<, ^ < ( C : ' ( c LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Chap.. >?.}... (Jopyright No.. Slielf„<..S..S^..4 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. vv ff i i ^ V ( < < V^ ^C€ c c : cr . .^' V \ c C 5 * ^fwm^ A New Dairy Industry. Preparation and Sale of Artificial Mothers' Milk; Normal Infants' Milk. BY JAIN/IE:S FRED. SA.RG, LATE OF HESSCNHOF, LAKE CONSTANCE, GERMANY. BLACK FOREST FARM, KEMPSVILLE, VA. U. S. A. A NEW DAIRY INDUSTRY l^-eparatioti and Sale of Artificial Mothers' Milk "NOmiAL INFANTS' MILK" BY JAMES FRED. SARG .'^ - Late Of Hcsscjiliof^ Lake Constance^ (iciuiaiiy \\ ^ r.LACK FOREST FARM _v "^ KEMPSVILLE, VA. ' U. S. A. ,' (novii^s%j Copvi-ic;ht, ISOli, by James Fred. Sarg. \^/ o'^ of- I &i>^^ NORFOLK : W. T. Barron & Co., Prixtkrs 189(5 ' " That art on which a thousand millions of men are depend- ent for their sustenance, and two hundred millions of men ex- pend their daily toil, must be the most important of all ; the parent and precursor of all other arts. In every country, then, and at every period, the investigation of the principles on which the rational practice of this art is founded, ought to have commanded the principal attention of the greatest minds." — ^James F. W. Johnston. .V !k CONTENTS. Pace Introduction /> Chapter I. — Milk and !\Iilking- 7 II.— The Origin of Bacteria in Milk . 25 III. — Decomposition of Milk 3r> W. — Preserving Milk by Chemicals. . 'Xl \. — Preser\-ation by Cooling .... 44 \\. — Preservation b}' Heating .... 48 VII. — Pasteurization o2 VIII.— Sterilizing 63 IX.— The Mortality of Infants .... 78 X.— Artificial Mother's Milk; Normal Infants' Milk 99 XI.— The Normal Dairy 130 XII. — Conclusion 154 INDEX. PACK Acid curdling •_>•! Acidity of milk ■)(> Albumen 11" Albuminoids !l-ll Anisol IJ Anorganic matter 14 Arachine 1'^ Automatic sealing 72-12i Artificial mothers' milk 101 Babcock test 1(« Barn loO Bacteria -•'' Bacteria, number of oO Bacteria, motion of -<> Bottling IL'I Bedding 2S Boiling point il Borax .•?9 Bulterfat 11 Buttyrine 13 Bacterial rennet 'M Borden ">l) Breeds of cattle 1-18 Casein 10 Capril 13 Capronine. . 13 Chemicals 39 Cow 145 Coagulation Cc.iing 102 Colostral milk !» Condensed milk oO Cremo metre 12 Cream separator Ill Composition of milk 145 Curdling 56-lli) Cymol 14 Cuminol 14 Disinfecting lamp 12S Decomposition of milk 33 Dispora c uicasici 14 Digestibility of casein 87 Death rate of infants 84 Escherich, Prof 00 Feeding 149 Feeding roughage 149 Ferment 118 Filth in milk 80 Germs 27 Globules 11 Glycerine l:^ Glucose 114 Human milk S() Hvdrogen peroxide 42 Household >terilizer S5 PAGK Kumvs 14 Kefyr II Lactodensimeter 8 Lactoscope 12 Lactation Hi lyaurine 13 Lactic acid 01) Manufacturing process I2(! Maltose ■; 114 Milk, color of 7 Milk, hitter 8 Milk, frozen 44 Milk, saltv 8 Milk sugar 13-114 Milk cistern 19 Milk solids Hi Milking 17 Normal infants' milk 99 Normal dairy 13(i Organic matter 14 Olein ■ 13 Orifice of teat 19 Ozone 42 Pa.steur 49 Pasteurizing 52 Period of lactation 15 Palmitine 13 Pollution of milk 29 Phosphoric acid 14 Quevenne 8 Reaction of milk 8 Reaction of alkaline 8 Retention of milk 21 Salt 40 Salicylic acid :!!) Sacharomyces 14 Second grade milk 120 Souring of milk 33 Sodium 14 Soda 37 Soda, bicarbonate 42 Separator Ill Specific gravity- 8 Spores ' 04 Straining 7.4 Stripping '20 Stearine 13 Sterilizing (l3-r23 Tvmol U Thermostat 74 Water bath (17 INTRODUCTION. TT has al\va\s been the imestit^ations of science that have graded the path on which practice has fol- lowed, bnt too often slngoishly after a long-er of shorter time ; it has been the same in regard to the production of a rational nourishment for infants. Here science has recorded singular successes on the different fields that must contribute to the attainment of a desirable product, but practical execution has been slow to follow the lead. Statistics have forced upon us the conviction that the mortality of infants artificialh" noi:rished is so much greater than that of those nourished in the natural way — on the breast, and that whatever dif- ference there may exist in the causes of deterioration in the various levels of human societ\- women li\-e in amongst civilized nations, the fact is uniformly estab- lished that the development of the milk glands in the female breast is steadilv decreasing. Cow's milk will, for general purposes, ever be re- garded as the l^est substitute for mother's milk. Natu- ral science has done much to impart the knowledge of the influence of feed on the j^roductipn of milk, and engineering has, b\- the in\-ention of improved machinery, perfectly revolutionized dairy technics, while the production of a healthy infants' milk lias (i Introdiictio)!. encountered its greatest difficulty in the conservatism of the farmer, who is slow to adopt advice or change his methods. The production of normal infants' milk is a field of work that stretches over so many industries and sciences that a thorough mastering of them can im- possibly be expected of the dairyman who would undertake the manufacture of " normal infants' food," but a familiarity with the scientific principles of all and every operation comprised in the manufacture should most decidedly form a fundamental part of his stock in trade. Referring to this sentiment, I will beo- my readers kindly to bear in mind that I am a farmer writing for farmers. I have to thank Dr. H. Weigmann, of Kiel, for the permission kindly granted to translate from his excel- lent work the bacteriological part of this treati.se, which I herewith recommend to the indulgence of all those who are, and also of those who should be, in- terested in the amelioration of the conditions for pro- ducing a healthy food for infants. James Fr?:d. Sarg. Black Forest Fa nil, J 'a., October of iSg6. CHAPTER I. Those organs whose secretions we give the name of milk are called milk glands and their aggregate form in the cow, including the skin that covers them, the udder. These glands do not, by nature, come into activity until a short time before parturition and during a variously protracted period after this act. The first secretion in the udder caused by a heightened afflu- ence of blood to all generative organs after conception, is noticeable about the middle of the period of gesta- tion ; the teats of the heifer will at this time, when stripped, render a small drop of viscuous transparent gum, which when ocurring may be accepted as the first visible sign of pregnancy. This sign does, how- ever, not repeat in the cow^. Differing from other animal secretions milk is opaque and, when healthy, of a white color. Other hues of color with exception of the first or colostral milk, which is of a yellowush tint, indicate rapidly decomposing milk or the pres- ence of bacteria ; some few intensely colored vegetable foods are also able to give a coloring to the milk. The agreeable sweetish taste of normal milk may be changed by the influence of food or by diseases of the udder. An inflammation ascribed to the action of a 8 A AVec Dairx Iiidusti-y. bacterium of the streptococcus species produces a salt\' taste in the milk which at such time is also slim\-. Bitter milk is uot iufrcquently noticed in cows with a protracted lactation — but may be an effect of food given ; it has been noticed, for instance, after feeding- large quantities of young clover and alwavs indicates the presence of micro-organisms. The smell of freshly drawn milk is faintly like that of the skin of the animal and is probably pro- duced b)- the presence of etheric acids of fat. The reaction of milk is generalh' ''ampho- tere," which means to sa}- that it will turn blue litmus paper red and also turn red litmus paper blue, a condition based on the simul- taneous presence of neutral and also of acid alkaline phosphates and calcium casei nates ; one of these predominating turns the re- action to that side. Boiled milk acquires an intensified alkaline reaction. The boiling- point of milk is about 1° F. higher than that of water, and its freezing point is 1° below that of water. The specific gravit)- of milk, dependant on its temperature, \'aries with the relative quan- tities of its composing elements : water, butter- n, . , ^ fat and solids. Instruments have been in- Plain Lacto- densimeter. ygnted to ascertain the specific gravit}', for instance, the lactodensimeter of (xuex-enne and Soxh- let. By the aid of the specific gravity, with a known amount of fat, the solids may be calculated. These Milk and Milki'ig. {> instninients are \'alua1)le as a means to detect watered ■or skiiiimed milk. The specific weight of milk ranges from 1.027 to 1.0:')"). Colostra] milk at 00° F. 1.0."ir); -i:im milk, 1.0:'>l> to 1.0:57; cream, on an a\-erage, 1. 010. Amongst the chemical ingredients of milk ■\ve find all the principles of nonrishment : proteids, fats, carbolndrates, salts and water. Amongst the albnminoids in the milk casein predominates. It is accepted as probable by some that the casein in cow's milk is identical- with that in hnman milk, although Ave note that the casein in woman's milk, when coagnlated by the action of rennet, is by far more fine-flaked and jellyfied than that from cow's milk, which latter forms into compact solid flakes. The dilTerence of coagulating is probabh- due to the different quantity in which salts are present in the two milks ; but this distinctive difference in coag- ulating, we must bear in mind, constitutes one ■of the principal deficiencies when we come to look at cow's milk as a suljstitnte for mother's milk. This is of such salient importance in the transformation of cow's milk into artificial Lactodens- motlicr's milk, that the closest study of the Smome- ter vanoiis investigations carried on at the present time on this line must be recommended to all that would undertake the manufacture of normal infants' milk. Cow's milk and human milk differ with re- 10 A Neiu Dairy Industry. spect to the curdling of the casein, the content of" salts, the absolute content of nutrients and the rela- tion of the various constituents. The nature of the coagulated casein in the stomach depends upon the casein solution, the content of soluble calcium salts and the acidity of the solution. Cow's milk is in these three respects unfavorable to the best coagula- tion, for it contains twice as much casein, six times as- much lime and js three times as acid as human milk, while this latter contains but one-third as much of acid phosphates as cow's milk. Casein forms three chemical compounds with cal- cium or sodium — dependent on the predominant re- action — the mono, di and tri-calcic (or sodic) casein. Only the dicalcic or disodic casein compounds are curdled by rennet in the presence of water soluble lime salts, and the completeness of the curdling de- pends on the amount of lime salts ; we may, there- fore, attribute the compactness of the casein curdling in cow's milk to an increased alkalinity. The studies of Bcchauip show that casein is not a soluble sub- stance which may be coagulated by acids, but that it is an insoluble substance forming soluble compounds, caseinates, with alkalies and lime, and that the in- soluble casein ma}- be precipitated from these com- pounds b}- acids which combine with the bases of caseinates. The change in the casein by the action of rennet has no connection v.-ith the reaction. W'e shall see later what effect heating produces on the di- gestability of casein and on the milk proteids in general.. Milk and Milking: II Further albmiiinoids of milk, but of secondary im- portance, are lactoi^lobnlin, lactalbiimen and peptone, the nutritive value of which is, however, considerably impaired by boiling the milk, by which a greater part is changed to hemialbuminose. Following the albuminoids, the different fats in milk merit our attention ; we designate them collec- tively as butter-fats, and find them suspended in the milk in emulsive condition, that is, glol)ules of the minutest size ; these globules, coated with casein, give the white color to milk. The size and number of globules is variable in one and the same animal, being- affected by the advance of lactation, change of feed and by sickness. With the advance of lactation, the number of large globules diminishes and that of the small globules increases ; with the change from dry feed to green feed in the spring, there is an increa.se in the proportion and the number of the large globules. Disea.se or sickness and the use of cows for draft, when not accustomed to it, has a marked effect in diminishing the number and size of globules. Suc- culent food decreases the size and increases the num- ber of globules ; oats, bran and linseed meal increase their size. Age is apparently without effect. Morn- ing's milk has larger globules than evening's milk. The first part of the milking has fewer and smaller globules, than the last. Butter-fat is liquid at from S")° to 105° F., when cooled below ()0° it becomes of a crumbly consistency ; notwithstandino- milk mav be cooled to 32° without the 1-2 A A^Cii' Dairy Iiidiisti- siisj^ended fats becoming- hard, oiil)- below o2° or by mechanical agitation the form of the globules is lost, they become solid and their contour rugged. On standing, the globules rise to the surface by vir- tue of their minor specific weight and they form the cream, while the milk beneath it is termed skim milk, which, however, is not cntirel)' free of fat, because the minutest of the fat globules find it impossible to push through the \iscuous milkfluid to reach the top. Warmth favors the ascending of the globules, cold retards it, but we avoid the warmth because it inxohes a rapid decom- position of the milk. A large number of in- struments have been in\-ented for the pur- pose of ascertaining the quantity of fats ; some of them aim to accurately measure the Cremometer. q^^autity of crcaui raised in twenty-four hours and are called cremometers, others purport to ascertain the percentage of fats b>- diluting milk wnth Avater and making it translucent until a certain mark on the instrument is visible ; these are termed lacto- scoi^es. By far more exact and scientifically correct is the method of SoxJiIct, who ascertains the specific weight of fat in the milk ; his apparatus is, however, too comj^licated to be of much use outside of the chemist's laborator\'. The method that gi\'es the best results for practical working of the dairy industry is the one that dissolves the casein bv an excess of acid under the influence of Milk and Milking 13 heat and rotator>- motion. The best known in this conntry of this class is the Babcock tester, the nse of which I shall describe fnrther on. TEST SET FOR CREAM. We need not go into the detail of the different fats or fat acids composing the bntter-fat, such as bntt- yrine, capronine, capryl, lanrine, myristine, palmitine, stearine, aracliine, olein and glycerine acid, fnrther than to remember that it is the varying amonnt of these fat acids contained in the feed we give the cow that prodnce the varying degree of either firmness or grease-like consistency in the bntter. The color of bntter also is largely dependent on the relative predominating of one or more of the above-named fatty acids. Another characteristic ingredient of milk is milk sngar. Under the inflnence of different ferments, among which principally the baccillns acidi lactici is noted, milk sugar is transformed into milk acid. 14 A A^e7(' Dairy Industry. Milk sugar is soiiietiiues attacked b)- a rosar\ -formed species of a coccus, engeuderiug a slimy fermentation, which results in what we know as slimy or long milk, which is generally unfit for the extraction of butter, l3ecause the minute fat globules are unable to rise in this viscuous fluid and form the cream. In connection with these ferments, it may be men- tioned that some of them, like the Sacharom}-ces cerevesise and the Dispora caucasica, are used to bring milk to an alcoholic fermentation, in wliich state it possesses intoxicating properties, and by reason of these is valued as a beverage and largely consumed by various tribes of Turkestan and Circassia under the name of Kumys and Kefyr. Other organic matter contained in milk is a minute quantity of citric acid, a number of aromatics, like anisol, cuminol, cymol, tymol, in fact, all such as are found in the food of herbivorous animals and traces of fibrin. ( )f anorganic or mineral matter, it is principally sodium and phosph.oric acid that merit attention, as we know that cows with protracted periods of lacta- tion are deficient in these ingredients. When we, therefore, consider that a healthy and normal formation of bone in a child is in great manner dependent on the unstinted assimilation of phosphoric acid in its milk, we see the justice of refusing the milk of such animals whenever the manufacture of infants' milk is aimed at. Quantity and quality of milk are, as we may sup- Milk and Milking. 15 pose, greatly influenced by the quality of food, the management of the feeding; and the breed and iudi- vidnality of the animal. Medicinal qualities contained in the food or pasture eaten b}' the cows may reappear in the milk and trouble the consumer ; for instance, the feeding- of cabbage leaves to cows produces flatulence \\ and pains in most infants which consume such milk ; also the acidit)' of feed like that in wet and acid brewers' grains passes into the milk and makes it unfit for infants' food. Increased feeding of albuminoids favors an in- creased production of fat in the milk, while a feeding with a preponderance of carboh)-- drates is followed by a loss of albumen and fat in the milk. The quantity of milk is in- fluenced also by the periods of lactation ; im- mediateh- after parturition it is at its height, and from that time decreases generally, not gradually but in about three well defined peri- ods the duration of which is naturallv depend- „ • ^i, ^ Dairy Ther- ent on the entire duration of lactation, which, '"'""st^'^- as we all know, is exceedingly variable, both as to ever\' separate animal as also in the several lactations of one and the same animal. A lengthened period of lactation is acquired by heredity and confirmed by judicious management at the hands of the milker. Concerning the qualitative changes of milk during the period of lactation, there is no harmony of opin- ion prevailing, yet a majority of in\estigators claim IC) A ^\'('7(' Dairy Industry. that towards the end of the lactation the percentage of solids and of fats grows. With reference to the time of da\' at which it is drawn, it is generalh' con- ceded that in barn feeding the quantity of morning's milk is larger than that of the evening's milk, but that the latter is richer. Spa}'ing, the removal of the cow's ovaries by a sur- gical operation, has the effect to prolong the period of lactation, in some instances which are on record for a time of three }ears running, and upward. The length -of the period of lactation is one of the most importiint factors in judging the \-alue of a cow, but for ob^-ious reasons castration should only be executed on such animals as by nature are arriving at the close of their remunerative career or of their generative functions. From the foreg"oing we should receive the impres- sion that the udder of the cow is a \-aluable mathine, one whose handling should l)e thoroughl\' understood In- evers- person — male or female — called- upon to work it. Where is the wisdom of s]3en ding a large sum of money on a superior cow if her udder is to be IharrdTecl ?)y an ignorant and careless milker? In ever}' other trade we expect from the workman, and even from the apprentice, an exact knowledge and familiarity with the tools he uses and with the processes embraced in the application of his trade. The- average farmer or dairyman, howe\-er, seems to be ail exception to this rule, if we may judge b}' the kick of knowledge he possesses as to the physical Milk cDui Mil kino. IJ iiuike-iip of the cow. Drawintr the milk from a cow seems an operation of such absohite simplicit)" to tlie mind of many that nothing can be said about it more than tliey already know, and yet an ignorant milker is apt to spoil the best cow in a short time. Milking is generalh- done on the right side of the cow. The milker sits on a low stool which in differ- ent localities has one, two, three or four legs, the milk pail pressed and held firmly between his knee^, his head inclined against the paunch of the cow. The cow's tail nia\' be secured by some device and pre- vented from striking the milker's head, but imless flies are very bad it should be left loose. The milker's hands should be scrupulously clean. Whether the milker's hands should be wet or dry is an open ques- tion, as both methods are quite extensively practiced. Milking with a dry and dirty hand is, perhaps, a cleanlier operation than milking with a wet and dirty hand. We have the painful con\-iction that a greater number of cows are milked with dirtv hands than with clean hands and it ma\' be, therefore, safer to ad\-ocate the use of the dry hand. Hov%-ever, when milk is drawn with intention to manufacture it into in- fants' food, and the necessary precau- tionary measures for cleanliness are strictlv obser\-ed, milkino- with the w'et Milk Pail and Strainer. ' . ' "^ , hand ( that is to sa>', putting a few drops of milk in each hand) ma)- be adopted with consider- able advantage to the animal, becau.se the operation IS A New Dairy Industry. is then not so irritating to the su]:)cntaneons nerves of the teat and iidder. Then, too, a sore and brnised teat may by the wet hand be milked withont pain to the cow, while the dry hand may prodnce restlessness. Lasth', it may be claimed that the wet hand comes closer in imitating the fnnction which nature ex- pected the teat to be used for — tlie sucking- b)' the calf's mouth. A method which finds its place between the two just mentioned, and which is extensively practiced in Switzerland and Southern Germany, is to milk with the dry hand, but to apply a small cjuantit}' of pure lard about the size of a large pea — to the fingers and thumb — the application to be repeated with each cow milked. The lard is carried around in a small metal cup fastened to or around the leg of the milk-stool. The milker should grasp one front teat and one back teat of opposite sides of the udder so that the emptying of the two halves of the udder proceed simultaneously. Owing to the position of the milker's head, the milking cannot be followed with the eyes, therefore he must be guided by the touch and hearing ; for this reason all loud conversation or other vocifera- tion should be interdicted during milking time, be- cause this gives occasion to interrupt the milking. Apart from the loss of time, the interruptions are not good for the cow because they multiply the nervous irritation, causing the animal to become restless, which should be avoided. Many of the best milkers are accustomed to hum a tune while milking, and this is Milk and Milking. li) an excellent practice, as it has a plainly apparent soothing effect on the cow. To learn to milk well it should be practiced slowly, because both hands must become equally expert ; the pressure of the hand on the teat must be applied in reoular alternation, so that when one hand closes around the teat the other hand opens, and the flow of milk into the pail is continuous ; an experienced ear can detect at once if a milker works well. The full hand should grasp the teat as high up to- wards the udder as possible, then the thumb and in- dex close tightly around the teat so as to shut off the milk contained in the teat from retreating into the milk cistern when the pressure on the teat is applied. Then the other fingers, one by one from the index downward, close around the teat in rapid succession and press out the milk. The amount of pressure re- quired to press the teat depends on the more or less developed muscles that encircle the orifice of the teat for the purpose of retaining the milk, which would, without this provision, flow to the ground as fast as produced. Cows in which these muscles are strongly developed are called hard milkers. As soon as the milk has been pressed from the teat, the hand eases up, and immediately the milk from the cistern rushes into the teat, filling it again ; the pressure of the hand and fingers is repeated until the firstly grasped pair of teats do no longer give a full flow, whereupon both hands change to the two remaining teats. During the rest now given to the first milked pair of teats, 20 A A^^'ci' Dairy Industry. the milk has time to collect from the remotest cells of the glands and fill the milk cistern anew. This changing of hands to alternate pairs of teats is re- peated as long as milk will come, and shonld be con- tinned withont interrnption. The more rapid and the more symetrical the work can be performed, the l^etter the cow will allow' herself to be milked, the more and the richer milk she will give. The npward motion of the hand at every repeated closing ronnd the teat prodnces a kneading motion on the ndder, which is of great importance to keep the milk in the cistern in commotion. When the flow of milk seems to have been exhansted b}' the milking, then each teat is taken between the thnmb and index finger and "stripped" downward. This shonld be done merely to insnre an absolntely thorongh removal of all milk from the udder, and shonld never be resorted to when the udder is filled, because it is apt to spoil the udder. Careless removing of all milk from the udder will re- sult in serious damage, because it has, aside from the loss of the milk, a deleterious influence on the glands, tending to interrupt the productive action in the minute cells where the milk is formed. An extended period of lactation has been bred into cows, and we should tr\' to confirm this habit by milking the heifer after her first calf as long as possible, even if the quantity of milk gi\-en is, in time, only a small one, because, allowing her to dry off too soon before her second calf, this habit of drying up is soon confirmed. jMilkinof is a tirinof task and not too manv cows Milk and Milkiiio. 