 Colleges, as schools for in- 
 structors in athletics, 62; 
 athletics in, 96; athletics for 
 graduates of, 98; instructors 
 in, 98; contests, 99; systems 
 of work, 100; athletic as- 
 sociations in, 103; field davs, 
 108 
 Confidence and teachers, 50 
 Contests, high-school, 72; in- 
 tercollegiate, 99; in parks, 
 115; in settlements, 124; 
 class, 149 ; interscholastic, 
 150; effect on schoolgirls, 
 151; and the audience, 152; 
 prizes, 153; essentials of, 153, 
 155; and audience, 156; and 
 athletic organizations, 157; 
 instructor's attitude toward, 
 171; field etiquette, 177; 
 dangers in, from conflicting 
 basketball rules, 188 
 Co-operation, training for, 31 
 Country school athletic leagues, 
 
 79 
 Courage, training for, 34 
 
 Dance halls, as recreation 
 
 centers, 110 
 Discipline, value of, 36; and 
 
 instructors, 49; emphasis on, 
 
 in reformatories, 141 
 Drive ball, 27 
 
 265 
 
266 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Elocution and oratory, schools 
 
 of, 61 
 Esthetics, and athletics, 38; 
 
 form, 41; atmosphere as a 
 part of, 4 J 
 Etiquette, field, 177 
 
 Fair play, training for, 32 
 Field days, in colleges, 108; 
 contests and, 158; programs 
 for, 159; regulations, 160; 
 field etiquette, 177 
 Fields, municipal, 116 
 
 Games, mental training 
 through, 28; esthetic value of, 
 38; atmosphere of, 41; educa- 
 tion by minor, 165 
 
 Gymnastics, instruction in, 53; 
 in private schools, 91; in col- 
 leges, 102 
 
 Health, and athletics, 23; in- 
 fluence of athletics on, 24; 
 and high school games, 73 
 
 High schools, training of teach- 
 ers, 63; responsibility for 
 selecting good teachers, 64; 
 conditions in, 70; instruct- 
 ors in, 71, leagues, 72; 
 responsibility of parents and 
 school authorities, 74; ath- 
 letic leagues in, 75; remedies 
 for conditions, 80; contests 
 in, 149 
 
 Hockey, value of training, 27; 
 value of game, in colleges, 
 101, 237 ; " instruction, 238 ; 
 green squads, 239; offense 
 and defense, 241; forwards, 
 242; wings, 243; halfbacks, 
 243; goal tenders, 244; team 
 work, 245 
 
 Imagination, training of, 30 
 Immigrants, need of athletics 
 
 for^ 134; and Y. W. C. A., 
 
 137 
 
 Immorality, increase of among 
 women, 11 
 
 Indoor baseball, value of train- 
 ing, 27, 8S; advantages of 
 game, 212; physical require- 
 ments, 213; pitchers, 214; 
 catchers, 215; batsmen, 217; 
 base runners, 219; basemen, 
 223; shortstops, 2-25; out- 
 fielders, 225; coaching, 226; 
 rules, 227; definitions of 
 rules, 228 
 
 Instruction, courses of, 53; 
 combinations of courses in 
 high schools, 89; need of in 
 special schools, 147; use of 
 prescription cards in, 169 
 
 Instructors, special qualifica- 
 tions of, 46; play spirit, 47; 
 proficiency of, 48; general 
 qualifications of, 51 ; relation 
 to players, 52; men, 52; and 
 schools of physical education, 
 53; dishonesty of, 65; in high 
 schools, 71 ; interference with, 
 90; in colleges, 98; in private 
 schools, 87; in settlements, 
 124, 127; methods of teach- 
 ing, 166; as officials, 171 
 
 Investigation of conditions in 
 athletics, 81 
 
 Lacrosse, place and value, 166 
 Leagues, athletic, public school, 
 75; country school, 79; de- 
 fects of, 78 
 Legislation, and social ethics, 16 
 Long-ball, value of, 166 
 Loyalty, training in, 33 
 
 Managers, duties and qualifica- 
 tions of, 173 
 
 Measurements, in private 
 schools, 91 
 
 Men, as instructors, 52 
 
 Men's basketball rules, 180 
 
 Normal schools, instruction in 
 athletics, 62; and athletic 
 leagues, 79 
 
INDEX 
 
 26' 
 
