Class. 32./ Book .i !lv--^ ^- / S9 RKVISED AND ENI.ARGED EDITION. EL^ElMfENTs OB" GENERAL HISTORY; EMBRACING ALL THE LEADING EVENTS IN THE W^ORLD'S HISTORY, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD, TO THE END OF THE LATE CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES, BY JOHN W. BARBER, Author of several Historical Works. NEV^ HAVEN, CONN.: PUBLISHED BY HORACl C. PECK, 1866. Entered according lo Act of Congress, in the year 1865, BY JOHN W. BARBEE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. PREFACE, The study of Geography is now to a great extent in troduced into our schools, but History, its counterpart, is to some extent neglected. The works on Geography now in use, give a description of every part of the known world ; but most of those on History, comprise the United States only. The great events of the age in other countries, as well as in our own, affect the des- tiny of all. Geography and History being closely con- nected, each ought to be equally comprehensive. History is a narrative of what has taken place on the earth among human beings, and is considered by many as '* Philosophy teaching by example." It opens a vast field for study and contemplation ; the rise and fall of empires, the connection of virtuous principles with public happiness, the causes which have degraded individuals and nations, are all subjects worthy of the close atten- tion of beings destined for immortality. Works on History have had their usefulness much impaired by the introduction of too many names, dates and details which give no valuable information. The multiplicity of these is apt to confuse the mind, and make the study itself dry and uninteresting. This evil the author has endeavored to avoid. The plan adopted in this work is substantially that PREFACE. used by Dr. Webster, the great American lexicographer, in his historical works for the use of schools. Every paragraph, or section, is prefixed with a title expressing its subject matter in italic letters. By this, at one glance, each subject is distinctly brought before the mind; an arrangement claimed to be superior to any other. Some- thing of this kind has been in use ever since the art of printing was discovered, and its obvious utility must be acknowledged. It has been generally supposed that the details of Uni- versal History could not be introduced into one work with sufficient fullness without swellingit to a size which would prevent a wide circulation. This is believed to be a mis- take. The author, in this work,, which is of the size of the Geographies most in use, has given an epitome, or summary, of all the most prominent events in Ancient and Modern History. He has endeavored, by simplicity of language, to make every subject introduced, clear, comprehensive, instructive and interesting. It is be- lieved that this work will be found well adapted to our Common and other Schools as a History, or as a Reading Book, and also useful to all who are desirous to obtain some knowledge of the World's History. New Haven, Conn. J. W. B. CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD , 2553 YEARS. Page. Page. Creation, . 13 Egyptian Antiquities, . 18 ^^lll of Man, - 14 Founding of the Hebrew or The Deluge, or Flood, . . U Jewish nation . 19 Division of the Earth among Bondage of the Hebrews in the sons of Noah, 15 Egypt, . 19 Building of Tower of Babel, 15 Account of the Phoenecians, . 20 Assyria and Babylon, 15 Colonization of Greece, . . 20 Kingdofn of Egypt, . 16 Grecian States or Kingdoms, . 21 Government and Laws, . 16 Return of the Hebrews, . . 21 Embalming the Dead, 17 The Decalogue, . . 22 Religion of the Egyptians, 18 SECOND PERIOD, 700 YEARS. Siege of Troy, Grecian Games, Religion of the Greeks, Worship of the Gods, Grecian Oracles, Divination, or foretelling Future Events, . Court of Areopagus, The Israelites, of Reign of Solomon, . Account of Homer, the Gre- cian Poet, . Republic of Sparta, Laws of Lycurgus, . Republic of Athens, Draco and Solon, . Founding of Carthage, Founding of Rome, THIRD PERIOD, 430 YEARS. Captivity of the Ten Tribes, . Captivity of the Jews in Babylon, . . . . Conquest of Babylon, Persian Empire, Religion of the Persians, Government and Laws, . Implements of War, Method of attacking and de- fending places, . War lietwertn the Greeks and Persians, 3attle of Marathon, ngratitude of the Athenians, . Xerxes, the Persian, Battle of Thermopylae, . 34 Defeat of the Persians, . War of the Peloponnesus, Defeat of the Athenians, War between Sparta and Thebes, Epaminondas, the Theban General, 38 Grecian Philosophy, I Socrates, the Philosopher, 39 Death of Socrates, , Plato, the Philosopher, . 39 Pythagoras, , 40 Cynic Philosophers, 41 Of the Stoics, 41 Of the Epicureans, . 41 I Of Aristotle and Pyrrho, CONTENTS Page. Grecian Historians, 51 Archimedes, . . . .52 Grecian Architecture, . . 53 Grecian Sculpture, &c. . . 54 Demosthenes, the Orator, . 55 Philip, of Macedon, . . 56 Alexander the Great, . . 57 Battle of the Granicus, . . 57 Battle of Issus, . . .58 Siege of Tyre, . . .58 Final Con(iuest of Persia, . 59 Conijuest of India, . . .59 Death of Alexander, . . 60 Page. Rome, 61 Komax. Kings, CM Death of Lucretia, . 62 Roman Republic, . 63 Judgment of Brutus, . 63 Cincinnatus, the Dictator, . 64 The Decemvirs, . 64 Military Tribunes, . 65 Censors, , . 65 Invasion of Rome, . . 66 Rome taken and burnt. . 66 Expulsion of the Gauls . 67 Character of the Romans, . 67 FOURTH PERIOD, 323 YEARS. Successors of Alexander, . 69 Con(|uest of Italy by the Ro- mans, 70 First Punic or Carthaginian War, 70 Regains, the Roman Patriot, . 71 Second Punic War, . . 71 Passage of the Alps by Han- nibal, 72 Victories of Hannibal, . . 73 Ending of the Second Punic War 73 Third Punic War, ... 74 Destruction of Carthage, . 75 Corruption of the Roman Commonwealth, . . .75 The Gracchi, . . . .76 War of JuiTurtha, . . .77 Social and Civil Wars, . . 77 Caius Marius, ... 78 Return of Marius to Rome, . 78 Sylla. the Dictator, . . 79 Catiline's Conspiracy, . . 80 Discovery of Catiline's Plot, . 80 Julius Cesar and the First Triumvirate, . . .81 Invasion of Britain by Cesar, 81 Rivalship l)etween Pompey and Cesar, .... 82 Cesar p.\ssing the R\ibicon, . 83 Cesar's pursuit of Pompey, . 83 Battle of Pharsalia, . . 84 Death of Pompey, . . .85 Cesar's Expedition into Egypt, 85 Death of Cato, ... 86 Triumphs of Cesar, . . 87 Cesar's Administration and Improvements, . . .87 Conspiracy against Cesar, . 88 Assassination of Cesar, . : 88 Speech of Antony, . . .89 Second Triumvirate, . . 89 Death of Brutus and Cassius, 90 Antony and Cleopatra, . . 90 Death of Antony and Cleopatra, 91 Reign of Octavius, or Augus- tus Cesar, . . . .91 Character and Education of the Romans, . . .92 Industry of the illustrious Romans, ... 92 Their Religion, . . 93 Government, . . . .93 Roman Senators, . . .94 Other Roman Magistrates, . 95 Roman Citizens, &c. . . 95 Arts and vSciences. . . .96 Roman Poets, Historians, &c., 96 Cicero, the Roman Orator, . 97 Domestic Life and Manners, . 98 Diet, and Luxurious Habits, . 99 Pu!)lic Amusements, . . 99 Milit;iry Affairs, . . 100 Military Triumphs, . . 101 CONTENTS. •MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD, 306 YEARS. Page. Page^ Coming of Jesus Christ, . 103 Christian Martyrs, . 109 State of the Roman Empire, 104 Christian Fathers, . 110 Conipiest of Britain, . 104 Trajan, the Emperor, 111 Caligula and Nero, . 105 Successors of Trajan, . 111 Invasion of Judea, . . 106 Partition of the Empire, 112 Siege of Jerusalem, . 106 Constantine, the first Chrif* Dispersion of the Jews, . 107 tian Emperor, 112 Spread of Christianity, . . 108 Government of the Emperors, 113 Persecution of Christians, . 108 SECOND PERIO D, 263 YEARS. . Reign of Constantine, . . 114 Extinction of the Western Corruption of Christianity, . 115 Roman Empire, . 121 Removal of the Seat of the Reign of Theodoric the Great, 122 Empire from Rome to Eastern Roman Empire, 123 Constantinople, . . 115 Belisarius, . . . . 123 Julian, the Apostate, . 116 Conquest of Italy by the Attempt to rebuild the Tem- Lombards, . . . . 123 ple at Jerusalem, . 116 State of the World on the Barbarians, . 117 Extinction of the Western The Goths, . . 117 or Roman Empire, 124 Religion of the Goths, or Of Spain, , . . . 125 Scandinavians, . . 118 Of Britain, . . . . 125 Vandals, . 118 Of England, . . . . 126 Ancient Germans, . . 119 Saxon Conquest of England, 126 Druidical Religion, , 119 Introduction of Christianity Poetry and Learning, . . 120 into Britain, 127 Sacking of Rome by Alaric, . 120 Of France, . . . . 127 Ravages of Auila, the Hun, . 121 Of the Arabs, or Saracens, . 128 THIRD PERIOD , 231 YEARS. Of Mahomet, . . 129 Conquest of Spain by the Of the Koran, . 130 Saracens, or Moors, . 134 Mahometan Paradise, . . 130 Christian Kingdoms in Spain, 135 Flight of Mahomet, . 131 Defeat of the Saracens, by Propagation of Mahometanisra, 132 Charles Martel, . 135 Death of Mahomet, . 133 State of the Eastern Empire, 136 Successors of Mahomet, . 133 Arabian Literature, 136 Mahometan, or Saracen Em- Arts and Sciences, 137 Pif« . 134 Attack on Censtaatinople, 138 10 CONTENTS. Greek Fire, . Feudal System, Of the Barons, or Lords, Of the Serfs, or Villeins, Paffe. , 138 , 138 , 139 . 139 Decline of the Feudal System, 140 Bishop of Rome, • . . . 140 Temporal power of Popes, , 141 Charlemagne, . . . .141 FOURTH PERIOD, 295 YEARS. Reign of Charlemagne, . . 142 Danish invasion of England, 143 Alfred the Great, . . .143 Success of Alfred, . . 144 Charactei- of Alfred, . . 145 Conquest of England by the Danes, .... 145 Canute and his Successors, . 146 Norman Conquest, . .146 Battle of Hastings, . . .146 William the Conqueror, . . 147 State of the Arts, &c. at the Norman Conquest, . . 148 Norman Nobles, or Barons, . 148 Baronial Castles, &c., . Dark Ages, Collection of Relics, Monastic Institutions, Progress of the Monastic System, Corruption of the Monastic System, Increase of Papal Power, Of the Clergy, State of Learning, . , Trials by Ordeal, . Trial by Combat, . Peter the Hermit, . FIFTH PERIOD, 200 YEARS. First Crusade, . . .156 March of the Crusaders, . 157 March of the main body of the Crusaders, . . . 157 Taking of Jerusalem, . . 158 Second Crusade, . . . 159 Third Crusade, . . .159 Fourth Crusade, . . .160 Chivalry, or Knighthood, . 161 Education of Knights, . . 161 Of the Esquires, . . .162 Of the Knights, , . .162 Character, (fee. of the Knights, 163 Of Tournaments, . . . 164 Orders of Knighthood, . .164 149 149 150 150 151 152 152 153 153 154 154 155 Effects of Chivalry, . .165 Henry II., of England, . .166 Murder of Becket, . . .166 Magna Charta, . . .167 Of the Inquisition, . . . 168 Establishment of the Inqui sition, .... Scriptural Plays, . Genghis Khan, End of the Saracen Empire, . 170 Empire of the Assassins, . 171 Method of making Assassins, 171 End of the Crusades, . . 172 Effects of the Crusades, . 173 168 . 169 SIXTH PERIOD, 222 YEARS, Conquest of Wales, . . 174 War between the English and Scots, .... 175 Swiss Republics, . . . 175 William Tell, . . . .175 Wickliffe, the English Re- fonoer, .... 176 Insurrection of Wat Tyler, . 177 War between the houses of York and Lancaster, . 177 Wars between Englard ard France, ... 178 Joan of Ajtc, the Maid of Orleans, ... 179 CONTENTS. 11 bounding of the Turkish Empire, Of Tamerlane, Taking of Constantinople by the Turks, . Invention of the Mariner's Compass, Gunpowder, Firearms, . Art of Printing, Page. . 179 . 180 . 180 . 181 . 182 . 183 Pigs- Moorish Kingdom of Greiada, 183 184 184 185 Conquest of Grenada, . Portuguese Discoveries, Of Columbus, Columbus' application foi Assistance, . First Voyage and Discovery of Columbus, SEVENTH PERIOD, 115 YEARS. Columbus' Return from his first Voyage, Fate of Columbus, . Of Vespucius, Calx)t, and other Discoverers, Invasion of Mexico, A.(l Vance of Cortez to the City of Mexico, . Death of Montezuma, Con(juest of Mexico, Invasion of Peru, . Conquest of Peru, . Civilization of the Mexi- cans and Peruvians, . Religion of the Mexicans, Religious State of Chris- tendom, IBS 189 189 191 191 192 193 194 194 195 195 196 EIGHTH PERIOD, 168 YEARS. Of the Virginia Settlers, 206 Pocahontas, the Indian Prin cess, .... . 207 Indian Massacre in Virginia, . 207 Of the Native Indians, . . 208 Manners, Customs, &c., of the Indians, . 209 Of the Puritans, . . 209 Persecution of the Puritans, . 210 Plymouth Settlers, . . 210 Sufferings of the Plymouth Colonists, . . 211 Dutch Settlements, . 212 Destruction of the Pequots, . 212 King Philip's War, . 213 William Penn, . 214 186 186 Reformation by Luther, . . 196 Progress of the Reformation, 197 Overthrow of the Papal power in England, . . 198 Reformation in Scotland, . 199 Of the Jesuits, . . .200 Progress of the Jesuits, . . 200 Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's, .... 201 Reign of Queen Mary, . . 202 Queen Elizabeth's Reign, . 202 Spanish Armada, . . . 203 Gunpowder Plot, . . .203 French Settlements in North America, .... 204 First English Settlement, . 205 Salem V^itchcraft, . . .215 Account of the Bucaneers, .216 Sovereigns of the House of Stuart, Tyranny of Charles I., . War between Charles and the Parliament, . Execution of Charles I., Oliver Cromwell, . The Commonwealth, Character of Cromwell, . Of Russia, Peter the Great, Of Sweden and its Sovereigns, 221 Of Prussia and the two Fredericks 222 . 216 . 217 . 218 . 218 . 219 . 220 . 220 . 220 . 220 12 CONTENTS. Of Holland, . . . .223 Of Germany, . . . .223 Fi-Gncb and Indian Wars, . 224 King William's and Queen Anne's Wars, . . .225 Indian War in Carolina, . 225 Capture of Louisburg, . . 22G Braddock's Defeat, Progress of the War, Capture of Quebec, Causes of the American Revolution, Stamp Act, . . . , Destniction of Tea at Boston, 227 227 228 229 229 230 NINTH PERIOD. Continental Congress, . . 231 Skirmish al Lexington, . . 232 Battle of Bunker's^Hill, . . 233 Arnold's March through the Wilderness, . . . 234 Assault on Quebec, and death of Gen. Montgomery, 234 Declaration of Independence, 235 Brittle on Long Island, . . 236 Death of Capt. Hale, . . 236 Retreat of Washington, and Battle of Trenton, . . 237 Expedition of Gen. Burgoyne, 238 Treason of Arnold, . . 239 Sufferings of the American Army 239 Arrival of the French Troops, 240 War in the Southern States, 240 Capture of Cornwallis, . . 241 Conclusion of the War, , .241 Disbanding of the Army, . 242 Confederation of the States, . 242 Organization of the Federal Government, . . . 243 Causes of the French Revo- lution, 244 Of the National Assembly, . 244 Progress of the Revolution, . 245 Trial and Execution of Louis XVI., . . .246 Triumph of Infidelity, . . 247 Of the Directory and Na- poleon Bonaparte, . . 247 Bonaparte the First Consul and Emperor, . . . 248 Battle of Austerlitz, . . 249 Other victories of Napoleon, . 249 Napoleon's Campaign in Russia, . , . 250 Defeat of Napoleon by the Allies, . . . .251 Napoleon's Return from Elba, 251 Battle of Waterloo, . . 252 War between the United States and Tripoli, . . 252 War between the United States and Great Britain, . 253 Progress of the War in 1812, . 253 The War in 1813, . . ,254 The War in 1814, . . .255 Battle of New Orleans, . . 256 Revolution in Spanish America, .... 257 Of Hayti, . . . .258 Of Touissant L'Ouverture, . 259 Progress of the Revolution in Hayti, .... 259 Of Brazil and Portugal, . . 260 Revolution in Greece, . . 261 Massacre at Scio, . . . 262 Progress of the War, . . 262 Battle of Navarino, . . 263 French Revolution of 1830, . 264 Progress of the Revolution, . 264 Accession of Louis Philippe to the Throne, . . .266 Revolution in Belgium, . . 266 Revolution in Poland, . . 267 Proiiress of the Revolution, . 267 Of India 268 British East India Company, . 269 Of Chma 269 Biographical Sketches, . 27J CONTENTS. RECENT EVENTS. y Page. Condition of France in 1847, 271 French Revolution of 1848, 271 Louis Napoleon, President and Emperor, . 272 The Roman Republic, . 272 Hungarian Revolution, . 273 Subjugation of the Hunga- rians, . . . .273 Origin of the Crimean War, 274 Allied movements against Russia, . . . .275 Battles of the Crimea, . 275 Capture of the Malakhoff and Fall of Sebastopol, . 276 Of Texas, . . . .276 War with Mexico, . . 277 Operations of Gen, Scott, . 278 Capture of Mexico, . . 279 War in British India, 279 Progress of the war in India, 280 Causes of the SecessionWar, 281 Commencement of the War, 282 Uprising of the People, . 282 Battle of Bull Run, . . 283 Capture of Hilton Head, South Carolina, . . 283 Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson^ . . . 284 The Merrimac and Monitor, 285 ' Burnside's Expedition, . 286 Battle of Shiloh, or Pitts- burg Landing, . . 286 Capture of New Orleans, . 287 Gen. McClellan Mititary Operations, &c. . . 288 Battle of Antietam, . . 289 Proclamation of Emancipa- tion, 289 Battle of Gettysburg, . 290 Capture of Vicksburg, . 291 Operations near Chattanoo- ga, Tenn., . . .291 Sherman's March through Georgia, . . . .292 Capture of Fort Fisher, . 293 Capture of Richmond, . 294 Surrender of Lee's Army, . 296 Assassination of President Lincoln, . . . .295 Biographical Sketched, . 297 [Advertisement.] - Since the first edition of the Universal History was pub- lished, the author has prepared a Chart, or Cotnpend, entitled ^'Pictorial History of the World" on an entirely original plan. It is printed on a double medium sheet, and gives, at one view, an outline of the World's history. The pictorial part consists of twenty-seven separate cuts or engravings, the first of which is emblematic of Chaos and the Creation of Light, as described in the first chapter of Genesis : tlie second, the Antediluirian period, from the creation of Adam and Eve, to the Flood. The four cuts next in order are illustrative of the four great Mon- archies of the World : the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian and the Roman, The nineteen cuts following, represent the prominent events in each of the nineteen centuries in the Chris- tian era. The last engraving is descriptive of the Millennium, or the reign of the Messiah for a thousand years. Isa. xi., Rev. XX. This sheet, or chart, will, it is believed, be found very useful in giving a scholar, or general reader, a clear and comprehen- sive view of the prominent events in the history of the world, as to the time, and order, in which they occurred. This chart is mounted on rollers, and is not only appropriate for a school room, but also for other places. It is furnished ^rra^is for every ten copies purchased of the Elements of General History, and at a reduced price for those who purchase a single copy. ANCIENT HISTORY. PERIOD I. FROM THE CREATION TO THE DEATH OF MOSES. (2553 YEARS.) Map, showing where the Earth was first peopled. Section 1. Of History. History is a relation of past events. It is usually divided into sacred and projane, ajicient and modern. Sacred history is that which is con- tained in the Old and New Testaments ; profane is that which is found in other historical records of past ages Ancient history extends from the creation to the birth of Christ ; modern, from the birth of Christ to the preseni time. ■2. Creation. The only true account we have of the Questions. Section 1. What is history 1 How is history divided 1 What is sacred history ] What is profane history 1 How far does ancient history extend ? How far modem ^ 2 14 ANCIENT HISTORY. creation of the world, and of man, is given by Moses in the book of Genesis. According to the Hebrew com- putation, man was created 4004 years before the coming of Christ. Our first parents were placed in the garden of Eden, in a state of innocence and happiness. This place, also called Paradise, is supposed to have been situated somewhere about the head waters of the Eu- phrates, a river in Asia. 3. Fall of Man. Our first parents, Adam and Eve, being tempted or persuaded by the devil, fell from their state of happiness, by disobeying their Creator. Having departed from duty, man lost the favor of God, and was driven out of Paradise. Sin, thus introduced into the world, is the origin of the miseries of mankind. Cain, the first-born of Adam and Eve, murdered his brother, Abel ; and before the flood, we are informed that the wickedness of man was great, and the earth was filled with violence. 4. The Deluge or Flood. After mankind had multi- plied in the earth, they became so extremely wicked, that their Maker determined to destroy the whole race by a flood, except Noah and his family. Noah, being warned of God, prepared an ark, or vessel, which was more than 480 feet in length, 81 in breadth, and 41 in height, and was most wisely formed to answer the pur- pose for which it was designed. In 1656 years from the creation, the fountains of the deep were broken up, the flood covered the earth, and every creature without the ark perished. Noah and his companions continued 2. Where do we find an authentic account of the creation? By whom given 1 How long before Christ, was man created ^ Where were our first parents placed 1 Where is it supposed that Paradise was situated \ 3. How did our first parents fall from a state of happiness ? What followed their departure from duty 1 What is the origin of the miseries of mankind ] What of Cain ] What of n^ before the flood ? " 4. Why were mankind destroyed by a flood ? How was Noah saved ? Describe the ark. How long did the ark float, and where did it rest? Is there proof of the deluge 1 Any traditions respecting it 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 15 in the ark one year and ten days. The ark floated on the water 150 days, and on the falUng of the waters, rested on Mount Ararat. 'J'he scripture account of the deluge is proved to be true, by the appearance of the earth in many places ; and traditions respecting this great event have been handed down among many nations. 5. Division of the Earth among the sons of Noah. Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, from whom the earth was re-peopled after the flood. Shem and his posterity went forth into Eastern and Southern Asia: of this family are the Chaldeans, Syrians, and Arabians. The descendants of Ham peopled Egypt, and other parts of Africa. From Japheth descended the inhabitants of Northern Asia, and all the nations of Europe. 6. Building of the Tower of Babel. About one hun- dred years after the deluge, the descendants of Noah collected themselves on the plain of Shinar, for the purpose of building a city, and a tower of very great height, that ihey might acquire renown, and prevent their dispersion. God, however, having determined to form mankind into difl^erent nations, prevented their de- sign by confounding their language, so that they were compelled to abandon their project, and disperse them- selves abroad in the earth. The city which they at- tempted to build, was called Babel, or Confusion. 7. Assyria and Babylon. The name of Assyria ap- pears to have been derived from Ashur, the son ol Shem, who is supposed to have founded Nineveh, the chief city of Assyria. Nimrod, a grandson of Ham, is said to have founded Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, 5. What were the names of the sons of Noah 1 Where did Shem go, and who were his posterity 1 By whom was Egypt and other parts of A frica peopled ] Who are the de- scendants of Japheth 1 t. When did men begin to build the tower of Babel 1 ere, and for what purpose, did they build 1 How was the building prevented 1 7. From whom was the name Assyria derived 1 WTio founded Nineveh ? Who founded Babylon ? What is said o\ 16 ANCIENT HISTORY. about 150 years after the deluge. He is supposed to be the same with Behis, who was afterwards worshiped as a god. Nineveh and Babylon were perhaps the most magnificent cities in the world. It is stated that Se- miramis, a queen of Babylon, employed two millions of men in enlarging and adorning this city. It appears that Babylonia and Assyria formed but one empire. Babylon was at first the capital, then Nineveh, then Babylon, till the conquest of the empire by Cyrus. 8. Kingdom, of Egypt. The Mosaic writings re})rf sent Egypt, about 450 years after the ilood, as a wt*i regulated kingdom. The great fertility of the soil <> the banks of the Nile, it is supposed, caused Egyj)t ' become populous and civilized at an early period. A- cordingly Egypt was the seat of arts and lear tin while Greece and Italy were in a barbarous state i claims the honor of inventing the art of writirjg, and ba- been styled "the cradle of the sciences." Mcnr.s, c Misraim, the son of Ham, is supposed to have hec. the first monarch of the Egyptians, about 160 year after the deluge. 9. Government and Laws. The government of Egypi was a hereditary monarchy.* The king had the chiel regulation of all matters relating to the worship of the gods, and the priests were considered as his deputies, and filled all the offices of state. In order to prevent the evils of borrowing, the borrower had to pledije the embalmed body of his father, and it was regarded impi- ous and infamous not to redeem it ; and if he died with- Nimrod 1 What of Nineveh and Babylon 1 What of Se- miramis ? What of Babylon and Assyria ? 8. How do the Mosaic writings represent Egypt ] What is supposed to he the cause of its early settlement 1 What is said of Egypt I What invention does i claim the honor of? Who is supposed to have been the first monarch ? 9. What was the form of the government of Egyjt! What did the king regulate 1 How were the evils of borrow- ing prevented 1 After persons died, what was done respect- ing their conduct 1 * A goveriwnent descending from father to son, or other relative ANCIENT HISTORY. 17 out, having' performed this duty, he was deprived of the customary funeral honors. All persons, immediately after death, had their conduct examined ; even kings vv^ere not excepted. If they had been virtuous, their bodies were embalmed, and laid in the tomb with vari- ous marks of honor : if their lives had been vicious, or if they had died in debt, they were left unburied, and sup- posed to have been deprived of future happiness. HI ^^ ^^M npiBH Hi nil i -" — E w^^^Mk SWmM^||\ PH./^^ 1 in 1||=- =^ B ^^^^^S IWn'PiwYlt i l^ig=-^ 1 Wm i^M n ^M LuiljiBHKllull' ii U^ljif I la ^•i i|!| ii 1 mBiln|a|iiyT riM^ \m ^^ i^^ ii 1 m s M H N 1 llllllll'i "iL^fc. ^r „" ^'"1^8 ^^^ ^m Egyptian Mummies placed at a Feast. 10. Embalming the Dead. The ancient Egyptians embalmed the bodies of their relatives with the greatest care. These bodies, now called mummies, embalmed more than 3000 years ago, and perhaps before Moses was born, are now found in Egypt in good preservation. The body is filled with drugs and spices, closely wrap- ped over with many folds of linen, and inclosed in a cof- fin, the lid of which is covered with paintings and hie- roglyphics, relating, it is supposed, to the character of the deceased. Many of these coffins are found in tombs cut into solid rocks. Many of the Egyptians kept the bodies of their ancestors in their houses, preserved in 10. What are mummies ] How old are they supposed to be 1 In what state are they found ] What did the Egyptians do with the embalmed bodies of their ancestors \ 2* 18 ANCIENT HISTORY. such perfection, that they had very much the appear ance of life. On feast-days, and on other occasions, the dead bodies of their friends were brought out, and placed at the table, among the living. 11. Religion of the Egyptians. Though the Egyp- tians were advanced in civilization, yet they were low and degraded in their religious opinions. Their two principal gods were Osiris and Isis, which are supposed to be the sun and the moon. Besides these, they wor- shiped the ox, the dog, the cat, the crocodile, the ibis, or stork, &c. If any person killed one of these animals, he was punished with death. In one instance, a city of Egypt being besieged, the invaders placed m front of their army a large number of dogs, cats, and other ani- mals held sacred by the Egyptians, who, not daring to injure their deities, suffered their enemies to come into their city without opposition. The bull Apis had a splendid temple erected to him : great honors were paid him while living, and still greater after his death. The golden calf, set up by the Israelites near Mount Sinai, appears to have been an imitation of the god Apis. 12. Egyptian Antiquities. Egypt abounds with the monuments and remains of antiquity. The pyramids, one of which is 500 feet high, are the most astonishing monuments of human labor. It is supposed, and not without reason, that the Israelites, during their slavery in Egypt, were employed in making these enormous piles. The remains of the artificial lake Maoris, the catacombs, those vast places for the burial of the dead, have been the wonder of ancient and modern times. The ruins of Thebes, a city in Upper Egypt, supposed to have been 11. What is said of the religion of the Egyptians'? The names of the principal gods I What other objects did they wor- ship 1 Relate the manner in which one of their cities was taken. What is said of the bull Apis ? What of the golden calf of the Israelites'? 12. Of what height is one of the pyramids of Egypt? What people are supposed to have been employed in making them 1 What is said of the catacombs ? Where is Thebes'? What ii said of its ruins '? Of its history? ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 laid in desolation more than 3000 years ago, is viewed with astonishment. Almost the whole extent of eight miles, along the river Nile, is covered with magnificent portals, obelisks, covered with sculpture, forests of col- umns, and long avenues of statues of a gigantic size. One of its temples is a mile and a half in circumference. Its history is recorded only by uncertain tradition and poetry, which might be suspected fabulous, did not such mighty witnesses to their truth remain. 13. Founding of the Hebrew or Jewish nation. About 417 years after the flood, mankind appear to have lost, in a great measure, the knowledge and worship of the true God. Abraham, a descendant of Shem, was born in Chaldea, and in the midst of an idolatrous people, re- tained the knowledge of the true religion. By the di- vine direction, he removed into Canaan, which was appointed to be the residence of his posterity. To Abra- ham, God committed the true religion, and formed of his family a peculiar pieople, to whom his will was revealed, and from whom the Messiah, or Saviour, was to proceed. Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, had twelve sons, who were the heads of the twelve tribes of Israel. 14. Bondage of the Hebrews in Egypt. Joseph, one of the twelve sons of Jacob, or Israel, having displeased his brethren, was sold by them to a company of mer- chants, who took him into Egypt. Here, after various trials and changes, he became, (under Pharaoh) lord over Egypt. There being a sore famine in the land of Canaan, Joseph invited his father and brethren into the land of Egypt, where they increased rapidly in numbers. After the death of Joseph, the Israelites had become so numerous and powerful, that they began to be an object of fear to the Egyptians. In order to prevent their pros- 13. What was the state of mankind after the flood 1 Who was Abraham 1 Where born ? What is said of him ? Where did he remove ? What is said of his family ] What of Jacob and his sons 1 14 Who was Joseph 1 What is said of him"? How came the Israelites into E?ypt '^ What is said of the Israelites after the death of Joseph 1 What did the Egyptians do to pre^en their increase ? Did they succeed 1 20 ANCIENT HISTORY. perity and increase, task-masters were set o\ er them, who made their lives miserable with hard bondage, and all their male children were ordered to be destroyed at their birth. It is stated by Moses, the sacred historian, that the more they were afflicted, the more they multi- plied and grew, 15. OfthePhcenicians. The Phoenicians were among the earliest civilized nations in the world. They are called Canaanites in the scriptures, from their living in the land of Canaan. Inhabiting a sterile country, on the borders of the Mediterranean sea, they turned their at- tention to commerce, and were a commercial people in the time of Abraham. Tyre and Sidon, their principal cities, were the most ancient of any we read of in history, and were, in early ages, the greaufest seats of commerce in the world. The Phcenicians colonized various pla- ces bordering on the Mediterranean sea, and its islands, at an early period. They are said to have invented glass, purple, and coinage. The invention of letters has also been ascribed to them, as well as to the Egyp- tians ; and Cadmus^ a Phoenician, is said to have first carried letters into Greece. 16. Colonization of Greece. Civilization appears to have been introduced into Greece by a colony of Phoe- nicians, who founded the kingdom of Argos, 490 years from the deluge, and 1857 before the Christian era. Greece was called, by the natives, Hellas, and the in- habitants, Hellenes. They were extremely barbarous, and they wandered in the woods, without law or gov- ernment, having but little intercourse with each other. It is said they were ignorant of the use of fire, lived on acorns, berries, and raw ilesh, and clothed themselves 15. What were the Phosnicians called in the scriptures 1 Why were they a commercial people ? What is said of Tyre and Sidon ^ Where did the PhcRnicians have colonies? What are they said to have invented ? What is said of Cadmus'? 16. By whom was civilization introduced into Greece "? At what time was the kingdom of Argos founded 1 What was Greece called by the natives 1 What is said of the ancient in- habitants'! On what did they live, and how were they clothed'' When were Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, founded ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 with the skins of wild beasts. Athens^ Sparta^ and Thebes, were founded about 800 years after the deluge, and fifteen centuries before Christ. 17. Grecian States or Kingdoms. The most cele- brated states or republics of Greece were, Athens Sparta, and Thebes: the two leading states were Athens and Sparta. Athens, the capital of Attica, was founded by a colony from Egypt. It was the most celebrated' city in Greece, being distinguished as the seat of learn- ing and the arts. It was also celebrated for its com- merce, wealth, and magniiicence, and was the birth-place of many illustrious men. The Spartans became distiii- guished for military valor and discipline, their singular laws and institutions making them a nation of soldiers. Thebes was founded by Cadmus, the Phoenician. Very Uttle is known respecting its early history ; but in after times, it rose from obscurity, and became celebrated, while Athens and Sparta were in a state of decline. 18. Return of the Hebrews to Canaan. The Hebrews or Israelites, having remained in Egypt 21 5 years, were, by the direction of God. assembled under Moses, their leader, and commanded to leave the country. By a miracle they passed through the Red sea, and the Eg^'ptian army, in pursuing them, were all drowned. Although God continually performed miracles before the Israelites, to supply their wants, yet they murmured and rebelled against him. For this, the nation was compel- led to wander forti/ years between Egypt and Canaan, and the rebellious generation died in the wilderness. 17. What were the most celebrated states of Greece'? Which was the most celebrated city in Greece 1 What is said of Athens 1 For what were the Spartans distinguished 1 What is said of Thebes? 18. How long did the Hebrews remain in Egypt 1 In what manner did they leave Egypt? Why were they compelled to wander in the wilderness? How long? Where did the Is- raelites receive the divine law ? From whom did they receive it? What was the supposed number of the lsraeUt.es at this time? In what manner did this multitude pass through the wilderness ? What became of Moses I Who was his suc- cessor ! 22 ANCIENT HISTORY. While at Mount Sinai, the Israelites received the divine law, and their national institutions from God himself, by the hand of Moses. At this time, it is supposed, they were three millions in number. This vast multi- tude were formed into a regular body, and the utmost order was observed in their marches and encampments. Moses, having arrived m sight of Canaan, died on Mount Nebo, and Joshua, his successor, conducted the people into the promised land. 19. The Decalogue, or Ten Commandments. The ten commandments given to Moses on Mount Sinai, are the most ancient code of laws now in existence. It is a complete summary of all the duties which mankind owe to God and each other ; it enforces the observance of these duties by the powerful motives of gratitude, hope and fear. By it, man is directed to adore and love the true God, the Author of all good ; it commands him to reverence his holy name, and to observe stated times for his worship. Four of these commands, 1, Thou shall not kill ; 2, Thou shalt not commit adultery ; 3. Thou shalt not steal; 4. Thou shalt not bear false wit- ness, have formed the basis of all criminal law in all civilized nations. The concluding commandment is directed against selfishness, the principal source of all crime. 19. What is said respecting the Decalogue < r ten commaml- m^nts 1 What four of them form the basis (f criuunal law '' VV hat is said respecting the tenth 1 PERIOD II. FEOM THE DEATH OF MOSES TO THE FOU/IBING OK ROME (700 YEARS.) iSRdEL "Jerusalem. Map showing places mentioned in Period II. 20. The Siege of Troy. The account of the Trojan war is derived principally from the Iliad, a poem by- Homer, the great poet of antiquity. Although there is much which is fabulous in the poem, yet the main facts are believed to be correctly stated. The war originated in the following manner : Helen, the most beautiful wo- man of her age, ran away from her husband, the king of Sparta, with Paris, the son of the king of Troy, who came to Sparta on a visit. The Greeks united under Agamemnon, Achilles^ and others, and sent a fleet of 1,200 open vessels, which conveyed an army of 100,000 men to the Trojan coast, to avenge the outrage. The 20. From what is the history of the Trojan war derived ? How did the war originate 1 Who were the Greek and Trojan eommanders 1 How long was Troy besieged % How taken 1 24 ANCIENT HISTORY. Trojans, commanded by Hector, Eneas, and otheis, sus- tained a siege of ten years, when the city ^vas e.itered by storm, or stratagem, -.and burnt to the ground. The poets relate that the Greeks made a large wooden horse, which they secretly filled with armed men ; the Trojans having taken possession, they drew it in triumph into the city. In the night the Greeks came out, opened the gates to their companions, who rushed in and made themselves masters of the city. 21. Grecian Games. The Greeks had four solemn games, called the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian. They consisted of contests of skill in wrestling, boxing, running, leaping, and such exercises. There were also horse and chariot races ; contentions of skill between poets, musicians, orators, philosophers, and artists. These games had a great political effect in promoting national union, in extending the love of glory, and training the youth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a spirit of heroism and superstition, which led to great and hazardous enterprises. The Olympic games were instituted 1222 years before Christ, by Hercules, They were not, however, regularly cel- ebrated till 775 years before the Christian era. From this period the Olympiads constitute an epoch in profane history, to which all important events are referred. 22. Religion of the Greeks. The Greeks, and after- wards the Romans, worshiped s^reat numbers of gods and demi-gods, which they divided into a number of classes. The celestial deities were Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Bacchus, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Ve- nus, Diana, Ceres, and Vesta. Jupiter was considered 21. What were the solemn games of the Greeks called ? What did they consist of? What effect did these games have ? When were the Olympic games instituted? At vi-hat time were they regularly celebrated? What is said of them? 22. What did the Greeks and Romans worship? Who were their celestial deities ? What is said of Jupiter ? Apollo ? Mars? Mercury 1 Bacchus? Vulcan? Minerva? Venus? What is said of Neptune ? The Syrens 1 Cupid ? The Nine Muses ? What of deities of a lower order ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 25 the father of gods and men ; Apollo, the god of music and poetry ; Mars, of war ; Mercury, represented with winged feet, was the messenger of the gods ; Bacchus was the god of wine ; Vulcan was patron of those who worked in metals, and is represented as forging thunder- bolts for Jupiter ; Minerca was the goddess of wisdom ; Venus, of love and beauty. These divinities were sup- posed to possess the. passions and infirmities of man- kind ; and even Jupiter, their supreme god, was repre- sented as having recourse to the most unworthy artifices to gratify the basest passions. Among the deities of a lower order, was Neptune, who reigned over the sea ; the Syrens, who were said to have the faces of women, and the lower part of their bodies like fish, and by their melodious voices allured mariners to destruction. Cupid was the god of love ; the Nine Muses, who presided over the liberal arts ; they also had infernal deities, and gods, and goddesses, of the woods, streams, winds, &c. Besides their own they often adopted the gods of other nations. 23. Worship of the Gods. The worship of the Gre- cian divinities was conducted by priests dressed in costly robes, who offered sacrifices of animals, fruits, per- fumes, and sometimes human victims. These sacrifices were sometimes accompanied with prayers, music, and dancing. Various degrees of worship were offered to the gods, and the souls of departed heroes. The tem- ples dedicated to the gods, were very numerous and splendid. Their festivals were observed with every circumstance of pomp and splendor, to charm the eye, and please the imagination. The temples were attend- ed by the idle and vicious, and the most disgraceful licentiousness was often allowed. -Their philosophers appear to have been in doubt respecting a future state of existence ; their poets, however, inculcated a belief in Tartarus, or Hell, and in Elysium, or Paradise. 23. How was the Grecian worship conducted'? What is said of their festivals 1 Their temples 1 Their philosophers ? What belief did their poets inculcate 1 3 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. Priestess of the Delphic Oracle. 24. Grecian Oracles. The oracles were certain tem- ples, where it is said future events were made known to those who sought to know the will of the gods, by means of priests and priestesses, who were supposed to be in- spired by their deities with the power of foretelling what was to come. They obtained such credit among the Greeks, that nothing of importance was undertaken without first consulting the gods. There were several hundred of these oracles in different parts of Greece, but the most celebrated were those of Apollo, at Delphi, and Delos, and the oracle of Jupiter, at Doclona. The Delphic oracle was on Mount Parnassus, the supposed residence of the god Apollo. Here the priestess called Pythia, being placed over a fissure from which proceed- ed a sulphurous vapor, began to foam at the mouth, tore her hair and flesh, ^and the incoherent words uttered during her frenzy, were put in verse, and delivered as he answer of the oracle. At Dodona, the priestess oretold future events by observing attentively the mur- 24. What were the oracles 1 Where were the most cele- brated oracles 1 What is said of the priestess, or Pythia ? Of the priestess at Dodona 1 What kind of answers did the oracles give'^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 27 rniir of the sacred oaks, the voice of falling water, &c. The answers by these oracles were generally given in such obscure language, that they would admit of differ- ent interpretations. 25. Divination, or foretelling of future events. The Greeks also endeavored to obtain a knowledge of future events by dreams, and by observing omens. They were very superstitious in this respect ; almost every acci- dent, or appearance of nature, was believed to be an omen of good or evil. For the purpose of obtaining prophetic dreams, they fasted, clothed themselves ir white, and underwent various ceremonies. In the sacri fees, when the beast was dragged by force to the altar when it kicked, or bellowed, or was long in dying, it was ominous of evil ; if otherwise, the gods were deemed propitious. The entrails of beasts were ex- amined in order to gain a knowledge of the future ; the Grecian augurs, clothed in white, with a crown of gold upon their heads, observed the flight of birds for the same purpose. Toads were accounted lucky omens ; serpents, unlucky ; a hare, in time of war, signified de- feat and flight. Comets and eclipses portended evil, and caused much alarm. 26. The Court of Areopagus. This far-famed court of justice was held in Athens, on Mars' Hill, and so up- right and impartial were its decisions, that they were considered as standards of wisdom and humanity. The Areopagites, or judges, were guardians of education and manners, and took cognizance of crimes, abuses, and matters relating to religion and government. They always heard causes, and passed sentences in the night, or in the dark, so that they might not be led to favor either party on account of their outward appearance. 25. How did the Greeks seek a knowledge of future events 1 What is said of prophetic dreams 1 Of sacrifices ? What of augurs "? Lucky and unlucky omens 1 26. What is said of the court of the Areopagus'? Of the Areopagites 1 When did they hear causes? Why in the dark 1 Why was not oratory or fine speaking allowed 1 What was done when the votes of the judges were equally divided ? 28 ANCIENT HISTORY. No oratory, or fine speaking, was allowed, lest it should corrupt their judgment, and in this august tribunal nothing was attended to but truth alone. If the votes were equally divided, Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was supposed to add her vote or suffrage, and always to in- cline on the side of mercy. 27. The Israelites. Alter the death of Moses and Joshua, the Israelites were under the direction of leaders called Judges, during the space of about 350 years. The people, dissatisfied with the immediate government of God, desired a king, in order to be like the nations around them. About 1 1 00 years before Christ, Saul was appointed their sovereign. He was a warlike prince, but was finally, with his three sons, killed on Mount Gilboa. He was succeeded by David, who was distinguished for his skill in war, music, and poetry. He restored the purity of the Hebrew worship, conquer- ed the enemies of his country, and commenced building Jerusalem, which afterwards was the royal residence. He made an alliance with Hiram, king of Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, then a powerful and wealthy king- dom, and collected materials for building the magnifi- cent temple of Solomon. 28. The Reign of Solomon. When Solomon suc- ceeded to the throne of his father, David, the Israelitish nation had arrived to its height of splendor and power. The dedication of Solomon's Temple, at Jerusalem, took place one thousand and four years before Christ. The building of this structure was completed in seven years. An immense amount of gold was used in its construc- tion, and it was probably the most superb and costly edifice the world ever saw. The reign of Solomon was attended with peace, prosperity, and abundance ; but to- 27. After the death of Moses and Joshua, who were the leaders of the Israelites ? Why did they desire a king 1 What is said of Saul ^ Who was his successor! What is said of David T With whom did he make an alliance 1 28. Who succeeded David? What is said of Solomon's Temple T What is said of the reign of Solomon 1 What ol the ten tribes ^ What tribes formed the kingdom of Judah ANCIENT HISTORY. 29 wards the close of his life he became luxurious and ef- feminate, and by the sin of idolatry brought dishonor and distress upon the nation. About thirty years after the dedication of the temple, ten tribes of the Israelites revolted from Rehoboam,the son of Solomon, and foimed a separate kingdom, which was called the Kingdom of Israel; the tribes of Judah and Benjamin continued their allegiance to Rehoboam, and formed the Kingdom of Judah. 29 Homcr.^ the Grecian Poet. Homer, the great poet of antiquity, is supposed to have lived in Greece about the time of Solomon. He is supposed to have been a wandering minstrel, and in that capacity composed in detached parts these sublime stories, which in 367 years afterwards were collected into two poems, the Iliad, which is a description of the Trojan war, and the Odys- sey, in which is described the return of Ulysses from the siege of Troy. These poems, which have been the admiration of all succeeding ages, are distinguished for their minute description of ancient manners, their fire, sublimity, and eloquence, which hardly have been equalled by any succeeding poet. The ancients had such a veneration of Homer, that they raised temples and statues to his memory, and even offered sacrifices and worshiped him as a god. 30. Republic of Sparta. Lacedemon, or Sparta, a weak and distracted state, arose to great power and dis- tinction among the Grecian states, by the introduction of the institutions of Lycurgus. This lawgiver gave most of his attention to the regulation of manners ; one of the leading principles which governed his system, was that " Luxury is the bane of society." His regu- lations appear to have had no other end than to form a nation of soldiers. All the servile offices were perform- ed by the Helots, or slaves, whonx they treated with se- 29. At what time is Homer supposed to have lived? What is said of him ? What is said of the Iliad and Odyssey ? For what are these poems distinguished 1 30. How did Sparta become powerful ] What was one of the leading principles of his system 1 What appeared to be 3* 30 ANCIENT HISTORY. verity, and often killed for sport. Lycurgus having bound his countrymen by an oath to observe his laws till he returned, he left Sparta, it is said, with the in- tention of never returning, and in order to give sanction and durability to his laws, he starved himself to death The Spartans observed his laws for 500 years, during which time they continued a powerful people. 31. Laws of Lycurgus. 1/ycurgus made an equal di- vision of land among the people, and to prevent their becoming rich by commerce, he destroyed the value of gold and silver, and ordered all money to be made of iron. This iron money was of no value in any other state, and even by the Spartans themselves, it was des- pised. It was ordained that all the citizens should eat at the public tables, where the food was of the plainest kind, and the conversation grave and instructive. Every man was obliged to send his provisions to the common stock once a month. The Spartan children were considered as belonging to the state, and at the age of seven years were taken from their parents and put into classes for a public education. They were taught the duties of religion, obedience to the laws, re- spect for parents, contempt of danger and hardship, and above all, the love of glory and of their country. Al- though there was much which is worthy of praise, yet there were some evils in their institutions. The Spar- tan women were taught to be bold and immodest ; the youth were taught to subdue the feelings of kindness and humanity, and in some instances theft was allowed. 32. Republic of Athens. Athens was at the first governed by kings. A war having been waged against Athens, it was declared by an oracle, that the nation whose king was first killed in battle, should be victori- ous. Codrus, disguising himself, went into the camp the object of his regulations 1 What is said of the Helots, or slaves? What became of Lycurgus"? How long did the Spartans Observe his laws 1 31. How did Lycurgus prevent the people from becoming richl Where did the citizens take their food ? What is said of their children? What v/ere they taught'' What were some of the evils of the Spartan institutions'' ANCIENT HISTORY. 31 of the enemy and sacrificed his life for the good of hi. country. Tlie Athenians were the conquerors ; and to honor the memory of Codrus, they decreed that no man was fit to reign after him, and therefore changed the government by appointing nine persons as magistrates, who were styled Archons. This took place 1070 years before Christ. The manners of the Athenians formed strong contrast to those of the Spartans. In Athens the arts were highly esteemed ; in Sparta they were despised. In Athens peace was the natural state of the republic, while war seemed to be the great busi- ness of life with the Spartans. The Athenian was luxu- rious, and the Spartan frugal ; they were, however, equally jealous of their liberty, and equally brave in war. 33. Draco and Solon. These celebrated lawgivers of Athens, Draco and Solon, flourished about six hun- dred years before the Christian era. Draco prepared the first written code of laws which the Athenians pos- sessed. His laws, on account of their severity, are said to have been written in blood. By them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder, and death was the penalty of both. Such was the inhu- manity of these laws, that it prevented their being fully executed. Solon, one of the " seven wise men of Greece," in one of his first acts repealed the laws of Draco. The general character of his laws was mild, equitable, and adapted to the prevailing habits of the people. The fa- ther who did not lea( ti his son a trade, could not claim any support from him in his old age. It was forbidden to use ill language in public. The proposer of a law, which was found on experience to be. impolitic, was lia- ble to punishment. Those persons who on questions 32- Hovi^ was Athens first governed 1 What is said of Codrus 1 How was the government changed 1 What was the difference between the Athenians and Spartans 1 33. Who were the lawgivers of Athens 1 At what time did they flourish? What is said of the laws of Draco 1 Who was Solon? What was the general character of his laws 1 Mention some of them. What was done to those who would not declare their sentiments ] 32 A?JCIENT HISTORY. of importance to the country, refused to declare their sentiments till they could see which was the strongest party, were declared infamous, condemned to banish- ment, and their property confiscated. 34. Founding of Carthage. Carthage, in Africa, is said to have been founded upwards of 869 years be- fore the Christian era, and about 100 before the build- ing of Rome. It existed more than seven hundred years. It is said to have been founded by Dido, a prin- cess, with a colony from Tyre. The government at first was monarchical, but became afterwards republican, and it retained, in a great measure, the laws and man- ners of the parent state. Commerce was the principal business of the Carthaginians ; and by means of their wealth they hired foreign troops, conquered various places lying on the borders of the Mediterranean sea, and established colonies. Their history was not much known till their war with the Romans ; they are gen- erally represented as avaricious, and as wanting in in- tegrity and honor. During the period of the Cartha- ginian, or Punic wars, Carthage, with a population of 700,000, became one of the most splendid cities in the world. It had under its dominion 300 smaller cities, in various places bordering on the Mediterranean. ^ 35. Founding of Rome by Romulus. The early his- tory of the Romans, like that of other ancient nations, is mixed with fable. The most authentic account we have, is, that Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 years before the Christian era. The city took its name from its founder, and it appears to have been first peopled by runaway slaves and criminals. Romulus being king, made his new city an asylum for fugitive slaves, and by a stratagem at a public festival, his subjects seized and carried off the Sabine women for wives. P^or about 250 years Rome was governed by kings ; afterwards the form of government became republican. The Romans 34. When was Carthage founded 1 By whom 1 What is said of its government ? What was their principal business ? How is their character generally represented 1 What is said of Carthage durini^r the Punic wars'? ANCIENT HISTORY. 33 were generally at variance with the tribes around them and generally settled their disputes by battles, in which they were most always victorious. The citizens of Rome were divided into two classes, the Patricians, who were the nobility, or higher classes, and the Plebeians or common people. Between these two orders many broils and dissentions occurred. 35 What is said of the early history of Rome ? By whom founded and at what time ? How was it first peopled ? Wha dh^Pd'i ' wf ^^"' ''T%- Howwerethe citizens of Rome divided] Who were the Patricians ? Who were Plebeians ' PERIOD III. raOM THE FOUNDING OF ROME TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER (4:30 YEARS.) 36, Captivity of the Ten Tribes. The ten tribes of Israel existed in a separate kingdom for about 250 years, v/hich was called the kingdom of Israel, of which Sa- maria was the capital, their kings were idolaters, and the nation were sunk in wickedness. In 721 years be- fore Christ, Shalmanezer, kir^g of Nineveh, besieged Samaria, and after a siege of three years, the city was surrendered, and the people carried captives into the mountainous regions of the interior of Asia. From this period they ceased to exist as an independent nation, and we have no authentic history respecting their fate. It 36. What kingdom did the ten tribes form ? How long did it exist 1 What was the capital "? What is said of their kings and nations 1 By whom were they carried into captivity, and where ] What is said of their fate as a nation ? In the time of our Saviour, who were called Samaritans ] ANCIENT HISTORY. 