21 should be apportioned to the milker, because a tired milker does not do good work, particularly as some cows are diflficult to milk ; some have an uncommonh' small orifice in the teat, some have strong closing mnscles ; others, again, stri\-e to retain the milk en- tirel}-. This may happen in consequence of the cow feeling pain from the milking as, for instance, in sore teats, or she may be afraid of ill treatment, or try to retain the milk for her calf. To find an explanation for this x'oluntary retention of the milk we must go into the anatomy of the udder. We ha\'e already mentioned the muscles closing the orifice of the teat, we .shall now see that a large quantity of blood is brought from the heart to the udder in strong arter- ies, which, branching out into the minutest vessels, spread through the entire milk glands, enveloping the minutest cells and engendering their action of producing milk, and that this ])lood is led back again to the heart by an equally complicated system of veins that are spread over the entire inner surface of the udder, even down to the point of the teat envelop- ing the entire tube or duct of the teat with a network of veins. If the cow now retains her breath she pro- duces a check on the flow of blood which tries to- return to the heart, and, in consequence, the veins in the udder become swollen and therefore help to close the orifice and duct ; if she manages to repeat this retention of breath — in short repetitions — .she is able to su.spend the flow of milk entirely. The remedy for this bad habit is either to eive some mash or 22 A Nc7c Dairy Industry. drink which the cow likes, or to fasten a bnnch of straw in her mouth ; or, what is nearly always the most effective, to treat her with quietness and patience, at the same time milking persistently. If another person is present to stroke along the under part of the cow's neck she will give up the retention of breath at once. When a cow retains her milk on .account of pain as, for instance, with chapped teats which frequently occurs during first spring pasture, a remedy is only found l)y kind treatment and milking rapidly with a soft hand. Such teats shoidd be care- fully dried after each milking and an ointment applied. Whenever the milker has any reason to suspect any derangement of the cow he should taste the milk from every teat and look at its color ; any carelessness in this respect may result in spoiling the milk from the whole stable. As a rule, milking should be performed only morning and evening, making the intervening time as equal as possible. As to the advisibility of feeding during milking time there are many reasons against its being adopted. When cows are once used to being milked before feeding they are much quieter and the business is concluded much more rapidly ; but there are other reasons of importance, as we shall see later, for not feeding during milking time, particularly for not giv- ing any dry roughage. The dexterous strong hand will always be the best milking machine ; only in case of disease the milking tube should be made use of and no other milkino- Milk and Milking. %\ machine of any kind shonld be applied. One of the most essential requisites during the times of rest for the milk cow is absolute quiet, cruarding her against fright and preventing worr3'ing or violent exertion. A great deal has been said and written about the neces- sity of giving cows daily exercise in the open air, and though nothing is to be said against pasturing in fine weather, it is certain that in very hot or in cold and wet weather the stable or barn is the only proper place to keep the cow in. Every exertion, therefore also that ne- cessarily combined with locomotion, is an expenditure of force, a wear on the muscle, and this wear must be replenished bv an extra amount of feed, the quantity of Avhich will be found in exact relation with the dis- tance that has to be traveled over and the time con- sumed by the animal until it has been able to graze a sufficiency for its needs. It is easy to see that a cow which is enabled to eat all she requires in one hour's time and can then lie down, in perfect rest, to ru- minate and digest, is in an eminently better position to turn her food into milk than the cow that has to walk about, for three or four hours at a time, grazing before the feeling of hunger leaves her. Nothing should, however, be more strongly condemned than the practice of leaving cows in the open air during midday in hot Summer weather. Not only does the intense heat of the sun tend to harden the skin, con- tracting the pores, and thereby diminishing the gen- eral vitality of the animal, but also the constant irritation produced by flies and like insects has a 24 .^ \('7i' Dairy Iiiditstry. notable and injnrions effect on the milk proclnction, which will be the more easily noticed the hioher the nervons s^•,stem of the cow, as an indix'idnal, or as a member of her l^reed, is strnn<4-. Also the sexnal fnnctions are often serionsly affected, postponed or obliterated by this irritation. Having now acqnired a cnrsor\- idea of how milk is formed, and how it shonld be drawn, let ns tnrn to the influences which tend to spoil it, the methods employed to counteract these influences and give milk good keeping qualities. CHAPTER II. Zlbe CDiicjin ot JBacteria in /IIMU^ an^ tbc Con^U tions favorable for tbcir BrceMuo an^ /ll>ulttplv?ino. It is a well known fact that milk undergoes a radi- cal clieniical change only a few hours after it has been drawn. This chano-e, to our visible conception, con- sists in the milk becomino- sour, in other words the milk sui^ar has chang-ed to milk acid and, in conse- quence of this acidit>-, the casein has been separated from its connection with lime and is set free — the milk ''curdles." We j^enerally notice only this first phase, because in itself it is sufficient to unfit milk for further use. A second phase follows in which the ca.sein is parti v dis.solved and fermentation .sets in, bubbles of t>as formino-, and the process is wound up Avith real putrid decomposition and the forming of mould. In the microscope we po.s.sess an instrument that enables us to enter into a study of the composition and life of the lowest organisms, and also a means to enable us to make and study their culture, through which it has been demonstrated that e\-er\- process of decomposition of organic matter is due to the action of such organisms and that they, somehow, disin- 26 A Neiv Dairy Industry, tegrate the more complicated matter and are able io reduce it to the primar}' ingredients of composition. When we look at a fluid or other matter in a state of decomposition, under the microscope, we notice strewn over the entire field a complexity of threads,. longer and shorter tubes or cylinders and egg-shaped bodies, and going on between all these is seen a slug- gish rotatory movement of one or more of the chain of cylinders, possibly, too, a worm-like movement of the spiral threads. By the means of different cultures. we are able to separate the several organisms of this intricacy, when we shall find that the spiral threads and the small tubes are parts or spores of a mould fungus, and the small oval bodies are probably ferments, while those that we saw in the most acti\e motion belong to a series of organisms which have one peculiarity in common — the}' multiply with ex- traordinary rapidity by breaking up into pieces and every one of these pieces forms a young germ. Ever\- liquid, be it of animal or vegetable origin, when ex- posed to the air, contains a large number of such organisms. Milk is no exception and it contains them not only when it commences to turn to visible decomposition but immediately after leaving the udder, yes, even in the lower part of the udder itself. Thus it is easily explained why milk decomposes so rapidly after having been drawn. How and by what route do these organisms enter milk ? Are they already present in the glands of the udder or do the\- enter the milk later? These questions can be posi- The Origin of Bade ri a in Milk. 27 tively answered b}' the assertion that the glands of Eif healthy cow give off milk absolntely free from sncfi organisms. We call such milk sterile. Germs enter, manifestly, from the outside and may therefore be termed a pollution of the milk. These decomposing, oferms are encountered in great abundance where or- ganic matter is in the act of disintegrating into its" composing elements, and of such decomposing matter there is enough around the premises where we draw milk — the stable ; there is, in fact, generally more than necessary, and this is easily brought into contact with the outer cover of the milk glands — the udder.. The location of the udder of our domestic animals; involves a continual exposure to its being soiled by the excrements, urine, dust from the bedding, and' even our most scrupulous cleanliness and precaution cannot prevent, during milking, a quantity of dirt,, particles of straw and fodder, dust, hair and excoria- tions from finding their wav into the milk. It may,, therefore, be taken for granted that the greater part of dirt, and, therefore, the greatest mass of spores, is. derived from the udder, as well from the external part of it as from the openings in the teats, and evenc from the interior milk cisterns. Dairymen know well that the first strippings when commencing to- milk are by no means favorable for the making of cheese, and in many dairies I have found it customary to milk the first few strippings into the bedding. Many of the germs possess very active motion and from a soiled teat find their wav into the interior cL" 'IS A Nca Dairy Industry. ihe chict. Investigation has proven that the first milk drawn contains abont fifty to eighty thonsand bacteria to a tenth of a cnbic inch, while the next following or, we may say, the bnlk of the milking contains about five thonsand to the same quantity, and only the last quarts drawn are nearl}- or entirely free from germs. An immigration of germs by wav of the teats cannot be doubted and is the cause, not in- frequentl}-, of some forms of inflammation of the udder. As we have seen, milk is already polluted at its exit from the soiled udder, and again by the dropping in of dirt from the external part of the udder, and Avhen we consider that dung is nothing more or less than the undigested residue of the fodder eaten, filled with unutterable numbers of bacteria and spores, we rare then able to draw a conclusion as to the direct connection existing between the germs found in milk and those that must be contained in the food. And, in fact, such a connection can be traced all along in the milk and more so in the products therefrom, par- ticularh- when a change of feed occurs or when fodder is fed which is filled with acid or fermenting organ- isms, such as wet brewers' and distillers' grains, spoilt ensilage, musty hay, mouldy grain, etc. Practical -dairymen know perfectly well what evil effect spoilt ■or l)adly kept fodder of ever}' kind has on the quality of the milk and its products. The bedding also on which cows lie or stand has an influence on the bac- teriological contents of the milk ; it will in a great measure depend on the soundness and freshness of the The Orioiii of Bacteria in Milk. ±\) l)eddin<4- wliich is perhaps spoilt by ha\•in.^■ Ijeen housed in l^ad condition and containing spores of mould, rust, smut or other fungus growths. The cleanest and most unobjectionable bedding in every respect is ))ioss peat mot peat moss). A great in- fluence is also exercised by the more or less frequent changing of the bedding, because any carelessness in this respect forces the animals to lie down in the ]:>utrid and fermenting matter. \'ery often milk is still further polluted by the un- clean hands of the person milking, b>' insufflcient cleansing of utensils which during the entire hand- ling of the milk are brought into contact with it, and, lastly, b}' the dust suspended in the stable air, being parth' dust from the feed and parth' from the bed- ding or the floor. We all know that to a certain degree this contamination of milk by the above named matters and, therefore, also by bacteria, cannot be entirely a^■oided and some of these are even absolute!}' necessary for the extraction of the products of milk, but the above considerations clearly demonstrate as does also longtime experience in dairying, that it is b\- no means indifferent what degree of pollution is attained and to which class more especially the bac- terial infection belongs. When we recapitulate all that has been hitherto said, and consider that all these bacteria possess a marked altering and changing influence on the ingre- dients of the milk — some slower, others morerapidh-, and that thev assist and stinnilate one another in 30 A N(-a' Dairy Indus fry. their mission to decompose, we can easily compre- hend how milk that is heavily disseminated with bacteria must lose its keeping qnalities and that a possibility of infection by bacteria, which is bound to produce annoying complications in the milk and its products, is by far greater in a stable with chronic filthiness than where methodical care is taken to sup- press every cause for such infection. All of us have repeatedly heard complaints on the lack of cleanliness in the stables as practiced by man\- farmers ; we meet with these complaints in e\ery agricultural journal, in the reports of dairy commis- sioners, commissioners of agriculture and presidents of creamery associations, but only in Germany have I noticed an effort to bring this degree of uncleanliness more forcibh- unto our conception by the uncontes- table figures of actual weight. Rcuk found, for in- stance, an average of 0.01,"i grammes of cowdung in every quart of milk sold in the city of Halle, of 0.000 grammes in ]\Iunicli and of 0.010 grammes in Berlin. This gives a total of fifty tons of cowdung per annum consumed by the unsuspecting public of Berlin. There cannot be the slightest doubt l)Ut what the same state of affairs prevails in this country. The number of bacteria found in milk gives a fair scale to measure the cleanliness by, but this is the case only when investigation closely follows the milk- ing. Cnopfiowwd. from sixty to one hundred thousand germs in one tenth of a cubic inch, and z'ou Frcndrn- rcich found from ten to twent\--five thousand. The Origin of Bacteria in Milk. 31 A perfect condition of the milk is not merely de- pendent on the cleanliness while drawing it, but also on the carefulness with which milk is kept after milk- ing. It is easily understood that unclean vessels and utensils are able to infect clean milk with bacteria, and that an infection with these will unavoidably follow if milk is left standing, for any considerable time, in the air of the stable impregnated with bac- teria. The greatest influence on the number of bac- teria is, however, exercised by the temperature to which milk is exposed after milking, as the vitality of bacteria is greatest at bloodheat and somewhat above that. The number of o- erms will, according to IVei^ mainly multiply a, at 9.5= ' F. (>. at ('.0° F. (Bloodheat.) (Cellar temperature.) After 2 hours 23 fold . . . 4 fold u ■> i( (iO " , . . r; " " 4 u 2ir, (( , . . S " " 5 u 1S30 u . . 2(1 " " () (( 3.S00 u . . 435 " We see from the above that not even the tempera- ture of the cellar is able to j^revent these germs from propagating, although for the first few hours they are considerably restrained from so doing. The preser- vation on ice has a far better result — a number of observations made were unable to detect any increase worth recording. It is sufficienth' clear from these numbers thnt o2 .1 AVtl' Daii-y Iiiditsli-v. temperature exercises an eiioniious influence on the propa<^atinf^ powers of bacteria and explains the fact, so widely known, that milk which is at once cooled after drawing- keeps much lonoer than nncooled milk. This influence is so o-reat that even a very cleanly drawn but insufficiently cooled milk is apt to contain more bacteria and spoil sooner than a filtlu- milk very strongly cooled. CHAPTER III. IDecompositiou ot /IDilk. We saw a short while ago that all decomposition of oroanic matter is to be attril^iited to the influence and activity of bacteria, and when we see that milk, soon after liaving been drawn, may contain such enormous numbers of bacteria, it is not to be considered strange that it should soon spoil. The first noticeable act of \itality of these inhabitants of milk is generally the souring of the milk, /. c., the transformation of milk sugar into milk acid. A considerable number of such bacteria are now known which cause this transforma- tion, and we know of them further that they have onh- this effect and no other. In the course of this milk acid fermentation, as we often hear it called, not all of the milk sugar is transformed into milk acid but only a certain part of it ; in other words, a certain amount of milk acid is onh- formed and after its for- mation the fermentation or transformation comes to a standstill. ' Bacterial life has ceased to make itself felt, or, to use the expression of the renowned French scientist, Pasteur, " the acid ferment [ fcrDiciit lac- tiijiic) has become latent." The forming of milk acid is, then, the cause of the- casein, the most important of the albuminoids of milk, being liberated from its affinity with lime, and the milk "curdles.'" This kind of curdling is essentially 34 A Neiv Dairy Industry. different from other forms of curdling of milk, which are partially based — similar to the acid curdling — on the action of a living ferment, the bacteria ; partially, however, their appearance is due to the action of a dead or so called chemical ferment. The best known curdling is the one accomplished by rennet which is a chemical ferment. By this pro- cess the casein of the milk is chemically changed, inasmuch as it is tran.sformed after separating the "wheyprotein," a peptonic matter, into so-called cheese or, as we often call this albuminous matter, into para- casein. This rennet curdling is similiar to another curdling of milk, which must be laid to the action of certain bacteria and which envolves a simultaneous transfor- mation of the casein. Certain bacteria are able to cause a ferment to exude, which acts similarly to rennet on milk, forcing it, without previous acidulat- ing to a rennet-like coagulation ; however, in most cases this "bacterial rennet," as we might call it, seems to have the effect of again dissolving the formed cheesy mass and transforming it into a soluble matter — " peptonising the albumen," as the scientist would call it. This bacterial ferment, therefore, be- haves quite differently from the rennet ferment which does not have the dissolving power. It is, however, not excluded that these bacteria may, at the same time or later, separate a second ferment which posesses this very effect to a certain degree. Now, raw milk at all times contains such bacteria Decomposition oj Milk. ''^^^ which tend towards its being curdly, be it either acid or rennet cnrdling ; in most cases the acid bacteria predominate in nnmbers, or, at least, their activity is more readily noted. Aside from this acid-cnrdling, and dependant on the proportion of the acid bacteria to the rennet bacteria, we find that a rennet cnrdling is going on later, simnltaneously or even sooner, and which, in most cases, is not noticeable becanse the acid curdling has already been completed. Only in the case where the number of rennet bacteria predomi- nate by far, we see a curdling without previous acidu- lating which happens in the "cheesy milk." These rennet bacteria — which are also commonly called butter acid bacteria, because they generally possess the i^roperty of producing butter acid — play an im- portant part in the keeping qualities of milk. While we find it easy to counteract or retard the milk acid fermentation, and thereby the acid curdling, we shall see that it is connected with considerable difficulty to avoid the rennet curdling by bacteria. From the foregoing, the reader should receive the impression of the great importance of producing a milk containing the smallest possible number of bac- teria, as upon this depends the success of manufac- turing it into nonnal infants' milk, and, for this same reason, it has been found unrecommendable to sepa- rate the agricultural part, the production of the cow's milk, from the technical part ; the treatment we shall describe later on. No manufacturer of infants' milk, no matter what 3() A Xc7C' Dairy Industry. name it is sold under, can conscientiously guarantee the pureness and healtlifulness of his milk unless he has had personal supervision and control of the physi- cal condition of the cows, the food they ha\'e eaten and the treatment the\" have recei\'ed. /ll^ctbo^9 ot iprcsevvinci /lIMlk. As we have seen in the fore.^oing, the changes in milk, more especially its curdling, are due to the action of bacteria (and to some other fungus spores), we shall, therefore, succeed in preserving it if we can either defer the action of the bacteria or remove them entirely. Both methods have been tried for some time. Efforts have been made to prevent the im- pending souring by adding chemicals, the curdling by so-called j^reservalines, and also to counteract, by refrigerating, these phases of commencing decompo- sition ; but of late all efforts ha\-e been directed to- wards killing the bacteria themselves through the application of heat, so as to secure in this manner the keeping qualities of milk even for a longer period. CHAPTER IV. preservinci /IIMIF? b^ Cbcmicals. I have hesitated for some time to sa\- anything on this subject, because the preservation of milk by chemicals, even if it were justifiable to practice it, is not a procedure that in any manner or form should be contemplated by those for whom I write, nor is it in any way conducive of better results towards attain- ing a milk with keeping qualities sufficiently pro- nounced to serve all requirements, as the methods which will anon be treated, such as cooling. Pasteur- izing and sterilizing, and which are now conceded, and justly so, to be the only methods which should law^fully be countenanced aiiyivJicfc. Yet when I reflect that it is onU' by exposing the misuse of chem- icals for preserving milk that a chance will offer itself to dwell on the pernicious results which ma}' follow, it will be accorded that it may be best to show all there is in it. Of the many and most frequently used ingredients which have been adopted by the smaller retail milk dealers, and are still used, to prevent or cover the im- pending souring of milk (and often in the erroneous supposition of retarding it), none are more generallv used than soda. By its admixture it is brought about that the milk acid, formed from milk sugar by the action of acidulating bacteria, is dulled and, con- sequently, not perceptible to the organs of taste. During this process the multiplication of germs in o8 A Nezc Dairy Industry. ■ the milk has not been connteracted or snspended, but has, on the contrary, been favored. Bacteriology has taught us that an alkaline reac- tion is extremely conducive to the welfare of bacteria, therefore the addition of this chemical may for several hours disguise the acidity, but in no manner will it retard the curdling, with which end in view it has probably been added. Milk treated with soda and kept at a temperature of 80° F. will keep from becoming sour for from twelve to twenty-four hours ; at 95° F. for from six to ten hours, wdiile the curdl- ing, however, has by no means been retarded. A simple experiment will show that the curdling sets in at about the same time in samples of pure milk and in such treated with soda, if kept at the same temperature. As the beginning of curdling in all pure milk is nearly entirely dependant on the quan- tity of milk acid formed therein, it would seem at first sight as if this result were contradictory. We have, however, seen that the curdling of milk is not only enacted by such bacteria, which produce acidity, but also as well by a large number of other species of bacteria which have the faculty to produce a rennet- like ferment. By a low alkaline reaction the propa- gation and multiplication of bacteria in milk is favored and, therefore, also Iheir effect, so that the dulling of the acid is compensated by the more rapid development and increased activity of the rennet pro- ducing bacteria. For this reason the result of such in- vestigations depends largely on the quantity of rennet Preserving Milk by CJieniieals. 