THE 
 
 Young Engineer's 
 
 OW3ST BOOK. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 AN EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPLE AND THEORIES 
 
 ON WHICH THE STEAM-ENGINE AS A PRIME 
 
 MOVER IS BASED ; 
 
 'ITH A DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEAM 
 
 -fINES, CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING, MARINE, 
 
 STATIONARY, LOCOMOTIVE, FIRE, TRACTION, AND 
 
 PORTABLE; TOGETHER WITH 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO DESIGN, PROPORTION, LOCATE, REPAIR, 
 
 REVERSE, AND RUN ALL CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES, 
 
 WITH TABLES AND FORMULAS FOR FINDING THEIR 
 
 HORSE-POWER. ALSO, SUGGESTIONS ON THE 
 
 SELECTION, CARE, AND MANAGEMENT OF 
 
 ALL CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES, 
 
 BOILERS, PUMPS, INJECTORS, Etc., 
 
 « n OR THE USE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS WHERE 
 
 STUDENTS ARE INTENDED TO ENGAGE IN MECHANICAL 
 
 PURSUITS, AND FOR THE PRIVATE INSTRUCTION 
 
 OF YOUTHS WHO SHOW AN INCLINATION FOR 
 
 STEAM ENGINEERING. 
 
 Wxt% 108 gUtttfitaitotw. 
 
 By STEPHEN ftOPEB, Engineer, 
 
 tUTHOB OP BOPES'S PBACTICAL HAND-BOOKS FOB ENGINEEES AND FIBEMEH. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, REVISED. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER, 
 
 1022 Market Street. 
 
PRACTICAL ENGINEERING BOOKS. 
 
 ST-JEP,H^N ROI'PER. «A^ 
 
 • ' '^0at$c!ii£i4 , '(fe 1 H^ll-PWssure or Non-jLWdeiising Steam- 
 ; ' , l ' JBmjfosq " • J** • • ••" t » . * - ■ * * ° 
 
 " Hand- Book of the Locomotive. 
 Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines. 
 Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 
 Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 
 Questions and Answers for Engineers. 
 Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemwu 
 Care and Management of the Steam Boiler. 
 Engineer's Handy-Book. 
 Toung Engineer's Own Book, 
 
 '■ . Copyright. 
 EDWARD MEEKS. 
 
 AVL riahts reserved 
 
 Copyright. 
 DAVID M'cKAY, 
 
 1897. 
 
 Press of Wm. F. Fell & Co. 
 
 1220-24 Sansom St., 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
Dedication. 
 
 TO ALL THOSE 
 
 WHO IN THE FUTURE INTEND TO ADOPT THE CALLING 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEER, 
 
INTRODUCTION". 
 
 THE object of the author, in the preparation of 
 this book, is to fill a void which has existed in 
 the literature of the Steam-Engine since its advent. 
 jS"o writer has heretofore written a work on this 
 subject which is adapted to the wants of the youth 
 who manifests inclinations for steam-engineering'. 
 Nearly all the text-books in institutions where boys 
 are trained for the different mechanical pursuits, 
 consist of old philosophical treatises, which contain 
 brief paragraphs on air, heat, steam, etc., and are 
 illustrated with such crude arrangements as Watt's, 
 Newcumet's, and Rudolph's engines. This is alto- 
 gether wrong, as no book is too good for a boy who 
 shows an aptness or fondness for the study of any 
 particular mechanical subject. He should be given 
 to understand that, though the Steam-Engine is 
 based on theories of heat, combustion, air, water, 
 steam, etc., these theories are as immutable as the 
 ground on which we tread, the firmament above us, 
 or the ocean which stretches out before us. 
 
 The young engineer should be instructed how to 
 locate, set up, adjust, and put together all the numer- 
 ous parts which go to make up the great prime 
 
X INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mover of man — the Steam-Engine. If it be admit- 
 ted it is absolutely necessary for a man to devote 
 years to the acquirement of knowledge, for the pur- 
 pose of qualifying himself for the duties of any spe- 
 cial calling, and if the Steam-Engine is the most 
 important invention that ever originated in the 
 mind of man, and has, further, engrossed more 
 thought, more mechanical genius, and more devotion 
 from the scientist and the mechanic, than any other 
 mechanical idea, then why should we not train our 
 boys to appreciate it, care for it, and manage it, 
 instead of allowing them to become imbued with the 
 erroneous idea that it may, at no very far distant 
 day, be superseded by another motor ? For, accord- 
 ing to the natural order of things, such a change can 
 never be realized ; because there are certain condi- 
 tions connected with the Steam-Engine, and its 
 employment as a motor, which must always place it 
 ahead of any other prime mover. 
 
 For this reason we ought to continue to improve 
 it in design, workmanship, proportions, material, 
 and fine finish ; this last is the most gratifying of 
 ideas to the thoughtful mind, lending additional at- 
 tractions to the natural and trained mechanic, the 
 theorist, as well as the practical, intelligent engineer, 
 
 S. R. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 For a full reference to Contents in detail^ see Index, 
 
 page 343. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 The Steam-Engine 27 
 
 Steam-Engines 31 
 
 Horse-Power of Steam-Engines . . . .37 
 Table showing the Factor of Horse-Power for Different 
 Piston Speeds, Pressures, and Diameter of Cylinders 44 
 Economy and Waste in the Steam-Engine . . 49 
 Difference between Condensing and Non-Con- 
 densing Engines 54 
 
 Design of Steam-Engines 56 
 
 Portable and Semi- Steam-Engines . . . .58 
 
 Small Steam-Engines 60 
 
 Traction Steam-Engines 62 
 
 Proportions of Steam-Engines 65 
 
 Fly- Wheels . 68 
 
 The Steam-Piston 70 
 
 xi 
 
XH CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Steam-Engine Cylinder 74 
 
 Table showing the Proper Thickness of Steam-Cylin- 
 ders of Steam-Engines of different Diameters, includ- 
 ing the necessary Allowance for Ee-boring . .76 
 
 Bed-Plates and Housings 76 
 
 The Crank . .79 
 
 The Eccentric . 83 
 
 The Link 85 
 
 connecting-eod boxes 86 
 
 How Steam-Engines are Made . . . .89 
 Materials Employed in the Manufacture op 
 
 Steam-Engines 91 
 
 How to Locate an Engine 92 
 
 Care of the Steam-Engine 94 
 
 How to Clean a Steam-Engine . . . .95 
 
 How to Set Up an Engine 98 
 
 How to Set Out the Piston-Packing in the Cyl- 
 inder . • 99 
 
 Piston- and Valve-Eod Packing . . . . 101 
 
 Let the Steam-Engine Alone 104 
 
 How to Treat the Engine 105 
 
 Man's Inhumanity to the Machine . . . 106 
 Technical Terms applied to Different Parts of 
 Steam-Engines which Designate the Mem- 
 bers of the Human Body . . . . .110 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Technical Terms applied to Different Parts of 
 Steam-Engines and Boilers which Designate 
 
 Garments 113 
 
 Knocking in Steam-Engines 114 
 
 What should the Young Engineer Be? . . 115 
 What should the Young Engineer Know? . . 117 
 The Young Engineer should Practise Economy 119 
 What Tools should the Young Engineer Have? 121 
 Conversation between the Young Engineer and 
 his Employer ....... 124 
 
 The Steam-Engine Indicator 126 
 
 How to Adjust the Indicator . • . . .129 
 The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs . . . .131 
 
 The Planimeter 131 
 
 The Vacuum — Its Effect on the Working of 
 the Steam-Engine and as a Condition of 
 
 Economy 133 
 
 Table showing the Vacuum in Inches of Mercury and 
 Pounds Pressure per Square Inch taken from above 
 
 Atmosphere 136 
 
 Vocabulary of Natural and Mechanical Proc- 
 ess 138 
 
 The Slide- Valve 142 
 
 Technical Terms applied to the Working of 
 Steam in the Cylinders of a Steam-Engine 145 
 2 
 
XlV CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 How to Set a Slide- Valve 146 
 
 Lap on the Slide- Valve 147 
 
 Table showing the Amount of Lap required for Sta- 
 tionary and Locomotive Slide- Valve Engines . . 148 
 
 Lead on the Slide- Valve 149 
 
 The Steam-Engine Governor . . • . 150 
 
 The Brown Bevolution Indicator .... 153 
 
 Revolution and Stroke 154 
 
 Table showing the Number of Strokes or Revolutions 
 required for a Given Piston Speed .... 156 
 
 The Steam- Whistle 157 
 
 The Steam-Gauge 159 
 
 Attachments, Tools, and Fittings used in Con- 
 nection with Steam-Engines and Boilers . 163 
 The Screw-Propeller and Paddle- Wheel . . 165 
 
 Air 168 
 
 Table showing the Expansion of Air by Heat and the 
 Increase in Bulk in Proportion to Increase of Tem- 
 perature 173 
 
 Table showing the Weight and Composition of Satu- 
 rated Air 174 
 
 Air-Pumps 175 
 
 Air- Vessels 177 
 
 Water 179 
 
 Table showing the Boiling-points of Liquids under 
 Pressure of One Atmosphere 182 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Table showing the Boiling-point for Fresh Water at 
 different Altitudes above Sea-level .... 182 
 
 Table showing the Weight of Water in Pipe of various 
 Diameters One Foot in Length ..... 183 
 
 Rules for Calculating the Quantity of Water required 
 for different Specific Purposes 184 
 
 Table showing the Average Number of Gallons of 
 Water used per capita for Culinary, Manufacturing, 
 and Sanitary Purposes, and Fountains, in the Princi- 
 pal Cities of this Country and Europe . . . 187 
 
 Table showing the Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks com- 
 puted in Barrels of Thirty-one and one-half Gallons 188 
 
 Table showing the Capacity of Tanks of given Diam- 
 eters and given Depths in Gallons . . . 189, 190 
 Heat 191 
 
 Table showing the Temperature of Fire, and the Ap- 
 pearance of different Fuels at different Degrees Fah., 
 and that it is nearly the same for all kinds of Com- 
 bustibles under like Conditions 195 
 
 Table showing the Fusing Temperature of different 
 Substances in Degrees Fah 195 
 
 Table showing the Eelative Value of different Non- 
 conductors 195 
 
 Table showing the Melting-points of different Solids 
 
 and of Alloys 196 
 
 Combustion 197 
 
 Table showing the Temperature at which different 
 Substances become Combustible and Ignite without 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 the Intervention of a Spark of either Electricity or 
 Fire 201 
 
 Table showing Combustible Matter in different Sub- 
 stances, the Quantity of Air required to Support Com- 
 bustion, the Theoretic Value, and Highest Attainable 
 Value of each under Ordinary Conditions . . 202 
 
 Table showing the Theoretic Value of different kinds 
 of American Coal in Heat Units, Pounds of Water 
 Evaporated, and Percentage of Waste . . . 203 
 Table showing the Combustible and Non-combustible 
 
 in the best Quality of American Anthracite Coals . 204 
 Table showing the Constituents of Cumberland Coals 
 
 (American) 204 
 
 Table showing the Composition of best Pennsylvania 
 
 Anthracite Coal 204 
 
 Table showing the Basis of Virginia Caking Coal . 204 
 Table showing the Combustible Value of Ohio Coals . 204 
 Table deduced from an Analysis of Indiana Coals . 205 
 Table showing the Ingredients in Newcastle Coal (Eng- 
 lish) 205 
 
 Table showing the Heating Power of Coke as Fuel . 205 
 Table showing the Chemical Equivalents of Wood . 205 
 Table showing the Vegetable Composition of Peat . 205 
 Table showing the Carbon, Volatile, Sulphur, etc., in 
 Pittsburgh Coal . . . . . . .205 
 
 Table showing the Value of Lignite as Fuel . . 206 
 Table showing the Composition of Combustibles in 
 Coal, Coke. Wood, and Peat, etc 206 
 
CONTENTS. XV11 
 
 PAGH 
 
 Table showing the Value of Fluid Fuels . . .206 
 
 Fuel 207 
 
 Wood 210 
 
 Table showing the Comparative Value of different 
 
 kinds of Wood as Fuel 210 
 
 Steam 211 
 
 Economy of Working Steam Expansively . . 215 
 Bule for finding the Amount of Benefit to be derived 
 
 from Working Steam Expansively .... 218 
 Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in Connec- 
 tion with the above Kule 219 
 
 Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam in the 
 Cylinder for the Whole Stroke when Cut-off at any 
 
 given Point 220 
 
 Eule for finding the Average Pressure in Steam-Cylin- 
 ders 221 
 
 Table of Multipliers by which to find the Average 
 Pressure of Steam in the Cylinders of Steam-Engines, 
 for any Point of Cut-off . . . .• . .221 
 Properties op Saturated Steam .... 222 
 
 Caloric 223 
 
 The Boot Sectional Steam-Boiler .... 225 
 
 Steam-Boilers 226 
 
 Steam-Boiler Performances 233 
 
 Chimneys 235 
 
 How Steam-Boilers are Made • . • 238 
 
 2* B 
 
XV111 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Smoke 241 
 
 Table showing the Safe Working Internal Pressures for 
 Iron Boilers . 244-247 
 
 Table showing the Diminution in the Tenacity of 
 Wrought-Iron when exposed to High Temperatures 248 
 
 Table showing the Linear Expansion of different 
 Metals by Heat for each Degree Fah. . . . 249 
 
 Table showing the Tensile Strength of different Ma- 
 terials, in Pounds per Square Inch .... 250 
 
 Table showing the Number of Square Feet of Heating 
 Surface which Experience has shown to be Capable 
 of Evaporating the Necessary Quantity of Water, to 
 Develop a Horse-Power under Ordinary Circum- 
 stances 253 
 
 Table showing the Increase of Sensible Heat and the 
 Decrease of Latent Heat, according to Pressure, and 
 vice versd 254 
 
 Table showing the Properties of Saturated Steam 255, 256 
 
 Table showing the Elasticity, Temperature, Volume, 
 and Velocity with which Steam would Escape into 
 the Atmosphere, at a Pressure of from ] 4.7 Pounds 
 per Square Inch, 212° Fah., to 441 Pounds to 426.3° 
 Fah., above Atmosphere 257-259 
 
 Table showing the Velocity with which Steam will 
 Escape into the Atmosphere at different Pressures 
 from 1 to 130 Pounds per Square Inch . . . 260 
 
 Instructions foe, Firing 261 
 
 Dampers 265 
 
CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cake of the Steam-Boiler • 266 
 
 Steam-Boiler Explosions 269 
 
 Grate-Bars 272 
 
 Boiler Braces 273 
 
 Solvents for Kemoving Scale and Incrustation 
 
 from Steam-Boilers 275 
 
 Boiler Materials 277 
 
 Furnaces 279 
 
 Safety- Valves 280 
 
 Incrustation of Steam-Boilers .... 282 
 
 Feed- Water Heaters 286 
 
 Table showing the Percentage of Saving of Fuel 
 effected by Heating Feed- Water, Steam Pressure 60 
 
 Pounds 289 
 
 Table showing the Units of Heat required to Evaporate 
 each Pound of Feed- Water when supplied to a Steam- 
 Boiler at different Temperatures and Evaporated 
 
 under different Pressures 290-292 
 
 The Circle 293 
 
 Table showing the Diameter and Areas of Circles from 
 
 0.10 to 1.00 Inch, advancing by .005 . . .29 
 
 Table showing the Diameter and Circumference of 
 Circles from to |- of an Inch, advancing by 
 
 Eighths . .295 
 
 Table of Diameters and Areas of Circles from to £ of 
 an Inch, advancing from £ 296 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 Table of Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas of Cir- 
 cles from T V of an Inch to 25 Inches . . 297-299 
 Standard Units adopted in this Country and 
 England 300 
 
 Table showing the Specific Gravity of different Sub- 
 stances per Cubic Foot ...'.. . . . 301-305 
 
 Table showing the Specific Gravity and Weights of 
 
 various Substances 306 
 
 Logarithms 306 
 
 Table of Logarithms of Numbers from to 60 . 307, 308 
 
 Table of Co-efficients of Friction .... 309, 310 
 
 Table of Fractional Parts of an Inch expressed Deci- 
 mally 311 
 
 Table of Standards of English and United States Linear, 
 Square, Cubic, Solid, and Liquid Measures . .312 
 
 Table of Weights and Measures . . . .313, 314 
 
 Table showing the Crushing Strength of different Ma- 
 terials, in Pounds per Square Inch .... 315 
 
 Table showing the Modulus of Elasticity of different 
 Materials, in Tons of Two Thousand Pounds each . 316 
 Non-conductors for Preventing Kadiation and 
 Condensation in Steam - Cylinders, Pipes, 
 Boilers, Steam-Domes, etc 318 
 
 Table showing the Loss of Heat by Radiation through 
 Naked or Uncovered Steam-Pipes, also the Economy 
 of Fuel induced by the Use of Non-conductors . 320 
 
 Table showing the Valire of different Substances as 
 Non-conductors 321 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Injector . 322 
 
 Table showing the Maximum Capacity of Sellers' Self- 
 Adjusting Injectors, Steam Pressure in Pounds per 
 