35 is supposed by some, that tliey are still existing as a distinct people somewhere in Asia. Some few people belonging to the tribes remained in Canaan, and were intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture sprung the motley race, who, in the time of our Saviour, were called Samaritans, and held in contempt by the Jews. 37. Captivity of the Jews in Babijlon. About a cen- tury after the captivity of the ten tribes, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem by storm,* after a siege of twelve months. The city, with the temple built by Solomon, was leveled with the dust, 588 years before the coming of Christ. Zedekiah, the Jewish king, after the murder of his children in his presence, had his eyes put out, aad then carried captive to Babylon. All the principal persons and the skillful artists of every kind, and the sacred treasures of the temple, were likewise ,aken away, and the country laid waste. The Jews, according to the prophecy of Daniel^ one of the captives, remained in captivity just seventy years, and were re- stored to their country by Cyrus, the conqueror of Bab- ylon, who permitted them to rebuild their city and its temple. The scripture narrative in the Old Testament, ends about 100 years after this period. 38. Conquest uf Babylon by Cyrus. This celebrated city, one of the wonders of the world, was taken by Cyrus, the Persian, 538 years before Christ, and by this event the Babylonian or Assyrian Empire was ended. Cyrus having defeated Belshazzar, the king of Babylon, he retreated to his capital, which the Persians imme- diately besieged. The city was fortified in such a manner, that it seemed impossible to take possession. It was, however, taken by a stratagem : a channel was 37. When did Nebuchadnezzar take Jerusalem ? What is said of the siege and temple ^ What of Zedekiah ] How long did the Jews remain in captivity"? By whom were they restored! At what period does the scripture narrative end? 38. By whom was Babylon taken ] In what manner 1 What is said of Belshazzar "? What remarkable appearance? What is said of Isaiah ] What of his predictions 1 * A violent attpmpt in going over walls or through gates. 36 ANCIENT HISTORY. dug to turn the course of the river Euphrates, which passed through the city. A great festival was to be celebrated in the city, in which the Babylonians were accustomed to pass the whole night in drinking and de- bauchery. Cyrus, on this night, opened the channel to receive the w^ater of the Euphrates, v/hich soon be- came dry, and marched his troops in the bed of the river into the city. Belshazzar and his nobles, while revel- ing with wine, drank from the sacred vessels taken from the temple of Jerusalem, were suddenly arrested by the appearance of a hand-writing on the wall, warning Bel- shazzar of the destruction of his kingdom. The troops of Cyrus finding the gates open on the hanks of the river, entered the city almost without resistance, and slew Belshazzar and his attendants. Isaiah, the sacred prophet, many ages before its final accomplishment, foretold its utter desolation, in the fol- lowing words : " And Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency, shall he as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation." So completely has this pre- diction been fulfilled, that it has been a matter of dispute where the city stood. 39. Persian Empire. There is but little known re- specting the early history of the Persians. They rose into notice and power by the conquest of Cyrus, who is celebrated both in profane and sacred history. Cyrus was the son of a Persian nobleman, and married the daughter of the king of the Medes, and by this means Persia and Media became one kingdom. He conquered the Lydians^ made himself master of Sardis, their caj)- ital, and took prisoner their king Crasus, so celebrated for his vast riches. He conquered Babylon and sub- jected the greatest part of Asia Minor, and made him- self master of Syria and Arabia. Cyrus was a great 39. What is said of the early history of the Persians ] What is said of Gyrus! Of Persia and Media ] Relate the con- quests of Cyrus. How long did the Persian Empire continue I How was it ended ? ANCIENT HISTORY 37 and virtuous king ; he spent the last part of his life in regulating his vast conquests, being beloved not only by his own natural subjects, but those of the conquered nations. The Persian Empire continued for two hun- dred years, when it was ended by the conquests of A.lexander the Great. Persians Worsfiiping tfie Sun. 40. Religion of the Persians. The religion of the ancient Persians was of great antiquity. Zoroaster was the founder of the sect of the Magi, in the eastern world, and particularly in Persia. This set adored the sun, and paid great veneration to fire ; hence they were called fire worshipers. The keeping of the sacred fire was en- trusted to the Magi, and it was always carried before their kings in all their marches, with the greatest re- spect, and it would have been deemed the greatest mis- fortune, had it been suffered to go out. In their tenets, they believed there were two principles in existence, one the cause of all good, the other the cause of all evil, and that there is a perpetual struggle between them, which will last to the end of the world. The priests of the Magi were deeply skilled in astronomy, and all the learning of the age in which they lived. They were so much superior in knowledge to the rest of mankind, that they were thought by the vulgar to be inspired by su- pernatural powers. Hence in after ages, those who 40. Who was Zoroaster T What is said of the Magi 1 What was their belief] What is said of the priests of the Magi ^ What of Magic and Magicians ? 38 ANCIENT HISTORY. performed any act which seemed to be beyond human power, were said to have used Magic, and were called Magicians. 41. Government, and Laws. The government of Per- sia was an absolute monarchy ; the will of the monarch was law, and his person held sacred. He always ap- peared with great pomp and dignity : having at some periods a body-guard of 13,000 men, besides another guard of 10,000 horsemen, styled the Immortals, their number being always the same. The king, like the rest of the eastern monarchs, styled himself " The King of Kings.^^ The laws of Persia were mild and just, and the utmost purity was observed in the administration of justice. The ancient Persians bestowed great attention to the education of youth. Children at the age of five years were put under the care of the Magi for the im- provement of their minds, and were at the same time trained to every manly exercise. Before they were corrupted and weakened by the luxury of later times, the Persians were temperate, brave, simple, and virtu- ous in their manners. 42. Implements of War. The ordinary arms of the Persian and other eastern nations, were a scimitar, a short curved sword, a dagger which hung in a belt on the right side ; ^javelin, a short spear pointed with iron, five and a half feet in length. Spears, or lances, shields^ hows, arrows, and slings, were used. They covered the most exposed parts of their bodies, and also their horses, with an armor of brass. They often used chariots armed with sythes : these had only two wheels, with sythes three feet long, placed horizontally into both ends ){ the axletree ; other sythes were also placed under the same axletree, with their edges turned to the ground, that they might cut in pieces men and horses, over which 41. What was the government of Persia 1 What is said oi the Persian monarch 1 What of his guard 1 What of the laws of Persia ? Of the education of children "? Of the Persian manners 1 42. What were the ordinary arms of the eastern nations ? VVhat was a scimitar ? A javelin 1 What is said of their ar- mor ^ Of" their chariots'? How drawn and occupied? ANCIENT HISTORY. 39 they passed. The chariots were generally drawn by four horses abreast, and were occupied by two distin- guished v/arriors. When an opportunity occurred, they drove furiously into the ranks of the enemy, and did horrid execution, 43. Method of attaching and defending places. The first course taken in besieging a place, was to blockade It, by building a wall around it. This was to prevent succors or provisions being brought in.' In this manner they waited till the besieged were reduced by famine ; and Ave read of some instances where cities were be- sieged for more than ten years. This being very tedious, the walls of places were sometimes scaled, by means of ladders. In order to prevent this, the walls were often built very high, and towers were built at intervals in the walls still higher, so that the ladders of the be- siegers might not he able to reach the summit. Another method of attack was, to build a wooden movable tower, still higher than the walls, which was moved against them. On the top of these movable towers, a body of soldiers was placed, who, with their darts and arrows, cleared the walls of the city of its defenders, and thus effected an entrance. The ancients also used the hatter- ing-ram, a vast beam of timber, with a strong head of brass or iron at one end, which was pushed with the utmost force against the walls. 44. War between the Greeks and Persians. The con- quest of the Grecian states seems to have been a favorite object with the Persians from the time of Cyrus. Theii growing power and independent spirit were wounding to the pride of the monarchs of Asia. Greece was at this time composed of a number of small and independent states, jealous of each other, and often engaged in quar- rels and hostilities : Athens and Sparta, however, had obtained a pre-eminence. The invasion of the Persians 43. What was the first course in besieging a place? How long were cities sometimes besieged T How did they prevent the scaling of walls "? What is said of movable towers T O* the battering-ram 1 44. What was a favorite object with the Persians'? Hov- 40 ANCIENT HISTORY. had the effect of uniting them in one common effort for the preservation of their liberties, and thus, by awaken- ing a national spirit, laid the foundation of their future greatness. Darius, the Persian king, sent heralds into Greece, and demanded of all the states, " earth and iDater,''' the usual token of submission to his government. Many of the cities and islands submitted ; but Athens and Sparta, instead of offering up " earth and water," threw the heralds, one into a well, the other into a ditch, and contemptuously bade them take earth and water from thence. 45. Battle of Marathon. The Persian army, having approached Athens, encamped on the plains of Mara- thon, about ten miles from the city, which they sum- moned to surrender. The Athenians, 10,000 heroes, under Miltiades, fired with patriotism, marched on to Marathon, to oppose ten times their number in the Per- sian host. The strength of the Persians consisted much in its cavalry : Miltiades, therefore, drew up his little army on a narrow plain, where the cavalry could not ■ict to advantage. The Persian commander, although aware of the skillful disj)osition of the Greeks, was too confident of the superiority of his numbers, to delay the battle. The signal for action being given, the Atheni- ans advanced running, and at once engaged the enemy in close fight. The battle was fierce and obstinate ; but Grecian valor prevailed, and the whole Persian army retreated in disorder to their ships. The loss of the Persians was more than six thousand men, while the Greeks lost but two hundred. This was one of the most important battles ever fought in ancient times, and on its event seemed to depend the liberty of Greece, and the progress of the refinement of mankind. It took place 490 years before the Christian era. was Greece at this period 1 What was the effect of the Per- sian invasion 1 What is said of Darius] How were the Per- sian heralds treated by Athens and Sparta? 45. How many Athenians engaged in the battle of Mara- thon 1 How many Persians 1 Describe the order of the bat- tle. What was the loss of the Persians 1 The Greeks 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 41 46. Ingratitude of the Athenians. Miltiades, by this nctory, rose to the highest popularity in the republic, and was sent with a fleet to expel ihe Persians from the Grecian islands. He laid siege to Paros, but being dangerously wounded, in attempting to enter the town, raised the siege, and was obliged to return to Athens. On the accusation of one of the citizens, he was tried for treason. Though he was absolved from the capital charge, yet he was condemned to pay a fine of fifty talents. Being unable to pay this fine, he was thrown into prison, where he died of the wouads received in the service of his ungrateful country. Even his body was not allowed to be buried, until his son Cimon, who was very young, had procured the money and paid the fine. 47. Xerxes^ the Persian. Xerxes, the young mon- arch, having succeeded to the throne of Persia, was eager to subdue Greece, and avenge the defeat of his father. Having spent four years in preparation, he col- lected the greatest army the world ever saw. The whole number of fighting men in the army and fleet, exceeded two millions ; and, including the camp follow- ers, the sutlers, slaves, and women, the whole number is said to have exceeded Jive millions. The fleet con- sisted of 1200 ships of war, and 3000 ships of burthen. It is related that Xerxes, having taken a station on an eminence, in order to gratify his vanity, by viewing the vast assemblage which he had collected, — the earth covered with his troops, the sea with his vessels, — is said to have shed tears, on the reflection that, in the space of one hundred years, not one of the vast multi- tude before him would be found alive. 48. Battle of Thermopyl(B. Landing in Thessaly, Xerxes marched without opposition, till he came to Thermopyl(E, a narrow pass defended by Leonidas, king of Sparta, whom he commanded to deliver up his arms. 46. What is said of Miltiades 1 How was he treated after his return from the siege of Paros 1 47. What is said of Xerxes ] How many fighting men did he have 1 And how many followers 1 What is related of Xerxes, on viewing his vast army ] A* ANCIENT HISTORY. Leonidas, with the Spartan Band, at Thermo'pylcE. With Spartan brevity, Leonidas replied, " Come and take them!''' For two days, the Persians in vain strove to force their vv^ay. At length, an unguarded track was discovered ; the defence of the pass was of no avail. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, commanded all to retire, except three hundred of his countrymen. His motive was, to show the Persians what sort of people they had to encounter, and to acquire immortal fame, in obedience to a law of his country, which forbade its soldiers to flee from an enemy. They all fell, to a man, after having made dreadful havoc of the enemy. A monument was erected on the spot, bearing this noble inscription : " Go, stranger^ tell it at Lacedemon, that we died here in obedience to her laws!^ 49. Defeat of the Persians. From Thermopylee the Persians came down upon Attica. The inhabitants of Athens, after conveying their women and children to the islands for security, betook themselves to their fleet, and abandoned the city, which was pillaged and burnt by the Persians. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting 48. Who was Leonidas 1 What was his reply to Xerxes'? What did Leonidas do, when he foresaw his destruction "? W'hat was the inscription on the monument of the Spartans ANCIENT HISTORY. 43 of 380 sail, was attacked by the Persian fleet, consist- ing of 1200 ships, in the straits of Salamis. Xerxes, from an eminence on the coast, saw the destruction of his fleet, and determined to return, with all possible speed, to Asia. Leaving Mardonius, with 300,000 chosen men, to prosecute the war, he retreated towards the Hellespont, which he crossed in a small fishing-boat, with scarcely a remnant of his followers with him, they having died of famine, fatigue, and pestilence. Mar- donius was totally defeated at Platcea, 479 years before Christ. From this time, the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an end, and he himself was soon after murdered. 50. War of the Peloponnesus. This civil war among the Greeks commenced about 430 years before the Christian era, and continued for twenty-seven years. It is called the Peloponnesian war, from the peninsula of that name, (now iMorea,) in which the southern Gre- cian states were situated. It was partly caused by Athens, who wished to rule the rest of Greece, and partly from the jealousy of Sparta and the other Grecian states, who bore with impatience the supremacy of Athens. All the Greeks partook in this destructive quarrel, and arranged themselves on the side of Sparta or of Athens. The Spartans were generally the most powerful on the land, the Athenians on the sea. Sparta menaced Athens with all her forces, ravaged the coun- try, and blockaded the inhabitants whhin their walls. A-thens avenged herself by landing her forces at various places, and by laying waste the country of her enemies, compelling them to fiy to the defense of their own habi- tations. Although this contest took place at an era dis- tinguished for refinement, philosophy, and the cultiva- 49. How were the Persians defeated ? What did Xerxes do, after the defeat of his fleet "^ 50. At what time did the Peloponnesian war commence, and how long did it continue 1 How did it originate ] Who were the most powerful on land ] Who on the sea ? What is said of this contest ] 44 ANCIENT HISTORY tion of the arts, yet it was carried on with the utmost party rage and savage ferocity. 51. Defeat of the Athenians. Lysander, one of the ablest of the Spartan commanders, having utterly defeat- ed the Athenian fleet, reduced Athens to great distress. The city was blockaded by land and sea, and the Athe- nians, to avoid total destruction, agreed ft) demolish their port and all their fortifications. They also agreed to limit their fleet to twelve ships, and in future under- take no military enterprise, except under the command of the Spartans. By these means Lacedemon, or Spar- ta, became the leading power in Greece. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the popular government, and in its place, thirty magistrates were appointed, whose power was absolute. The magis- trates, from their acts of cruelty, were called the " thirty tyrantsP In the space of eight months 1500 citizens were sacrificed to their avarice, or vengeance, and many fled from their country. At length a band of patriots attacked, vanquished, and expelled these usurpers, and once more established a democratic form of government 52. War between Sparta and Thebes. While Athens and Sparta were visibly declining, the Theban republic rose from obscurity. Sparta was jealous of its rising greatness : a war between the two states ensued. The two armies met at Leucira ; the Spartan forces, consist- ing of 25,000 men, were defeated by the Thebans, who had only 6,400, but were commanded by Epaminondas^ the greatest soldier of his time. In the battle, the Spartan king, and 4,000 of his men, were killed ; the Theban loss was but 300. The Spartans had never before received so severe a wound as this battle. The victorious Thebans now overran the territories of Sparta, and carried fire and sword to the very suburbs of the 51. Who defeated the Athenians^ What did the Athenians do] W^hat was done after Athens was reduced'? What is said of the magistrates 1 52. By whom were the Spartans defeated ? State the number and losses of each army. What is said of the Spar- tan territories ] ANv^IENT HISTORf. 45 capital. This country had not been ravaged by a hos- tile army for 600 years ; and the boast of the inhabi- tants, " that never had the women of Sparta beheld the smoke of an enemy's camp,'^ was now done away. 53. Epaminondas, the Theban General. Epaminon- das is considered as one of the greatest characters of Greece ; he was distinguished for patriotism, learning, military talents, and private virtues. When he returned to Thebes, after his victory at Leuctra, he was seized as a traitor, for having violated a law of his country, which prohibited any citizen retaining the supreme command for more than one month. In answer to this he said, that he would submit to the law of his country, but he wished to have it inscribed on his tomb, " that he suffered death for saving his country from ruin" This reproach was felt, he was pardoned, and again invested with the sovereign command. After a variety of conflicts, the combined forces of Sparta and Athens met the The- ban army at MantincEa. A severe battle ensued, in which the Thebans gained a complete victory. Epami- nondas, however, was killed in this battle. He had raised his country to the highest eminence in military renown, but its power and splendor perished with him, 363 years before the Christian era. The battle of MantinoBa was followed by a peace between all the Gre- cian states, which established their independence. 54. Grecian Philosophy. Philosophy among the Greeks was said to be, the love and the pursuit of know- ledge, or wisdom, and comprehended two distinct branch- es, namely, the study of nature, which elevates and eno- bles the soul, and the study of morals, which inspires us with virtue, and leads us to happiness. After the time of Homer, the increasing relish for poetic compo- sition gave rise to a set of men called Rhapsodists, who used to recite the compositions of the older poets, on public occasions, and make comments on their merits 53. What is said of Epaminondas 1 Why was he seized as a traitor ] What was done with him 1 What did he do %i his country 1 What effect did his death have ? 46 ANCIENT HISTORY. and doctrines. Some of them established schools, and were dignified with the titles of Sophists, or teachers of wisdom. Hence originated various schools, or systems of philosophy, many of which were but little else than a picture of the folly and caprice of the human mind. Some of the philosophers believed in the immortality of the soul, and in the rewards and punishments of a fu- ture life, while by others it was supposed that the soul perished with the body. 55. Socrates, the Philosopher. Socrates, the wisest, the most virtuous, and the most celebrated philosopher of antiquity, was born at Athens, 470 years before Christ. He was fond of labor, inured to hardships, and was calm and serene in the midst of dangers and calamities. He bore injuries with patience, which virtue he had suffi- cient opportunities to practice towards his wife Xantippe, a woman of the most whimsical and provoking temper. His principal employment was the instruction of youth ; he kept, however, no fixed public school, but took every opportunity to deliver his lectures, which were given in the most enticing and agreeable manner. He was at- tended with a number of illustrious pupils, whom he in- structed by his exemplary life, as well as by his doc- trines. He spoke with freedom on various subjects, re- ligious as well as civil. This independence of spirit, and superiority of mind over the rest of his countrymen, created him many enemies. Socrates taught the belief of ^ first cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, the Creator and Ruler of the universe. He also taught the immortality of the soul, and a state of future rewards and punishments. 56. Death of Socrates. Socrates was accused by his enemies of corrupting the Athenian youth, of making in- novations in the religion of the Greeks, and of ridiculing 54. What was philosophy among the Greeks said to be ] What did it comprehend ] What is said of the Rhapsodists 1 The Sophists ? What is said of the systems of philosophy, and the philosophers'? 55. Who was Socrates, and where was he born, and at what time ■? What is said of him 1 What did he teach ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 47 Socrates about to drink the Hemlock poison. the gods. He was summoned before the council of live hundred, and by a majority of three, was condemned to death by drinking hemlock. In his defense he spoke with great animation, and the whole of his' discourse was full of simplicity and noble grandeur. The hour appointed for drinking the hemlock having come, they brought him the cup, which he received without any emotion, and then addressed a prayer to heaven ; he then drank off the poison with the utmost tranquillity. Observing his friends weeping, he reproved them with the greatest mildness, for, says he, " I have always heard that it is our duty calmly to resign our breath, giving thanks to God." After walking about a little while, feeling the poison begin to work, he lay down on his couch, and in a few moments expired, at the age of 70 years. After his death the Athenians lamented his fate, and considered the misfortunes which afterwards befell the republic, as a punishment for the injustice of putting him to death. 57. Plato, the Philosopher. Plato, a celebrated philos- 56. Of what was Socrates accused ? him ] Relate the manner of his death, his friends 1 What was done wi h What did he say lo 48 ANCIENT HISTORY. opher of Athens, was at the age of twenty introduced to Socrates, and during eight years continued to be his pupil. After the death of Socrates, Plato visited Egypt, Persia, and other places, for the purpose of improving himself in the various branches of knowledge. On his return, he gave public lectures in the public grove called the Academy^ which was adorned with temples, statues, &c., and his disciples were called the Acade?nic sect. He was attended by crowds of noble and illustrious pu- pils, and for forty years labored in teaching the sublimest precepts, and composing those dialogues which have been the admiration of every age. His writings were so celebrated, and his opinions so respected, that he was called divine. Plato had the most sublime ideas of the Supreme Being; he taught, that amid all the changes and afflictions of life, man was an object of his regard, and that his soul was immortal. His philosophy and ideas were remarkably refined ; hence those sentiments and affections which are highly refined, pure, and spir- itual, are called Platonic. Plato died in the 81st year of his age, 348 years before Christ. 58. Pythagoras. This philosopher, the founder of the Italian, or Pythagorean sect, was born at Samos, it is supposed about 550 years before the Christian era. Py- thagoras introduced into the western world a doctrine which it was supposed he obtained somewhere in the East, during his travels, namely, that of the transmigra- tion of souls ; which taught, that when men died, their souls passed into, and animated other bodies. If, for ex- ample, a man was wicked, his soul animated the body of some unclean animal, and passed through a progress of misery, proportioned to his crimes in this life. His disciples lived in common, strictly abstained from eating flesh, and held music in high estimation, as a corrector of the passions. Pythagoras was also distinguished for his discoveries in geometry, astronomy, and mathe- matics. His system of the universe, in which he 57. Who was Plato 1 Where did he give iEctures I What were his disciples called 1 What did he teach 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 49 placed the sun in the center, and all the planets moving about it, was deemed a wild fancy, till it was proved to be true by the discoveries of modern times. 59. Cynic Philosophers. Antisthents, a disciple of Socrates, founded the sect of the Cynics, so celebrated for the austerity of its maxims, and audacity of its follow- ers. Virtue, in their opinion, consisted in a great meas- ure in renouncing all the conveniences of life. They clothed themselves in rags, slept and eat in the streets, condemned knowledge as useless, and indulged them- selves in censuring all the rest of mankind. Diogenes was also a philosopher of this sect. When he came to Athens, Antisth^nes at first refused to admit him into his house, and even struck him with a stick. Diogenes calmly said, " Strike, but never shall you find a stick hard enough to remove me from your presence, whilst there is any thing to be gained from your conversation and acquaintance." Such firmness recommended him to Antisthenes, and he became his most devoted pupil. Diogenes walked about with a tub or cask on his head, which served him as a house, and a place of repose. Such singularity, joined to the greatest contempt for riches, gained him great reputation, and Alexander the Great condescended to visit him in his tub. He asked Diogenes if there was any thing in which he could gratify or oblige him ? " Get out of my sunshine,^^ was the only answer from the philosopher. 60. Of the Stoics. The sect of the Stoics was founded by Zeno, a native of Cyprus, who died 264 years before Christ, at the age of 98. His followers derived their name from a portico at Athens, where Zeno gave his lectures. The Stoics believed that all 58. Who was Pythagoras 1 Where born, and at what time 1 What doctrine did he introduce ? What is said of his disci- ples ? In what discoveries was he distinguished ] What is said of his system of the universe ? 59. Who was the founder of the Cynics'? What were their opinions and manners 1 What is said of Diogenes 1 What did he say to Alexander the Great 1 60. By whom was the sect of Stoics ounded ? From what 5 50 ANCIENT HISTORY. nature, and God himself, the soul of the universe, was regulated by fixed and unalterable laws ; that every thing took place by unaA^oidable necessity, or fate. Their chief aim seems to have been, to render them- selves insensible to the miseries incident to human life. For this purpose they labored to convince themselves that " everything that happens, is for the best." " One part of valuable knowledge," said Zeno, " is to be igno- rant of what we ought not to know." A perfect Stoic did not regard even pain as an evil. Their philosophy was calculated to render them devoid of passion and frailty ; and it must be allowed, that some of the greatest and most virtuous men of antiquity embraced the prin- ciples of the Stoic philosophers. 61. Of the Epicureans. This sect was founded by Epicurus, who was born near Athens, about 200 years before Christ. He gave proofs of his great genius at an early age. After having improved his mind by travel- ing in many countries, and hearing the lectures of the wise men of the age, he established himself at Athens, at that time the common resort of philosophers of every sect. By the sweetness and gravity of his manners, and by his social virtues, he soon attracted followers. He taught them, that the happiness of mankind consisted in pleasure ; not such as arises from sensual gratifica- tions and vice, but from the enjoyments of the mind, and the practice of virtue. Epicurus, however, held that the Deity was indifferent to the actions of men. His doctrines were rapidly spread over the world, and as the great majority of mankind, practically at least, appear to consider the gratification of the senses as the greatest pleasure, in preference to the practice of virtue, the morals of the people were undermined and destroyed. So addicted were those who professed to be his follow- ers, to ghittony, intemperance, &c., thut to this day was their name derived ] What was their belief] What is said of the Stoics and their philosophy] 61. By whom were the Epicureans founded ' Whatissaid of Epicurus ] What did he teach ? What is said of his doctrines 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 51 those who indulge their appetites in like mai^ner, are called Epicures. 62 Of Aristotle and Pyrrho. Aristotle was a native of Macedonia. He went to Athens and spent twenty- years under the instructions of Plato, and afterwards opened a school for himself. He was a number of years instructor to Alexander the Great. The writings of Aristotle treat of almost every branch of knowledge known in his time : moral and natural philosophy, met- aphysics, grammar, criticism, and politics, all occupied his attention. His philosophy had great influence over the minds of men during sixteen centuries. Pyrrho was a sceptic philosopher in Greece, who flourished about 300 years before Christ. The Sceptics held that universal doubt is the only true wisdom ; and in their opinion, there was no material diflference between virtue and vice. Tranquillity of mind they considered as the state of the greatest happiness, and this w.as to be ob- tained by indifl"erence to all creeds and opinions. When Pyrrho was at sea, during a storm, and destruction seemed inevitable, he appeared calm and unconcerned, and pointing to a pig at the time quietly feeding, he told the crew, who were lost in lamentations, " this is a true model of a wise man." 63. Grecian Historians. Herodotus, the first authen- tic historian among the Greeks, was born in Asia Minor, about 484 years before the Christian era. In his travels he made himself acquainted with the history of othei countries ; he arranged the materials which he had coU lected into the history which is still preserved. He re- cited to the people, at the Olympic games, the historj- he had composed ; it was received with such applause, that the name of the Nine Muses was given to the nine books into which it was divided, and procured for its author the title of " father of history." Thucydides, a few years younger than Herodotus, 62. What is said of Aristotle'' How long did his philoso- phy have influence ] Who was Pyrrho 1 What is said of the Sceptics ] Relate an anecdote of Pyrrho. 52 ANCIENT HISTORY. wrote with great ability the history of the first twenty- one years of the Peloponnesian, or civil war of Greece. He was a commander in this war for seven or eight years, examined every thing, collected materials, and made accurate memorandums of every transaction. Having lived in exile a number of years, he had suffi- cient leisure to execute his purpose. His history is distinguished for the fire of his descriptions, the con- ciseness, and at the same time, the strong and energetic manner of his narratives. Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, so much admired the history of Thucydides, that he transcribed it eight times, and could almost repeat it by heart. Xenophon was celebrated as a general, historian, and philosopher ; he was born about 450 years before Christ, and was a disciple of Socrates. He accompanied Cyrus the younger, in his attempt to dethrone his brother from the Persian throne. Cyrus was killed, and Xenophon, wnth 10,000 Greeks, was left in the midst of a victo- rious enemy, without money and provisions, 600 leagues from home. Xenophon, by his courage and masterly military skill, succeeded in guiding his countrymen, in their celebrated retreat, to their homes in safety, an in- teresting account of which he has oriven. His writings are distinguished for simplicity and degance. Plutarch was a native of Boetia, in Greece ; he died about 120 years after the Christian era. His lives of illustrious men are the most valuable literary works of the ancients, describing the private character and man- ners of celebrated persons, whose actions are recorded by historians. 61. Of Archimedes. This celebrated geometrician of Syracuse, flourished about 250 years before Christ. He is distinguished for the ingenious machines which he invented for the defense of Syracuse, when that city 63. Who was Herodotus ? Where did he recite his history ? How was it received'? What is said of Thucydides"? For what is his history distinguished ? Who was Xenophon 1 V\ hat did he do ] Who was Plutarch ? What is said of his writings ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 53 ras besieged by Marcellus, the Roman consul. Some- t\ these machines were so constructed, that he hoisted many of the Roman ships into the air, and then let them rail with such violence into the water, that they were broken and sunk : by his burning glasses he set others on fire. He also constructed engines, which threw stones of an enormous size. He is said to have de- clared, that if he could find a place out of the earth on which to place a lever, " he could move the world." Syracuse was taken after a siege of three years. The Roman general gave strict orders to his soldiers not to hurt Archimedes. A private soldier, who did not know him, found him deeply engaged in solving a mathemat- ical problem. Being commanded by the soldier to go with him to Marcellus, Archimedes very quietly begged of him to wait for a few moments, till he could finish his problem : but the soldier mistaking his request for a refusal to obey him, killed him on the spot. 65. Grecian Architecture. After the defeat of Xerxes, the active spirit of the Athenians wishing for an object to distinguish itself, was signally displayed in works of taste in the fine arts. In these, the Greeks surpassed every nation ; and the monuments which remain are models of imitation, and the standard of excellence among the most polished nations in modern times. The golden age of the arts in Greece endured about a cen- tury, after the death of Alexander the Great. The Greeks were the founders of that system of architecture which is universally allowed to be the most perfect. It consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the Io?iic, and Corinthian. The Doric order has a masculine grandeur, and a su- perior air of strength to both the others. It is therefore best adapted to works of great magnitude, and of a sub- lime character. Of this order is the temple of Thesus, Ci. Who was Archimedes, and when did he flourish 1 For vvh It was he distinguished ? Relate what is said he declared. What was the manner of his death ? (15. What is said of the Grecian fine arts 1 Mention the three distinct orders of architecture. Describe the Doric, the 5* 54 ANCIENT HISTORY. at Athens, built ten years after the battle of Marathon, and is at this day almost entire. Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. The Ionic order is light and elegant, and distinguish- ed for simplicity, which is essential to true beauty. Of this order were the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, and the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. The Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnifi- cence, where pomp and splendor had become the ruling passion, but had not yet extinguished the taste for the sublime and beautiful. It attempts, therefore, an union of all these qualities. [The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Italian origin, but they show that the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all the prmciples of grandeur and beauty.] 66. Grecian Sculpture, d^c. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to great perfection. The remains of their sculpture are, to this day, the most perfect models of the art ; and modern artists have no means of attain- ing to excellence so certain, as the study of these fonic, and the Corinthian. What is said of the Tuscan and Composite orders'? 60. What is said of the Grecian sculpture 1 What was the cause of their excelling in this art] What is said of their painting] Their music 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 55 masler-pieces. The Grecians had the advantage of the modems in this respect : they had an opportunity of seeing the human figure in its most perfect shape, in their frequent gymnastic exercises, &c. ; and their man- ner of clothing did not disfigure the human form. Anoth- er great cause of their excellence in sculpture was, their attempts to represent the numerous gods and goddesses which they worshiped. In the art of painting, the Greeks appear to have been inferior to the artists of modern times. The music of the ancients, also appears to have been greatly inferior to that of the moderns. 67. Demosthenes the Orator. Demosthenes, one of the most celebrated orators that ever lived, was born at Athens, 381 years before the Christian era. At the age of 17, he gave proofs of his eloquence and abilities ; but his rising talents were impeded by weak lungs and a Demosthenes, declaunin.g by the sea-shore. dilficulty of pronunciation ; and on his first attempt to speak in public, he was hissed by his hearers. He, however, overcame all obstacles, by close application. To correct the stammering of his voice, he spoke with pebbles in his mouth. That his pronunciation might be 67. Who was Demosthenes 1 What is said of his first at- tempt to speak in pubhe ^ By what means did he cure his 56 A.VCIFCNT HISTORY. loud, and full of emphasis, he frequently ran up the steepest and most uneven walks. In order to accustoin himself to the noise and tumult of a public assembly, he declaimed on the sea-shore, when the waves were un- commonly agitated. That he might devote himself closely to his studies without interruption, he retired to a cave, and shaved half his head, to prevent himself from appearing in public. His abilities as an orator raised him to the head of the government at iVthens, and his eloquence carried all before him, and was more dreaded by his enemies than the fleets and armies of Athens. Demosthenes, however, was charged vvith having received a bribe from the enemy, for which he was banished, but was afterwards recalled. When the gener- als of Alexander approached Athens, he fled ; and to pre- vent himself from falling into their hands, he took poison. 68. Philip of Macedon. The Grecians, after their civil wars, lost in a great measure their simple manners, and the spirit of patriotism. In this situation, Philip of Macedon, by the artifices which he used, and by his mili- tary talents, brought the whole of Greece under his do- minion. Demosthenes, the Athenian orator, endeavored to arouse his countrymen to make a vigorous effort for their liberties. But the event was unsuccessful. The battle of CheroTKB, fought 338 years before Christ, decided the fate of Greece, and" subjected all her states to the control of the king of Macedon. It was not, however, the policy of Philip to treat them as a conquered people. He aiiowed them to retain their separate and independ- ent governments, while he controlled and directed alhna- tional measures. In a general council of the states, Philip was chosen- commander-in-chief of all the forces of Greece. He now formed a project for the conquest of the Persians, whose invasions of Greece, under Xerxes defects in speaking? How did he accustom himself to speak, during noise and tumult ? What did he do to apply himself to study "? 68, How did Philip of Macedon bring the Gieeks into sub- jection? What was his policy towards them ? What project did he form, and what became of him ? ANCLEJNT HISTOR . 57 and Darius, he resolved to punish n the eve of this enterprise, he was assassinated, au ,e mariiage of his daughter, by one of his captains. 69. Alexander the Great. x\lexander, (afterwards siirnamed the Great,) the son of Philip, succeeded to the throne at the age of 20 years. - He was educated by Aristotle, for whom he ever afterwards had the high- est respect, and under such a master, made a most rapid progress in learning. He possessed a generous and heroic disposition, distinguished talents, and unl)ounded ambition. He very early became the most expert horseman in his father's court, and was the only person who dared to back the famous war-horse Bucephalus, sent as a present to Philip, which was so fiery and high- mettled, that no one could break him. Philip seeing Alexander on this ungovernable horse, cried out in rap- ture, " Seek, my son, another kingdom ; Macedonia is not worthy to contain you !" The Thebans having risen in rebellion, Alexander defeated them with great slaughter, destroyed their city, and sold .30,000 of the inhabitants for slaves. He then assembled the depu- ties of the Grecian states at Corinth, who solemnly elected him to be commander-in-chief of the Greeks against Persia. 70. Battle of the Granicus. Alexander, having asr sembled an army of 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, with the sum of 70 talents, and provisions only for a month, crossed the Hellespont. Darius, king of Persia, resolv- ing to crush at once the young hero, met him at the river Granicus, with 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. Alexander, eager to engage the enemy, plunged into the river, and was followed by his troops, and gaining the opposite banks, attacked the astonished Persians, and put to flight their whole army. The Persians lost in this engagement 20,000 foot and 2500 horse : the 59. Who was Alexander? What is said of him? Of his war-horse f How was he elected commander 1 70. State the number of Alexander's army, and that of Da- rius. What were their losses] What did Alexander do, af- ter his first victory '? 58 ANCIENT HISTORY. loss of Alexander was only about 200 men, among whom were 25 horsemen of the royal guard, to whose memory he ordered statues to be erected. Drawing from his first success a presage of continued victory, he sent home his fleet ; thus showing his army that they must conquer xA.sia, or perish in the attempt. 71. Battle of Issus. Alexander, having for some time continued his march without resistance, was at length attacked by the Persian army under Darius, in a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the town of Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 men ; but their situation was such, that only a small part of their force could come into action, and they were defeated with great slaughter, their loss being 1 1 0,000, while the Greeks lost only 450 men. The mother and two daughters of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror. The real greatness and heroism of Alexander, now in the bloom of youth, unmarried, and a conqueror, shone forth in the greatest luster. He would not trust him- self in the presence of the queen of Darius, who was a woman of great beauty. Far from attempting to derive any ungenerous advantage from his victory, he treated his illustrious captives with the greatest kindness and respect. In consequence of the battle of Issus, the .whole of Syria submitted to Alexander. Damascus, where Darius had deposited his treasures, was surren- dered by the governor, and the whole of Phoenicia, with the exception of Tyre. 72. Siege of Tyre. Alexander now directed his course towards Tyre, and demanded admittance into it, in order to ofier a sacrifice to the Tyrian Hercules. Being refused, he immediately besieged the city. New Tyre, which was situated on an island opposite the old city, seemed to be unconquerable without a fleet. Alex- ander, with immense labor, attempted to join the island to the continent by a causeway. The Sidonians, an(? some other people, whom he had treated with gentle 71. What is said of the battle of Issus? What of the moth er, daughters, and queen of Darius 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 59 ness, at last found ships for carrying on the entei prise. He then hastened the sicge^ and all sorts of warlike in- struments were employed by both parties. The place was finally taken by storm, after a siege of eight months. About 8,000 of the inhabitants were put to death, and 30,000 sold into slavery. Having taken Gaza, Alexan- der passed into Egypt, which readily submitted to his authority, and while here, he founded the city of Alex- andria, at the mouth of the Nile. 73. Final conquest of Persia. Returning from Egypt, Alexander went into Assyria, where he was met by Da- rius, at Arbela, at the head of 700,000 men. Darius offered Alexander, as terms of peace, ten thousand tal- ents, his daughter in marriage, and the whole country from the Euphrates to the Hellespont. These terms being rejected, Alexander informed Darius that he had no occasion for his money, and as for the provinces he named, he had already conquered them, and that he was ready for another battle, which v^^ould probably de- cide who should remain the conqueror, and that " the world could no more admit two masters than two suns." A battle took place, in which the Persians were defeat- ed, with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius escaped, and fled from province to province, until he was at last mur- dered by one of his own officers. Thus ended the I^er- sian empire, which submitted to the conqueror 330 years before the Christian era, after having existed two aundred and six years from the time of Cyrus the Great. 74, Conquest of India. After the conquest of Persia, Alexander projected the conquest of India, fully persua- ded that the gods had decreed him the sovereignty of the whole habitable globe. Finding his troops incumbered with baggage, by which his march was retarded, he gave orders to set fire to it, and began by burning his 72. How did Alexander conquer Tyre \ By whom was he assisted 1 What did he do, after the conquest of Tyre, and what city did he found 1 73. What did Darius offer Alexander, as terms of peace ^ What was Alexander's reply "? What became qf Darius ] What is said of the Persian empire % 60 ANCIENT HISTORY own. He penetrated into India, where Porus, a pow- erful monarch, opposing his further progress, was defeat- ed and taken prisoner. He penetrated to the Ganges, and would have advanced to the eastern ocean, had the spirit of his army kept pace with his ambition. But his soldiers, seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed any farther eastward. He therefore returned to the Indus, and caused his army to sail down that river to the ocean : here he sent his fleet to the Persian Gulf, under Near- chus, and with the main body of his army, marched across the desert of Persepolis. 75. Death of Alexander. " Finding no more worlds to conquer," Alexander abandoned himself to every excess of luxury and debauchery. It is related, that, through the instiofation of Thais, a woman of low character, while he Alexander and Thais b was in a drunken frolic, he fired the city of Persepolis This place was the ancient capital of Persia, the ruins o\ 74. What did Alexander do, after the conquest of Persia ? How far did he penetrate l What prevented his proceeding farther eastward ? 75. After Alexander had conquered the world, what did he do 1 Why did he burn PersepoUs ? What is farther said of Alexander 1 What caused his death? ANCIENT HISTORY. 61 which astonish the traveler to this day, by their grandeur and magniiicence. The arrogance of Alexander was now increased, and the ardor of his passions, heightened by continual intemperance, broke out into acts of outra- geous cruelty ; and while in the heat of passion, he kill- ed Clitus, his best friend. At this period of his life, he appears to have been swollen by flattery and enervated by vice, and to have acted the part of a tyrant. While at Babylon, at an entertainment which he gave to one of his officers, he drank to such excess, that it brought on a fever. Finding that there was no hope of recovery, he delivered his ring to Perdiccas. On being asked to whom he left*the empire, he replied, "To the most worthy." Perdiccas having asked him how soon he desired they should pay divine honors to his memory, he answered, " When ye shall be happy." These were his last words. 76. Of Ro?ne. Rome, the last of the four great empires of antiquity, becomes, after the conquest of Greece, the leading object of attention. It rose gradu- ally from small beginnings to almost universal empire. The duration of the Roman power, or that of its history, embraces a period of about twelve centuries, — from the foundation of Rome to the destruction of the empire, after the Christian era. This great interval may be divided into three grand and distinct epochs, or periods, namely: 1. 'Rome Mn&ev The Kings; 2. The Republic ; 3. The Emperors. 77. Roman Kings. The early history of the Ro- mans^ like that of other ancient nations, is mixed with fable. It appears, however, that they were governed by kings for 244 years ; arid during the reign of the kings, and the early part of the republic, the Roman territories extended only about fifteen or twenty miles around the capital. Of Romulus, the first king, some account has been given. 76. What is said of Rome ? What was the di.'ration of the Roman power 1 Into what periods may this time be divided 1 77. Wliat is said of the early history of the Romans? How long were they governed by kings'? Who was the first 6 62 ANCIENT HISTORY. Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, was elected second king of Rome. He is represented as a virtuous prince, who cherished the arts of peace, obedience to the laws, and a respect for religion. Tullus Hostilius, the third king, was of a warlike disposition. His reign is memorable for the romantic story of the Horatii. three brothers, who fought for Rome, and the Curiatti, also three brothers, who fought for Alba. One of the Horatii survived, all the rest be- ing slain, and by this contest the Romans became mas- ters of Alba. Ancus Martius, the fourth king, conquered the Latins, and built the port of Ortia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Tarquin, the Eldrr, was elected the fifth king of Rome, which he embellished with various works of utility. Servius Tullus succeeded Tarquin. He created the Roman aristocracy, established the census, in which the number of citizens, their dwellings, number of children, and amount of property, were ascertained. Tarquin, surnamed the Prowc?, the last king, began his reign by putting to death the chief senators ; and by his tyranny and cruelty disgusted all classes of his sub- jects, and was expelled the throne. 78. Death of Lucretia. Sextus, a son of Tarquin the Proud, having entered the house of Collatinus, un- der the mask of friendship, did violence to^iis wife, Lucretia, a noble Roman lady, distinguishe#i^r her beauty and domestic virtues. The unhappy Lucretia immediately sent for her husband and father, revealed to them the indignity she had received, conjured them to avenge her wrong, and stabbed herself with a dagger she had concealed about her clothes. Her husband and friends were filled with grief, rage, and despair. Bru- tus, a relative, and a reputed fool, seizing the bloody dagger, and lifting it towards heaven, exclaimed ; " Be king ? What was the reign of Tullus Hostilius memorable for ! What is said of Servius Tullus ] Who was the last king, and what did he do ] 78. Who did violence to Lucretia 1 Wiiat did she do 1 What is said of Brutus ? What wus done with Tarquin ? AdTCIENT HISTORY. 63 witnesses, ye gods, that from this moment I proclaim myself the avenger of the chaste Lucretia's cause. Henceforth, my life shall be employed in opposition to tyranny, and for the freedom and happiness of my coun- try." The body of Lucretia was carried to the pub- lic square, the vengeance of the people was aroused, the senate banished Tarquin and his family forever from the Roman state, and the kingly government was abolished, 509 years before the Christian era. 79. Roman Republic. The regal or kingly govern- ment being abolished, a republican form of govern- ment was established. The supreme power belonged to the senate and people ; and it was agreed to commit the supreme authority to two consuls, who were to be chosen annually from the patrician families. These consuls had the disposal of the public money, the power of assembling the people, raising armies, naming all the officers, and the right of making peace and war. In fact, their power scarcely differed from that of the kings, except their authority was limited to a year. The first consuls were, Collatinus, the husband of Lucretia, and Brutus, her avenger. 80. Judgment of Brutus. The new form of govern- ment was brought to the brink of ruin, almost at the mo- ment of its formation. Tarquin found means to organize a coj^jucy among the young nobility of Rome, whose objd^^^P to replace him on the throne. This plot was disco^^d, and the brave and patriotic Brutus had the mortification and unhappiness to discover, that his two sons were ringleaders in this conspiracy. His office was such, that he was compelled to sit in judgment upon them ; and while, in this deeply interesting scene, all the spectators were in tears, he condemned them to be beheaded in his presence. The most powerful feelings 79. What was the form of government in Rome, after that of kings ] To whom was committed the supreme authority ] What power did the consuls have 1 80. Who conspired against the new government, and who were ringleaders in the plot ] What did Brutus do, and what is said of himi 6i ANCIENT HISTORT. of nabural affection were OA-^erruled by a sense of his duty as an impartial judge. " He ceased to be a father," says an ancient author, " that he might execute the duties of a consul, and chose to live childless, rather than neglect the public punishment of a crime." 81. Cmcinnatuy, the Dictator. Ten years after the commencement of the Roman republic, Largius was appointed the first dictator. This magistrate was chosen only in times of difficulty and danger, when quick and decisive measures were necessary, and could continue in power no longer than six months. The dictator was clothed with power to dictate, that is, to direct what should be done, and his power was absolute. About 50 years from the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans, being in great and immediate danger from an invasion, a solemn deputation was sent to Cincinnatus, to invest him with the sovereign power of dictator. They found him laboring on his farm, consisting only of a few acres, which he cultivated with his own hands for the support of his family. He left the plough with regret, and re- paired to the field of battle, wli§re he vanquished the enemy, returned to Rome with the spoils, resigned his office, which he held but sixteen days, and though a poor man, would receive no compensation for his im- portant services. At the age of 80 years, he was again called from his farm to the office of dictatoi^^^^h he leld for twenty-one days, during which tim^^Hlgain -'anquished the enemy. 82. The Decemvirs. The Romans had hitherto pos- sessed no body of written laws. The arl)itrary proceed- ings of their kings and consuls were frequently the sub- ject of complaint, and the citizens became desirous ot having a fixed code of laws, for the security of their rights. Three commissioners were therefore sent to Greece in order to procure the laws of Solon, and such others as were deemed useful in forming a suitable code. Upon the return of the commissioners, ten of the princi- 81. What is said of the dictator ? IIovv long could he con- tinue in power? What is said of Cincinnatus? ANCIENT HISTORY. 65 pal senators, called decemvirs, were appointed to frame a body of laws, and put them in force for one year. This was the origin of the celebrated statutes called the *' Laios of the twelve tables.'''' The decemvirs were in vested with absolute power ; each decemvir, by turn, presided for a day. They governed so well for the first yoar, that they obtained a new appointment, but they soon became tyrannical. Appius Claudius, one of the decemvirs, having made a base attempt to obtain possession of Virginia, a beautiful maiden, her father, Viginius, in order to prevent the dis- honor of his daughter, plunged a dagger into her breast. Brandishing the bloody weapon, he exclaimed, " By this blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods," and running wildly through the city roused the people to vengeance. x'\ppius soon after killed himself in prison ; the other decemvirs were exiled, and the decemvirate having continued three years, was abolished, and the consular government restored. 