30 producing bacteria contained in the milk. If we now try to find ont which bacteria are of the rennet pro- ducing kind, we shall see that they are principally those that li\'e in the uppermost layers of the soil and have been collected with the hay and other fodders, so that we may presume that such milk which has taken up many bacteria in the stable, or which has been strongly polluted after having been drawn, will more rapidly advance toward rennet curdling than milk which has been less infected. Among other ingredients used, presumptively, for the preservation of milk are lime, borax, boracic acid and salicylic acid. Some of these are even now used extensively and have been for many years, for in- stance, by the farmers of the North Sea coast, because for them it was a matter of existence to kee]3 their milk sweet for at least thirty hours to enable it to reach their only remunerative market which, to the greater number, was London. Investigations on the preserving merits of boracic acid, common salt and salicylic acid show the follow- ing results : Adn: 0.02 per 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 Pure milk iixture. cent, boracic acid. ommencei Confirnie . . .after tieiit of Aciditj d by Tasting. 30 hours. . 35 " . 56 " .. 26 " . 26 " .. 26 " .. 33 " . 47 " .. 144 " .. 25 " . Commencement of Curdling. . .after 47 hours . " 47 " <. .. " 60 " salt .. " 30 " .. " 32 " < (( .. " 32 " " salicylic acid. .. " 58 " .. "82 " 11 li ( was not curdl- Ik { ed after 8 days . .after 28 hours 40 -•/ .\7ti' Daii-y Industry. Judo-iiicr from the abo\e, table salt can hardly be called preserving-, while boracic acid is considerably so, and salic\lic acid even more so. With the latter it is qnite noticeable that it pre\"ents the cnrdlino- for an extremely lonj^- period. In regard to the difference of taste prodnced b}- these preserxatives, the admixtnre of boracic acid and of common salt are hardh' to be detected, bnt that of salic\'lic acid x'ery plainly, as it j^i\'es milk a sweetish taste. The preservin;^- effects of these admixtnres was found lessened in proportion to the time which elapsed between milkin^i^' and that of addino" the chem- icals, a natural conclusion when we remember how rapidh" the o-erms multiply. A sample of a "trel)ly concentrated preserving- salt," manufactured at vStuttgart, Cjermany, was ascer- tained to be com]30sed of salt and boracic acid, and an admixture of it in the strength of ().()( )S per cent, added to milk had a preserving effect of '1\ hours. Soxhlct also inx'estig'ated the ])reserving qualities of boracic acid and found that curdling was protracted for : oo hours by an admixture of 0.1 per cent. (;.■; '' '" " 0.1.") 147 " " '' 0.-! " ■1?A •' " - 0.4 ^' Temperature, as well, has a most important influence, and milk with an admixture of boracic acid (1 gramme to 1 liter) was kept from curdling for 'M Prcscrv/no- Milk hy Chciiiicals. 41 hours, if kept at a temperature of ()0° F. or l)elo\v, aud that eveu half of this quautity of the chemical ^vas able, at the same temperature, to preserve milk for 21 hours louo^er. But the value of a preserviuo- cheuiical must not ouly consist in protractino- the curdlino- of raw milk, but also in preserving- it in such a manner that it will not curdle when being- boiled. The curdling at the time of boiling could be pro- tracted for : 10 hours, bv an addition of 0.0.1 per cl. boracic acid. :\\\ - ' " " 0.01 " '' Yet we should never lose out of sight the prime requisite to be demanded from all milk and, therefore, also from preserved milk : it should be absolutely hcalthv, and this cannot be upheld, even in the face of statements made b}' eminent scientists who teach the contrar\- and who claim that these perservatives are harmless or have no deleterious influence whatso- ever. When we reflect for a moment that the public bu\-s our milk " bona fide," intending to use a great part of it for the nourishment of infants whose tender stomach we ma\' compare to a highly tuned and sensiti\'e instrument, wdiose cords connect it, as it were, with the entire ner\'ous system, the brain, the heart, in fact v\ith the aggregate vitality, that for these infants e\-en the purest cows' milk is an absolutely unfit diet, we should find no hesitation in arriving at the conclusion that every tampering with the milk in the hands of the farmer or the dairyman, b}" the use of 42 A Nezv Dairy Iiidustry. chemical admixtures, is little short of criminal. For- merly great efforts were made to establish the harm- lessness of boracic acid, but more recently it has been repeatedly proven that it has a deleterious influence on the mucous membrane of the intestines, even if administered in doses such as we have seen are neces- sary to be added to milk ; this acid has been used not only in milk, but in a large variety of foodstuffs and fluids. Consumers would after some time be troubled with salivation, increased urination, diarrhea, loss of weight and on several occasions in aged persons — death insued. From Norway and Sweeden, where the use of boracic acid seems to be quite prevalent, more so at least than anywhere else, repeated cases of poisoning by the comsumption of such " preserved " milk have been reported. In other countries the use of this acid as a preserving chemical has been entirely con- demned. Also in regard to salicylic acid it has been established that, even in the minutest doses, its con- tinued use is harmful to the entire human organism, more especially to the nervous system, and the French sanitary authcjrities are wageing a lively war against its use as a preserving chemical in the manu- facture of canned and bottled foodstuffs. Equally obnoxious is the admixture of bicarbonate of soda to sour milk, because it has a laxative effect and should certainly not be tolerated ; the same may be said of benzoate potash, hydrogen peroxide and ozone ; even if inoffensive in a j^nre state the trouble here remains Preserving Milk by Chemicals. 4)) in the fact that they seldom can be procnred in that state. The final conclnsion reo^arding the use of all these chemicals is that milk may be preserved for several honrs by nsing them, bnt we also see that the pre- serving action of these salts is not considera1)lc, so' that not mnch is gained. For this reason their use has not become extensive, particularly in cases where milk was to be preserved for several days. As a whole, their use has up to date, been limited to the small milk trade, and all efforts to generalize their adoption which are at present made, or may be made in the future, should find a timely end by the promul- gation, among farmers and dairymen, of more efficient and harmless ways of preserving their milk ; I)}- the instruction of the consuming public as to the dangers of polluted milk, and by the enaction and enforcement of laws and ordinances, in all States and communities, which shall tend to protect the entire population placed under their care from injuries through milk polluted by chemical admixtures, and therewith pre- vent the lives of millions of infants being left at the mercy of unscrupulous greed. By far more recommendable than the chemical sub- stances are those expedients which strive to impede action and multiplication of bacteria through influ- ences of temperature, and which have been known ever since the most ancient times viz.: the cooling and the heating- of milk. chaptp:r v. preservation bv? Cooliiui. From the experiments ])re\"iou.sly noted, it will have become clear what influence temperature has on the propa<;ation of bacteria, and this influence is so much stronger inasmuch as the temperature can be lowered, and, naturally, it was not lon^- l)efore attempts were made to ascertain the keeping qualities oi frozen milk. In some cases this expedient is resorted to where milk is to be preserved for long journeys, h. part of the milk supply of Paris, France, is brought to town in this form, frozen by machinery in vessels with elastic sides and then thawed out before consumption. It is reported that this milk does not differ either in ap- pearance or in taste from fresh milk, and that it can be worked into the products of milk with good results. Also on board of some of the trans-Atlantic steam- .ships frozen milk has been shipped for use for years. This milk is first treated in a refrigerator, and then frozen. The freezing of milk, however, has one seri- ous disadvantage, which consists in the disintegration of milk during the freezing process, which, notwith- standing the previous refrigerating, consumes several hours of time, and, consequently, the cream separates. This frozen block consists of skim milk, on which Preservation by Coolino. 45 there is a layer of cream, while in the inicldle of the block a fiiiiiiel shaped cavitv is formed, which con- tains nnfrozen, bnt very concentrated milk. I 'iet/i, of London, has experimented with snch frozen milk, and fonnd the qnantit)- of cream S.S per cent. ; the .skim milk 04.7 per cent., and the flnid or nnfrozen part was 2r).5 per cent. The chemical analysis gave the following results : Ice or Frozen Part. Unfrozen or Cream. Skim Milk. Fluid Part. Specific weight . . . . 1.0100 l.O-JT-", 1.0525 Water 74.44 92.10 .S0.54 Fat 19.28 O.OS 5.17 Albnmen 2.04 2. SO 5.38 Milk sugar o.o.") :').95 7.77 Ashes 0.52 0.00 I.IS We remark that while the disintegrating action separates the fat and allows it to freeze b}- itself, the other constituents — ashes, milk sugar and albumi- noids — remain in about equal proportion to one another. But it is this very circumstance, the sepa- rate freezing of the milk fat, v.hich is disagreeably conspicuous in frozen milk, because the cream does not again mix so completeh' after having been thawed out, consequently the milk does not present the homo- o-enous fluid that there was before it was frozen. o The analysis of H. D. Riehiuoiui found the frozen part to contain 9().2;) per cent, of water and but 1.2:) per cent of fat. If circumstances do exist under which frozen milk 4() A Nezv Dairy Industry may be looked upon as a desirable commodity, or which hold out a prospect of widening the circle in which fresh milk may be utilized, they must, how- ever, not be looked for in connection with the manu- facture of infants' food, because it is not merely the above mentioned disadvantage of separating the cream, but in frozen milk the bacteria are yet alive, though dormant, and ready to resume their work of ARCTIC COOLER. destruction as soon as they are again brought into congenial temperature. We must ever bear in mind that in the manufacture of milk for infants the keep- ing qualities are of value onh- when accompanied by absolute freedom from infecting germs of all kinds, and that the process of freezing is merely a mechani- cal means of stopping the activity of bacteria and in Pycseyvatio)i by Cooling. 47 no way able to correct any physical defect the milk may have posessed before the freezing. For these reasons the call for frozen milk has ever remained a limited one, while the process of merely cooling milk is one of the ntmost importance, as we shall later see. CHAPTER VI. preservation of /IIMII? b^^ If^eatiucj. We may suppose that the custom of preserving- milk by heating is as old as the cow and the use of the fire. The simplest way to accomplish it is the ©ne in practice in all households over the whole world wherever fresh milk is to be had : the boiling of it in an open vessel, and its subsequent cooling. I\Iilk-boiling pots have been introduced to avoid the boiling over and the consequent disagreeable smell and loss of milk, but we can not go into a discussion foi their merits and failings. The necessity, or the wish to preserve milk is, however, not onh' a desider- atum for households but by far more urgent for dairies, more particularly for such dairies that return the skim milk to the patrons, but also for dairies that ha\'e milk routes in cities and for the whole milk trade in general. It is well known to all who are in an\' manner connected with or interested in the milk trade, how difficult and daint)' an article milk is, on account of its easy decomposition, in all cases where it has to be brought to town fron.i great distances and from locali- ties that could not command the use of refrigerating appliances during the transit. One of the first steps taken towards attaining greater security was simply Prcscrvalioii h\' Ifratiiio. 4^ the boiliii}^- of the milk in lar^e kettles, imitatino- the process of the households. In this \va}" one could well obtain a lon_i;er keeping- quality of the milk of from 1 '2 to 24 hours, but there was the disadvantage to be contended with that the boiled taste is not liked and damages the sale, although it is uniformh' the custom to at once boil the milk when bought. This is quite a peculiar difficulty encountered everywhere, which is, perhaps, accounted for b\- the distrust felt towards boiled milk and the preference given to the raw article and, perhaps, not without good cause ; on the other hand it is positi\-ely a fact that b}- a majorit)' of consumers the taste of boiled milk is not liked, and it ma\- readily be conceded that the specific agreeable taste of unboiled milk is everywhere pre- ferred to the former. Besides, it was found that in following- the way just mentioned of boiling the milk, the addition to its keeping qualities, was entirel}- too short to be of au)- considerable benefit even for the closer markets, and that not much could l^e gained unless the milk could by boiling be preserved at least for a couple of days, or, if possible, to gi\-e il an undefinite durability. Trials in this direction seem to luwe been instituted soon after science had instructed us as to the real causes of decomposition of foodstuffs, and pointed out the path in which a remedy- might be looked for. The pioneers in this line of work seem to have been Pasteur and x\ppert, although their investig;ations did not lead to a single success, if we ma)' judge from the very transient notoriety which -50 A New Dairy Industry. their " preserved milk," as it was called for some time, acquired. The next great success iu this work was to fall to America, b)- Gail Borden's invention of condensed milk, whose innumerable disappointments, however, may well be taken as a measure of the difficulties to be encountered by ever}- advancement connected with the preserv^ation of this, the most necessary of staple foods of humanity. And it is, perhaps, as well that it should be so. Condensed milk, as it is manufac- tured to-day, with and without the addition of sugar, is come to stay among us because it has the great ad- vantage of being reduced in bulk, of reducing the cost of packing, and is a great saving in freight for a comparatively large quantity of milk ; besides, it can be kept in excellent condition for a very long time. The change in taste has, naturally, not been avoidable because even the milk condensed, without the addi- tion of sugar, has the smell and taste of over-heated milk, and a slight reddish hue. After establishing this " condensed milk " a num- ber of other more or less "condensed" milks appeared in the market, but with little success as infants' milk ; they have disappeared (with the exception of one or two brands) as they could not compete with the superior uniformity of excellence in the Borden milk and had against them the brownish color of their pro- duct. Condensed milk is to-day recognized as a boon and .a blessing the world over, its production and manu- Preservation by I leafing. 51 facture although highly interesting is, however, an industr}- by itself, a description of which we cannot here enter into. There had, in the conrse of time, been a distinct parting on the roads pursued by experiments and in- vestigations both purporting to lead to the best method of preserving milk by heating. Some advocated a short heating at temperatures under 212° F., others operated at temperatures o\'er 212°. In course of time the first method was called " Pasteurization," in honor to the French scientist Pasteur, because this celebrated investigator had first adopted the heating of fluids, particularly of wine and beer, to 140° F. as a means for their preservation. The other method, that of applying higher temperatures, was named Steriliza- tion, because the milk was, apparently, made sterih\ that is to say: the milk was freed from the micro-or- ganisms it contained, by which process alone it is possible to attain an unlimited keeping quality for the milk. CHAPTER VII. pasteuri3ation. In some dairies, as we have seen before, the habit of pastenriziiiq^ in common open kettles had been in nse. The next step was the heating- of the milk in tighth- closed kettles, when an enormous improve- ment was at once recorded. The clumsiness of the first apparatus and the desire to combine the milk- heater with the action of the cream separator were the cause of a large number of inventions of different ajDparatus which may now be found in a large num- ber of dairies. The first of these apparatus dates back to 18S:>, when it was patented by Albert Fesca, who termed it " a continuously working apparatus for the preservation of milk by heat," It would be use- less to attempt to describe all these different inven- tions, many of which were used for a ver}^ short time, and it will suffice to give the principle on which it was claimed they performed the preservation of milk. An upright cylinder of galvanized copper, and sur- rounded by a closely fitting steam-jacket, contained a stirring arrangement by which the milk, that entered from below and was forced out through the top, was kept continuoush' moving so as to avoid its scorching at the sides close to the steam-jacket. All these ap- paratus, however, had, and have yet, some defects in coniinoii : one is the aforesaid burning or scorching' of the milk, and another the great insecurity of attaining the desired degree of heating for all the milk passed through the apparatus. As the injection of the milk was continuous it was unavoidable that some part of the milk would at times rise and find the exit without having attained the prescribed degree of heat. As we ma)' suppose all such milk heated to 1().")° or 170° acquired the taste of boiled milk, a defect which, it is safe to say, has hardly a chance to be overcome. The great heat that has to be kept up on the metal sides of the copper cylinder containing the milk is one of the great defects of all of our present pasteurizing machines, and it is certain that this must be remedied before pasteurization will become an operation of uni- versal practice. After what has now been said there would be justice in contending that the present pas- teurizing apparatus will be even less successful if temperatures of not more than 170° F. can be applied.. This will hold good only for the present apparatus ; in other words, all these apparatus have a defect, and a signal defect at that, which involves the scorching before mentioned. This great defect is that the milk is heated for too short a time and that it remains inside of the apparatus for too limited a duration, consequently necessitating a comparatively excessive heating at the sides of the milk to attain an enhanced keeping quality. From this reflection and from the observation that the "• boiled '' taste of milk is already noticeable at r)4 A Ni'iv Dairy I/idi/s/ry. temperatures of 105° to 170° F., it must be con- cluded that the application of a temperature under 170°, but during a more protracted period, must be the right thing, and experiments accordingly made have confirmed this conclusion. We know that all changes which take place in milk must be traced to the ■ presence and activit}' of spores, ferments, etc. We must conclude herefrom that the keeping quality of milk is dependent upon the quantity of such germs contained therein, and that also the success of pasteurization must depend on the efficiency with which it has killed the majority of germs or not. If we, therefore, wish to study the ef- fect of heating on the durability of milk, we have to stud}' the effect which heating ])roduces on the milk fungi, and such experiments have to be carried on by purely bacteriological methods, which in their sim- pler forms we shall have to adopt when testing milk to be prepared for infants' food ; a closer description of the apparatus used will be brought in the chapter treating of the manufacture of artificial mothers' milk. The defects attached to pasteurizing apj^aratus have been clearly demonstrated b}' a large number of experiments. It has been proven that certain bac- teria which had been introduced into the milk, for instance, bacteria of tuberculosis, can be killed at a temperature of 154° to 155° if they are only exposed to this temperature for about thirty-five minutes. From this it was correctlv concluded that other bac- Pasteurization. 55 teria, more especially those commonly contained in milk, conld be killed at a temperatnre as low as 17()° or even 1()7°, if only they conld be kept in this tem- peratnre for a snfficiently protracted period. This conclnsion having been reached and confirmed, it was at once plain that the apparatns to be nsed wonld have to abandon the aim of continnons operation and adopt the principle of periodic filling and emptying. In his exhanstive researches in this direction, Bitter reached most conclnsive resnlts. Beginning again with milk to which bacteria of tnbercnlosis were added, he heated this in an apparatns of his own in- vention to 154° F. for fifteen, twenty and thirty min- utes respective!