 Officials, deficient training of, 
 59; responsibility for good 
 game, 155, 157; women as, 
 155; and audiences, 157; in- 
 structors as, 171; qualifica- 
 tions and duties of, 174; 
 scorers, 175; timers, 176; 
 linesmen, 179 
 
 Organizations, non-ethical, 12; 
 athletics in private schools, 
 93 
 
 Parents, and athletics, 43; at- 
 titude toward play in coun- 
 try, 80; responsibility of, 87 
 Parks, Chicago system and 
 
 work, 114 
 Pass-ball, value of, 166 
 Pedagogy, and athletics, 22 
 Personal morality, women and, 
 
 10 
 Physical education, schools of, 
 53; summer schools of, 57; 
 defects of, 58 
 Physician, excuses, 87, 101 
 Physiology, courses in, 59 
 Playgrounds, 112; associations, 
 113; play festivals, 121; need 
 of in N. Y. City, 121; and 
 settlements, 123 
 Polo, value of, 166 
 Private schools, responsibility 
 for teachers, 64; conditions 
 in, 83; attitude toward, 84; 
 gymnastics in, 85, 91; in- 
 structors and parents, 87; 
 chaperon coach, 89; methods 
 of instruction, 91; measure- 
 ments, 92; organizations, 93; 
 remedies for present condi- 
 tions, 94 
 Prizes, too much emphasis 
 
 upon, 153 
 Probation work, use of athlet- 
 ics in, 142 
 Psychology, courses in, 59 
 Public opinion, by women, 7 
 Public school athletic league, 
 
 75; and instructors, 77; de- 
 fects of, 78 
 Push-ball, value of, 27 
 
 Reason, training of, 30 
 
 Recreation centers, 117 
 
 Reformatories, need of athlet- 
 ics in, 141; conditions in, 
 143; athletics in, 143 
 
 Responsibility, training in sense 
 of, 35 
 
 Roofs, use of for games, 128, 
 138 
 
 Rules of the game, women's 
 part in, 9; training in, in 
 private schools, 89; general 
 suggestions for teaching, 169 
 
 Rules, basketball, 198; baseball, 
 227; hockey, 239; methods of 
 teaching, 172 
 
 School gardens, 112, 118 
 Schools of philanthropy, need 
 of courses of instruction in 
 athletics, 147 
 Schools, physical education, 53; 
 summer, 57; defects, 58; and 
 social education, 60 ; of elocu- 
 tion and oratory, 61; normal, 
 62; university and college, 
 62; use of for games, 122 
 Self-control, training in, 30 
 Settlements, 122; facilities for 
 games, 123; and instructors, 
 124; contests in, 124, 127; 
 need of athletic associations, 
 125, 128; svstems of work, 
 125 
 Social control, by women, 7 
 Social education, 3; need of, 
 19; influence of athletics on, 
 20; special kind for women, 
 24; by means of athletics, 26, 
 116; and schools of physical 
 training, 60; and athletic 
 leagues, 78; and Y. W. C. A., 
 137; need of in reforma- 
 tories, 141 
 Social ethics, women and, 10; 
 
268 
 
 INDEX 
 
 non-ethical acts and attitude, 
 13; benevolence and, 15; 
 legislation and, 16; and ath- 
 letics, 29 
 
 Social morality, women's in- 
 fluence upon, S; and athlet- 
 ic-, 29$ in reformatories, 146 
 
 Sociology, cour^e^ in, 59 
 
 Teams, appearance of, 153; 
 and spirit of playing, 154 
 
 Team work, and social ethics, 
 15: hockey. ;?45 : limitations 
 by women's rules in basket- 
 ball, 1S4; basketball, 199; use 
 of signals, 210 
 
 Trades unions, value of athlet- 
 ics in organization training, 
 140; classes for in settle- 
 ments, 141 
 
 Training, athletic, neglect of, 
 21; advantages, 26-38 
 
 Universities, training in physi- 
 cal education, 62 
 
 Vacant lots, use of for games, 
 120, 128 
 
 Vacation homes, athletics in. 
 128 
 
 Vacation schools, need of so- 
 cial education in, 19; athlet- 
 ics in, 117 
 
 Villages, athletics in, 80 
 Volley-ball, value, 27, 166; in 
 colleges, 102 
 
 Welfare work, athletics as a 
 part of, 138; in laundries, 
 13S; use of roofs, 139; fields 
 for workers, 139 
 