83. Military Tribune Censors. The common people of Rome, or Plebeians, were prohibited intermarrying with the Patricians, or higher class, who held the higher offices of state. If this restraint could be removed, the plebeians and patricians would be placed on an equality. After a long struggle, the distinctions were done away, and it;w|^agreed on both sides, that instead of consuls, six miUi^^^ tribunes^ with the power of consuls, should be chosen, three plebeians and three patricians. This measure satisfied the people for a time ; the consuls, however, were soon restored. The disorders of the re- public had interrupted the regular enumeration of the citizens. Two officers were appointed, under the title of censors, whose duty it was to make a census every five 82. Why did the Romans wish for a. fixed code of laws] What was done tor this purpose ? What is said of the decem- virs 1 What is related of Virginius ? How long did the de- cemvirate continue ] • 83. V\'hat is said of the Plebeians and Patricians'? What of the military tribunes ? What was the duty of the censors ] How did the senate raise an armv when wanted ^ 6* 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. years, inspect the morals and regulate the duties of the citizens — an office of great dignity and importance. To do away the frequent necessity of the dictatorship, as the people many times refused to enrol themselves in the army when wanted, the senate gave regular pay to the troops. In order to raise money, a moderate tax was laid upon the citizens, in proportion to their wealth. By this means the government found soldiers at command ; the army was under its control ; the enterprises of the re- public were more extensive, its successes more import- ant, and from^ this period the Roman system of war as- sumed a new aspect. 84. Invasion of Rome by the Gauls. Veii, a power- ful city, 12 miles from Rome, and its proud rival, was ta- ken after a siege of ten years, by CamiUus. This event was succeeded by a war with the Gauls, one of the bar- barous nations inhabiting France, then called Gaul. These men are represented as exceedingly bold, fierce, of great size and strength, and terrible in war. A nu- merous body of these men had two centuries before cross- ed the Alps, and settled themselves in the northern parts of Italy, and were a terror to all the country. Under the command of Brennus, their king, they laid siege to Clusium, the inhabitants of which implored the assist- ance of the Romans. The senate sent ambassadors to Brennus, to demand of him what right he had to invade that city. He sternly replied, that the " rights of valiant men lie in their swords," and demanded, in return, what right the Romans had to the many cities they had con- quered. The ambassadors having entered Clusium, as- sisted the inhabitants against Brennus, who was so in- censed that he raised the siege, and marched directly against Rome ; and in a great battle, he defeated the Ro- man army with great slaughter. 85. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls. Brennus, after his victory, marched into Rome without opposition, and going into the forum beheld the ancient senators 84. What is said of the city of Veii ? What of the Gauls ? What is said of Brennus ? ANCIENT HISTORY 67 sitting in their order unmoved ; the splendid habits, the gravity and venerable appearance of these old men, awed the enemy for a while into reverence, but at length they put them all to the sword, massacred all the inhabitants which remained in the city, which they burnt to ashes, and razed the walls to the ground. The Gauls next at- tacked the capitol ; but they were repelled with great bravery. At length, having found a passage to the top of the Tarpeian rock, a body of Gauls attemjited to gain the summit in the night, which they accomplished while the sentinel was asleep. At this moment, the cackling of some geese in the temple of Juno, awakened Marius Manlius, with his associates, who instantly threw the Gauls headlong down the precipice. 86. Expulsion of the Gauls. Brennus having grown weary of the siege of the citadel, proposed to the Ro- mans, if they would pay him a thousand weight of gold he would draw off' his army and give them no farther trouble. The gold was brought, but while it was weigh- ing some of the Gauls attempted to kick the beam, to pre- vent a just weight ; the Romans complained of the injus- tice, but Brennus immediately threw his sword into the balance, and gave them to understand their complaints would be useless. At this moment news was brought, that Camillus, the Roman general, was approaching with an army to the assistance of his countrymen. Having been informed of the deception and insolence of the Gauls, he ordered the gold to be carried back to the capi- tol, adding, that " Rome must be ransomed by steel, aad not by gold." Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were entirely routed, and Camillus was honored as the second founder of Rome. These events took place about 385 years before the Christian era. 87. Character of the Ancient Romans. The Roman people, in these ancient times, exhibited a mixture of 85. What did Brennus do ? How was the capitol saved ] 86. On what terms did Brennus propose to leave them ? What was done when the gold was brought \ What is said of Camillus ! 68 ANCIENT HISTORY. bravery, superstition, barbarity, discipline, enthiisiasm, and wisdom. They were often engaged in war, and generally successful. Their small territory was ravaged, their city burnt by the Gauls, and many of their bravest men killed in battle ; yet they were not conquered, for they had resources left. These consisted of firm and determined spirits, — great souls, fearless of danger and death. To brave danger was to them the field of glory ; their only alternative was death or victory. They en- joyed a victory, or endured a defeat, with moderation. They possessed independent and unconquerable minds, endued with invincible bravery and magnanimity. 'I'he effect of the invasion of the Gauls roused their martial spirit, and they became more warlike and formidable than ever. 87. What is said of the character of the Ancient Romans? What of their territory and resources \ What was the effect of the invasion ] PERIOD IV. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER TO THE CH.tlSriAN ERA. (323 YEARS.; . Map showing places mentioned in Period IV. 88. Successors of Alexander. Alexander, on his death- bed, having named no successor, his vast empire was soon rent in pieces by the greedy soldiers who had as- sisted him in acquiring universal dominion. The empire was divided among thirty-three of the principal officers. Hence arose a period of confusion, bloodshed, and crime, with a series of intrigues, fierce and bloody wars, which resulted in the total extirpation of Alexander's family, and a new partition of the empire into four monarchies , namely, that of Egypt^ under Ptolemy; Macedonia, in- cluding Greece, under Cassander ; Thrace with Bitliynia, under Lysimachas ; and Syria, Sic, under Seleucus 88. To whom was Alexander's empire divided 1 monarchies ] Which were the most powerful ^ Into whal 70 ANCIENT HISTORY. The two most powerful kingdoms were Syria and Egypt Syria was governed by Seleucus and his descendants, and Egypt by the Ptolemies, till they were both brought under the dominion of the Romans, who, after Alexan- der, became masters of the world. 89. Conquest of Italy by the Romans. A fter the Ro mans had expelled the Gauls, they next turned theii arms against the Samnites, a hardy race of mountaineers inhabiting a tract in the south part of Italy. This con test continued for fifty years ; the Samnites fought with great valor and skill, but were finally subdued ; and soon after all the states of Italy submitted to the Ro- mans. In the course of the war the Tarentines^ the al- lies of the Samnites, sought the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, in Greece, the greatest general of his age ; he landed in Italy with 20,000 men, and a train of ele- phants, 280 years before Christ. Pyrrhus was at first successful, but afterwards defeated, and he returned to his own dominions. 90. First Punic or Carthaginian War. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Car- thage, 264 years before Christ, and lasted 24 years. The two nations had viewed each other with jealousy for a long period, when Sicily, an island of the highest importance to the Carthaginians, as a commercial na- tion, became the seat of the first dissentions. From a private quarrel the war became general. The Romans gained a victory in Sicily, but as the Carthaginians were masters of the sea, it was of but little consequence. The Romans now earnestly devoted themselves to cre- ate a navy. A Carthaginian vessel being wrecked on their coast, it served as a model, and within two or three months they fitted out a fleet of 120 galleys, and put it under the command of the consul Duillious, who 89. What is said of the Samnites 1 Of the Tarentines ? Of whom did they seek aid 1 What of Pyrrhus I 90. When was the first Punic War 1 How long did it last 1 What was the cause of t)ie war 1 Who were masters of the sea ? How did the Romans create a navy 1 How did Car- thage obtain peace ] ANCIENT HISTORY. 71 defeated the Carthaginian fleet, and took fifty of their vessels. The war contimied to rage with various suc- cess, in Africa and Sicily, till Carthage, to obtain a peace, was compelled to abandon Sicily, and pay to the Ro- mans 3,200 talents of silver. 91. Regulus, the Roman Patriot. The consul Reg- ulus was sent with an army into Africa, where he was defeated, taken prisoner, and confined some years in a dungeon. The Carthaginians being wearied out with the war, sent ambassadors to Rome in order to make peace, and Regulus was allowed to accompany them, hoping he would plead their cause. They however first exacted a promise from him, that if the embassy proved unsuccessful he would return to Carthage, and hinted to him that his life depended on the success of his ne- gociation. Regulus, believing the treaty which the Carthaginians wished to make would be injurious to his country, prevailed upon the Roman senate to reject it, although by so doing his life would be sacrificed. This noble Roman returned to Carthage, where he was punished with the greatest severity. They cut off his eyelids, and he was exposed some days in the strong heat of the sun ; he was afterwards confined in a barrel stuck full of nails, whose points entering his flesh, did not allow him a moment's ease ; and to complete their cruelty, they nailed him to a cross, where he expired. 92. Second Punic War. From the first Punic war to the Second, was an interval of twenty-three years. During this period Carthage was recruiting her strength, and meditated to revenge her losses and disgrace. She began the second war by besieging Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance with the Romans. Hannibal, one of the greatest generals of antiquity, was the son of Hamil- car^ the Carthaginian commander in the first Punic war. Hannibal, at the early age of nine years, by the desire 91. What is said of Regulus 1 What promise was exacted from him ? What advice did he give ] Describe the manner of his death. 92. How long was the interval between the first and second Punic Wars 1 Who was Hannibal 1 What is said of him ] 72 ANCIENT HISTORY. of his father, solemnly swore upon the altar, eternal enmity to the Romans. At the age of twenty-six he had the chief command of the army, and having taken Saguntum, formed the bold design of carrying the war into Italy. He provided against every difficulty, passed the Pyrenees, and arrived at the Alps, after a toilsome march of five months from his leaving Carthagena in Spain. HannibaVs Army jjnfisi.'i;^ t 93. Passage of the Alps by Hannihal. This cele- brated exploit was accomplished in about two weeks. Hannibal followed up the waters of the Rhone, until he arrived at the foot of the Alps ; the mountains, with their snowy tops reaching into the clouds, the naked and apparently inaccessible cliffs over which they must pass, the hostile Gauls on the precipices which hung over their heads, ready to check them by rolling down tremendous rocks, were objects well calculated to fill an army with dismay. Hannibal having ascertained that the mountaineers left the pass at night, he with a small party of light troops passed through, and made 93. How long was Hannibal in passing the Alps ] Describ* the dangers of the passage. What number of men did he hav after the passage, and how many were lost in it 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 73 himself master of the eminences in the vicinity, and by this means his army gained the first pass ; but this was only the commencement of difficulties ; sometimes fall- ing into ambush by the treachery of guides, again led through bewildering tracts, and now attacked by large bodies of their enemies. But the resolute Carthagi- nians pressed onward, and reached the summit on the ninth day. Snow now commenced falling, which in- creased the danger of the way; but Hannibal arrived on the plains of Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse, having lost nearly half his army during this perilous en- terprise. 94. Victories of Hannibal. The first victory gained by Hannibal, after crossing the Alps, was over Scipio, who met him near the river Po, with a numerous army, soon after he entered Italy. A few days after, he routed another army, under the command of Sempronius, with great slaughter. The third army, commanded by Flam- mius, he cut off near Lake Thrasymenus, where the Romans, surrounded by woods and morasses, and hem- med in by their enemies, fought with desperation. Rome was now in the utmost consternation, a dictator was ap- pointed, Fahius Maximus being elected to that office. He was sent with an army in quest of Hannibal, but avoided coming into a general engagement with him. This cautious and prudent conduct greatly distressed Hannibal, who frequently offered him battle. The com- mand of Fabius expiring, Varro, a man of rash courage, was appointed in his place, who advanced against Han- nibal with 90,000 men, the flower and strength of Italy. They fought near Canrice, and the Romans were terribly defeated, leaving forty, some say seventy thousand dead on the field of battle ; and it is said that three bushels of gold rings were sent to Carthage, taken from the fingers of the dead Roman knights. 95. Ending of the Second Punic War. Immediately after the battle of Cannse Hanmbal sent to Carthage for 94. Describe the first three victories of Haimibal. What is said of the dictator Fabius Maximus 1 What of Varro "* Wh^at of the battle of Cannae 1 7 74 ANCIENT HISTORY. more troops to complete the reduction of Rome, but owing to the influence of Hanno, a powerful demagogue in the senate of Carthage, no assistance was given. Hannibal, however, carried on the war, and kept posses- sion of the finest part of fiome for fifteen years ; the Ro- mans, though unable to drive him out of Italy, sent Scipio and others into Spain, Sicily, and finally into Africa., Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the Carthaginians recalled Hannibal, who found the afl^airs of his country in a desperate condition. His army being much inferioi to that of the Romans, he endeavored to effect a peace, but Scipio charged the Carthaginians with perfidy and injustice ; and both sides prepared for a battle, which was to decide the fate of Carthage and Rome. The hostile armies met on the plains of Zama, about five days' journey from Carthage ; a memorable battle was fought, and the Carthaginians were totally defeated. A peace soon followed : the Carthaginians agreed to abandon Spain and the islands of the Mediterranean give up nearly the whole of their possessions, and in future undertake no war without the consent of the Ro- mans. Thus ended the second Punic war, 202 years be- fore Christ, after having continued for seventeen years. 96. Third Punic War. Fifty years after the close of the second Punic war, the industrious Carthaginians began to recover from the abject state to which that war had reduced them. Cato the Censor, who swayed the decisions of the Roman senate, having occasion to visit Carthage, on his return gave such accounts of its growl- ing power, that he awakened their jealousy, ending all his speeches, it is said, with this expression, " Carthage mast be destroyed.''^ At this period the Carthaginians attempted to repel the Numidians. who had invaded their territories ; the Romans pretending this was a vio- 95. What did Hannibal do after the battle of Cannae ? How long did he continue in Rome ? Why was Hannibal recalled ? Who were defe ited at Zamal Why did the Carthaginians agree to have peace ? 96. Who visited Carthage 1 With what expression did he end his speeches ] What did the Romans do 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. 75 lation of their treaty, made it a pretext for sending an army to Carthage. Conscious of their inability to re- sist the Romans, the Carthaginians offered every sub- mission, and even consented to acknowledge themselves the subjects of Rome. The Romans demanded 300 young Carthaginians of the first distinction, as hostages for the strict performance of every condition the senate should require. These severe terms were submitted to, and the hostages were given. 97. Destruction of Carthage. The Romans having obtained possession of the hostages, the Carthaginians were told that they must deliver up all their arms ; to this they also were obliged to consent. They were then required to remove from Carthage, as the Roman people were determined to demolish the city. This de- mand was heard by the inhabitants with indignation and despair : they shut their gates, and determined to defend themselves to the last extremity. The delay of the Ro- man consuls, who did not expect much resistance from a disarmed city, gave time to the inhabitants to make preparations for a siege. The temples, palaces, and open squares, were changed into arsenals, where men and women wrought day and night, in the manufacture of arms. After a desperate resistance for three years, the city was taken by Scipio, and was burnt by a fire which raged during 17 days. Such of the inhabitants as disdained to surrender themselves as prisoners of war, were either massacred or perished in the flames. Thus was Carthage, which had existed for 700 years, and containing at the commencement of the war 700,000 inhabitants, reduced to ashes, and even Scipio, the Roman consul, wept over the ruins of the proud rival of his country. 98. Corruption of the Roman Commonwealth. The same year in which Carthage was destroyed, Corinth 97. What did the Romans require of the Carthaginians 1 When required to demolish their city, what did they do 1 How long did they resist the Romans 1 How long had Carthage existed, and how many inhabitants did it contain 1 76 ANCIENT HISTORY". was taken and Greece was reduced to a Roman province. The power of Rome was now widely extended ; her arms everywhere triumphant, and she was freed from the fear of a rival. Her power and splendor drew to her men of learning, taste, ambition, and enterprise, and in short, men of every description, from almost every na- tion. The descendants of the ancient Romans became few in comparison with the great number who, by some means or other, became citizens or obtained a residence in Italy. While Rome drew art, elegance, and science, from Greece, she drew wealth, luxury, effeminacy, and corruption, from Asia and Africa. In the unequal dis- tribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, the corruption, bribery, extortion, and oppres- sion, which followed, we see the cause of those fatal disorders which extinguish the spirit of liberty, and put a period to the republic. 99. The Gracchi. This name is given to Tiberius and Cains Gracchus, two noble youths, whose zeal to reform the growing abuses and corruptions of the Roman state, drew them into measures destructive of all govern- ment and social order. Tiberius, the elder of the broth- ers, urged the people to assert by force, the revival of an ancient law for limiting property in land, and thus lessen the overgrown estates of the nobility of patricians. A tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius and 300 of his friends were killed in the forum by the sena- tors. This fatal example did not deter his brother Caius from pursuing a similar course, in endeavoring to main- tain by force the privileges of the people against the encroachments of the senate. But, like his brother, he fell a victim to the attempt, with 3000 of his partisans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome. From tnis period, civil disorders followed in quick succession, to the end of the commonwealth. 98. When was Greece reduced to a Roman province 1 What is said of the power of Rome ? How did the Roman people bepome corrupt 1 99. Who were the Gracchi ? By what means did Tiberius lose his life ] What is said of Caius Gracchi ^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 77 100. War of Jugurtha. The circumstances attend- ing this war, give decisive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugurtha, a grandson of Masinissa, attempted to usurp the throne of Numidia, in Africa, by- destroying his cousins, Heimpsal arid Adherbal, sons of the deceased king. He murdered the elder, but Adher- bal escaping, applied to Rome for aid ; but the senate being bribed by Jugurtha, divided the kingdom between the two. Jugurtha then declared open war against his cousin, besieged him in his capital, Cirta, and finally put him to death, and seized the whole kingdom. To avert a threatened war, Jugurtha went to Rome, plead his own cause in the senate, and once more, by bribery, prevailed upon them to free him from all charge of criminality. A perseverance in a similar course of con- duct, roused the vengeance of the Romans, who sent an army against him. Jugurtha was taken prisoner, led in chains to Rome, and confined in a dungeon, where he was starved to death, 103 years B. C. 101. Social and Civil Wars. A confederacy of the states of Italy against Rome, to obtain the rights of citi- zenship, occasioned the Social War, which raged for sev- eral years, in which 300,000 men are said to have per- ished. It was ended by giving the rights of .citizenship to all the confederates who would peaceably return to their allegiance. The Civil War commenced 88 years B. C, between Marius and Sylla. These men being leaders of the Republic, became rivals and enemies, and carried on a bloody warfare against each other. It was attended with the most horrible massacres of the citi- zens ; and from the time of Sylla, Rome never saw another moment of freedom. In the civil war, 33 per- sons who had been consuls, 200 senators, and 1 50,000 Roman citizens, perished, and thousands were left to 100. Who was Jugurtha? Who Adherbal ? Bywhatmeans did Jugurtha obtain the kingdom? What finally became of Jugurtha ? 101. Whnt occasioned the Social Wars in Italy ? How many men are said to have perished ] Who were Marius and Sylla ^ What is said of the Civil Wars ? 7* 78 ANCIENT HISTORY. drag out a miserable existence, without friends or means of subsistence. Rome, the mistress of the world, was compelled to submit to her blood-thirsty tyrants ; and her cruelties to Carthage and other fallen enemies, were visited upon her own head. 102. Caius Marius. This celebrated Roman was a plebeian by birth, and his parents were poor. He was a man of very great stature, strength, and bravery. Hav- ing passed through the lower grades of life, he wa? elected seven times to the office of consul. He distin- guished himself in the war against Jugurlha. After the defeat of that king, Rome was invaded by an army ol 300,000 barbarians; Marius being consul, defeated them in two engagements, in which the barbarians lost 100,000 killed, and 90,000 prisoners. In the following year a total overthrow of the Cimhri took place, in which 140,000 were slaughtered by the Romans, and 60,000 taken prisoners. Marius, with his colleague, Cattullus, then entered Rome in triumph. Sylla, who had now become formidable by his great victories over Mithrida- tes, a powerful monarch in the East, now refusing to obey Marius, returned to Italy, and drove him from Rome. Marius was afterwards taken prisoner and condemned to death. The executioner, who entered his dungeon, was so intimidated by the stern voice and countenance of the fallen general, who demanded, if " he dared kill Caius Marius," that he threw down his sword, and de- clared he found it impossible to kill him. The governor considering the fear of the executioner such an omen in favor of Marius, that he released him. 103. Return of Marius to Rome. Marius having been released, fled to Africa, and while wandering near Car- thage in a melancholy manner, he received orders from the pretor who commanded there, to retire. He pre- pared to obey, and said to the messenger, " Tell your 103. Who was Caius Marius 1 Relate his victories. Who drove Marius from Rome? How was the life of Marius Saved ■* 103. To what place did Marius flee 1 Who was Cinna ? What did Marius and Cinna do ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 79 master that you have seen AI;irius shting among the ruins of Carthage." Syila, having left iiome lo complete his eastern conquest, Clnna. a partisan of Marius, who had been left behind, applied to the army, which, with a gen- eral consent, agreed to nominate him consul, and follow him to Rome. While thus engaged in the cause of Ma- rius, tidings were brought that Marius and his son, es- caping from numerous perils, had returned to Italy, and were on the road to join him. Their army soon in- creased, and they entered Rome like conquerors. Their enemies were inhumanly sacrificed, and Rome was filled with blood. xMarius made himself consul, with Cinna, and died the month after, in a fit of debauchery, at the age of seventy. 104. Sylla^ the Dictator. This bloody and revengeful tyrant was a Roman, of noble family. He served at first under Marius, and afterwards distinguished himself by his victories in the East. After the death of xMarius, Cinna having been vanquished, Sylla entered Rome with- out resistance. The senate and people now found that they had exchanged one brutal tyrant, for another still more bloody. He caused lists of people he disliked to be put up in public places, offering rewards to such as would kill them. These lists of proscription were daily renewed, and w^hoever favored a proscribed person, al- though his own father or brother, was himself devoted to death ; while those who destroyed their friends were rewarded. The streets were daily filled with dead bodies, and 7000 citizens, to whom Sylla had promised pardon, were suddenly massacred in the circus, and the insulted senate then sitting near, were compelled to hear their groans. Having compelled the people to appoint him perpetual dictator Mq continued in this office for three years without control, when to the astonishment of man- kind, he resigned it of his own accord. He retired to 104. Who was Sylla ? What did he do to those whom he disliked ? To what ollice did he compel the people to appoint him 1 How long did he coiitniue in this of&ce \ What did \\c do afterwards \ 80 ANCIENT HISTORY. his country-seat, where he wallowed in the most de- basing vices, and soon perished of a most loathsome and painful disease, 78 years B. C, in the 60th year of his age. 105. Catiline's Conspiracy. About 63 years before the Christian era, a most dangerous conspiracy broke out, headed by Catiline, who was descended from a very il- lustrious patrician family of great antiquity. He had been brought up amid the disorders of a civil war, and had been the instrument of the cruelties of Sylla, to whom he was devoted. Destitute of morals or religion, a repu- ted murderer, he bore a character of the foulest infamy. By his extravagance he contracted vast debts, and being unable to pay them, he grew desperate, and aimed at nothing less than the highest and most lucrative employ- ments. For this purpose, he associated with those young Romans whose excesses had ruined their fortunes, and rendered them the contempt of every discerning per- son in the city. These abandoned wretches formed a horrid conspiracy, to murder the consuls and the greater part of the senators, and then seize upon the government. This plot was daily strengthened by the young persons who had been brought up in luxury, but now lacked the means to support their extravagances, and in hope, that by a revolution in the state, they should receive a share of the public treasure. 106. Discovery of Catiline's Plot. Several women of the first families in Rome, of profligate character, were likewise engaged in Catiline's conspiracy. Cicero, the celebrated orator, then consul, found means to bribe Fulvia, a lady of illustrious family, whom she dishonored by her profligacy and intimacy with one of the chiet conspirators. From this woman Cicero obtained such information as enabled him to counteract all Catiline's projects. Soon after, Cicero accused Catiline, while he 105. Who was Catiline? Describe his character. Who were his associates, and what conspiracy did they form 1 106. How was Catiline's plot discovered ] By whom was he accused in the senate 1 What did Catiline do, and what became of him ] ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 was in the senate, of bis impious plot; but be endeavored t.o clear bimself of the charge. Finding be could not convince the senators of his innocence, he left Rome immediately and retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. Five of the principal con- spirators were arrested and executed immediately. Cati- line having collected his partisans, was attacked by a superior force, and though he fought desperately, was killed, with all his troops. 107. Julius Cesar and the First Triumvirate. After the death of Catiline, Julius Cesar rose into notice by his military services in various parts of the Roman em- pire. When a young man he was proscribed by Sylla, who dreaded his abilities and ambition : " There is many a Marius," said he, " in the person of that young man." Cesar, however, knowing the danger of his situa- tion, conducted prudently, and courted popularity with- out that show which gives alarm to a rival. Pompey, distinguished for his talents and military fame, and Cras- sus, for his great wealth and liberality, were competitors for the government. Cesar, by his address, had the power to reconcile these professed enemies, and to unite them to himself. These three men formed the design, in which they succeeded, of governing the state, and agreed that nothing should be transacted in the republic, without their joint approbation ; this form of govern- ment was called the First Triumvirate. The triumvirs divided the foreign provinces among themselves ; Pom- pey received Spain and Africa, Crassus took Syria, which was the richest, and Cesar took Gaul. 108. Invasion of Britain hy Cesar. Cesar having conquered the numerous tribes in Gaul and Germany, he turned his arms towards Britain. The inhabitants at that time were in a barbarous state : they were, how- ever, brave and warlike. Landing at Deal, Cesar at- tacked them, but was opposed with zeal and courage. 107. What is said of Julius Cesar? What did he do with regard to Pompoy and Crassus ] How was the ]''irsL Trium- virate formed 1 82 AKCIENT HISTORY. The irregular skill and courage of these barbarians were, however, no match for the disciplined Roman legions ; Cesar defeated them, and bound them to submission during his absence to Gaul. After a winter's residence he returned to Britain with a greater force, and prose cuting his victories, brought a considerable part of the island under the Roman dominion, 54 years B. C. ii is related by historians, that Cesar, in his expeditions into Gaul, Germany, and other places, during the space of ten years, conquered 800 cities. He also subdued 300 different nations or tribes, and defeated in different battles three millions of men ; of which about a million were slain in battle, and an equal number made prisoners. 109. Rivalship between Pumpey and Cesar. Crassus, having been killed in the war in Syria, Pompey and Cesar, each aspired to the supreme command. The senate and nobility of Rome sided with Pompey. Cesai relied on his veteran troops, and the common people, whom he had won by his liberality. Pompey, by his influence with the senate, caused them to pass an order, commanding Cesar to disband his troops by a certain day. Cesar, upon this, passed the Alps, and halted at Ravenna, from whence he wrote to the senate, inform- ing them that he would lay down his command, if Pom- pey would do the same ; but if that general kept his command, he for his part knew how to maintain himself at the head of his legions. He concluded his letter by saying, " If I have not justice immediately done me, I will march to Rome." The senate, apprehensive of his designs, passed a decree, branding with the crime of parricide any commander who should dare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the Gauls) with a single cohort, without their permission. 108. Where did Cesar land in Britain 1 What is said of the natives ? At what time was Britain brought under suhjection to the Roman power ? What is rekted of Cesar's expeditions 1 109. Who were on the side of Pompey] On whom did Cesar relyl What order did the senate pass respecting Cesar! What reply did Cesar send the senate! What de- cree did the senate pass 1 aNoIent history. 83 \ ■* A#^^" / ^--J ^ d n V i JT \ \ v ^^=^^^ ^^ (fcjtJ^^i \ rjEs^ — -.^^^^^ BPH^^E-K^ ^^^^j^m 1^^^ S^^^hI£~ ^m.§^^^^, ^ ^^W^ '^§= fa ^■w .^fe ^^3 m.^A3uii!! ~ r/ir ^ "^w^ ^^ If^^v^SS^^^ HiHft\ iIWMiWi * ~^"^\ C^ - X/^ ' N ^ ,c ~3 Bwi\1tI\v'' 1 -"^^ '^^^^^^^^^ ^^I^^MM \^ ^L^^^ ^^^^^^^B °fe^^^^^^ f ^■fhi 1 """"Ihn < I'liliiiiir 1 - - ^- ^&i£S:' -;i,$S""' ^ r.' ir ■ fp= l^i^ii^Twfm-fi^i'f^pBfedfi;;;;;:w'»i£?^'^ ^^^__^__^ Cesar passing the Rubicon. 110. Cesar'' s passage of the Rubicon. When Cesar, with his army, having arrived on the banks of the Rubi- con, he is said to have paused before passing it, imprijss- ed with the greatness of the enterprise, and its fearful consequences. " If I do not pass this river," said he to one of his generals, " I am ruined ; and should 1 pass it, what multitudes shall I ruin !" After considering a little, and the animosity of his enemies presenting itself to his mind, he plunged into the river, and cried out, " Let us go whither the omens of the gods, and the injustice of our enemies, call us. The die is cast." The army having crossed the Rubicon, Cesar tore his robe in the presence of the tribunes of the people, and implored the protection of his soldiers, when they all cried out with loud acclamations, that they were ready to die in the service of their general. The quickness of Cesar's movements astonished his enemies. Pompey not being in force to meet him,^fled from Rome, and Cesar, soon after, entered the city in triumph. 111. Cesar's pursuit of Pompey. The monarchs in the East having declared for Pompey, who had fled 110. What did Cesar say when on the banks of the Rubicon 1 What when passino^ the river T What is said of his soldiers "^ 84 ANCIENT HISTORY. thither, he was able to collect a numerous army. His cause was considered that of the commonwealth, and he was daily joined by crowds of the most distinguish- ed nobles and citizens of Rome. He had at one time 200 senators in his camp, among whom were Cicero and Cato, whose approbation alone was equal to a host. Cesar havijig defeated Pompey's lieutenants, in Spain, returned to Rome, where he stayed but eleven days, be- ing anxious to bring Pompey to a decisive engagement. He followed him into Greece, and did every thing to provoke a general battle. The hostile armies met on the plciins of Pharsalia. The contest was now calcu- lated to excite the deepest interest ; the two armies were composed of the best troops in the world, and were commanded by the two greatest generals of the age, and the prize contended for, was nothing less than the Roman empire. 112. Battle of Pharsalia. The army of Pompey consisted of more than 50,000 men ; Cesar's force was less than half that number, but were much the best dis- ciplined. As the armies approached, the two generals rode from rank to rank to animate their soldiers. The signal was then given for battle, and the contest on both aides was long and bloody, and seemed for some time doubtful. Pompey's cavalry charged with great vigor, and obliged the enemy to give ground. Cesar instantly advanced with his reserved corps, who attacking Pom- pey's troops with their pikes, threw them into the great- est disorder. Cesar pursued his advantage with so much vigor, that the army of Pompey was entirely rout- ed. The battle lasted from early in the morning till noon. Cesar lost but 1 ,200 men, while the loss of Pom- pey was 15,000 killed, and 24,000 prisoners. Cesar, 111. Where did Pompey collect an army ? By whom was he joined ! Where did Cesar follow Pompey ? Where did the hostile armies meet, what is said of them, and for what did they contend 1 112. What was the force of Pompey, and oF Cesar 1 Give an account of the battle, and the losses on each side. What was the conduct of Cesar after the battle] ANCIENT HISTORY. 85 on this occasion, showed his usual clemency, humanity, and moderation. He set at liberty the Roman knights and senators, and incorporated into his army most of the prisoners. The baggage of Pompey was brought to him, containing numerous letters of his enemies, which, without opening them, he threw into the fire. 113. Death of Pompey. Fleeing from the field of battle, Pompey found means to escape to Lesbos^ where he had left his wife, Cornelia, who, expecting her hus- band as master of the world, was told, that if she wished to see Pompey with one ship, and that not his own, she must hasten. Their meeting was tender and distress- ing. With one small galley they embarked for Egypt, to seek the protection of Ptolemy, whose father Pompey had befriended. The ministers of the young king wish- ing to court the favor of Cesar, basely proposed to re- ceive and murder their guest. Accordingly, a boat was sent to the galley, as if to take him on shore. Cornelia, looking after him, as the boat moved onward, saw the assassin stab him through the body, and her shriek of agony was heard upon the shore. The murderers cut off his head, and threw his body on the sand: his freed- man burnt it and buried the ashes, over which the fol- lowing inscription was afterwards placed : " He whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarce find a tomb." Cesar, who pursued Pompey to Egypt, had the head of his rival presented to him, but he turned his face from it with horror, and ordered a splendid monument to be erected to his memory. 114. Cesar's Expedition into Egypt. At the time Cesar was in Egypt, the throne of that country was claimed by both Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleopatra. The claims of Ptolemy had been upheld by the Roman Senate, and Cleopatra banished. She now laid her claim be'fore Cesar, who, captivated by her charms, decided the contest in her favor. A war en- 113. Where did Pompey flee 1 Relate the manner of his death. What did Cesar do after the death of" Pompey 1 1 14. What is said of Egypt ] What of Cleopatra ] What 8 8 > ANCIENT HISTORY. sued, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and Egypt sub- mitted to the Lloman arms. Cesar for a while aban- doned himself to pleasure, in company with Cleopatra, but was aroused by intelligence of the revolt of Phar- naces, the son of Mithridates, and some of the Asiatic provinces. Cesar subdued him with the greatest ease, and in his letter to the Roman senate, he expressed the rapidity of his conquest in three words : T^em, vidi, vici, that is, " I came, I saw, I conquered." 115. Death of Cato. After the battle of Pharsalia, the remaining followers of Pompey, under Scipio, Cato, Juba, and otiiers, retired to Africa. A kind of senate was formed at Utica, and a little body of people collected, to whom Cato gave laws. Cesar sent an army into that country, and entirely defeated their military force. Cato at first intended to have stood a siege at Utica, but find- ing the inhabitants could not be relied upon, he changed his resolution, and advised his friends either to escape by sea, or submit to the mercy of Cesar. He embraced them with much tenderness, and discoursed on moral subjects, of which this was the theme : " The virtuous are the only happy and free, and the wicked are ever wretched and slaves." He afterwards laid himselt down, and with deep attention read Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul. He requested that his sword might be brought to him; his friends implored him not to lay violent hands on himself, but continue among them as their guardian and protector. On re- ceiving his sword, he said, "I am now my own master." He then read the book twice over, and fell into a sound sleep. Upon waking, he made some inquiries respect- ing his friends : he then retired to a room alone and stabbed himself : the wound not being immediately fatal, was sewed up ; but Cato coming to himself, tore open the wound with indignation, and expired. This event finished Cesar's war in Africa. did Cesar do 1 State the expression he used in regard to his con(iaests. • 1 15. At what place was a new senate formed ] What did Cato do 'i Relate the manner of his death. ANCIENT HISTORY. 87 116. Triumphs of Cesar. The war in Africa being ended, Cesar returned to Rome, and celebrated a mag- nificent triumph, which lasted four days. The first was for Gaul ; the second for Egypt ; the third for his vic- tories in Asia ; and the fourth for his victories over Juba and Cato. He rewarded his soldiers with great liberality, and treated the people with rare and expen- sive shows ; and to remove every cause of jealousy, he bestowed the honors of the state on Pompey's friends, equally with his own adherents. By these means he became popular, and the multitude cheerfully yielded up their liberties to their great enslaver. After the final overthrow of Pompey's party in Spain, he was hailed as the " Father of his country." The senate and peo- ple vied with each other in acts of servility and flat- tery ; he was made a consul for ten years, created per- petual dictator, received the title of Imperator, or Empe- ror, and his person was declared sacred. 117. Cesar's Administration a?id Improvements. Find- ing himself in peace, Cesar turned his attention to the improvement of his empire. He labored to reform abuses, and introduced order into all departments of state. He affected moderation in the enjoyment of his power, though he was evidently eager of its possession ; he however turned it to a good account. He adorned Rome with magnificent buildings, drained the Pontine marshes, and improved the navigation of the Tiber. He also reformed the calendar, and with the assistance of the most able astronomers, regulated the year ac- cording to the course of the sun. Two months were added to the calendar, and the whole year divided into 365 days. He also added one day to every fourth year, in the month of February, and that year v/as named Bissextile, or leap year. The reckoning of time from his regulation, was called the Julian account of time. 1 16. Relate the different triumphs Cesar celebrated. How did he treat the people ? What title did he receive ? 117. To what did Cesar turn his attention"? What did he do with regard to the ca] gndar 1 88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 1 1 8. Conspiracy a*yaiiist Cesar. Though many of the people fek greatly obliged to Cesar for his clemency and liberality, yet they detested the name of king — a title they thought be was about to assuuie. The fresh honors which the senate continued to heap upon hira. excited tbe envy and jealousy of his enemies. A con- spiracy was now formed against him by no less than sixty senators, in order to put him to death. At the head of it were Brutus and Cassius, men whose lives had been spared by Cesar, at the battle of Pharsalia. Cesar loved Brutus, loaded him with favors, and adopted him as his son. Brutus, though " loving Cesar much, loved Kome more ;" and being guided by what he be- lieved would be for his country's good, joined the con- spirators. Cassius thirsted for revenge against an en- vied and hated superior. The conspirators deferred the execution of their plot till the ^'Ides of March" a day on which it was supposed that Cesar would be declared king. 119. Assassination of Cesar. The Ides of March having arrived, Cesar, while proceeding to the senate- house, met the augur, who had forewarned him of the dangers of that day. " The Ides of March are come," said Cesar. " True," replied the augur, " but they are not yet past." As soon as he had taken his place in the senate, the conspirators came near, under the pre- tense of saluting him, and presenting petitions. On a signal agreed upon, the conspirators all drew their swords and rushed upon him. Cesar defended himself with great vigor, till seeing Brutus among the assail- ants, he uttered the exclamation, "And you, too, my son Brutus ;" when, muffling up his face with his robe, he sunk down near the statue of Pompey and expired, having received 23 wounds. Thus fell Julius Cesar, 118. What excited a conspiracy against Cesar? Who were the conspirators] When did they intend to execute their plot ? 119 What is said respecting the augur? Relate the cir- cumstances of Cesar's deatli. At what age and at what time \ was he assassinated '' ANCIENT HISTORY. 09 the master of the world, in the 56th year of his age, 14 years after he commenced his career of conquests in Gaul, and 44 years before the commencement of the Christian era. 120. Speech of Antony. Flight of the Conspirators. The Roman people were struck with horror at the mur- der of Cesar. Although he had made himself master of their lives and liberties, he was generally popular. Mark Antony, Cesar's friend, who was at that time con- sul, summoned the senate. The two parties of which it was composed, agreed that no inquiry should be made concerning Cesar's death, and that his funeral should be performed at the public expense. Antony, who was se- lected to deliver the funeral oration, artfully exerted the whole power of his eloquence to work on the passions of the multitude. He read Cesar's will in the presence of the people, in which it was discovered that he had left to every Roman citizen a considerable legacy. He then displayed his bloody robe, and his image in wax, in which were discovered the 23 wounds received at his death. When he found the people agitated with grief and anger, he swore by the gods of Rome to avenge his death, and conjured the people to favor him in doing his duty. The populace were now inflamed with rage and indignation against the conspirators, who, to escape from their fury, fled from Rome. 121. Second Triu?nvirate. Cesar, by his will, had ap- pointed Octavius, his sister's grandson, his heir, who ar- rived at Rome soon after his uncle's death. Availing himself of his titles, Octavius gained the senate to his in- terest, and divided with Antony the favor of the people. The difference between these rivals being settled, it was agreed to admit Lepidus, the governor of Gaul, and pos- sessor of immense riches, to a share of the government. These three persons invested themselves with the su- 120. What is said of Mark Antony 1 Relate the circum- stances of his funeral oration. How were the people affected ] 121. Who formed the second triumvirate] How long did they have the supreme command 1 What did they do \ 8* 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. prerae power for five years, and thus formed the second triumvirate. They divided among themselves the prov- inces, and agreed that all their enemies should be de- stroyed ; and each sacrificed his friends to the vengeance of his associates. Antony consigned to death his uncle ; Lepidus, his brother ; and Octavius, his guardian and his friend, Cicero.^ the celebrated orator In this horribl(3 proscription, 300 senators and 3,000 knights were put to death. 122. Death of Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Oc- tavius having deluged Rome with blood, now turned their arms against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to Greece, and raised an army of 100,000 men, to restore the com- monwealth. The two armies met near Philippi, and af- ter a dreadful conflict of two days, the fate of the empire was decided by the total defeat of the republican army. Brutus and Cassius, the last Roman republicans, seeing all M^as lost, stabbed themselves, it is said, by the same weapons with which they had killed Cesar. The head of Brutus was sent to Rome, and laid at the foot of Ce- sar's statue ; tds wife, Portia, the daughter of Cato, hear- ing of his death; determined not to survive him, and when every weapon was removed from her reach, killed her- self by swallowing burning coals. 123. Antony and Cleopatra. Antony, when at Tar- sus, summoned Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, to answer for her conduct in poisoning an infant brother, and fa- voring the party of Brutus and Cassius. Cleopatra came to Tarsus in a galley decorated with gold ; the sails were made of purple silk, and the oars were inlaid with silver. A pavilion of cloth of gold, was raised upon the deck, under which appeared the queen, robed like Venus, and surrounded by the beautiful young women of her court, representing Nymphs and Graces. Incense was 122. Where did Brutus and Cassius flee to ^ Who was de- feated at Philippi ? What became of Brutus and Cassius ] 123. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra before him ? Relate the circumstances of her voyage. What is said of An- tony ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 91 burnt on deck : the oars kept time to soft and delightful music, and the whole scene was enchanting, Antony was conquered : he forgot to decide upon her cause, gave up the pursuit of ambition, neglected all his atfairs, and abandoned himself to pleasure with the beautiful and li- centious queen. He lavished on her the provinces of the empire, for which he was declared an enemy to the Roman people. 124. Death of Antony and Cleopatra. Antony hav- ing divorced his wife, Octavia, the sister of Octavius, war was declared against him. In the struggle between An- tony and Uctavius, the strength of the East and West was arrayed against each other. Antony's lieet consist- ed of 500 ships. Octavius had but half the number of ships, but they were better built and manned. The hos- tile tleets came to a decisive engagement, near Actiu?n, on the coast of Epirus. Victory was sometime doubtful, till Cleopatra fled, withthe Egyptian squadron, in the heat of the engagement. Antony abandoned the rest of the fleet, and Ibilowed her to Alexandria. Here the base Cleopatra betrayed the cause of Antony, who killed him- self in despair. Octavius was desirous of conveying Cleopatra to Rome, in order to grace his triumph ; but she prevented it by causing herself to be bitten by an asp. From her death, Egypt became a Roman prov- ince, 30 years before the Christian era. 125. Reign of Octavius, or Augustus Cesar. The battle of Actium decided the fate of the commonwealth ; and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of the Roman empire. He wisely avoided the vain show of power, and it was his policy to change the nature, rather than the form of government. He had the address to rule as a king, and yet preserve the appearance of a re- publican. The empire embraced the best part of Eu- rope, Asia, and Africa. The revenues were immense, and a great army was kept on foot, distributed in the va- 124. What is said of the struggle between Antony and Oc tavius ^ What of the engagement near Actium'? What be- came of Antony and Cleopatra 1 i^2 ANCIENT HISTORY. rious provinces. The emperor and his chief counsel- lors were eminent patrons of learning and the arts. The Augustan age of Roman literature, lias been the admi- ration of all succeeding ages. In token of universal peace, the temple of Janus was shut. In the 26th year of the reign of Augustus, and according to the best au- thorities, four years before the time assigned for the Christian era, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem in Judea. 126. Character and Education of the Romans. The Romans under their kings, and in the first ages of the republic, were distinguished for their Adrtuous and rigid severity of manners. The private life of the citizens was frugal, temperate and laborious. The Roman moth- ers bestowed the utmust attention to the formation of the mind and character of their offspring. They esteemed this duty sacred ; and these, with the necessary occupa- tions of their household, the highest traits of female merit. Next to the care bestowed on the morals of their chil- dren, a great degree of attention was given to their lan- guage, that they might speak correctly ; and the honors of the state were given to those who distmguished them- selves by their eloquence. The exercises of the body were also strictly attended to, in order to endure fatigue, and confer strength and agility. It was owing to the virtuous and manly principles which were instilled into the minds of the Roman youth, that all the greatness and prosperity of Rome is to be ascribed. 127. Industry of the illustrious Rornans. The first magistrates and generals cultivated their fields and thrashed their grain with their own hands. Cincinnatus, the saviour of his country, was taken from the plough, when chosen dictator. Marcus Curius, who drove Pyrrhus out of Italy, was possessed of but one small 125. What, is said of Octaviusl What of the state of the empire 1 At what period was our Saviour born 1 126. State the character of the Romans durmgthe first pe- riods of their national existence. To what is their greatness and prosperity to be ascribed *? ANCIENT HISTORY. 93 farm, which he cultivated himself. The elder Cato, who rose to all the honors and offices of the state, went to work in the fields with his slaves, and sat at the same table and partook of the same food. Scipio Africanus^ after having defeated four of the Carthaginian generals, conquered the great Hannibal, and rendered Carthage tributary to Rome, labored on his farm. The celebrated Lucrelia, a noble Roman lady, employed herself in spin- ning with her female servants. Probity, simplicity, and the love of labor, were virtues as common at that period as they were rare in succeeding ages. 128. Religion. The religion of the Romans was nearly the same as that of the Greeks. Their priests did not form a distinct order of the state, but were se- lected from the most honorable citizens. The priests were of two kinds — those that were common to all the gods, and those that were appointed to the service of some particular divinity ; as, the " priest of Jupiter," the " Vestal virorins," who guarded the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta. There were also priests appomted to preside over feasts, processions, &c. The pontijices, fifteen in number, were judges in sacred things, and di- rected what should be done in cases where there was no law. The pontifex maximus was the supreme arbiter, or high priest. There were also fifteen priests, whose office it was to keep the Sibylline books, in which it was said the future history of Rome was written. These books were obtained in the time of Tarquin the Proud, from a Sibyl, or woman supposed to be inspired. They were kept in a stone chest, under the capitol, and consulted in times of great calamity. 129. Government. The government among the Ro- mans was at first a monarchy, next a republic, in which 127. What is said of the first Roman magistrates and gene- rals ? What of Cincinnatus ] Marcus Curius? The elder Cato "? Scipio Africanus, and Liicretial 128. What is said of the religion of the Romans^ Of their priests'! Who were the Vestal viigins ? The Pontifieesl Who the pontifex maximus ? What is said of the Sibylhne books 1 94 ANCIENT HISTORY. the aristocratic power prevailed. This power was final- ly overthrown by the people, who became corrupt. A state of anarchy prevailed, which, according to the com- mon course of thino-s, settled down to a despotism, un- der the Cesars. The kings of Rome were not abso- lute or hereditary, but limited and elective. They could not enact laws, make war or peace, without the consent of the senate and people. Their badges were a white robe, a golden crown, and an ivory scepter. They sat in a chair of state, made or adorned with ivory, and "were attended by twelve lictors. or officers, carrying fasces, which were a bundle of rods, with an ax in the center. The consuls, after the banishment of the kings, were put into their places, to perform the duties of roy- alty. They were two in number, and held their office for one year. At first, they had the same badges of authority, excepting the crown. 130. Roman Srnators. The senate was composed of 100 old men, and afterwards of 200 or more. They were the council of the king, and by them most of the business of the state was transacted. They were at first nominated by the kings, but were afterwards chosen by the consuls, and at last by the censors. They were distinguished by a particular dress, and had separate seats at the public spectacles. This body usually as- sembled three times a month, but were often called on other days for special business. On account of their age, gravity, and the paternal care they had of the state, they were called patres, or fathers. The patrician families were descended from these fathers. The sen- ate, notwithstanding many usurpations on their authori- ty, continued to have, on many points, great authority and influence, in every period of the Roman state. 129. What were the forms of government among the Ro- mans 1 What power did the kings have ] What is said of ihe consuls 1 130. Who formed the senate, and how were they chosen ? How were they distinguished, and how often did they meet ] What families descended from them ] ANCIENT HISTORY. 