 Square Inch, etc. • 326 
 
 Instructions for Setting Up Injectors . . . 328 
 
 Pumps «... 329 
 
 Table of Proportions of the Dayton Cam Pump . . 334 
 Directions for Setting Up Steam-Pumps . . 335 
 Table showing the Diameter of the Steam- and Water- 
 Cylinders, Length of Stroke, Strokes per Minute, 
 Capacity, Size of Steam-, Exhaust-, Suction-, and Dis- 
 charge-Pipes of the " Dean Steam- Pump " . . 337 
 Belting 339 
 
 THE OTTO GAS-ENGINE. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Front View of the Green Automatic Cut-off Engine 
 
 Frontispiece 
 
 The Otto Gas-engine xxi 
 
 Back View of the Green Automatic Cut-off Engine xxii 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Binder-frame . . . xxvi 
 
 The Crist Vibrating Engine 30 
 
 Front View of the Twiss Automatic Cut-off Engine . 34 
 Hoven Owens & Richter's Corliss Engine . . .36 
 
 The Armington & Sims' Engine 40 
 
 Front View of the Blymyer Horizontal Stationary- 
 Engine 45 
 
 Back View of the Blymyer Horizontal Stationary 
 
 Engine 50 
 
 The Diamond Baxter Engine 55 
 
 The Greenfield Yacht-engine 57 
 
 The Buckeye Automatic Cut-off Engine . . .59 
 Payne & Son's Vertical Engines and Boilers . . 60 
 The Blymyer Portable Engine . . ... .61 
 
 The Lane & Bodey Traction or Self-propelling 
 
 Steam-engine 63 
 
 The Whitehill Automatic Cut-off Engine ... 65 
 
 The Ball Steam-engine 71 
 
 The Steam-engine Cylinder 74 
 
 Kriebel Vibrating Valveless Engine . . . .75 
 
 The Twiss Yacht-engine 77 
 
 Single Crank and Eccentric 79 
 
 Double Crank 80 
 
 Disc Crank .81 
 
 Crank at Whole Stroke 82 
 
 Crank at Half Stroke 82 
 
 xxiii 
 
XXI V LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Crank Travelling Inboard, or Under . . . .82 
 Crank Moving Outboard, or Over . . • .82 
 
 The Eccentric 83 
 
 Kriebel's Vibratory Cylinder Valveless Yacht-engine 87 
 
 The Steam's Engine 93 
 
 The Sombert Engine 96 
 
 Kartzenstein's Piston-rod Packing .... 101 
 
 The Straight-line Steam-engine 103 
 
 The Taylor Vertical Engine 109 
 
 Railroad Train Crossing the Susquehanna Bridge • 122 
 Thompson's Steam-engine Indicator .... 126 
 
 The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs 131 
 
 The Planimeter 132 
 
 The Ocean Steamer . 133 
 
 The Westinghouse Engine 137 
 
 The Slide-valve 142 
 
 Lap on the Slide-valve - 147 
 
 Lead on the Slide-valve 149 
 
 The Gardner Steam-engine Governor . . . 150 
 The Pickering Steam-engine Governor . . . 151 
 
 The Speed-revolution Indicator 153 
 
 The Steam-whistle . . . . . . .157 
 
 The Steam Pressure-gauge 159 
 
 Sectional View of the Steam Pressure-gauge . . 161 
 Sectional View of the Steam-gauge . . . .161 
 The Vacuum-gauge . . . . . . . 162 
 
 Screw Stop-valve 163 
 
 Check-valve 163 
 
 Stop-valve, Check-valve, and Goose-neck . . . 163 
 Stop-valve, with Tap, Union, and Pet-cock . . 163 
 Bib-cock . . . . . . . . .163 
 
 Drip-cock 163 
 
 Gauge-cock 163 
 
 Flat Spanner 163 
 
 Round Spanner 163 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. X^V 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Monkey-wrench ........ 163 
 
 Double-end Fork-wrench ...... 164 
 
 Yoke-wrench with Slot 164 
 
 Single Fork-wrench 164 
 
 Union, or Cup and Ball-joint 164 
 
 Tap-bolt 164 
 
 Set Screw .164 
 
 Hexagon Nut . 164 
 
 Long Tap-bolt 164 
 
 Stud-bolt . . 164 
 
 Lock-nut, with Lever 164 
 
 Tee 164 
 
 Elbow, with Nipple 164 
 
 Return Bend 164 
 
 Follower 164 
 
 Plug . . 164 
 
 Reducer 164 
 
 Bushing 164 
 
 Ferrule 164 
 
 Union 164 
 
 The Four-bladed Screw-propeller .... 165 
 The Turner Condenser and Air-pump . . . 175 
 
 Air-vessel .178 
 
 Waterfall . . . . 179 
 
 Combustion . . .-■■'. . . .' . . 197 
 The Root Sectional Steam-boiler .... 225 
 
 The Harrison Sectional Steam-boiler .... 228 
 The McKee & Rankin Flue-boiler . . . .232 
 
 Chimney 235 
 
 Steam's Tubular Fire-box Boiler ..... 237 
 Murrill & Kyser's Automatic Steam-damper . . 264 
 The Cooper Tubular Steam-boiler, with Dome, Safety- 
 valve, etc. . . . . . . , .267 
 
 The Adams Grate-bar . 272 
 
 The " Common Sense " Steam-boiler .... 273 
 
XXVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Galloway Steam-boiler 277 
 
 The Jarvis Improved Furnace 279 
 
 Safety-valve 281 
 
 The Baningwarith Feed- water Heater . . . 286 
 
 Badger Heater 288 
 
 Circles . . .293 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Injectors .... 322 
 
 The Dean Steam-pump 329 
 
 The Dayton Cam Steam-pump 334 
 
 William Sellers & Co.'s Mule Pulleys and Idlers 338, 341 
 
 The Cameron Steam-pump 363 
 
 The Eclipse Lubricator 343 
 
 WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S BINDER-FRAME FOR 
 GUIDING BELTS. 
 
THE 
 
 YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 BY whom or at what period the steam-engine was 
 invented, or who first conceived the idea of 
 employing the vapor of boiling water as a motor, will 
 probably never be known, as ancient history throws 
 very little light on the subject, while modern records 
 convey the impression that it is made up of parts 
 which originated in the mechanical genius of several 
 artisans and inventive minds. This seems plausible, 
 from the fact that the patent-office records of all 
 civilized countries fail to show that the steam-engine, 
 as a machine, was ever at any time covered by any 
 valid patent. The employment of steam as a means 
 of propulsion, and that of the steam-engine as a 
 motor, are two of the grandest mechanical concep- 
 tions that ever emanated from the intellect or me- 
 chanical genius of man. 
 
 The chroniclers of England, France, Spain, and 
 other countries of Europe, frequently put forth the 
 
 27 
 
28 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 claim that the steam-engine was invented by a sub. 
 ject of their respective nationality, but investigation 
 in all cases proves that this idea is erroneous, and 
 that the steam-engine antedated the time specified 
 by them. It is also asserted that Hero, of Alex- 
 andria, who lived about 280 years B. c, was the 
 inventor of the steam-engine. This also is a mis- 
 take, as the contrivance which is shown as the in- 
 vention of Hero bears no resemblance to the steam- 
 engine, as it embodies no mechanical arrangement 
 except a simple globe. Besides, it is well known 
 that such vessels were used in Egypt for blowing 
 fires, producing draught in chimneys, distributing in- 
 cense, and terrifying ignorant and deluded people into 
 idol worship. Centuries before Hero's time many 
 of them were of exquisite design and workmanship, 
 while the contrivance which is claimed to be the 
 invention of Hero is of a rude and primitive char- 
 acter. 
 
 Notwithstanding all our modern improvements 
 in the strength, power, and utility of machinery, 
 when we witness the difficulty experienced in raising 
 heavy weights only a few feet, our wonder is aroused 
 to know how architects, in the construction of some 
 of the most wonderful structures that the world has 
 ever seen, and which are frequently met with in 
 ancient Egypt, could raise stones weighing hundreds 
 of tons to a height of several hundred feet, or how 
 they could transport these materials hundreds of 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 29 
 
 miles over an uneven country, from the place where 
 they were quarried, and place them in position on 
 the structure for which they were intended, without 
 the aid of steam. 
 
 It will be claimed that, if the steam-engine was 
 in use in the early ages of the world, there would 
 undoubtedly be some traces of it found in Egypt 
 to furnish evidence of the existence of the steam- 
 engine being among the lost arts. The question 
 will naturally arise, Why should it have so com- 
 pletely disappeared ? But the following answer will 
 suffice : How much will be left of the great bridge 
 across the Mississippi at St. Louis, of the East 
 River Bridge at New York, or of any of the proud 
 structures which demonstrate the genius of the civil 
 and mechanical engineers of the present day, three 
 thousand years hence ? Is there not a bare possi- 
 bility that the scream of the locomotive was heard 
 on the banks of the Euphrates thousands of years 
 before America was discovered, and that the whistle 
 of the stationary engine was heard in the shadow 
 of the Pyramids, suggesting a suspension of opera- 
 tions for refreshment and rest ? 
 
 Whoever first suggested the employment of steam 
 as a motor conferred a great boon on the human 
 race. It is difficult to say what plane of civilization 
 we would now occupy if the steam-engine had not 
 been discovered. The printing-press and electric 
 •telegraph have done much for the transmission of 
 3* 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 31 
 
 knowledge between the different nations of the 
 earth, but their agency would be very feeble and 
 uncertain unless aided by the power of steam. It 
 may be said, without fear of contradiction, that the 
 steam-engine is the great prime mover of man. 
 
 STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 A steam-engine is a machine which receives its 
 motion directly from the pressure or elastic force of 
 steam without the intervention of belts, pulleys, 
 cog-gearing, or any other mechanical arrangement. 
 They are termed prime movers, and are either sta- 
 tionary, locomotive, traction, portable, or marine. 
 Whether condensing or non-condensing, they are all 
 also either simple or compound. 
 
 It is understood that the simple engine is one in 
 which the steam is used but once ; being admitted 
 to the cylinder, it propels the piston to the point of 
 cut-off, and is then allowed to expand down to the 
 point of escape ; while in the compound engine the 
 benefit of several expansions is realized, by admit- 
 ting the steam from one cylinder to another before 
 it is permitted to escape to the condenser. All loco- 
 motives and ordinary stationary engines are simple, 
 whilst the engines employed on ocean steamships 
 are generally compound. 
 
 An idea has prevailed, among inexperienced en- 
 gineers, that an engine must be specially designed 
 
32 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 and constructed to meet the requirements of a con- 
 densing engine. This is an erroneous idea; any 
 engine may be converted into a condensing engine 
 by attaching a condenser and air-pump to it, or a 
 condensing engine may be converted into a non- 
 condensing engine by removing the condenser and 
 air-pump, and allowing the exhaust to escape under 
 atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Peculiarities of design have no influence in the 
 case of either condensing or non-condensing engines. 
 They may be either horizontal, vertical, incline, 
 oscillating trunk, steeple, direct-acting, babk-action, 
 or geared. The design is only employed to meet 
 some peculiar requirements. Any of them may 
 be either condensing or non-condensing, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Traction engines are a class of machines which 
 are intended to travel on ordinary roads without a 
 track, while portable engines are those which are 
 furnished with wheels for the purpose of locomotion, 
 or, when they are small, may be carried by hand 
 from place to place. They are frequently employed 
 for agricultural purposes. In the case of the sta- 
 tionary engine for manufacturing purposes, the 
 energy exerted by the steam in the cylinder against 
 the piston is transmitted to the machinery, or work 
 to be performed, by belts, pulleys, cog-gearing, or 
 some other mechanical device, pillow-blocks being 
 the fulcrums to which the force is exerted. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 33 
 
 In the case of the marine engine, the power 
 expended in working the propeller-shaft or paddle- 
 wheels is transmitted to the thrust-block, where the 
 force is exerted which propels the vessel forward or 
 backward. The locomotive derives its power from 
 the pressure of the steam in the cylinder, and from 
 the bite of the drivers on the rail. The more weight 
 thrown on the drivers, the greater the traction will 
 be, and the engine will push or pull. 
 
 But in any case the condition of the rails will 
 influence the load or number of tons that a loco- 
 motive will be able to handle. If they are wet or 
 dry, the engine will be able to exert its traction 
 force ; if they are simply damp, it will diminish the 
 power of the locomotive ; but if they are greasy, as 
 is frequently the case in the neighborhood of depots, 
 the cohesion between the tires of the driving-wheels 
 is destroyed, and the engine will not be able to start 
 more than half its ordinary load. 
 
 Fire-engines, such as are generally used for ex- 
 tinguishing fires, are simply steam-engines, with a 
 pump attached to one end of the piston-rod. There 
 is an object to be accomplished by making them as 
 light as possible, and as a result they are generally 
 strained, over-taxed, and ruined. 
 
 The piston of a steam-engine is subjected to two 
 forces, viz., that of the incoming steam from the 
 boiler, and the outgoing steam due to the resistance 
 of the atmosphere. 
 
 C 
 
M 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 35 
 
 Now, suppose the initial pressure was 70 pounds per 
 square inch, and the resistance of the air 14. 7 pounds 
 per square inch, the power utilized would be the differ- 
 ence between the two factors. Suppose the cylinder 
 was 10 inches in diameter, its area would be 78.54; 
 now, if the pressure, as above stated, is 70 pounds 
 per square inch against an area of 78.54, it would be 
 equal to 5497.80. 
 
 Now, suppose the resistance of the atmosphere 
 against the outgoing steam was 14.7 pounds against 
 78.54 square inches ; it would be equal to 1154.538, 
 which absorbs J of the united pressure, and would 
 show that the difference between the two factors was 
 the power utilized. But we must bear in mind that 
 there are other sources of resistance ; for instance, 
 the compression due to the steam which does not ex- 
 haust from the cylinder, but has to be forced out by 
 the action of the piston, and which, in many cases, 
 amounts to 3 pounds per square inch, or 235.62 
 pounds for 78.54 square inches ; add this to 1154.538, 
 and you have 1390.158, which, when subtracted 
 from 5497.8, gives 4107.642 or 747 of the initial 
 pressure. This shows the small amount of power 
 utilized from a given volume of steam, and the heat 
 expended in generating it. 
 
36 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 37 
 
 HORSE-POWER OP STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Previous to the introduction of the steam-engine, 
 horses were very generally used to furnish power to 
 perform various kinds of work, and especially the 
 work of pumping water out of mines, raising coal, 
 etc. For such purposes, several horses working to- 
 gether were required. Thus, to work the pumps of 
 a certain mine, five, six, seven, or even twenty-five 
 horses were necessary. 
 
 When it became apparent that a new motor (the 
 steam-engine) would supersede natural or animal 
 power, the idea took the form of proportioning the 
 new motor to do the work of a number of horses ; 
 but, as the two powers were only alike in their equal 
 capacity to do the same work, it became necessary to 
 refer both powers to some work of a similar char- 
 acter, which could be made the basis of comparison. 
 
 It was naturally supposed that, if a certain number 
 of horses were capable of raising a certain weight 
 of coal and water out of a mine, or other location, 
 a steam-engine of certain proportions, propelled by 
 steam of a specified number of atmospheres,* would 
 do the same thing, thus the weight raised at a given 
 speed could be made the common measure of the 
 two powers. 
 
 * In the early days of the steam-engine the pressure of steam 
 was expressed in atmospheres, instead of pounds per square inch- 
 one atmosphere being 15 pounds, two atmospheres 30 pounds, etc 
 4 
 
88 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 It was demonstrated by experience that a horse of 
 average strength, travelling at the rate of 2 J miles 
 per hour, could work eight hours per day, and con- 
 tinuously raise a weight of 150 pounds 100 feet high 
 by means of a cable, block, and sheave, and accord- 
 ingly the power of a horse was taken at the fore- 
 going figures. But this rude formulae may be ex- 
 pressed in other equivalent forms : The power which 
 will raise 150 pounds 220 feet high per minute, will 
 raise 300 pounds 110 feet high, or 33,000 pounds 1 
 foot high per minute respectively. 
 
 From the foregoing paragraph it will be easily 
 understood that 33,000 pounds raised at the rate of 
 one foot high in a minute is the equivalent of 150 
 pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute, or 2| 
 miles per hour, and it will necessarily follow, that 
 33,000 pounds raised at the rate of one foot per 
 minute, expresses the power of one horse, and has 
 been taken as the standard measure of power. 
 
 It was generally admitted that the mode of desig- 
 nating the power of the steam-engine should be by 
 horse-power, and that one-horse power should be 
 understood as power capable of raising 33,000 pounds, 
 or 16 J tons, one foot high in one minute. This unit 
 of power has been adopted by all manufacturers of 
 steam-engines and steam users in the United States. 
 
 There are several kinds of horse-powers referred 
 to in connection with the steam-engine, viz., the 
 "nominal," "indicated," and "actual or net." 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 39 
 
 The term nominal horse-power, as before stated, 
 originated at the time of the invention of the steam- 
 engine ; but, nevertheless, it implies the ability to 
 do a certain amount of work in a given time. 
 
 The indicated horse-power is obtained by multi- 
 plying together the mean effective pressure in the 
 cylinder in pounds per square inch, the area of the 
 piston in square inches, and the speed in feet per min- 
 ute, and dividing the product by 33,000. 
 