 Women, social responsibility 
 of, 3; as property holders, 
 4; in politics, 4; in industry, 
 5: in societv, 6; working and 
 athletics, 130, 189; as of- 
 ficials, 155 
 
 Women's basketball rules, 179; 
 disadvantages of, 181, 186 
 
 Young Men's Christian Associa- 
 tion, training: schools, 56, 
 137, 147 
 
 Young Women's Christian As- 
 sociation, course of instruc- 
 tion, 55: opportunities for 
 social education, 129; need 
 of work in, 130; facilities 
 and methods. 131; fees, 133; 
 limitations. 134: remedies, 
 135; instructors in, 136, 137; 
 use of Sundays, 136; immi- 
 grants and, 137; need of 
 training schools, 137 
 
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 BIRD NOTES, by C. W. Beebe. 
 
 VI. THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE 
 
 A Series of volumes by President Jordan, of Stanford Univer- 
 sity, and Professors Brooks of Johns Hopkins, Lull of Yale, Thom- 
 son of Aberdeen, Przibram of Austria, zur Strassen of Germany, 
 and others. Edited by Professor Kellogg of Leland Stanford. 12mo. 
 
 5§x7| in. __ 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY, New York 
 
 January, '09. 
 
Two Masterpieces on Education 
 
 JAMES'S TALKS ON PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 TALKS TO TEACHERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND TO 
 STUDENTS ON SOME OF LIFE'S IDEALS. By Wil- 
 liam James, Professor in Harvard University, Author of 
 " The Principles of Psychology," etc. xi + 301 pp., i2mo, 
 gilt top. $1.50, net. 
 
 Contents : Psychology and the Teaching Art ; The Stream of Consciousness ; 
 The Child as a Behaving- Organism ; Education and Behavior ; The Neces- 
 sity of Reactions ; Native and Acquired Reactions ; What the Native Reac- 
 tions Are ; The Laws of Habit ; The Association of Ideas ; Interest ; Atten- 
 tion ; Memory ; The Acquisition of Ideas ; Apperception ; The Will ; The 
 Gospel of Relaxation ; On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings ; What 
 Makes Life Significant. 
 
 In writing these " Talks M out, the author has gradually weeded out as much 
 as possible of the analytical technicalities of the science. In their present 
 form they contain a minimum of what is deemed "scientific" in psychology 
 and are practical and popular in the extreme. 
 
 The Nation: "His style has the quality of a communicable fervor, a clear, 
 grave passion of sincerity and conviction, from which some vibration detaches 
 itself and passes into the reader, and forms him into the writer's mood.' 1 
 
 The Critic : M When pedagogical libraries can show a preponderance of such 
 books, they may well begin to rival the fiction departments in popularity." 
 
 WALKER'S DISCUSSIONS IN 
 EDUCATION 
 
 By the late Francis A. Walker, President of the Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology. Edited by James Phinney 
 Munroe. 342 pp., 8vo. $3. co, net. 
 The author had hoped himself to collect these papers in a volume. 
 
 The Dial: "A fitting memorial to its author. . . . The breadth of his 
 experience, as well as the natural range of his mind, are here reflected. The 
 subjects dealt with are all live and practical. . . . He never deals with them 
 in a narrow or so-called 'practical ■ way.' 1 
 
 Literature : " The distinguishing traits of these papers are open-minded- 
 ness, breadth, and sanity. . . . No capable student of education will overlook 
 General Walker's book ; no serious collection of books on education will be 
 without it. The distinguished author's honesty, sagacity, and courage shine 
 on every page." 
 
 The Boston Transcript : M Two of his conspicuous merits characterize these 
 papers, the peculiar power he possessed of enlisting and retaining the attention 
 for what are commonly supposed to be dry and difficult subjects, and the ca- 
 pacity he had for controversy, sharp and incisive, but so candid and generous 
 that it left no festering wound." 
 
 HFNRY HOI T Rr TO 29 West 23d St., New York 
 nClNI\I nULJ QLK^KJ. 378 Wabash Av*., Chicago 
 V 'oa 
 
FEB Z 1903