95 131. Other Roman Magistrates. The next in rank to the consuls, were the prcEtors, who took their places when vacant, and were appointed to administer justice, and call assemblies of the senate and people. They also presided at certain public games. Their number varied much towards the end of the republic, and under the emperors. The tribunes of the people were officers whose duty it was to guard and protect the plebeians, when the patricians became oppressive. They were without tribunal or guards, and without a seat in the senate house ; yet they had the power, by a single veto, to suspend or annul the decrees of the senate, and the decisions of the consuls. Their persons were declared sacred ; but their authority was confined to the limits of a mile from the city. They were chosen annually. Their number was, at the first, five, afterwards ten. The pro-prcBtors and the pro-consuls usually governed the provinces of the Roman empire. The qucBstors were elected by the people, to take care of the public revenue. 132. Roman Citizens and Assemblies. The Roman citizens were not merely the inhabitants of Rome and Its environs, but the privilege of citizenship was granted to other parts of Italy, and afterwards to foreign cities and towns in the empire, and this privilege was some limes bought with money. The power of the people in Rome was expressed in their assbmblies, called the comitia. The comitia were summoned to pass laws, elect magistrates, decide concerning peace and war, and try persons accused of certain crimes. The comi- tia continued in power for upwards of 700 years, when that liberty was abridged by Julius Cesar, and after- wards by Augustus, both of whom shared with the people the right of creating magistrates. Tiberius 131. Who were next in rank to the consuls'? What did they do 1 What was the duty of the tribunes, and what power had they] Who were the pro-praetors, pro-consuls, and quaestors 1 13-2. Who were Roman citizens'? What is said of the comitia 1 How long did the comitia continue to be assembled ? 96 ANCIENT HISTORY. Cesar deprived the people altogether of the right of election. 133. Arts and Sciences. During the first ages of the Roman republic, they were without all the elegant improvements of life. War, politics, and agriculture, were the only arts they studied, because they were the only arts they esteemed ; and, though a sensible and energetic people, they were rude and illiterate. But, upon the downfall of Carthage, the Romans, having no enemy to dread from abroad, felt secure; and having leisure, they began to cultivate the arts. When they conquered Greece, it put them at once into the posses- sion of every thing rare, curious, or elegant, in the arts and sciences. Asia, which they next conquered, of- fered all its stores ; and the Romans, from being the most simple, soon became acquainted with the arts, the luxuries and refinements of the whole earth. 134. Roman Poets, Historians, repared for their reception. The Danes at length be- came so formidable, that they obtained possession of rayer in a church, to receive the sacrament, to bathe, to put on white robes, confess their sins, auu hear sermons, in which Christian morals were enforced ariu explained. The candidate then took an oath, consistini^ of 26 arti- cles, in which, among other things, he swore he would be a good, brave, loyal, just, generous, and gentle knight, a champion of the church and clergy, a protector of the ladies, and a redresser of the wrongs of widows and A Knight in Armor. orphans. While on his knees he received from the hands of the knights and larlies the various parts of his armor, and hi the last place his sword. The concluding sign of being dabhnd, or adopted into the order of knighthood, was a slight blow given by the lord, on the neck or cheek ; he was then proclaimed a knight, " in the name of God and the Saints." 240. Character, c^-c. of the Knights. The character of a true knight, although containing many defects, was distinguished by much tkat was praiseworthy and noble. His whole course was directed by a regard to religion ; hood 1 What did he take an oath to be 1 What was the con- cludins siiin of beina: adopted a knight! 240." What is said of the character of the kuights ] What were Itis privileges ] 164 MODERN HISTORY. thougli it must be confessed, thatth(5 religion of the times consisted mo- e in form, than in spirit, 'ilie knight was distinguished for his perfect fidelity to his word, his modesty, generosity, and courtesy. By being dubbed a knight, he was invested with many privileges and dignities which were not limited to his own country, but extended throughout a great part of Europe. He had a right to roam through the world in search of ad- ventures, and was authorized to propose a trial of skill with the lance, to all of his own order he met, and to combat them with fury, if they did not acknowledge the lady to whom he had devoted himself, to be the most beautiful in the world. In war, when the sovereign led his army to the attack, his never-failing injunction was, " Let every one think of his mistress." 241. Of Tournaments. Tournaments were military exercises, performed by two parties of knights or cava- liers. No amusement was so delighted in, by the gal- lant knights or beauteous ladies, by kings, the nobility, and gentry, as these images of war. These exhibitions were often splendid, far beyond any thing seen at the present age, especially at coronations, the marriage of princes, victories, &c. No knight who had blasphemed God, or offended the ladies, or had been false or un- grateful, was allowed to enter these contests At the tournament, the space inclosed within the lists was sur- rounded by sovereign princes, nobles, knights of renown, and all that rank and beauty had distinguished among the fair. Covered with armor, and known only by their emblazoned shields, the combatants rushed forward to a strife, without enmity, but not without danger The ladies were the supreme judges of the tournaments, and victory little less glorious, and perhaps, at the moment, more deeply felt than in the field, si) ce no battle could assemble such witnesses of valor. 242. Orders of Knighthood. The orders of chivalrv, 241. What were tournaments'? What is said of these ex.- hibitionsl What knights could not enter these contest* \ Describe them. MODERN HISTORY. 165 or knighthood, were of two general descriptions viz religious and military. Some ot the religious orders were those of Templars, St. James, Alcantrava, the lady of Mercy, and St. Michael. In the religious orders, the cavaliers, or knights, were bound by the three great mo- nastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. The military orders were imitations of the religious. Those of the Garter, the Golden fleece^ and St. Michael, in France, were clearly of chivalric origin : many others, which now exist in Europe, cannot boast of such a de- scent. All these various orders had particular rules, by which they professed to be governed, but they varied with the spirit of the times. The Knight Templars^ who became quite famous, were founded by Baldwin^ king of Jerusalem, for the defense of the holy sepulcher, and protection of the Christian pilgrims. After the ruin of Jerusalem, about 1186, they spread themselves throughout Europe, and flourished for a considerable period, but as their prosperity increased they became corrupted, till their vices were such, that the order was suppressed. 2i3. Effects of Chivalry. Absurd as chivalry was in some respects, it had a powerful influence in chang- ing the manners of society in a barbarous age. It re- fined the manners, promoted the social intercourse, ant softened in many respects, the horrors of war. By thin- ning the ranks of robbers and ruffians, it added to the safety and order of society. A nice sense of honor, and a strict regard to truth, was cherished by its maxims. But perhaps the most important efl^ect of this institution, was the delicate and respectful attention paid to woman, whereby they were delivered from the degradation so comm(m in savage and barbarous nations. In short, it was a great corrector of the evils of the feudal system, haughtiness, tyranny, o[)pression, and misrule. Itcan- •24-2. What were the names of some of the religious orders of knighthood 1 By what vows were they hound ] What is said ofthe !!;ilitary orders? What of the knight Templars'? 243. What'was the influence of chivalry ! What was one of the most important effects of this institution ? 166 MODERN HISTORY. not be denied, however, that the principles of chivalry, like other institutions, were much superior to the prac- tice of its professors, and that it fell far short of preserv- ing purity. The poetry and tales of those times, afford evidence of a low slate of morals. 244. Henry II. of England. Henry II., the first o) the Plantagenets, being descended by his grandmothei from the Saxon kings, and by his mother from the Nor man family, succeeded to the throne, to the great satis- faction of the pation. He was the most powerful sove- reign in Christendom : in addition to England he owned, by inheritance and marriage, nearly one half of France, and afterwards claimed Ireland by conquest. Some of the most remarkable circumstances in his reign, relate to his contests with Thomas Becket, archbishop of Can- terbury. During the preceding reign, the power of the clergy had increased to a great height ; they were also very corrupt in their morals, and committed, without re- straint, the most enormous crimes. It is related, that it was proved, in the presence of the king, that more than one hundred murders had been committed by ecclesias- tics, not one of whom had been punished. Henry re- solved to reform these abuses, but he met with the most determined opposition from Becket, who contended that the clergy were not subject to the civil power. 245. Murder of Becket. After a long series of con- tests with this haughty prelate, Henry was so exaspe- rated by his audacious conduct, that he rashly exclaim- ed, in the midst of his courtiers : " What ! is there none that will avenge me of that insolent priest ?" Four knights of his household, taking this expression to be a hint for the primate's death, proceeded to the cathedral, and assassinated Becket before the altar. Nothing could exceed the consternation of the king at this event ; 244. What is said of Henry H.l What is said of the cler- gy, and what was proved against them 1 Who opposed Henry in reforming abuses ] 245. Relate the cause and manner of Becket'sileath. What did Henry do 1 What did the pope do respecting Becket, and what is said respecting his tomb ? MODERN HISTORY. 167 and in order to avert the resentment of the pope, did penance at the tomb of Becket, with fasting and prayer, and even presented his bare shoidders to the monks, to be scourged by a knotted cord. Becket was canonized by the pope, as a saint, by the title of St. Thomas, oj Canterbury, and miracles were pretended to be wrought at his tomb ; and at the jubilee, which was observed once in fifty years, 100,000 pilgrims are said to have been present on a pilgrimage to his tomb. 246 Magna Charta. John, the king of England, having made Pope Innocent 111. his enemy, by appro- priating some of the treasures of the church to his own purposes, felt the weight of the papal power. His king- dom was laid under an interdict, he was excommunica- ted, and his subjects absolved from their allegiance. The wretched monarch was brought into submission, and on his knees he solemnly agreed to hold his king- dom subject to the authority of the pope. His subjects thus trampled upon and sold, resolved to maintain their rights. The barons assembled, and binding themselves by an oath to a concert of measures, demanded from the king a ratification of the charter of privileges granted by Henry I. John refused, till resort was had 'to the sword : by this means he was compelled to yield to their demands, and on the 19th of June, 1215, signed that solemn charter, called the magna charta, or the great charter, which is considered the great bulwark and foundation of English liberty. This charter consisted of fourteen specifications, of which the following were the most important, viz. : that no aid or money should be drawn from the people, un- less in a few special cases, without the consent of the great council of the nation ; that no person shall be tried on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful wit- nesses ; and that no person shall be tried or punished, 246. What was the cause of John, king of England, having the kingdom laid under an interdict ? How did the barons obtain a charter ] What was it called, and how considered \ What were some of the provisions of the charter ] 168 MODERN HISTORY. except by the judgment of his peers, (persons of the* same rank with himself,) and the law of the land. John granted at the same time, the charter of the forest, which abolished the exclusive right of the king to kill game all over the kingdom. 247. Of the Inquisition. The formidable tribunal, called the Inquisition, was instituted about the year 1204, by Pope Innocent, in order to punish and examine here- tics, as all those who differed from the Roman church were called. The increase of the Waldenses, at this period, seems to have been the immediate cause of the establishment of the inquisition. The Waldenses were the followers of Peter Waldo, a merchant of Lyons, in France, who being animated with uncommon zeal for the advancement of piety and Christian knowledge, be- gan, in 1180, as a public teacher, to instruct the multi- tude. His efforts were crowned with great success, and spread into the neighboring countries. In order to crush this heresy, as it is called, the pope issued orders to the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics, to search into their number and quality, and transmit a faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called mquisitors, and gave birth to the terrible tribunal called the inquisition. 248. Establishment of the Inquisition. At first the inquisitors had no tribunals, but they soon, how-ever, had power given them to punish, in any manner they thought proper, all those brought before them. Dominic, a de- scendant from an illustrious Spanish family, and founder of the order of Dominicans, was appointed the chief in- quisitor. From his early years, he was educated for the priesthood, and is represented to have been fiery and bloody in his disposition and character. In the course of a fow years the system was brought to matu- 247. When was the inquisition instituted, and for what pur- pose ] Who were the Waldenses 1 Who were the inquisi- tors^ 248. What is said of Dominic, the inquisitor 1 At what time was the inquisition generally held 1 What is said of this tri- bunal 1 MODERN HISTORY. 169 rity ; and branches of the " Holy Inquisition" were es- tablished in almost every province in Europe, where people were suspected of heresy. Their tribunals were held in the night, or in some retired apartment, from which the light of day was excluded. No man, how- ever exalted his station, was secure from their sum- mons. The hour of midnight was generally selected to demand the presence of an accused person. Wherever this tribunal exercised its full power, the people stood in so much fear of it, that parents delivered up their children, husbands their wives, and masters their ser- vants, to its officers, without daring to murmur, or make the least resistance. Few who once entered the gloomy walls of the inquisition, ever returned ; or if they were released, they never dared to whisper what they had soen or heard within those prisons of death. 249. Scriptural Plays. Before the invention of the art of printing, it was quite common in most countries of Europe to have the various scenes described in the Bible, acted out by theatrical companies, who visited the various towns and villages for that purpose. Not only were the first parents of mankind, the patriarchs, apos- tles, angels and demons, represented on the stage, but even representations of God the Father, of Christ, and of the Holy Ghost. Such was the passion of the peo- ple for these religious shows, (or mysteries as they were usually called) they became important subjects for regu- lation by law. Sometimes a single play occupied several days ; and not unfrequently embraced the story of both he Old and New Testament, from the creation to the lay of judgment. Such was the ignorance of the com- non people at this period, that many persons derived most of their knowledge of the transactions recorded in the Bible, by means of these plays. 250. Genghis Khan. In the beginning of the thir- 249. At what time were Scriptural plays performed in Eu- rope 1 What was represented \ How long did they some- times continue ] What is said of the ignorance of the people at this time 1 15 ♦ 170 MODERN HISTORY. teenth century, Genghis, the son of a barbarian chief, who reigned over a few hordes of Tartars, appeared as a conqueror, in the heart of Asia. The death of his father induced a revolt of his subjects, and at the age of thirteen, Genghis fought a battle with the rebels ; he was, however, compelled to flee, but his youthful spirit acquired him renown. By degrees he gained control, until he was proclaimed the Great Khan, or prince of the Moguls and Tartars. He led a vast army against the Chinese — passed the great wall, and destroyed a multitude of cities ; and the Chinese emperor, in order to have him depart, agreed to pay him tribute. In the second expedition, he conquered the northern part of China, and added it to his dominions. With 700,000 Moguls and Tartars, he now advanced towards the do- minions of the Mahometan sultan in the West. In his advance towards Europe, nations and kingdoms were laid waste and destroyed ; and it is said, that five cen- turies were not sufficient to repair the ravages of four years. Gienghis Khan died in the midst of his con- quests, A. D. 1227, and his successors conquered near the whole of Asia, and a portion of Europe. 251. End of the Saracen Empire. Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracen empire 490 years, during which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, and was the scene of many bloody revolutions. The later califs, in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not the warlike sovereigns which their predecessors had been. They thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Al Mostasem, the last calif, exceeded all others in pride and display. When he appeared in public, he was usually veiled, in order to attract the at- tention of fhe people, whom he considered unworthy to look at him. On these occasions, a great price was given for the privilege to stand at a window, or in a 250. Who was Genghis Khan 1 Where did he make his conquests I What is said of his ravages 1 251. How long was Bagdad the seat of the Saracen em- pire \ What is said of Al Mostasem, the last calif! When was Bagdad taken, and by whom \ MODERN HISTORY, 171 balcony, for the purpose of seeing him as he passed, and scarcely any thing could exceed the eagerness of the people to catch a sight of their sovereign. In A. D. 1258, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and Al Mostasem was confined in a leathern sack, and dragged about the city till he expired. Hulaku gave up the city, which contained immense treasures, to be pillaged by his troops, for seven days. By this event the empire of the Saracens was terminated. 252. Empire of the Assassins. This singular sect (from which the word assassin is derived) was formed in the eleventh century, the object of which was to ex- pel the Mahometan religi(m and government, by estab- lishing an empire of their own. 'J'he founder of this society, which for more than a century and a half filled Asia with terror and dismay, was Hassan Ben Sahab. In possession of a strong fortress in Persia, Hassan or- ganized his band of followers, whose daggers spread the terror of his power throughout Asia. All those governors and princes who would not submit to his au- thority, were generally assassinated by his devoted fol- lowers. After a reign of 35 years, Hassan saw his power extended over a great part of the Mahometan em- pire, which continued under his successors, till they were overthrown by the Tartars. 253. Method of making Assassins. Hassan had three classes of followers, the third of which were the blind and willing instruments of their superiors, and, regardless of their own lives, executed their bloody mandates. If they perished in executing their orders, it was repre- sented to them that they would immediately enter para- dise. When the chief had noticed any youth whom he wished to employ as an assassin, he invited him to a feast, and placing himself beside him, he conversed on 252. When was the sect of the assassins formed, and for what object ] Who was its founder ] How long did his so- ciety, or empire, exist ] 253. How many classes of followers did Hassan have, and what is said of the third class ? Give an account of the de- ception practiced to make assassins. 172 MODERN HISTORY. the happiness reserved for the faithful, and contrived to administer an intoxicating draught, which caused a deep sleep. He was then carried to a beautiful garden, pre- pared for this purpose, where, when awakening, he found himself surrounded with every thing delightful to the senses or imagination ; bowers of roses, airy halls, murmuring brooks, the richest of viands, and the choicest of wines, sparkled from golden cups ; beautiful maidens, or houries, and blooming boys, were the inhabitants of this delicious spot, which ever sounded with the melody of birds, and the most enchanting music. The happy youth really believed himself in paradise, and the lan- guage of his attendants confirmed the delusion. When nature began to yield, through excess of enjoyment, the sleeping draught was again administered, and he was conveyed back to his chief. His imagination was filled with what he had seen, and he longed for the hour when death, in obeying the commands of his superiors, should dismiss him to paradise. 254. End of the Crusades. The crusading spirit, which had begun to languish in Europe, was revived, for the last time, by Louis IX., of France, a monarch distinguished for his heroic and amiable virtues, but deeply afiected by the unworthy superstition of the times. After three years preparation, he set out for Palestine, with his queen, three brothers, and nearly all the knights of France, A. D. 1248. He had greatly en- couraged the hearts of the Christians, in Palestine, by sending troops thither before his own departure. Louis began his enterprise by invading Fgypt, and after losing one half of his army by sickness, he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and his followers, he proceeded to the Holy Land, where he remained for some time, and then re- turned to France, and for thirteen years reigned with wisdom. But the crusading frenzy again seized him; he embarked on another crusade against the Aloors, in 251. By whom were the crusades revived for the last time 1 Give an account of his expeditions. MODERN HISTORY. 173 Africa, and while besieging Tunis, he, and the greater part of his army, perished by pestilence. 255. Effects of the Crusades, 'i^hese barbarous ex- peditions agitated, convulsed, and distressed every fam- ily m Europe, for two hundred years. It is computed, ihat during the time of the crusades, more than two millions of Europeans were buried in the East; and those that survived were soon incorporated with the Mahometan population, in Syria, and in a few years no traces of the Christian conquests remained. Though these expeditions were attended with a great amount of misery, yet they were followed with some beneficial ef- fects. Many of the nobility were obliged to sell their lands, in order to procure the means to convey their troops to a foreign land ; and in this way the lower classes began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit of independence. Kings, likewise, raised money by selling to towns the right of electing their own magis- trates, and being governed by their own municipal laws. The crusaders, by traveling in the East, particularly in the vicinity of Constantinople, became acquainted with many arts and sciences, which, on their return, they in- troduced into their own countries. By the frequency of voyagers to convey troops to Palestine, the art of navigation rapidly improved, and consequently com- merce was much extended. Notwithstanding some benefits may have -arisen to the European nations on account of the crusades, yet it caruiot be denied, that they caused an immense degree of suffering. The path of the fanatical crusader was everywhere marked with blood : under the sacred name of religion, every excess and crime was committed. 255. How many Europeans is it suppt)sed were buried in the East during the crusades ! Describe ilie effects otttie crusades. 15* PERIOD VI. DISTINGUISHED FOR DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. Mariner^s Compass. Printing. Gunpowder FROM THE LAST CRUSADE TO THE DISCOVERY OF. AMERJCA. (333 YEARS.) 256. Conquest of Wales. Wales is said to have been first inhabited by the Britons, who fled thither from the Saxons, in A. D. 675. Edward I., of England, who had been engaged in the last crusade to the Holy Land, with Louis, the French king, on his return formed the design of uniting the whole of the island of Great Britain into one dominion. Llewellyn, the prince of Wales, was surprised and slain, with 2,000 of his fol- lowers. His brother, Prince David, who had formerly received great favors from Edward, was made prisoner by the English, and executed as a traitor, for defending his 'country. The Welch nobility submitted to the conqueror, and the principality was annexed to the crown of England, A. D. 1282. It is said that Eldward promised to give the Welch a prince, who should be born in their country. His eldest son, then an infant. 256. By whom is Wales said to have been first inhabited ■? By whom were they conquered '\ By whom is the title of the Prince of Wales borne ? MODERN HISTORY. 175 was born at Caernarvon, and in consequence received the title of Prince of Wales, which has ever since been borne by the eldest sons of the British monarchs. 257. War between the English and Scots. On the death* of Alexander III., who left no son, Bruce and Baloil were competitors for the throne of Scotland, and Edward was chosen umpire to decide the contest be- tween the two rivals. The crown was adjudged to Baliol, who promised to hold it as a vassal to the king of England. He, however, soon after renounced his allegiance, which was the occasion of a war, which lasted, with some intermission, upwards of seventy years. Edward invaded Scotland with a large army, defeated the Scots with great slaughter, and carried Baliol prisoner to London, and compelled him to abdi- cate the throne. The Scots were afterwards roused to arms, for the recovery of their independence, by that renowned hero, William Wallace, but after gaining a series of victories, they were defeated in the battle of Falkirk. The heroic Wallace was betrayed, and was put to death by the English in a cruel manner. The Scots found a second champion and deliverer in Robert Bruce, who expelled the English from the country, and was raised to the throne of his ancestors, A. D. 1306. 258. Swiss Republics. William Tell. The estab- lishment of the Swiss repuC)lics was occasioned by the tyrannical conduct of the emperor of Germany, in 1307. The Swiss having petitioned him against the oppressions of his governors, he, in resentment, increased their burdens, which was the cause of a conspiracy and revolt. Geslcr, the governor, in order to ascertain the spirit of the people, ordered his hat to be placed on a pole, and homage paid to it, as to himself. William Tell refused, 257. Who were the competitors for the throne of Scotland ? What became of Baliol 1 By whom were the Scots roused to arms for the recovery of their independence ? Who ex- pelled the English"? 258. How were the Swiss republics established? What is said of Gesler and William Tell ? 176 MODERN HISTORY. and when seized for disobedience, was directed to shoot an arrow at an apple placed on the head oi' his son, or else be dragged, with his child, to immediate death Being an excellent marksman, he cleft the apple with- out injuring his son. Gesler perceiving another -arrow under his cloak, asked for what purpose that was in- tended. Tell heroically replied, " To have shot you to the heart, if 1 had killed my son." The people soon flew to arms ; three of the cantons only, at first, com- bined to assert their freedom, and with a small army defeated an immense number of their enemies. The rest of the cantons, by degrees, joined the association. Their freedom cost them 60 battles. 259. Wickliffey the English Reformer. John Wick- lifFe was born in 1324, and was professor of divinity, at Oxford, for many years. England was at this time completely under the dominion of the papal power ; the country, at this period, swarmed with monks, of the Mendicant order, and the clergy were generally corrupt, proud and indolent. This state of things aroused the spirit of Wickliffe, who commenced writing against the monks, and the tyranny of the pope and the bishops. He declared that the gospel was a sufficient rule of life, without any other, and that if a man was truly penitent before God, he need not confess his sins to the priest. He also asserted, that the Bible ought not to be kept exclusively in a language the common people could not understand. He accordingly translated the whole Bible into the English language, for their use. For these proceedings he was seized as a heretic, but owing to his popularity with the nobles and people, he was suf- fered to die in peace, A. D. 1385. The malice of his enemies was so great, that forty years after his death, his bones were burnt, and the ashes thrown into the river. His doctrines, however were not destroyed ; they prevailed, more or less, till they were firmly estab- 259. Who was John Wickliffe, and when was he born ? What was the st. ^e of England at this time] What did Wickliffe do ? Wfiat was done with Wickliffe's bones, and what is he often called \ MODERN HISTORY. 177 lished in Europe, by the Ivefonnation of Martin Luther, for which W ickhfie, in a degree, had prepared the way, and from this circumstance he is called " the morning star of the Rcfor/nation.^' 260. Insurrection of Wat Tyler. By the propaga- tion of the sentiments of VVickliffe, an increase of the spirit of independence prevailed among the people, who now began to understand their rights, and of course had more of a disposition to maintain them. About the year 1380, a poll-lax of three groats was imposed upon every person above the age of 15 years, male and female. This created universal discontent among the lower classes, on account of its injustice, as the poor were obliged to pay as much as the rich. A brutal tax-gath- erer, having demanded payment for the daughter of Wut Tyler, a blacksmith, whom the father had asserted to be below the age specified, was proceeding to im- proper familiarities with her, upon which the father dashed out his brains with his hammer. The people, justifying this action, tlew to arms throughout the king- dom, and 100,000 men were assembled near London, in order to redress their grievances. Tyler, however, was killed, while in a conference with the king, and his followers were compelled to submit and return to their homes. 2(31. War between the houses of York and Lancaster. The houses of York and Lancaster were both descended from Edward ill., — that of York from his third son, and that of Lancaster from the fourth. As the reigning king was subject to fits of insanity, and was also a weak prince, Richard, duke of Gloucester, of the house of York, his uncle, was appointed Protector of the king- dom. Margaret, the queen of the deposed king, and 200. What effect did the propagation of Wickliffe's senti- ments have u[)()n the people? Relate the account of the tax- gatherer and Wat Tyler. What followed ? i36l. What is said of the houses of York and Lancaster] What is said of Richard, duke of Gloucester, and Queen Mar- garet I What of the roses ] What is said of the wars between these parties ^ 178 MODERN HISTORY. her adherents of the house of Lancaster, appealed to arms, in order to obtain their rights. The whole nation took the side of one or the other, and each party was distinguished by a particular badge or symbol. That of the house of York was a white rose, and that of Lan- caster a red one : hence this contention was styled the quarrel of the two roses. War commenced between the parties in 1455, and continued for thirty years, and was signalized by twelve sanguinary pitched battles, and marked with great barbarity. During the contest, more Ihan 100,000 men were killed, including 80 princes of the blood, who fell on the held, or were executed on the scaffold. Henry, the ordy survivor of the house of Lancaster, gave battle to Richard, the bloody usurper, on Bus worth field, where the latter was killed, his army defeated, and Henry was acknowledged king. Henry marrying into the house of York, the two houses be- came united, and thus terminated this bloody controversy. 262. Wars between England and France. The con- tests of the English kings for the crown of France, oc- cupy a considerable space in the history of both coun- tries. Philip, king of France, died, leaving three sons, and one daughter, who was married to the king of Eng- land. All his sons died without leaving male heirs. Edward 111., king of England, now laid claim to the throne, on account of his being the son of the daughter of the French king. The French opposed his claim, and placed the brother of their king on the throne. Edward, in support of his claim, invaded France with an army of 30,000 men, gained ihe famous battle ol Cressy, in which cannon were for the first time used in war, A. D. 1346. Ten years after this event, Edward, the Black Prince, (son of Edward 111.,) so called from the color of his armor, gained the victory of Poictiers, and took John, king of France, prisoner, and led him in 262. Why did Edward, king of England, lay claim to the throne of France 1 Who first used cannon in war, where, and in what year 1 What is said of the Black Prince ] MODERN HISTORY. 179 triumph to London. The French, however, vigorously pursued the war, during the captivity of their sovereign. 263. Joan of Arc ^ the Maid of Orleans. The English triumphed repeatedly in France, and by their victory at Agincourt, they threatened the capital itself. The Eng- lish undertook the siege of Oi'leans, a place of the ut- most importance, and pushed their designs so success- fully, that the affairs of Charles, the French prince, seemed almost desperate, when they were suddenly re- stored by one of the most marvelous incidents found recorded in history. Joan o/". 4 re, otherwise called the Maid of Orleans, a country girl, who was a servant at an inn, presented herself before the French -king, pro- fessing to be divinely commissioned to deliver her op- pressed country, and raise the siege of Orleans. Her mission was pronounced, by an assembly of divines, to be supernatural ; and, at her own request, she was ar- rayed in complete armor, mounted on a white horse, and appeared at the head of the French army, which, fired with enthusiasm, courageously attacked the Eng- lish, and drove them from the walls, and, by her heroic exertions in the field, effected the salvation of her coun- try. She, however, fell into the hands of the enemy, who condemned her to death for witchcraft, and, to their disgrace, burnt her alive at Rouen, in 1430. 264. Founding of the Turkish Empire. While the empire of the Saracens, under theii califs, was drawing near to its close, the power of the Turks was rising into importance. They derive their origin from a trilDe of Huns, or Scythians, who dwelt in Tartary. 'J'hey were forced, by the tribes in the south, to abandon their coun- try, and pushing their course eastward, some settled around the Caspian sea, and others in Asia Minor. They became Mahometans, and, in 1037, conquered Persia, ravaged the neighboring countries, and made themselves masters of Palestine. Their establishment 263. Who besieged Orleans'? How was the siege of Or- leans raised ] What became of Joan of Arc 1 264. Where do the Turks derive their origin ? Who was Ottoman, and what title did he assume ? 180 MODERN HISTORY. as a separate empire is dated A. D. 1299, at the time when Ottoman, the calif or prince of the Turks, fixed his seat of government at Byrsa, in Asia Minor, and as- sumed the title of Sultan. From this time they were known as the Ottoman race and sovereignty. Being near Constantinople, they gradually encroached upon the Greek empire, till it fell into their possession. 265. Of Tamerlane. Tamerlane was a prince of the Usbeck Tartars, and a descendant of Genghis Khan. Hav- ing conquered Persia, and most of the East, he turned his arms westward. At this period, Bajazet, one of the successors of Ottoman, was besieging Constantinople : the Greek emperor implored the assistance of Tamer- lane against his enemy, Tamerlane gladly accepted the invitation, and sent a message to Bajazet, command- ing him to abandon the siege, and restore the prisoners he had taken. This message roused his indignation : he left the siege and marched against this new enemy, but was defeated by Tamerlane, after a dreadful battle, which lasted three days, in which it is said that nearly a million men were engaged, and 300,000 slain. The victorious career of the Turks was suspended by this event. Bajazet was taken prisoner, and, it is said, was shut up in an iron cage, by his conqueror, and carried about to grace his triumphs. Tamerlane made Samar- cand the seat of his empire, and there received the hom- age of all the princes of the East. For a while this place was the seat of learning and the arts ; but after the death of Tamerlane, it relapsed into its former bar- barism. 266. Taking of Constantinople hy the Turks. After the death of Tamerlane, the Turks resumed their pur- pose of destroying the Greek empire. Constantine was the name of the last emperor of the East, as it was also 265. Who was Tamerlane 1 How came Tamerlane to make war upon Bajazet ■? What is said of Bajazet 1 Where was the seat of Tamerlane's empire 1 266. Who was the last emperor of the East? What is said of him ■? What of the conquest of the city ] How long did the eastern Roman empire exist 1 MODERN HISTORY. 181 of the first. The Turks had so encroached upon his dominions, that they became very much reduced. The indolent inhabitants of Constantinople made but a feeble preparation for defense. Constantine, however, with a spirit worthy of the former days of the empire, endeav- HP 1 ^s fe^^^^^^ Taking of Constantinople by the Turks. ored to animate the fainting hearts of his degenerate subjects, to defend the last remains of their possessions. He applied to the western monarchs, and solicited the aid of his Christian brethren ; but the powers of Europe looked on with indifference. The city was assailed by sea and by land, and the walls were battered down with cannon. The emperor was slain, and the city taken. The imperial buildings were preserved, and the churches converted into mosques, or Turkish places of worship. The city was given up to spoil for three days, in which the soldiers were permitted to commit every enormity. The capture of Constantinople took place A. D. 1453, and by this event the eastern Roman empire was extin- guished, having existed upwards of eleven hundred years. 267. Invention of the Mariner s Compass. The in- vention, during this period, of the mariner's compass, that of gunpowder, and especially the art of printing, gave a new direction to the affairs of men, and will o 16 182 MODERN HISTORY. continue to affect the destinies of future ages. The mariner's compass is said to have been invented about the year 1300, by Gioia, a mathematician, at Naples. It did not, however, come into general use till the year 1400. The Chinese lay claim to the honor of this, as well as several other discoveries and inventions ; but not much reliance can be placed on their statements. Before this discovery, mariners scarcely ever ventured out of sight of land ; but since, man has ventured to quit his timid course along the shore, and steer boldly into the deep. It has opened to him the dominion ot the sea, and presented a new world to his view, des- tined to become the abode of civilization and Chris- tianity. 268. Gunpowder. Firearms. The invention of gun- powder has done much towards softening- the ferocity and diminishing the chances of war. War is now more a matter of calculation than formerly. In ancient times, a man whose brute force was superior to those around him, had the advantage over those of a vi^eaker frame ; but by this invention a comparatively weak, man is placed upon an equal footing. Roger Bacon, a learned English friar, or monk, who died at Oxford, 1292, un- derstood the secret of the composition of gunpowder, and it is said that he was the inventor. Its application to warlike purposes is said to have been first suggested by Swartz, a mordv of Cologne, about the year 1330. Sixteen years afterwards, Edward III., of England, at the battle of Cressy, used four pieces of artillery. The invention of portable firearms seems to have originated in Germany. They were at first made so long and heavy, that they were placed on props 'when fired. The first gunlock was invented in 1517, and the ieimjireloch was given to the invention, 267. What time was the mariner's compass invented! What is said of the Chinese ] 208. What effect has the invention of gunpowder had upon war 1 Who is said to have been the inventor \ What is said respecting portable firearms] MODERN HISTORY. 183 209. A?t ofPriutiiig. The art of printing vvith mova- ble types is sai^l to have been discovered by John Gut- ti'tibarg and others, at Mentz, in Germany, A. 1). 1436. Gutteaburg, having expended nearly all his property in the invention o!" this art, was about to abandon it, when JjJm Faust, hkevvise a citizen of Mentz, came to his assistance, and they brought the art to a considerable degree of perfection. The servant of Faust discovered the art of casting singly each type or character. The oath of secresy being taken by ail their workmen, the art was concealed till 1462, when Mentz was taken and sacAcd : the workmen engaged in printing were dispersed and by this means the art was spread over Europe. From remote antiquity, a kind of block-printing has been practiced among the Chinese ; but it bears but lit- tle resemblance to that important art discovered in mod- ern Europe, I'rom which benefits of such magnitude have arisen to mankind. 270. Moorish kingdom of Grenada. The conquest of Spain by the Saracens, or Moors, is noticed in sections 191 and 192. The Christian princes in Spain had gralually recovered the various kingdoms or provinces in that country, till the kingdom of Grenada alone remained under the government of the Moors. This kingdom was situated in the southern part of Span, bordering on the Me;literranean, and was surrounded by a lofty range of mountains on the land side, which inclosed a deep, rich, and fertile valley. The city of Grenada lay in the centre of the kingdom, and was, perhaps, the most splendid city of the age, and the remains of its ancient grandeur still astonish the beholder. So beautiful was this region, so pure the air, and so serene the sky, that the Moors imagined the paradise of their prophet to be situated in that part of heaven which overhung the kingdom of Grenada. This kingdom, with the territo- 209. By whom was the art of printing discDvered, and at what time ] What is said of Guttenburg, and of .John Faust ] How was the knowledge of the ait spread ov(^- Europe ! 270. Where was the kingdom of Grenada ! VV'iial is said of it! 184 MODERN HISTORY. ries UTider its protection, previous to its conquest, con- tained 14 cities and 97 I'ortitied towns, besides numer- ous places defended by formidable castles. The capi- tal was surrounded by a wall, three leagues in circuit, and fortified with a thousand and thirty towers. 271. Conquest of Grenada. The Christian princes of Spain had left the Moors in quiet possession of Gre- nada, on condition of their paying an annual tribute of 2,000 pistoles of gold, and 1,600 Christian captives. In the year 1478, when the Spanish courtier arrived to demand the customary tribute, Hassan, the Moorish monarch, replied : " Tell your sovereign, that the kings who used to pay tribute are dead. Our mint at present coins nothing but cimetars and heads of lances." Of course, war followed this declaration. For a period of ten years, the Moors bravely defended their country : their towns were taken, one after another, although they disputed every advance of their enemies with the ut- most resolution. After a series of almost uninterrupted disasters to the Moorish arms, their capital was sur- rounded by the Christian forces under Ferdinand and Isabella. The resources of the city now being cut off, famine stared the inhabitants in the f ice. The Moor- ish prince, Boahil, despairing of all relief, was forced to surrender Grenada to the Spaniards. This event, which took place in January, 1492, put an end to the dominion of the Moors in Spain, after it had existed nearly eight hundred years. 272. Portuguese Discoveries. The discovery of the mariner's compass awakened a spirit for maritime dis- covery, and several nations turned their attention to navigation and commercial enterprise. Previous to this period, the Venetians took the lead in commercial pur- 271. On what condition did the Moors have quiet possession of Grenada] What answer did Hassan give to the Spanish courtier ! Who conquered Grenada 1 How long had the do- minion of the Moors continued in Spain? 272. Who t4>()k the lead in commerce, before the discovery of the mariner's compass ] Where did they trade, and by what route "? What is said of the Portuguese ? MODERN HISTORY. 185 suits. For a long time they had the whole trade of In- dia, which they carried on by way of Egypt and the Red Sea, or through the inland routes of Asia : and the immense wealth they acquired by it, excited the envy and enterprise of other nations of Europe. Many be- gan anxiously to inquire, whether another route could not be found to India by water, which would be less tedi- ous and expensive. The Portuguese devoted the most attention to this subject, and to them is justly due the honor of leading the way in those enterprises, which have been attended with such important results to man- kind. Under the patronage of Prince lienry, son of their king, the Portuguese navigators discovered the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verd islands, and explored the shores of Africa, to the coast of Guinea. The fame of ihese discoveries attracted the learned, the curious, and enterprising, from various nations, to Lisbon. 273. Of Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born in the city of Genoa, about 1440. His father was a wool-comber, and gave him as good an education as his limited means would allow. He -early showed a great fondness for navigation, and, at the age of fourteen, began to navigate the Mediterranean, and about the year 1470, he repaired to Lisbon. During his residence in Portugal, he sailed in several expeditions to the Afri- can islands and* the coast of Guinea. As it was the grund object of the Portuguese to find a passage to the Indies by water, Columbus was persuaded, from his knowledge of the spherical shape of the earth, that, in- stead of sailing round by the southern extremity of Af- rica, he could find an easier route by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. He supposed that the east- ern coast of India, and the western shores of Europe and Africa, were separated by an ocean of moderate extent. Several facts tended to confirm him in this be- lief. Pieces of carved wood, reeds of an enormous 273. Where was Columbus born 1 What were Columbus' opinions respecting a passage to India? What facts con- firmed him in this belief? 16* 186 MODERN HISTORY. size, and above all, a canoe with the bodies of two men in it, differing in their appearance from any known race of people, had been driven by the westerly winds upon the Azores, or Western Islands. 274. Columbus^ application for Assistance. Colum- bus having established his theory, he now began to think of the means necessary in order to make a voyage of discovery. Believing it too important an enterprise to be undertaken by a private individual, he deemed it ne- cessary to apply to some sovereign power. In 1484, he applied to John II., of Portugal, but instead of receiving assistance, experienced contempt and injury. Colum- bus next laid his plans before the government of Genoa, but that republic was embarrassed with wars, and was in a decline ; they were also unable to form correct opinions respecting the truth of his theory, and consider- ed his proposed voyage as useless and visionary. He next applied to Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain. They listened to his views with attention, and gave him some faint hopes of assistance. He was however kept several years in suspense, and was obliged to struggle with many difficulties, thrown in his way by ignorant and malicious persons. At length, by the influence of Queen Isabella, three small ships, and 120 men, were fitted out and placed under his command. 275. First Voyage and Discovery of Columbus On the third of August, 1 492, Columbus set sail irom the port of Palos, in Spain, and steered for the Canary Isl- ands, where he refitted his vessels and took in fresh pro- visions. On the 6th of September, he steered directly west, into the unknown ocean before him. Three days after losing sight of land, many of the seamen on board wept bitterly, from the apprehension that they should never see it again. After sailing some days, the needle of the compass varied from its direct course, towards the 274. Who did Columbus apply to for assistance to make a voyage of discovery^ How did he succeed] 275. Where did Columbus sail from? Give an accouni^ ot the voyage. What land vv^as first discovered, and at what time] Give an account of the landing. MODERN HISTORY 187 tiorth. At this the people, and even Cohimbus, became alarmed. To add to his perplexity, his seamen became mutinous, and even threatened to* throw him overboard if he would not return. Columbus, after trying various ways to pacify them, promised that if land did not ap- pear in three days, he would return. On tiie third day, Landtag of Columbus. land, to their great joy, was discovered ; it proved to be an island, which was afterwards named St. Salvador, now called Cat Island, .one of the Bahamas. On the 12th of October, 1492, Columbus went first on sliore, and was followed by his men. They all knelt, kissed the ground with tears of joy, and returned thanks to God for their successful voyage. Columbus, now drawing his sword, planted the royal standard, and took formal possession of the country, in the name of the king and queen of Spain. PERIOD VII. DISTINGUISHED FOR THE REF'JRMATION Br LUIMER The Bible presented to the common people. FJIOM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE SETTLEMENT OF JAMES- TOWN. (U5 YEARS.) 276. Columbus' Return from his first Voyage. After his first landing in the new world, Columbus proceeded southward, and discovered Cuba and Hispaniola, (now Hayti,) on which he landed, and left a number of his men to form a colony. He also discovered a number of other islands in the vicinity, which he supposed to be near India. In consequence of this belief, he called the natives Indians, and this name was afterwards given to the natives of the western continent, and is still retained. As Columbus reached these islands by a western passage, he named them West Indies. Having obtained a quantity of jjold, and other productions of the new world, with a number of the natives, ho set sail for Spain. C)n his voyage a violent storm arose, which threatened their destruction. Columbus, in order to give 276. What islands did Columhns discover? Why did lie call his discoveries the West Indies I Give an account of his return to Spain. What did he do when in a storm ^ MODERN HISTORY. 189 the world some chance to know his discoveries, wrote a short account of his voyage, on two skins of parch- ment which he wrapped in an oiled cloth covered with wax, and having inclosed them in two separate casks, he threw them into the sea, in hopes that they would be discovered by some navigator, or be cast ashore. But the storm abated, and Columbus arrived in Spain, where he was received with wonder and acclamation by the multitude, and with great respect and admiration at court. 277. Fate of Cohunbus. Columbus, after his first voyage, made three others to the new world, and on the 1st of August, 1498, he discovered the continent, near the mouth of the Oronoko, in South America. His suc- cesses and honors excited a spirit of envy and intrigue against him, in the court of Spain. In consequence of false accusations, he was deprived of his command as governor of Hispaniola, apd sent home in chains. Though declared innocent, and apparently restored to the favor of the court, he never received the reward due to his merits. His shameful and unjust treatment preyed upon his spirits, and through the whole of his after-life he carried his chains with him, as a memorial of the in- gratitude which he had experienced. He hung them up in hi« chamber, an 1 gave orders that they should be buried with him. Worn down with anxieties, fatigues, and disappointment, Columbus died at Valadolid, in 1 506. His funeral, by order of Philip, who had recently as- cetided the throne, was extremely magnificent, and the following inscription was engraved on his tomb : " To Castile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world." 278. Of Vespuciiis^ Cahot, and other Discoverers. The discoveries of Cohunbus produced a great excitement in Spain and Portugal, and several persons fitted out ships at their own expense, and crossed the ocean in hope of 277. When did Columbus discover the continent, and where 1 Wfiy w:is he sent home in chains ? What effect did the treat- ment have upon him ? 278. What effect did the discoveries of Columbus have ? Who was Americus Vespuciusi Why was America named 190 MODERN HISTORY. obtaining wealth and honors. Atnons^ the earliest ot these adventures was Ojeda, an enterprising orTicer, who accompanied Columbus in his first expedition. He sailed in 1 499, and made some discoveries at the mouth of the Oronoko. He was accompanied by one Americas Vespucius, a native of Florence. This person, on his return, published an account of the voyage, in which he made it appear that he was the first discoverer of the continent of the new world. His publication was cir- culated rapidly, and was ;ead with admiration ; and by this means, in honor of the supposed discoverer, the name Ainerica was given to the new continent. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, but an inhabitant of England, received a commission from the English king, and sailed in 1497, on a voyage of discovery. He was accompanied by his son, Sebastian Cabot, and one or both of ihem discovered the continent of North America. The first land discovered by them, is supposed to have been Nervfoundland. They proceeded farther to the north, in search of a passage to India, but not succeed- ing, they turned about, and sailed as far south as Florida. They erected crosses along on the coast, and took a for- mal possession of the country, in behalf of the crown of England. This was the foundation of the English claim to North America, though no settlements were made till many years afterwards. In 1497, Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, first sailed round, or doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and made a voyage to India. In 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese, in the service of Spain, passed through the straits which bear his name, and entered into a vast ocean, which he named the Pacific, on account of the stillness of its waters. He lost his life at one of the Philippine islands, but his officers proceeded on the voyage, and effected the^V^^ circumnavigation of the globe. after him ] Who was John Cabot, and in wnose service was he employed 1 What discoveries did he and his son, Sebas- tian, make ? What is said of Vasco de Gama 1 What of Ma- gellan ? Who effected the first circumnavigation of the globe ? MODERN HISTORY. 191 279. Invasion of Mexico. After the discovery of Coluinbus, the Spaniards flocked in considerable num- bers to the new world and commenced settlements at Jamaica^ Porto Rico, Darien, and Cuba. These new countries were supposed to contain vast quantities of gold and silver ; hence the eagerness of the Spaniards to explore and conquer these countries, in order to ob- tain possession of the precious metals. Under the pre- tence of religion and policy, they were guilty of the most shocking inhumanity to the natives. The most forcible means were employed to convert them to Chris- tianity : they were hunted down like wild beasts, and were sometimes burnt alive. Hispaniola, at the time of its discovery, contained three millions of inhabitants, and Cuba upwards of 600,000 ; but the Spaniards caused such destruction of human life, that in a very few years scarcely any of the natives remained. In 1519, the governor of Cuba fitted out an armament of eleven small vessels and 617 men, under the command of Fernando Cortez, for the invasion of Mexico. At this period, firearms were not in general use : only thirteen of his men had muskets, the rest being armed vv^ith cross-bows, swords, and spears. Cortez had, however, ten small field pieces and sixteen horses — the first of these animals ever seen in that country. 280. Advance of Cortez to the city of Mexico. Land- ina at Vera Cruz, Cortez advanced, though with a brave opposition, into the very heart of the country ; he could, however, have made but little impression on the empire of Mexico, which contained many millions of people, had he not been joined by the people of some of the disrifiected provinces, who wished to throw off the Mexi- can yoke. On the approach of the Spaniards to the 279. What made the Spaniards eager to explore and con- quer the new countries 1 What is said of their treatment of the natives ] What is said of Fernando Cortez, and how were his men armed"? 280. By what means v/as Cortez enabled to advance into Mexico! How did Montezuma receive him] What did Cortez do to Montezuma 1 192 MODERN HISTORY. capital, the terror of their name prepared the way for an easy conquest. Mojitezuma, the Mexican monarch, received the Spaniards with great hospitality, and he regarded them with the reverence due to superior be- ings. Cortez was very desirous of having Montezuma under his power : a pretext for this purpose soon took place. Some difficulty between his soldiers and the natives having taken place, Cortez, with fifty of his men, marched to the palace of Montezuma, where, seiz- ing him, he put him in irons, and carried him oft prisoner to his camp. LiiiiJiiiiiiilwIl Fall of Montezuma. 