}-, in separate lots. Corroborating not only the result of his previous experiments in the laboratory, which had shown that thirty minutes were sufficient to kill these bacteria exposed to 154°, it was found that even half of this ^^eriod, fifteen min- utes, sufficed to attain the same result. After this the experiments were extended to examine the effects of pasteurizing on the ordinary bacteria of milk under varying degrees of heat and varying periods of exposure to such heat. It was of the greatest importance to attain a stand- ard of comparison, not only for the preservation of the milk, but also as to its fitness for consumption. The investigations were, therefore, extended to the ap- pearance, smell and taste of the milk treated, and to detect every change in these properties on which the value of milk as an article of consumption so largely f)!) W AvTC Dairy Industry. depends. It was equally of importance to establish a method to enable an examination of the keeping qualities of milk which would manifest the spoilt character of the milk even before this should be ex- ternally visible. Commonly, the keeping quality of milk is judged by the earlier or more protracted appearance of curdl- ing. But milk is really spoilt before this occurs, as the requisites for curdling are all present, so that it needs onlv a slight warming to effect the separation. The curdling of milk is, however, generally the con- sequence of its acidity, and one would believe that the reaction of the milk should furnish a measure for the expected appearance of curdling. In the case of raw milk this measure could, perhaps, be adopted, and, in fact, experiments have recently been made to determine what must be the degree of acidity to make milk curdle at warming ; this will be described later on. The method, even if reliable results are to be obtained bv it, is one of complicated manipulations suited only to laboratory work, and has for this reason not received the attention and application it merits as a means to examine milk brought to market, which in itself is a most desirable investigation. When it, however, comes to the manufacture of milk into food for infants we can not operate with au)- such uncer- tain factors, therefore the degree of acidity in the milk to be used for this purpose must needs be ascer- tained by the manufacturer ; there must be, absolutely, Paslcurization. -"7 no item in the entire process left to haphazard or to chance. We have previously seen that, besides the acidity, there are other causes for the curdliug of milk, that the latter may even curdle without being at all sour, and that there exists a large number of bacteria which possess the property of separating a rennet- like ferment and which, consequently, if they be pre- sent in sufficient numbers, are able to make milk curdle. VaW in which such bacteria predominate Avill curdle \-ery easih- at warming without any ab- normal degree of acidit\' having previously been observed. The reaction of milk is, therefore, not always an unerring sign of probable curdling when warmed, but the warming, itself, rather constitutes the surest experiment towards the examination of milk in this direction, more particularly of such milk which is produced under conditions entirely remote from our observation. This is also true of pasteur- ized milk. All bacteriological investigations of pasteurized and sterilized milk have shown that it is more especially the group of rennet — or butter acid bacteria — which in their endurate form of spores resist the influence of heating better than other bac- teria. For this reason well pasteurized milk contains, when it becomes older, principally these bacteria, and it may curdle in the course of time without percept- abh' increasing in acidit}'. The keeping quality of pasteurized milk can, there- fore, not be examined by the chemical reaction, but 58 A N'eu! Dairy Induslry. rather by the direct experiment of curdling : it must stand warming without curdling, because on this the whole value of the milk, not only for the household but also for the manufacture into its products, is dependant. It has been established that milk heated to 154° and kept there for thirty-five minutes retains but very few bacteria, that the pasteurization was as complete as can be attained by any heating under 212° F. The length of time which such pasteurized milk keeps was found to be from six to eight hours longer than non-pasteurized milk of the same date and both kept at a temperature of 80°, at least ten hours longer at 77° and from fifty to sixty hours longer if kept at 05° F. This enhanced keeping qualit)' may also be regarded as constant and not varying. The time of heating, namely, thirty-five minutes, had been retained because this had been found sufficient to kill the bacteria of tuberculosis, frequent extraction of samples during the process had shown that already after fifteen or twenty minutes none had remained alive, so that a duration of heat- ing for thirty minutes, consecutively, at 155° can be pronounced, under all circumstances, as a thorough pasteurization. Further experiments, with a higher temperature, were made with skim milk, when it was found that 107° kept up for fifteen minutes was en- tirely sufficient. Here the taste of the milk was hardly altered, although the temperature was nearly up to where albu- men coao-ulates, and therefore a change in taste could Paslciirization. 50 be expected. It was, therefore, suriiiised that full milk would stand heating to 1()7° equally well \\ithout ac- quiring the boiled taste, and experiments have con- firmed this supposition. The keeping quality of a milk pasteurized at 1(57° was enhanced by twenty- four to twenty-eight hours if the storing temperature w-as 73°, and sixty hours if the temperature of stor- age was ()0°, and was also enhanced in the same measure as by a pasteurization at 155° lasting thirty minutes. The investigations of Prof. H. L. Russell, of more recent date, have thrown a great deal of light on the effect of pasteurizing on the different species of bac- teria in milk. Excluding from consideration those species that have occurred only sporadically in the cultures of bacteria, fifteen different forms in all have been isolated from normal milk and cream. Of this number, six different forms have predominated in a large degree. When classified as to their effect on milk they are grouped as follows : Species producing lactic acid '^ Species causing no apparent change in milk 7 Species coagulating milk by the production of rennet and subsequently digesting the curdled casein 5 In the same milk, after pasteurizing, only six species were isolated. Of these, three had no ap- parent action on milk, while the remaining three species curdled the milk by the formation of rennet and then subsequently digested the same b}- the ac- ■GO A Ncic Dairy Industry. tioii of a tryptic eiiz}"ine. The lactic acid producing vSpecies that make up the majority of individual germs in the raw material were entirely destroyed by the pasteurizing process. This class, as a rule, does not form endospores, consequently they are unable to resist the heat employed in pasteurizing. In the normal milk it is to be noted that while the majority of individual germs belong to the lactic acid producing class, yet a larger number of species producing little or no acid are to be found in milk. These are, doubtless, the organisms derived from ex- traneous sources. The>' are germs associated with dirt and excreta, and gain access to the milk durino- the milking. Baccillus mesentericus vulgatus, the common potato baccillus, was frequently isolated from the pasteurized as well as from the raw milk. As these organisms that are thus associated with filth of various kinds are able to persist in pasteurized milk by virtue of their spores, it emphasizes the well- known lesson that scrupulous cleanliness is an abso- lute essential in dairies that pasteurize their milk for direct consumption. Cleanliness in milking dimin- ishes materially the amount of this class of bacteria that gains access to the milk. The lactic acid bac- teria, those that are essentially milk bacteria by pre- diliction, are the forms that are habitually present in the milk duct. These are the bacteria that cannot well be kept out even by the greatest care. They are, however, the forms that succumb most easily to the pasteurizing process. Pasteurization. <)1 In reviewing these results it may seem singular that the duration of keeping qualities of pasteurized milk, particularly at higher temperatures, is not very much greater than that of non-pasteurized milk, so that the result does not seem to be very encouraging. But we must remember that milk is seldom exposed to such a temperature as 7:)° in the longest transits. Therefore, if properly cooled before transportation and the most common precautionary measures are observed (such as keeping some ice near the cans or using refrigerator cars) results will generally prove satisfactorv. It will be readih- comprehended that milk will keep so much better after pasteurization the more rapidly and strongly it is cooled after heat- ing. The larger the transporting vessels are the more easily will the temperature be kept down. If we now consider all conditions, it may be stated with certainty that the keeping quality of properly pasteurized milk will be thirty hours, even during the hottest summer da>s, and. at lower temperatures, naturalh' ever so much longer. A matter of the highest importance, aside from the enhanced keeping- quality, is that in such milk cream will rise and be- come butter just as easily and the butter not have the slighest trace of taste to distinguish it from other butter made of non-pasteurized milk. Pasteurizer and cooler should, naturally, be mounted in a manner to avoid as much as possible the exposure of the pa.s- teurized milk to the air. Pasteurizing machines find the greatest field of utilitv in creameries where skim 02 A Alezu Dairy Lidustry. milk is returned to the patrons, and as they are capable, when properly managed, to disinfect the skim milk at a trifling cost from the pathogenic — or disease-producing bacteria — that is, from those that are apt to carry and spread infectious diseases such as, for instance, those of tuberculosis, typhus, foot and mouth disease, scarlet fever, etc., they should be in general us-e. In several European countries — Ger- many, for instance — the creameries are obliged b)' law to make use of them. When we refer, however, to the object of this treatise : the manufacture of milk into a healthy food for infants, it must be said that the pasteurizing machine does not find an employ- ment in this process because a higher standard of efficiency must be aimed at, yet it seemed advisable to explain the effects of pasteurization so as to be able, later on, to define the difference between it and sterilizing, and avoid the confusion that in the minds of many now exists with reference to these processes. CHAPTER VIII. 5terili3iiuj. Pasteurizing does not kill all bacteria as we have seen, because either the temperature has not been high enough, or, as is the case in the connnon appar- atus with continuous working, has not acted long enough on the milk, partly because the endurate forms the spores of certain bacteria can well endure temperatures of 212° F., particularly if these are not kept up for a longer time. Investigations have shown that there exist, com- paratively, not a few bacteria that are able to with- stand high temperatures ; Co/in^s investigations have proved that the hay bacillus (bacillus subtilis) will at a temperature of 120° F., at which, ordinarily, other organic life commences to die, still increase rapidh-, and Miquel found a bacterium in water, which not only endures perfectly a temperature of 15S°, but prospers in it ; for which reason it was named "bacillus termophilus." Now, if bacteria are able to resist, even in their vegetative period, the part of their lives in which they, apart from a great display of activ- ity and multiplication, are keenly susceptible to out- ward influences, to such high temperatures which are commonly considered as the limit of organic life, or, if they ever require such temperatures to deploy their 64 A A'Civ Dairy Industry. full vital energies, how much greater uiust then be the possibility that these bacteria will in another, their endurate form, be able to resist such higher temperatures? We know, in fact, quite a number of bacteria whose endurate forms, the spores, are able to endure such intensive heat as would at once kill all other organic life. The baccillus subtilis has been cooked for two hours and a half, consecutively, at 212° and not lost its power to germinate, and an- other investigator found that this ironclad baccillus could be killed only at 240° of heat. Globig iowwdi a baccillus living on the potato, the " red jjotato bac- cillus," the spores of which could be pronounced dead onlv after having remained in steam of 212° for six hours, and in steam under pressure at 2o5° the same spores were vet alive after forty-five minutes. It will, therefore, easily be understood that in a process like the pasteurizing, which seldom exceeds 100° to 17.")°, there very frequently remain live bac- teria and spores in milk, wdiich are sure to spoil it after a longer or shorter time. The desire, however, to give milk keeping qualities, not only for days but for weeks and months, is an urgent one, and, there- fore, all efforts have been concentrated to destro)' all bacteria b}' the application of heat above 212°, and thereby to reach the desired keeping quality. Re- viewing the observations hitherto enumerated of the temperatures at which the spores of several of the more resistant kinds of bacteria may be killed, we sse that milk which contains, for instance, the wide- spread and coiiiinon baccilhis subtilis would have to be heated for a considerable time to 240° to insure any degree of security of its having- been killed. Pasteur records amongst his experiments of steriliz- ing milk that the hay baccilhis was found killed only after a heating of several hours' duration to 2;)0'' , or after heating for half an hour to 260° F. To such excessive heat we cannot, however, expose milk with- out its palatability being seriously impaired, so that sterilizing at such temperatures is practically not to be thought of. We note that in the beginning all these experiments tended merely to produce a keeping quality in the milk, and only in the course of time the expedienc}- became apparent of combining with it a sanitary amelioration b}' its thorough disinfection. We shall first review the effects of sterilizing from the standpoint of longer keeping qualities, and turn thereafter to the merits attained by the disinfection. Among those that entered the occupation of building sterilizing apparatus, two distinct methods were very soon adopted — the one heating to high temperatures and then hermetically sealing the vessels containing the milk, the other advocating a repeated heating and intermediate cooling at different degrees of tempera- ture, which is termed " fractionized sterilization." Ty lid all was the first to advocate this method, and Dalil adopted it, cooling milk first to ~)~^° and then heating it to l.")S° for four consecutive times and cooling the milk to 104° between each heating, the separate operation consuming one hour and a half ()() A Nciv Dairy luditsiry. each, and after the last cooling another heating- for half an hour to 212° was given, and then finally cooled to r)0°. This method was, as we readily com- prehend, far too tedious to be extensively adopted or applied, later on it was modified to but two heatings at 158° and the last heating to 212°, so that only three heatings in all were given. But even this re- duction was not sufficient to bring it into general use, also the costs of the repeated manipulations were by far too heavy. It was then reduced to but one heat- at li)4:°, a subsequent cooling, and then a final heat- ing to 215°. The manner of putting this method into practical operation was that the milk was filled into glass bottles with the porcelain stopper and wire closing arrangement. These bottles had been previ- ously sterilized in flowing steam of 212*-' for half an hour. The rubber rings or washers used with these stoppers were boiled in water and soda until every particle of taste or smell had vanished ; the rings were now drawn over the porcelain stopper by scrupulously clean hands, the bottles filled by a bot- tling apparatus and placed in the sterilizing chest. This chest was fitted with a patent arrangement for closing down the wire fastening without opening the steam chest (the object being to allow the air in the bottle to escape during the boiling of the milk) but to seal the bottles hermetically immediately after. The temperature produced in the sterilizer by the steam is descernable on a thermometer, which is fixed in the covering or hood of the chest with the quick- Slcriliziuo-. 07 silver bulb inside in contact with the steam. In some of these apjDaratns an electric bell has been connected with the thermometer in a manner to close the contact and ring when the quicksilver has risen to the prescribed degrees of heat ; but as the heating has to be done very gradually, or a large number of bottles wall crack and burst, the operator's hand is re- quired constantly on the steam valve and his eye on the thermometer, so that this electrical arrangement becomes entirely superfluous. The inconvenience of losing bottles and their con- tents by bursting was practically overcome by the immersion of the bottles in a water bath, and the success of this simple expedient seemed to prove a lasting one until a singular defect to it appeared, which very speedily caused the abandonment of the water sterilization as far as it was applied in the pro- duction of normal infants' milk. It was found that the bottles used in the water sterilization began, in the course of time, to loose their brilliancy, their sur- face becoming dull and gritty by the action of minute particles of lime which were deposited b}' the boiling water, and which defied all efforts to remove them by mechanical or by chemical means of cleansing. Al- though this dullness of the glass did no harm to the contents of the bottles, yet it w^as found imj^ossible now to control the proper cleansing of the bottles, simply because they retain a look of uncleanliness, no matter what sum of exertion has been expended on their cleansing. G8 A Ayti' Daily Industry. In sterilizing by steam it is necessary that all air be driven ont of the apparatns, becanse a niixtnre of air and steam gives very nnsatisfactory resnlts ; the apparatus should, therefore, be fitted with an escape pipe, through which all air may be driven out and a sufficient amount of steam may also continuously es- cape during the entire duration of sterilization, so as to maintain a circulating movement of the steam in- side of the apparatus ; this is essential to equalize the temperature in all parts of the apparatus, for, with- out such movement of the steam, either the bottles nearest to the entrance of the steam will be over- heated or those more remote not attain the desired degrees of heat. We have seen that a thermometer is attached to the hood of the apparatus to indicate the heat of the steam as it fills the inside, enabling the operator to regulate the flow in such a manner as to secure a steady rising of the temperature not ex- ceeding ~i° F. in every minute. But the tempera- ture of the steam in the apparatus is no indication of the temperature of the milk in the bottles to be steri- lized, and to know which is of the greatest import- ance. For this reason it is necessary to fix a second thermometer in the hood of the apparatus, exposing the scale of degrees outside, whilst the quicksilver bulb reaches down and dips into the milk in one of the bottles inside. This bottle, or rather a bottle with the neck trimmed off, so as to offer a wider mouthed opening for the thermometer bulb to dip into, is so fixed on a bracket that the thermometer de- S/cr/iiziiio-. ()i) sceiidiiio- with the hood or cover will exacth' dip into this milk (see Fig. IS), and consequently the read- ino- on this thermometer w ill orive a fair indication of the degree of heat attained in all the bottles. When bottles of different sizes are sterilized simnltan- eoush', then one of the largest sized bottles must be nsed to hold the thermometer bnlb, for we must take account of the prescribed time for sterilizing from the time the largest bottles in the aparatus ha\-e reached the desired degree of heat. Whatever time may have been fixed upon for the various periods of sterilization or combinations of alternate heating and cooling, the>" should, however, be closely adhered to, as e\'ery variance therefrom, or negligence in this respect, will at once tell on the keeping qualities of the milk. Let us, however, bear in mind that all attention and neatness during the process of sterilization is wasted and futile, if the milk has not been produced and handled with the utmost cleanliness, and here, again, we may obser\e that it is not so much the bacteria floating in the air that have to l^e feared and guarded against, than those that cling to matter of every description : vessels, utensils, hands, etc. The prime object to be attained, after having applied the proper sterilizing, is the hermeticall)' sealing of the milk bottles before the outer air can come into re- newed contact with the contents. In what degree this last and most important requisite is attained, de- pends naturalh' on the efficiencx" of the closing r.r- 70 A Attc Dairy Ii/diis/ry. rangeiiieut of the bottles, and it was natural that very soon a large number of patent devices sprang into ex istence, some absolutely without any \-alue, others too expensive to find general adoption, and it may be safely a\'erred that the ideal sealing for milk bottles is yet a thing of the future. The porcelain stopper and wire closing arrangement, has grave defects ; those that have the wire ends fixed in holes at the side of the neck of the bottle can hardly be properly cleaned, as colonies of acid bacteria become lodged in these holes from where they are not to be got out. Manv do not close hermetically, the tension of the wires being unequal, stronger on one side than on the other ; no acid being admissible in the cleansing of these bottles on account of its liabilit}' to corrode the wire, they are with difficulty kept clean, the wdiole wiie fixture darkens in the course of time, be- comes rusty, discolors the neck of the bottles and im- parts to them a filtlu', slovenly appearance ; lastly, the wire and stopper, hanging to the bottle, are much in the way where these bottles are to be used for feeding the contents to the infant direct after pulling on a feeding nipple. The greatest defect, however, adhering to tliese bottles, and the one which principally makes them imfit to be utilized in the manufacture and dispensing of food for infants, is that neither the manufacturer nor the buying public are able, by the outward ap- pearance of the bottle or fastening, to detect if the sLerilizing effect has been complete, or if it even has Sterilising. 7 1 been so at the time of closing the bottles, if it is so yet at the time of sale or consumption. A bottle of milk with the wire fastening may look all right when it comes out of the sterilizing apparatus, but if there has existed the slightest inequality of tension in the wires, and the stopper sits one-sided, or with the pres- sure drawn to one side only, then, when cooling the reduction in the volume of milk, produces a suction strong enough to draw in some of the outer air into the bottle, and with this air, naturally, germs enter. As a consequence, such milk is no longer sterile, but is likely to turn at an\' time and produce results which, while the}' may prove disastrous to the con- sumer, are sure to damage the reputation of the man- ufacturing dairyman. Several cases of this kind re- curring in a -neighborhood are ampl}- sufficient to ruin the manufacturer and bring discredit on the article it- self. Another porcelain stopper, made b\- TiuipL\ aban- doned the wire locking and trusted to the atmospheric pressure to do the sealing ; this would work well and neatly as long as the top of the bottle was ground to a perfectly smooth flange, to which the rubber washer would adjust itself snugly, but this bottle did not find extensive application — firstly, because it was too ex- pensive and, secondly, because during sterilization the expanding gasses from the bottle frequently lift the stopper and washer, which then do not settle down again to their place, so that such bottles have to be readjusted and go through the sterilizing pro- cess again. 72 .-1 Ay'7(' Dairy Industry. It should be understood that it is the manufactm-er's most urgent interest to offer in the market only such bottles that will plainly show by an outward and in- fallible sign that their contents are in perfect condi- tion, and this sign must be one easily recognized so that the consuming public will learn to look for the recognized mark when l)uying milk. SoxJilct was fully conyinced of this necessity, and constructed an automatic rubber sealing, which works well enough when used only on the small sterilizing apparatus constructed for family use, where the l)ottles, after sterilizing, can be handled with care, but in produc- tion on a larger scale where Iwttles haye to be sent long distances and l)e exposed to shaking in cases or boxes, the Soxhlet rubber seal is quite unreliable ; l^esides, the mouth of the bottle has to be ground into a conca\'e, which operation raises the price of the bottle to a figure wliich ])laces it outside of considera- tion for general adoption. Slutzcr in\-ented another automatic sealing stopper, which, although it sits firm and works well, is so misshapen as to be most difficult to clean, also its price is about three times as high as what can be allowed for an automatic sealing deyice. The requisites demanded from a bottle to undergo sterilization and for holding infants' milk ma\- be summed up in the following points : The material must be absolutely crystal clear, so that imperfect cleansing ma)' be easily detected ; it must be free of air bubbles, and, in manufacturing, must be very gradually cooled to ])roduce a non-brittle glass. S/cri//z'//{<^>'. 