 The actual or net horse-power expresses the total 
 available power of an engine, and it equals the in- 
 dicated horse-power minus the amount expended in 
 overcoming the friction. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Horse-power of a Steam- 
 engine. — Multiply the area of the piston by the aver- 
 age pressure ; multiply this product by the number 
 of feet the piston travels in feet per minute, and di- 
 vide by 33,000 ; the quotient will be the horse-power 
 of the engine. But, however accurate such calcu- 
 lation may be, it simply amounts to speculation, be- 
 cause we do not know whether the piston is leaky or 
 not, whether the valve is steam-tight or not, if it is 
 properly set, whether the valves or the ports are 
 rightly proportioned, whether the engine is in line, 
 or the packing too tight or too loose ; and until we 
 know these things we cannot even approximate the 
 power of an engine. The indicator diagram is the 
 only exponent of that. 
 
40 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 41 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Diameter of cylinder in inches ... 2 
 
 2 
 
 Square of diameter of cylinder ... 4 
 
 Multiplied by the decimal . . . • .7854 
 
 Area of piston 3.1416 
 
 Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ stroke, 
 
 average pressure in cylinder • . 50 
 
 157.0800 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute . . 250 
 
 Divide by 33000) 39270.00 
 
 Horse-power 1.19 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Diameter of cylinder in inches ... 4 
 
 4 
 
 Square of diameter of cylinder ... 16 
 
 Multiplied by the decimal .... .7854 
 
 Area of piston 12.5664 
 
 Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ stroke, 
 
 average pressure in cylinder • • 50 
 
 628.3200 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute • • 250 
 
 Divide by 33000) 157080.00 
 
 Horse-power ...... 4.76 
 
 4* 
 
42 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Diameter of cylinder in inches . • 6 
 
 6 
 
 Square of diameter of cylinder . . 36 
 
 Multiplied by the decimal . . . .7854 
 
 Area of piston 28.2744 
 
 Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ 
 
 stroke, average pressure ... 50 
 
 1413.7200 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute • 25Q 
 
 Divided by 33000 )353430.00 
 
 Horse-power • 10.71 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Diameter of cylinder in inches . , 8 
 
 8 
 
 Square of diameter of cylinder . . 64 
 
 Multiplied by the decimal . . • .7854 
 
 50.2656 
 Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off \ 
 stroke, average pressure in cylinder 
 50 pounds ....... 50 
 
 2513.2800 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute ' • 250 
 
 Divide by 33000 )628320.00 
 
 Horse-power 19.04 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 43 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Diameter of the cylinder in inches . . 10 
 
 10 
 
 Square of diameter of cylinder . . • 100 
 
 Multiplied by the decimal .... .7854 
 
 Area of piston 78.54 
 
 Boiler pressure 60 pounds, cut-off § stroke, 
 
 average pressure in cylinder . • 50 
 
 3927.00 
 Travel of piston in feet per minute . . 250 
 
 Divide by . 33000 )981750.00 
 
 Horse-power 29.75 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Horse-power of Steam- 
 engines from Indicator Diagrams. — Multiply the 
 area of the piston by its travel in feet per minute, 
 and divide by 33,000. Multiply this quotient by 
 the mean effective pressure obtained from the dia- 
 gram. The result will show the horse-power ol the 
 engine. 
 
 Example. — Diameter of cylinder 24 inches, speed 
 of piston 275 feet = 3.7699 horse-power for every 
 pound of mean effective pressure per square inch; 
 then 3 J 699 multiplied by 60 gives the pressure 
 = 226.1940 horse-power. If the pressure was 20 
 pounds per square inch the horse-power would = 
 75.398, and so on 
 
44 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 45 
 
46 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Engines too large or too small for the work to be 
 performed are not as economical as if they were of 
 the right size, for when the engine is too small it 
 must be forced. This induces back pressure, strain- 
 ing, rapid wear, waste of fuel, increased cost of 
 maintenance, etc. On the other hand, if the engine 
 is too large, the governor will throttle down the 
 steam in the cylinder to, perhaps, one-third the 
 pressure indicated by the gauge. Now, there is as 
 much loss induced by the resistance of the atmos- 
 phere, if the pressure of the steam is only 25 pounds 
 per square inch in the cylinder, as if it was 80. 
 Besides, it has been shown by experiment that, in 
 an engine working at half its capacity, the condensa- 
 tion is more in proportion than it would be if the 
 engine was working up to its full capacity. From 
 the time the steam is cut off, the piston and walls 
 of the cylinder commence to cool rapidly, and must 
 be heated up when admission takes place on the 
 return stroke, which induces condensation. . 
 
 The power of a steam-engine may be increased 
 in three ways ; first, by raising the pressure, pro- 
 viding the boiler possesses sufficient strength to 
 guarantee safety ; second, by increasing the speed 
 of the engine. But to effect this change the size of 
 counter-pulley must be increased, so that the shaft- 
 ing in the factory may run at the same speed as 
 formerly. While the engine will run faster, to 
 increase the speed of the engine it will be necessary 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 47 
 
 to increase the size of the pulley on the governor 
 shaft, so that the governor will run more slowly 
 and allow the engine to travel faster. Third, by 
 substituting a new cylinder, of large diameter, for 
 the old one. But the increase in the diameter of a 
 new cylinder has a very narrow margin. Suppose 
 the diameter of the old cylinder was 10 inches, its 
 area would be 78.54 inches. If the diameter of a 
 new cylinder was 12 inches, its area would be 
 113.0976 inches, which makes a difference of 34.55*76 
 inches, which, if divided by 4, the number of square 
 inches allowed for horse-power in the area of cyl- 
 inders, would make an increase of nearly 8 horse- 
 power in the engine. 
 
 But it must be remembered that the substitution 
 of the new cylinder for the old one involves the ne- 
 cessity of a new steam-chest, piston and rod-valve, 
 and valve-rod/ It must also be understood that the 
 increase in the diameter of the new cylinder should 
 never exceed two inches, otherwise the cross-head, 
 guides, connecting-rod, crank-pin, crank, and crank- 
 shaft would be too light, and liable to spring under 
 the strain to which they would be subjected ; be- 
 sides, such bad proportions would look antique. 
 
 Another practical way of increasing the power of 
 a steam-engine is to attach a condenser to it, and 
 convert it into a condensing engine, which will ena- 
 ble it to yield at least ten per cent, more power than 
 when it was worked non-condensing. In large es- 
 
48 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 tablishments it is always best to lay the foundation 
 for two engines, even though one may be sufficient 
 for the time being. This arrangement obviates the 
 inconveniences of excavating for a foundation when- 
 ever it may become necessary to increase the steam- 
 power. It is also necessary to provide room for any 
 increase in boiler power which possibly may become 
 necessary. 
 
 To alter a steam-engine from a non-condensing to 
 a condensing engine is only a trifling affair, and, in 
 point of cost, should not be considered as compared 
 with the cost of the water in localities where it has 
 to be purchased, in view of the fact that it takes 
 about 26 times as much water to condense steam as 
 the water from which it was generated. Suppose, 
 for instance, that one cubic foot of water is converted 
 into steam at atmospheric pressure of 15 pounds per 
 square inch ; the volume of steam would be equal to 
 1100 cubic feet; then it would require about 26 cubic 
 feet of water to condense the steam. 
 
 Suppose, again, that we fill an ordinary tea-kettle 
 with water, and convert it into steam at atmospheric 
 pressure ; the result will be 1T00 kettles full of steam. 
 Nov/, if this volume were contained in one vessel, it 
 would require 26 kettles full of cold water to con- 
 dense it. 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing that a condens- 
 ing-engine is only capable of producing economical 
 results when water is abundant and free, as, when 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 49 
 
 the injection water has to be paid for, its cost over- 
 balances the saving in fuel. This is proper when a 
 non-condensing engine has the advantage over the 
 condensing, as the former may be set up in any 
 locality where sufficient water can be procured to 
 furnish the necessary volume of steam, while the 
 condensing-engine requires an abundance of water 
 at a nominal cost of pumping it. 
 
 ECONOMY AND WASTE IN THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 It may be said that the steam-engine is a good 
 servant, a bad master, and an expensive motor ; but, 
 nevertheless, it cannot be denied that, on account of 
 certain conditions inherent in it, it has superseded 
 the water-wheel and the wind-mill, and demonstrated 
 the fact that steam can never be dispensed with as 
 an agent. 
 
 In Watt's time, an evaporation of one cubic foot, 
 or 62.5 pounds of water, and the consumption of 
 20 pounds of good fuel, were the factors generally 
 admitted to be equal to the development of one 
 horse-power in the steam-engine ; but at the present 
 time, a consumption of from 2 i to 3 pounds of coal, 
 and an evaporation of 18 pounds of water, will pro- 
 duce the same result in the best class of American 
 automatic cut-off steam-engines. There are even 
 instances where a horse-power has been developed 
 by the consumption of 2 pounds of coal, and an 
 5 D 
 
50 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 51 
 
 evaporation of 16 pounds of water; but these are 
 extreme cases, and the conditions under which they 
 were accomplished never enter into or are realized 
 in ordinary practice. 
 
 When we come to compare the latter results with 
 the duty a perfect steam-engine should perform, we 
 find that we are far from reaching such results. 
 This may he explained as follows : It has been es- 
 tablished by scientific investigation that the con- 
 sumption of one pound of pure coal, if none of its 
 heat is lost, will raise the temperature of one pound 
 of water 14.220° Fah., or will raise the tempera- 
 ture of 14,220 pounds of water 1° Fah. Because, 
 as the heating of one pound of water 1° demands 
 the conversion into heat of a quantity of mechan- 
 ical energy equal to ??0 foot-pounds, therefore the 
 heating of 14,220 pounds 1° will require the conver- 
 sion of ?Y2x 14.220== 10,9??, 840 foot-pounds, which 
 is the mechanical equivalent of one pound of pure 
 coal burned without waste. This shows that if one 
 pound of pure coal is burned in one minute, it should 
 be applied with absolute economy to the performance 
 of work that it should develop 332.6 horse-power; 
 or, if burned in an hour, then it should develop one- 
 sixtieth of this, or 5 J horse-power per hour, or 1 
 horse-power should be developed by the burning of 
 (approximated) one-fifth of a pound of coal. 
 
 But, nevertheless, even in view of the foregoing 
 facts, instead of indulging in mild theories, or look- 
 
</2 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ing for a machine that will supersede the steam- 
 engine, we ought to direct all our energies and 
 mechanical genius to its improvement, even though 
 we may be satisfied that we will never be able to 
 produce a perfect steam-engine, or realize the result 
 which sound theory has established. 
 
 Now, if we take the condensing-engine, either 
 single or compound, for investigation, we discover 
 that, while one-fifth of a pound of coal should de- 
 velop a horse-power in a class of machines so scien- 
 tifically designed, carefully constructed, and well 
 managed, it takes from 2 to 2 J pounds of coal per 
 horse-power per hour, and from 16 to 20 pounds 
 of water ; besides, in the development of power and 
 economical results, there does not appear to be much 
 advantage in the compound over the simple engine, 
 or vice versa? while the cost of the former is nearly 
 twice that of the latter. 
 
 Doubtless, the steam-engine, from its very advent, 
 was an object of speculation and, perhaps, delusion. 
 It has been asserted over and over again, by vision- 
 ary theorists, that the days of the steam-engine are 
 numbered. Perkins' theory was indorsed by some 
 eminent engineers, but the attempt to put it into 
 practice was similar to the efforts that were at one 
 time made to convert steam into a gas by super- 
 heating, and was called stam. 
 
 The advocates of such ill-founded theories forgot 
 that, when the steam was robbed of all saturation 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 53 
 
 by superheating, it required a continual supply of 
 lubrication, and that it produced rust and wasting 
 of the material. These theorists also forgot that it 
 was necessary to discover a new material before their 
 ideas could be practically applied, or be productive 
 of satisfactory and economical results. 
 
 Then, again, we are advised of the wonderful 
 results which are destined to be produced from the 
 high-speed engine by compression, by re-evaporating, 
 etc. These theories, when brought face to face with 
 practice, which experience has demonstrated to pro- 
 duce the best results, frequently vanish. 
 
 If we carry extremely high steam pressure, we 
 should have boilers, made of extra material, and first- 
 class workmanship, which increases the first cost. 
 If we run an engine at an extra high speed, it must 
 be built of good material, carefully and accurately 
 constructed, and intelligently managed, and even 
 then the wear and tear, leakage, etc., will increase 
 the cost of maintenance. Of course there are cir- 
 cumstances under which high pressures must of 
 necessity be carried, and a high piston speed at- 
 tained, but they are special cases, and generally 
 arise to meet certain requirements. 
 
 Practical experience has shown that extraordinary 
 high pressure induces leakage and waste by radiation, 
 and the wear and tear resulting from extraordinary 
 piston speed. Moderately high pressure, piston 
 speeds, and average points of cut-off, have given the 
 5* 
 
54 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 most satisfactory results in all classes of steam-en- 
 gines — stationary, locomotive, or marine. There is 
 nothing gained by recklessness, or by running any 
 machine at a higher speed than it can maintain 
 without vibration, by rapid wear of the material 
 and the liability to break down. 
 
 All engines, for whatever purpose used, are either 
 simple or compound. All engines may be divided 
 into two classes, single-acting and double-acting, or 
 reciprocating; the latter takes steam at both ends 
 of the cylinder, while the single-acting takes only 
 at one end. The Cornish beam engine, which is 
 principally employed for pumping purposes, belongs 
 to the latter class. Steam is admitted to the upper 
 end of the cylinder, and presses the piston down to 
 about seven-eighths of the stroke, when it escapes 
 to the condenser. The piston is brought back to its 
 position to receive the steam for another stroke by 
 the inertia of a number of weights on the other end 
 of the beam. These weights equal the weight of 
 the piston and piston-rod, the cross-heads and main 
 link, and the column of water to be elevated. 
 
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONDENSING AND NON- 
 CONDENSING ENGINES. 
 
 The high pressure or non-condensing steam- 
 engine was originally an American idea. Oliver 
 Evans, of Philadelphia, and other mechanical engi- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 55 
 
 THE DIAMOND BAXTER ENGINE, 
 
56 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 neers, early foresaw its great advantages on account 
 of its lightness, its simplicity, the great speed at 
 which it might be run, the high pressures that were 
 available in its employment, and from the fact that 
 it might be set up on a mountain or a valley, a cellar 
 or a garret, or wherever sufficient water or fuel was 
 attainable. 
 
 Now, on the other hand, while Watt's condensing- 
 engine was expensive in point of first cost and main- 
 tenance, heavy, burdensome, and inefficient on ac- 
 count of its slow movements, since the days of Oliver 
 Evans the high pressure non-condensing steam-en- 
 gine has been universally adopted as the great 
 American prime mover, as it ever must continue to 
 be, because there are certain conditions embodied in 
 its employment which will never admit of its being 
 superseded by any other motor. 
 
 DESIGN OF STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Formerly the designs of steam-engines embraced 
 a greater variety than they do at the present time ; 
 the two most popular designs are the horizontal and 
 vertical. The former is more of a favorite for sta- 
 tionary purposes, while the latter is preferred for 
 marine purposes, and also for locations where econ- 
 omy of space is an object, as in cities,- stores, etc. 
 
 The beam engine, which was at one time a great 
 favorite with engineers, is rarely used in manufac- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 57 
 
 THE GREENFIELD YACHT ENGINE. 
 
58 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 turing establishments now ; it is principally confined 
 to ferryboats and river and coastwise steamers. The 
 causes which induced its disuse have been explained 
 under the head of paddle-wheel and screw propulsion, 
 on page 165. The side-lever engine, like the steeple, 
 back-action, geared, trunk, oscillating, and cradle mo- 
 tion, has almost disappeared, as has also the single- 
 acting or Cornish. All the foregoing designs were in- 
 tended to meet some special requirement, but expe- 
 rience has shown that the most available designs in 
 use at the present day are the horizontal and vertical, 
 as before stated. These meet all the requirements of 
 land and marine service. 
 
 PORTABLE AND SEMI-STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Portable steam-engines are a class of machinery 
 which may be moved about from place to place, as 
 circumstances may require. Small ones are fre- 
 quently placed on skids, or on a platform, and may 
 be either carried or rolled to the required locality or 
 position, while others are mounted on wheels, and 
 may be transported from one locality to another, by 
 means of oxen or horses. 
 
 The agricultural portable engine, such as is shown 
 on page 61, is not only a great convenience, but 
 also an absolute necessity in grain-producing parts 
 of the country, as they are available for threshing, 
 sawing wood, or drawing water for domestic, manu- 
 
THE YOTJNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 59 
 
60 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 facturing, and agricultural purposes, or for irrigation. 
 These classes of engines are destined to promote the 
 progress of agriculture in countries like America, 
 with its extensive prairies, and Russia, with her im- 
 mense steppes. Such machines can be used not only 
 for threshing, but for loading, unloading, and trans- 
 ferring hay, grain, cotton, and other valuable agri- 
 cultural products, and pressing them into bales or 
 packages suitable for shipment and transportation. 
 
 SMALL STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 The small steam-engines, like the high-pressure 
 and the automatic cut-off engines and 
 the tubular boiler, is an American idea. 
 There are more of this class of ma- 
 chines in use for light manufacturing 
 purposes in this country than in all 
 the nations of Europe, American 
 Payne & Son's mechanic an( j manufacturers early 
 
 Vertical ^ 
 
 Engines and foresaw its advantages over horse-, 
 Boilers. ma n-, and dog-power, which is in such 
 common use in the different countries of Europe. 
 