281. Death of Montezuma. The seizure of the em* peror by the Spaniards, aroused the Mexicans to arms Such was the fury of their attacks, that the situation of Cortez became desperate : he entrusted Montezuma, who was still a prisoner in his camp, to speak to his subjects, in order to make them desist from their attacks. Montezuma consented, and accordingly, addressed the people from a terrace, and reque">ted them to cease from 281. What effect did the seizure of Montezuma have upon his subjects \ V hat did Cortez entreat of Montezunna 1 Re- late the iQ&DD!S f his death, and the flight of the Spaniards MODERN HISTORY. 193 hostilities, in order that the Spaniards might leare the city. While he was speaking, his people ceased their attacks ; but on the conclusion of his speech, a shower of stones and arrows fell about the place where he stood, some of which struck him, and caused his death. On the death of their monarch, the fury of the Mexi- cans increased. The Spaniards in a dark rainy night attempted to affect their retreat from the city ; they were discovered by the Mexicans, who attacked them with such numbers, that the greater part of the Spaniards were killed before they could effect their escape from the city. Many of the soldiers so loaded themselves with gold, that in their flight they were easily overtaken ind killed by the enemy. 282. Conquest of Mexico. After this defeat, Cortez was reinforced by European soldiers, who flocked to him as volunteers, in order to receive a share of the spoils of Mexico : besides these, the Tlascalans, his allies, offered to assist him with 50,000 of their best troops, if he would again march against the Mexicans. Cortez being thus encouraged, laid siege to the city of Mexico, which was now governed by Guatimozin, a brave prince, who showed great skill, courage, and heroism, in defending his country. For more than three months the Spaniards and their allies were al- most daily fighting the Mexicans, in order to obtain possession of the city. All their attempts were in vain, and Cortez must have raised the siege, had not an In- dian, fatally for his country, advised him to blockade the city on the water. The Spaniards built several vessels, with which they surrounded the city, which was built on a number of small islands in a salt lake. By this means Mexico was cut off from all supplies, and a most dreadful famine followed. Guatimozin fled from the city, but was taken prisoner. Refusing to discover his treasures, Cortez stretched him naked on burning 283. By whom was Cortez assisted to make another attack upon the Spaniards 1 By what means did Cortez finally con quer Mexico 1 17 194 MODERN HISTORY. coals. Afterwards, on the discovery of a conspiracy against the Spaniards, he was hung on a gibbet, with the princes of his blood, and Cortez thus became master of the empire. 283. Invasion of Peru. In 1518, the Spaniards formed a settlement at Panama, on the west side of the isthmus of Darien. From this place a number of attempts were made to explore the regions of South iVmerica. In 1625, Pizarro and a number of other adventurers sailed as far as Peru, and discovered that rich and flourishing country. Two years afterwards, Pizarro having re- ceived a commission from the king of Spain, landed in Peru : he was afterwards joined by Ahnagro, with a small reinforcement. The whole force with which these adventurers attempted to conquer one of the finest kingdoms in America, consisted of but 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of cannon. As was the case with Mexico, the empire was weakened by inter- nal divisions, and by this means the Peruvians fell an easy prey to the Spaniards. Pizarro having marched to the residence of the Inca, or king, Atahualpa invited him to a friendly mterview, and attempted lo persuade him to adopt the Christian religion. This proposal being misunderstood, or received with hesitation, Pizarro seized the monarch as his prisoner, while his troops massacred 4,000 of his people on the spot. 284. Conquest of Peru. Finding the ruling passion of the Spaniards was the love of gold, Atahualpa of- fered, if they would release him, to fill the room in which he was confined, which was twenty-two feet by sixteen, with vessels of gold and silver as high as he could reach. This offer was accepted, and gold was collected from all parts of the empire, and was divided among the conquerors. But the perfidious Pizarro still 283. Who discovered and invaded Peru 1 How large a force did he have ? What did Pizarro do to the Inca 1 284. I4ow much silver and gold did Atahualpa offer for his release 1 What di' Pizarro do ? What became of Pizarro and Alinagror What effect did the fiudnig of so much gold and silver have 1 MODERN HISTORY. 195 held the Inca a prisoner, anJ being suspected of con- cealing a part of his treasures, was brought to trial as a criminal, and on a charge of being an usurper and an idolater, was strangled at a stake. The Peruvian government being desirpyed, all parts of the empire were subdued, and became a province of Spain. The Spanish chiefs having divided the country among them- selves, soon began to quarrel with each other, and both Pizarro and Almagro were put to death in the civil wars which followed. The great quantifies of gold and silver found in Spanish America, greatly increased the quantity of specie, and much reduced the value of money all over the civilized world. 285. Civilization of the Mexicans and Peruvians. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Peruvians and Mexicans had made advances in civilization to a much greater extent than any of the other Indian tribes or nations of America. They understood the arts of architecture, sculpture, mining, and working the pre- cious metals : they cultivated their lands, and had a regular system of government, and a code of civil and religious laws. The Peruvians had the superiority in architecture, and possessed some splendid palaces and temples. They had no knowledge of letters ; the Mexicans, however, had a system of recording events, by means of paintings, or figures, by which they repre- sented facts with great certainty. These historical paintings were preserved with the greatest care by the Mexicans, and such of them as escaped destruction, at the time of the conquest of the Spaniards, are the source from which the history of the country is derived. The Spaniards at first, supposing them to be connected with their idolatrous worship, destroyed all they could find. 286. Religion. The Mexicans believed in a Supreme Being, although their ideas concerning him were very imperfect. They believed also like the Greeks and 285. What is said of the civilization of the Mexicans and Peruvians 1 What of the paintings of the Mexicans ^ J96 MODERN HISTORY. Romans, in numerous inferior deities, who presided ovet the air, fire, earth, water, &c., and they also believed in evil spirits. They believed in the doctrine of transmi- gration, and that the souls of mankind after death pass into other animals, as cattle, birds, fishes, &c. They had images of their inferior deities made of wood, stone, and some of gold, and other metals : these they wor- shiped with prayers, fasting, and many severe rites and ceremonies. To these idols they often sacrificed slaves and prisoners of war, with many circumstances of shocking barbarity. The Peruvians worshiped the sun, as the Supreme deity, and their religious rites were much less bloody than those of the Mexicans. 287. Religious State of Christendom. The religious state of the Christian nations of Europe, at the com- mencement of the sixteenth century, is represented bv almost all historians, as being exceedingly deplorable The nations of Christendom were all under subjection to the papal power. The Koman pontiffs not only gave law in all religious matters, but even in civil affairs ; and kings and kingdoms were subjected by their will. The clergy possessed immense wealth, and in general, awfully neglected their spiritual duties, and employed their treasures in gratifying their corrupt desires and passions. The great body of the people were kept in ignorance, and were taught the efficacy of relics and utility of indulgences; but of the genuine precepts and spirit of true Christianity, they knew but little. At this period, the art of printing was discovered, and the hu- raar ind began to be awakened from the long sleep of ages, by means of this important discovery. 288. Reformation hy Luther. The Reformation of religion in Germany, by Martin Luther and others, was the commencement of an important era in the religious 286. What was the religious belief of the Mexicans'? What is said of their worship and sacrifices ] What of the worship of the Peruvians I 287. Whcit is said of the religious state of Europe at the commencement of the 16th century 1 What of the Ronian pontiffs, the clergy, and common people "^ MODERN HISTORY. 197 and civil history of the world. This event is dated A. D. 1517, when Tctzel, an agent of F^ope Leo X., beofan to publish indulgences, and brought them into Germany and ottered them for sale. Leo X. was a man of pleasure and ambition, who exhausted the papal treasury, and took this method to raise money ; but the scandalous manner in which these pardons for all sins, past, present, and to come, were disposed of, together with the gross immorality of Tetzel and his associates, gave offense to many religious persons. Lu- ther at this time was a professor of divinity at Witten- burg, and when Tetzel came into the vicinity, he boldly and eloquently protested against the iniquity of these indulgences and other mwi. ,, doctrines, and the vices of the monks. He also published his sentiments, which spread over Germany with great rapidity, and were read with the greatest eagerness. Leo and his agents, alarmed by the progress of Luther's sentiments among all classes of people, excommunicated him as a heretic, and would have probably put him to death, had he not been befriended by some of the princes of Germany, who were friendly to the new doctrines he set forth. In 1520, the pope issued a bull, or proclamation, threat- ening him with destruction as an excommunicated here- tic, unless he should within sixty days publicly recant his errors, and burn his own books. Amid a vast as- semblage of people at Wittenburg, Luther threw the papal bull, with the volumes of the canon law, into the fl inies, renounced the authority of the pope, exhorted the princes of Europe to shake off' the oppressive yoke which they had so long borne, and offered thanks to Almighty God that he was selected as the advocate of true religion, and a friend to the liberties of mankind. 289. Progress of the Reformation. The new opin- ions set forth by fiUther, found friends in almost every iiSS. When did the Reformation by Luther commence ? U'hni is said of Leo X. and Tetzel ? Who whs Luther, and \\li:it (lid he do 1 W'hat did Leo do respecting 1 uther \ What did Luther do with the pope's bull I 17* 198 MODERN HISTORY. coiinlry in Europe. In Switzerland, Z uinglms att3.cked indulgences with the courage not inferior to T^uther himself; and the Reformation was estalilished in Ge- neva, and in a number of the Swiss cantons, by the cele- brated Calvin. It also found friends in France, the Netherlands, Spain, Hungary, and Bohemia Henry VIH., of England, having quarreled with the pope, on account of his divorce, renounce 1 the papal authority, and by the prudent management of Cranmer, the re formed doctrines were effectually established in thai kingdom. Scotland was emancipated from the papal power, by the unwearied and intrepid labors of John Knox. Luther translated the Bible into the German language, in order that the common people might read it ; he also wrote many works, labored with great zeal in propagating the doctrines of the Reformation, and before he died had the iuimijUH' of seeing vast numbers of people throughout Europe adopting his sentiments. 290. Overthrow of the Papal power in Englana. Henry VI 11., king of England, was a man of distin- guished abilities, though notorious for his beastly vices. At the beginning of the Reformatioii, he was opposed to it, and even wrote a book against Luther, which so pleased the pope, that he bestowed on him the title of Defender of the Faith. The wife of Henry, at this time, was Catharine of Arragon, widow of his brother. After having lived with her for about 18 years, he pro- fessed to have conscientious scruples about his mar- riage, on account of her having been the wife of his brother ; and wishing to marry the beautiful and accom- plished Anne Bolci/n, he applied to the pope for a di- 289. What is said of Zuingrlins and Calvin ? Of Henry Vni. of England. Crnnmer, and John Knox? Why did Lu- ther translate the Bible 1 290. What is said of Henry VIIL 1 What title did he have bestowed upon him^ Why did he wish for a divorce, and why did the pope delav to g^ive a decision ? Whv did Hcnty abolish the papal authoritv of England 1 What did he do with the monasteries'! What is said respecting the introduction of Protestantism into England ? MODERN HISTORY. 199 voYce. Catharine was the aunt of the emperor, Charles v., of Germany. The pope fomid that if he granted the divorce, he should affront the emperor, and if he did not, he should offend Henry : he accordingly delayed giving a decision. Henry, however, would not be de- feated in the accomplishment of his wishes. The opin- ion of various universities having been obtained in favor of the divorce, Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, an- nulled his marriage with Catharine, and Anne was soon after crowned queen. Pope Clement, wishing to keep well with the empe- ror, condemned the proceedings of Cranmer. Henry im- mediately abolished the papal authority in England, and proclaimed himself Head of the English church, in 1534. He proceeded to abolish the monasteries, which at this time were very numerous, and possessed immense wealth. The immoralities of the monks were now fully exposed, and the forgery of relics, false miracles, &c., were held up to the popular scorn and indignation. Henry, though a reformer, was far from being a Protest- ant ; and he condemned to death both Catholics and Protestants, who ventured to maintain opinions contrary to his own. Though a most unworthy instrument, Hen- ry, by his opposition to the pope, was the means of in- troducing the Protestant religion into England, which may be considered as (in- mn' source of the prosperity and superiority of that kingdom over most of the king- doms of Europe. 291. Reformation in Scotland. About the year 1526, the doctrines of the German reformers were introduced into Scotland, by Patrick Hamilton, a youth of noble de- scent. For his efforts against the popish religion, he was put to death. Many excellent men in Scotland suf- fered death in the same cause. This, however, only served to increase the number of the reformed. The person who most distinguished himself, to extend the 291. By whom were the doctrines of the Reformers intro- duced into Scotland ] Who is called the apostlo of Scotland! What IS said of him ] 200 MODERN HISTORY. Reformation in Scotland was John Knox, who, for his uncommon zeal and piety, is called " the apostle of Scot- land." Having embraced the tenets of the Protestants, he spread them abroad at the hazard of his life. He was ardent, bold, and persevering, and commanded the re- spect even of his enemies. He died in 1572, after hav- ing lived to see the Reformation fully established. The regent of Scotland pronounced his eulogium, as his body was laid in the grave : There lies he who never feared the face of man. Knox adopted the Presbyterian form ot church government, which is now the form established by law in Scotland. 292. Of the Jesuits. The Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, was instituted by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish knight, about the year 1535. One of the vows which the Jesuits took upon themselves was, that they would go wherever the pope should command them, without any aid from him for their support. At this period, the papal power had received such a shock, by the progress of the Reformation, that the acquisition of such a body of men as the Jesuits, was to the pope of much impor- tance. Pope Paul, therefore, confirmed the order, and granted them many privileges. The Jesuits are peculiar in their operations. Instead of retiring from the world, like most other religious orders, they considered them- selves as formed for action. They attended to all the transactions of the world, on account of the influence they might have upon religion. They were directed to study the dispositions of persons of rank, gain their friendship, and become their spiritual guides and con- fessors. To have the management of the education of youth, they considered one of the most important parts of their system. 293. Progress of the Jesuits. Before the clo&e of the sixteenth century, the Jesuits had obtained the chief di- rection of the education of youth in every Catholic 292. By whom was the order of Jesuits instituted ? What was one of their vows ] State the peculiar operations of the Jesuits. MODERN HISTORY. 201 country in Europe. They had become the confessors of all its moiiarchs, — a function of great importance, 'lliey had, at different periods, the direction of the most considerable courts in Europe, and took part in every intrigue and revolution. In order to support themselves and their minions, they engaged in extensive and profita- ble commerce, both in the East and West Indies, and h'ld their warehouses in difierent parts of Europe. Not sutisfied with trade alone, they acquired possession of large and fertile provinces. In Paraguay^ in South America, the Jesuits civilized the natives, and trained them to arts and manufactures. Such was their influ- ence, that a few of their number presided over some hundred thousand Indians. But at length their power became so formidable, that they were expelled by most of the nations of Europe, and the order was suppressed by Pope Clement in J773. In 1814, however, the or- der of the Jesuits was re-established by the papal au- thority. 294. Massacre of St. Bartholomew'' s. In 1572, during the reign of Charles IX. of France, 70,000 Protestants were murdered in that kingdom. At this period, the Protestant religion had spread extensively in France, and was professed by some men of great influence at the court. Previous to the massacre, a civil war had raged between the Catholig|^nd Protestants, which was ended by granting toleratioiPro the Protestants. In order to put down the reformed religion, Charles and his court had recourse to stratagem and treachery. The Protestants were treated with the greatest marks of favor, and their principal leaders were allured to the court. Every thing being arranged, on St. Bartholomew's day, a horrid mas- sacre took place in Paris and throughout France. 293. State the progress of the Jesuits before the close of the 16th century. What did they in Paraguay 1 When were they suppressed, and when restored 1 294. How many Protestants were murdered in France ? What is said of the Catholics and Protestants previous to this time 1 During the massacre, what did Charles, the French king, do? 202 MODERN HISTORY. Charles, the savage monarch, from the windows of his palace, encouraged the furious populace to murder his Protestant subjects, by crying out " Kill ! kill !" Ot this atrocious massacre, a French historian observes : " No example of equal barbarity is to be found in all an tiquity, or in the annals of the world." 295. Reign of Queen Mary. Mary was the daughter o{ Catharine o{ Arr agon, one of the wives of Henry VI [I., king of England. She was educated a Catholic, and en- deavored to establish that religion again in England. She is often called the bloody Queen Mary, on account of the bloody persecution in England during her reign. In this persecution, upwards of 270 persons were burnt, among whom were five bishops and twenty-one clergy- men. The men who had been the most forward in es- tablishing the Protestant religion were singled out for punishment ; and among the most eminent martyrs who were burnt at Smithfield, were Cranmer, Latimer, Rid- ley, Hooper, and Rogers. The excellent character of the sufferers, and the firmness which they exhibited, produced a strong feeling in their favor. Instead of overthrowing the Protestant religion, by burning its ad- vocates, it caused it to be more (irmly established. 296. Queen EUzabetJis Reign. After the death of Mary, in 1558, Elizabeth, another daughter of Henry VIII., ascended the throne of England. During hei reign, which continued 44 years, tranquillity was main- tained in her dominions, the Protestant religion was re- stored, and the Church of England was established in its present form. The nation attained a higher state of prosperity than it had ever known before, and, from be- ing a secondary kingdom, rose to a level with the first states in Europe. The character of Elizabeth, however, has received a stain, from her treatment of her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. This beautiful, accomplished, 295. Who is called the bloody Queen Mary, and why so called 1 How many persons were burnt during her reign, and who were the most eminent ? What effect did it have ! 296. What is said of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I What of Mary, Queen of Scots t MODERN HISTORY. 203 and unfortunate woman, was, after Elizabeth, the next heir to the crown. Her friends contended that she was the lawful heir, and that Elizabeth had no right to the throne. Being educated a Catholic, and being guilty of many imprudences, she was obliged to flee from her Scottish subjects, and take refuge in England. Eliza- beth kept her in prison for 18 years, when she was con- demned for a conspiracy, and beheaded in prison. 297. Spanish Armada. At the period of Queen- Elizabeth's reign, England and Spain were the two most powerful nations in Eiurope. Elizabeth was con- sidered the leader of the Protestants, and Philip, king of Spain, of the Catholics. Elizabeth having assisted some of the Protestant powers with whom he was at war, he determined upon the conquest of England. Philip spent three years in making preparations for a mighty effort. His fleet consisted of 130 ships of war, carrying 30,000 troops and seamen, and was the most formidable which Europe had ever before witnessed, and was named the Invincible Armada. Troops from Italy, Germany, Flanders, and Spain, were embarked, or or- dered to places from whence they might be sent over to England. The fleet entered the English channel in the form of a crescent, extending to the distance ot seven miles. It was met by the English fl^eet consist- ing of 108 ships, commanded by Howard, Draite, Haw- kins, and other distinguished commanders. The Span- ish fleet, being gradually weakened, and finally over- taken by storms, suffered an entire defeat, and only 50 vessels, with 6,000 men, returned to Spain. 298. Gunpowder Plot. In order to crush the power of the Catholics in England, King .Tames I. enforced those laws which were enacted against them by his predecessors. Under the Jesuits in England, a con- 297. During Elizabeth's reign, what two nations were the jnost powerful ] Who determined to conquer England • What is said of the Armada ] 298. By whom was the gunpowder plot formed, and for what purpose ? How was it discovered 1 204 MODERN HISTORY. spiracy was formed, called the gunpotuder piot, the ob- ject of which was, to blow up the parliament house, while the king, queen, and parliament, were assembled in it. One of the conspirators hired a coal -cellar, in which he deposited thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, which was to be fired at the tine the king was deliver- ing his speech. The secret, which had been in the keeping of at least twenty persons, was discovered by means of a letter, written to prevent Lord Monteagle, a Catholic nobleman, from entering the house on that day. The letter was shown to the king, who caused a search to be made in the cellar, the evening previous to the meeting of parliament. Guy Fawkes, one of the con- spirators, was found in the cellar, with matches in his pocket, for firing the train. The other conspirators were discovered, and all suffered for their crime, in 1605. 299. French Settlements in North America. By the discovery of .a new world, a spirit of enterprise was awakened in all the commercial nations of Europe. In 1524, the French king sent out navigators, who ex- plored a great part of the coast of North America. Ten years afterwards, one Cartier was sent on another voy- age of discovery. He sailed up the St. Lawrence, as far as Montreal, took possession of the country in the name of the French king, and called it New France. This name was afterwards changed to Canada. In 1540, Cartier, with a colony of 200 persons, began the first settlement in Canada, near the present city of Que- bec. The first French settlement in Acadie, now Nova Scotia, appears to have been effected in the year 1604. During the religious wars in France, Ribault, a French Protestant, was sent to make a settlement in America, as a retreat from persecution. He landed near Edisto river, in South Carolina, built a fort, which he called Carolina, and leaving a garrison of twenty men, he re- 299. In what year did the French navigators explore the coast of North America"? What is said of Cartier ] Where did Ribault attempt to make a settlement, and what became of liis men 1 MODERN HISTORY. 205 turned to France. The men who were left, soon aftei mutinied, killed their commander, and put to sea. Hav- ing been out several weeks, and provisions failing, they fed on human flesh, and at last were taken up by an English ship and carried to England. 300. First English Settlement. In 1584, Queen Elizabeth granted to Walter Raleigh authority to dis- cover, occupy, and govern, "remote heathen and barba- rous countries," not previously possessed by any Chris- tian prince or people. Raleigh immediately sent over two ships to America, the commanders of which landed at Roanoke, and took possession of the country. On their return, they gave such a splendid description of the beauty and fertility of the country, that Elizabeth named it Virginia, because the discovery was made during the reign of a virgin queen. After many unsuc- cessful attempts to establish a permanent settlement, Capt. Newport was sent with 1 00 adventurers to settle the island of Roanoke. By stress of weather, they were driven north of their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake bay. They sailed up the Pow- hatan, or James River, and in May, 1607, commenced the settlement of Jamestown, so named in honor of king James. This was the first permanent English settle- ment in North America. ^ 300. What is said of Walter Raleigh ] Who named Vir- ginia 1 What is said respecting the settlement of Jamestown 1 18 PERIOD VIII DISTINGUISHED FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF THE ENGLISH NORTH AMERICAN COLONIES. Commencing a Settlement. FROM THE SETTLEMENT AT JAMESTOWN TO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. (168 YEARS.) 301. Of the Virginia Settlers. During the first year, the colonists at Jamestown suffered severely from the scarcity and badness of their provisions ; disease soon made its appearance, which in a few months swept off more than half their number. But as new settlers were arriving, the colonists amounted to 200 at the end of the year. iMany of the settlers were very imprudent in their conduct towards the natives, and provoked them to hostility A party of 30 men was killed, and by a waste of their provisions a most distressing famine pre- vailed, long known afterwards by the name of the starv- ing time. So dreadful was its effects, that the colonists were reduced from 500 to 60. So disheartened were those that were left, that they embarked for England •, 301. What is said of the colonists during their first year at Jaaiestown i What is suid of the starviny time ? MODERix HISTORY 207 but meeting with Lord Delaware, with 150 men and a large supply of provisions, they consented to return 302. Pocahontas, the Indian Princess. The most brave and enterprising of the Virginia settlers, was Capt. John Smith. Under a pretext of commerce, he was drawn into an ambush of a large body of Indians, who made him prisoner, and carried him to Powhatan, their king, who sentenced him to death. Capt. Smith was led out, and his head placed upon a large stone, ready for the fatal blow. iVt this moment, Pocahontas, the youngest and darling daughter of Powhatan, rushed to the spot where Capt. Smith lay, threw her arms about his neck, and placed her head on his, and declared that if the sentence was executed, the first blow should fall on her. The king was moved, and consented to spare his victim upon the condition of a ransom. The ransom was paid, and Capt. Smith returned safe to Jamestown. About three years after the above event, Capt. Smith's life was again saved by Pocahontas. Powhatan plan- ned a horrid scheme, for the entire destruction of the colony at Jamestown. His plan was to attack and mur- der them in time of peace. In a dark and stormy night, Pocahontas, like an angel of mercy, went alone to Jamestown, and disclosed the inhuman plot of her father. Pocahontas after this was married to an Englishman named Rolfe, with whom she went to England. She embraced the Christian religion, and after residing there several years, she died as she was about to embark for America. 303. Indian Massacre inVirginia. In 1622, the Indians in Virginia entered into a conspiracy for the purpose of murdering all the inhabitants of the English settlement. The plan was matured with the utmost secrecy. While 302. Who was the most enterprising of the Virginia set- tlers ] Who took him prisoner, and how was his life preserved 1 How did Pocahontas save the colony from destruction ] What farther is said of Pocahontas] 303. What plot did the Indians form against the English ? Describe the manner of its execution. During the war, how much were the settlements and colonists reduced ] 208 MODERN HISTORY. engaged in the plot, they visited and traded with the English, and bought their arms of them, that they might accomplish their design. On the evening before the massacre, they brought the colonists presents of game, and visited them the next morning as usual ; suddenly at noon, when least expected, they fell upon the settlers, and murdered 347 men, women, and children. The destruction would have been more extensive, had not an Indian residing in one of the towns revealed the plot to his master. Information was given to part of the nearest settlements, and they were saved from the fate which fell upon others. The English were aroused to vengeance ; an exterminating war succeeded ; many of the enemy were destroyed, and the rest were driven far into the wilderness. During the war the settlements of the whites were reduced from eighty to eight. In 1624, out of 9,000 persons who were sent from Eng- land, but 1800 existed in the colony. 304. Of the Native Indians. It has long been a question among the learned, how America was first peopled. The opinion best supported is, that tribes of men passed over to this continent from the northern part of Tartary to the northwestern coast of America, as the two continents at this point are separated by straits only about 18 miles wide. The Indians in the northern parts of America were divided into many small tribes, governed by their sachems, or kings, and were often at war with each other. At the time of the ar- rival of the Europeans, the whole territory now em- braced within the limits of the United States and British America, was almost an unbroken wilderness. It has been estimated, that at this period there were but about 150,000 Indians within the compass of the thirteen original states. A very mortal sickness is supposed to have prevailed among them, and swept off great num- 304. How is it supposed that America was first settled 1 What is said of the Indians, and how many is it estimated they were in numbers, in the limits of the United States and British America ] MODERN HISTORY. 209 bers, a few years previous to the first settlement of the Europeans. 305. Manners, Customs, <^c., of the Indians. The chief occupation of all the northern tribes of Indians, was hunting, fishing, and war. Their women were compelled to till the ground, and perform all the drudgery of their domestic affairs. Their clothing in summer was a slight covering about the waist ; in win- ter they clothed themselves with the skin of wild animals. Their habitations, which were called wig- wams, were made by erecting a strong pole for the center, around which other poles were placed and fixed to the center pole at the top, and then covered with mats, or barks of trees. Their warlike and domestic instru- ments were few and simple, — a tomahawk or hatchet of stone, bows and arrows, sharp stones and shells for knives and hoes. For money, they used small beads, wrought from shells and strung on belts, or in chains, called wampum. The Indians believed in the existence of a number of gods ; one, however, they considered greater than all the rest, and him they called the Great Spirit, who was the creator of all things ; their priests, or powows, who were also their physicians, had great influence over their minds. 306. Of the Puritans. About the period of the first English settlement in America, a respectable body of Protestants in England were dissatisfied with the re- ligious state of things in that country. Queen Eliza- beth, though a Protestant, was rather arbitrary in some parts of her conduct ; she took violent measures to en- force uniformity in church discipline and service. Many of her subjects, though holding to the same doctrines as the established church, did not think it their duty to practice all its rites and ceremonies. They believed 305. What was the chief occupation of the Indians *? What is said of their women ] How were they clothed ? Describe their wigwams, their warlike and domestic instruments, money, and their religious opinions. 306. What is said of Queen Ehzabethl Who received the name of puritans 1 IS* 210 MODERN HISTORY. the English church retained too many of the popish forms and ceremonies, and manifested uncommon zeal in preserving the purity of divine worship ; hence they received the name of Puritaiis. 307. Persecution of the Puritans. All those who would not conform to the established forms of worship, were subjected to severe penalties ; they were compel- led to collect for worship in private places, with great secrecy. Hundreds of puritan ministers were silenced, or deprived of their livings, and many were imprisoned while their families were starving. These persecurions were continued with little abatement, for about fifty years. The puritans, or dissenters, as they are some- times called, were at first very unwilling to separate from the established church, and made many efl^orts to obtain toleration ; but the queen and most of the bishops refused to grant the free exercise of their religious worship. In consequence of their persecutions, many of the puritans left their native country, passed over to Holland and formed distinct churches ; there they re- mained till the most of them emigrated to America. 308. Plymouth Settlers. The colony at Plymouth was planted principally for the sake of the free enjoy- ment of civil and religious liberty. Mr. Robinson and his congregation, who left England in 1608, and re- moved to Holland, may be considered as the founders of the colony. Finding that the morals of their ctiil- dren would be corrupted by a residence in Holland, they resolved to emigrate to America. The first colony consisted of a part only of Mr. Robinson's congrega- tion, who purchased two small ships, and repaired to Plymouth, in England. One of their ships proving leaky, the passengers were all crowded into one ship, 30? What is said of those who refused to conform to the established worship 1 How long did their persecutions con- tinue ? To what place did the puritans go when they left their native country 1 308. For what purpose was the colony at Plymouth planted 1 Who were the first colonists "? What is said of their voyage? When did they land, and at what time ] MODERN HISTORY. 211 and after a furious storm, arrived at Cape Cod, Novem- ber 10th. Before the landing, they formed themselves into a " body politic," and chose iMr. John Carver their Landing at Plymouth, 1620. governor, for one year. After much suffering from the severity of the weather, they selected a place for a set- tlement, which they named Plymouth. They landed at this place on the 22d of December, 1620. The anni- versary of their landing is still celebrated by the decendants of the Pilgrim Fathers, as a religious fes- tival. 309. Si/fferincrs of the Pit/mouth Colonists. The whole company hat landed at Plymouth consisted of 101 persons. Their situation and prospects were truly dismal and discouraging. The nearest European set- tlement was 500 miles distant, and from it no relief could be obtained, in case of famine or sickness. Sterile sands and gloomy forests were the principal objects that met their view ; they were worn down by excessive latigue, ihey suffered from the severity of the weather, and were without comfortable provisions br habitations. 309. How many landed at Plymouth ] Give an account of their sufferings. 212 MODERN HISTORY. Disease prevailed among them, and in three months forty- five of their number died. The sickness was so general that at times there were only six or seven well persons in the whole company. Amid all their trials and pri- vations, they bore their hardships with that patience, calmness, and resignation, which true Christianity alone can give. 310. Dutch Settlements. In 1609, Henri/ Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, discovered Hudson river, and ascended it about 160 miles. Four years afterwards, several Dutch merchants erected a fort, near Albany, which they named Fort Orange,, and a few trading-houses where the city of New York now stands. This place they named New Amsterdam ; the island on which the city is built was called, by the In- dians, Manhattan. The country on both sides of the Hudson river was called, by the Dutch, New Nether- lands. The Dutch also, in 1623, erected a fort on the Delaware, and ten years afterwards, one in Connecticut, where Hartford now stands. They remained in posses- sion of these places till a war broke out between Eng- land and Holland, and in 1664 they were surrendered to the English forces. Charles II. granted the iNew Netherlands to his brother, the duke of York and Alba- ny ; and in honor of the duke, the name of Manhattan was changed to New York, and that of Orange to Al- bany. 311. Destruction of the Pequots. One of the most haughty and warlike tribes of Indians in New England, were the Pequots, who inhabited the southeastern part of Connecticut. In 1637, two years after the settlers ar- rived in this state, the Pequots having murdered a num- ber of persons, a force of 90 men, under Capt. Mason, 310. Who discovered Hudson river, and at what time ? Where did the Dutch merchants erect a fort and trading- houses "? What name did they give these places and the country ] What year were they surrendered to the English ? VVhu gave the names New York and Albany ! 311. Where did ihe Pequots reside, and what did they do'' Give an account of their destruction. MODERN HISTORY. 213 was sent against them. In this expedition they were assisted by the Mohegans, a friendly :ribe, and by the Narragansetts. Capt. Mason, marching by night, at- tacked their fort by surprise: the conflict was despe- rate ; the wigwams in the fort were set on fire ; the roar of the flames, the yells of the savages, and the discharge of musketry, presented an awful and territic scene. The victory was complete. Out of live or six hundred Pe- quots who were in the fort, only seven or eight es- caped : the remainder were shot, or perished in the flames. 312. King Philip's War. In 1675, Philip, an Indian sachem, who resided at Mount Hope, in Rhode Island, began the most general and destructive war ever sus- tained by the infant colonies. Philip, for a long time previous to the war, was jealous of the whites. His object appears to have been, to unite all the Indian tribes to make a combined eflx)rt to exterminate the colonists, and thus preserve their hunting-grounds and their inde- pendence. A Christian Indian, having made known to the colonists the plot against them, Philip caused him to be murdered. The murderers were tried and execu- ted by the English. Philip, to avenge their deaths, com- menced hostilities, and, by his influence, drew into the war most of the tribes in New England. The Indians at this period had acquired to some ex- tent the use of firearms, and the war soon became gen- eral. The savages hovered about the frontier settle- ments, burnt and ravaged several towns, and killed many of the inhabitants. In December, about 1 000 men, un- der the command of Gov. Windoto, marched through a deep snow to the Indian fortress in the Narragansett country, in Rhode Island. The conflict was bloody. Six captains and eighty men were killed, and 150 wounded ; but the success of the English was complete. About 500 wigwams were burnt, and it is supposed that 312. Who was Philip, and where did he reside] Give an account of the origin of his war. of the .swamp fighi, and of the loss of the English. How many Indians perished \ What became of Phihp ? 214 MODERN HISTORY. about 1000 of the Indians perished. From thi." blow, called the swamp fight, they never recovered. The war, however, continued, till the August following when Philip was shot by a friendly Indian, in the vicinity of Mount Hope. Thus closed a most distressing war, in "^^S Plps«^^^ 1^1^ 1 /^^^ -^fr- ^H ^,M^^m 1^ =^^ ^g^^^fe^^^ PweV ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^« mjM'i fiffSJ^^^^^^^ Ij^iK 1 ^tirji • i^>jvfe ^^^^^^^^S^^^i^^^i'^^ ^v^^^'nfl^S^^H^^^y^^l \\ ^i^^^^f^ib^ ^^^^^^^"^-=^5^.1 ^^^wl^^^^^^"^^^^ // ^^Simf ^^^ ^^^^-S^ —1 --=-- 3^ ^^^^^^^^^P^^^y^ u ^^*^3^>» ^lfr< ^^H - ~ ^~ BB^.aw^r^gn. J^-; \^t^^ .^g:^^^4Sp ^^f^t^^i^^^M^l ^^^^^pp\% "^^^^£^^^^5@ ^^^^^^^sbIbI ' B ^SKSb- — ~ -- -'^^^'ii'SHi B^^a^^jiCJite^Mh^K"- gs j| ^^^J^IiifiM&i -f^ — "^ B^^^J^BK„;^=;":r-^'-^aflH ^■n^^^»r^|^^^9^^^ 3iK ^ffiajjOT^^^^^^gvli "{;^^^^[S|f|>|g;^^i I^S^^^fegfc. ^i^^ ^^^^^^Sl^^^^S ^p^^^^^te^^^^^^H g|^a^i!ff1g;^^^^>^H^ ^^^^^M l^^^^^^p ^M^I^C^P ^^^^^^M ^^^^^^^8 ^^^^^^^^B ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^P^^!^^ Z>eaiA of King Philip. which the English lost 600 men, the flower of their strength: 12 or 13 towns were destroyed, and 600 dwelling-houses consumed. 313. William Penn. The territory o^ Pennsylvania was granted to William Penn, from whom it derives its name. This grant was made by King Charles 11. of England, in 1681, for services rendered to the crown by the father of Penn, who was an Admiral in the Eng- Hsh navy. In October, 1682, William Perm arrived in the Delaware, with his colony of Friends or Quakers. He purchased of the natives the land for a city, which he called Philadelphia. He paid the natives for all the land he obtained, and at the same time gave them good counsel and advice, which proved of much service to 313. To whom was Pennsylvania granted? What is said of Penn and his colony of Friends? How long did Penn's treaty continue ? Did the natives respect Penn and his fol- lowers ? MODERN HISTORY. 215 them, and increased their affection for him. He conclu- ded a treaty of peace with the natives, which lasted more than seventy years. He parceled out his lands at mode- rate rents, enacted mild and just laws, and gave free tol- eration to all religious sects. The respect and love which the natives had for Penn and his followers were so great, that it is related as a fact, that in all their wars with the whites they never killed a Quaker, knowing him to be such. 314. Salem Witchcraft. The year 1692 is memora- ble in New England for the convulsion produced in Salem and its vicinity by the supposed prevalence of witchcraft. Many were supposed to be bewitched, and would complain of being bitten, pinched, pricked with pins, &c. ; some declared that they beheld a spectral representation of the person whom they said was the cause of their affliction. Some were struck dumb, others had their limbs distorted in a shocking manner, some- times running on their hands and feet, creeping through holes, and under chairs, tables, &c. ; barking like a dog, with other actions equally strange and unaccountable. Upon the accusation and testimony of persons thus af- flicted, many were imprisoned, and nineteen were exe- cuted for practising witchcraft, most of whom died pro- fessing their innocence. The evil became awfully alarming ; the most respectable persons in the country were accused ; but the magistrates finally acquitted those Avho were accused, and the menacing storm blew •iver, to the great joy of the inhabitants. At this period many learned and eminent men, both in England and America, fully believed in the existence of witchcraft. Sir Matthew Hale, of England, one of the greatest and best judges that ever sat in a court of jus- tice, repeatedly tried and condemned persons as crimi- nals, who were brought before him charged with this crime. 314 How were persons affected who were supposed to be bewitched ? How many were executed for practising witch- craft 1 What is said ot Matthew Hale and others ] 216 MODERN HISTORY. 315. Account of the Bucaneers. Between the years 1630 and 1700, the seas and some of the West India islands were infested by a set of pirates and freebooters, called hucaneers. They originated from some French vagabonds who had commenced a plantation at St. Kitt's, one of the West India islands. They were driven from it by the Spaniards, and fled to Hispaniola, now Hayti. There they subsisted for a time by hunting swine and cattle. They acquired the name of bucaneers from the practice of drying their meat, called in French " hoiicanerr Having lived some time in this way, some of them became pirates, and others cultivated the soil. Many of them established themselves upon the isle of Tortuga, and there fortified themselves. They had a mortal hatred to the Spaniards, and often plundered their ships and put all their crews to death. They were the terror of every trader to the shores of America. When loaded with booty, they returned and divided it, and spent their time in all kinds of debauchery, until it was expended. The bucaneers had all things in common ; and when their plunder was gone, they were completely destitute. Their numbers increased so rapidly from Europe, that they became terrible to all Spanish America. With an army of 1200 men they attacked several Spanish towns, murdering the people and plundering the houses. Among these towns was Carthagena, which they plundered of its effects to the amount of seven or eight millions of dollars. But, while on their return, they fell in with a fleet of Dutch and English ships, which defeated them, and took and destroyed a number of their vessels. From this check they never recovered. They were hunted down by the nations of Europe till they were de- stroyed. 316. Sovereigns of the House of Stuart. On the death of Queen Elizabeth, James, the sixth king of 315. At what time were the West Indies infested by the bucaneers 1 How did they originate, and what is said of them 1 What town did they plunder of seven or eight millions of dol- lars ] How wer« they defeated and destroyed ? MODERN HISTORY, 217 Scotland, of that name, ascended the throne of England. He was the son of Mary, queen of Scots, the nearest relative of Elizabeth, and the rightful heir by descent. He was of the Stuart family, — a race of sovereigns distinguished for a succession of misfortunes, and their love of arbitrary power. By the accession of James, the crowns of England and Scotland became united, and eventually made the two kingdoms one. As James was educated a Presbyterian, the puritans hoped that they would enjoy the toleration of their religious wor- ship. But they were greatly disappointed, and many fled and commenced settlements in New England. James was an arbitrary monarch, and held to the divine right of kings to govern their subjects without control. He was succeeded by Charles /., who inherited the same principles with his father. Charles married a daughter of the French king, who was a zealous papist, and whose influence over the king is regarded as one of the principal causes of his calamities. 317. Tyranny of Charles I. Charles, soon after he ascended the throne, was offended with the parliament for refusing to grant him sufficient supplies to carry on a war with Spain. He then proceeded io raise money without their authority. One of these methods was by a tax called ship-money. Charles claimed the right to command his subjects to provide and furnish ships, to- gether with men, victuals, and ammunition, in such numbers, and at whatever time he should think proper ; a claim contrary to the magna charta of English liberty. A noble stand was taken against this tax by John Hamp- den, a man of great talents and patriotism, and had the effect of rousing the nation to sustain their liberties. Charles also created great discontent by his endeavor- ing to regulate the religious afi'airs of the nation : by 316. Who ascended the English throne after Elizabeth] What is said of the Stuart family 1 What is said of James, and Charles L, his ancestors 1 317. How did Charles proceed to raise money 1 Who withstood this tax ? In what other way did Charles create discontent ? 19 218 MODERN HISTORY. the advice of Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, he in- troduced new ceremonies in the church, and endeav- ored to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland. The last attempt was most violently opposed by the Scots. 318. War between Charles and the Parliament. Charles, by his despotic acts, particularly his imprison- ing and impeaching a number of the members of par- liament, kindled the flame of civil war. In 1642, both parties resolved to terminate the contest by the sword. The cause of the king was supported by the greater part of the nobility and gentry, and by the Catholics ; that of the parliament by the common people of the country, the merchants and tradesmen of the towns, and the opponents of Episcopacy. The supporters of the king were styled Cavaliers ; those of the parliament, Roundheads, — a name given to them by their adversa- ries, because they cropped their hair. The war raged, with various success, for nearly five years ; but at length the royalists were overcome, and Charles fell into the hands of his enemies. 319. Execution of Charles I. The parliament, now under the influence of the army, instituted a high court, consisting of 1-33 members, to try Charles as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. Charles denied their authority to try him, and would not make any defense. He was, however, condemned to sulfer death, by being beheaded. The unfortunate king submitted to his fate with fortitude and composure. Having laid his head on the block, one of the masked executioners severed it from his body by a single blow : the other holding it up, exclaimed, " Behold the head of a traitor." Charles, though un- wise, imprudent, and unfaithful in his promises as a king, had nevertheless many virtues in private life ; and it is said of him, "He would have made a much better 318. What caused the civil war \ By whom was the cause of the king supported 1 Who supported that of the parlia- ment, and what names were given to each party 1 319. By whom was Charles tried? Relate the manner of his death. What is said of his character ? MODERN HISTORY. 219 6gn.-e in private life than he did upon athrone." He was executed on the 30th of January, 1649, in the 49th year of his age. 1 r^^' 1 llDi 'iiiiffli' ii ITWliki— ^^St ua*1 iHi^^^^ 1 ^^^b \ M m^S jH! ilillHjWjll !Jj^'ltlllll|ll!l'Mlllllir'lll|l WMIIili JHiWHI Execution of Charles the First. 320. Oliver Cromwell. The army of the parliament during the war against the royalists, was commanded by able officers, of whom Oliver Cromwell was the most distinguished. Without the aid of birth, wealth, or in- fluential connections, he rose to be the head of three powerful kingdoms. On the death of Charles I., mon- archy and the House of Lords were both abolished by the Commons, and a republican government established. The parliament at first was under the influence of the Presbyterians ; next the Independents gained the ascend- ancy; then the power passed into the hands of the ix'-my of whom Cromwell had the management. Pre- vious fo his taking the sovereign power, Cromwell forcibly dissolved the Long Parliament, so called from its having been in session 12 years. This body hav- ing become jealous of Cromwell, determined to reduce the army, and thus diminish his power. Cromwell 320. Who was Ohver Cromwell 1 What was done on the death of Charles ? What is said of the Long Parliannent 1 Of Barebone's Parliament ^ What title did Cromwell receive % 220 MODERN HISTORY. perceiving their object, went with 300 of his sol- diers to the parliament, turned the members out of the house, and locked the door. A new parliament was formed, often called Barebone's Parliament, from a lead- ing member of that name, who was a leather dresser. After this body was dissolved, Cromwell was declared Protector, and became in every respect a king, except the name. 321. The Conimoniuealth. Character of Cromwell. The commonwealth of England is dated from the death of Charles I. to the restoration of monarchy under his son, Charles II ., a period of about eleven years. During this period, when ur»der the government of Cromwell, the nation arrived to a great degree of prosperity, and became the most powerful in Europe. The protector granted religious toleration, caused justice to be faith- fully administered, and his officers of government were generally men of moral and religious principles, and vice was discountenanced at his court. He deieated with ease his enemies at home and abroad, and his power was everywhere respected, and the short period of the protectorate was the most brilliant found in English his- tory. Cromwell died in the 69th year of his age, and was succeeded by his son, Richard, who soon resigned the office of protector, and retired to private life. Crom- well, in his private life, was exemplary, — though some- what of an enthusiast, yet he appeared to be deeply im- pressed with religious feelings. His army, also, in a remarkable manner, partook of the same spirit. By many writers, Cromwell has been represented as a re- ligious hypocrite; but, (as it has been well observed,) this supposition is contradicted by the whole course of his life. 322. Of Russia. Peter the Great. Russia was raised from a state of barbarism and ignorance by Peter the Great, who reigned from 1696 to 1725. Previous to 321. How long did the Commonwealth continuo? What was the stale ot the nation under Cromwell 1 Who succeeded him 1 What is said of Cromwell's character 1 MODERN HISTORY. 221 this time, the history of Russia is obscure and linim portant. It is said to have received the light of Chris- tianity in the tenth century. The Russian sovereigns receive the title of Czar, a word which signifies king. Peter, after ascending the throne, wishing to form a navy and to gain knowledge personally, disguised him- self and went to Holland, where he engaged hitnself as a workman in one of the dock-yards. There he labored ^ith his own hands, and was fed and clad like the rest of the workmen. He also attended lectures on various su')jects while in Holland. From Holland he went to England, where he perfected himself in the art of ship- building. Having returned to Russia, he laid the foun- dation of a northern capital, which was named after himself, St. Petersburg. He endeavored, by every means, to introduce among his people a taste for the arts and sciences. Though defeated a number of times by the Swedes, he gained a great victory over them at Pul- towa, by which means he extended the bounds of his kingdom. 3^1. Of Sweden and its Sovereigns. This country, with Norway, was the original seat of the Goths and Vanddls, and was the Scandinavia of the ar»cients. In the early part of the 16th century, Gustavus Vasa, a descendant from the ancient kings, delivered his coun- try f.on the oppression of Christian II., of Denmark. He inuoJuced the Protestant religion, and promoted the welfare of his subjects. Gustavus Adolphus, surnamed the Great, is ranked among the greatest commanders of modern times, and took the part of the Protestants in Germany. He was killed in the battle of Lutzen. Charles XII. was one of the most remarkable men of his time. His ruling passion was the love of glory. Ho succeeded to the throne at the age of 15 years, and wiien only a boy of 17, he defeated the Russians, Poles 32'2. Who raised Russia from a state of barbarism] What did i^eter do alter he ascended the throne I What ca{ital dia he tbuiid ? 3^3. What was Sweden originally] What is said of Gus- tavus Vasa I Gustavus Adolphus ] What of Charles XII. ] 19* 222 MODERN HISTORY. and Danes, who had attacked his dominions on three sides. After a course of victories, he was signally de- feated by the Czar Peter, at Pultowa. Charles now fled into Turkey, where he raised the Turks against the Russians. While in this country, he conducted like a madman, and was ordered to leave it. After his return to Sweden, he was killed by a cannon ball, while be- sieging a Norwegian fortress ; and his death gave re- pose to the country. 