7.') The l)est color for the 1)Ottle is none at all, bnt li,L;bt lines of color nia>- be admitted if reqnired for dis- ting-nishino- the different i^-rades of milk. The shape shonld be conical and runnintr gradnall}- into the neck, avoiding- the bnlg-in^^ ont at the neck common to medicine bottles. The inside snrface of the bottom shonld be well ronndcd towards the sides, so that no sharp fnrrow may exist inside for any sediment to stick in. Everv bottle with a flaw or bnbble should be re- jected, as this will make it burst at sterilizino- ; the glass shonld not be too thick or heavy, and no letter- ing- of an^• kind should be moulded into the face or sides of the bottle, because these raised letters obstruct an equal contraction whilst cooling- and thereby cause it readilv to burst. The neck of the bottle should be of equal width in all sizes used, so that the same feeding nipple may be applied to all. The stopper must be an automatic sealing one, that is, it must allow the air and gas.ses which are driven out by the boiling to escape without lifting or moving the stop- per, so that as soon as the pressure from the inside relaxes the stopper shows sufificient adheasi\-ene.ss to close firmlv around the mouth and neck, excluding the outer air ; in fact, it must sit on so firmly as to exclude all possibility of being shaken or pushed off during transportation, but must yet allow of perfectly easy removal by hand. Such a stopper can naturally not have the shape of a plug, but is a hood or caps of the .simplest outline, as seen in Fig. '20, yet afford 74 A Neza Dairy Industry. ing the greatest facility to be turned inside out for the purpose of cleansing. The only disadvantage of such a stopper as compared with the porcelain and wire arrangement is that it is more liable to get lost or mislaid. After having taken every precaution to make the process of sterilizing effective, we naturally evince a desire of acquiring a knowledge of the degree in which we have been successful, and this desire be- comes an absolute necessity when we turn to manu- facturing milk into food for infants. As by sterilizing, we have given the milk good keeping qualities, we may keep the milk stored in a cool place until the investigation which we shall have to institute is conchided, and shall have shown us just how long the milk, which we have sterilized at a cer- tain date, will remain pure and sweet if kept at a tem- perature of 00° F. or below. The apparatus which we make use of (termed a thermostat) is an incubator constructed expressly for the purpose of hatching bacteria or breeding certain of their species ; its outward appearance and constuc- tion are shown in cut on opposite page representing a machine built by F. Sartorius, in (kjettingen, (rer- many, where it is extensively used, and has been found entirely reliable. There is a heating chamber in the center with glass pannell-clad door which may be darkened by prefixing a felt pannelling. Bacteria grow more rapidly in the dark. This chamber is completely encased by a water chest, \v, the inner snr- S/<'/'///c///o'. 7."> face being- of corrugated metal sheatliiiig, so as to present a larger heating surface. The filling of this Fig. 8-THERMOSTAT. waterchest is through a small tube, a, with distilled or rain water. Enveloping the water chest is a space filled 7() A iVf-'ec Dairy hidttslry. with isolatiiit^' material ; at k we sec the automatic regidator, an exceedingly sensitive and ingenions ar- rangement, registering changes in the temperature of one-fifth of one degree ; t, is the thermometer ; b, d and 1, is an arrangement for snppKing moist air to the heating chest; o, is the ventilating chimney; c, m and s, the heating apparatus, coal oil or benzine being used in the lamp. Now, from each days pro- duction of sterilized milk we retain two sample bottles, and pasting a label on the side of each bottle, record on it the date of sterilizing and grade of milk contained in the bottle. The bottles are now placed in the heating chest of the thermostat and the regulator set to main- tain '.).~)°, F., which is the temperature most propitous to the propagation and multiplication of bacteria. ]\Iorning and evening these bottles must be taken out, their contents shaken and attentively investi- gated as to any change in ,tji^i^' condition. If any bacteria or their spores ha\-e escaped the effects of sterilization then they will speedily be brought to development and their action on the milk noticeable. The time, therefore, which milk will keep in un- changed condition in this incubator is a fair indication of how long such milk will keep in good condition when kept at lower temperatures. Milk that will keep perfect in this brooder for twenty-four hours is likely to keep perfect for one week at ()()°, or l)elow, and milk that keeps for eight days in the chest with- out curdling will, undoubtedh-, keep good for eight \.:2ks if kept in an ordinar}- cellar, and ever so much Sfcri/ising. i i longer when cooled with ice. This testing shonlcl be carried through most strennousK- if one would avoid disagreeable surprises and serious losses. We leave this subject, referring all those merely in- Fig. 9-WORKING PARTS OF THERMOSTAT, terested in sterilization of milk to the treatise written by Alonrad on "Pasteurization and Milk Preservation," where a synopsis of such apparatus is given, and to the article by E. x\. de Schweinitz in the year book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1S'.)4. CHAPTER IX. TLbc /IDortaliU^ of Knfants. Cow\s milk is pure only in the upper part of the health)- animal's ndder— the lower parts of the milk, principally that contained in the milk cisterns ad- joining the teats, are, as has been previously shown, more or less polluted by "^erms that have found their way through the ducts in the teats. Impure milk may be, however, milk physically decomposed by distemper in the cow or b}- the admixture of filth, dust, hair, scales from the outer skin of the udder, germs of lower organisms, or by all these conditions combined. Watchfulness as to the sanitary condition of the cow and the observation of a scrupulous clean- liness in every handling of the milk tend to lessen the evil influences just named. It is an easy matter for every farmer or dairyman to convince himself, by a simple experiment, of the great difference in keep- ing qualities that result from improved conditions whilst milking. Let him enter his stable at a given morning and milk three cows into the milk pail he has been using all along and without any change of accustomed con- ditions ; let him mix this milk and take out a test sample for setting ; let him then take the next three cows, lead them out into the open air, wash the udder, if soiled, with warm water, and dry thoroughh' with The Mortality of Infants. 70 a clean towel, or, if not soiled, rnb gently, but thoroughly, with a moist towel, so that all dust, hair and scales may cling to it, then wash hands in water and soda, dry them, and milk into a new milk pail which has previously been well sterilized b}- boiling water and soda, and letting the first five strippings from every teat run to the ground, then mix the milk of these three cows by itself, as of the lot before, and place the test sample b\' the side of the first ifi the same place of storage, at a temperature of ()()° or less, and he will remark that the first sample to " turn " will be the one of the stable-milked cows, which will take place in about from twenty to twenty-five hours, whilst the sample from the second lot, the one pro- duced under improved conditions of cleanliness, will keep sweet for from ten to fifteen hours longer than the first. After improving the conditions of milking, we mav turn our attention to the straining ; and here, it must lie confessed with regret, we find, in general, a sorrv condition of affairs. \\\ far too man}- farmers do not catch the meaning of the idea to be convened \\heii speaking of microscopical minuteness. They belie\'e that dirt, to be perceptible, must be \-isible, and the double or trebly-folded cloth in the strainer is con- sidered quite an extra concession to cleanliness and fancifulness ; }et, minute particles of dirt do pass, detectable in the aggregate even without the use of the microscope as a horrifying mass of filth. A very simple experiment ma}" be made tocon\-ince »so A Aytc Dairy [iidiisti-y. as of the quantity of dirt remaining- in tlie average sta1)le-strained milk. Take a clean glass vessel, of the shape shown at Fig. 24, and containing about one gallon of the fresh strained milk, fasten six inches of rubber tube over the mouth of the bottle and a small Fig. 24-TESTING FILTH IN MILK. glass test tube to the other end of the rul)l)er tube, turn upside down, place in a suitable rack and let it remain standing for twelve hours. The dirt con- tained in that milk has now settled down to the bottom of the small glass tube ; this is removed by tightly closing the rubber tube with thumb and index The MortalHv of Infants. SI finger, turning the large vessel right side np and pul- ling away the rubber tube from its mouth. The contents of the smaller tube are now poured over a Ijlottiug paper filter from which, after drying, the actual amount of dirt in the milk may l)e ascer- tained by weight.' In this manner the percentage of dirt in the daily milk brought to market was ascer- tained for all the laroer cities in Germany, and, as a result, figures were published that shocked the public and were pronounced incredible exagerations, until a leading scientist in dairying technics undertook to convince the pul)lic b}' exhil)itiug these dirt accumu- lators in operation at fair grounds and at all suital^le occasions. The majorit}' of milk consumers in cities wheri be- stowing a thought on the origin of the milk brought to their home by the trim milk wagon, picture the farm dairy as a scene of rural bliss and healthful surround- ings, where clean glossy cows browsing in the sunshine on flowery pastures, or peacefulh' hing down, chewing the cud in the shade of lovely trees, have all the care and attention their importance merits. Against this fair picture, let us hold up realit\' in the form of an abstract from the able report of Dr. Howard Carter, milk inspector of the cit\- of St. Louis, Mo.^ for IS!)."")-'*.)!;, covering 4;)() dairies with *.>,()()(.) cows: "The sanitary condition of a majorit}' (of dairies-] howexer, is vicious in the extreme, and their presence in the thickly populated district should not be toler- ated. Deprivation of natural food, light, air, exercise 82 A Neii' Dairy ludusiry. and natural environment can result only in impaired health, whether in man or animal. There are 322 dairies having no pastures, 126 having neither pasture nor cow lot, 77 having improper facilities for cooling and storing milk, or none at all. The breathing space is entirely insufhcient. The majority of dairies are badly ventilated and poorly lighted, being more or less entirely destitute of sunshine ; in not a few there is almost complete and perpetual darkness. In some instances the food for the cows is boiled within the stables — the atmosphere of which is rendered still more oppressive bv the steam and smell arising from the boiling mash; these, added to the ammoniacal odor of decomposing urine, produce an insufferable atmos- phere. Of the milk producing properties of such food as brewers' grains and the waste products of dis- tilleries and vinegar factories, there appears to be but little doubt, yet authorities who have more thoroughly investigated the subject assert that the quality of milk produced under such feeding is less stable in its constituents, the fat more readily broken up into the various fatty acids, the casein less soluble and the whole product more liable to the various forms of de- composition than milk produced from healthy animals under natural environments. But the result of such a system of stabling and feeding is, however, a per- version of the natural appetites and functions of the animals subject to them. This is exemplified in the refusal of such animals to drink water even in hot weather. The continued use of partially fermented The Mortality of fiifaiits. 83 moist food producing an analogous condition to that of chronic alcoholism in human beings. Such condi- tions inevitably result in diminished vitality and a greater susceptability to disease, although our local dairymen profess a different opinion. ''There exists a lamentable and disgraceful disregard for the cleanliness of the cows themselves. The ani- mals are, for the most part, "confined in stalls and de- prived of bedding, standing out their wretched lives upon hard board floors ; they lie down in their own evacuations, which adhere to the flanks and udders in dense masses. Under these conditions the produc- tion of a pure milk supply is impossible. Milk thus collected unavoidably contains impurities of all kinds, consisting chiefly of stable litter, manure, epithelial scales from the teats of the cow as well as from the hands of the milkers." The report goes on to say that about seventy-five per cent, of the cows in these dairies were found to be affected with tuberculosis, and the doctor urges the necessity of bestowing a greater share of public and legislative attention than heretofore on this mat- ter, being one of vital importance. It is simply wonderful what the public will stand in the way of filthy milk, as far as this is an estal)- lished fact for the various large cities in Germany, and, if we may consider the frequent complaints found in the various agricultural and dairying periodicals of this countrv as an indication in this direction, it must 84 A Nf2i' Dairy hidusfry. be conjectured that the state of things in America is hardly better, if not worse. According to the most favorable calculations it was found that tlie inhabitants of the city of Berlin con- sumed, annually, in their milk, no less than one hun- dred thousand pounds of cow dung, and the inhabitants of the cit\- of New York will consume at least three times this amount per year. This is the first point to be remedied. When we consider that the new- born babe consumes only milk, and that a majorit}' of the ailments that are liable to befall it take their origin in the stomach, we must come to the conclu- sion that impuritN of the milk must frequently be the cause. The death rate of infants is appaling. On an average, twenty per cent, of all children born die during the first \ear of their life, and, out of every hundred infants that die, eighty at least have been fed on cows' milk. But even the healthfulness of mothers' milk is entirely dependant on the physical condition of the mother. Statistical investigation has shown that while of one thousand infants nursed by mothers belonging to the wealthy aristocratic classes onlv 'u would die ; the mothers of the poorer classes would lose '.\~~i out of every thousand of their infants in the .same time and period of life, and even this terrific loss does not tell the whole story, as large numbers of those surviving drag an impaired consti- tution through life, owing to the deleterious effects of the damaged and poor milk imbibed during infancy. 'Hw Morlalilv of hi fan Is. So But mothers that nurse their own infants have, for one reason and another hecome very scarce, so that there is not one class of society in which natural nursing- is not on a steady decline, and it is not exclu- sivelv the aristocrat that shirks this duty or the woman that has to gain her livlihood in the factory-, hut it is just the same with the population in the countrv. I have lived for nine )-ears near a (xernian \-illage of over two hundred souls, and, on careful in- vestigation, I was unable to hear of one single case during that entire period where a mother had given her infant the breast. The hiring of the services of a wet nurse is beyond the means of most mothers and even those that do resort to this expedient generally find the nurse the terror of the household. Boiled milk is generally considered a proper food for infants, and people have thought that to boil milk at home and dilute it with water was all that had to be done to ensure a faultless article of food for the infant. A number of receipes have, in the course of time, been brought forward and tried, such as pepton- izing the cow casein by the admixture of pancreas ferment or the addition of preparations of white of egg, not one of these compounds has, however, been able to receive the support of medical science, and very justly so. Simple, but not always effective, ap- paratus — like the SoxJilct — have been invented for sterilizing infants' milk at a small cost in ever\- house- hold, yet their utility is, in a great measure, de- pendent on what the quality and condition of the S') .7 \('7C Daily Industry.. milk has been before it reached the house. We know now positively that all germs contained in fresh milk : baccilke, spores and ferments beoin to multiply im- mediately after being drawn from the cow with an astonishing rapidity, so that milk produced under the most favorable conditions may contain millions of germs if several hours have elapsed between the drawing from the cow and the boiling or sterilizing of it. And even if we could remedy this defect by keeping a cow in every household, we should not be producing an infants' food that could be pronounced a fit substitute for the mother's breast, for we must ever remember that C(nv\s milk is not n/ot/icr^s niilk.^ and that the neze-born babe does not possess the stoma eh of a ealf Let us look at a comparison of the two milks taken from one hundred and fifty analyses : Cow's Milk, Woman's Milk. Water 87.5 per cent. 88.25 per cent. Casein 8.0 " 0.75 " Albumen 0.5 " 1.00 Fat ;5.5 " 3.50 Milk sugar .... 4-S " 0.25 Ashes 0.7 " 0.25 100.0 ^' 100.0 We remark at a glance the great difference of pro- portions in the various constituents of the two milks, and when we consider that an infant's stomach is an exceeding dainty apparatus, it will be at once clear TIk' Moiialitv of Iiifaiifs. S7 that these differences ma}' be the cause of orave de- rangements, and this, in fact, is the case. The principal difference, and the one which before all others claims correction, is the excess of casein in cow's milk in a form not of easy digestion ; further- more, the scantness of milk sugar and of albumen. Medical authorities do not seem to entirely agree on the equality of the chemical composition of the casein in cow's milk and in human milk ; we may, however, without attempting to express an opinion on this matter, fix our attention on the difference in digestabilit\- of the two caseins, as this is of prime importance in the process of the infant's nourishment. If a small quantity of w^oman's milk be taken and a few drops of extract of rennet added, in imitation of the process inacted in the infant's stomach, it will be seen that this milk coagulates in the form of finest flakes, looking more like very minute grits, while, if we repeat this experiment with cow's milk, we shall see the casein formed into large, more or less com- pact, lumps. The digesting juices of the infant's stomach are able easily to reduce the finely curdled casein of mother's milk, but the lumps of the cow casein are not easily digested, cause inconvenience, and are, as we all have had occasion to observe, fre- quently ejected from the infant's stomach. To reduce the amount of casein in cow's milk by diluting with water is a proceeding adopted by many ; it is not, however, a recipe to bring the milk any closer in composition to mother's milk, as, by so doing, we re- 88 .-i Arec Dairy Industry. cliice yet further the already deficient percenta.^e of milk ,su<>'ar, albiiiiieii and fat, the latter, especialh-, fur- nishing' the oreater part of strength in the infant's food, and it is exactly this strength which is so im- portant a matter to be kept up. Our aim in preparing a reliable substitute for the mothers' breast, in producing an artificial mothers' milk, must then be to convert cow's milk, by an ab- solutely harmless proceeding, into a thoroughly healtlu' milk, containing exacth' and constantly a uniform percentage c)f ingredients closely resembling those contained in healthy mothers' milk and to change the form of curdling of the casein into the one proper to human milk. vSimple as this undertak- ing may seem to a mind that has not had an oppor- tunity to stud}' the intricacies of the matter, this desideratum has been the life aim of man\' a scientist, and it is only the last few years that ha\'e brought us closer to the attainment of this boon, b\' the labors and successes of Prof. Backhaus, (^f (kcttiiigen, of Prof, (ia^rtner, of \'ienna, and others, in whose methods of converting cow's milk into artificial mothers' milk, we now possess admirLil^h' planned processes, in which every change and manipulation is founded and supported by universally accepted medi- cal principles. The satisfaction with which this milk has been hailed by the medical men in Europe, has created a demand for it beyond all expectations, and in a verv short time every city and town will possess a dairy manufacturing this artificial mothers' The Mortality of fiifants. Si) milk, and to judj^e from the inimerous inquiries that have been sent from America, and from the hearty encouragement I ha\"e received from the medical men of this country, it would seem that this article will, also here, be gladly hailed, and fill the place of a true blessing. It will not be found amiss to append two testimonials from German physicians : Dr. (med.) Hess, says: "During the epidemic of cholera infantum, in the summer of 185'.j, I had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the nutri- tive and curative properties of the normal infants' milk. I treated eighty-two infants, part of them purely medicinalh', and part of them purely dieti- cally, another part with combined treatment, accord- ing to the age of the infants and the intelligence of the parents. On the whole, I am able to record great success in all cases where the nursing was properly attended to, where the milk was administered accord- ing to instructions, and wdiere the infant received the milk direct from the bottle. I had eight cases of death, two of these were infants that had received the normal milk. Out of my eighty-two little patients, fifty-lixe were treated with the normal milk alone, fifteen received medicines besides, twelve were treated Avith medicines only, and of these latter, six died. The medicines prescribed were : Kreosot, argent. nitric. Colombo and Bism. subnitr, according as con- ditions required, also Tokay wine. ]\Iy opinion is, that if I were placed before the alternative to com- l^at a case of cholera infantum, or of summer diarrhea. 