 The small steam-engine may be adapted to an al- 
 most endless variety of purposes, such as grinding 
 grist for family use, running knitting-, sewing-, and 
 braiding-machines, churning, blowing blacksmiths' 
 bellows, and a great variety of other operations, 
 which are now performed by hand, at double or 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 61 
 
 
 THE BLYMYER PORTABLE ENGINE. 
 
 The above cut represents the Blymyer Portable Engine, show- 
 ing the vertical boiler with base, fire-door, gauge- cocks, pump, 
 suction and discharge-pipes, safety-valve, steam-gauge, smoke- 
 box bonnet and engine attached to the boiler, with attendant iw 
 charge. 
 6 
 
62 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 even treble the cost at which it may be performed 
 by steam-power. It is only reasonable to suppose 
 that the small steam-engine will supersede animal 
 and human muscular power. 
 
 The rapidity and cheapness with which certain 
 mechanical operations may be performed, is the basis 
 on which their success depends, in an economical 
 point of view, consequently the perfection and gen- 
 eral use of the small steam-engine is an object of 
 great interest to the inventor, manufacturer, and 
 economist. 
 
 TRACTION STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 The traction steam-engine, similar to that shown 
 on page 63, is destined to come into very general 
 use, and render efficient aid to agriculture and com- 
 merce. The difficulties which interfered with their use 
 in early trials are being successfully overcome and 
 remedied ; consequently it is not at all improbable 
 that the number of them required will increase rap- 
 idly, and that they will be so improved as to be 
 available for purposes for which they were not 
 originally intended. 
 
 Some of the Amoskeag fire-engines are traction 
 engines, and capable of propelling themselves to 
 fires on ordinary paved streets or macadamized 
 roads. The illustration at the top of the next page 
 shows the traction engine with broad wheel tires, 
 on the face of which are teeth or cogs, which pre- 
 

 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. b3 
 
 vent the wheels from slipping on smooth surfaces ; 
 but when such engines are used for agricultural pur- 
 
 THE LANE & BODEY TRACTION OR SELF-PROPELLING 
 STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 poses, the tires are generally made broad and smooth. 
 The wheels of traction engines generally receive 
 their motion by an endless chain, which engages in 
 two ratchet wheels, one on the crank-shaft and the 
 other on the driving-axle. Gearing may be used 
 instead of a chain. 
 
 The wonderful improvement that has been made 
 in the steam-engine in the past quarter of a century 
 may be attributed to the abundant production of 
 suitable materials for its construction, to the great 
 variety and perfection of machinists' tools, to the 
 inventive genius of the American mechanic, and 
 to the general prosperity of the country, which 
 
64 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 encouraged the manufacturer to produce a good 
 article, and enabled the consumer to purchase it. 
 
 So far as symmetry of design and accurate pro- 
 portions are concerned, the steam-engine, like the 
 sewing-machine, the rifle, and revolver, will hardly 
 undergo much improvement in the future. It is to 
 the economy, and effective working of the steam, or 
 the amount of work that may be developed from a 
 certain volume of steam, that the engineer must 
 direct his attention in the future. Many of the 
 best classes of automatic cut-off engines in use at 
 the present time are probably as perfect in point 
 of design, proportion, and workmanship, as ever 
 steam-engines will be. Nevertheless, great im- 
 provements may be effected in the manner of ap- 
 plying the steam to the piston, realizing the benefits 
 of expansion, and preventing condensation resulting 
 from radiation. 
 
 The modern steam-engine far surpasses anything 
 that was anticipated in the early days of steam. 
 Nevertheless, we must not engage in wild specu- 
 lation as to what may be realized in the future, 
 because the economy of the compound engine, and 
 the high-speed engine, after years of experiment, 
 remains an open and undecided question. All 
 steam-engines, whether receiving the motion from 
 steam, gas, caloric, or heated air, are termed heat 
 engines. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 65 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Area of the crank at the centre should equal that 
 of the crank-shaft. 
 
 Boss of the crank should equal twice the diame- 
 ter of the shaft-journal. 
 
 Breadth of the strap should equal 1.1 times the 
 diameter of the pin plus .0625. 
 
66 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Breadth of the gib and key should equal 1.1 times 
 the diameter of the pin. 
 
 Depth of the piston rings should equal .25 the 
 diameter of the cylinder. 
 
 Depth of the boss of the crank should equal the 
 diameter of the shaft multiplied by -fa. 
 
 Diam. of piston -pod should equal .125 diam. of cyl- 
 inder for short-, and .2 diam. for long-stroke engines. 
 
 Diameter of crank-shaft should be .4 that of the 
 cylinder, if wrought-iron, or .5, if of cast-iron. 
 
 Diameter of the crank-pin should be .25 that of 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Diameter of the wrist or cross-head pin should 
 equal that of the crank-pin. 
 
 Diameter of the connecting-rod, in the neck, 
 should equal that of the piston-rod, and increase .25 
 in diameter to the foot from the neck to the middle. 
 
 Diameter of the eccentric-rod, in the neck, should 
 be 1.25 times the diameter of the valve-rod, and 
 should increase 1.25 inch in diameter to the foot 
 of the eccentric. 
 
 Diameter of the valve-rod should be .1 that of 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Diameter of the boss of the crank, if of cast-iron, 
 should equal twice that of the shaft-journal. 
 
 Diameter of the crank at the pin should equal 
 twice the diameter of the pin. 
 
 Diameter of the steam-pipe should be .25 that of 
 the cylinder. 
 
* THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 67 
 
 Diameter of the exhaust-pipe should be .3 that of 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Diameter of the rock-shaft bearing, if subjected 
 to torsion strain, should be .33 the diameter of the 
 engine-shaft. 
 
 Diameter of the rock-shaft pin should be equal to 
 the diameter of the valve-stem at its thickest part. 
 
 Distance from the key-slot to the end of the strap 
 should be .06 of the diameter of the wrist, or crank- 
 pin. 
 
 The clearance should equal one-half the diameter 
 of the crank-pin plus 2 divided by 16. 
 
 Length of the crank-shaft bearing should be equal 
 to 1.5 its diameter, and in some cases it should be 
 twice. 
 
 Length of the cross-head bearings should be equal 
 to ,66 the diameter of the cylinder, and their breadth 
 .205 of the same. 
 
 Length of the crank-pin should be .215 the diam- 
 eter of the cylinder. 
 
 Length of the' rock-shaft bearing should be equal 
 to .5 the diameter of the engine-shaft. 
 
 Thickness of the follower-plate should be the same 
 as that of the cylinder. 
 
 Thickness of the piston should be .25 the diameter 
 of the cylinder, plus twice its thickness. 
 
 Thickness of the crank should equal the diameter 
 of the shaft-journal multiplied by .6 
 
 Thickness of the straps on the stub end, or con- 
 
68 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 necting-rod boxes, should be equal to .44 of the diam- 
 eter of the wrist and crank-pins ; but for engines trav- 
 elling at a high speed, and requiring great strength, 
 they ought to be .5 the diameter of the pins. 
 
 Thickness of gib and key should be equal to .25 
 of the crank and wrist-pins. 
 
 It will be observed that the straps are thicker in 
 the section in which the key and gib are inserted 
 than they are in the yoke, which encircles the box. 
 This is to compensate for the amount of material 
 removed in forming the mortise for the key and gib. 
 
 It must be understood that the foregoing propor- 
 tions are only approximates for engines of moderate 
 size. 
 
 FLY-WHEELS. 
 
 The fly-wheel is an absolute necessity in the case 
 of engines used for manufacturing purposes, as it 
 would be impossible to dispense with it, especially 
 in the case of single-cylinder engines, as the crank 
 would stop on the centre without the influence of 
 the fly-wheel. Even in the case of double-cylinder 
 engines, which have their cranks at right angles, and 
 where one pulls the other off the centre, it is neces- 
 sary to have a fly-wheel. 
 
 The functions of a fly-wheel are to store up a cer- 
 tain amount of power and give it out as required ; 
 consequently, the larger the diameter and the higher 
 the velocity the steadier will be the speed. Such 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 69 
 
 conditions, however desirable, are not always attain- 
 able. Some engineers claim that the work stored up 
 in the fly-wheel should equal the work developed by 
 the engine during seven strokes. If the engine runs 
 at a high speed, the fly-wheel may be lighter and of 
 less diameter than if it ran slow. 
 
 Fop rolling-mills, particularly steel-mills, for large 
 flouring-mills, and for blast-furnace engines, the bal- 
 ance-wheel must be heavy and of large diameter. 
 It is often found necessary to introduce another bal- 
 ance-wheel on a shaft, when the power required is 
 very irregular, for the purpose of regulating the 
 speed. Any increase in the diameter of a fly-wheel, 
 even of the same weight of metal and material, will 
 give a corresponding influence to the speed. Sup- 
 pose a fly-wheel to be 10 feet in diameter, and to 
 weigh 2000 pounds ; if the diameter was increased 
 to 12 feet with the same amount of metal, it would 
 have a more controlling influence over the speed. 
 
 The diameter of fly-wheels varies in proportion 
 to the object which they are intended to accomplish, 
 from 48 times the length of the stroke up to twice ; 
 but the diameter of fly-wheels is often determined 
 by considerations of space, or room, to be occupied. 
 In the early days of the steam-engine it was cus- 
 tomary to have a fly-wheel and a driving-pulley on 
 the end of the shaft, but, according to modern prac- 
 tice, the driving-pulley is made to meet both require- 
 ments. 
 
 I 
 
70 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The following pule will give the diameter and 
 weight of fly-wheels for ordinary speeds at average 
 pressures, particularly for automatic cut-off engines, 
 in which the average pressure does not much exceed 
 40 pounds per square inch. Divide the constant 
 rule number 6,500,000 by the diameter of the wheel 
 in feet ; divide this quotient again by the square of 
 the number of revolutions per minute ; the resulting 
 quotient will be the number of pounds per horse- 
 power for the rim of the wheel. 
 
 THE STEAM-PISTON. 
 
 Pistons may be divided into three classes — the 
 
 elliptic-spring, the patent, and steam or self-adjusting. 
 
 The first is the oldest design of me- 
 
 j^3===Ac|n tallic piston-packing, having been 
 
 I m I tr * ec * unc * er ver J var yi n g circum- 
 
 Vv J stances, and subjected to the severest 
 
 tests, and yet, like the slide-valve, 
 after an experience of forty years, 
 has proven to be superior to any 
 other device or arrangement, espe- 
 cially for high-speed engines. 
 
 The steam -piston, for which so 
 much has been claimed, when intro- 
 duced, has not proved a success, evi- 
 dence of which may be found in the 
 fact that it has not been very ex- 
 

 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 71 
 
72 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 tensively adopted. Some designs of patent pistons 
 possess some very desirable features, but, as before 
 stated, the elliptic-spring piston, with set-screws and 
 jam-nuts, is in more general use than all other inno- 
 vations combined. 
 
 The piston has been a source of more waste and 
 annoyance to the steam user, and anxiety to the 
 engineer, than any other adjunct of a steam-engine ; 
 consequently, the Patent-Office is lumbered with 
 devices which are claimed would remedy the defects 
 in the piston and induce better economy. With 
 very few exceptions, they have all failed to meet 
 the requirements for which they were intended. 
 
 The strains on the piston-rod of a steam-engine 
 are either tensile or compressive. Some of these, 
 however, bear no relation to the steam pressure ; so 
 that the diameter of the piston should be made the 
 main factor in determining the size of the rod. The 
 diameter of the piston-rod of the Centennial Corliss 
 engine was one-sixth the diameter of the cylinder, 
 which was supposed to be a good proportion. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Distance the Piston 
 Travels Ahead of its Central Position on the Out- 
 board Stroke, and Lags Behind on the Inboard.— 
 Subtract the square of the length of the crank from 
 the square of the length of the connecting-rod; 
 find the square root of the difference or remainder, 
 and subtract it from the length of the connecting- 
 ?od. The remainder will be the variation of the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 73 
 
 piston from a central position when the crank is at 
 right angles to the centre line of the engine. 
 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 
 Length of crank . 
 
 . 12 inches. 
 
 Length of connecting-rod . 
 
 . 72 " 
 
 Then72 2 = 
 
 = 5184 
 
 
 " 12 2 = 
 
 = 144 
 
 
 
 5040 == 70.992 inches and 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 70.992 
 
 
 1.008, which is 
 
 the variation in inches. 
 
 Cross-Heads. — The length between the piston- 
 head and the extreme travel of the cross-head must 
 be considered when determining the strength and 
 bearing of the cross-head on the guide, as aiso the 
 weight to be sustained, the speed, character of ma- 
 terial, and whether the engine is under or over 
 stroke. Cross-heads of ordinary engines are gen- 
 erally made of cast-iron ; but for those which have 
 to sustain a great strain, they are frequently made 
 of wrought-iron or steel, especially when there is a 
 liability to break down, and inadequate facilities for 
 repairs. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE CYLINDER. 
 
 The cylinder is one of the most important, as 
 well a# the most expensive, parts of the engine. 
 
74 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 This arises from the fact that it must be made of 
 good material, and be accurately bored and fitted. 
 It is also the only part of a steam-engine which, 
 in case of accident, cannot be successfully repaired 
 The strains to which it 
 is subjected are of two 
 kinds, viz. : tensile, and 
 those due to expansion 
 and contraction. 
 
 A slight flaw, crack, 
 or defect existing in 
 any other part of the 
 engine, that could be 
 repaired or duplicated 
 at a moderate expense, 
 would render the cylin- 
 der useless, and neces- 
 sitate a new one, which 
 would be attended by loss of time, interruption to 
 business, and great expense in proportion to its size. 
 The diameter of a cylinder for any engine of a given 
 horse-power, may be found by the following rule : 
 
 Multiply 13,000 by the number of horse-power 
 required ; multiply the travel of piston decided on 
 in feet per minute by the average pressure in 
 pounds per square inch ; then divide the first pro- 
 duct b}^ the second ; divide the remainder by .7854, 
 and the square root of the latter will be the requireo 
 diameter. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 75 
 
 The annexed cut represents the Kriebel vibrat« 
 ing valueless engine, 
 which, it will be ob- 
 served, differs from 
 any of the same 
 class heretofore in- 
 troduced, as the 
 steam does not enter 
 or escape through 
 trunnions, but 
 through the bottom 
 of the cylinder, which 
 vibrates in a semi- 
 circular cup. The 
 engine is very simple 
 in design, and in- 
 genious in its me- 
 chanical arrange- 
 ment. The crank- 
 shaft passes directly 
 through the boiler, 
 to which both the 
 inside and outside 
 pillow-blocks are riv- 
 eted. 
 
 The engine seems to possess the advantages of 
 simplicity and novelty, and is well adapted to a great 
 variety of purposes on account of its compactness 
 and fewness of parts. 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW OF KRIEBEL 
 
 VIBRATING VALVELESS 
 
 ENGINE. 
 
76 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE PROPER THICKNESS OP STEAM CYLINDERS OF 
 STEAM-ENGINES OP DIFFERENT DIAMETERS, INCLUDING THE 
 NECESSARY ALLOWANCE FOR RE-BORING. 
 
 Diam. of 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Diam. of 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 6 inch. 
 
 8 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 11 " 
 
 12 " 
 
 f inch. 
 
 h ;;■ 
 
 i 
 
 ¥ :: 
 
 8 
 if " 
 
 14 inch. 
 
 15 " 
 
 17 " 
 
 18 " 
 
 19 " 
 21 " 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 ia ;; 
 
 it " 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Thickness of Steam- 
 engine Cylinders. — Divide the diameter of the 
 cylinder plus 2 by 16 ; deduct y-i^ parts of the 
 diameter from the quotient; the remainder will 
 give the proper thickness. 
 
 BED-PLATES AND HOUSINGS. 
 
 Bed -plates may be designated under four names 
 — the box, the side-bed, the girder-frame, and the 
 Tangye. The box bed-plate is the oldest design. 
 Its strongest recommendation is simplicity of form, 
 but it has the great objection that the engine is 
 more influenced by expansion and contraction than 
 in any other design, consequently the box bed-plate 
 is being fast superseded by the others above men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The side- bed is of recent origin, and answers a 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 7J ■ 
 
 THE TWISS YACHT ENGINE. 
 
 A shows the cylinder; B the steam-chest; C the steam-chest boil' 
 net: D the gub-lever; E the reversing lever; F the housing; G the 
 link, with the block at mid-gear ; H H shows the eccentric rods ; I 
 shows the base; J J the bed-plate; K the fly-wheel; L the coupling 
 which connects the engine and propeller shafts; Mthe outer pillow- 
 block ; N the reach-rod ; O the cylinder lubricator. The Twiss yacht 
 engines have an excellent reputation. 
 7* 
 
78 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 very good purpose for ordinary sized engines, and 
 moderate speeds and pressures. Though it has 
 been adopted by many noted steam-engine builders, 
 it was never employed for general purposes, because 
 it does not possess sufficient rigidity to meet certain 
 requirements. Nevertheless, it embodies many con- 
 veniences, which are not embraced in either the box 
 or some other designs. Like the box, it is influenced 
 by expansion and contraction. 
 