324. Of Prussia and the two Fredericks. Prussia has existed as a kingdom from the year 1700. Modern Prussia is a kingdom formed from several small states, united by marriage or conquests. Frederick William, the father of Frederick the Great, was of singular habits ; he was economical in the extreme, and hardly expended any thing except on his soldiers. He raised a regi- ment of men, whom he called his giants. He collected them from all parts of Europe, not one of whom was less than seven feet high. He was rough and savage in his manners, and brutal in his conduct towards his own family. He would knock down, with his fists, the princes and princesses, his own children, and at times they would be half famished. Frederick II., the Great, ascended the throne in 1740, and, having the best army in Europe, was ambitious of military glory and conquest. He conquered Silesia, and published a declaration of war against Maria The- resa, empress of Germany, who was aided by the French and Russians. The contest was carried on for seven years ; more than half a million of men perished on the field of battle. Frederick, notwithstanding the great superiority of numbers against him, maintained his ground, and acquired the name of the greatest com- mander of the age. The state of parties, at the end of the war, remained nearly the same as at the commence- ment. Frederick, besides being a military hero, aimed 324. How long has Prussia existed as a kingdom 1 What is said of Frederick William ? WHiat is said of the military transactions ? What was his character ] MODERN HISTORY. "* 223 at the reputation of being a philosopher and pDet, ani was the author of a number of works in prose and verse. He appeared to have no moral or religious principles, and was addicted to various kinds of vice. Atheists and libertines were his companions, particularly the infidel French philosopher, Voltaire. 325. Of Holland. The Netherlands, in which Hol- land is included, during the early period of their history, comprised various small states, governed by counts and earls. These states at different periods belonged to the various powers in Europe. In 1555 they were transfer- red to Philip II., king of Spain. The Reformation at this period had made considerable progress in the Neth- erlands. Philip, with a view to repress it, established the Inquisition, and committed other oppressive acts ; and to enforce them, sent an army under the duke of Alva. Seven of the provinces revolted. William^ prince of Orange, raised an army, and effected the in- dependence of the Seven United Provinces, or Holland, in' 1579. The remaining ten were called Flanders. After the Dutch provinces were free from Spain, they rose by industry and enterprise to a great degree oi prosperity, and became one of the most formidable na- val powers in the world, particularly at the time of the Commonwealth of England. 326. Of Gcrmaiiy. In the ninth century, Charle- magne divided the empire of the West among his suc- cessors, into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; Germany, however, was called, by way of emi» nence, the empire. Before the time of Charlemagne, Germany appears to have been divided into a number of small independent states, who frequently united in defence of their common liberties ; they were not, how- 325. What is said of the early history of the Netherlands 1 What caused the revolt of the Seven United Provinces ] What were the remainder called ] What is said of the Dutch provin- ces, when freed from Spain 1 326. Into what monarchies was the western empire divided ? What is said of Germany ] Of Charles ] Of Austria ^ Who assisted the Protestants \ 224 MODERN HISTORY. ever, considered of much importance till the time of Charlemagne, who is to be considered, in some respects, as the founder of the German empire. It has had a long line of distinguished sovereiorns, among whom Charles V. presented the novel spectacle of voluntarily resigning his dominions and retiring to a monastery, after reigning 40 years. During the reign of Ferdinand L, Austria, one of the most powerful of the German states, made an effort to extinguish the Protestant religion in the empire. In 1626, the Protestant princes, at the head of whom was Gustavus, of Sweden, united against the emperor, and the war of thirty years ensued, which ended by securing an equal establishment of the Protestant and Catholic religions. In this war, the Protestants were assisted by the Catholics of France, who took this method to humble the growing Austrian power. 327. French and Indian Wars. From the earliest settlement of the English colonies to the treaty of Paris, in 1763, they were often harassed by frequent wars with the French and Indians. The French had settled in Canada, on the north, and in Louisiana, on the south of the colonies ; they had also explored the country along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and pretended the English had no claim to the territory west of the Alleghany mountains. In order to strengthen their possessions, they attempted to establish a chain of forts from Canada to Florida, back of the English settlements. They also used much art to gain over the various tribes to their interest, in which they were generally success- ful. The Indians, instigated, and sometimes accompa- nied by the French, came down upon the English, de- stroyed their settlements, and murdered or carried away captive the inhabitants. These and other injuries were soon succeeded by open war. 328. King William's and Queen Anne^s Was. The war during the reign of William and Mary, in England, 327, How long were the English colonies harassed by the French and Indian wars 1 Relate the proceedings of the French. MODERN HISTORY. 225 commonly called " King William's tmr," commenced in 1690, and continued about seven years. In the depth of winter, Coimt Frontenac, governor of Canada, fitted out three expeditious against the colonies— one against New York, a second against New Hampshire, and a third against the province of Maine. The party destined against New York fell upon Schenectady in the dead of night, burnt the place, and massacred the inhabitants. The second party, who went to New Hampshire, burned Salmon Falls, and killed 30 men. The third party pro- ceeding from Quebec, destroyed Casco, in iMaine, and killed and captured 100 people. The colony of Mas- sachusetts, roused by these proceedings, fitted out an expedition under Sir William Phips, who took posses- sion of Nova Scotia. Another expedition was fitted out by New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, to take Montreal and Quebec, but this was unsuccessful. Queen Anne's war commenced in 1702, and continued about ten years, and many places in New England were ravaged by the French and Indians, from Canada. The colonies fitted out a number of expeditions against Cana- da, but were generally unsuccessful. They, however, took Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, and in honor of Queen Anne, named it Annapolis. 329. Indian War in Carolina. In 1715, the Yama- sees, a powerful tribe of Indians, inhabiting the southern border of South Carolina, formed a general conspiracy of all the neighboring tribes, to destroy the English set- tlements. Upwards of 6,000 warriors were engaged in the plot. They commenced by murdering 90 persons, »vho were in Pocataligo and around Port Royal. The iihabitants of Port Royal escaped by embarking on 328. How long did King William's war continue? What ixpeditions did Count Fronienac fit out, and what is said of them] What did the colonies do ^ What is said of Queen Anne's War 1 329. What tribe formed a conspiracy in South Carolina'? How did it succeed ] Who defeated the Indians in their camp, and where did they flee to ] 226 MODERN HISTORY. board a vessel and sailing to Charleston. On a p/anta- tion by Goose Creek, there were 70 whites and 40 faith- ful blacks, who were protected by a parapet, and they determined to keep their post. Their courage failed them on the first attack, and they surrendered ; but the moment they were in the hands of the enemy, they were all massacred. The Indians now advanced still nearei Charleston, but were repulsed by the militia. Governoi Craven, with 1200 men, marched against the ravagers and found them in their great camp, at a place called Saltcatchers. After a severe and bloody battle, he de feated and drove them from the province. The greatest part of them fled to Florida, and were received by the Spaniards. 330. Capture of Louisburg. In March, 1744, war having again broke out between Great Britain and France, the legislature of .Massachusetts planned a daring but successful enterprise against Louisburg. This place was on the island of Cape Breton, and was con- sidered one of the strongest places in America. The fortifications had been twenty-five years in building, and had cost the French five millions and a half of dollars. About 4,000 men from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut, under the command of Gen. Pepperell, sailed from Boston for the conquest of this place. Hav- ing the assistance of four ships of war, under Commo- dore Warren, the troops arrived at Louisburg about the 1st of May, 1745, and commenced the siege. For four- teen nights successively, the New England troops, sinking to their knees in mud, drew their cannonr> and mortars through a swamp two miles in length. By this means the siege was pushed with so much vigor, that the garrison surrendered on the 15th of June, to his Britannic maje.sty. 331. Br addock's Defeat. The French continuing 330. Who planned the expedition against Louisburg 1 What IS said of its fortifications ? How many troops went from the colonies in this expedition ] What is said of the exertions ot the New England troops 1 MODERN HISTORY. 227 . ^ir encroachments on the back settlements, ih e British ministry tooiv measures to drive thern from the country. fo effect this, they sent Gen. Braddock with an army, who arrived in Virginia in April, 1755. He was joined by Colonel (afterwards General) Washington, with a body of Virginia troops ; the whole force consisted of two thousand men, which marched for the French fort on the Ohio. General Braddock, with 1200 of his troops, on the 9th of July, arrived within seven miles of Du Quesne, a French fortress, which stood where Pitts- burg is now built. The troops advanced in heavy col- umns, and passing through a narrow defile, they fell into an ambush of French and Indians, who poured in a deadly fire upon them. The British troops fired at random, as they could not see their foe. The slaugh- ter at this time was dreadful among the officers : Wash- ington was the only one on horseback, who was not either killed or wounded. He had two horses shot un- der him, and four bullets passed through his coat. After Braddock had received a mortal wound, his troops fled in confusion. The Virginians under Washington covered the retreat of the regulars, and saved them from entire destruction. 332. Progress of the War. The British generals who were sent over during the campaigns of 1756 and 1757, were unsuccessful and unpopular in the colonies. A change in the British ministry took place, and William Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was placed at the head of the administration. This caused a change in the military operations. Fifty thousand men were raised, of which 20,000 were raised in America. Three ex- peditions were planned.. The first against Louisburg, which had been given up to the French, the second against Tico?ideroga, and the third against Fort Du 331. Who was sent to drive the French from Ohiol By whom was Braddock joined] Relate the circumstances ot his defeat. 332. What is said of William Pitt? How many men were raised, what expeditions were planned, and with what success ? 223 M.ODERN HISTORY. Quesne. Gen. Amherst subdued Louisburg, after ton siderable resistance, and took nearly 6,000 men prison- ers. In the attack on Ticonderoga, Gen. Abercrombie was defeated, with the loss of 2,000 men. Fort Du Quesne was taken by Gen. Forbes, who changed its name, and called it, in honor of VVm. Pitt, Pittsburg. 333. Capture of Quebec. The command of the ex- pedition against Quebec, was given to Gen. Wolfe, a young officer, who had distinguished himself at the capture of Louisburg. With an army of 8000 men, he landed in June, 1759, near Quebec, on the island of Orleans, just below the city. Quebec was a place of immense strength, and was at this time strongly gar- risoned, by a force under Montcalm, an officer of dis- tinguished merit. Failing in a number of attempts to make an impression on the city. Gen. Wolfe formed the bold design to ascend a steep craggy cliff, to an elevated plain called the Plains of Abraham, which commanded the city. This he effected under the cover of night, and before sunrise his whole army were arrayed on the plain in order of battle. A bloody action ensued. Wolfe and Montcalm were both mortally wounded, the French were defeated, and the city surrendered. Wolfe died in the moment of victory. As he lay fainting in death, hearing the cry, " they fly," asked, " who fly ?" " The French," was the reply. " Then," said he, " I die happy," and expired. Montcalm, who was carried into the city, when told he could not live but a few hours, replied, " so much the better ; I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." By the capture oi Quebec, Canada came into the possession of Great Britain. This put a period to the French and Indian wars in America. 334. Causes of the American Revolution. Soon after the termination of the French and Indian wars, troubles assailed the colonies from a new quarter. The mother country began Co assert her dominion over them, and in- 333. What did Gen. Wolfe do, in order to take Quebec ? Relate the dying words of Wolte and Montcal ji. What fol- lowed the c;iptnre of Qwphec ] MODERN HISTORY. 229 terfered in their civil concerns, in a mannt r that created serious alarm for their liberties. Great Britain had, by her laws of trade and navigation, confined the trade ot her colonies almost wholly to herself, and, in some cases, had even prohibited the establishment of manu- factories in America. The colonies were treated as a distinct and lower class of subjects, and the British ministry, under the pretext of obtaining payment for the expense they had been at for defending them, claimed the right to raise ni'jney from them by taxation. The colonists, on the other hand, contended that as they had no representatives in the parliament, they could not be taxed without their consent, without violating their rights as British subjects. The claim of this right, on the one hand, and the denial of it on the other, may be considered as the cause of the American revolution. 335. Stamp Act. The British parliament, in the year 1765, passed the famous Stamp Act, for the purpose of raising a revenue from the colonies. This act required, that all paper and parchment which was used in the transaction of business, should be stamped, and a tax paid for it to the government. The act also declared that all writings on unstamped materials, should be null and void. When the news of this reached America, it excited the indignation of the people, and they deter- mined to resist its execution. The day on which this act was to take place, Nov. 1st, 1765, the bells were muifled and tolled, and the shops were shut. In Bos- ton, the effigies of the royalists were carried about and torn in pieces. At Portsmouth, a coffin was made on which was inscribed. Liberty, aged 145, and a proces- sion followed it to the grave. In New York, the Stamp Act was cried about the streets, under the title of the folly of England, and the ruin of America. Many of 334. Relate the treatment of Great Britain towards her colonies. On what ground did the colonies contend against the mother country 1 What may be considered as the cause of the revolution ? 235. Give an account of the Stamp Act. How was it re- ceived in America 1 What took place in Portsmouth ^ In New York ? 20 230 MODERN HISTORY. the citizens assembled in the evening, broke open the governor's stable, and took out his coach and carried it about the city, suspended his effigy on a gallows, with a stamp bill in one hand and the figure of the devil in the other. After this, the gallows, the effigy, and the coach, were consumed in a bonfire, amid the shouts ot the spectators. Similar proceedings took place in many- parts of the country, and the obnoxious act was soon after repealed. 336. Destruction of Tea at Boston. The British min- istry still persisting in their right to tax the colonies, had, for this purpose, given permission to the East India Company to ship a large quantity of teas to America, charged with duty. The Americans, fixed in their op- position to the principle of taxation in any shape, op- posed the landing of the tea. In New York, and in Philadelphia, the cargoes sent out were returned with- out being entered at the custom-houses. In Boston, the tea being consigned to the royal governor, (Hutchinson,) the populace, " clad like the aborigines of the wilder- ness," with tomahawks in their hands, and clubs on their shoulders, without the least molestation, marched through the streets with silent solemnity, amidst innumerable spectators, and proceeded to the wharves, boarded the ships, demanded the keys, and without much delibera- tion, knocked open the chests, and emptied several thousand weight of the finest teas into the ocean. Intelligence of this transaction reached the British ministry, and in 1774, they passed an act to restrain all intercourse by water with the town of Boston by closing the port. They also removed the government and pub- lic offices to Salem. 336. Give an account of the destruction of tea in Boston. What did the British ministry do with regard to Boston ] PERIOD IX. DISTINGUISHED FOR REVOLUTIONS. FROM THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION TO THE PRESENT TIME. 337. Continental Congress. In September, 1774, del- egates from all the colonies except Georgia, assembled in Philadelphia. This body was composed of 55 mem- bers, and is generally called the First Continentu'l Con- gress. Their first act was an approval of the conduct of the people of Massachusetts, in resisting the arbitrary proceedings of the British government. They insisted on their rights as British subjects, and resolved to break off all trade with Great Britain, till their rights were ac- knowledged. They also drew up a petition to the king, and addresses to the people of Great Britain and the colonies. After a session of eight weeks, the congress dissolved themselves, after recommending that another should be held the next year. Although the resolutions of congress possessed no legal force, yet they were more faithfully observed than the laws of the best regulated state. The Americans now began to train themselves to the use of arms, and made vigorous exertions to sus- tain themselves in the coming conflict. 337. What is said of the First Continental Congress ? What did they do 1 Were their resolutions observed 1 What did Great Britain do, on the news of these proceedings 1 232 MODERN HISTORY. When the news of these proceedir gs reached Great Britain, Mr. Pitt (Lord Chatham) adv(.»cated the Ameri- can cause in the British parliament, and endeavored to effect a reconciliation ; but his efforts were in vain — parliament declared 3. rebellion existed in Massachusetts. In the beginning of 1775, the army in Boston was in- creased to 10,000 men, which number was deemed suffi cient to reduce the colonies to submission. British troops firing on the Americans, at Lexington. 838. Skirmish at Lexington. The Americans ha vini^ deposited a considerable quantity of stores at Concord, about 18 miles from Boston, General Gage, who com- manded the British forces at Boston, sent a force of 800 men in order to destroy them. On the evening of the 18th of April, at 10 o'clock, the British troops with cjreat secrecy commenced their march for Concord. They were, however, discovered, and the alarm was rapidly spread by church bells and signal guns. When the British troops arrived at Lexington, they found about 70 of the militia assembled near the meeting-house. Major Pitcairn, of the British troops, rode up to them and called 338. What is said respecting the American stores at Con- cord ? Relate what took place at Lexington. MODERN HISTORY. 233 out, " Disperse you rebels ; throw down your arms and disperse.^^ Not being obeyed he discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to fire. Eight of the Americans were killed, and a number wounded. This was the first blood shed in the revolution. The British effected their purpose in destroying their stores ; but on their return to Boston were severely harassed by the Americans. 339. Battle of Bunker's Hill. A considerable army was collected near Boston, by the Americans, for the purpose of dislodging the British from that place. To accomplish this, 1000 men were ordered, on the night of the 16th of June, 1775, to throw up a breast-work on Bunker's Hill ; but in consequence of a mistake they took possession of Breed's Hill, which is nearer Boston. Before the return of light they had nearly finished a strong redoubt. As soon as the fortifications of the Americans were discovered, a severe cannonade was commenced from the ships, to destroy the progress of the works. The roaring of the cannon alarmed the in- habitants of Boston and the surrounding towns, and soon the steeples, the roofs of the houses, and the adjacent hills, were covered with spectators, to witness the scene. As nothing was accomplished by the cannonade, a body of 3000 men, commanded by General Howe, was landed, and advanced to the attack. As the British troops were advancing, orders were given to set Charlestown on fire, and the place, containing 400 houses, was laid in ashes. The Americans allowed the enemy to approach within a short distance, and then discharged a shower of mus- ket balls into their ranks, which did such execution as caused them to retreat. They rallied a second time ; again the Americans suffered them to approach, and again they poured in upon them a fire which effected such carnage that it caused them to retreat to the banks 339. What did the Americans do, in order to dislodge the British from Boston 1 How were the American works first attacked 1 What place was burnt on their advance 1 Describe the battle. What is said of General Clinton 1 What was the loss on each side 1 20* 234 MODERN HISTORY. of the river. At this time General ('linton, who had observed the battle from Boston, crossed over with a reinforcement, to assist his countrymen. By his exer- tions the troops were again rallied, and marched up to the entrenchments with fixed bayonets. The Ameri- cans, having expended their ammunition, and having no bayonets, were forced to retreat. The loss of the Bri tish was over 1000 men, while the Americans had only 100 killed, and 300 wounded ; among the killed, how- ever, was General Warren, a brave officer and firm patriot. 340. Arnold's March through the Wilderness. The Americans, wishing to get Canada into their possession, sent Colonel Arnold, with a detachment of the army, by a new and unexplored route. Arnold ascended to Ken- nebec, and after crossing the mountains which divide Canada from Maine, he descended the Chaudiere to the St. Lawrence. The army encountered great difficulties in their march of 300 miles, through an uninhabited country, abounding with swamps, woods, and craggy mountains, which so opposed their progress, that for a part of the time they only went four or five miles a day. One third of their number were obliged to return : pro- visions were so scanty, that some of the men ate their dogs, leather, small clothes, and shoes. Still they pro- ceeded with unabated fortitude, and on the third of No- vember, after thirty-one days spent in traversing a tedi- ous desert, they reached the inhabited parts of Canada, to the astonishment of the inhabitants. 341. Assault on Quebec, and Death of General Mont- gomery. In 1 775, General Wlontgomery , a native of Ire- land, but ardently attached to the American cause, was entrusted with the command of the expedition against Canada. After taking Montreal, he joined the force 340. What route did Arnold take to get into Canada 1 What difficulties and sufferings were encountered ? 341. What is said of General Montgcnr.ery'? Describe the assault on Quebec. What is said of the appearance of the bodies of the soldiers who were killed 1 MODERN HISTORY. 235 which Arnold had led through the wilderfiCss, and ad- vanced to the siege of Quebec. On the last day of the year, 1775, General Montgomery, under the cover of night, and during a snow storm, made an assault on the city. In passing a barrier, a gun from a battery was discharged, which killed him and his two aids. The division commanded by Arnold took a battery, bul he, being wounded, was compelled to leave the field. His men fought bravely ; but being bewildered and be- numbed amidst the darkness and snow, and being una- ble to retreat, surrendered. A shocking spectacle was presented in the morning after the assault, by the ap- pearance of the bodies of the soldiers who were killed : they were frozen stiff in the various distortions produced by the agonies of death. 342. Declaration of Independence. Notwithstanding the active war now carried on by the colonies, they still considered themselves subjects of the British king, con- tending for constitutional liberty. But the determined Hostility of the British government induced them to dis- solve their connection with the mother country. A pamphlet entitled Common Sense, written by Thomas Paine, in which the excellencies of a republican gov- ernment were described, and the monarchical system ridiculed, produced a great effect on the public mind. On the 7th of June, a motion was made in congress by Richard He7iry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by John Adams, of Massachusetts, for declaring the colonies free and independent. A committee, consisting of Jef- ferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, were appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence. 'J'he Declaration, written by Mr. Jefferson, was adopted by congress, by almost an unanimous vote, on the Ath of July, 1776, by which the thirteen United States of America were declared free and independent. 342. How did the colonies at first consider themselves 1 What IS said of the pamphlet entitled *' Common Sense V Who u)ade the motion in congress for a Declaration of Inde- pendence? Who were the committee appointed to prepare a Declaration, and by whom was it written ] 236 MODERN HISTORY. 343. Battle on Long Island. In June, 1776, the British fleet arrived at Sandy Hook, having on board 35,000 troops, inckiding a body of Hessians, from Ger- many, a body of cavalry, and warlike apparatus of every kind. Washington's force consisted of only 17,000 men, most of whom were inexperienced, and weakened by sickness. While in this state they erected fortifica- tions on Long Island, and prepared to resist the enemy. Before hostilities commenced, General Howe, the com- mander of the British forces, sent one of his officers to Washington, and proposed conditions of peace, which amounted to little more than the offer of pardon. Wash- ington observed, that as the Americans had not com- mitted any crime, they wished for no pardon. The offi- cer returned, and both parties prepared for action. On the 22d of August, the British troops landed on the southwest side of the island, and gained the rear of the American army. On the 27th the attack began ; but the Americans being exposed to the fire of the Hessians in frontj and the British regulars in the rear, were de- feated, with a loss of 1200 men. After this defeat, General Washington commenced a silent retreat on the night of the 29th, which was effected with complete success. An army of 9000 men, with all their cannon, tents, and baggage, were transported to New York, over a difficult ferry of a mile in breadth, without being dis- covered by the enemy. 344. Death of Captain Hale. After the retreat from Long Island, Washington was very desirous of gaining some knowledge of the future designs of the enemy. For this purpose, General Washington applied to Colo nel Knowlfon, who communicated this request to Cap- tain Nathan Hale^ of Connecticut, who at once nobly 343. What number of British troops arrived in 1776 ? What is said of Washington's force ? What of the proposals of peace ] What was the result of the battle on Long Island, and of Washington's retreat? 344. For \\hat service did Capt. Hale offer himself? Re- late the circumstances of his execution. MODERN HISTORY. 237 offered himself for this hazardous service. He passed in disguise to Long Island, examined every part of the British army, and obtained the desired information re- specting their situation and future operations. While on his way back, he was arrested and carried before Sir William Howe. The proof of his object was so clear, that he acknowledged it ; and he was ordered to be executed next morning. Before he was executed, he requested a clergyman and a Bible. Both were re- fused ; and the letters which he wrote to his mother and friends were destroyed. The only reason given for this unfeeling conduct was, " That the rebels should not (vnow that they had a man in their army who could die with so much tirmness." This patriot was a young man of amiable character, and he died lamenting that he had but one life to lose for his country. 345. Retreat of Washington and Battle of Trenton. General Washington, after a series of disasters, was obliged to retreat from New York towards Pennsylva- nia, being pursued by the enemy. This retreat was at- tended with circumstances of a psinful and trying na- ture. The army, which had consisted of 30,000 men, was diminished down to scarcely 3000, and these were without provisions, without pay, and many of them very poorly clothed. Their footsteps were stained with blood as they fled before the enemy. Such was the desperate condition of the American cause, that many who had been most confident of its success, began to despond and give up all as lost. In this season of general gloom, the American con- gres-s recommended to each of the stales to observe " a day of solemn fasting and humiliation before God." Washington felt it important to make a desperate effort in behalf of his country. On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, the American army re-crossed the Delaware, and marched to attack the Hessians, who had 345. Relate the circumstances of Washington's retreat through New Jersey. Give an account of the battle of Tren ton. How many of the enemy were captured ? 238 MODERN HISTORY. advanced to Trenton. The sun had just risen as the tents of the enemy appeared in sight. VVashiuoton, rising on his stirrups, waved his sword and exclaimed, "There, my brave friends, are the enemies of your country ; and now ail I have to ask is, to remember what you are about to fight for. March !" The troops, thus animated by their commander, pressed on to the charge. The Hessians were taken by surprise, about 1000 of them made prisoners, and 40 killed, among whom was their commander. 346. Expedition of General Burgoyne. In 1777, it was determined in England to invade the states through Canada. An army was to be sent by the way of Lake Champlain to Hudson River, and effect a communica- ion with their forces at New York ; and by having the command of the Hudson, they expected to cut off the communication between New England and the other states. For this purpose, Gen. Burgoyne, with a chosen army of 7000 men, besides Canadians and Indians, moved down from Canada towards Albany. Having obtained possession of Ticonderoga, he led his army to Fort Edward, on the Hudson. The militia of New England and New York were aroused to stop the pro- gress of the invader, and beset him on every side. Burgoyne, wishing to obtain provisions, sent Col. Baurn to Bennington, in Vermont, to seize the American stores. They were signally defeated by Col. Stark, with the loss of 600 men. Burgoyne, collecting his forces, encamped at Saratoga. After a number of ob- stinate battles, Burgoyne finding his provisions nearly exhausted, his retreat cut off, and surrounded by a brave army, was forced to surrender to Gen. Ga^e^his whole army consisting of 5,752 effective men, on the 17ih ol October, 1 777. This event caused great joy among the Americans, and hastened their alliance with France which was effected in February, 1778. On the 20th ol 346. What was the plan of Burgoyne's invasion'? H - far did he penetrate? Give an account of his defeat. Wl effect did his surrender have 1 MODERN HISTORY. 239 March, the American Commissioners were received at the Court of France, as the representatives of a sister nation. 347. Treason of Arnold. In the year 1780, a plot of great danger to the American cause, was timely dis- covered. The author of the plot was General Arnold, who, being wounded, was appointed to a command in Philadelphia. For his extravagance and haughty con- duct he was reproved by the American congress. This aroused his passions, and he determined to have re- venge. General Washington still valued him for his bravery, and entrusted him with the command of the important post at West Point. This post he determined to deliver up to the enemy To effect this he entered into anegociation with Sir Henry Clinton, through Major Andre, of the British army, who came in disguise to West Point, and concerted with Arnold upon the time and method of seizing the fort. Andre obtained a pass- port from Arnold, under a disguised name, and set out on his way to New York. He succeeded in passing all the outposts of the American army without suspicion. About 30 miles from New York, as he was entering the village of Tarrytown, three militia men who came that way, stopped him, and asked him where he was hound. He did not answer this question, but asked them where they belonged. They said, " below.'''' Mistaking them for men of his own party, he informed them that he was a British officer, and could not be detained. When ar- rested, he offered them a large reward if they would release him. But these men, though poor, were not to be bribed ; and after examining his person, found evi- dence of his being a spy, in the papers which were hid in his boots. Andre was tried and executed as a spy, at Tappan, N. Y., October 2d. Arnold, hearing of the capture of Andre, made his escape to the British, and was made a brigadier general in their army. 348. Sufferings of the Ainerican Army. The Ameri- can army often suffered extremely during the revolu- 347 What is said of Gen. Arnold ? What did he attempt to do ? Relate the circumstances of the capture of Andre. 240 MODERN HISTORY. tionary war, for the want of food and clothing. While they were encamped at Morristown, during the severe winter of 1780, their sufferings were unusually severe. Congress, having hut little money or credit, were obliged to issue a paper currency, commonly called continental money ^ in order to carry on the war. This became so much reduced in value, that the four months' pay of a soldier would not procure a bushel of wheat, and the pay of a colonel would not procure oats sufficient for his horse. The necessities of the army were so great, that Gen. Wa^shington was obliged to send out detach- ments to procure provisions at the point of the bayonet ; and many a soldier, contending for American freedom, perished through hunger, cold, and disease. 349. Arrival of the French Troops. In July, 1780, M. de Ternay, with a French fleet, consisting of seven ships of the line, besides frigates, and 6000 land forces, commanded by Count de Rochamheau, arrived at New- port, in Rhode Island. The troops were landed, which gave new life to the American councils and arms. The fleet, however, suddenly returned to France, and, at that time, all hope of naval assistance vanished. The land forces remained, and rendered important assistance in bringing the war to a close. Before the treaty with France, the young Marquis de Lafayette.^ a French noble- man, ardent in the cause of liberty, hired a ship at his own expense, came over to America when nineteen years of age, and joined the army under Washington. He was appointed a major general, and by his services through the war, gained the aff'ections and gratitude of the American people. 350. War in the Southern States. During the latter part of the period of the revolutionary war, the most important military operations were in the southern states. The British generals found it much easier to make an 348. Where did the American army encamp during the se- vere winter of 1780 ? What is said of the continental money, and the necessities of the army 1 349. How many French troops arrived in 1780, and by whom were they commanded 1 What is said of Lafayette ? MODERN HISTORY. 241 impression here, as it was much less populous than at the north. Savannah and Charleston were both taken by the enemy, and a great part of the country was con- sidered as conquered. Gen. Gates being appointed to the command of the southern American army, was routed by Lord Cornwallis. After this, Gen. Green carried on the war against the British forces, with vigor and suc- cess. Gen. Morgan and Gen. Marion, two veteran American commanders, greatly distinguished themselves in the war in this section of the country. 351. Capture of Cornwallis. Lord Cornwallis having collected a large army in Virginia, Washington resolved to concentrate his forces against him. The main body of the American army was at this time at White Plains^ in the vicinity of New York. After making a show of attacking New York, in order to deceive the British commander, and prevent him from sending assistance to Cornwallis, Washington, with his army, suddenly left his camp at White Plains, crossed the Hudson, and passed rapidly on to Virginia. When he arrived there, a French fleet, under Count de Grasse, appeared in the Chesapeake, and a body of French troops were landed from the fleet, to assist the Americans. The combined force of the Americans and French, under the command of Washington, 12 or 13,000 in number, besides the militia, closely invested the British at Yorktoicn. Cornwallis being closely blockaded by sea and land, and the besiegers regularly advancing upon him with a tremendous cannonade, he was obliged to surrender, with upwards of 7000 men, on the 19th of October, 1781. 352. Conclusion of the War. As the capture of Cornwallis was considered as deciding the war, the 350. Why did the British remove the seat of the war to the southern states 1 What places did they take, and what army did they defeat 1 What is said of Gen. Green and Marion 1 351. Relate the proceedings of Washington before he went on to attack Cornwallis By whom was he assisted, and by what means was Cornwallis captured 1 21 242 MODERN HISTORY. news was received by the American people with emo tions of the greatest joy. Divine service was perform ^d in their armies, and a day of thanksgiving was re commended and observed throughout the United States In Great Britain a new ministry was appointed, who advised the king to discontinue all farther efforts to sub- due the Americans. On the 30th of November, 1782, provisional articles of peace were signed, by which the independence of the United States was acknowledged. The final treaty was concluded at Versailles, in France ; in which the United Colonies were admitted to be " Free, Sovereign, and Independent States." Thus ended the revolutionary war, which cost Great Britain, in addition to the loss of her colonies, one hundred million pounds sterling, and about 50,000 subjects. 353. Disbanding of the Army. When the American army was about to be disbanded, serious difficulties arose with respect to the payment of their wages. The paper, or continental money, with Vv^hich the soldiers had been paid, was worthless. Many of the officers and soldiers could not make a decent appearance in point of dress, and the families of others were suffering at home. Many of the officers had expended their private fortunes in the service of their country, and had the prospect of being dismissed in poverty, with no pro- vision for their future support. In this state of things, addresses were privately circulated among the officers, designing to stir them up to violent measures to obtain their just rights. This was a most dangerous crisis. By the effi)rts and entreaties of Washington the rising tumults were quelled, and the army was disbanded in peace. Washington delivered to the president of con- gress his military commission, and retired to private life. 354. Confederation of the States. In 1778, a plan ot confederation and perpetual union was formed by con- 352. What effect did the capture of Oornwallis have in the United States, and in Great Britain ? When was the inde- pendence of the United Stales acknowledo^ed ? 353. What was the state of the American army when about to be disbanded '^ What took place at this time 1 MODERN HISTORY. . 243 gress, and submitted for the consideration of the states, which was finally agreed to by all the state legislatures. The states were compelled, during the war, to act in concert, by the principle of common safety ; and the resolutions of congress were generally carried into effect by the several state legislatures. When freed from external dangers, the weakness of the confedera- tion began to appear. Congress had no power to levy taxes, to supply their treasury ; the sums voted for the pu!)lic service were apportioned to each state, which raised the money in a way they thought the most proper. The states soon became delinquent, and the national treasury was left unsupplied. Congress then attempted to raise a revenue by a duty on foreign goods ; this was agreed to by all the states except Rhode Island and New York, and their opposition defeated the measure, 355. Organization of the Federal Government. The confederation being found utterly insufficient to accom- plish the ends of a national union, delegates were as- sembled for the purpose of consulting on the formation of some general and efficient government. This body adjourned, and recommended that a general convention should be held the next year. Accordingly, in May, 1787, delegates from all the states except Rhode Island, assembled at Philadelphia, and appointed Gen. Wash- ington their president. " After four months' delibera- tion, in which the clashing interests of the several states appeared in all their force," the convention agreed to a frame of government, which was finally agreed to by all the states. On the 30th of April, 1789, Gen. Wash- ington was inaugurated \\\e Jirst president of the United States. The ceremony was performed in the open gal- lery of the Federal Hall in New York, and the oath was administered by Chancellor Livingston, in the pres- 354. What is said of the confederation 1 How were the laws of congress carried into effect 1 What is said of the at- tempt of congress to raise revenue ? 355. By what means was the federal government organized ? Who was inaugurated the first president, at what time, and where was the ceremony performed 1 244 . MODERN HISTORY. ence of a countless multitude of spectators. Frorn this moment the American republic has steadily advanced in a tide of prosperity and growing power. 356. Causes of the French Revolution. The French revolution, which commenced in 1789, and convulsed the whole civilized world, was brought on by a variety of causes. Previous to this time, the French people were borne down by a load of taxation, to support the extravagance and profligacy of their monarchs. The nobility and clergy had many privileges which were not allowed to other subjects, especially their exemp- tion from taxes. The common people were despised, yet they bore all the burdens and expenses of the state. The feelings of liberty were much excited by the American revolution, especially on the return of the French officers and army from the United States. The fearful horrors accompanying the revolution, may be ascribed to the general prevalence of infidelity through- out all classes of the French people. The atheistical writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other French phi- losophers, brought on a feart^ul state of public morals. 357. Of the National Assembly. The French mon- arch, Louis XVI., wishing to restore the disordered state of the finances to order, convoked the notables, a bocly selected from the higher orders. To this body it was proposed to lay a land tax, proportioned to property, without any exception of the nobility or clergy ; this measure they refused to sanction. The assembly of the states general was now called, which was composed of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and the third estate, or commons. This body, which had not been assem- bled since 1614, was convened in 1789. Difficulties arose in this assembly how questions should be decided. 356. What was the state of the French people previous to the revolution of 1789? What is said of the nobility, clergy, common people, and of the effect of the American revolution? What is said of the prevalence of infidelity ? 357. What did Louis XVL do with regard to his finances? What assemhli(!s were convened? What is said )f the na tional assembly \ MODERN HISTORY. 245 At lenorth the commons, together with such of the no- bility and clergy as would join them, seized upon the legislative authority, and constituted themselves the naiioaal assembly. After this body was formed, there remained nothing of the monarchy but the name. 358. Progress of the Revolution. As Louis showed some disposition to oppose the proceedings of the na- tional assembly, the people were thrown into a state of violent commotion. The bastilc, a huge state prison, long an engine of tyranny, was demolished by the pop- ulace. Other excesses were committed, in the city and elsewhere, by the furious rabble, and by mobs of women of the vilest character. The king and royal family were forced by the mob to remove from Versailles to Paris, and were protected from violence by the influence of Lafayette, who at this time commanded the national guard. The progress of the revolution was rapid. The privi- leges of the nobles and clergy were abolished ; reli- gious liberty and the freedom of the press established ; the church lands confiscated ; the religious houses sup- pressed ; and France was divided into 83 departments. After these measures were accomplished, the assembly next proceeded to form a constitution. The king, find- ing his situation perilous, escaped from Paris, with his family, but was stopped on the frontiers and brought back. A constitutism, which established a limited mon- archy, and the equality of all ranks, was accepted by the king. The next assembly which met, was under the influ- ence of the Jacobin club, so called from its place of meeting, in a suppressed convent of Jacobin monks. At this period the hostile armies of Austria and Prussia were ready to enter France, and the people imagined the king and the nobility were confederated with them. 358. How were the people thrown into commotion? What is said of the bastile] The royal family ] Lafayette? What was done with regard to the nobles, clergy, and constitution ' What is said of the Jacobins \ 21* 246 MODERN HISTORY. The prisons of Paris were filled with the nobility priests, and opulent citizens, and the Jacobins urged the necessity of destroying them before the enemy sho;ild reach the capital. Accordingly bands of ferocious assassins burst open the prisons and murdered 5000 persons. l-.a: rut I /..y ///r GaiUotiue. 359. Trial and Expcution of Louis XVI. in Sep- tember, 1 792, the national convention commenced their deliberations. They abolished the regal government, and declared France a rcp'ihlic. Louis was arraigned before their bar, to answer to various charges, which he answered with composure and dignity. His ene- mies being bent on his destruction, the convention de- cided that he was guilty of a conspiracy against the liberties of the nation, and the security of the state. By a majority of five voices only, out of 721 voters, he was condemned to suffer death by the gtiillotinp. < 'ne of the most influential men in procuring the death of the king, was the duke of Orleans, one of his relatives, who was distinguished for his low and infamous vices. 359, What did the national convention do ? What is said of the trial of Louis XVL ? Of the duke of Orleans'! State the circumstances of the execution of Louis. MODERN HISTORY. 247 On the 2 1 St of January, 1793, Louis w^s broi.ght out for execution, and ascended the scatfold in the presence of a large concourse of spectators, with a firm step. He attempted to address the multitude, but was pre- vented by the beating of drums, and the ex'ecutioner was ordered to perform his office. At this moment his con- fessor called to him from the foot of the scaffold, " Son of St. Louis, ascend to Heaven," and immediately the ax of the guillotine severed his head from his body. 360. Triumph of Infidelity. After the death of the king a revolutionary tribunal was erected under Robes- pierre.^ Marat, and their associates, monsters of deprav- ity and cruelty. Their bloody domination is usually styled " The Reign of Terror."" It was during this period that the national convention suppressed the Christian religion, and declared that death was an eter- nal sleep ; they abolished the Sabbath, and a respite from Jabor was allowed on every tenth day. They also passed a decree that the only French deities hereafter should be Liberty, Equality, and Reason. This last deity, represented by a naked prostitute, was drawn in triumph through the streets of Paris, and all the princi- pal officers of the city and national government joined in the parade. The queen and sister of Louis XVL were guillotined, and as each faction gained the ascen- dency, they put to death all who opposed them, and the blood of victims flowed in every part of France. 3G1. Of the Directory and Napoleon Bo?iaparte. Af- ter the fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the exe- cutive power was entrusted to a directory of five, and the legislative power in two councils. The sovereigns of Europe, from the commencement of the French revo- lution, were fearful that the disorganizing principles of the revolutionists would be extended to their dominions. t 360. What is said of Robespierre and Marat 1 What did the national convention decree ? What is said of the differ- ent factions 1 361. What was the directory "? What did the sovereigns of Europe do ? What is said of Napoleon Bonaparte I What of bis military operations in Eg3rpt? 248 >?ooEfi.v m«TORY. In order lo stop them they formed coalitions against France, by which nearly all the European nations were drawn into war. France, however, sustained herself against all her enemies, and such was her energy, that she had at command, in 1794, ane million of fighting men. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte, r native of Corsica, in the 27th year of his age, was entrusted with the com- mand of an army against Italy. He had commenced his military career as a lieutenant, and rose rapidly to distinction. Italy was soon conquered. In 1798, Gen. Bonaparte, with an army of 40,000 men, was sent to conquer Egypt. He took Alexandria by assault, after a great slaughter of the Ma?nelukes and Arabs. By the battle of the Pyramids he took possession of Cairo ; but by the battle of the Nile, in which Lord Nelson de- stroyed the French fleet, Bonaparte was finally obliged to return to France. 362. Bonaparte the First Consul and Emperor. On the return of Bonaparte, he found that the ill conduct of the directory had brought the country to the brink of ruin. By the aid of some friends, and a military force, Bonaparte abolished the directory and caused himself to be elected first consul. From this period the affairs of the republic took a new turn. The military force was reorganized ; Bonaparte by his energy put down all the various factions which had raged in the empire ; corrected many abuses ; restored order and tranquillity lo the government, and commenced a career of victori- ous conquests, which have no parallel in modern his- tory. He defeated the Austrians at the great battle of Marengo, in 1800, and was afterwards elected first con- sul for life, with supreme power. In 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor of France, and was crowned by the pope ; and the next year he assumed the title of king of Italy. ♦ 362. To what office was Bonaparte elected after his return ] What is said of the affairs of the republic after this periud ? In what year was Bonaparte proclaimed emperor of Fraiice * By whom crowned] MODERN HISTORY. 249 363. Battle of Aust^'rlUz. Alarmed at the growing power of Napoleon, Austria and Russia formed a coali- tion against him. Napoleon, as usual, beforehand with his enemies, advanced rapidly into Austria, and became master of Vienna, the German capital. At Austerlitz, in December, 1805, he met the combined armies of Russia and Austria. The force on each side was nearly equal, and the three emperors, of France, Russia, and Austria, being present, gave great interest and en- ergy to the contest. The French army advanced to the attack at sunrise, with shouts of " long live the em- peror.'''' At one in the afternoon, after a severe battle, victory was decided in favor of the French, who took, more than 30,000 prisoners, and 150 pieces of cannon. By this victory Austria was humbled, and submitted to humiliating conditions of peace. 364. Other Victories of Napoleon. Napoleon, in order to strengthen his power, united several German states into a union, called the " Confederation of the Rhine,'^ of which he was chosen protector. The great increase of power acquired by this alliance, was a cause of jealousy, and in 1806, another coalition was formed against him, by Prussia, Russia, Austria, Swe- den, and Ergland. Prussia, who began the war, was overthrown by a great battle at Jena. The following year he defeated the Russians, and with the Prussians forced them to agree to shut their ports against Great Britain, and gave their assistance in excluding British commerce from the continent. Napoleon, now trium- phant, disposed of crowns and kingdoms at his will. His brother Louis was appointed king of Holland ; the crown of Spain was conferred on his brother Joseph ; Jerome, another brother, was made king of Westphalia., 363. What nations formed a coalition against Napoleon '^ Where did he defeat them, and what is said of tlie battle ? 364. What formed the confederation of the Rhine] What coalition was now formed against Napoleon 1 Where were the Prussians overthrown ? What crowns did Napoleon con- fer upon his relatives ? 250 MODERN HISTORY. a new kingdom formed from Prussia, and Murat, who had married his sister, was raised lo the throne of Naples. Retreat of ike French Army from Moscow, 365. Napoleon's Campaign in Russia. The Empe- ror Alexander, of Russia, refusing to concur with the French emperor in excluding British commerce from the continent, gave rise to a war which commenced in 1812. With an army of nearly half a million of men, collected from almost every nation in Europe, Napoleon advanced to the conquest of Russia. After the battle of Borodino, which terminated the lives of seventy-five thousand human beings, the French army entered Mos- cow, in September, 1812. The Russians, in order to deprive the French of winter quarters, destroyed their provisions, abandoned the city, set it on fire, and three fourths of this ancient capital was laid in ashes. This unexpected sacrifice on the part of the Russians, 365. What gave rise to Napoleon's war against Russia ? How many men in Napoleon's army, and what is said of the battle of Borodino? WImt caused the ruin of Napoleon ? What did he offer, and what was \w obliged to do "? Describe the retreat of his army. How many survived to cross the frontier 1 MODERN HISTORY. 251 vaused the ruin of Napoleon. Being without quarters, and short of provisions, he offered terms of peace. The Russians rephed that they could listen to no terms, while an enemy remained in their country. No alter- native was now left but to retreat towards the frontiers. One of the most distressing scenes on human record now followed. A Russian winter, unusually severe, now set in with all its horrors. The wretched soldiers, pursued by the Russians, overcome by hunger, cold, and fatigue, sunk down by thousands, and were left by their companions to perish amid the Russian snows. About 30,000 horses perished in one day, by the se- verity of the weather. It is stated that not more than 50,000 men, (being one man in ten,) survived to recross the Russian frontier. 366. Defeat of Napoleon hy the Allies. Napoleon having effected his retreat to the Russian frontiers, with a remnant of his army, left it and fled in disguise to Paris. He resolved to hazard another campaign, and raised a fresh army of 350,000 men. As the Russians advanced in the pursuit of the French army, they were joined by the Prussians and Austrians. Napoleon met the allied armies in Germany, and gaining some ad- vantages over them, was entirely routed at the great battle of Leipsic, in which more than 400,000 comba- tants were engaged : a greater number than has been engaged in any battle in modern times. The allies fol- lowed up their victory and entered Paris in April, 1815. Napoleop was now obliged to abdicate the throne af France, and retire to Elba, a small island near Italy. Louis XVIII. now ascended the throne of his ancestors. 367. Napoleon^s Return from Elba. A general con-" gress was assembled at Vienna, in order to arrange the affairs of Europe. While they were deliberating on these matters, Napoleon, dissatisfied with his situation at Elba, made an effort to regain the throne of France. 366. What did Napoleon do, after his defeat in Russia ! What is said of the battle of Leipsic 1 What was Napoleon obliged to do 1 2b2 MODERN HISTORY, He landed at Frejiis, with a small force, without oppo- silioM. Wherever he appeared to the soldiers, even those who were sent to oppose his march, received him with the shout, " long live the emperor /" In 20 days from his landing at Frejus he found himself quietly seated on the throne, without having shed a drop of blood. Louis XVIII., on his approach to Paris, fled to the frontiers, and the allied powers immediately took, measures to prosecute a war against Napoleon, whom now they pronounced to be a traitor and an outlaw. 368. Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon having collected an army of 150,000 men, suddenly passed into Belgium, and attacked the Prussian and British armies. The Prussians were commanded by Blacker, and the British by Wellmgton, who had distinguished himself in the war with the French forces in Spain. The French com- menced a furious assault upon the Prussians, who retreated, leaving 15,000 of their number dead and wounded on the field of battle. The British troops, after bravely withstanding the French, fell back to the village of Waterloo. Here, on the 18th of June, 1815. a memorable battle was fought, in which the French were totally routed, with the loss of 40,000 in killed and wounded. Napoleon tied to Paris, abdicated the throne, and afterwards went on board of a British ship of war and surrendered himself to the hospitality of the Britisu people. By direction of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a prisoner to the island of St. Helena, in October, 1815 ; and there died in May, 1821, in the 52d year of his age. 369. War between the United States and Tripoli. The cruisers of Tripoli, one of the Barbary states, hav- ing seized a number of the American merchantmen, and enslaved their crews, Commodore Preble, in 1803, s 367. Where was the general congress assembled, and for what purpose 1 Give an account of Napoleon's return from Elba. What did Louis XV HI. and the alhed powers do ^ 368. How large an army did Napoleon collect ? Where did he go ? Whom did he attack] What is said of the battle of Waterloo ? What did Napoleon do after the battle of Water](H), and what l)p;-;ime of him '^ MODERN HISTORY. ' 253 was sent vvilh a squadron to obtain redress. Preble re- peatedly attacked and bombarded the city of Tripoli, although strongly defended, with such success that the haughty bashaw was chastised and humbled into a peace. Closely connected with the above is the celebrated ex- pedition of Gen. Eaton, across the deserts of Barca. Hamet, who had a claim to the throne of Tripoli, was joined by Gen. Eaton in Egypt. They mustered a force of about 400 men, consisting of a few Americans and Greeks, the remainder principally Arabs. Eaton led this motley force from Egypt, through the sandy deserts of Barca, to Derne, through many adventures and sufferings. After attacking Derne a peace was ef- fected with the Tripolitans., 370. War between the United States and Great Bri- tain. During the war with Great Britain and France, the Americans wished to preserve a neutrality. Jeal- ousies, however, arose between the contending powers respecting the conduct of the Americans, and both na- tions passed decrees and orders which injured the Amer- ican commerce. The Americans had an additional cause of irritation from Great Britain, in her claiming the right of search, in order to find her subjects, and seize them, while in service on board American vessels. The British also impressed some thousands of Ameri- can seamen into their service. In 1807, the American congress laid an embargo on all the shipping in the United States ; in 1809, the embargo was removed, and non-intercourse with France and Great Britain was sub- stituted. On the 18th of June, 1812, congress declared war against Great Britain. 371. Progress of the War in 1812. In July, Gen. Hull, with upwards of 2000 men, crossed over into 369. Who was sent against the Tripolitans ? For what purpose 1 With what effect ? State what is related con- cerning Gen. Eaton. 370. How was the American commerce injured ? What additional cause of irritation from Great Britain ^ What was done by the American congress ' 22 254 MODERN HISTORY. Canada, apparently for the purpose of attacking Maiden. This place being reinforced, and a large body of British and Indians collecting, Hull retreated to Detroit, and being besieged, he surrendered his army and the terri- tory of Michigan, to Gen. Brock. A second attempt to invade Canada was made by Gen. Van Rensselaer, who crossed the Niagara, with about 1000 men, and attacked the British at Queenstuwn. After an obstinate engage- ment he was forced to surrender. While defeat and disgrace attended the attempts of the Americans to subdue Canada, brilliant success fa- vored the American flag on the ocean. In August, Capt. Hull, who commanded the frigate Constitution, cap- tured the Guerriere. In October, Capt. Decatur, com- manding the frigate United States, captured the Mace- donian. In November, Capt. Jones, commanding the Wasp, took the British sloop of war Frolic. In De- cember, the Constitution, commanded by Capt. Bain- bndge, captured the Jaca. In these four engagements the loss of the British in killed and wounded, was 423 ; that of the Americans only 73. 372. The war in 1813. In January, about 800 men, under Gen. Winchester, were surprised and defeated at Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, by the British and In- dians under.Gen. Proctor. Many of the Americans, af- ter they had surrendered, were inhumanly murdered by the Indians. In May, a detachment of 1700 Ameri- cans, under Gen. Pike, took possession of York, in (yanada. Gen Pike, with 100 of his men, was killed by the explosion of a mine. In May, 1000 British troops, under Sir George Provost, made an attack on Sackett's Harbor, but were repulsed by Gen. Brown. 371. What is said of Gen. Hull I What of the invasion of Gen. Van Rensselaer ^ What ships were taken by the Amer- icans on the ocean ] What was the loss of the British and Americans in these engagements ] 372. What is said of the surprise of Gen. Winchester 1 How was Gen. Pike killed, and what place did his soldiers take 1 Give an account of the victory on Lake Erie. Where was Tecumseh killed, and what is said of him 1 What Amer- MODERN HISTORY. 255 The most brilliant affiir in this year, on the side of the Ami^ricans, was t!ie capture of the British (leet on Lake Eric, by Cominodore Perry. I'he British fleet con- sisted of six vessels, carrying 63 i^ims ; the Americans had nine vessels, and 56 guns. The conflict lasted for three hours ; but the victory was complete. Perry an- nounced his victory in the following laconic epistle • " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." After this victory, Gen. Harrison embarked his army on board of the x\merican fleet, landed in Canada, and defeated the British army under Gen. Proctor, near the river Thames. In this battle Tecamseh., the celebrated Indian chief, in alliance with the British, was killed. This chieftain was one of the greatest of Indian war- riors, and was distinguished for his eloquence, dignity of manners, and nobleness of soul. During this year the British obtained some success on the ocean, the most important of which was the capture, by Capt. Broke, iri the Shannon, of the frigate Chesapeake, com- manded by Capt. Lawrence. This intrepid officer, be- ing mortally wounded, was carried below, and became delirious, from excess of mental and bodily suffering. Whenever he was able to speak, he would exclaim " Don't give up the ship,''' — an expression long to be re- membered by his countrymen. 373. The war in IQX A. This year was distinguished by severe fighting in Canada. In July, the Americans, under Gen. Brown, crossed the Niagara, with 3000 men. and took possessitm of Fort Erie. A bloody ac- tion took place a few days after, at Chippewa, in which the Americans were victorious. In the same month, the American forces, under Generals Brown and Scott, and the British under Generals Drummond and Riall, fought a severe battle at Bridgewatcr. This battle be- gan before sunset and continued till midnight. The ican frigate did the British take in ISIS] What were the dyiii'i words of Capt. Lawrence \ 373. Who took fort Erie, and gained the victory at Chip- p 'wa \ What commanders fought at the battle of Bridge- 256 MODERN HISTORY. action was fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose roar was silenced at times, by the thunder of cannon and the rattling of arms. Ttie British were forced to leave the held, with the loss of about 900 in killed and wounded. The Americans were so much weakened that they fell back to Fort Erie, which the British after- wards attempted to storm, but were repulsed wlih great loss. In September, Sir George Provost, with 14,000 men, advanced on Plattshurgh. The operations of this army were accompanied by a British fleet, on Lake Cham- plain, carrying 95 guns, and 1050 men, under Commo- dore Downie. This fleet was defeated by Commodore Macdonough, whose fleet carried 86 guns, and 826 men. Upon the loss of the British fleet. Sir George Provost, after having been repulsed by Gen. Macomb, retreated. In August, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake, and landed an army of 5000 men, about 40 miles from Washington. Having defeated the militia at Bladens- burg, they entered Washington, burnt the public build- ings, and then retreated to their shipping. About a fort- night afterwards, nearly 7000 men, under Gen. Ross, and Admiral Cockburn, made an attack on Baltimore, hw\ were defeated, and Gen. Ross was killed. 374. Battle of New Orleans. While negotiations for peace were in progress between the United States and Great Britain, a large force, under Sir Edward Pack- enham, landed for the attack of New Orleans. The de- fense of this place was intrusted to Gen. Jackson, whose force was about 6000 men, chiefly raw militia. On the morning of the 8th of January, 1815, the main body of the enemy, 7 or 8000 in number, marched to the assault of the American lines. The Americans, in security be- waier? Give an account of this battle. Who advanced on Plattshurgh \ W^ho captured the British fleet on lake Cham- plain ? What was the British loss in this expedition? What is said of the burning of Washington, and the attack on Bal- tinjore '\ 374. Who commanded the expedition against New Orleans, and by whom was it defended ? Give an account of the battle of the 8th of January. What was the loss of the British and MODERN HISTORY. 257 hind their breast-works of cotton hales and other mate- rials, which no balls could penetrate, were formed in two ranks, those in the rear loading for those in front. By this they were enabled to fire without intermission As the British approached sufficiently near for shot to take effect, the rolling fire from the American lines re- sembled peals of thunder, and the plain before them was strewed with the dead and dying. After three brave attempts to force the American lines, in which Gen. Packenham and Gen. Gibbs, the second in command, were mortally wounded, the British troops retreated from the field of action. Their loss in killed, wounded, and captured, was 2600, while that of the Americans amounted to only six killed, and seven wounded. Soon after this event, news arrived that a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, by the commissioners of the United States and Great Britain, on the 25th of December, 1814. This treaty was immediately ratified by the President and Senate. 375. Revolution in Spanish America. The jealous policy of Spain, with regard to her American colonies, led her, as much as possible, to cut off all intercourse between them and the rest of the world. Consequently, they were behind other civilized countries in the know- ledge and improvements of the age. About the period of the usurpation of the throne of Spain by the Bona- parte family, the Spanish colonies began to take meas- ures to assert their independence. In ISIO, Venezuela declared herself independent. The fatal earthquake of 1812, which nearly destroyed the city of Caraccas, so operated on the ignorance and superstition of the peo- ple, that they again submitted to royal authority. The earitiquake was represented by the priests of that coun- Americans ] Where vi^as the treaty of peace signed, and at what time ? 375. What was the policy of Spain with regard to her colo- nies ; What was the effect 1 At what period did the Spanish colonies lake measures for their independence 1 In what year did Venezuela declare herself independent ] What effect did the earthquake at Caraccas have 1 By whom was Venezuela 22* 258 MODERN HISTORY. try, who were hostile to liberty, as a token of the wrath of heaven, for daring to change their government. Venezuela remained thus subject to Spain till 1813, when it was again emancipated by Simon Bolivar^ who defeated the Spanish forces, and expelled them from his country. The revolution has extended to the Span- ish provinces of Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Buenos Ayres, and Chili, all of whom have thrown off the yoke o. Spain, and established republican governments. Most of these governments, however, are republican only in name: they have been torn by domestic factions, and still appear to be in an unsettled state. Religion and public morals in the South American republics, are generally in a low state ; and wherever these great sources ol public and private happiness and prosperity are wanting, the blessings of civil and religious liberty cannot exist. 376. Of Hayti. The island of Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, is distinguished for being the place where the first European settlement was made, and the seat of the first independent empire, founded by the descendants of African slaves. It is now called Hayti, which is the ancient name given it by the natives. About the middle of the 17th century, a French colony was established on the west end of the island, and, before the revolu- tion, its products were valuable, and its commerce was in a flourishing state. In 1792, the national assembly of France proclaimed the freedom of all French sub- jects, and the numerous African slaves in the French colony in St. Domingo were emancipated. iMany of the planters were dissatisfied. They contended that the government had no right to grant freedom to their slaves, and therefore resisted the decrees of the national assembly, and appeared determined to retain the system again emancipated ? What other provinces established their independence ? What is said of the state of these republics, their religion and public morals? 376. What is the island of St. Domingo, or Hayti, distin- guished for \ In what year was the freedom of all French sub- jects proclaimed ? What was done by the planters ? What is said of the contentions between the whites and blacks'? MODERN HISTORY. 259 I ilavery in the island. This the blacks resisted In tK contentions which followed, both the whites and bio cks were guilty of the most horrid atrocities upon ea*.h other, till, at last, all the French were either mas- sacred or driven from the island. i>ll. Of Touissant UOuverture. In the confusion attendant on a state of revolution, the British govern- metit sent a body of troops to Hayti, in order to bring it under its own power. They landed and took posses- sioii of a number of places, from most of which they were driven by the celebrated Touissant UOuverture, a man of color, whom the French national government haci appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in the island. The British troops, after an enormous loss of men by disease and the sword, evacuated the island in \l\i3. On the 1st of July, 1801, the independence of Hayti was proclaimed, and Touissant being placed at the head of the government, the island rapidly improved in ^vealth and prosperity under his wise administration. \n the latter part of 1801, Bonaparte, then first con- sul, dispatched an army of 25,000 men, under Gen. Le Clerc, to subdue the Haytians to their former state of slavery. After a campaign fought with varied success, a tnice was concluded between the contending parties. Taking advantage of this, the French, with unexampled perhdy, seized upon the person of Touissant, and con- veyed him to France, where he perished in a dungeon, in 1803. History records but few examples of military chieftains who will bear comparison with Touissant L'Ouverture, for greatness of mind, virtue, patriotism, and nobleness of soul. 378. Progress of the Revolution in Hayti. The out- rage committed by the French upon Touissant, caused a renewal of the war, with greater animosity than ever. 377. What is said of theUritish invasion of Hayti, and of Touissant L'Ouverture ? When was the independence of Hayti proclaimed 1 What general, and how ihany men, did Bonaparte send to subdue Hayti? Of what act of perfidy were the French guilty ? What is said of the character of L'Ouverture] 260 MODERN HISTORY. The Haytians, under Dessalines, prosecuted the war with vigor and success. 'J'he yellow fever also swept off great numbers of the French troops, who were finally compelled to abandon the island in 1 803. The next year Dessalines was appointed governor for life, with very extensive powers ; and soon after he assumed the imperial title of Jacques I., emperor of Hayti. His ambition and tyranny were such, that he was killed in a conspiracy in 1806. Christophe, his second in com- mand, them assumed the government ; Petion, however, another chieftain, disputed his sovereignty. A long struggle ensued, in which Petion was defeated. In 1811, Christophe assumed the title of King Henry I. Petion retired to the southern part of the island ; a re- public was formed here, and Petion appointed president for life. He died, greatly regretted, in 1818. Chris- tophe, who appears to have been an avaricious and cruel despot, was killed by his soldiers in 1820. After this event, the whole of the French part of Hayti was united under President Boyer, who is said to possess many virtues. In 1825, the French succeeded in in- ducing the Haytian government to agree to pay about jCo, 000,000 sterling, payable by installments, as a com- pensation for the plantations on the Island, formerly owned by the French inhabitants. ...^.-r-...iv President Boyer aas >i»^^" compelled to leave Hayti, by a revolu- tion in the government, the effect of which remains to be seen. 379. Of Brazil and Portugal. At the time of the French invasion of Portugal, in 1807, the royal family removed the seat of government to Brazil. Here they remained till 1820, when they returned to Portugal, ex- cepting Pedro, the king's eldest son, who was lel'i be- hind as regent. In 1823, Brazil was declared an inde- pendent empire under Pedro, who took the title of 378. In what year did the French abandon the island 1 What is said of Dessalines ? Of Christophe ^ Of Petion ' Of President Boyer \ What sum did the Haytians agree to pay the French, as a compensation 1 MODERN HISTORY. 261 emperor, and was acknowledged as such by Portugal In 1826, the king of Portugal died. Pedro, who laid a claim to the throne, resigned it in favor of his daughter, Maria de Gloria. Her right to the throne was con- tested by Don Mi^^uel, (brother of Don Pedro,) who was aided by the nobility and the monks. Donna Ma- ria was favored by the constitutionalists and patriots. In 1831, Don Pedro abdicated the crown of Brazil in favor of his infant son, Don Pedro II., and embarked with his daughter for Portugal. 6he has since been established upon the throne of that country. 380. Revolution in Greece. The modern Greeks, by a long course of degradation and slavery inflicted upon them by their Turkish masters, have generally, for a long period, been an ignorant and vicious people ; they, however, bore the yoke of their oppressors with reluc- tance. Individuals among the Greeks, receiving an education in various countries in Europe, were awak- ened to a sense of their national degradation ; and by their exertions, the Greeks were induced to enter on a struggle for liberty. It appears that the Greek leaders expected assistance from Russia ; but, being disap- pointed, they resolved to rely on themselves and the justice of their cause. In 1820, war commenced be- tween the Turks and the Pacha of Albania. This being considered a favorable opportunity, Ypsdanti, a Greek officer, who had been in the service of Russia, succeeded in rousing his countrymen to arms, and drove the Turks from the greater part of their country. The Turkish government, in order to strike terror into the Greeks, caused the Greek patriarch of Constantinople, who was venerated for his character, to be hung in his robes before his own cathedral. This atrocity, how- 379 In what year was the seat of government removed from Portugal to Brazil 1 When was Brazil declared inde- pendent \ What is said of Don Pedro, Don Miguel, and Don- na Maria? 3H0. What is said of the modern Greeks ' How were they induced to enter into a struggle for liberty'? What is said of Ypsilanti ? What did the Turkis h government do 1 262 MODERN HISTORY. ever, instead of producing the intended effect, urged on the Greeks to acts of dreadful revenge. 381. Massacre at Scio. The island of ^SaV?, contain- ing about 130,000 inhabitants, having enjoyed many peculiar privileges, had arrived to a considerable de- gree of refinement and knowledge. In 1 822, the Greeks from some of the other islands, landed in Scio, and in- duced the peasantry to join them against the Turks They marched to the city, and drove the Turks into the castle. The Turkish fleet, lately reinforced from Egypt, being in the neighboring seas, on learning these events, landed 15,000 men in Scio. These troops im- mediately entered the city, and began the massacre of men, women, and children, of whom 25,000 were mur- dered. The city was fired, and in four days the fire and sword of the Turks rendered the beautiful island of Scio a scene of blood and ashes. Of the whole population, not more than 1000 remained alive on the island. Up- wards of 40,000 Sciots, mostly women and children, were sold into slavery. The inhuman Capudan Pacha^ the Turkish commander, after this, while preparing to desolate other Greek islands, met with summary ven- geance. The Ipsariots, with 70 small vessels and^re- ships, hovered round the Turkish fleet, and in the night rowed among them and attached their fire-ships to Cap- udan Pacha's vessel, which blew up with upwards of 2,200 men, and mortally wounded the Pacha. 382. Progress of the War. In 1822, an army -of 25,000 Turks passed the celebrated straits of Ther- mopylae, in order to lay waste the Morea, or Grecian pe- ninsula. The Greek commanders afterwards occupied these straits, and cut off' the communication and sup plies of the Turkish army, who, in a desperate effort to break through the Greek defenses, in the night, were mostly destroyed. Many persons now took a deep in 381. What is said of the island of Scio ? How many did the Turks land in Scio, and what did they do ? How many remained on the island] What became of the Capudan Pacha I MODERN HISTORY 263 terest in the. affairs of the Greeks, among whom was Lord Byron, the celebrated British poet. He pro- ceeded to Greece, and made considerable sacrifices in her cause : he, however, died soon after at Missilunghi, in April, 1824. The Turkish armies made but little progress in Greece till Ibrahim Pacha, of Egypt, was sent by the Sultan to manage the war. In 1825, he opened the campaign with energy, and ravaged the Morea. The Greeks, under the brave Admiral Miaulis and Kanaris, with their fire-ships, performed many gal- lant actions, and greatly harassed their enemies. 3fe3. Battle of Navarino. In July, 1827, the minis- ters of Great Britain, France, and Russia, by a treaty at London, settled the affairs of Greece, and gave notice to the Turkish government, that " Greece must there- after govern herself." The Turks rejected the inter- ference of the three powers, and Ibrahim, with the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, entered the bay of Navarino, m September. Soon after, the combined squadrons of British, French, and Russian ships, arrived, and in- formed Ibrahim Pacha of their determination to estab- lish an armistice between the Turks and Greeks. Ibra- him being prevented from sailing from Navarino, com- menced his ravages by burning houses, and killing wo- men and children. In consequence of this the com- bined fleet entered the harbor of Navarino, to compel Ibrahim to desist from these brutal outrages. The Turk- ish force, consisting of 110 ships, were found drawn up in order of battle, and as the allied fleet approached, a deadly conflict ensued. The Turks fought with des- peration, till their whole fleet was burnt, sunk, or disa- bled. Hostilities now ceased, and the sultan soon After agreed to the treaty of London. A monarchial gov- 382. How many Turks passed the straits of Thermopylae, and what became of them I What is said of Lord Byron ? What of Ibrahim Pacha ] What of Miaulis and Kanaris ? 383. What three powers, by a treaty at London, settled the affairs of Greece ] What notice did they give to the Turkish government 1 What did the combined squadrons do ] What is said of t-fae battle 1 What of the government of Greece 1 264 MODERN HISTORY. ernment is now established for the Greeks ; also the religion of the ancient Greek church. Schools are en- couraged, and commerce and agriculture begin to revive. 384. French Revolution of 1830. The immediate cause of the revolution in Paris, in July, 1830, was the attempt of the ministers of Charles X., to enforce a number of ordinances, or acts, signed by the king, in violation of the charter confirmed to the French people, after the downfall of Napoleon. The most odious of these ordinances, was against the liberty of the press, so that nothing could be printed without being inspected and authorized by the government. One of the ordi- nances interfered with the law of election, and another illegally dissolved the chamber of deputies, or repre- sentatives of the people. As the journalists were the first called upon to obey these ordinances, they assem- bled and drew up, in great haste, an address to their countrymen, which displayed a noble example of cour- age and patriotism, and as the ordinances were contrary to the charter, they expressed their determination to dis- obey them. Such was the alarm excited by these pro- ceedings, that the bankers suspended discounts ; many of the manufacturers discharged their workmen crowds assembled in various parts, and were addressed by fear- less orators, and their speeches were received with clapping of hands, and cries of " down with the minis- ters," — " the charter forever." 385. Progress of the Revolution. The revolution in France, in 1830, has been often termed the " revolution of three days," from the circumstance of its being ac- complished in that time. On the morning of July 27, many of the public journals appeared in opposition to the ordinances. The ofllices of those journals which dared to appear were broken into, and their presses seized by an armed police. The crowds in the streets 384 What was the immediate cause of the revolution in Paris'? Which was the most odious of these ordinances'? Who were first called upon to obey, and what did they do % What was the effect of these proceedings 1 MODERN HISTOllY 265 uicreased, and the military, in attempting to clear them, •vere assailed by stones and other missiles, thrown from Conflict in the streets of Paris, 1830. the houses. During the evening of this day the peo- ple armed themselves, and many of the streets were barricaded with timbers, stones, &c., to arrest the course of the cavalry. July 28th. On the morning of this day the whole population of Paris were in motion, and there was regular fighting in all quarters of the city during the day, between the king's troops and the armed citi- zens ; the barricades were increased, and Paris was put into a state of defense. July 29th. At break of day, the whole population were in arms. Some of the ad- herents of Charles X. entreated Polignac, his principal minister, to resign his office, and the king to repeal his ordinances. Polignac refused to listen to any propo- sition, and the struggle continued. For two days the people were seen fighting without a chief but on this day two generals, Dubourg and Gerard, put themselves at their head. A desperate conflict was maintained by 385. What is the French revolution of 1830 often called? What was done on July 27th, what on the 28th, and what on the 29th 1 23 266 MODERN HISTORY. the Swiss guards, and other troops of the king, at the Thuilleries and Louvre, but before the day had closed the people were in possession of all parts of Paris. Thus ended this memorable conflict of three days^ in which more than 2000 were killed, and 5000 wounded. 386. Accession of Louis Philippe to the Throne. On the 30th of July, a great number of the French deputies assembled at their usual place of meeting and tempora- rily tilled the offices of state. The venerable G^n. Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guards, and Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans. was appointed lieutenant-general of the kingdom Charles X., being deserted by the greater part of the army and ministers, abdicated the throne, and was suf- fered to depart, with his family, to England. The throne of France being declared vacant by the chamber of deputies, the duke of Orleans was, by a vole of that body, invited to become king of the French. He ac- cepted the crown, under the title of Louis Philippe L, and took the oath to support the new charter. The rights of the French people now became better defined ; hereditary nobility was abolished, and many new privi- leges granted to the people. 387. Revolution in Belgium. The French revolution of 1830 was immediately followed by that of Belgium, The Belgic people were principally Catholics, and were French in their language, intercourse, and feelings. They had been united to Holland without their consent, by the congress of Vienna, in 1814. The Dutch were mostly Protestants, and no cordial union existed between them and the Belgians. An insurrection broke out in Brussels, in August, and on the 4th of October, 1830, the Belgians made a formal declaration of their indepen- dence. In 1831, the Belgium congress elected Leopold^ prince of Saxe Cobourg, and son-in-law of George IV., 386. What body met on the 30th of July, and what did they do 1 What is said of Charles X. 1 Who was invited to be- come king of the French "? What is said of the rights granted to the people ? MODERN HISTORY. 2G7 of England, as their king, which choice has teen sanc- tioned by the leading powers of Eu:Oj)e. Leopold is now united in marriage with the daughter of Louis Philippe, king of the I'rench, arid his kingdom may be considered as lirmly estaldislied. 388. Revuiatiuii in Poland From the infamous par- tition of the Polish kingdom, in 179.3, by Rufsia, Austria, and Prussia, to the revolution of 1830, the spirit of Poland had never been entirely crushed, and many of her patriots lived m the hope, that their country would be restored to the rank of an independent nation. They expected much from Napoleon, and many of her patri- ots shed their blood in his service, but shed it in vain. The success of the revolutions in France and Belgium, inspired the Polish patriots with the hope, that the time for the deliverance ot their country was come. On the 29th of November, 1830, a young Polish officer en- tered the military school at Warsaw, and called the cadets to arms. The cadets instantly took up their line of march, and being joined by the students of the uni- versity, proceeded to the residence of the Arch-Duke Constantine, the viceroy of Poland. This tyrant of the Polish people, however, escaped by a private passage. The insurrection immediately became general ; 40,000 Polish troops and citizens, having seized the public arsenal, armed themselves, and expelled the Russian troops from VVarsaw. A Polish d.et, or assembly, was immediately convened, and independence declared. 389. Progress of the Revolution. The Emperor Nicholas, having denounced the Poles as rebels, sent an army of 200,000 men against Poland, which could raise but about 50,000. On the 25th of February, 1831, the Russians, 150,000 in number, under Count Diebitsch, advar»ced upon VVarsaw. The Poles, under 387. What is said of the Belgic people 1 At what time did they declare their independence ] W ho did they elect as their king 1 To whom is he married i 388. What is said of Poland since 1795 1 What effect did the revolutions in France and Belgium havel At what time, and how did the revolution commence 1 State what was don^^ 268 MODERN HISTORY. the command of Skrzynccki and other generals, were but 40,000 in number ; but they fought with such fury, that the Russians were driven back, with the loss of 15,000 in killed and wounded. The Poles displayed great bravery in many actions, but every victory weak- ened their strength. On the 6th of September, 1831 a Russian army of 100,000 men, with 300 pieces o cannon under the command of Field Marshal Paske witsch, advanced to storm Warsaw. After two days hard fighting, in which 20,000 Russians were killed and wounded, Warsaw was taken, her brave defenders im prisoned, or exiled to Siberia, and Poland was incorpo- rated into the Russian empire. 390. Of India. The great and populous country known by the name of India, has thus far made but little figure in history. Like most other Asiatic countries, it has been often and easily conquered, without effecting much change in its government, or in the manners and customs of the people. Herodotus, who lived about a century before Alexander the Great, gives the earliest account of the inhabitants of India. The character which he gives of the people, is said to be exactly the same as that of the Hindoos at the present day. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1000, had begun to establish an empire in India. In 1222, Genghis Khan conquered the country, and is said to have given the the name Mogul to India. A century afterwards Tam- erlane took possession, and allowed the petty princes, Rajahs or Nabobs, to retain their territories, of which some of their descendants are now in possession. In 1738, KouH Khan, after having usurped the Persian throne, overran a great part of the Mogul empire, and 389. What was done by the Emperor Nicholas? What is said of the battle of Count Diebitsch and Skrzynecki'? What is said of the storming of Warsaw, and what ot Poland 1 390. What is said of India, and of the ac-ount of its inliabi- tants by Herodotus 1 At whattinrje did the Mahometans bejiin to establish an empire in India? What is said of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and Kouli Khan ? How were the Euro- peans able to extend their influence 1 MODERN HISTORY. 269 weakened the power of Tamerlane's descendants. The frequent wars between the petty princes of India, led them to seek the aid of Europeans to conquer each other. By this means the Europeans were able to maintain and extend their settlements and influence in India. 391. British East India Company. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth gave to the merchants of London an exclusive right to the commerce of India for 15 years. This ap- pears to have been the origin of the East India Com- pany, which was established by an act of parliament, in 1708. The local affairs of the company were entrusted to the three councils of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, while the general direction was retained in England. The political power of the British in India may be said to have commenced in 1748. As the European troops were but few in number, the company adopted the plan of disciplining the native Indian troops, called Seapoys, according to the European method. By this means the company were able to have a large and efficient military force at command. By the naval superiority of the mother country, the establishments of other European countries were broken up, and the British are now the ruling nation in India. The company having become powerful, have been in many instances arbitrary and tyrannical in their conduct towards the natives. The whole number of Europeans residing in India does not probably exceed 40 or 50,000 ; but such is their influ- ence over the inhabitants of India, they are able to sus- tain a dominion over an hundred millions of people. 392. Of China. China is one of the most ancient empires in the world, and is noted for its pride of an- tiquity. Their records extend back to upwards of 2000 years before the Christian era, and it is supposed by some, that the empire was founded by one of the colo- 391. What was the origin of the East India Conripany, and when was it established 1 Bv what means did the East India Company become powerful 1 What is said of their conduct towards the natives! How many Europeans are there in India, and how many people over whom they hold dominion ] 23* 270 MODERN HISTORY, nies formed at the dispersion of Noah's posterity. The Chinese differ from all otlier people in their governm nt, manners, customs and relia^ion, and while every other nation and j)eople have chanoj'ed, they have existed, a great and flourishinir nation, remaining nearlv i'l the same state four thousand years. The Chinese having suffered much from the inroad^ of the northern Tartars, built a wall upwards of 1200 miles in Innirib from east to west ; this astonishinu^ work is still in existence. This wall secured the peace of China for several cen- turies; but the Tartars, after repeated assaidis, suc- ceeded in breaking over the wall, and in subduing the empire, in 1635, and a Tartar dynasty is now on the til rone. China was first visited bv the PortugUf^se, in their voyages of discovery in the Indian ocean, in 1586, when they obtained a grant of the Island of Macao, at the en- trance of the harbor of Canton. Since that period va- rious nat'ons have carried on commeice with China, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. In Augusr, 1841, commercial till remains un- settled. .392. What is said respectinj^ the ancient history of China? For what purpose tli I they bui'd a w,ill, anl what, was its length? VVhiit is s lid of ihe l\rtars? Wiien w is < 'liina vis- it.-ld reform banquets for the purpose of discussing the subject of their grievances. These meet- ings were numerously attended. A banquet was ap- pointed to be held in Paris on February 20th, 1848, which was prohibited by the authorities as a seditious meeting. The people deeming this illegal, postponed the banquet till February 22d. 394. French Revolution o/" 1848. On the day ap- pointed, vast crowds of citizens assembled in the streets of Paris. They soon found themselves engaged with a military force of eighty thousand men which had been ordered into the city. The people took arms from shops and houses, raised barricades, attacked the Chamber of Deputies and the residence of Guizot, the Prime Minis- ter. The insurrection became so general that the Na- tional Guard refused to fire on the people. Louis Phil- ippe being defeated, abdi -ated in favor of his young grandson, the Count of Paris, and then fled in disguise to England. Lamartine, one of the principal leaders of the people, now proclaimed " The French Republic^ Lib- erty, Equ lity and Fraternityy A provisional govern- ment was organized, every citizen was made an elector, and all slaves on French territory were declared free. 393. What male Louis Philippe unpopular with his sub- jects? What is said of Reform Banquets? 394. How did the French citizens accomplish the revolution of 1848? What became of Louis Philippe 2 What was the fAsuit of the revolution! 272 MODERN HISTORY. 395. Louis Napoleon, President and Umperor. In December, 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Napoleon, having received five millions out of seven millions of votes, was elected President. His most important act while in this office, was the suppres- sion, in 1849, of the Italian Republic at Rome, by mili- tary force. In 1851, as his term of office drew near its close, Louis Napoleon endeavored to have the clause of the Constitution which forbid his re-election repealed. Faihng in this, he dissolved the Assembly, imprisoned some of its members, and suppressed the newspapers opposed to his views. He then called upon the French people to vote by universal suffrage, yes or no, on the question whether he should be President for ten years, with dictatorial powers. The people, by an immense majority, decided in his favor. In Nov., 1852, the Sen- ate, in compliance with the will of the President, by a vote of 86 out of 87, adopted a measure to re-establish an imperial government. This was adopted by the peo- ple by a vote of 7,864,189 out of 8,180,660. Accord- ingly Louis Napoleon was declared " Emperor of the French," under the title of Napoleon III., and the he- reditary title secured in his family. 396. The Roman Republic. The success of the French revolution of 1848 emboldened the people of several European states to make efforts for their more perfect freedom. A strong party '*n the Italian states endeav- ored to secure union, and constitutional freedom. In Rome, the revolution was begun by the murder of Count Rossi, an able, but tyrannical minister. A general insur- rection now broke out. The mob proceeded to the Pope's palace,, attacked his guards, and would have takeo 395. Who was Louis Napoleon ? How did he become Presi- dent? What did he while in this office ? How came he to be Emperor ? 396. How did the modern Roman Republic originate? What became of the Pope? Who were the Italian leaders? How wa^ the Republic overthrown \ MODERN HISTORY. 273 the edifice, had he not yielded and granted a popular ministry. He, liowever, soon fled to Naples in disguise. A '^ Roman Republic''' was now formed, and Jo^eph Mazzini placed at its head. Louis Napoleon, contrary to his professed principles, sent "an army to Rome, and attacked the city soldiery under Gen. Garibaldi. After a brave resistance, the French entered the city, (July 3d, 1848,) put down resistance and caused the Pope to be reinstated in his authority. 397. Hungarian Revolution. [ Hungary, a large coun- try in the Austrian Empire, had for a long period a Diet, or government of its own. When the French Revolution of 1848 occurred, Kossuth, an active leader of the Ma- gyars, or Hungarians, headed a deputation to Vienna to obtain a guarantee against the violation of their rights. He was able to obtain a new ministry for Hungary, of which Count Batlhyanzi and himself were constituted chief members. They immediately commenced the W(»rk of reform by eman<^'ipating the peasantry and ex- tending the right of suffrage. This displeased the Aus- trian government, and they instigated the Croats, a neighboring people, to invade Hungary. Gorgvy being entrusted with the command of the troops, with great valor drove the Croats l^ack. On April 14th, 1848, the National Assembly of Hungary issued a Declaration of Independence. 398. Subjugation of the Hungarians. The Austrian government fearing the final success of the Hungarians, applied to the Russians for aid. Nicholas, the Czar of Russia, willingly lent his aid. He accordingly sent Piince Paskiewitz with an army of 130,000 men across his frcn ier into Hungary. At this period some elements of discord began to appear among the Hungarians, and 397. Where is Huigary? What ib said of Kossuth? Of the Croats ? Of Gorges ? Of the National A^sembly ? t^'^ 398. What is sail! of the Austrian goverumf^nt ? Of Nicho- las the Czar of Russi. ? What of the Hungarians and Gorgey ? What became of Kossuth and th« Hungarian officers? 274 MODERN HISTORY. even Oorgey, their principal commander, was suspected of treachery. The Magyars everywhere made a brave defen>e, but they were overwhelmed by the ccinibined forces of Austria and Russia. Ki>morn, the ]>rincipal fortress, surrendered Sept. 17th, 1849. Kos^uth and some of his officers escaped into Turkey, where the Sul- tan generously gave them pioteciion. The Austrian commander, Baron Haynau, infamous for his cruelty, executed thirteen Huniiarian Generals and staff officers. The noble Kossuth finally reached Great Britain and the United States, where he was received with enthusiasm for his brave though unsucccv'-sful sirui^gle for the free dom of his country. 399. Origin of the Crimean War. This war origi- nated from the jealously of Great Britain, France, and some other European powers against the encroachments of Russia. This formidable power, for a long period, had been very desirous of additig Turkey to her already vast extent of country. Should this be effected, it was feared it would destroy the balance of power among European governments. In May, 1853, Russia demand- ed the perpetual protectorate of twelve millions of Greek Christians in the limits of the Sultan's dominions. As this comprised nearly one half of his subjec^ts, it was re- jected with great spiiit. Great Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia approved the stand taken by Turkev. Rus- sia to enforct' her claims took possession of the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia; in consequence of which, Turkey declared war against Russia. 400. Allied movements against Mvssia. The allied fleets of Great Britain and France, upon the Sultan's declaration of war, entered the DtrdMuelles. Afier the Russians had destroyed the Turkish fleet lying in the harbor of Sinope, the allied fleet entered the Blark Sea 399. How did the Crimean war originnte? What did Russia demand of the Turkish governmeut ? How was the demand received? mod:ern history. 275 while that of the Russians retired to the harbor of Se- bastopol, at the southern extremity of the peninsula of Crimea. In Feb., 1854, France and Great Britain dis- patched an ultimatum to Russia, that she should within six days after it was received, pledge herself that she would evacuate the Turkish provinces before the 1st of April. If she declined to do this, they would consider it equivalent to a declaration of war. The Russian court making no answer, war was formally declared. After several conflicts, the combined fleet, consisting of nearly four hundred vessels, arrived at the Crimea, and landed about thirty miles north of Sebastopol, a force of 60,000 men, consisting of 27,000 British, 25,000 French, and 8,000 Turks. 401. Battles of the Crimea. The first important con- flict between the allies and the Russians, was on the banks of the Alma, where a Russian force of about 45,000 men were strongly entrenched. The British, 26,000 strong, under Lord Raglan, and the French under Marshal St. Arnaud, boldly advanced up the heights under a tremendous fire; the Russians were driven from their position utterly routed, with the loss of between four and five thousand men. The Battle of Balaklava, (Oct. 25th, 1854,) was commenced by 20,000 Russian iiifantry, supported by masses of cavalry, against the British troops. They captured the Turkish redoubts, but were defeated by the Highlanders. The most dar- ing exploit of the war was the charge made by the famous "six hundred" British light cavalry, who rode through the Russian ranks and returned after losing two- thirds of their number. The Battle of Inkerman, (Nov. 5th,) between the allies and Russians, in which the latter endeavored to force them to raise the siege of 400. Who allied themselves against Russia? Where were their fleets sent? What was the ultimatum sent to Russia? What followed? 401. What was the firs^ important conflict on the^'Grimea? What is said of the battle of Balaklava and Inkerman ? 276 MODERN HISTORY. Sebastopol, was a sanguinary conflict of eight hours, in which the Russians were defeated with the loss of nearly 15,000 men. 402. Capture of the MalaJchoff — Fall of Sebastopol. After a siege of eleven months, it was arranged that on Sept. 8th, 1855, at 12 o'clock at noon, the French should attack the strong tower of the MaJakhofl", while at the same time the British should attack the Redan, another strong fortress near by. At the signal gun, the drums and trumpets sounded the charge ; thirty thou- sand Frenchmen headed by Zouaves, sprang from their trenches, — dashed like the waves of the sea against the defenses of the Malakhoff — swarmed up the steep em- bankments until they covered the whole parapet. Soon the French tri-color floated over the Malakhoff. Again and again, the Russians brought up reinforcements, but were driven back by the irresistible fury of the French. The contest and caruage was horrible ; men fought hand to hand, and dashed out each other's brains with their muskets. At last the Russian General, weary of the frightful slaughter of his men, sullenly withdrew. About eight in the evening of this eventful day, the Russians under cover of darkness withdrew from the town. After midnight, fires broke out in various parts of Sebastopol, the batteries were blown up, ships in the harbor were sunk, and in the morning the town was a mass of burning ruins. The contest was now decided; and in March, 1856, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, Austria, Sardinia, Turkey and Russia. 403. Of Texas. This extensive tract was originally compiised in the limits of Mexico. In 1821, Moses Austin, of Connecticut, obtained permission from tl>e 402. How long did the siege of Sebastopol continue? How •was the capture of the Malakhoff eifected? What is said of Sebastopol ? By whom was the treaty of peace signed ? MODERN HISTORY. 277 Mexican authorities to iutroduce an American colony into Texas Mexico having abolished slavery within her limits, the American settlers being mostly southern planters, felt themselves so aggrieved that they establish- ed a provisional government, and declared on March 2d, 1835, the independence of Texas. In 1836, Santa Anna, the President of Mexico, moved a large force for- ward, threatening to exterminate the Americans, or drive them from the country. At the Alamo, the garrison, consisting of about one hundred and seventy-five men, were all slain, among whom were Cols. Travis, David Crockett and Bowie. A few days afterwards, 330 of the American garrison at Goliad, under Colonel Fan- ning, were treacherously murdered in cold blood, after they had surrendered themselves as prisoners of Mar. Santa Anna having driven the Americans nearly out of Texas, came upon the American force near the San Jacinto, under Gen. Houston, now reduced to about 800 men. Houston now resolved upon the desperate measure of attacking the Mexicans in their camp, although double in number to his own men. The charge was ordered ; and the war cry, Rem.emher the Alamo! was wildly shouted by Texans, who, with their double-barrelled guns, pistols and knives, rushed through and over the Mexican ranks with sucii terrible effect, that their whole force was either killed, wounded or taken prisoners ; among the latter was Santa Anna This secured the Independence of Texas. 404. War with Mexico. Texas was received into the Union, by a joint resolution of Congress, Feb. 28th, 1845. This caused an immediate rupture with Mexico. In consequence of her hostile movements, Gen. Taylor in July, was sent with several military companies to 403. What is said of Texas, — of Moses Austin — and of the American settlers? Who was Santa Anna? What of the Alamo ? What is said of Gen. Houston and of the battle of San Jacinto? 404. When was Texas received into the Union f What is said of Gen. Taylor and others f Of the battle of L uena Vista ? 278 MODERN HISTORY. Corpus Christi Bay, near the Mexican border. He afervvards took a position on the Rio Grande, oppo- site Mataraoras. While niarching to this place, he was attacked by the Mexicans ; the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma ensued, which proved victori- ous to the Americans. On Sept 21st, Gen. Taylor attacked Monterey, which soon surrendered. About the same time, divisions under Gens. Wool, Kearney, Fremont and others, penetrated New Mexico and,,(7a/i- fornia, and took possession of some of the principal towns. On Feb. 22d, 1847, Gen. Taylor grained a de- cisive victory at Buena s Vista, over the Mexican arm}' under Santa Anna. The American force in this bloody conflict, consisted only of about 5,000, while that of the Mexican consisted of 20,000 men. 405. Operations of Gen. Scott. In Jan., 1847, Gen. Winfield Scott, who was appointed to the chief com- mand, reached Mexico, and commenced the investment of Vera Cruz, where was situated the strong Cnstle of San Juan d' UUoa. On March 29th. the city and Castle surrendered, with 5,000 prisoners and 500 cannon. At least I 000 Mexicans were killed, and a great number wounded. The American loss in killed and wounded was about 80 men. Gen. Scott now proceeded against the capital. At Cerro Gordo, he was met by Santa Anna, the President of the Mexican Republic, with a force of 12,000 men. The action took place at a difl[i- cult mountain-pass which was strongly fortified. With about 8,000 troops Gen. Scott attacked the Mexicans and drove them from their strong position, with a loss of 4,000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, while that of the Americans was but 431. Santa Anna narrowly escaped capture by fleeing on a mule taken from his car- riage. The strong Castle of Perote was next taken without opposition, as was Puehla, the second city of Mexico, with 80,000 inhabitants, May 15lh, 1847. 405. When did Gen. Seott reach Mexico? What is eaid of Vera Cruz? Of Cerro Gordo and Puebla? MODERN HISTORY. 279 406. Capture of Mexico, '^en. Scott remainei) in Puehia till Auij^ust, when beinj^^ reinforceJ, he advanced towanJs the capitHl at the head of 10,700 men The fbrtitied camp of Contreras, near the heights of Chere- baaco, was attacked, and after a sanguinary contest, the Americans were victorious, capturing 3.000 prisoners. Cherubusco was also taken after a heavy loss had been intiicted on the Mexicans. Sept. 8th, ahout 4,000 Ameri- cans attacked 14,000 Mexicans at £Jl Molinos del Rey^ near Chepultepec. Th<^y were at first repulsed with severe lo-s, but afterwaMs drove the Mexicans from their position. Chepultepec^ on a lofty hill, the last fort- ress outside of the capital, was taken by storm. The Mt^xicans tied to the citv, which was abandoned by San a Anna and the officiers of government. Sept. 14(h, 1847, Gen. Scott entered the city of Mexico in triumph. This closed the war. It is estimated that thirty thousand American lives were lost, and seventy- Jive millions of dcjllars expended in this war. California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States for fifteen millions of dollars. 407. War in British India. Although India has been long held in subjection under the British Govern- metit, yet there has been several revolts against its authority. The most dangerous of these outbreaks com- menced in May, 1857, and continued till near the close of the next year. The outbreak commenced at Meerut, about 32 miles from Delhi, the principal city in the northwestern part of India. The Sepoys, at this place, in the service of the British Government, felt themselves aggrieved by the introduction of cartridges which had been greased with the ta' of a sacred ariimal. It was also privately circulated among the Bramin Sejyoys 406. With how many men did Gen. Scott advance towards Mexico? What is said of Contreras, El Milinos del Key. Che- pubepec and Mexico? ,What were the number of lives lost, and money expended? What of CaUfornia and New Mexico? 4()7. When and where did rhe last revolt com mence in British India? What is said of the Sepoys, and their grievances? 280 MODERN HISTORY. that the Government meant to deprive them of the privileges of caate, by having the bones of bullocks ground and mixed up with their flour, so that the Hindoo might inadvertently partake of it. By this tbey would be polluted and become outcast-^, and thus be compelled to embrace Christiai'ity. Most of the troops refused to touch the greased cartridges. A Colonel was killed, and a massacre of the Europeans followed. 408. Progress of the War in India. After the mas- sacre at Meerut, the insurgents passed on to Delhi. Here they were joined by the native troops. They pro- ceeded to the palace oft he native king, and induced him to ascend tlie'throne. The foreign residences and build- ings were [>lundered and burnt, and a general mashacre of the Europeans was commenced. Tlie mutiny soon became widely extended. At Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence was besieged by a large force; he bravely held out till be was mortally wounded, and his heroic little band compelled to retire into an inner fort. At Cawn- pore, Sir Hugh Wheeler entrenched himself with less than 300 men, who had with them upwards of 500 women and (diildren. The insurgents were commanded by Nana Sahib, who otiered them a safe passage to Allahabad if they would give up their guns and treasure. They accepted the terms, and were marched to the boats to descend the river. Suddenly a masked battery was opened and many were shot dead, others drowned, 150 were taken prisoners. The men were instantly put to death, and the women and children were spared a few days longer. Gen. Havelock marched to the relief of Cawnpore, but the day before his arrival, the women and children were barbarously murdered and thrown into the well of the court yard. Gen. Havelock forcing his way through all obstacles entered Lucknow, and relieved the heroic garrison. About this time Delhi was taken, and the Rebellion was crushed. In 1858 the govern- 408. What is said respecting Delhi? What was done at Lucknow ? at Cawnpore? of Nana Sahib > of Gen. Havelock? of the East India Company ? MODERN HISTORY. 281 ment of the country was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown. 409. Causes of the Secession War. For a lon^ period it seems to have been the design of certain leading men. at the South, either to obtain the control of the National Government, or to establish a new one in the Southern States, whereby their domestic institutions should be better protected and established, than they could be while they remained in the Union. According to their construction of the Constitution, each State had a right to withdraw from the Union whenever the National Government should manifest a disposition to impair or abridge what they believed to be their Constitutional rights. The election of Abraham Lincoln as President, (who was opposed to the further exteosion of slavery,) caused the Secessionists to take immediate steps to accomplish their purposes. At this period, several of their number held important offices in the Federal Gov- ernment, by whose means the national army and navy were scattered to distant points ; 115,000 arms, of the most approved patterns, were transferred from the North- ern to the Southern arsenals. A vast amount of cannon, mortars, balls, powder, &c., were also sent in the same direction. 410. Commencement of the War. The 20th of Dec, 1860, the ordinance of Secession was unanimously adopted by the South Carolina Convention, assembled at Charleston, and four days afterwards, their delegation withdrew from the U. S. Congress. On Dec. 26th, Major Anderson, with a garrison of about 80 men, withdrew from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter. Jan. 9th, 1861, the '* Star of the West," an unarmed steam- 409. What is supposed ^o have been the designs of the Se- cessionists ? What was done by them when in the U. S. Government? 410. Where was the secession ordinance first adopted? What is said of Maj. Anderson and Star of the West? Where was the Confederate government formed? What is said of the attack on Ft. Sumter ? 