90 A Nc7C Dairy /udiislry. with either the normal infants' milk, or with medi- cines, I shonld unhesitatingly try it with the first, be- canse I have become convinced of the nselessness of the medicines withont regulating the diet." Dr. (med.) Marx, says: "During the summer of iSHo I experimented with the normal infants' milk on a number of sick and of hcallhly infants, reaching surprising results. In cases of summer diarrhea and cholera infantum, even where the vSoxhlet milk had been given without a\'ail, an immediate impro\'eiiient followed the taking of the normal milk, \omitint;and discharges ceased, giving place to a healtln' digestion. In healthy infants, where r;ursing by the mother was impossible, and the normal luilk gi\-en, I found an average daily increase in weight of 'M) grammes dur- ing the first months of life. Cases where the normal infants' milk did not agree at all, or even where it did not well agree with a.i infant, have not come under my observation." Professor EschcricJi says : " It is a well known fact that, even with the aid of th-^ most perfect hygienic conditions, infants with satisfactory digestion, but not brought up on the breast, do not show the same resistancy against sickness that breast-infants do. It is to be hoped that by the intro luction of the normal infants' milk the percentage of failures will be lessened. The normal milk ma)- be given to infants of all ages, but is more particuhirly indicated when infants, for some cause or other, take too little food, and which, in consequence of insufficient nourish- The Mortality of Iii/aiits. i)f iiient and intercurrent ailings, have been stunted in development, also to infants which are to be weaned- froni the lu'east, or where the breast is not entirely sufficient, and to such which possess particularly irritable organs of digestion. The pugnacious con- stipation so often noted in infants that take diluted or undiluted cow's milk will vanish with normal milk and reappear when changed back to the former. Onlv in those forms of acute indigestion that cud with diarrhea, and in which milk in any form is not supported, also the administration of normal milk should be suspended and another regime prescribed by the physician. In all other chronic forms of indiofestion and indications of weakness a heightened assimilation of fat is of importance, as this factor of nourishment is particularh- well absorbed by the infantile colon without any precursory enzymotic transformation. Clinical observations have been made in this direction by Birdcrt, Ba)i-~c\ Dcinnic and at MoiitTs Polyclinic. The great advantage which normal infants' milk poscsses, as couipared with other " prepared " or '' modified '' milks, is that it contains a proper percentage of fat but only a third part of the casein, which is so difficult of digestion, and it is just this fat which allows of a copious sup- ply of calorics without overburdening the digestive organs. An idea prevails that younger infants require a nourishment of different composition than older ones and that mothers' milk undergoes a change with the advancino^ ao:e of the infant. The more *.)2 A A^c'ci:' Dairy hidnstry. I't'cciit investigations have, however, refuted this assumption. It has been found that, apart from the first fortnight, the milk from one and the same wet- nurse did uot materially change during the entire nursing period. Soxhlet^ Heiibiicr and others recom- mend .to follow the example set by nature and to prepare the normal milk to one unvarying standard, and experieuce has proved this to be correct. A uiost valuable feature is the steady increase in weight of infants that take normal milk. Professor Esche- rich has published the results of his investigations in this line ; from them I take one example : Weight Weekly Q uantitv of Week of Life. of Infants, in .\clvance, in Normal Milk Grammes. Grammes. Taken. 23d .... .5,67;! 1,3.00 24th . . . . 0,000 325 1,3,00 2.5th . . . . 0,500 500 1,300 2Gth . . . ■ . 6,775 275 1,750 27th . . . . 0,000 125 1,7.50 2Sth . . . . 7,100 200 2,000 21»th . . . . 7,350 250 2,000 ;5<)th . . . . 7,575 225 2,000 This infant, when receiving normal milk for the first time, weighed 5,()75 grammes, while the normal weight of a babe twenty-three weeks old has been found, b}- Camcrcr, to average (i,132 grammes. The infant was, therefore, lighter b>- 457 grammes than a normal infant. Now, the average advance in weight (5 m infant between the twenty-third and thirtieth \. . jk has been ascertained at 710 grammes, for such The MorlalHy of Infants. 0:5 as are nursed on the breast, and SIS g-rannues for those artificially nursed. The infant in question had, how- ever, made a gain of full 1,000 grammes, and at the end of the period of observation was <>2~) grammes heavier than a normal infant, it had, in other words, caught up its deficienc}' and made a big ad\-ance. Another striking example is given of a younger infant, a baby girl, in the Gras hospital : Week of Life. Weight of Infant, in Weekly Advance, in Quantity of Normal .Milk Grammes. Grammes. Taken. 3d .... :],000 800 4th .... 3,850 250 000 5th .... 4,175 325 1,000 Oth .... 4,400 225 1,000 7th .... 4,050 250 1,200 8th .... 4,800 1 50 1,300 0th .... 5,100 ;500 1,300 10th . . . . 5,150 10 1,200 nth . . . . 5,280 i;;o 1,240 In eight weeks this infant had gained 1,<;SU gr., while infants artificially nursed and of the same age onlv average a gain of 1,100 gr., and children on the breast 1,5S2 gr. ; we must here take into considera- tion that the hospital is no ideal field for experiments in rearing infants on the bottle. The transit from common milk to normal milk is, generalh', accompanied h\ the immediate cessation of any abnormal activity of digestion ; it will be well, however, in all cases, to proceed cautiously. Dr. Steiner remarks in his report on experiences with 94 .1 .\Va' Dairy ludustrv. normal infants' milk : " Dyspetic infants I give a day of fasting, that is, they are pnt on Rnssian tea — ad libituDi — and commence the treatment with calomel or an irrigation. I have never ventured to pass from the dvspepsia-prodncing food to the normal milk without this pause of twenty-four or thirty-six hours and without cleansing tlie digestive tract. In chronic dvspepsias I commence with an irrigation and follow up, partly with acid, muriat. dilut. ().")-!. : 2(10 one teaspoonful every two hours, or magist. bismuthi 1.0 -2.0 : 100, or tinct. rhei 1.0 : lOO.o. Where there is inclination to vomit I give the milk cold. Scrupul- ous cleanliness of feeding bottle ; feeding nipple to be put on milk bottle direct. Punctuality in giving the meals and in the pauses that have been fixed upon. For the normal milk I have found as the best inter- vals — cases of premature birth excepted : For the first week 2A to :5 hours First to second month , . . ;5 hours Third to fifth month . . . . : 5. \ hours vSixth to twelfth month ... 4 hours "During the night one or two feedings. From the tenth month onward other food in connection with the milk. If infants find the intervals too long, I give boiled, and subsequently cooled, spring water with a spoon. The strict observance of the quanti- ties of milk given has proved to be less urgent than the strict observance of the intervals. On the whole, I have found the quantities given in the following The Mortality of Infants. 95 table sufficient, although the requirement changes with the individual. With weak infants, and such that are reconvalescent from Dyspepsia, I always pre- scribe the I. grade of normal milk in somewhat smaller doses, augmenting them gradually : Fee ditiR vSingle Number of Quantity con- AKe< af Infant. Inte :rval, dose, meals in sumed daily, hours. gr. 24 hours. gr. 1 week 2.1. _;5 oO- AO 7-S 250- :;o() 1 month ,■")()- 100 — 850- 700 '> months lOO-l.")!) "" 700-1,050 )) months ;> 1 100-150 "■ 700-1,050 4 months ;>1 150-200 0-7 900-1,400 5 months •fl 150-200 0-7 900-1,400 C) months \ 150-200 <;-7 1^000-1,400 7-1 > months 4 250 1,500 "After dyspepsia I ha\e found the recuperation of weight even more rapid than in breast infants." Many believe that two kinds of milk are injurious to an infant. This is erroneous. Normal milk can be given with greatest advantage together with mothers' or nurses' milk ; it should naturally be of faultless qualit)-, and adapted to the digestive forces of the infant. Professor (Ttertner, of X'ienna, gi\-es the following experience with the feeding of twin babies who, together, possessed but one nurse, and a very poor one at that. From the fifth week of their lives, onward, the\- recei\-ed, each, about a pint of the normal milk daily, their gain in weight mav be seen from the followino- table : S6 A Ncu' Dairy Industi-y. f\'cek of Life. r.th . (ith . 7th . sth . !»th . foth . CnARLOTT?: F WeiL'ht Gain, in Grammes. ;!,oO() :5,S(M) ;!(!() l,:;r)() ,").-)() 4,000 250 r),ooo 400 ."i/i.io -i.io (i.Tain in ."> week.s, l,?.")*) or. IMklaxik F. Week of Life. :a\\ . 0th . 7th . Sth . 0th . 10th . ,,, . , , Gain, in Weight. Grammes. :1250 ;;,r)Oo 2."»o ;',,o;5o 4;;o 4,2r)0 ;')2o 4,080 ;',so 4,S50 220 Cxain ill •"> weeks, 1,()00 gr. The.se infants were a pictnre of health, and never .showed the slightest inconvenience in consequence of their variegated bill of fare. The success of the.se investigations led to others in the direction of ascertaining the effects of normal milk on adults. In complaints of the stomach, as well as in other derangements, for instance, those ac- companied by fever, the activity of this organ is seri- ously depressed. The segregation of gastric juice is insufficient, or even entirely paralyzed ; the food eaten is not digested in a certain space of time, but remains for a longer period, passes to fermentation and decom- position, engendering the well known symptoms of seriiM'.s indigestion. A nourishment which exacts no strain on the digestive forces of the stomach should be offered to such patients. We know that the mere phvsical function of the stomach is to transform the food eaten into a homeogenous slop. The investigations of :'. Mihi-iiio- have shown that fluid;, arc not assimilated in the stomach. Kver\- drop The Moiiality of Infants. 97 of wine, water or beer we coiisuine passes- to tlie colon, which is the true organ of resorption. When we compare the immense qnantities of flnids some people are able to absorb, with the limited capacity of the stomach, we may conjectnre that these liqnids do not remain in the stomach for a very long time, and that they cannot be subjected to digestion in the stomach. This is the explanation why, in serious derangement of the functions of the stomach, liquid nourishment alone is supported. When speaking of liquid nourishment we are apt to think of l)roth and milk. Now, it is known that beef-broth is rather an in- centive a stimulant than a nourishment, and that we should ne\'er succeed in keeping a person alixe on broth alone, while milk contains every ingredient ne- cessary to the building up and sustenance of the or- ganism. Is milk, however, a liquid nourishment ? It is so only as long as it is outside of the stomach. On arrival in the stomach it is curdled, transformed into a lump by the acid and the rennet present, and this lump must be dissoh-ed again b\' the gastric juice. Bearing this in mind, we must call cow's milk a solid food, and not a liquid one. Physicians find this corroborated in their daily practice. Here is the all important difference between woman's milk and cow's milk, for woman's milk remains liquid, or, what is the same, curdles in so minuteh' fine flakes in the stomach that it is able to pass on from it without pre- vious digestion. 98 A lYeiv Dairy Industry. We have proof that this principle has been known and made use of in antiqnity, hnndreds of years before the advent of Christ. The physicians, Eury- phon and Herodikes, living at the time of Hippocrates (4()0 to 387 B. C.) had pnblished a method of curing dyspepsia, making their patients take woman's milk from the breast, direct. If we are, therefore, able to manufacture normal milk in exact imitation of mothers' milk, then, we produce a liquid nourish- ment which does not remain in the stomach but a very short time, and does not put any strain on its functions. Buttermilk and whey have the same pro- perty, only the\' are deficient in principles of nourish- ment. A special indication for normal milk is to diabetics ; the milk is then specially prepared with- out the addition of milk sugar. Most successful treatments are on record with this classs of patients, thousands of whom are taking the normal milk regularly, up to three liters per day. CHAPTER X. avtiticial /IDotbers' /IDilk— IRovmal llutants' P'rom what has been said in the preceding pages, we become aware that the end to be attained, is the transformation of pure cow's milk into a milk, which, in its nutritive elements, is analogous to mothers' milk, the composition of which is of a constant uniformity) and its keeping qualities allow of its being trans" ported to great distances, and undergo all changes of temperature experienced during* summer transporta- tion for a lengthened period, without spoiling or any way changing. We have also seen that the first step to be taken in this direction is the supervision of the production of the raw material, the exaction of scrupulous cleanliness in the keeping of the milk cows and the utensils employed, as well as an unre- mittant control of all conditions influencing the phy- sical welfare of the cows, and of the quality of the food fed to them. In a subsequent chapter will be laid down what should be exacted to insure a health)- condition of the milk. We now pass on to the manufacture of this milk into artificial mothers' milk — normal in- fants' milk — in two grades, the first to resemble mothers' milk in the exact proportion of all nutritious loo A Ncco Dairy Industry. ingredients, and to be a perfect and wholesome snb- stitnte for mothers' milk for infants from the time of birth np to the fonrth month ; the second grade of normal milk to contain the same percentage of fat, allMiminoids and milk-sugar, bnt having a slightly higher percentage of casein, being intended to be given to infants after the third or fourth month of their lives, and to form a transitory food from the first grade of milk to pure cow's milk, a most necessary precaution, when we take into account the extreme difhculty experienced by the infant stomach to digest the casein in pure cow's milk. In undertaking to describe the various operations destined to transform cow's milk into normal infants' milk it must, right here, be admitted that no descrip- tion, however lucid, will enable a beginner to produce the desired article from the start, there being con- nected with the whole proceeding a number of small manipulations and advantages, which although in no manner business secrets (as some would try to make them out and guard them from the public) \'et are proceedings which are only mastered b}' practical experience and personal application. In Germany, Austria and France, where the manufacture of nor- mal infants' milk is rapidly gaining ground, this apparent difficulty is by no means considered a dis- advantage, but, quite the contrary, as a protection, as it tends to keep at a distance that class of competi- tion which would speedily tend to discredit normal milk. ■irlificial MoiJurs' Milk. 101 The principal operations we shall have to follow will be : The testing of the cow\s milk for fat percentage and acidity. The separating into cream and skim milk. The rednction of the casein in the skim milk and the transformation of the remaining into the finelv coao-nlatino- form. The mixing, sugaring and bottling. The sterilizing and the testing of the sterilized milk as to its keeping qualities and its freeness from germs. Starting on the assumption that the manufacture is to be connected with an es- tablished dairy, and, as we shall see later on, the man- ufacture of the normal milk and the maintenance of the dairy, is inseparable one from the other if an}' guar- antee of purity is to be at- tained it will then generally be found advantageous foi; the beginner to pass the milk over a system of cool- ers immediately after draw- ing, and this will become an absolute necessity wdiere the evening's milking has to be turned into normal milk on the following morning. The milk, as it runs from the cooler, is collected in s Fig. 23-STAR MILK COOLER. 102 A Nt'-w Dairy Industry. laro;e receiving vats, where it may be thoroughly mixed. The first proceeding is to make sure of the percentage of fat contained in the entire quantity' of milk. If the .same cows are milked daily for the manufacture of the normal milk, and the same food fed to them without change, then it will suffice to take the fat test but once a week ; if, however, a new cow has been brought in, or one of the old ones dis- charged, or the feed been changed in any way, then a test will be neccs.sary as often as one of the in- dicated changes has occurred. To take a fair test .sample, the milk should previously be well stirred with a wooden paddle for two minutes consecutively. There are milk samplers, like the ScoviIh\ in the market, yet a common white gla.ss tube, three-eighths of an inch inside diameter, will answer the purpose equally well. Its length .should exceed by six inches, more or less, the depth of vessel in which the milk is contained. This tube is dipped into the milk, the upper end closed by pressing on the thumb. When the tube has reached the bottom of the vessel, the thumb is removed, the lips are applied, and, by a steady suction, drawing the tube upwards out of the milk slowly, the tube is filled with milk from all parts of the vessel. This is repeated three or four times, emptying the .samples into a glass dish. If the milk to be turned into normal milk has been collected in several different vessels, then the test samples have to be taken from each and every one, and in a fair proportion to the contents of each vessel, so that if. Artificial Mothers' Milk. 103 for instance, four glass tubefuls have been drawn from a vessel containing forty quarts, then from a vessel containing but thirty quarts only three tube- fuls should be drawn, or two from another vessel containing only twenty quarts, etc. The test samples are all collected in the same dish and the testing at once performed. The temperature of milk for testing should be 0'2° F., more or less. Two colateral tests should be made of every sample to avoid errors. Quite a number of methods and apparatus for testing have been in\ented, the most accurate being probably the Soxhlct ; for use in dairies, however, this method is too complicated, and the best known tester in this country is the Babcock. According to the instructions kindly furnished me by Prof. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, the method of operating the test is as follows : THE BABCOCK TKST. The estimation of fat in milk by this test is ac- complished by adding to a definite quantity of milk, in a graduated test bottle, an equal volume of com- mercial sulphuric acid of a spgr. of 1.S2-1.83. This acid dissolves the casein, setting free the fat, which is then completely separated from the liquid in the bottle by whirling in a centrifugal machine. Hot water is afterwards filled into the bottles to bring the separated fat into the graduated neck, where the per cent, is read directly from the scale. 104 A Ay7(' Dairy Indnslrx. MAKING THE TEST. Sa))ipli)io iJic Milk. — Accurate tests can onl}- be ob- tained when the cream is evenly distributed through- out the whole mass of milk. This is best accomplished by pouring the milk a number of times from one vessel to another. Pouring three or four times will be sufficient for fresh milk fresh from the cow. Milk that has stood until a layer of cream has formed, should be poured more times, until all clots of cream are broken up and the whole appears homogenous. ; N /7.fcc \ MEASURING THE MILK. When the milk has been sufficiently mixed, the milk pipette i.s filled by placing its lower end into the milk and sucking at the upper end / until the milk rises above the mark on the stem; then remove the pipette from the mouth and quickly close the tube at the upper end by firm- ly pressing the end of the index finger upon it Fig-10' to prevent access of air. So lono- as this is done MILK ' PIPETTE the milk cannot flow from the pipette. Holding- the pipette in a. perpendicular position, with the mark on the level with the eye, carefully relieve the pres-- sure on the finger so as to admit air slowh' to the space above the milk. In order to more easih' con- trol the access of air, the finger and end of the pipette should be dry. When the upper surface of the milk coincides with the mark upon the stem, the pressure hould be renewed to stop the flow of milk. Next Artificial Mothers Milk. 10."") place the pipette in the mouth of one of the test bottles, held in a slightly inclined position so that the milk will flow down the side of the tube, leaving a space for the air to escape without clogging the neck, and remove the finger, allowing the milk to flow into the bottle. After waiting a short time for the pipette to drain, blow into the upper end to expel the milk held b)' capillary attraction in the point. If the pipette is not dry when used, it should be filled with the milk to be tested, and this thrown away before taking the test sample. If several samples of the same milk are taken for comparison, the milk should be poured once from one vessel to another l)efore each sample is measured. ADDING THK ACID. Great care should be taken in handling the pjg 12. acid, as it is very corrosive, causing sores upon acid the skin and destroying clothing unless quick- ly removed. If, by accident, any is spilled upon the clothes or hands, it should be washed off immedi- ately, using plenty of water. A prompt application of ammonia water to clothing upon which acid is sj^illed ma)' prevent the destruction of the fabric, or restore the color. The acid measure is filled to the mark with sul- phuric acid and carefully poured into the test bottle containing the milk to be tested. This bottle should be held in a slightly inclined position, so as to allow ll'.e acid to run down the side of the bottle. The 106 A Nca' Dairy Industry acid is heavier than the milk and sinks directly to the bottom, forming a clear layer. The acid and milk should be thoroughly mixed together bv shaking at first with a rotary motion until the curd which forms is entirely dissolved, and then completed with a vigorous shake sidewa}'s. A large amount of heat is evolved by the chemical action, and the liquid changes gradually to a dark brown. WHIRLINCr TlIK P.OTTLKS. The test bottles containing the mixture of milk and acid should be placed in the machine directly after the acid is added. An even number of bottles should be whirled at the same time, and they should be placed in the wheel in pairs opposite to each other, so that the equilibrium of the apparatus will not be dis- turbed. When all tlie test bot- Ftg.ll-IMPROVED ACID BURETTE. ties are placed in the apparatus, the cover is placed upon the jacket, and the machine turned at the proper sj^eed for about five minutes. The test should ue\-er be made without the cover being placed upon the jacket, as this not only prevents the cooling of the bottles when they are whirled, but, in case of the breakage of bottles, may protect the face and eyes of the operator from injury by pieces of glass or hot acid. Artificial Mothers' Millc. 107 FILLIXO THE BOTTLES WITH HOT WATER. After the bottles have been whirled, they should be filled immediately, with boiling- water, to the neck, and then whirled again for about one minute, and more water added to bring the fat into the graduated neck. A third whirl of about one minute is given to bring all of the fat iuto the neck where it can be measured. MEASURING THE FAT. The fat should be measured im- mediately after the. whirling is com- pleted, before it has cooled to a point where it does not flow freely. If many tests are to be made at the same time, better results are ob- tained by setting the bottles in hot water to keep the fat in liquid con- dition until the readings can be taken. To measure the fat, hold the bottle in a perpendicular position with llie scale on a level with the eye, and observe the divisions which mark the highest and the lowest limits of the fat. The difference between these gives the per cent. of fat directly. The readings should be taken to half divisions of the scale, or to one-tenth per cent. -The readings may be made with less liability of error by measuring the length of the column of fat with a pair of dividers, one point of which is placed at the bottom and the other at the upper limit of the TtaS TBE BUTTER VALlc --"rS*;:, nil atmi. <.^>^ Fif, 13. SMALL WHU.L'KG MACHINE. 