 The girder, op Corliss frame. — This design has 
 been more universally adopted by mechanical engi- 
 neers in this country and Europe than any other. 
 This arises from the fact that it possesses rigidity, 
 is less influenced by expansion and contraction, and 
 affords more convenient arrangements for adjust- 
 ment than any other pattern. In fact, it would be 
 difficult to distribute a certain amount of material 
 in any form of bed-plate that would embody such 
 strength, rigidity, and lightness as is embraced in 
 the Corliss frame, because the push and pull is 
 either compression or tensile strain, and are always 
 in the direction of the strongest point. 
 
 The Tangye frame is particularly adapted to high- 
 speed engines. Its only recommendation is its stiff- 
 ness ; its objectionable features are, that it is difficult 
 either to pack or keep clean, in consequence of the 
 hood, which projects over the stuff ng-box, and the 
 shortness of the connections, which bring the guides, 
 eross-head, front cylinder-head, and stuffing-box in 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 79 
 
 such close proximity. Whether it will be continued 
 in use or not depends on whether the high-speed en- 
 gine will prove a success in an economical point of 
 view. 
 
 In the box and side bed-plates the cylinder is at- 
 tached by means of flanges resting on the upper side 
 of the frame, while in the Corliss and Tangye the 
 cylinder is connected to the bed-plates by means of 
 butt-joints. The design of the frame of the Buckeye 
 engine is very handsome. 
 
 The upright frames of vertical engines, whether 
 employed for stationary or marine purposes, are 
 termed the housing, while those of beam engines, 
 such as are used for side-wheel steamers and ferries, 
 are called gallows frames. * 
 
 THE CRANK. 
 
 The crank is the device most generally employed 
 for converting parallel into 
 rotary motion. All cranks 
 may be divided into three 
 classes, viz., single, double, 
 and disc, which are again 
 
 divisible into three parts, Single Crank and Eccentric. 
 
 i.e., the boss, the web, and the hub. The boss is that 
 part of the crank into which the shaft is inserted ; 
 the hub is the part which contains the crank-pin ; 
 and the web the intervening space between the two. 
 
80 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Each of the three designs of cranks above men- 
 tioned have advantages peculiar to themselves. 
 
 The double crank is adapted for marine purposes, 
 pumping engines, etc., as there is a pillow-block on 
 each side of the crank-pin, which imparts rigidity 
 
 DOUBLE CRANK. 
 
 and strength to it, and affords facilities for connect- 
 ing it with the propeller or paddle-wheel shaft, as the 
 case may be. 
 
 The single crank is light and convenient, graceful 
 in its movement, and, when well proportioned and 
 well fitted, is better adapted and more suitable for 
 stationary engines than any other design. 
 
 The disc crank possesses this advantage, that 
 when used for high-speed engines it affords better 
 facilities for balancing the weight of the crank-pin, 
 half the connecting-rod, the stub-end box, the key, 
 gib, and strap, than either the single or double crank. 
 
 An idea formerly prevailed among engineers that 
 the employment of the crank for converting parallel 
 into rotary motion induced a loss of power, but it is 
 generally admitted by mechanics at the present time 
 that such is not the case, and that the power trans* 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 81 
 
 mitted to the crank exactly represents that exerted 
 by the steam in the cylinder against the piston, less 
 the friction. 
 
 There are four points in the revolution of the 
 crank — two full power, and two dead. At the two 
 former the crank has its greatest leverage, and the 
 greatest pressure is exerted against the piston ; while 
 at the two latter the crank has no leverage, and the 
 steam is entirely shut off from the cylinder, and there 
 is no pressure against the piston, consequently the 
 crank has the same power during the whole stroke 
 in proportion to the force expended. 
 
 The crank of a steam-engine moves six times as 
 far while the piston is travelling the 
 first inch of the stroke, as it does while 
 it is making the middle inch ; a little 
 over twice as far while the piston is 
 making the second inch ; a trifle over 
 
 % i ,,.,. „ , ., ,, . DISC CRANK. 
 
 one and a half times as far while the pis- 
 ton is moving the third inch ; and less than one and a 
 half times as far while the piston is making the fourth 
 inch. It also travels less when the piston is making 
 the last inch of the stroke than it does while it is 
 making the first. 
 
 The cut on page 82 shows the position of the piston 
 in the cylinder when the crank is at half stroke. It 
 will be observed that the piston is ahead of its 
 proper position throughout the forward stroke, and 
 that it must of necessity lay behind its position on 
 F 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 np=gQ p 
 
 ILaui 
 
 4 
 
 :®3 
 
 CRANK AT WHOLE STROKE. 
 
 L 
 
 =fi= 
 
 -A- 
 
 CRANK TRAVELLING INBOARD, OR UNDER. 
 
 CRANK MOVING OUTBOARD, OR OVER. 
 
. THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 83 
 
 the return stroke ; that the full points of power are 
 not on exactly the opposite sides of the diameter of 
 the circle described by the crank, and that a straight 
 line, passing through the centre of the crank-shaft, 
 cannot intersect both points. From this it will be 
 seen that the piston is not in the middle of the cylin- 
 der when the crank is at right angles or half-stroke. 
 
 THE ECCENTRIC. 
 
 The eccentric is frequently termed a cam, which is 
 evidently a mistake, as the term cam 
 has no definite meaning. It may have 
 two, three, or more movements, as in 
 the case of the sewing-machine, reap- 
 er, mowing-machine, etc., while the 
 eccentric has invariably only one. 
 
 The eccentric is simply a crank, and a crank of 
 the same throw will fulfil precisely the same func- 
 tions as an eccentric. The utility of the eccentric 
 over the crank arises from the fact that it is more 
 practicable and convenient for special purposes, be- 
 cause it may be placed in the middle of the line of 
 shafting, where it would be impossible to employ the 
 crank. 
 
 Eccentric and valve-rod connections should be 
 viewed in the light of small cranks and long con- 
 necting-rods, because the eccentric will move in pre- 
 cisely the same manner, and embody the same irreg- 
 
84 THE ^OUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ularities, through the full length of its stroke, as 
 the piston and crank connection does in the progress 
 of its travel from one extremity to the other. The 
 position of the valve will be in advance of one-half 
 of the stroke, where it would lag behind on the 
 other half in precisely the same manner that the 
 piston does in the cylinder. 
 
 The term "angular advance" of the eccentric 
 means the advance at which it would stand ahead of 
 the position which would bring the side-valve in the 
 middle of the stroke when the crank was at a dead 
 centre. The throw of the eccentric is twice the 
 width of one port with twice the amount of " lap " 
 added, or it is equal to both port openings and twice 
 the "lap." Suppose the port was one inch, and a 
 " lap " half-inch, the throw of the eccentric would 
 necessarily need to be three inches to give a full 
 steam opening. When the link is employed as a 
 reversing-gear, two eccentrics are used, one of which 
 is termed the forward and the other the backward 
 eccentric ; but on ferry-boats there is only one eccen- 
 tric used ; it turns on the shaft, on which there is a 
 stop, which engages a dog on the eccentric, and holds 
 it in the right position for either the backward or 
 forward motion. See Adjustment of Eccentric^ 
 page 79. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK 85 
 
 THE LINK. 
 
 The link is more extensively employed as n revers- 
 ing gear than any other device, and largely on loco- 
 motive, also marine engines of limited size as a cut- 
 off : when used for this purpose, however, the travel 
 of the valve is necessarily reduced by each increase 
 of lead owing to change in position of link and thereby 
 retarding the exhaust. 
 
 The terms full gear and mid gear designate the 
 position of the link. When it is at full gear, the 
 block is at the extreme end, either for the forward 
 or backward motion ; when it is in mid gear, the 
 block is in the centre of the link, and the valve in 
 the centre of its travel. Under the last condition 
 neither admission nor release can occur. 
 
 All links may be divided into three classes — the 
 lifting link, the stationary, and the Walshaert. The 
 first has many advantages over the other two, con- 
 sequently it is in most general use. In its action 
 two eccentrics are employed, one for the forward 
 and the other for the backward motion, while in the 
 stationary link only one eccentric is necessary. 
 
 A stationary engine may be reversed by simply 
 placing the crank on the dead centre, removing the 
 bonnet of the steam-chest, loosening the eccentric, 
 and turning around in the direction in which it is 
 desired the engine should run, until the lead of the 
 valve shows the same opening that it did on the 
 8 
 
86 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 other end, before the eccentric was moved. Then 
 make the eccentric fast, and place the crank on the 
 other centre, to ascertain if the lead is equal ; if not, 
 the difference in the lead must be divided. Under 
 such circumstances, the condition of admission and 
 release will be reversed, as the steam end before the 
 eccentric was moved will become the exhaust end, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 CONNECTING-ROD BOXES. 
 
 The connecting-rod is that part of a steam-engine 
 which transmits the pressure exerted in the cylinder 
 by the steam to the crank-pin through the medium 
 of the cross-head, and converts the parallel motion 
 of the piston into the rotary motion of the crank, in 
 reciprocating engines. Connecting-rods were for- 
 merly made of wood, with iron straps, and single 
 keys at each end. In the early days of the steam- 
 engine there was no cotter, and gib, as it is termed 
 in modern literature, used. 
 
 Connecting-rods are usually made with a swell in 
 the centre, the object of which is to prevent springing. 
 The increase in the swell, from the neck to the cen- 
 tre, is explained under the head of the proportions 
 of different parts of steam-engines, on page 65. In 
 the best specimens of modern practice, however, a 
 connecting-rod is frequently made flat and of the 
 same proportions all through ; but whether experi- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 87 
 
 ence has shown that this form possesses advantages 
 over the round swell rod, or whether its introduc- 
 tion is due to the fancy or imagination of designing 
 engineers, has never been satisfactorily explained. 
 
 KRIEBEL'S VIBRATORY CYLINDER VALVELESS YACHT 
 ENGINE. 
 
 The main connecting-rods of locomotives are in- 
 variably flat, as are also the parallel rods, while the 
 connecting-rods of marine engines are invariably 
 round. These two latter classes of engines require 
 great strength in all their proportions. It seems 
 
88 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOR. 
 
 strange that the builders of one class should have 
 adopted flat rods, while those of the other adopted 
 the round. For long-stroke engines, such as are 
 used on paddle-wheel steamers, ferries, etc., the 
 round rod is probably the most desirable, as it pos- 
 sesses more rigidity than the flat. 
 
 The connecting-rod or stub-end boxes are the 
 boxes which connect the wrist and crank-pins with 
 the connecting-rod, by means of a strap, gib, and 
 key, which is a very convenient adjustment, al- 
 though, in the case of locomotives and high-speed 
 engines, it is customary to pass a bolt through an 
 oblong hole in the strap and stub, which provides 
 additional security in case the key should become 
 loose. 
 
 The strap which secures the connecting-rod boxes 
 to the cross-head, wrist, and crank-pin, was formerly 
 made thinner in the yoke than in the region of the 
 key and gib. This was to compensate for the 
 amount of material removed in making the mortise 
 for the key and gib. This arrangement, however, 
 added very materially to the expense of fitting up, 
 consequently it has been partly abandoned, and the 
 straps in the best modern steam-engines are now 
 made of uniform thickness all through. 
 
 Connecting-rod boxes are generally made of gun- 
 metal, government brass, or red metal, which is in 
 the proportion of about 9 of copper, 2 of tin, and 1 
 of yellow brass ; though for high speed, such as elec- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 89 
 
 trie-light engines, they are frequently made of phos- 
 phored bronze; while in the case of slow-running 
 engines, the shell of the box is generally made of 
 ordinary brass, and lined with Babbitt metal. 
 
 HOW STEAM-ENGINES ARE MADE. 
 
 The cylinders, bed-plates op housings, cranks, 
 
 and, in fact, almost all parts of large steam-engines, 
 are cast in loam, while those of small engines are 
 either cast in dry or green sand. The cast-iron of 
 which they are made must be tough, hard, and pos- 
 sess great tensile strength. After they are poured 
 they must be allowed to remain in the mould until 
 their temperature is about equal to that of the sur- 
 rounding atmosphere. They are then lifted out with 
 cranes, the cores removed, the castings cleaned and 
 inspected, and, if proved to be perfectly sound, they 
 are roughly chipped in the foundry, previous to their 
 removal to the machine-shop. 
 
 If it is a large cylinder, it is placed on a machine 
 and bored out with a boring bar, which carries three 
 tools, and consequently takes three cuts — the roughs 
 ing, the straightening, and the smoothing — after 
 which the bore, for a short distance at each end, is 
 enlarged ; this is termed the counter-bore. The bar 
 is then removed and the ends of the cylinder faced 
 up, after which the holes for the cylinder-head stub- 
 bolts are drilled and tapped. 
 
90 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The cylinder is then removed from the machine, 
 the steam-ports squared up on their edges, the valve 
 or valve-seats planed, filed, and scraped, and the 
 holes for the steam-chest stud-bolts drilled and 
 tapped. The bed-plate is planed on its upper face, 
 and, if of the box pattern, the flanges which attach 
 the cylinder to it are planed and drilled, the guides 
 are then planed, drilled, and adjusted to their po- 
 sition. The pillow-block, if cast separate from the 
 bed-plate, is then placed in position, and put in line 
 with the guides and cylinder, after which they are 
 all tied down and dowal pinned. The stud-bolts 
 of the steam-chest and the cylinder-heads are then 
 screwed in the piston, placed in the cylinder, and 
 connected with the cross-head, either by a T- screw 
 and jam-nut, as the case may be. The stub-end 
 boxes may then be placed on the cross-head wrist 
 and crank-pin and attached to the connecting-rod by 
 the key gibs and straps. The valve or valves, which 
 had previously been planed, filed, and scraped, are 
 next placed in the steam-chest and the valve and 
 eccentric rods adjusted. 
 
 It was formerly the custom to heat the bosses and 
 hubs of cranks before inserting the shaft or crank- 
 pin, so that the enlargement of the holes, induced 
 by expansion, might admit of the operation being 
 performed more easily and expeditiously ; but this 
 method has been abandoned, and crank-shafts and 
 pins are all inserted cold at the present time. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 91 
 
 The modus operandi is that the shaft or pin is 
 turned about one-sixty-fourth of an inch larger than 
 the hole, except for a short distance on the extreme 
 point where it enters ; it is then placed in a hydro- 
 static machine, then the parts to be connected are 
 subjected to a pressure of from three to five hundred 
 tons per square inch, and forced home to the right 
 position. 
 
 Fitting cranks to their shafts and crank-pins to 
 cranks requires the best mechanical skill, perfect 
 accuracy and precision, as the slightest deviation of 
 the crank from a perfect right-angle with the shaft, 
 or of the crank-pin with the crank, would affect the 
 working. 
 
 MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTURE 
 OF STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Cast-iron is the material from which the bed- 
 plates and cylinders of all classes of steam-engines, 
 whether large or small, are made. The cross-heads, 
 cranks, and guides are almost invariably made of 
 the same material, as is also the piston-heads and 
 rings. There are instances where piston-heads are 
 made of wrought-iron, and piston-rings of brass and 
 wrought-iron, but they are intended to meet certain 
 requirements. Experience has shown that cast-iron 
 is the most desirable material for piston-rings of all 
 classes of steam-engines, stationary, locomotive, or 
 marine. 
 
92 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Piston -pods, crank-pins, and crank-shafts are gen- 
 erally made of wrought-iron, although in many 
 instances they are made of steel, as they may be 
 of less diameter, in consequence of possessing more 
 rigidity and greater tensile strength and durability 
 than wrought-iron ; besides, the cost of machine 
 steel is only slightly in advance of wrought-iron. 
 Yalve and eccentric rods are generally made of 
 wrought-iron, but in the best class of stationary, 
 locomotive, and marine engines they are made of 
 steel. 
 
 The stub-end op connecting-pod boxes are gen- 
 erally made of brass or gun-metal, and in some 
 cases of bronze, while in others their inner surface 
 is composed of a shell, which is lined with ''Babbitt " 
 metal, which, if good, is very durable and eco- 
 nomical, as it requires less lubrication than either 
 brass, bronze, or gun-metal; but it has this disad- 
 vantage, that, if not properly lubricated, or if neg- 
 lected and allowed to become overheated, it will 
 melt and run out. The result of this is, the box is 
 ruined — in fact, boxes made of brass, bronze, gun-, 
 metal, or any other material, if keyed up too tight 
 or allowed to become dry, will spoil. 
 
 HOW TO LOCATE AN ENGINE. 
 
 The fipst point to be considered in the location of 
 an engine, is the position which the engine is in- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 93 
 
 tended to occupy, whether inside or outside of the 
 building. The next thing is to get the line of the 
 shaft from which the driving-belt will communicate 
 the power from the engine, and then locate the en- 
 gine so that the driving pulley will be in line with 
 the centre of the driven pulley on the countershaft. 
 It will be necessary to take the line of the building at 
 four or five different places in its length, and then 
 strike a line across them all, which will give the centre 
 line of the building, or the position which the main 
 shaft should occupy when hung. 
 
 THE STEARN'S ENGINE. 
 
 In some instances the power is communicated to 
 a short shaft, called the counter-shaft, and from that 
 to the main shaft by means of another belt. In 
 other cases the engine is located outside of the main 
 building, but the calculations for the proper location 
 of it are just the same. All engines, particularly 
 
94 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 those which are intended to supply power for large 
 factories, should be located near the middle of the 
 building, in order that the power may be communi- 
 cated to the main line of shafting near its centre, in 
 order to diminish the strain and friction, as when 
 the power is communicated to a long line of shafting 
 at the extreme end it induces torsioo, friction, and 
 loss of power. 
 