282 MODERN HISTORY. er, with a reinforcement of 250 men, and supplies for the beleaguered garrison, was fired on, and forced to re- Attack on Fort Sumter. tire. This roused the indignation of the people in the loyal States; but owing to the treachery of some of the leading officers of the (xovernment, the Nation was com- paratively helpless. Feb. 4th, forty-two Secessionists, from five of the more Southern Stales, met at Montgom- ery, Ala., and formed a Constitution of Government. Jefferson Davis was chosen President, and A. H. Ste- phens Vice-President of the Confederate States ']f Ameri- ca. On the morning of April 12th, 1861, a terrific fire was commenced upon Fort Sumter, garrisoned with less than 100 men. After enduring a bombardment for 48 hours, Major Anderson was forced to surrender. Thus opened the most tremendous conflict aftecting human rights known in history — a conflict which cost the lives of more than half a million of men. 411. Uprising of the People. When the news of the insult on the national flag by the attack on Ft. Sumter ar- rived, and that a defiant war was thus made on the United States, every loyal heart was nj,oved with indignation. All party distinctions, for a time, seemed forgotten. Such an uprising in cities, towns and villages throughout 411. What is said of the uprising of the people, and how many voluuteers? MODERN HISTORY. 283 the loyal Stales was nevpr before known. Apparently but twopartie-; remained, that of Secession, with its sym- pathizers, and that of the friends of the Union. On Monday, April 15th, President Lincoln issued a call f)r 75,000 vohimeers for three raonihs. This call was met with the utmost enthusiasm. Immense Union meetings were held in almost everv citv in the loyal Stntes, and immeliatelv three hundred and fift.f thousand volunteers offered their services to sustain the Uni^n cause. 412. Battle of Bull Ran. Tie first important con- flict between the Union and Confelei'Hte forces took place on the Bull Kun, a small stream about thirty miles from Washinorton. The Union troops under Gen. Mc- Dowell, 32,500 strono-, left their camp near VVashiuirton, on their march towards Richmond. July 2 1st ihey attacked the Confederates neir the Manassas Junction, on the riorht bank of the Bull Run. Thev were f<»und strona^ly entrenched, wiih masked bateries on command- ing heights concealed by bushes and trees. The Uni(m troops fougiit skillfiiUv, and bravely dr .ve the Confede- rates from part of their works. Victory seemed to ap- p-far on the Union side, till a heavy reinforcement of Ccmfederates under Gen. Johnson arrived on the ground. This decided the contest. The Unionists begaji to fall back, and owing to a misunderstanding of order-^, confu- sion prevailed. A panic seized the troops, which ended in a disorderly and disgraceful retreat. 413. Capture of Hillon Head, S. C. A land force of 15,000 men under Gen. W. T. Sherman, in (conjunc- tion with a squadron of eighteen men of- var and thirty eight transporis un«ler Com. Dupont, sailed for the inva- sion of South Carolina. They arrived before the two forts at H Iton Head, at the Port Royal entrance, Nov. 7th, 1801. The ships, fifteen in numb-^r, formed in a 412. How many Union troops at the battle of Bull Run? What caused their def^^at? 413. What force vvhs sent to Hilton HeMd ? Fn what maimer did the fleet atLack tlie fort? What was the result? 284 MODERN HISTORY, line, steamed round in a circular manner between the forts, delivering their fire as ihey passed. When the wht)le fleet was in operation in this fiery circle, ^/'^y of the most terrible projectiles, round shot and shells, fell into a!id upon the forts every minute. The effect was so terrible that the garrisons fled out of their foris, which they had deemed impregnable, in such haste that they left everything behind. The triumph was complete. Beaufort, near by, the summer resort of the first pe-'ple of the State, one of the best harbors and military sta- tions on the coast secured and taken, and the Union flag finidy planted on the richest soil in South Carolina. 414. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. Feb. 3d, 1861, a combined naval and land expedition set out to reduce Fort Henry, a strong fortress on the Tennessee river, garrisoned with 7,000 men. Admiral Fooie, with seven gunboats, three of which were iron- clads, proceeded up the Tennessee. On the 6ih became in range of the guns of Fort Henry, when a heavy fire was opened upon him. He however pressed steadily- forward, keeping up an incessant fire, till he approached within 300 yards of the ramparts. Every shot was now terribly efi"ective — the garrison could stand it no longer, they abandoned everything in a moment, and fled, a terror-stricken rabble. Fort Dr.neUon, on the Cum- berland river, surrendered to the Union troops Feb. I6ih, 1862. Its defenses were far more formidable than those of Fort Henry, being a clus.er of forts surrounding a vast central fortress. On Feb. 14th, Admiral Foote made an attack on the fort, but two of his gunboats being cripple* 1, and himself wounded, he was forced to retire. Gen. Grant, having invested the place, made a general attack, and carried several of the outworks by storm. Gen. Buckner, with nearly 15,000 men, was forced lo an 414. How was Ft. Henry reduced? How was Ft. Donel- son captured ? MODERN HISTORY. 285 unconditional surrender. This victory opened the way to Nh hvill*-, which soon after w^s taken. Conjlict between the Monitor and Merrimac. 415. The Merrimac and Monitor. One of the most important events in naval history is the conflict between the iron clad (jonfnderate steamer Merrima^, and the CJ. S. iron clad l>oao Monitor, at the mouth of James River, Virginia, March 9th, 1862. The Monitor was built iinijer jpnculiar circumstances. Washington was block- aded — a Confederate tieet threatened it, any a few well direcied shots forced her to retire. Tuis was con- sidered hv iiiMny as a special interposition of Providence, as ih*^ VIerriinac never afterwards corntnitted any depre- dations, and was finailv dHstrovei to prevent her from fallinij into the hatids of the Unionists. 416. Gen. Burnside's Expedition. Jan. 12'h, a fleet of one hundred and twenty five vessels under Coin. Goldshorouirh, with a land force of 14.000 men, un; their wnr crv Z<>u, Zou, Zoa ! Their onset was so impetuous, that the en^ mv, surprised, staj^rnred, and bewildered, immediateK fled. Six forts, 2,500 prisoners. 42 heav\ sfutjs, an! a larn the Tenties- see river. Pan of (ien (rrant's force having arrived at this point, 70,000 Confederate troops left (Jorinth April 6 h, 1862, and a point near Amelia Court House, 47 miles on its way, Sheridan, by this time, with his horsemen, had put themselves between Lee and Lynchburg. Gen. Meade, on the 6th, attacked the re- treating array, and after a most severe encounter routed tliem completely, capturing several thousand prisoners, among whom were Generals Ewell, Kershaw, and Custis Lee. Lee's position was now desperate. His army, now reduced more than one-half, was fairly surrounded. Gen. Grant having now arrived, wrote to Gen. Lee, asking him to surrender his army, to save the further effusion of blood. An interview was held, and Gen. Grant's terms, "That the men surrendered shall be dis- <^ualified from taking up arms against the United States until properly exchanged," was accepted. Nearly 30,000 men were surrendered. 429. Assassination of President Lincoln. On the evening of April 14th, 1865, President Lincoln accom- panied his wife to Ford's Theatre in Washington. Booth, a stage a<:'.tor, (who, with other desperate characters, had formed a plot to assassinate the principal officers of the Government,) came into the Theatre by a private en- trance, approached the President's box from behind, and 428. Which way went Lee after leaving Richmond? What is said of Sheridan, Mead and Grant! How many men were surrendered, and on what terms f 296 MODERN HISTORY. with a pistol shot him through the head. The assassin, having effectually accomplished his bloody work, leap- ed upon the stage, made his exit to the rear by passa- ges with which he was familiar, and made his escape. This was all done|befo7e the spectators knew of wh^it had occurred. Just about the time the President was shot down, another assassin attacked Secretary Seward, who was lying sick at his house. After severely wound- ing him, his son, and two other attendants, he made his escape. Ten days afterwards Booth was shot in a born in Maryland, where he was concealed with an accom- plice. Abraham Lincoln, having accomplished the work assigned him, was removed from sublunary scenes. He departed at the zenith of an unsullied fame. His kind- ness of heart, and unselfish patriotism, endeared him to his countrymen. His simplicity of character, his tender sympathy with down trodden and suffering humanity, joined to an iron determination to sustain the right, gave an exhibition of the strength of moral principle. His child-like trust and confidence in the Supreme Being, and finally his exit as a martyr, by ruffian hands, will embalm his memory in the annals of mankind. 429. When and where [was President Lincoln assassinated ? Who by, and in what manner ? What became of the assassin ? What is said of the character of Abraham Lincoln 2 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OP DISTINGUISHED PERSONS. Addison, Joseph, was an eminent English writer; he was educated at Oxford, where, by his application to study, and by the composition ol Latin verses, he became one of the most correct and elegant of writers. His merits as a writer procured for him the office of Secretary of State. His most admired writings, are his essays in the Spectator, a publica- tion which commenced in 1711 : his tragedy of Cato is also a celebrated composition. Late in life he married the countess dowager of Warwick, who, being vain of her superior rank, was a source of unhappiness to Addison, who died in 1719, aged forty-seven. Angela, Michael, was a painter, sculptor, and architect. In architec- ture he surpassed all the moderns, and was the greatest designer that ever lived. The most celebrated of his paintings is the Last Judgment, and his abilities as an architect are seen in the church of St. Peter's, at Rome, a building which he constructed. His style is that of grandeur and sublimity, united with simplicity and beauty. He died in 1563, at the age of 90 years. Ar?ninius, James, was a Professor of Divinity at Leyden, and founder of the sect of Arminians, whose tenets with regard to predestination, &c., are in opposition to those held by the Calvinists. He was born in Holland, and after receiving much opposition, died in 1609. His motto was, " a good conscience is paradise," Boyle, Robert, was born in Ireland, in 1626, and was the son of the earl of Cork. He ranks, as a philosopher, with Bacon and Newton. After having traveled over many countries in Europe, he settled in England, and devoted himself to science, especially to natural philoso- phy and chemistry; and to the close of life he persevered in his scien- tific pursuits, in which he made many important discoveries. He in- vented the air-pump, and founded the Royal Society. He showed his regard for religion by the purity of his life, his aversion to temporal honors, and his liberal benefactions in aid of benevolent and pious undertakings. BJOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Buynan, John, was born in England, in 1628; he was of humble on gin, being the son ol a traveling tinker, and in the early part oi his lilo loUuwed the occupation ol his father. Having embraced religion, te became' a preacher in a iiaptist society in Bediord. Relusmg to conlorin to the established religion, he was imprisoned nearly thirteen years. VV hile in prison he wrote his celebrated allegory, '' The Pilgrim's Progress, Irom this world to that which is to come," a work which ranks high among those ol original genius, and will probably be read with ad- miration and profit in all ages to come. Burke, Edmund, was born in Ireland, in 1730. In 1753, he came to Londoii, w here he entered himself a student of law ; he, however, ap- plied himself almost wholly to literature, and by his " Essay on the Sub- lime and Beautiful," he established his reputation as a man of genius, and a fine writer. Being a most eloquent speaker, he was introduced mto parliament, and Ijecame one of the first orators of modern times. The American war he denounced with great vehemence and justice ; he also opposed with great force the French revolution, and his celebrated speech against Warren Hastings, the governor general of India, is among the greatest efforts of genius. Burns, Robert, was born at Ayr, in Scotland, in 1759. He was ori- ginally a ploughman, and has been called the greatest untaught poet since Shakspeare. His poems, which are principally in the Scotch dia- lect, are distinguished for their humor, pathos, vivid imagery, and energy. The publication of his poems introduced him into the higher ranks of so- ciety, ^hich ultimately proved his ruin. Habits of intemperance were acquired, to which his constitution gave way, and he expired at the age of thirty-nine. Bacon, Sir Francis, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born in Eng- land, in 15GI. He has been called "the wisest, brightest, and meanest of mankind." His great faculties were early discovered, and when only a child he was favorably noticed by Queen Elizabeth. Bacon was per- haps one of the greatest and most universal geniuses, that any age or country hais produced. His ^^ Novum Organum," with his other works, has immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper method of studying the sciences, and the way in which we should pro- ceed in order to arrive at the truth. Before his time, men generally- formed their theories, and then sought for facts in order to have them sub- stantiated ; but Bacon first found out what the facts were, and from chem formed his system of philosophy. Bacon, while holding the office of lord high chancellor, was accused in parliament of gross bribery and corruption ; he plead guilty, and was fined, imprisoned, and removed from his office. It has been, however, believed, that it was the servants of Bacon who committed the crimes for which he was disgra'ced. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Baxter, Richard, a celebrated non-conformist divine, was bom in England, in 1615. He wrote 145 treatises, some of whicli were verj popular, particularly " The Saints^ Rest." In his religious views he held a middle course between Calvinism and Arrainianism. Bartra?n, John, an eminent botanist, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1701. He was the first American who had a botanic garden, for the cultivation of American and other plants. He made such proficienc}' in this pur- suit, that Linnaeus pronounced him " the greatest natural botanist in the world." Benezet, Anthony, was born in France, of Protestant parents, who came and settled in Philadelphia, He was a member of the society of Friends, or Quakers, and devoted himself to the education of youth. His whole life was spent in acts of benevolence, and he was one of the earliest opponents of the slave trade, and made great exertions for the benefit of the colored people. He died in 1784, universally regretted. A striking eulogium was passed upon him by an American officer, who attended his funeral, " I had rather be," said he, " Anthony Benezet, in that coffin, than the great Washington, with all his honors." Butler, Joseph, bishop of Durham, a prelate of distinguished piety, was born in 1692. His deep learning and comprehensive mind appear in his writings, particularly in that celebrated work entitled, " The Anal- ogy of Religion, natural and revealed, to the constitution and course of nature." This able work was first published in 1736. Butler, Samuel, one of the wittiest of English poets, was bom in 1612. He was the author of Hudibras, a satirical poem, intended to ridicule the adherents of Cromwell and others, which has since afforded a fertile source for ludicrous quotations. Byron, Lord, was born in Dover, 1788, and was son of Capt. Byron, who was notorious for his dissipated conduct. Deserted by her hus- band, Mrs. Byron retired to Aberdeen. The youthful Byron was of delicate health, in consequence of which his studies were interrupted, and he was indulged to an improper extent. By the death of his uncle he succeeded to the family titles and estates. The first work he published was treated with great severity by the Edinburgh reviewers. Byron however, amply revenged himself in one of the keenest satires of the age, entitled, " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers." Byron com- ing of age, took his seat in the house of peers ; he, however, soon left 'he political life, and visited Spain, Portugal, and Greece. After his return from this latter country, he published his " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,''^ and other poems, which at once established his fame, and he became the poetic idol of the day. He died at Missolonghi, in Greece, in 1834. The poetry of Byron, though of a high order as regards genius and pow- ers of description, is calculated to have an injurious effect, particularly that written in the latter period of his life. Such was the moral chay^p BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. ter of Byron, and the tendency of his writings, that his remains were not allowed to be interred in Westminster Abbey. Calvin, John, one of the first Protestant reformers, was bom in France in 1509. On account of religious persecution he was obliged to retire to Basil, where he published his celebrated " Institutions of the Christian Religion." He settled at Geneva, and greatly advanced the Protestant cause. He established the form of church government called Presby- terian, and was the founder of a numerous sect of Christians called Calvinists, distinguished for their peculiar views on the subject of pre- destination, decrees, &c. Cervantes, Saavedra, was bom at Madrid, in 1549. He was the au- thor of Don Quixote, the hero of La Mancha, the master piece of Span- ish literature. This celebrated work is a strong and pleasant satire on the books of knight errantry, which were then so fashionable in Spain. It met with universal approbation ; and though written to ridicule the follies of a particular age, it is still read and admired in various lan- guages, in every part of the civilized world. Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of, was born in London, in 1694. He was a distinguished nobleman, a writer of celebrity, and an accomplished orator. He was adorned by all the graceful arts of high bred jwliteness, of which he has been considered the standard. The governing principle of Lord Chesterfield's life appears to have been the applause of the world. His fame as an author rests on the celebrated Letters written to his illegitimate son. These Letters are written in an elegant and popular style; but in wishing to 'form his son for the higher ranks of life, he has shown himself, in some instances, the advo- cate of hypocrisy, licentiousness, and infidelity. Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, was born about 550 years before the Christian era. He was the most learned and virtuous man of his age, and rendered great service to his country by his moral maxims, in reforming the manners of his countrymen. His memory, and the works which he wrote, are held in the highest veneration by the Chinese. Cook, James, an eminent navigator, was born in England, in 1728, of humble parentage. For his abilities as a mariner he was employed by the British government in making discoveries in the Pacific ocean. He was killed by the natives of the Sandwich Islands, in 1779. Copernicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, was bom in Pmssia, in 1473. He went to Italy, where he was appointed professor of mathe- matics. After twenty years of laborious study, he adopted the present system of astronomy, in placing the sun in the centre of the universe, and the earth and other planets to revolve about it. This great discove- ry he kept concealed for more than thirty years, for fear of exciting against himself the persecuting spirit of bigotry. His friends finally prevailed upon him to have his work published. He expired in a few BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. hours after the first copy was brought to him, in the 70th fear of his age. Cowper, William, an excellent English poet, was born m 1731. He was equally distinguished by his genius and his virtues. His poems are various ; but the most celebrated of them is " The Task." The general tendency of his writings is to enlarge the soul to every liberal senti- ment, and to improve the heart. Cowper was of a delicate constitution, and extreme sensibility of feelings ; he was subject at times to great depression of spirits, and at one time was insane. It is a curious fact, that his humorous ballad of John Gilpin, was written when he was a prey to the deepest melancholy. Dante, Alighieri, the sublimest of Italian poets, was born at Florence, in 1265. He early displayed his poetic talents, but the ambition of be- ing elevated among the ruling men of his own city, engaged him in all the troubles and miseries of violent faction. His party was defeated, and he sought safety in banishment to Ravenna. His literary works owe their origin to his misfortunes, and revengeful .spirit against his enemies, whom he wished to pierce with his satires. His fame rests on the *' Divina Commedia," which consists of three parts. Hell, Purga- tory, and Heaven. This poem displays wonderful powers of genius. For boundless and wild imagination, for gloomy grandeur, for terrific energy, it has no superior ; while on the other hand, it charms by its sweetness, simplicity, and grace. Davy, Sir Humphrey, one of the greatest of chemists, was born in England, in 1778, and died at Geneva, in 1829, whither he had gone for the benefit of his health. The discovery which has immortalized his name, is that of the safety lamp, which is used in coal mines, and has re- moved the dangers formerly experienced in working in mines. Defoe, Daniel, was born in London, in 1661. He wrote on a great variety of subjects ; but the work which stands as the most lasting monument of his literary fame, is his history of Robinson Crusoe, which for a work of the kind, has never been excelled. It is said that this popular novel was founded upon the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotchman, who lived more than four years upon the uninhabitable isl- and of Juan Fernandez. Dryden, John, gave early proof of poetic talents, and continued to write till his death, at the age of seventy, in 1701. He Wrote much in poetry and prose, and with such rapidity that it sometimes prevented correctness. His most celebrated works are his translation of Virgil, his Fables, and his Ode on St. Cecilia's Day. Dryden has been repre- sented as too accommodating in his religious views, to the spirit of the times in which he lived ; but his poetry is of the first order for beauty ol description, and for spirit, freedom, and melody of verse. Edwards, Jonathan, is considered by many as the greatest of modem BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. divines. He was born in Connecticut, in 1703. His uncommon genius discovered itself early, and while a boy, he read Locke on the Human Understanding, with a keen relish. He was a minister of the gospel about 24 years, and afterwards became president of Princeton College, in New Jersey. His treatise on the " Freedom of the VV7//," is considered by many of his admirers as one of the greatest efforts of the human mind. Erasmus, Desiderius, was one of the greatest scholars of the age, and was born at Rotterdam, in 1467. In the great question of Protestant- ism and Papacy, he was claimed on both sides, though neither party were pleased with him. He lashed the vices of the Papists, while he seemed indifferent to the success, or jealous of the labors of the Re- formers. Euclid, an eminent mathematician, flourished in Alexandria about 300 years before the Christian era. He wrote on music, optics, and other subjects ; but the work which has handed his name down to posterity, is his " Elements of Geometry." The celel)rated reply, " There is no royal road to geometry," was made to King Ptolemy, who had asked him whether geometrical knowledge might not be acquired in some easier manner than was pointed out by the Elements. Fenelon, archbishop of Cambay, was born in France, in 1651, and died in 1715. He was one of the ablest of the French writers, and was dis- tinguished for his virtues. He wrote many works ; but what has gained him the greatest reputation, is his " Telemachus." This publication roused the anger of Louis XIV., it being considered as a covert satire against the vices of this monarch and his courtiers. Such is the merit of this wo;-k, though in prose, that it ranks among the epic poems, and has been translated into all the languages of Europe Franklin, Benjamin, was born in Boston, Mass., in 1706, and sei-ved an apprenticeship to the printing business. After his removal to Phila- delphia, he began those inquiries respecting the nature of electricity, the result of which has placed him in the first rank among men of science. He invented the method of guarding buildings against lightning, by means of rods. In 1757, Franklin was sent by his country as an agent to Eng- land; in 1766, he was called to the bar of the house of commons, and underwent that famous interrogatory which has raised his name in the political world. He was a member of the first congress, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and in various ways rendered important services to his country. His " Poor Richard's Almanac," containing valuable maxims in prudence and economy, was first published in 1732, and is considered as a kind of standard for the principles of true econo- my. Dr. Franklin died in 1790. Fox, George, the founder of the society of the English Friends, or Qua- kers, was born in 1624. He received a religious education, and, being BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. apprenticed to a grazier, was employed in keeping sheep, and in this business spent much of iiis time in contemplation. Wheii aljout nine- teen, he believed himself to have received a divine command to forsake all and preach the gospel. His labors were crowned with considerable success, and 1609 he came to America, where he spent two years. Dur- ing his labors he endeavored to persuade men to regard the " divine light" implanted within, as being suthcient to lead to salvation. He was im- prisoned no less than eight times. He appeared to be sincere in his re- ligious tenets, and is represented to have been a meek, devout and pious man. He died in London, in 1G90. FultoUf Robert, a native of Pennsylvania, was born in 1765. He is distinguished for making the first successful application of steam for profielling boats. This was accomplished in 1807, at New York. Pre- vious to this, in 1787, John Fitch, of Connecticut, succeeded in moving a boat by steam power at Philadelphia, but for want of assistance was not able to perfect his invention, to accomplish any useful purpose. Galileo, an Italian astronomer, was born in 1564. Having construct- ed a telescope, he made such discoveries in the science of astronomy, that it convinced him of the truth of the Copernican system. At that period, a belief of this s3'stem was considered as heretical, and as con- trary to the word of God. No sooner was it known that he had embra- ced this system than he was summoned before the Inquisition, and was twice confined in its terrible dungeons, where, in the whole, he spent three or four miserable years. Gall, John Joseph, the founder of the science now called Phrenology^ was born in 1758, in the duchy of Baden, in Germany. He was, for a considerable period, a physician in Vienna ; but, in consequence of the Austrian government having prevented the exposition of his new doc- trines there, he traveled through the north of Germany, delivering lec- tures. He settled at Paris, where he died in 1828. The system of Gall, which has since been developed by Spurzhei?n, assumes, that each faculty of the mind has a separate organ in the brain, and that these organs are marked externally Ijy elevations on the cranium, or skull. Genlis, Madame de, was born in France, in 1746, and is distinguished as one of the ablest of female writers. Being oljnoxious to the prevail- ing faction at the head of government, she was obliged to quit France, in 1793. She was allowed, by Bonaparte, to return to her native coun- try, and he settled a pension upon her. For the last thirty years of her life, she wrote a great variety of works, falling but a little short of an hundred volumes. She died at Paris, in 1830. Her productions are distinguished for fertility of imagination, and purity of style. Goldsmith, Oliver, a celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer, was bom in Ireland, in 1731. He was educated at the universities of Dub- lin, Edinburgh, and Leyden, with a view to his adopting the medical 24 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. profession. He left Leyden, however, abruptly, and t\-ithout mouej wandered over a considerable part of Europe, and returned impoverished to London, By his literary productions he was able to support him- self m respectable style. His most celebrated compositions are the Traveler, Vicar of Wakefield, and The Deserted Village. As an author he stands high. His poetry, natural, melodious, affecting, and beauti- fully descriptive, finds an echo in every bosom ; and his prose, often enlivened with humor, and always adorned with the graces of a pure style, is among the best in our language. Gray, Thomas, an eminent British poet, was bom in London, in 17L6. As a scholar he was profound, elegant, and well informed, and possessed the most refined taste in painting, architecture, and gardening. His letters are correct, pleasing and instructive. His poems are few, but they are of the first order ; particularly his celebrated " Elegy in a Country Church Yard." Hale, Sir Matthew, an eminent and uncorruptible judge, was bom in EnL'land, in 1609. He was bred to the profession of law, and was called to the bar about the time of the civil wars between the king and parliament. He conformed to the republican government, and became a lay member of the Westminster assembly of divines. In 1661, he be- came the chief justice of the king's bench. The seat of judgment was never more purely filled than by Sir Matthew Hale. No influence, no power could turn him aside from the path of uprightness. The know- ledge of Hale was not confined to law, hut extended to divinity, mathe- matics, and history, upon all which subjects he has written. Haydn, Joseph, one of the most celebrated modem composers of mu- sic, was born in Austria, in 1732. At the age of eight, he was admitted as one of the choristers at the cathedral at Vienna. He twice visited England, and received the degree of music from the university of Ox- ford. His compositions amount to twelve or thirteen hundred. " His grand and sublime Oratorio on the Creation," says a modem musician of eminence, ♦' and his picturesque and descriptive Seasons, if music were as intelligible and durable as the Greek, would live and be admired as long as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer." Hogarth, William, one of the most original of painters, was born in London, in 1697. He served an apprenticeship with a silver plate en- graver, and afterwards designed and engraved a set of plates to illus- trate Hudibras, a work which he was admirably fitted to perform, as his chief skill as a painter lay in his unrivaled capacity for drawing ludi- crous and comic scenes. Howard, John, the celebrated philanthropist, was bom in England, about 1727. He was bound apprentice to a grocer by his guardians ; but, being possessed of a fortune, he purchased his indentures, and trav- eled on the continent. Having been taken by a French privateer, he BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. was confined in a prison, and by this means he seems to have been first excited to compassionate those " who are sick and in prison." He now- commenced his career of benevolence, which closed only with life. Not only were all the prisons of his own country repeatedly visited, but he minutely explored those on the continent, " to remember (as Mr. Burke beautifully expresses it) the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the forsaken, and to compare and collate the distresses of ail in all countries." His glorious career was terminated, in this life, at Cher- son, in Russia, by a fever, which he caught in attending on the sick, in 1790. Henry, Patrick, a native of Virginia, remarkable for his commanding eloquenccj was the first man who proposed to the colonies hostile meas ures against Great Britain. He declined a number of appointments vin der the government of the United States. He died in 1799. Hopkins, Samuel, D. D., a distinguished divine, was bom in Connecti- cut, in 1721. He maintained in his writings that holiness consists in disinterested benevolence, and that all sin consists in selfishness. Hume, David, an historian and Philosopher, was born *in Edinburgh, in 1711. Having made a brief attempt to reconcile himself to mercan tile pursuits, he gave himself up to a literary life. After having written on a number of subjects without much success, in 1754 he brought out the first volume of his History of England. This work, at first, was coldly received ; but it gradually became popular. The sum which was paid for the copy right, together with a pension from government, made him independent in his circumstances. His History charms by the ease and spirit of its style, and its philosophical tone, but it is unfaith ful in some instances, and a leaning towards principles abhorrent to the friends of freedom. His principles on moral subjects should be read with 'aution, as they are calciilated to undermine the foundations of re- ligion and morality. Irving, Washington, was bom in the city of New York, about the year 1783. He is at present one of the most distinguished American authors. In ISlt), he published "Knickerbocker's History of New York," which established his fame. He has since written the " Life of Columbus," the materials of which were obtained from original docu- ments in possession of the government of Spain. Jenner, Edward, the celebrated introducer of vaccine moculation. was bom in England, in 1749, and was bred a physician. About 1776, his attention was turned towards the cow-pox. For twenty years he pursued his investigation, and laid the foundation of that success which his important discovery at last obtained. Through much opposition, vaccina- tion was introduced into London, in 1796. It is now extended into every part of the globe. For this important discovery the parliament of Great Britain voted him £20,000. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Johnson, Samuel, one of the greatest of literary characters, was born in England, in 1709, and was the son of a bookseller. He was educa- ted partly at Oxford, which he was obliged to leave, on account of his impoverished circumstances. He went to London, and, after struggling through difficulties, established his reputation as an author. He com- pleted his celebrated Dictionary in about seven years ; and while enga- ged in this work, wrote papers called Tke Ranibler. His " Lives of the Poets," is a noble model of that description of writing, and contains some of the choicest criticism in the English language. Notwithstand- ing all the labors of this " literary giant," as he is sometimes called, his income was not adequate to his wants. In 1762, he was presented by the king with a pension of 30U/. per annum, as the grant expresses it, for the moral tendency of his writings. He died in 1784. His life has been written by Boswell and others, who describe, with much minute- ness, the particulars of his daily life and conversation. Jusephus, Flavins, the Jewish historian, was born at Jerusalem, A. D. 37, and died in 93. His History of the Jewish War, and the Destruc- tion of Jerusalem, was composed at the command of Vespasian, and is uncommonly interesting and affecting, as the historian was an eye-wit ness of all he relates. His " Jewish Antiquities," in twenty books, written in Greek, is a work of great merit. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, a celebrated Polish general, was partly educated at the military school at Warsaw, but completed his studies in France. When the American colonies threw off the yoke of the mother country, Kosciusko entered into the American service, and was made a colonel of engineers and aid-de-camp to Washington. He afterwards headed his countrymen in their resistance to Russian oppression ; but his ef- forts were imavailing. He was wounded and taken prisoner by the Russians, who treated him with great respect, and the Emperor Paul gave him an estate. He died in Switzerland, in 1817. Klopstock, Frederick Theophilus, a very celebrated German poet, was born in 1724, and died in 1803. His " Messiah," by which his name is chiefly immortalized, was pul)lished at Hallt^in 1751. He was likewise the author of three tragedies, called " The Death of Adam," " Solomon," and " David." His funeral was conducted with extraordi- nary pomp, being attended by the senate of Hamburg. Lawl, William, archbishop of Canterbury, during the reign of Charles I. From the moment of his attaining power, he acted the part of a fu- rious persecutor of those who differed from him on religious points. He was born in 1573, and was beheaded for high treason in 1645. Lavater, John Casper, was a Swiss clergyman, born in 1741, and died from a w^ound given by a French soldier, in 1801. The subject which brought him into notice, is his work on physiognomy, or the art of dis- cerning the character of the mind from the features of the face, Hia BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. work on this subject has been published in various languages, but its popularity has declined. Ledi/ard, John, a distinguished and adventurous traveler, was a native of Connecticut. He was with Captain Cooii in his last voyage, and witnessed his death. After suffering almost incredible hardslnps m va- rious parts of the world, in the course of las travels, he died at Cairo, in 1789, while preparing for a journey into the interior of Africa. Lirmreus, Charles Von, the most celebrated modern naturalist, was )orn in Sweden, in 1707. He is considered by many as the faliier of X)tany. Even from his infancy, he manifested his lbn(hiess for the study >f plants, and he almost lived in his lather's garden. His sovereign iuly noticed his services in the cause of science, and besides otlier fa- /ors, conferred on him the honor of nobility. With an unexampled ar- dor in the pursuit of knowledge, Linnaeus explored the inhospitalile des- erts of Lapland, and exposed himself, on foot, to every sort of fatigue. Science is indebted to his exertions for the useful and familiar division of plants, animals, &c., into classes. Locke, one of the greatest of British philosophers and metaphysicians was born in England, in 1G32. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situation under government, and wrote several political tracts. When Shaftslniry was obliged to flee for safety to Holland, Locke accompanied him, and while there he completed his celebrated " Essay on the Human Understanding," in the composition of which he had been engaged nine years. Great as are his merits in other respects, it is principally as the champion of civil and religious liberty, that Locke is entitled to the reverence and gratitude of mankind. j\Ialte-Brun, Conrad, a poet, political and philosophical writer, and geographer, was born in Jutland, in 1775, and was obliged to quit his native cnuntry, in 1796, in consequence of the persecution he received, for having written in favor of the liberty of the press, and the enfran- chisement of the peasants. He settled at Paris, and from 180G to 1826, edited the foreign fiolitical department of the Journal of Debates. Marlborough, Johif Churchill, duke of, was born in England, in 1650. He was engaged in a great variety of n)ilitary services on the continent, and his success has placed his name among the most illustrious of generals. He rescued the Low Countries and Germany, and humbled the pride of France. He died in 1722. Melancthon, Philip, a celebrated German divine and Protestant re- former, was the friend and convert of Luther. To the diffusion of the doctrines of the Reformation he powerfully contributed ; but he display- ed a moderate and conciliatory spirit, which was displeasing to the more impetuous spirit of Luther. The Confessionof Augsburg was the work of this reformer. He died in Wuienburg, in 1560. Even his ene 24* BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. mies respected the virtues, the talents, the learning, and the mild tern per of Melancthon. Mdton, Jolin, the greatest of modern poeis, was born in iiOndon, m 1608. His political and controversial writings are also justly celebrated. He was a firm advocate and defender of liberty, and his views on many subjects were far in advance of the age in which be lived. His Para- dise Lost is the greatest poem which modem ages have produced, in his life-time justice was not done to his poetry ; but posterity has, and will render homage to his genius. He was blind ai the lime he com- posed this noble work, and one of his daughters* wrote it down as dic- tated from his mouth. He suffered from the attacks of personal and political enemies, and died comparatively poor and forsaken of the world. Medicis, Cosmo, the founder of his illustrious family, was born at Florence, in 1389. He was so successful in couimerce, that his riches were superior to those of the potentates oi his times, and he applied the resources of his great fortune to the patronage ol the sciences and of learned men. He collected a most valuable library, which he enriched with rare and curious manuscripts ; but while tie expected gratitude from his countrymen, he found that his conduct was viewed with jeal- ousy, by the arts of his enemies. Yielding to the ingratitude of his ene- mies, he retired to Venice, where he was received with the greatest re- spect. His countrymen, however, recalled him, and placed hiin at the head of their government, and gave him the title of " Father ol his peo- ple, and liberator of his country." MorUesquieu, an illustrious French writer, was born in 1689. His great work is the " Spirit of Laws." While compiling this work he visited various countries for information. This work acknowledges three sorts of government, the republican, the monarchial, and the despotic ; and in examining these divisions, the author displays great depth of thought, vigor of imagination, and solidity of judgment. Morris, Robert, an eminent merchant in Philadelphia, a member of congress, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, and an able financier. He was appointed treasurer of the United States, and during three years of the revolution rendered important services to his country, by his skill as a financier, in sustaining public credit. Mozart, Wolfgang, one of the greatest of modem composers, was bom in Germany, in 1756. He began to display his musical talents when only three years old, and by the time he was six, he was listened to as a prodigy, in various parts of Germany. He visited France, Italy, and England, and was everywhere received with enthusiasm. In his tepth year he applied himself closely to the study of composition. For his musical talents the pope honored him with the order of the golden spur. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. In 1781, he settled in Vienna, and was liberally patronized by the em- peror of Grerin;iny, and the court. He died at the age oi thirl y-five Murray, Liadley, a graininariaa, was Itorn in 1745, near Lancaster, in Pennsylvania. He was a member of the society ol Friends ; he set- tied in England, and became known by his school books. i\ewton, cJir Isaac, the most dlustnous philosopher ami mathematician that ever lived, was born in England, in 1642, and died m 1727. Al the age ol eighteen he entered Trinity college, Cambridge. During Ins abode here, he made his three great discoveries, of fluxions, the nature of light and colors, and the laws ol' gravitation. To the latter of these it is said his attention was first turned by seeing an apple fall. His great work, the Pruiapia, which unfolded to the v\orld the theory ol the universe, was not published till liiSl. The character oi iNewion is rep- resented as being amiable, and adorned with all the virtues of a Cnns- tian. The Bible he made his favorite study, and irreverence towards the Deity or the holy scriptures, always drew from him the severest censure. NeLton, Horatio, the most celebrated of British naval commanders, was born in 1758. He went to sea at the age of twelve, as a midship- man, with his uncle. After various exploits and victories, for vvhich he was highly honored by his countrymen, he lost his life, by a rifle ball, in his celebrated victory over the united French and Spanish squadrons, off Trafalgar, in 1805. Ossian, the son of F'ingai, was a Scotch bard, who is supposed to have flourished about the beginning of the third century. According to tradition, he accompanied his father in his wars, and in the latter part of his long life became blind. The poems that go by his name are marked by a simple and suMime wildness, and are the most poetic com- positions in the English language. They are represented as having been translated from the Gaelic l)y Mr. Macpherson. who died in J 797. Much controversy has existed about the authorship ol these poems, which is not yet decided ; it is believed, however, that their chief merit belongs to Macpherson. Paine, Thomas, apolitical writer, was born in Enirlaiul, in 1737, ami bred a stay-niaker. Comimj to America, he pnblishpd a iniinlifr of pamphlets, which had a powerful effect in favor of the Ameiiran rausp . particularly that entitled " Common Sense." He wpmI U\ ? .ondon, im 17!)0. and published "The Ri'ihts of Man." T(» a-.id a pr.wrnition, he went to France, and was chosen a member of the natiorn' a-^semMy He returned to the T^nited States, where he de'iasei! himx'-l'"''V b'« ''e isticHl writjn>rs. He died in a miser;d)lp mann'r. in "^-.-^v N'.ir'. it l«n«. IVinmr the bitter nf^no' (>'"his life he so ,\<- r-,.>. ," l,....,.!'" ' , > ... .nterntierate habils, that he was shunned by the icspect^iLic pari oi iua associates. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Foley, William, an eminent English divine, was born in 1745, and educated at Cambridge. In 1785, he at once obtained a high reputation by his Elements of Moral and Political Philosophy. He is also the au- thor of " A new view of the Evidences of Christianity and iSatural The- ology." Dr. Paley ranks high as an author, and his services to the cause of virtue and Christianity, were honorably rewarded by the patronage of the great. He died in 1805. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of the Italian poets, was born in 1304, in Tuscany. He is celebrated, as one of the restorers of classical learning, and displayed all the powers of genius, not only in his native language, but in Latin. Having settled at Avignon, he saw the beautiful Laura, whose charms inspired him with a lasting passion, the effusions of which he poured forth in those sonnets and odes which have rendered his name celebrated. His poetry, however, failed of having much effect on the object of his affections. His literary reputa- tion attracted the regard of princes, and Rome, Paris, and Naples, at the same moment, invited him to come and receive the poetic crown. Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets, was born in Greece, upwards of 500 years before the Christian era. Little is known of his real history. Of his works, which were numerous, and in various kinds of composi- tion, time has spared only four books of Odes ; but what it has spared is amply sufficient to vindicate his claim to be ranked among the most il- lustrious of ancient poets. Pitt, William, was earl of Chatham, and is commonly known by that name, and was the most able minister that England ever produced. He ■was bom in 1708, and at the age of twenty-seven was elected a member of parliament, and soon distinguished himself by his eloquence. He opposed with great force the measures relating to the American war. In April, 1778, while rising to speak in the house of lords, he fell into a convulsive fit, and expired in a few days. As a statesman and orator, he stands at the head of men of his profession, in modern times. His son, of the same name, was also distinguished as a statesman. Pope, Alexander, a celebrated poet, was bom in London, in 1688. He was somewhat deformed, small in size, and of a delicate constitu- tion. His first regular composition was his Ode on Solitude, written when he was twelve years of age. His Pastorals were written when he was sixteen, and they obtained for him the friendship of many emi- nent characters. This was followed by his Essay on Criticism, the Messiah, and other poems. The translation of the Hiad, by which he realized a fortune, was completed in 1720. His " Dunciad," a satirical work, and his " Essay on Man," appeared afterwards. Priestley, Joseph, a distinguished English divine, and experimental philosopher, was bom in 1733. He embraced the Unitarian sentiments. This, with his partiality for revolutionary principles, drew upon hina BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. the rage of political partisans, and his house, library, manuscripts, and apparatus, were committed to the flames by an infuriated mob, and lie was exposed to great personal danger. He came to America, in 1784, and took up his abode at Northumberland, m Pennsylvania, where he died, in 1804. His works, on various subjects, extend to upwards of seventy vo.umes. Raphael, Sanzio, was born in Italy, in 1483. By the general consent of mankind, he is acknowledged to have been the prince of painters, and has received the appellation of divine " Raphael." He also excel- led as an architect, and was employed in the building of St. Peter's, at Rome. He came to an untimely grave in consequence of his addiction to licentious vices, — dying at the age of thirty-seven. RolUn, Charles, an eminent historian, was born in 1661, at Paris. He filled a number of important offices in the literary institutions of France, from which he was removed by the intrigues of the Jesuits. His Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, Babylonians, &c., is one of the best compilations of the kind which ever appeared. RoUin was as amiable in private life as he was respected in public : pious, be- nevolent, and humane, the friend of virtue, morality, and religion. He died in 1741. Rosseau, John James, one of the most eloquent and singular of wri- ters, was born at Geneva, in 1712. His life was somewhat eventful, and the strangeness and inconsistency of his character subjected him to trouble. His works show that he had the most brilliant genius, com- bined with eccentricities, licentiousness, and infidelity. By a prize Essay he maintained the superiority of savage nature to the comforts of domestic and social life. This opinion he defended for a long time against all the writers of Europe. His " Confessions," published after his death, in 1778, is one of the most singular productions of the human mind. Shakspeare, William, " the illustrious poet of nature," was bom in 1564, in England, of a respectable family. Being connected with some thoughtless companions in the criminal act of taking deer, was the means of driving him to London. Here he became engaged among the players, and became an actor on the stage. From acting, he passed to the writing of plays , and by the productions of his pen, and by the man- agement of the play-house, he acquired a competent fortune, with which he returned to his native town, where he lived respected and beloved by his neighbors. He died in 1616, in the 53d year of his age. As an author, Shakspeare excels in originality, sublime conception, force, and delineation, and he has surpassed almost every poet, of every age and country, and is the boast of the English nation. In the midst, however, of his great and incomparable beauties, there are some moral blemishes and defects. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. Sidney, Algernon, an English gentleman, second son of the earl of Leicester, was born about 1620. In the time of the civil wars he joined the parliament's army, and was appointed a lieutenant-general of horse. He was nominated a member of the court to try Charles I. ; but he took no part in the proceedings. At the restoration of the monarchy of Eng- land, he became a voluntary exile for seventeen years, till his father ob- tained for him a special pardon. Sidney, however, was a too firm friend of liberty to be tolerated by the ministers of despotism ; he was accused of being concerned in a plot, and the most infamous perversion of justice was resorted to, in order to convict him. He met death, by being beheaded on Tower Hill, in 1681, with heroic fortitude. This strong republican was of extraordinary courage, sincere, but of a tem- per that could not bear contradiction ; a Christian in principle, but averse to all public worship, and an enemy to every thing that looked like mon- archy. He left behind a meritorious work, entitled Discourses on Gov- ernment. Stael, Madame de, a celebrated female writer, the daughter of M. Necker, the French financier, was born at Paris, in 1766. Her talents were so early displayed, that she was said to have never been a child, and the utmost care was taken to cultivate them. In her 20th year she married the Baron de Stael, the Swedish ambassador, and from that pe- riod she took an active part in literature and politics. At the com- mencement of Bonaparte's career she was one of his admirers, but she afterwards became hostile towards him, and in 1801, she was ordered to quit Paris. She died in 1817. Her works form seventeen volumes. Swift, Jonathan, a celebrated writer, was born in Dublin, in 1667. He was chaplain to Lord Berkeley, and in 1710, became active as a po- litical writer, and went over to the monarchial party, and received for his services the deanry of St. Patrick. On his return from England he became exceedingly unpopular ; but he lived to be the idol of the Irish. His " Gulliver's Travels," a satirical romance, and his Tale of a Tub, in which he ridiculed popery and pnritanism, were popular works. Thompson, James, one of the most popular poets, was the son of a Scotch clergyman, born in 1700. He was educated for the church, but this profession he relinquished for that of an author. His most celebra- ted work is his " Seasons,^^ which display animated and interesting de- scriptions of nature, in language distinguished for dignity, elegance, and simplicity. Voltaire, one of the most celebrated of French writers, was bom at Paris, in 1694. In early life he showed superior powers of mind, espe- cially a sprightly imagination. His fondness for satire directed against the government, caused his imprisonment in the bastile, till he was lib- erated by the influence of his friends. After this event he devoted him- self more entirely to poetry. His principal efforts were directed to- BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. wards the drama. For a long period he was a sort of dictator in the republic of letters in Europe. By his free remarks on government and religion, he contributed, perhaps more than any other one, to lay the foundation of that state of things which afterward existed in France, during tlie time of the revolution. He died in 1778, while on a visit to Paris, and according to some accounts, in great anguish of mind from reflections on the irreligious tendency of his writings. The blasplie- mous atheist often, indeed, appeared in his works. Washington, George, the illustrious commander of the American ar- my in the war of the revolution, and the first president of the United States, was the son of Augustine Washington, of Virginia, and born February 22d, 1732. His father died when he was but ten years of age, and the care of his education fell upon his mother. At this period the means of education were scanty, and he had only common instruction in the tisual branches of education. At the age of nineteen he was ap- pointed an adjutant-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. He distinguished himself during the French war, particularly atjhe defeat of Gen. Braddock. When the colonies, in 1775, determined to resist the oppression of Great Britain, Washington, who was a member of the first congress, was unanimously appointed to the chief command of the American army. He accepted the office with diffidence, and for a pe- riod of eight years' laborious services, refused any compensation beyond his necessary expenses. After his public life, Washington retired to his estate, and devoted himself to agricultural pursuits. He died on the ]4th of December, 1799, of an inflammatory aff"ection of the windpipe, occasioned by exposure to a light rain, while attending, the day previ- ous, to improvements on his estate. The senate of the United States, in their letter, on the occasion of his death, say, — " With patriotic pride we review the life of Washington, and compare him with those of other rountries who have been pre-eminent in favor. Ancient and modern .lames are diminished before him. Greatness and guilt have been too >ften allied ; Ijut his fame is whiter than it is brilliant. The destroyers )f nations stood abashed at the majesty of his virtues. It reproved ••he intemperance of their ambition, and darkened the splendor of vie /ory." Watts, Isaac, a poet and non-conformist divine, was born in England, in 1674. He was a writer of poetry from the age of 15 to 50. His wri- tings are numerous, and his name is celebrated among all denominations of Christians. His lyrical poems, his Psalms and Hymns, and his Di- vine Songs tor children, give him a high rank as a poet and a Christian. It is doubtful whether any other man has done as much good in repress- ing vice, and implanting the true principles of religion in the minds of nis readers, as Dr. Watts. Voung, Edward, an English poet and divine, was bom in 1687. His BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. most celebrated work is his "Night Thoughts on Life, Death, and Ira mortality," a poem which abounds in sublime passages, and is wntt«n m a strain of pure morality, though occasionally obscure. Zimmerman, John George, a physician and miscellaneous writer, was horn m Switzerland, in 1728. and died in 1795, a victim to hypochon- HriRc disease. Among his works, a Treatise on Solitude has been highly popular. LEJalb