108 A A^CcC Daitv Iiuiiistry fat. The dividers are then removed, and one point placed at the mark of the scale on the bottle used, the other will be at the per cent, of fat in the milk ex- amined. Skim }jiilk^ bnticr))iilk and iclivy are tested in the •same general manner as full milk, except that .skim milk and buttermilk require about one-fourth more acid and should be whirled about two minutes longer than whole milk, while whey requires only about two- thirds as much acid as milk. Where the amount of Fig. 14-STEAM TURBINE WHIRLING MACHINE. fat is less than two-tenths per cent, it often assumes a globular form instead of a uniform layer acro.ss the tube ; where this occurs, the per cent, of fat must be estimated. In doing this, it must be remembered that any appearance of fat in the tube indicates as much as .05 per cent. It is not possible, with the Babcock test, to detect le.ss than .0.1 per cent, of fat. CREAM. Special bottles are provided for testing cream. The operation is the same as with milk, except that the Artificial Motiicrs' Milk. Ill) cream adlierin,i>' to the pipette should be rinsed into the bottle with a little water, and, after the acid is added, the bottle should be allowed to stand for about five minutes before it is whirled. During this time it should be shaken occasionally, and if the room is cold the bottle should be kept hot by setting in hot water. Cream may be tested in the ordinary bottles by di- viding the test sample, as nearly as can be judged by the eye, into three bottles. The pipette is then rinsed twice into the three bottles with water, and the test made as with milk, the readings upon the three bot- tles being added together for the per cent, of fat. Where a balance is available, the best method is to weigh the cream into an ordinary test bottle, taking about five grammes for a test, and adding to this about 12 c. c. of water. The test is then made as with milk, the readings being multiplied by eighteen and the product divided by the number of grammes of cream taken for the per cent, of fat. Condensed milk is tested in the same manner as cream. The sample should always be weighed, as these milks are usually too thick to be accurately measured with a pipette. As we may surmise, the fat test is one of greatest importance towards insuring an unvarying quality in the normal milk. The result of the tests should be kept on record, as they are of value to indicate the influence which changes in the feed ha\e on the per- centas^e of fat in the milk. 110 A-iVezL' Dairy Industry. Besides the fat test, it becomes necessary, periodi- cally, to make a test of the acidity of the milk to be used ; this is more particularly the case in hot weather, or where ensilage is fed, or any apprehension exists as to the sweetness of the fodder or pasturage. For the acid test, ;")() cub. cent, of milk arc placed in a glash dish, 2'='^ of hydrate of sodium and two or three drops of phenolphtalein added and mixed together. To this we now cautiously add common sulphuric acid, bv means of a graduated pipette, constantly stirring, until a decidedly pink tinge appears in the milk. When this has set in the accurate quantity of acid added in c. c. is ascertained, and we call every cubic centimeter added one degree of acidit>-. In this way milk to be used in the manufacture of nor- mal milk may contain no more than three degrees of acidity, any excess of this quantity will tend to spoil the milk — to make it curdle. Milk that shows 4.5 degrees of acidity is unfit for the manufacture of normal milk. Milk which has turned sour shows liS.r) degrees of acidit\' ; butter ma>' show l") degrees. If we have found our milk sweet we now proceed to the separation of the cream from the skim milk, conducting the milk into a tempering \at where it attains a temperature of S(;° p\ The separator is graduated in a manner to turn out one-third of the volume of the milk as cream and two-thirds as skim milk. This must strictly be adhered to, as on this division all subsequent calculations are based. After the .separator gets first started, four or five gallons of Artificial Mothers' Milk. Ill the skim milk are caught in a separate vessel and put aside, to be passed throiioh the separator again with Fig. 15-De LAVAL STEAM TURBINE CREAM SEPARATOR. the last of the milk. Any good separator may be used ; where, however, larger quantities are to he 112 A Nc'cL' Dairy /ndusiry. produced, the use of the steaui turbiue separator is to be recomuieuded, aud the dc Lai'al has here given universal satisfaction. When all milk has passed through the separator the scales are used to ascertain if the separation has been effected in the prescribed proportions, returning some of the skim milk to the cream if this latter had not come up to one-third of the entire quantity. The percentage of fat to be given to the normal nrilk is three per cent., or one hundred pounds of milk should contain three hundred units of fat ; a richer milk will therefore have to be reduced by the addition of skim milk, or by the retention of a por- tion of the cream ; a milk poor in fat will have to be enriched by the addition of cream, or by the reten- tion of part of the skim milk. As an example : We wish to use 260 pounds of milk testing 4.2 per cent. of fat ; we separate this into 'iMSSS pds. cream 173.4 pds. skim milk. As we wish our normal milk to contain but 3 per cent of fat, we must find out how much of this cream will have to be returned to the skim milk to result in a milk of the desired percentage. 4.2 : 3 -= S0.() : x 3, V soi; °^'' = Gl.Spds. 42 The reverse will be the case where milk is found to be below the required standard of fat percentage. Artificial Moflirrs' Millc. 113 The cream vessel is now covered, placed in a cold water bath and pnt ont of the way while we proceed to extract the excess of paracasein from the skim milk, a process in which L") per cent, of the original weight of the skim milk is lost, and which is an item to be taken into acconnt when making calcniatioiis for fixed quantities required. Tables of figures- have been prepared to show the quantities of cream and .skim milk with reference to the different percentage of fat and the loss of paracasein for the preparation of both grades of milk. We mav call to mind what has been previously .said on the simple mixtures of milk, cream, water and milk sugar, which do good service to older infants, when properly prepared, but are not adapted for con- sumption by the new-born babe ; because the albumen in them is administered, principally, in the form of cow casein, which latter will, according to the ex- periences of Bicdert^ continually be accompanied by deleterious effects, even if its form of coagulation has been somewhat changed by the manipulation it will go through in this process. The more recent elementary analysis of JVrob/cccskr seems to prove, without doubt, that a most distinct dif- ference exists between cow casein and human casein. If the diluting of cow's milk is carried to a point where only one per cent, of casein is left in the milk — the limit of quantity which the infant's stomack will endnre — then there is a deficiency of albumen and .salts. Corresponding to the large admixture of water;. 114 A Neiv Dairy Industry. we also find it necessary to oi\-e a heavy dose of milk suo'ar, bv which the costs of the niannfactnre would be greath' enhanced. B}- some, it has been tried to substitute the cheaper cane sugar, but this has proved a faihire on account of its greater propensity to turn acid in the infant's stomach, and because milk sugar possesses special properties of the greatest importance, to ignore which woukl be equivalent to endangering the reliabilitv of the entire process of turning cow's milk into artificial mothers' milk. The chemical and physiological action of milk sugar on the organism cannot be substituted by either maltose, glucose or cane sugar. To imitate nature — an ever reliable practice in similar cases — has here not proved to be an effective argument, as milk sugar plays but an in- significant part in the customary nourishment of in- fants, while the most unnatural admixtures : the starchy matter contained in so-called infant foods, are frequently resorted to. SoxJiIct found the absolute necessity of milk sugar to the infant founded on the following differences between it and other sugars : 1. Excepting cane sugar, which for other reasons cannot be considered, milk sugar is the only kind of sugar which, when heated with nitric acid, produces slimy acid, wdrile the other sugars produce sugar acid. 2. Cane sugar, maltose and glucose disintegrate in the presence of common alcoholic ferment into al- cohol and carbonic acid ; milk sugar remains un- changed, and resists to all fermentative influences by far more powerfully. Artificial Mothers' Milk. 115 3. Milk sugar possesses only about one-third of the sweetness of cane sugar ; we are, therefore, able to mix three times the quantity to a nourishment without pro- ducing a repugnant sweetness. 4. It is not transformed like the other sugars into glykogen, has an enhanced combustability and passes easily into the urine. 5. Maltose and cane sugar are the most rapidly absorbed, milk sugar but very slowly ; 70 to 80 per cent, of the former in one hour, of milk sugar but 20 to 40 per cent., depending on the strength of solution. (). The accumulation of the rapidly absorbed sugars in the blood produces very notable changes in the functions of the apparatus of circulation, which per- sist until the blood is relieved of this excess of suo;ar. The pressure of blood is heightened, the vessels be- come expanded, the pulse is augmented, circulation is so much accelerated that double the quantity of blood passes through the same vein during a meas- ured span of time. Milk sugar produces quite a unique efTect on the circulation ; although the blood pressure is equally enhanced if given in large doses, yet the pulse is not accelerated, but rather diminished, producing an ample systole. The heightened pres- sure of blood is caused by the irritating effect the other sugars have on the heart and its vessels ; the diminishing of the pulse is ascribed to the specific influence of the milk sugar on the checking appar- atus of the heart. 7. While the other sugars are nearly entirely ab- 116 A Are*' Dairy Industry. sorbed throiig-li the stomach, there will alwa}-s pass a considerable quantity of the milk sug-ar to the colon, where it invariably produces a heightened secretion of slime and gall, and by this means acts slightly purgative. It is particularly to this specific effect of milk sugar that attention should be drawn, as it makes milk sugar not only an invaluable, but also a most necessary, admixture to artificial mothers' milk. KcJircr had conceived the idea of producing an infants' milk by mixing the whey produced in cheese factories with cream, but after exhaustive experi- ments this proved to be misatisfactory, on account of such whey being too poor in albuminoids, besides being too strongly polluted with bacteria, having ac- quired a pronounced change in taste and commonly possessing an amount of acidity by far in excess of any to be tolerated in the manufacture of normal in- fants' milk. In a like manner it has been tried to make use of cream procured from creameries, but with equally unsatisfactory results, this cream being strongly infected with bacteria, and the butter fats so strongly influenced by improper feeding that the palatability and keeping qualities of the normal milk are greatly impaired. These experiments have, how- ever, proved invaluable, by showing the way on which the desired end might be reached. If we treat fresh, clean cow's milk by a properly prepared rennent ferment, observing proper tempera- ture, time of acting, and special method of stirring, we are able to produce an albuminous milk serum, Artificial Mothers Milk. 117 because this ferineiit has dissolved the casein into paracasein and soluble peptonic whe>'-pi'otein^ of which onl}- the first named is expelled as a stifi" curdled sediment. All the albumen of the milk and all of the milk sugar are retained in this serum, and if our milk has been produced under observation of all precautions herein enumerated, it will be of an agreeable, sweetish taste and its acidity so small that the albumen — which in connnon whey, separates at l.~)S° F., in consecjuence of the higher acidity — remains incor23orated up to much higher temperatures, so that an effective sterili- zation is possible without damaging the nutritive qualities of the proteids. This is a delicate process, furnishing, however, a milk serum containing one per cent, of albumen, composed of easih' digestible albuminoids, the whey protein and lacto protein, and, besides, five per cent, of milk sugar. If this fluid is condensed to four-fifths of its volume by the use of a vacuum pan, then we attain l.'io per cent, of albumen and 0.25 per cent, of milk sugar. By the addition of cream we attain one-half per cent, of casein and from 3 to o.o per cent, of fat, a combination analogous in every respect to mothers' milk. The percentage of ashes and salts is, undoubtedlv, somewhat higher in this prepared milk than in mothers' milk, although by the action of the ferment the percentage of salts has been reduced. Normal milk shows an excess of 0.3 per cent, of salts over mothers' milk, but elaborate experiments have shown lis A Neic Dairy Industry. that this excess is not only harmless, but, on the con- trar\-, entailing- an augmented percentage of phosphate of lime, and therefore welcome in the systems of all infants disposed to attacks of scrofula, rachitis and kindred ailments. The ferment employed in the ex- traction of casein is prepared b\- a process exclusively adapted to laboratory work, and may, therefore, be ad- vantageously left to those, who are by training better fitted, to attend and watch a process which requires a number of scientific appliances to produce an article -of unvarying strength and composition. It is this part of the manufacture only which is not in the hands of the dairyman, but experience has shown that this is rather an advantage than otherwise. Without taking into consideration the time it would take the dairyman to produce the ferment for his own use, the production in the laboratory on a large scale can be effected with much greater economy. The properties of this ferment are : 1. That it imparts to the milk the slight alkaline reaction which we note in the woman's milk, and which, undoubtedly, must be considered as an essen- tial factor in the process of digestion. '1. That it dissolves a part of the casein ; so that we attain to an equal amount of digestible albumen, the same as in woman's milk. 3. That it curdles the paracasein and transforms the remaining casein into the form or fine flaked curdling. The strength of the ferment is continually tested and the quantity required for curdling is clearly Artificial Mothers' Milk. 11!) printed on every package. We now proceed to the operation of cnrdling. The skim milk is placed in a vat especially constrncted for the purpose, fitted with enveloping steam jacket and heated 104° F.; the ferment is now added in the exact proportion which the strength of the ferment calls for; the milk is Fig. 16-CUROLING VAT. now stirred for three minutes ; the vat is then covered and left for fifteen minutes, when the stirring is re- newed with a Daddle until curdling sets in, which should take place about thirty minutes after adding the ferment. Instantly after curdling has taken place 120 A N('7c Dairy Industry. steam is turned into tlie steam jacket and the tem- perature brought up to 12'2^ F., where it is kept during the time necessary to remove the himp of paracasein, which has now formed on the bottom of the \-at, and which is effected by means of sie\es fit- ting snugly into the bottom of the vat. The remaining whe>- will be found with agreeable, sweet taste but must not retain any sediment of casein. The vat is now heated to KiT^ V. and kept at this temperature for fort\-fi\'e minutes to deaden the effect of an\- ferment remaining, great care being recpiired not to exceed this temperature, or the albuminoids will become indigestible. At this stage of proceed- ino-s it is well to call to mind that no utensils or vessels must now be dipped into the serum, or whey, which previously ha\^e been used in fresh milk or cream. After the elapse of the forty-five minutes of heating, the serum is now returned and mixed with the cream previously separated from it, until it appears as one homogenous fluid. Where condensing is not applied to highten the percentage of milk sugar this latter must now be added (five grammes per pound ), thoroughly mixed with the normal milk, which is at once bottled and ready for the sterilzing apparatus. Before following this milk to sterilizing, we turn to the manufacture of the second grade of normal milk. The fresh milk is separated into one-third part cream and two-thirds parts skim milk, the same as for the first grade, and the calculation of fat per- centage performed in the same manner. The casein Arlijuial Mothers'' Milk. Vl\ in this skim milk is, liowex'er, not extracted, l)ut oiih" reduced l)y removin<4- one-half of the entire quantity of skim milk and replacino- it by pure water, with the addition of t\\eh-e orammes of milk sn<^ar per pound of milk manufactured. As to the advisability of using milk rich in fat, or such which is less, so, will depend on the profitable use the remaining cream or skim milk can be put to. Where an equal demand exists for both grades of the normal milk, there will, when using a milk with less than :).:'> per cent, of fat, always remain a surplus of skim milk. In the manufacture of grade I. alone, there will nearly always be a surplus of cream, while in the manufacture of grade II. alone, there will always remain on hand a surplus of skim milk. As a general direction, it may, however, be laid down that milk, to be profital)ly used. up, should not fall below three per cent, of butter fat. If bottles of different color are not used for the I. and II. grades of the milk, then proper precaution must be provided so that bottles with different con- tents do not get mixed in sterilizing. Various bottling de vices and apparatus are in use — a ver)- good one is made by Boldt & \'ogel, of Hamljurg. The bottle to be used is shown in Fig. l'.»; it is manufactured in three sizes, to contain four, seven and ten ounces each of "normal milk." As soon as filled, the rubber caps are drawn on the bottles by hands scrupulotisly clean. The innumerable changes that have been brou"-ht 122 A Neii' Dairy Industry out in sterilizing machines, during the last few years, are, in themselves, proof of the general deficienc)' of these machines. I shall draw attention to the one that has given great satisfaction in sterilizing the normal infants' milk. It is built to my order by the Dairyman's Supply Co., of Philadelphia, and shown Fig. 17-AUTOiVIATIC BOTTLING APPARATUS, in F'ig. 1 is lowered and securely fastened by clamps all around. D is an upright metal tube carrying the shelves or plates C, on which the milk bottles are placed. These shelves are adjustable to different height and distance from each other to accommodate different sizes of Artificial Mothers Milk. 123 bottles. E is a metal arm or bracket to carry the bottle, into which the thermometer dips to register tlie temperature of the milk in the bot- tles during steriliza- tion. A .second ther- mometer, F, is ne- cessary to show the gradual heating of apparatus. This is a most nece.ssaiy pre- caution, without which, considerable 1)reakage of bottles is unavoidable". The steam enters at S, ascending b \- the central tube D, and passes out on to the shelves 1)\- numerous holes. Through T cold air can be forced into the apparatus, this tube connecting with the ice house. G is an exhaust pipe for carrying off the air at the beeinnin^ Fig. 18-BLACK FOREST STERILIZER. of tlie operation, and is u.sed again later when the required heat and pressure have been attained, .s.o that 124 A N'i'U' Dairy Industry. a continuous circulation of steam may be kept up in the apparatus. A rubber tube is fastened to the end of G and carried into a vessel with water to condense the escaping steam. H is the safety valve. I, the steam gauge. The bed plate is made concave, with an outlet, K, to carry off the condensing water and milk that mav accummulate from breakage. The Fig. 19-MILK BOTTLES IN CARRIER READY FOR STERILIZING. shelves are slightly convex for the same reason. The bottles are placed in wire carriers, six of which fill one of the shelves of the sterilizer. The\- are not downright necessary, but will always be found a great convenience and a saving in time and labor. A carrier is shown in Fig. 1'.*. The duration of heating and cooling periods, which together form one process of sterilization, are the fol- lowing : One heating to 21 "2° for thirty minutes, then . [rtijicial Mothers' Milk. keeping for three hours at U.")", then heating to 212° for another half honr, then cooling to <)4° for ten hours, then a final heating to 212° for forty-five min- utes, and the cooling off to ^^'^'' as rapidly as the bottles will stand. This rule for sterilizing should, however, not be considered as fixed and unchangeable, but it should be left to the investigation of the indi- vidual manufacturer of normal infants' milk to find Fig. 20-AUTOMATIC SEALING CAP. out, by trials, if the bacteria predominating in his milk will allow of a modification or simplification of the heating and cooling periods. If the entrance of steam has been properly tem- pered the breakage of bottles should be \er\- small ; if, in spite of all care, there should result more than one per cent, of breakage, then the glass is too brittle, the bottles have been too rapidly cooled after manu- facturing them. Before the second heating is com- menced the hood is lifted and the bottles are inspected. 120 A Nrri' Dairy Industry. If the sealing by the rnbl^er cap has been effective, this must be visible by the top of the cap showing a slight indenture. At times, when the heating has been too sudden, the violent escape of air from the bottles ma)' have lifted the cap so that it does not show a concave ; such rubber caps must now be pressed down again firmly and the}' will come out with hermetical sealing after the second heating. The cooling must, ever)- time, needs be accom- plished very gradualh', else considerable breakage will occur. The last cooling should l:)e to the lowest tempera- ture attainable, a liberal supply of ice being an indispensible requirement of the establishment. Immediateh' after withdrawing the bottles from the last heating in the sterilizer labels must be pasted on designating by their shape and color the grade of milk the\' contain. RECAPITULATION OF :\IAXrFACTURING PROCESS. Cool the milk at once after drawing, to 40^ F., unless there are milkers enough to keep the separator running from the start. Test the fat percentage and acidity of milk. Warm the milk to S(;° F. previous to separating. Separate and w^eigh cream and skimmed milk into one-third and two-thirds parts separately. Calculate the quantities of cream and skim milk which have to be emplo}'ed in the manufacture of grades I. and II., respectively. Arfificial Motlicrs' Milk. \Ti Pour skim milk into the curdling- vat and heat to Place cream in cold water l)ath. Add ferment to skim milk and let stand for fifteen minutes, then stir until curdling sets in, which should be about thirty minutes after time of adding the ferment. Take out the paracasein at once. Heat the remaining albuminous serum to 1()7°, and keep at this temperature for forty-fi\'e minutes, well covered. Add the milk sugar, thoroughly stirring, then mix with the cream and sterilize. For manufacturing the second grade, separate as for grade I., then divide skim milk as per calculation, add water, milk sugar and cream, mix thoroughly, bottle and sterilize. Sterilize both grades equally. Keep in cool storage. PVom every day's output of sterilized milk take two sample bottles, selecting one from the upper shelf of sterilizing apparatus and one from lower shelf, and place in bacteri-a incubator, properly labeled, for the purpose of ascertaining the keeping qualities of the milk ; and, also, if the sterilizer works equally well at top as it does at the bottom. The greatest neatness and exactness should natur- ally prevail in executing all these operations, the manu- facturer bearing in mind that he has guaranteed hi.s product to be of a uniform standard of excellance^ and that the normal infants' milk should show the \'1S A \c7C Dairy Industry. same percentage of nourishing- ingredients whenexer it max' l)e anahzed b\' a chemist. ANALYSIS. Human Normal Milk. Normal Milk, Cow's Milk. Mlik. Cirade I. Grade II. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Fat .... . "..2 ;5.o 3.0 3-5 Casein . . . . 0.7.". 1.0 2.0 3.0 Albumen . . . 1.0 o.s 0.4 0.() Milk suoar . . (\.\l:> (i.O '").7 4.S Salt . .\ . . 0.4 0.