 Small engines are sometimes located at right 
 angles with the shaft to which they are intended to 
 communicate power. In such cases, the driving belt 
 must be guided by mule-pulleys, or idlers ; but this 
 arrangement only answers for engines of small 
 power and belts of moderate width. In all cases, 
 when the power to be communicated is large, it 
 must be as direct as possible. 
 
 CARE OP THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 Always start an engine slowly, for the purpose of 
 expelling the air and water condensation from the 
 cylinder, when the latter is cold; then bring the 
 engine gradually up to its regular speed. 
 
 Be sure the drip-cocks, in the front and back 
 heads of the cylinder, are always open when the en- 
 gine is standing still, and never close them until the 
 water is all expelled. 
 
 Never admit the lubricating substance, oil or tal- 
 low, to the cylinder, until it is thoroughly warmed 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 95 
 
 up, as before that time the water of condensatioD 
 furnishes sufficient lubrication. 
 
 Never use more oil or tallow in the cylinder than 
 is absolutely necessary, as it is not only a waste, but 
 is objectionable, as it unites with the feed-water iD 
 open heaters, and causes foaming and priming, while, 
 in closed heaters, it forms a conglomerate with the 
 minerals in the feed-water, and is liable to do mis- 
 chief. 
 
 Always lubricate or oil the different parts of the 
 steam-engine before starting, by depositing a few 
 drops of oil in the right places. Any quantity over 
 that actually required is unnecessary, superfluous, 
 and a waste. 
 
 Always try to run your engine on the minimum 
 quantity of coal, oil, tallow, packing, waste, rags, or 
 wipings, as the few drops of oil deposited in the 
 right place at the right time will suffice. The same 
 judgment must be exercised in regard to the mate- 
 rials used in cleaning the engine. 
 
 Always keep the piston and valve-rod packing in 
 a bag or clean drawer, in order to prevent dirt, sand, 
 or whitewash from becoming attached to it, as these 
 substances have a tendency to flute and cut the rods. 
 
 HOW TO CLEAN A STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 It is a noticeable fact that, when an inexperienced, 
 ignorant, or careless engineer undertakes to clean an 
 
96 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 engine, he first uses clean waste rags, or other new 
 materials, to wipe up the dirty oil from the stub ends, 
 
 THE SOMBERT GAS-ENGINE. 
 
 crank-pin, or cross-head guides, and then applies the 
 same to the cylinder-head, connecting- and valve- 
 rods, cross-heads, and the bright or finished work. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 97 
 
 On the other hand, it may be noticed that the neat, 
 careful, and ambitious engineer first wipes up the 
 worst parts of the engine with rags or waste that 
 had been used several times before, then he takes the 
 better class of wiper, and removes all the residue, 
 oil, or grease, after which he wipes his hands, and 
 applies clean waste or rags, as the case may be. A 
 philosopher was asked how he could tell a girl who 
 would make a good housewife. He suggested the 
 idea of placing a broom on the floor, and if she 
 stepped over it, and went her way, it was a doubtful 
 case ; but if she picked it up, and placed it on the 
 end with the broom upward, it would be safe to take 
 stock. 
 
 Whenever an engineer is discovered rubbing up 
 the finished work of his engine with the same piece 
 of waste with which he mopped up the superfluous 
 oil from the cross-head guides, it is evident that he 
 is ignorant of his duties. Cleaning engines, or any 
 other class of machinery, is similar to other mechan- 
 ical operations. Some men will comprehend the right 
 way at the start, while others will never learn. 
 
 Every engineer should provide himself with a few 
 sheets of o o crocus cloth, and a moderate quantity 
 of flour of emery, pulverized chalk or whiting, and 
 rotten-stone. These materials will be sufficient, but 
 he must remember that, when using emery or crocus 
 cloth, he must always move his hand in the same 
 direction, as, if he alters the motion, the material, 
 9 G 
 
98 * THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 however fine it may be, will scratch or discolor the 
 work. 
 
 To clean brass or copper, one ounce of oxalic acid, 
 dissolved in one -half pint of water, and well shaken, 
 will remove the tarnish off brass or copper very 
 rapidly. All that is necessary is to saturate a piece 
 of waste with it, pass it over the surface, then wipe 
 it off, apply an oily rag, and, after wiping the oil off, 
 go over the surface with chalk or rotten-stone. 
 
 HOW TO SET UP AN ENGINE. 
 
 To set up an engine, the location must be deter- 
 mined according to instructions given in the previous 
 subject, after which the excavation may be made, 
 which should be at least 2 feet wider and longer than 
 the brickwork, which is to form the base on which 
 the bed-plate is intended to rest. The depth of the 
 excavation must depend in all cases on the size and 
 weight of the engine, and the character of the soil 
 on which the foundation rests. 
 
 The next requisite is a template, which should be 
 a fac simile of the under side of the bed-plate. This 
 template may be made of one-inch pine board, and 
 must contain holes to correspond with those on the 
 bed-plate. It may be set up to the proper height on 
 four props, and in line with the shaft or pulley on 
 which the belt from the driving-wheel is intended to 
 travel, after which the anchor-bolts, which are in- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. i?9 
 
 tended to tie the bed-plate to the foundation, may- 
 be hung with an anchor on the lower end, and nuts 
 turned about two-thirds their depth. 
 
 The anchor- bolts should extend from the top of 
 the template to within about six inches of the bottom 
 of excavation. The bricklayers may then commence 
 to lay the foundation, and, when they arrive at the 
 proper height, the template may be removed and the 
 top of the brickwork covered with a heavy coat of 
 mortar or cement, before the bed-plate is placed on it, 
 after which it may be lined and tied down with the 
 anchor-bolts. A line may be then drawn through 
 the centre of the cylinder, and intersected with an- 
 other through the centre of the pillow-block bearing, 
 by which the position of the off pillow-block may 
 be determined. 
 
 When the bed -plate is level, the guides parallel, 
 and the crank-pin plumb at half-stroke, and in line on 
 the inboard and outboard centres, all the details may 
 be finished up, and if the engine was intelligently 
 and carefully set up, there is no reason why it should 
 not work well. 
 
 HOW TO SET OUT THE PISTON-PACKING IN THE 
 CYLINDER. 
 
 Great care must be exercised in adjusting the 
 packing in steam-cylinders. This operation is gen- 
 erally performed when both the cylinder and pack- 
 
 LofC. 
 
100 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ing are cold, and, if they are screwed or wedged out 
 very tight while in this condition, the expansion 
 will induce more rigidity when exposed to the action 
 of the steam. As a result, the lubricating sub- 
 stance cannot enter between the surfaces in contact, 
 which will induce friction, heating, and cutting. 
 
 It must be understood, there must be a film of 
 water, resulting from the condensation of steam, 
 between the surface of the piston-ring and the walls 
 of the cylinder. This condition is absolutely neces- 
 sary in the case of slide-valves as well as steam-pis- 
 ton packings. There are circumstances and con- 
 ditions under which, however great the quantity of 
 lubrication applied, it will not lubricate, because the 
 weight is such, or the parts in contact are so rigid, 
 that the lubricating substance cannot enter. 
 
 Fop the foregoing reasons the condition of the 
 cylinder, the expansion of the metals, if there is 
 more than one metal, the speed at which the engine 
 is intended to run, the load, pressure, etc., must be 
 considered. If the piston-rings are slack, leakage 
 will be induced and also loss of power ; if they are 
 too tight, it will cause heating, friction, and tearing 
 of the surface, which will necessitate reboring of the 
 cylinder, turning, and facing of the rings. 
 
 Nearly every engineer, however limited his ex- 
 perience may be, thinks that he understands how to 
 set a slide-valve, or adjust piston-packing, while 
 many, who undertake to perform such operations, cto> 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 101 
 
 not understand the requirements of such adjust- 
 ments, and the conditions and changes to which the 
 parts are exposed when in use under steam. 
 
 Kartzenstein's Piston- 
 rod Packing. 
 
 PISTON- AND VALVE-ROD PACKING. 
 
 Formerly raw hemp, or what was termed spun 
 yarn, was the only packing used 
 for pistons and valve-rods. It 
 had the advantage of simplicity, 
 and was easy to apply, but it 
 had the disadvantage of char- 
 ring when screwed up tight; 
 besides, the shore or stock 
 which it contained had a ten- 
 dency to flute the rods. It was 
 customary to soak it in melted 
 tallow, though this did not add to its durability. 
 
 There is a great variety of piston-rod and valve- 
 rod packing in the market at the present day, which 
 is designated by different names, all of which pos- 
 sess certain merits. They have the advantage of 
 being easily inserted in the boxes, and are made of 
 sizes to meet every dimension of stuffing-box and 
 wad. A very desirable feature in any packing is, 
 that it should spring and relieve the strain on the 
 rod, particularly when the engine is out of line. 
 Any packing should be removed from the boxes 
 when it loses its elasticity. 
 
102 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Preparatory to packing an engine, all the old 
 packing should be removed, the boxes thoroughly 
 cleaned out, the rings should be cut in suitable 
 lengths — a fraction less than the diameter of the 
 rod or box, so that when they are inserted they will 
 not butt, for if they are too long, they will not hug 
 the rod, which will render it impossible to make the 
 packing tight. The packing in piston- and valve- 
 rod boxes will sometimes leak badly, after it is put 
 in. Instead of screwing it up, so that the friction 
 will heat the rods and ruin the packing, it is better 
 to take out one or two rings and reverse them, 
 which, in the majority of cases, will stop the leak. 
 
 Piston- and valve-rod packing should never be 
 screwed up more than sufficient to prevent it from 
 leaking, as the softer the packing is the longer it 
 will last, and the better the engine will run. When 
 the packing is first inserted in the boxes, it should 
 be screwed up tight, and then the nut slacked off suf- 
 ficiently to allow the packing to swell where exposed 
 to the action of the steam. The nuts may then be 
 screwed up gradually, if the packing leaks. 
 
 To find the right diameter of packing for any 
 stuffing-box, take the diameter of the rod and the 
 diameter of the box, then the size of packing re- 
 quired will be the difference between the two. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 103 
 
104 THE YOUNG ENGINEEK'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 LET THE STEAM-ENGINE ALONE. 
 
 Whenever you have charge of an engine that 
 runs smooth, or as well as can be expected, all 
 circumstances considered, let it alone. Do not take K 
 
 7 mi. 
 
 any stock in the man that sets her valves the first 
 thing after he takes charge, and finds that all the 
 engines that ever he ran were out of order when 
 he took charge of them, and when he left them 
 they were in splendid condition. 
 
 You must remember that, while it may be easy 
 to take an engine apart, it is not always as easy to I 
 put it together again, and even »if it were, it is), 
 doubtful whether it would be improved by so doing. I 
 If an engine possesses inherent defects, no amount I 
 of taking down or setting up will remedy it. If it ? 
 is out of line, nothing but a good rehauling will 
 remedy the evil. :> 
 
 Many splendid engines have been ruined by tink- fe 
 ering, at the hands of parties who had no practical 1 
 knowledge of what they undertook. They unloosen fe» 
 jam-nuts, and disconnect the valve gear, without J 
 paying any attention to the marks which were | 
 placed there by the manufacturer or constructing S 
 engineer as a guide to future adjustment ; conse- I 
 quently, when they come to put the parts together, I 
 they are groping in the dark. 
 
 The individual who stated that after he set out 
 the packing in the cylinder, she went to work and 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 105 
 
 cut herself, was not a person that would be likely 
 to accomplish a very accurate adjustment. 
 
 Three very important points must be considered, 
 before you commence to tinker an engine ; first, does 
 it require it ; second, why does it ? third, are you 
 sure you can improve it ? if not, let it alone. 
 
 HOW TO TREAT THE ENGINE. 
 
 No person of a humane or generous disposition 
 would abuse, maltreat, or neglect a beast, bird, or 
 mimal, or even feel comfortable if he had reason 
 jO believe that they were suffering from overwork, 
 maps, galls, or causes for which they were not to 
 )lame or could not explain. Then why should the 
 mgine be abused, neglected, overworked, and galled? 
 
 Horses that are well fed, kept clean, and not 
 overstrained, generally live beyond the age of the 
 iverage horse. This also applies to a steam-engine, 
 .f it is well designed, proportioned to its work, kept 
 lean, lubricated, and not overworked, it will render 
 ong, faithful, and efficient service, without any in- 
 rease in the cost of maintenance, which, of course, 
 aeans repairs, and extra expenses for oil, packing, 
 •tc. 
 
 If, on the other hand, it is badly proportioned to 
 the work that it performs, overtaxed, strained, and 
 not properly cared for, its sinews will waste and its 
 efficiency be impaired, the cost of maintenance will 
 
106 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 be increased, and the limit of its usefulness dimin- 
 ished. If we start out to ride or drive a horse a 
 certain number of miles, say twenty, and for the 
 first five we urge him to the limit of his speed, 
 without considering the load, or the condition of 
 the road over which he has to travel, he will 
 probably break down before reaching the end of 
 the journey ; but if we drive him at a moderate 
 speed for the first five or ten miles, he will proba- 
 bly reach his destination in good condition. This 
 is precisely the case with the steam-engine. 
 
 MAN'S INHUMANITY TO THE MACHINE. 
 
 It has been said that no other device in the 
 whole range of human invention has monopolized 
 so much devotion from the scientist and mechani- 
 cian, so much investigation from the theorist, and 
 so much thought and study from the practical me- 
 chanic, as the steam-engine, and that it always 
 exerts a fascinating influence over the minds of 
 mechanical geniuses, as well as persons of ordinary 
 intellect and limited education. This, probably, 
 accounts for the fact that the lack of natural or 
 cultivated talent, mechanical ideas, ambition, and 
 appreciation of things with which they would have 
 to deal, have rendered many, who might otherwise 
 have adopted engineering as a calling, totally unfit 
 for such an occupation as a result. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 107 
 
 It is not at all uncommon when we enter an 
 engine-room, to see a machine, that once was as 
 bright as a new silver dollar, and an object of 
 attraction even for those who did understand the 
 principle on which it was based, on account of 
 its symmetry of proportions, elegance of design, 
 and easy and graceful movements, leaking at every 
 pore, and covered with filth, the piston- and valve- 
 rods fluted for want of proper packing, the crank- 
 pin copper-colored from over-heating, the stub-end 
 boxes cut, the keys battered with hammers or 
 monkey-wrenches, the governor, that was once re- 
 liable, and which rendered efficient service, trying 
 to perform its duty by spasmodic jumps, the oil-cup, 
 or lubricator, bubbling out grease, a puddle of crude 
 oil in the well of the bed-plate, and the engine 
 groaning under the load which it once seemed a 
 pleasure to carry, while the individual with the 
 blue jumper and overalls sits listlessly looking on. 
 
 Then turn to the boiler, and you will probably see 
 the head and front covered with ashes ; that beauti- 
 ful adjunct, the glass water-gauge, stained with yel- 
 low mud on the inside, if not broken and dispensed 
 with altogether ; the steam-gauge out of order, or 
 presenting strong evidence of not receiving any at- 
 tention ; while that silent sentinel, the safety-valve, 
 would be probably discovered to be leaking, its stem 
 bent, overloaded, and its utility nullified, by render- 
 ing it a non-safety instead of a safety-valve. 
 
108 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Then if we turn to the pump we find that, how- 
 ever reliable, efficient, and durable it might have been, 
 when put into use, its condition shows that its ser- 
 vices have not been appreciated. 
 
 So with the injector, that little wonder, that might 
 be set up in any place, in any position, whether hori- 
 zontal, vertical, or incline, and render efficient service 
 without the necessity of belt, oil, or packing, still 
 is frequently allowed to fall into bad repair. 
 
 Of course, it would be only reasonable to expect 
 that the party whose ignorance and contributive 
 negligence ruined the splendid engine, would de- 
 nounce it as a fraud, when it required repairs ; and 
 assert that the governor was a humbug, when all it 
 actually required was a good cleaning ; and that he 
 would not give a tinker for the pump, when all it 
 wanted to restore it to its original efficiency and 
 capacity would be to take up the packing in the 
 steam- and water-cylinders, pack the piston- and 
 valve-rods, and renew or grind in the valves. 
 
 The injector he considers a mighty poor arrange- 
 ment, even though he might be forced to admit that 
 it rendered valuable service ; the steam-gauge he does 
 not think much about, and as for the glass water- 
 gauge, he considers it a nuisance. It is more than 
 probable that, on examination, the door of the fur- 
 nace, of which he had charge, was either broken or 
 out of swing, the bridge wall tumbled down, the 
 flues full of ashes, a cartload of cinders under the 
 
 L 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 109 
 
 THE TAYLOR VERTICAL ENGINE. 
 
110 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 grate-bars, and the gauge-cocks either broken off, 
 plugged up, or filled with mud. 
 