(5 0.."i 0.7 To exclude all po.ssib feml ^"f^^^Tof Dr. ToJIenJ/ Fig. 21-DlSlNFECTING LAMP. alcohol and the wick platina wire nettino-. waiting to see the plati flames is blown out w ility of pollution b}- l)acteria floating in the air of the laboratory (the mixing- or the sterilizing localities) a disinfection of these prem- ises should periodicalh' be instituted. The safest and simplest wa}' is by apply- ing the fumes of formic aldehyd, a gas which kills all floating bacteria or germs. The lamp by which these fumes are generated is shown at Fig. 21. The ve.s.sel is filled with methyl co\-ered b\- a cap made of After lighting the wick and na netting become red hot, the hen the o-lowing; of the wire Arlificial Mothers' Milk. 1 'l\^ netting, however, continues pi'oducing a gas known as fumes of formic aldehyd. As soon as the fumes are strongly noticeable to our smelling organ, then the desired effect has been attained. The lamp is an invention of Professor Tollens, of (Tcettiugen, and nia\' be procured through Messrs. Eimer t!\: Amend, •.^0.") Third avenue, X"ew York citw CHAPTER XI. Ubc IRormal Bairp. While no single part or ingredient of hnnian food is of greater or eqnal importance and merits in its production in a higher degree strict supervision, yet none is consumed with a greater indifference as to its origin and pureness than cow's milk. Considering the great advancements in the techni- cal and scientific parts of dairying during the last decade, it is strange that the production of healthful infants' milk should have been so signally neglected. There exists no doubt to-day but what cow's milk is the best natural substitute for mother's milk and the best food for a child after weaning. Even if it were true that asses' milk would be preferable, there is too little of it ; or, if goat's milk were preferable on ac- count of this animal's freedom from tuberculosis, yet the disagreeable taint peculiar to this milk, arising from the capronine it contains, makes it undesirable to most people, so that if there are other mammals whose milk, in its composition, comes closer to mother's milk, yet they are not of a kind either to furnish a sufficiency for our needs or they are not so domesticated as to allow us to draw it. The conditions for the production of a healthy milk start with the selection of the cow, the feed she TJic Xoniiai Dairy. lol receives, the degree of cleanliness she is kept in, and in the treatment given at the hands of the dairy- man. As villaoes o-rew into towns and towns into cities there wonld be fonnd everywhere a class of people that offered enconragement to the maintaining of one or more dairies in close vicinit}' to the nrban popu- lation. In many of the larger cities of the old conti- nent dairy establishments had been maintained ever since the beginning of the present century, and, although they did not furnish anything else but raw milk, such as was drawn from the cows, yet the choice feeding and cleanliness practiced by these dairies, which w'ere under the daily inspection of the patrons, insured a degree of confidence in the pure- ness of the product which allowed the dairyman to charge such prices for his milk as would liberally re- imburse him for the extra outlay encountered. Con- ditions allied to the mammoth growth of our modern cities made it, however, impossible to increase the number of these useful establishments, or even to prolong the existence of the old ones. The high value of building lots on one side, the hygienic ob- jections to the accunnnulation of manure and the difficulty to dispose of this valuable residue at a profit on the other, have made these dairies disappear. The control of quality of the milk that was then exercised by the patrons now passed into the hands of the health authorities and the police, and was extended to all milk furnished for consumption, and it seemed l:>2 A Neiv Dairy Industry. as if we had reached the boundary of the influence which we could exercise over the quality of market- able milk. We shall not here investigate what degree of efficiency this control has reached in general, or if it be sufficient to guarantee a fair quality for the milk of general consumption ; as soon, however, as we come to the point to look at milk as a substitute for mother's milk, as a food for the new born-babe, we will from the perusal of the foregoing chapters agree that the present methods of control are of a glaring ineflficiency. It is, however, to be borne in mind that no change of method or added severity will be able to furnish the guarantee of pureness, which is so desirable, as long as milk has to pass through so many hands before it reaches the little consumer's mouth, and, that, at the time of its passing the milk inspector's test, it is only halfway, as it were, on the road which is strewn with possibilities of infection. If cow's milk is to be con- sidered the only healthy substitute for the mother's breast, then our best efforts should be directed to pro- duce this in the best form attainable. That no great success has been recorded, hitherto, in this direction may be largely attributed to the fact, that the difficul- ties to be o\'ercome are located in so many different fields of work. Most farmers and dairy engineers lack entirely the necessary medical knowledge, and often, also, the support of the medical men, while the physician, if he manages to keep up with the com- plexity of tasks before him, is seldom in a position to The Nor))ial Dairy. 138 study the agriciiltiiral parts of the question or grapple with the problems of technical dairying. Every branch of production has, in its expanding development, been forced to acknowledge the sound- ness of the principle of division of labor, yet if we recapitulate what has been said about the necessary supervision of the physical condition of the animals furnishing the milk, about the necessity of sterilizing it immediateh- after drawing, and aboiit the Dollution it is exposed to b\' unclean handling before consump- tion, we will reach the conclusion that the production of infants' milk is an exception to this rule of divi- sion of labor, and that no guarantee of pureness and absolute healthfulness can be expected or given iiu/rss the entire process of production, from the cow's mouth to the baby's bottle, is covered by one and the same responsibility, and controlled in every stage of handling by those only competent to do so : the phy- sicians and the veterinarian of the neighborhood. We have seen that the piirpose of sterilizing milk is not only to give it keeping qualities by the deaden- ing of all germs, also those of disease, but h\ this act to make it healthy. The demand that sterilized milk exclusively should be sold and used for the nourish- ment of infants and children is a just demand, be- cause the delicate texture of the infant's intestines more easily gives way before the irritations produced by the bacteria and their exsudations. Besides, the experiences of late years have forced upon us the painful conviction that not infrequentlv there lurks ]0 l:U A Nczc Dairy Industry. danger to health and life in the consnniption of un- sterilized or raw milk by the transfer of germs of dis- ease. This experience is to be regretted so much the more, as its recognition is connected with the fact that this danger is inherent also to the progressive development of onr dairying indnstr\-, or at least, that it is spread b}' it. There is no donbt bnt that creameries, on the plan of association, are liable to spread disease ; that the>' may be, and have been, the medium to cause smaller epidemics, such as of typhus, scarlet fever, etc., even though they possess all advan- tages of centralization and co-operation, they are, however, not exempt from the great drawback which adheres to all large institutions for distributing food- stuffs : the wholesale spreading and distributing of disease. But we need, most decidedly, protection against such danger, and need it more particularly at such times when the spreading of a disease has gained larger dimensions, when the epidemic is rampant in the houses of our cities and infection lurks behind every imaginable vehicle. Ever since the study of bacteriology has taught us that contageous diseases are spread by bacteria or other low organisms, there has been research on foot to investigate the roads on which these infections move. Contrary to the former l)elief that it was the local sanitary condition alone that promoted a spreading, one has now cast suspicion on the foods and beveraoes — water and milk — being The Noi'Dial Dairy. 135 of universal consumption as the most likel}- promoters of infection. But even, if in case of such emergencies, the local authorities should be able and competent to close such dairies or creameries to whose door the spreadino- of a disease has been brought home, this would not con- stitute a reniedv, because the damage has already been done, as it is generally nimbler footed than the au- thorities. It is, therefore, to the preventive measures that we should turn our attention and efforts. More certainly is this true in regard to milk when we re- member that it is apt to convey not only the germs of disease specific to mankind, but also some of those of the bovine species. It would lead us too far from our subject if we should dwell on the methods that might be adopted for the prevention of infection by the means of milk, because, however urgently necessary they may be, still they might prove but too liable in their execu- tion to seriousl}' hamper and discourage an industry which it has taken the best efforts of the farmer, the scientist and the statesman to advance to the position of meritorious efficiency to which we have seen it lifted within the last few years. Recognizing the difficulties that lay in the way of general disinfection of all milk brought to market we should turn to the next best expedient that offers : to produce and insure in the vicinity of every urban population, and within a distance of easy control, a certain quantity of milk especially reserved and lo<> A JVccc Dairy I)idiistr\'. treated for the consuinptiou of infants. This idea has been partially carried out in a number of places where we hear of dairy farms furnishing- '' certified milk," an article purporting to be better and cleaner than other milk, and, as long as this certificate is one of real merit and not mereh- an advertisement, this milk is decidedly far superior to one of unknown origin, and its production a token of a very laudable spirit of enterprise — a step in the right direction — even if we know, from the foregoing, that such milk can lay no claim to being a healthy food for infants, inasmuch as it lacks being brought closer in its con- stituents to mothers' milk. For the above named reasons the establishment of dairy farms for the production of prepared infants' milk, in close proximity to all urban populations, will, in the near future, receive greater attention, not only from the farmers, but, also, from the medical frater- nity and the local authorities, from which parts the>' should receive all encouragement proportionate to the efficiency of their services. The conditions to be exacted from such an estab- lishment should bind the dairyman to the following stipulations : 1. To use no milk from any cow until eight days have elapsed after parturition ; nor from any cow- six weeks before such event. 2. To use no milk from any cow in heat, off her feed, sick or any ways deranged, nor whilst being treated with stronglv acting internal medicines. The A'oni/a/ Dairy. \'M :>. To keep sick animals in a separate stable, tended 1)y a special attendant. 4. To nse the milk of any cow for no longer a period than seven months rnnning. •"). To keep partnritant cows separated from the milking cows. (). To keep neither horses, steers nor sheep in same stable with milking cows. 7. To feed milking cows on the most appro\'ed principles for a\'oiding acidity in milk, exclnding all refuse feed, such as wet brewers' or distillers' grains or mash, adstringent oil cake or swill of any kind, and to water cows with pure water. 5. To feed to cows daily a proper allowance of salt. '.». To avoid all sudden changes in feeding, particn- larh' from dr\- to green fodder and back, never to pasture milking cows but on artificial j)astnre of clovers and grasses, and to avoid all kind of feed or fodder having a laxative effect. !<>. To keep cows scrupulously clean in comforta- ble, well ventilated stables, exercised, well bedded and kindly treated. 11. To exclude from the milk the first five strip- pings out of each teat at e\-er\- milking. 12. To keep all milk free from any and all chemi- cal admixture or adulteration, such as salt, borax, salicylic acid or others. l:>. To keep no manure pile in close proximity of stables. 14. To enforce utmost cleanliness from all persons loS A Neiv Dairy Indus fry. engaged in milking, and handling milk, and to enforce strictest abstinence from the nse of tobacco and liqnor from all persons engaged in drawing, hand- ling, preparing, or distribnting milk. 1 "). To stop delivery of milk or collection of empty vessels to and from all premises where infections disease is known to exist. 10. To snperintend with nntiring vigilance the cleansing and sterilizing by steam, hot water and soda of all ntensils and apparatns used in handling, prepar- ing and conveying milk. 17. To engage the services of a competent veteri- narian for the freqnent inspection and investigation of the sanitary condition of the milk cows, and fnr- nish clean bill of health every month from the veteri- narian for all cows wdiose milk is used in preparing the normal infants' milk. IS. To facilitate in every way, in all premises and at all times, the thorongh inspection of the entire es- tablishment by members of a committee of the medi- cal profession, or the local board of health. It will be conceded that the proposed conditions for the production of pure milk can easily be fulfilled without incurring great expense, and this is a require- ment that sliould not be lost sight of, for, in fixing these stipulations, a reasonable limit to precautionary measures must be admitted, without which, the con- sequent considerable increase in cost of production would tell on the price of the milk, tend to put it bevond the reach of the poorer classes, and thus frus- Till' Xornial Dairy. loJ) trate to a considerable degree the good for wliich the establishment had been created. It is well to remem- ber that conditions which might appear ideal to the medical mind may be absolntely inipracticable of ex- ecntion. However plain the detrimental effects of common impure milk may be to the life in general, and to that of infants in particular, the entire bearing of the matter and the importance of ameliorating such con- ditions is not recognized by the masses of the popu- lation, nor will the public be found willing to pay a higher price for infants' milk as long as the entire I'isiblc amelioration would consist in a new-fangled stopper on the bottle or in a colored lal^el around its neck. The sulitelty and the minuteness of the noxious germs contained in ordinary cow's milk, and the im- possibilit}' of furnishing a dail\- certificate of their deadening or removal, based on the finding of a chemical and a microscopical investigation, make this business, in a great degree, one of confidence placed by the public in the honesty of the dairyman. But experience has shown that even the greatest honest}" on the part of the dairyman and his skill in steriliz- ing is not in all cases suflficient to insure an untainted milk to an infant, because all precautions are futile if the sterilized milk, prior to its consumption, is left to the manipulation of careless and unreliable persons. This is one of the reasons why infants' milk should be furnished in hermeticallv closed small bottles of a 140 A Arxc Dairy Jiuiiistry. shape to allow the adjusting of the feeding nipple immediately after removing the stopper shortly before warming and using the milk. Although small steril- izing apparatus exist, and may be bought, }'et, for reasons previously demonstrated, they can by no means be considered as giving the same security of a dairying and sterilizing establishment, and German scientists agree that the manufacture of infants' milk cannot be conducted with any degree of success in the household of the consumer, or by parties not per- fectly versed in the functions or properties of the dif- ferent ingredients and equipped with the most perfect appliances that will insure the production of an article of uniform composition and merit. (Jther reasons pointing toward the advisability of entrusting a larger establishment with the manufac- ture of infants' milk are that — 1. By the use of the cream separator a large percent- as:e of the most noxious germs are retained in the bowl of the machine, imbedded in the separator slime. "2. The percentage of fat contained in the fresh milk, to be converted into infants' milk, can be ascer- tained and regulated daily before and after manu- facturing the infants' milk. i). All mixtures are performed with greater accurate- ness and precision, because everything is done by exact weight and measure, and not by table or tea- spoonfuls. 4. All mixing, sterilizing and cleansing is done more efficiently, quicker and cheaper. The Normal Dairy. 141 o. All materials used are procured wholesale, at a considerable reduction in price, which tells on the price of the milk. x'Vfter reviewing the points which could make such an establishment, or a number of them, a desirable acquisition to the neighborhood of an urban popula- tion, it is but fair to ascertain if this will, under existing circumstances and conditions, equally be a desirable undertaking for a dairy farmer. Binding himself to the afore enumerated clauses, for the con- duction of his establishment, he is certainly entitled to the moral and efficient support of the authorities and the board of health. The guarantee of pureness, which is given to the products of the establishment by a constant or periodical supervision, is absolutely necessary to guard the public from imposition, as well as the dairyman from the appearance of a spurious article, which would at once tend to destroy his un- dertaking bv discrediting normal infants' milk through the rapacity of unscrupulous rival parties. For the same reason, the retailing of normal infants' milk should not go through the channel of the small milk trade, but through the establishment itself, through a designated number of drug stores or large milk traders. This business is one of confidence, because of the difficulty of daily testing the pure- ness of its products, it is, therefore, natural that it be undertaken by, or conceded to, only such parties who — apart from their physical and financial ability' to per- 142 A Nfa' Dairy Industry. soiially superintend and foster it — have thoronghly mastered the theoretical and technical parts of the matter and can command the entire confidence of the "parties of the second part." On the other hand, it wonld be folly for a dairyman to nndertake the fitting out of a sterilizing establishment without the encour- agement and support just mentioned ; it seems, how- ever, unnecessary to dwell longer on this subject ; wherever undertaken, by the proper person and with the proper appliances, the advantages that may accrue to the sanitary condition and the welfare of the population it would serve, have been sponta- neously recognized. As an instance I will mention that it is a well established fact that since the estab- lishment of the dair}' of Mr. Bolle, in the German capital, the morality of the infants has been lowered twenty-five, per cent. As to general rules for the location of such an es- tablishment, they will, in a great measure, always be govered by local conditions, it should, however, cer- ly not be located at a greater distance from the popu- lation which consumes its products, than will allow of an easy supervision and rapid transportation. This distance will be regulated, in a manner, by the value of land in the vicinity of the city or town it w'ould have to serve. The advantages which close prox- imity may confer are entirely lost if the price of the milk has to be raised to meet the extra expense of high rents on land, and as long as transportation can be expeditously carried on, there need exist no other The Norma/ Dairy. 14:5 limit to the distance but that set by the possibility of effective medical control of the establishment. As regards transportion, it is well to remember that bottles with normal milk must never be filled to the brim, as part of the milk would boil out during sterilization ; they will, therefore, not stand pro- tracted shaking on rough roads as raw milk would, because the butter fat easih- collects in the neck of the bottle and butters out. In the time of old town dairies, a considerable in- Fig. 22-SliyilVlONTHAL SWISS BULL. fluence was accorded to the breed of cattle which should be kept by such furnishing milk for infants ; on the old continent, Kngland excepted, it was gen- erally believed that the Alpine breeds were the healthiest, and, therefore, the onlv proper breeds to furnish such milk ; since we ha\-e, however, learned to covert the milk of any healthy cow into a milk, which, in all its nourishing constituants, is identical to the human milk, irrespective of the relative pro- portions contained thereof in cow's milk, this ques- 144 A A'eiu Dairy Industry. tion of breeds has lost a great deal of its importance, the main reqnsite now being : a healthy cow. The relation of fat to casein and of total percent- age of solids to that of albnmen is, however, a varia- ble quantity in the different breeds, and should be studied and taken into account when planning the manufacture of normal infants' milk. The work of a number of experiment stations on this line has been invaluable in determining the respecti\'e percentages in the milk of the standard breeds of cattle. The average composition found by analyses of 28,000 samples of milk was total solids, 12. (IS per cent.; fat, 3.01 ; solids, not fat, S.77 ; specific gravity, 1.031S. When computed for an entire period of lac- tation, the following figures were found for the re- spective breeds : The Normal Dairy 145 ^ 2 id- CfQ 7Q ^ o o o o X ii li 3 Number of Analyses. Water, Per Cent. Total Solids, Per Cent. Solids, not Fat, Pr. Ct. Fat, Per Cent. Casein, Per Cent. Milk sugar, Per Cent. Ash, Per Cent. Nitrogen, Per Cent. Daily milk vield, ll)s. U(> A Neu' Dairy Industry o ^ ^ IT: V rt If) ^' rt ^ ^ "^ X 'wO "^v. o ri ^_ N rt O o Oh O U fajo u ^ 'T^ r-" CO ^ C( CO o (71 (X' c: 00 i-f O CO < u iO iff ^ iO i-~ i-t) iO (U Ph 1— 1 cc ^ t- o GO 1-T bio a c: o CO Ci IC O I- S Vh CO ^ CO CO CO CO CO yj CI 1?} ct CI c? CI *^ h p^ -i-< c 00 I- iO d 00 o Ph ;- Ol C^J ?T Ci CO CO CO a ^ Ol ~ o c: ~ t- CJ •^ ^CJ ^ CO ^ -* o-. '2 O O i- £- t- cr 1^ «> « o 13 r^ 5 o ^ c; O .— o o %-^^ o ^ o o c o o ^H T 1 ^H ^H 1—1 T-H 1—1 ^t^S Pk 03 C/J u 01 .Si ^3 w "u ffi > ■^ eq ifi a a . 5 ^ 1 a t 1 c > 'o ? I ^ ! a w < ; < C ; C u The Normal Dairy. 147 The following tables give the results of investiga- tions by the New York Experiment Station for the production of milk only, as the results for the sepa- rate breeds materially differ when it comes to the production of cream, butter and cheese. Tabulated Summary Showing Relative Results of Comparison for Different Breeds of Cattle ivith Reference to Product io)i of Milk. Figures based on Loivest results as lOO. ^ a! o ir. W ^ Relativecost of food eaten 114 Relative aniount of milk procUiced 144 Relative cost of milk. . . . 117 Relative amount of milk solids produced 125 Relation of per cent, of milk solids 107 Relative cost of milk sol- ids Ill Relative value of milk at' 1.28 cents per lb \ 144 Relative valiie of milk based on solids at O'i per lb 125 Relative value of milk based on fat at 2(1 '3 cents per lb j 116 Relative apparent profit, from milk j 151 Relative actual profitj from milk I 1(18 131 100 173 114 100 145 151 100 108 128 106 122 128 185 282 189 185 199 100 162 171 i 100 126 I 100 107 102 185 : 199 151 100 189 I 162 121 127 189 184 180 110 127 184 , 100 194 j 100 214 : 100 156 ' 145 177 224 202 255 123 152 120 150 121 100 142 184 150 154 150 171 149 211 245 14S W Ay'zc Dairy Industry. v' ^ f ^-oo t- O CO 00 C5 ^ .^asjaf ^^^^caci -coooio CO CO CC l^ 00 t- i-H • o ■ o • ■ • lOJQOi-Hl-JffllO-*' CQ -* ^ CO o CO - ^ C- T-l O I- t- C>? 1-^ Iw , • •%ft ■fe^ "^ "^ C0Q0iOOliCC0O>IO —1 i- LO C5 'C o ;- "^ UBisau^-j ■ Oi • ■ ^o ■ ■ ■ --H o i: 3 -T C- » '^J* 5 ^^ upisiOH Ol-OrHOT — *C^ •O 05 i-H O i> d -o c; c 00, £- CC CJ T- CO o? 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