 It is not at all likely that the individual who was 
 instrumental in producing the condition of affairs 
 described in the foregoing paragraphs would be likely 
 to appreciate any new labor- or heat-saving arrange- 
 ment. He would rather have a rope attached to the 
 safety-valve passing over a wood shieve in the loft 
 than either the steam or glass water-gauge, and he 
 would prefer to handle half a ton of coal extra twice 
 every day, than have any improvement made in the 
 furnace, on the principle, probably, that what was 
 considered good enough in his father's time is good 
 enough at the present. 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO DIFFERENT 
 PARTS OF STEAM-ENGINES WHICH DESIGNATE 
 THE MEMBERS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Arms. — The braces which connect the hub of the 
 fly-wheel with the rim. 
 
 Back. — The reverse side of the bed-plate in engines 
 with girder frames. 
 
 Belly. — The heavy side of an eccentric. 
 
 Breast. — That part of the bed-plate which is back 
 of the cross-heads in engines of the Corliss type. 
 
 Cheeks. — The edges of the cross-heads in front of 
 the guides. 
 
 Ear. — A protection in the flange of the cylinder, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. Ill 
 
 by means of which the cylinder is braced to the pil- 
 low-block, for the purpose of giving rigidity to the 
 bed-plate. 
 
 Elbows. — Arrangements used for making a right- 
 angle bend on steam- and exhaust-pipes. 
 
 Eye. — The hole in the bracket which forms a guide 
 for the valve-rod in cases where a rocker is not em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Feet. — Flanges by which the engine is tied. 
 
 Fingers. — The devices by which the exhaust- 
 valves of engines using the Stevens 7 cut-off are 
 worked. 
 
 Hand. — The pointer on the dial of steam-gauges. 
 
 Head. — The circular plates that cover the cylinder 
 of a steam-engine. 
 
 Jaws. — The part of the cross-head which rests on 
 the guide ; there are upper and lower "jaws." 
 
 Knees. — Right-angle brackets very generally em- 
 ployed for supporting steam-cylinders on their foun- 
 dations. 
 
 Knuckles. — A joint formed in the valve-rod for the 
 purpose of averting the influence of the rocker and 
 preserving a parallel motion. 
 
 Legs. — The supports on which the cylinder and 
 front pillow-block rest in engines having girder- 
 frame bed-plates. 
 
 Lips. — The extreme ends of slide-valves, which 
 overlap the ports when in the centre of the travel. 
 
 Mouth. — An arrangement attached to the under 
 
112 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 side of jian-holes, which forms the seat for the lips 
 of the man-hole plate. 
 
 Neck. — The intervening piece between the front 
 head of the cylinder and the flange of the stuffing- 
 box. 
 
 Nose. — The extreme end of the piston-rod which 
 protrudes through the back end of the cross-head. 
 
 Ribs. — Projections cast on the back sides of the 
 girder-frames of steam-engines, for the purpose of 
 preventing springing. 
 
 Shoulder. — The part of the piston-rod which butts 
 against the cross-head. 
 
 Skin. — A brass or copper covering placed over the 
 piston-rod of steam-engines, also of air-pumps, using 
 the jet condenser to prevent corrosion induced by 
 the salt water. 
 
 Teeth. — A general term which applies to the cog 
 gearing used on the governors and valve gears of 
 steam-engines. 
 
 Toes. — The stubs which operate the steam-valves 
 of engines using the Stevens' and Winters' front 
 and cut-off. 
 
 Tongue. : — A mechanical arrangement employed in 
 some instances for giving motion to the valves of 
 automatic cut-off engines. 
 
 Wrist. — That part of the cross-head to which the 
 connecting-rod and boxes are attached. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 113 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO DIFFERENT 
 PARTS OF STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS 
 WHICH DESIGNATE GARMENTS. 
 
 Cap. — The plate which covers the ends of the 
 steam- and exhaust-chest of engines of the Corliss 
 type. 
 
 Bonnet. — The term applied to the cover of the 
 steam-chest. 
 
 Hood. — The projection which overhangs the stuff- 
 ing-box on the front end of Tangye bed-plates. 
 
 Collar. — An adjustable or solid ring frequently 
 employed on the shafts which give motion to the 
 valves. 
 
 Sleeve. — The hollow tube in which the governor 
 shaft revolves. 
 
 Jacket. — The term applied to the covering on 
 steam cylinders. 
 
 Breeches. — An arrangement employed in connec- 
 tion with flue boilers, for the purpose of conveying 
 the smoke to the chimney. 
 
 Petticoat- pipe. — A conduit for the exhaust steam 
 from nozzles to chimney in locomotives. 
 
 Shoes. — The gibs which support the cross-head in 
 engines of the Corliss type. 
 
 Pocket. — A recess on the steam-valves to collect 
 the water of condensation. 
 
 Waist. — The part of a boiler between the fire-bos 
 and smoke-chamber. 
 
 10* H 
 
114 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Hat. — A cast-iron pot attached to the bottom of 
 locomotive boilers, for the purpose of collecting and 
 retaining the sludge which results from the feed- 
 water. 
 
 Mantle. — A term applied' to the steam-jacket by 
 European engineers, particularly Germans, but it 
 has never been adopted in this country. 
 
 KNOCKING IN STEAM-ENGINES. 
 
 Some engines knock because they are out of line, 
 or the reciprocating or revolving parts are loose from 
 wear or other causes. Other engines knock because 
 they take the steam too soon, or let it go too late, 
 or because the compression is too great or not suffi- 
 cient. Engines knock because the boxes on the 
 cross-head, wrist, and crank-pin are worn out too 
 
 Engines knock sidewise because they are out of 
 * line ; others knock up and down, because the gibs on ' 
 the cross-heads are too loose ; engines knock because 
 the packing around the piston-rod is too tight ; but 
 the knock which is induced by over-compression, or 
 a contraction of the exhaust, can easily be distin- 
 guished from the knocks induced by looseness or 
 wear, as, instead of a loud and clear sound, there is 
 a dull, heavy thud. 
 
 Engines knobk because the piston-rod packing is 
 screwed up too tight, or the gland of the stuffing- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 115 
 
 box is not straight with the piston. Engines often 
 knock when they are started up, and after they get 
 under way the knock ceases, while other engines 
 knock when the steam is shut off preparatory to stop- 
 ping. The cause in both of the foregoing cases is 
 that there is not sufficient steam in the cylinder to 
 balance the reciprocating parts. 
 
 When the slide-valve connections, or piston-rings, 
 are badly worn or loose, the clatter is when the en- 
 gine is started up or shut down, while, when it is 
 fairly under way, they cease because the pressure of 
 the steam takes up the lost motion. Never let the 
 engine in your charge knock if you can help it, as it 
 grates harshly on the ear of the engineer and prac- 
 tical mechanic ; besides, those who do not pretend 
 to know anything about an engine, conclude there 
 must be something out of order when they hear it 
 knocking, and when an engine does knock, there is 
 unquestionably something wrong. 
 
 WHAT SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER BE? 
 
 He should be a young man of intelligence, of good 
 
 natural mechanical ideas, be temperate, industrious, 
 ambitious to excel in the calling that he has adopted, 
 and be possessed of a moderate share of education. 
 Of course, it will be advanced that men who have 
 no education at all have proved themselves to be 
 among the most reliable engineers in the country, 
 
J 16 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 and filled first-class situations. This may be true ; 
 but if all the traits in their character were known, 
 it would probably be discovered that they were nat- 
 urally men of intellect, who, if they had possessed 
 the advantage of a good education, would probably 
 have excelled in their line of business. Now, if the 
 fact was established that many uneducated men 
 make good engineers, it would be a dangerous pre- 
 cedent to follow, because it is well known that an 
 engineer can never rise above a certain level in his 
 profession, unless he has a fair share of education. 
 
 An engineer ought to keep his ideas abreast of the 
 times, and also keep himself posted in the progress of 
 the age, the great improvements that are continually 
 being made in steam machinery, any new inventions 
 that are constantly being introduced, and bask in the 
 light that science is shedding on the theories of the 
 steam-engine. Now, how can he do this if he cannot 
 consult the scientific journals ? He is in the position 
 of a man who has his tongue in another man's 
 cheek, or his faith pinned to another man's sleeve — 
 he is helplessly dependent on what he is told. Even 
 if an engineer has a moderate share of education, 
 and yet never expended one dollar as subscription 
 to a journal that was devoted to the interests of his 
 profession, nor ever purchased a work that would 
 enlighten him on subjects relating to his occupation, 
 what is the opinion, ideas, or experience of such a 
 man worth, as they were all conceived, moulded, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 117 
 
 and confined to the limits of an obscure engine-room? 
 He need not necessarily be a machinist, as experience 
 has shown that machinists do not make the best en' 
 gineers ; the facts are the reverse. It has been dis- 
 covered that machinists, when following the occupa- 
 tion of engineers, are less careful, neat, and reliable 
 than engineers who are not machinists ; besides, 
 there is no reason why a man should learn two 
 trades for the purpose of following one. 
 
 Every engineer should be able to use the small 
 tools that come into play in every-day practice, viz., 
 the hammer, cold-chisel, dividers, centre-punch, drill, 
 trimmers, shears, tap and die, and be able to take the 
 diameter of a bolt, the number of threads according 
 to the diameter, the size of drill required for any tap, 
 and the size required for an old or new hole. 
 
 WHAT SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER KNOW? 
 
 He should know the rudiments of the business in 
 which he is about to engage, and no man should be 
 allowed to engage in the profession or take charge 
 of steam machinery until he has undergone an ex- 
 amination for the purpose of establishing that fact. 
 He should be able to explain the difference between 
 condensing, non-condensing, simple, compound, auto- 
 matic cut-off, and throttling engines. 
 
 The amateur engineer should be able to read the 
 indicator diagram, and designate the admission and 
 
118 THE YOUNG, ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Steam lines, the expansion-curve, the points of cut-off 
 and release, the compression, etc., and he should be 
 able to show by the diagram whether the engine 
 was in good order or not, whether the admission 
 took place at the right time, whether the cut-off was 
 sharp, whether the release occurred too soon or too 
 late, or whether the compression was excessive or * 
 not sufficient to balance the momentum of the 
 reciprocating and revolving parts of the engine. 
 
 Of course, many engineers, young and old, will 
 exclaim, "I am no theorist," "I have no education," 
 " I am a practical man ;" but no man is practical, 
 unless he understands the difference between good 
 and bad practice. Besides, it does not require any 
 more education to tell the good and bad points in 
 an indicator diagram than it does to tell whether a 
 new suit of clothes is a good fit or not, or whether 
 one of the traces of a set of harness is too long or 
 too short. 
 
 Any engineer, if he did not know his A B C ? s, 
 could learn to read the diagram by taking two or 
 three lessons from some competent person ; but it is 
 not at all likely that the party who never subscribed 
 for any work or journal that treated on or elucidated 
 that subject would be apt to pay money for verbal 
 instructions, however valuable they might be to 
 him. 
 
 He should know how to locate, set up, reverse, 
 put into line, and estimate the horse-power of a 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 119 
 
 steam-engine ; locate and set a steam-boiler, and 
 estimate its heating surface. Manufacturers who 
 sell steam-engines and boilers, particularly those of 
 moderate size, are expected to set them up and put 
 them under steam, but that is no reason why an 
 engineer should not know how such work ought to 
 be done. 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER SHOULD PRACTISE 
 ECONOMY. 
 
 He should never waste any of the supplies with 
 which he is intrusted for the use of the steam-engine 
 or boilers. He should understand that the lump of 
 coal dropped from the wheelbarrow between the 
 coal-pit and the boiler-room is just as valuable as any 
 in the lot, and that the black nuggets which appear 
 like mushrooms in the ash-pile after a night's rain 
 are just as valuable as those which are shovelled into 
 the furnace. 
 
 The saving of one pound of anthracite coal in a 
 day will be so insignificant that it will not be worth 
 noticing. Nevertheless, if it is good coal, it will 
 probably contain from 85 to 90 per cent, of carbon ; 
 and if all the heat developed by the consumption of 
 one pound of pure carbon could be demonstrated for 
 a given quantity of water, it will raise the tempera- 
 ture of 14,500 pounds of water one degree, or T.25 
 tons from 32 to 33 degrees Fah. 
 
120 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 He should be careful about the waste rags, or 
 whatever fibrous material he may use for wiping. 
 He must not throw it away because it is partially 
 saturated with oil, as it is good for the first wiping 
 before he uses the clean material ; as it is necessary 
 to determine whether the engineer understands how 
 to take care of an engine or not, just observe him 
 cleaning one. Ignorant engineers will always wipe 
 up from the guides, cross-heads, or crank-pin, and then 
 wipe the connecting-rod, the cylinder-head, the gov- 
 ernor-balls with the same rag or piece of waste ; 
 while a neat and particular engineer will first wipe 
 up the superfluous oil from the different parts, then 
 wipe their hands, and take clean material for rubbing 
 up the bright work. 
 
 There is no doubt but that all classes of engineers, 
 with very few exceptions, use more oil for lubrica- 
 tion than is necessary, because a few drops of oil at 
 the right time and in the right place are just as good 
 as a gill ; as any amount of lubrication except that 
 which is just sufficient to form a film between the 
 rubbing or revolving surface is wasted. 
 
 Suppose a tablespoonful of oil is poured on each 
 of the guides, or into the oil hole in the pillow-block 
 bearing, all of it that will render any service is just 
 the quantity that will diminish the friction and pre- 
 vent abrasion of the parts in contact. From this 
 it is evident that three times as much oil is wasted 
 in the lubricating of steam-engines and other ina 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 121 
 
 ehinery as is necessary, which, like the waste of fuel 
 and other supplies, serves to diminish the profits of 
 the establishment. Every engineer should show his 
 employer when he has taken out a certain quantity 
 of supplies, that he had used everything with intel- 
 ligence, judgment, and care. 
 
 The young engineer should never solicit or em 
 courage his employer to purchase any steam-engine 
 or boiler attachment, unless he considers it very 
 necessary, even though it may be handsome and 
 possess the merit of novelty, because, when the 
 owner of a steam-engine or boiler is urged by his 
 engineer to forego the expense of placing all kinds 
 of automatic arrangements on his boilers, viz., steam- 
 whistles, low-water detectors, magnetic and record- 
 ing gauges, he will naturally begin to think that, if 
 all these safeguards are attached to his boiler, a cheap 
 engineer is all that is necessary, no matter how igno- 
 rant he may be. 
 
 WHAT TOOLS SHOULD THE YOUNG ENGINEER 
 HAVE? 
 
 He should have a machinist's hammer, a monkey- 
 wrench, two flat cold-chisels, a cape-chisel, calipers, 
 dividers, a centre punch, a scribe, a rule, and an oiler. 
 He should have a soft-hammer, which he can make 
 himself with a piece of copper tube, about 2 inches 
 in diameter and 3 J long, with an oval hole cut 
 11 
 
122 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 through it in which to insert the handle, after which 
 be may place it on some plane surface and pour in 
 
 molten lead until the tube is filled to the top. This 
 will make an excellent hammer for adjusting the 
 parts of steam-engines. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 123 
 
 The engineer should also provide himself with 
 some plumber's solder, to interpose between the 
 parts which have to be driven with a heavy hammer 
 or sledge. He should also keep in his drawer pieces 
 of sheet-tin, copper, and brass, to use as liners for 
 adjusting certain parts of the engine which cannot 
 be accomplished otherwise. He should have a suit- 
 able tool for backing out the cross-head key, and a 
 packing-bar for removing the old packing from the 
 stuffing-box, as in cases, when it is neglected, it re- 
 quires to be dug out ; and no tool should be used for 
 this purpose unless it was perfectly smooth, as it has 
 a tendency to abrase the rod. 
 
 He should have a packing-hook for withdrawing 
 the packing of the boxes, in case it becomes neces- 
 sary to do so, while the packing is in a fit condition 
 to be used again. He should have packing-sticks for 
 driving the packing into the boxes ; they should be 
 made of hickory, about 6 inches long, and just the 
 thickness of the stem of the stuffing-boxes ; should 
 be concave on one side and convex on the other, to 
 fit the circles of the rod or the box. He should pro- 
 vide himself with a few pieces of hard wood, either 
 hickory, oak, or ash, from 2 to 3 inches square and 
 about 6 inches long. They are very handy for driv- 
 ing parts of the engine together. 
 
124 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 CONVERSATION BETWEEN THE YOUNG ENGI- 
 NEER AND HIS EMPLOYER. 
 
 " Mr. Jones, I would like a small advance in my 
 wages. I don't think the amount you are paying 
 me is sufficient for my services." 
 
 " Thomas, you suit me very well, and I do not 
 wish to part with you, but the fact is, the profits of 
 the business are so small that I cannot afford to pay 
 you any more." 
 
 He leaves. The new engineer who takes his place 
 informs Mr. Jones in a few days that he will need 
 coal to-morrow. 
 
 "Mr. Jones, we will need coal to-morrow." 
 
 Mr. Jones looks in his book, and inquires if that 
 quantity of coal is all used. 
 
 "Yes." 
 
 " That is very strange ; when Thomas was here, 
 he took three days more out of the same amount of 
 coal, when we were doing more work than we are 
 doing now." 
 
 " Mr. Jones, you will need oil and cotton-waste 
 this week." 
 
 "Why, is it possible that that barrel of oil and bag 
 of waste are used up already ? When Thomas was 
 here, the same quantity lasted two weeks longer, 
 though we were running eleven hours a day." 
 
 In the morning the engineer had not steam up at 
 starting-time, consequently 150 men were prevented 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 125 
 
 from commencing work at the proper time, many of 
 whom were receiving very high wages. Now, if 
 they were delayed 20 minutes, it would amount to 5 
 working days at 10 hours per day, which would 
 probably involve a loss of production of from 15 to 
 20 per cent, under ordinary circumstances ; but, when 
 the work was profitable, or orders had to be filled in 
 a specified time, the loss would be more serious. 
 
 The foreman asks the engineer how it happens that 
 he is late in getting up steam. The engineer says the 
 coal is very bad, and draught poor that morning. The 
 foreman retorts by telling him that the draught and 
 the coal are just the same as when Thomas was here, 
 and they never had to wait a moment for the power. 
 
 In a few days afterward the steam got down, and 
 there was not sufficient speed to perform any of the 
 mechanical operations in the factory ; some of the 
 operatives took off their aprons and put on their 
 coats, and told the foreman that they could not do 
 anything, so they might just as well go home. 
 
 The owner of the factory was so much annoyed 
 by the interruption to his business, that he inquired 
 if any one had seen Thomas recently, or knew where 
 he was. He was cheerfully furnished with the neces- 
 sary information, and he sent word to Thomas that 
 he would like to see him at his earliest convenience. 
 His reasonable demands were acquiesced in, and there 
 was a change in the engine-room on Saturday after- 
 noon. 
 
126 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THOMPSON'S STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 
 
 The steam-engine indicator is said to have been 
 invented by James Watt — at least so he has asserted 
 himself ; but this was only natural, as he claimed that 
 every idea and improvement made in the steam-en- 
 gine for years originated with him, and, if he could 
 not compel the unfortunate mechanic or inventor to 
 acknowledge his claim, or part with his invention, he 
 tried to prevent any one else from being benefited 
 by it. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 127 
 
 Watt's indicator was a very rude instrument, and 
 adapted only for slow piston speeds of not over 150 
 feet per minute, and pressures not exceeding 1 pounds 
 per square inch above atmosphere. It answered very 
 well for those times, but as it was discovered that 
 higher piston speeds and pressures were desirable in 
 an economical point of view, the object of meeting 
 these requirements attracted the attention of engi- 
 neers and inventors. McNaught, of Glasgow, was 
 the first to adapt the indicator to the new conditions, 
 and to attempt to render it worthy of the name 
 "indicator." 
 
 The indicator baa been further improved by 
 Richards, J. W. Thompson, and Harris Tabor, so 
 that at the present time the indicator works with 
 great accuracy, and its recordings are rendered with 
 wonderful precision. The Thompson indicator is 
 the leading and most popular instrument and the one 
 most generally used. 
 
 The functions of the indicator are to show, by 
 tracing with a pencil on a piece of paper, during one 
 stroke or revolution, what is termed a diagram (see 
 page 132). This diagram shows the following facts : 
 whether the steam-valve opened or admission took 
 place at the right time or not ; whether the cut-off 
 closed promptly at the objective point or not; 
 whether the exhaust opened or release took place 
 at the proper time or not ; and whether the cushion 
 or compression is more or less than that required to 
 
128 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 insure the full development of power and smooth 
 running. 
 
 The indicator diagram demonstrates more facts 
 than those above alluded to. It shows whether the 
 valves are properly set or not ; whether the engine 
 takes her steam and lets it go at the most available 
 points in the stroke ; whether the steam- and ex- 
 haust-ports are of the proper area to admit and re- 
 lease the steam without inducing wire-drawing or 
 back pressure ; whether the steam-pipe is of ample 
 area to furnish the necessary volume of steam at the 
 proper time ; whether the piston heats or not ; 
 whether the clearance is too much or too little ; and 
 whether the engine is condensing or non-condensing. 
 
 Now, even after the diagram has placed us in pos- 
 session of all the conditions mentioned in the two 
 foregoing paragraphs, other considerations of great 
 importance arise which require investigation. If the 
 diagram makes a poor showing, because the engine 
 from which it was taken was out of repair, our first 
 duty is to restore it to its original condition, and 
 then apply the indicator for the purpose of showing 
 the effect produced by judicious alterations on thor- 
 ough repair. 
 
 lf,on the other hand, the diagram shows some very 
 fine points, it will be necessary to make an analysis 
 for the purpose of showing the cylinder efficiency, 
 by taking the pressure in volume of the steam, both 
 at admission and release, and also the average press* 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 129 
 
 are for the whole length of the stroke. This will 
 show the work performed or the power developed by 
 a given volume of steam. 
 
 Then the consumption of water, and the amount 
 of fuel required to convert that water into steam, can 
 be easily ascertained by those who possess the ability 
 to do so. Many diagrams display excellent features, 
 and yet, upon being subjected to a close analysis, it 
 will be seen that the engine from which they were 
 taken was not developing much power ; while others, 
 that to all appearance were less perfect, would show 
 better economy and cylinder efficiency. 
 
 HOW TO ATTACH THE INDICATOR. 
 
 Drill into the cylinder in the clearance spaces at 
 each end, if the holes are not already there. The 
 use of the indicator is becoming so general, that it 
 is customary for manufacturers of steam-engines to 
 drill and tap the holes and plug them up, so that, 
 when it ever becomes necessary to apply the indi- 
 cator, the plugs may be withdrawn. The openings 
 should be for one-half inch gas-pipe, and the elbows 
 should be three-fourths bushed to one-half inch. It 
 is important that the connection should be as short, 
 straight, and smooth as possible. 
 
 The ends of the pipes should be squared up, and 
 all burs removed from the inside, after which they 
 should be blown out, for the purpose of removing 
 
130 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 any particles that might have resulted from the oper- 
 ation of inserting them. Then, before turning on the 
 steam, for the purpose of using the indicator, the pipe 
 should be wrapped with strips of woollen cloth, for 
 the purpose of preventing condensation. 
 
 Before commencing operations, take the indicator 
 apart, clean it with a soft clean cloth, and lubricate 
 it with good oil ; test every part of it, for the pur- 
 pose of ascertaining if it works smoothly ; then put 
 it together without the spring, lift the pencil-lever 
 and let it fall, and if it appears to work perfectly 
 free, put in the spring, and make the connections ; 
 give it steam, but do not undertake to trace a card 
 until dry steam blows through the relief, as the 
 presence of water will distort the card. 
 
 When commencing to take the card, leave the 
 valve between the lubricator and steam-cylinder 
 open, so that the valves may receive sufficient oil to 
 induce smooth movements. Otherwise the valve or 
 valves will jerk, and spoil the diagram. If too much 
 oil is admitted, it will become manifest by the indi- 
 cator. It is necessary to keep the engine-room warm 
 while taking the diagrams ; besides, whatever de- 
 vice may be used for reducing the motion between 
 the engine and the indicator, pulleys must be avoided 
 and also angular vibrations of drum line. By ob- 
 serving the foregoing suggestions, cards may be se- 
 cured which will represent the condition of the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 131 
 
 THE PANTOGRAPH, OR LAZY TONGS. 
 
 The pantograph is almost indispensable in connec- 
 tion with the indica- 
 tor. The most prac- 
 tical and convenient 
 pi ace of attaching it 
 is to the cross-head, 
 so that it may be 
 clear at all parts of 
 the stroke and in per- 
 fect line with the 
 post, and at such dis- 
 
 * The Pantograph, or Lazy Tongs. 
 
 tance that it will not 
 
 shut too close, and at such a height that the panto- 
 graph-button will be in line with the indicated 
 leaders. It is also necessary to ascertain if it works 
 smoothly, or if it or any other part of the connec- 
 tions tremble. 
 
 THE PLANIMETER. 
 
 The planimeter derives its name from the expe- 
 dition and accuracy with which it shows the area 
 of plane surfaces with irregular sides, thus rendering 
 such calculations more easy and less tedious than 
 can be attained by any other known process. 
 
 The theory upon which the planimeter is based, is 
 that every plane surface, without regard to figure, 
 is composed of an infinite number of small sectors of 
 
132 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 circles, or of segments of such sectors, the aggrega- 
 tion of the areas of which is the area of the surface, 
 the pole or centre from which 
 the areas of the sectors or the 
 differences of such areas are 
 computed being immovable 
 during the operation of meas- 
 urement. 
 
 In fact, the planimeter fur- 
 nishes the only exact means 
 of measuring indicated dia- 
 grams under circumstances 
 which require both expedition 
 and precision; besides, the 
 operation of using it is quite 
 simple, all that is necessary being to fasten the fig- 
 ure to be measured to a plain board, with two tacks 
 or pins ; then insert the point shown in the long 
 arm, at F, in the board ; next move the revolving 
 wheel around, until the cipher on it corresponds 
 with the zero on the stationary wheel, after which 
 the point B, which carries the pencil, may be moved 
 down the extreme outer edges of the figure, when 
 it will be seen that the figures on the revolving 
 wheel represent square inches, and the distance 
 which the cipher on the revolving wheel has passed 
 or lagged behind the corresponding figure on the 
 stationary wheel, will represent fractions of inches. 
 
 THE PLANIMETER. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 133 
 
 THE OCEAN STEAMER. 
 
 THE VACUUM —ITS EFFECT ON THE WORKING 
 OF THE STEAM-ENGINE, AND AS A CONDITION 
 OF ECONOMY. 
 
 The term vacuum signifies space unoccupied by 
 matter, and theoretically has been attained in a ves- 
 sel when the outside or atmospheric pressure equals 
 14. t pounds per square inch, corresponding in weight 
 to a column of mercury 29.4 inches high which it 
 will support. Practically the preponderance of press- 
 ure attainable by mechanical means, on the outside of 
 a condenser, rarely can be made to exceed 13 pounds 
 to the square inch. 
 
 In condensing engines, the exhaust- or eduction- 
 pipe is connected with a vessel termed a condenser, 
 into which the exhaust steam is discharged, and con- 
 densed into water by the reduction of its tempera- 
 12 
 
134 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ture through the application of cold water, which 
 takes up the heat in the steam, and converts it from 
 a vapor (as steam) into a liquid (as water), and 
 creates what is termed a vacuum, which extends to 
 the exhaust side of the piston, and assists in pro- 
 pelling it forward. 
 
 If the vacuum is what is termed a ten-pound 
 vacuum, it is equal to the removal of 10 pounds per 
 square inch of atmospheric pressure in front of it, 
 which is equivalent to adding 10 pounds per square 
 inch behind it. This may be explained as follows : 
 
 Suppose an engineer wheels a load of coal on the 
 floor of his engine-room, and the wheel of the bar- 
 row comes in contact with a brick or piece of plank 
 of the same thickness, it will require some effort to 
 force the barrow over it ; but if, on the other hand, 
 the barrow comes against a lath, the wheel will pass 
 over it without much effort on the part of the person 
 propelling it. Now, the brick or the plank may be 
 said to represent the atmospheric pressure against 
 the piston of a non-condensing engine, whilst the 
 lath shows the gain induced by the condenser, be- 
 cause it makes no difference whether the pressure is 
 exerted behind the piston of a steam-engine or re- 
 moved from in front of it, the same result will 
 be attained, as the power of the engine will be in- 
 creased in either case. 
 
 Condensers are divisible into two classes, viz., 
 surface and jet. The surface condenser consists of 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 135 
 
 a cast-iron shell, containing double heads and tubes 
 similar to those on a tubular or locomotive boiler, 
 only of smaller diameter, say seven-eighths of an 
 inch. Brass is the material generally employed 
 for the tubes, and is preferred, owing to the fact 
 that it is not subject to corrosion. 
 
 In the surface condenser the water is lifted out 
 of the sea, river, or lake by the circulating pump, 
 forced through the tubes, and then thrown over- 
 board. This water is termed the injection water, 
 while the water resulting from the condensation 
 of the steam is termed the water of condensation. 
 It has been termed the condensed water, but this 
 is erroneous, as there is no such thing as condensed 
 water. 
 
 The water resulting from the condensation of 
 steam in a surface condenser descends by its own 
 gravity to the bottom, and is drawn off by the 
 air-pump from the channel-way to the foot-valve, 
 and delivered into the hot well, from which it is 
 taken by the feed-pump and forced into the boiler. 
 
 The jet condenser consists of an iron pot, similar 
 to the shell of an ordinary feed-water heater, into 
 which the water rises by a pipe in the ship's side. 
 In this arrangement the injection water and the 
 waters of condensation mingle ; consequently, when 
 sea water or salt water is used as injection water 
 the water of condensation is not fit for boiler pur- 
 poses, being impregnated with salt. The surface 
 
136 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 condenser is better adapted for ocean steamers and 
 seagoing vessels, while the jet condenser is better 
 for lake, river, and stationary purposes, on account 
 of its moderate first cost, its simplicity, its light- 
 ness, and the fact that it is capable of producing 
 a good vacuum. 
 
 In the case of the jet condenser, care must be 
 taken to open the injection water supply-pipe at 
 the right time to produce the vacuum ; it must 
 also be closed when the engine is stopped, otherwise 
 the condenser and cylinder will be filled. This 
 is not the case with the surface condenser, as the 
 supply of injection water is only furnished when 
 the engine is working. Of course there are inde- 
 pendent circulating pumps, which work when the 
 engine is standing still. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE VACUUM IN INCHES OF MERCURY AND POUNDS 
 PRESSURE PER SQUARE INCH TAKEN FROM ABOVE ATMOS- 
 PHERE. 
 
 Inches of 
 mercury. 
 
 Pressure in 
 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 Inches of 
 mercury. 
 
 Pressure in 
 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 2.037 
 4.074 
 6.111 
 8.148 
 10.189 
 12.226 
 14.263 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 
 16.300 
 18.337 
 20.374 
 22.411 
 
 24.448 
 
 26.485 
 28.522 
 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 137 
 
 As shown in the foregoing table, 2.037 of mercury 
 te equal to 1 pound steam pressure per square inch, 
 and J.4.263 is equal to 7 pounds per square inch, 
 while 28.522 is equal to 14 pounds vacuum per 
 gauge, which is T ^- less than the pressure of the 
 atmosphere at sea level ; but it must be understood 
 that a 12-pound vacuum is the best which can be 
 maintained in good practice in the best class sta- 
 tionary, condensing, or marine, engine. 
 
 THE WESTINGHOUSE ENGINE. 
 
 12* 
 
138 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 VOCABULARY OF NATURAL AND MECHANICAL 
 PROCESS. 
 
 What is acceleration ? — An increase in the velocity 
 of a moving body. 
 
 What is affinity ? — Affinity means the attrac- 
 tion by which the particles of different substances 
 unite. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term angle ? — If two 
 lines are drawn on a plain surface, and they meet, or 
 would do so if continued, their opening forms an 
 angle. 
 
 What is an axle? — It is a girder or revolving 
 shaft supported on wheels ; whether the wheels turn 
 on the axle or are made fast to it, the principle re- 
 mains the same. 
 
 What is capillary attraction ? — It is the property 
 inherent in porous substances, such as sponge, lamp- 
 wick, etc., which causes fluid to rise above its nat- 
 ural level. This may be seen in the case of a lamp, 
 and the oil-cups on the cross-heads and crank-pin of 
 steam-engines. 
 
 What is dynamics ? — It means that branch which 
 treats of forces in motion producing power and 
 work. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term energy? — It 
 means work, vigor, activity, etc. 
 
 What is force? — It is the power that produces a 
 change Vn position of material bodies and may be 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 139 
 
 defined as motion caused by weight, pressure, per- 
 cussion, gravity, etc. 
 
 What is friction ? — The resistance occasioned to 
 the motion of bodies when pressed on each other's 
 surfaces. 
 
 What is the attraction of gravity ? — It is the ten- 
 dency which all bodies in nature have to approach 
 each other. 
 
 What is specific gravity ? — Specific gravity of any 
 substance is the ratio of its weight to an equal vol- 
 ume of water. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term horse-power ?— 
 The power of a horse to draw a load, but, when ap- 
 plied to the steam-engine, it means 33,000 pounds 
 raised one foot high in one minute, which are termed 
 foot-pounds. 
 
 What is hydrodynamics ? — That branch of general 
 mechanics which treats of the equilibrium and mo- 
 tion of fluids. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term hydrostatics ? — 
 Like hydraulic, it means that part of mechanical 
 science which treats of the equilibrium and motion 
 of fluids. 
 
 What is impact ?■ — It means the effect of a blow or 
 stroke communicated from one source to another, 
 whether in motion or at rest. 
 
 What is impetus f — It is the effect produced by the 
 velocity of a moving body. 
 
 What is inertia f — It is that property in matter 
 
140 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 which tends, when at rest, to remain so, and when 
 in motion to continue in motion. 
 
 Into what three classes may levers be divided?^ 
 Those of the first, second, and third order. When 
 the fulcrum is between the force and the weight, the 
 lever is of the first order ; when the weight is be- 
 tween the force and the fulcrum, the lever is of th« 
 second order; and when the force is between the 
 weight and the fulcrum, the lever is of the third 
 order. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term machine ? — In- 
 struments employed to regulate motion, so as to 
 save either time or force. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term mass, when ap- 
 plied to mechanics ? — The quantity of matter in a 
 body. 
 
 What is matter ? — The substances of which bodies 
 are composed. 
 
 Define the mechanical powers. — The lever, in- 
 clined plane, wheel and axle, pulley, screw, and 
 wedge. 
 
 What is momentum $ — It is the same as impetus. 
 The momentum of anything is estimated by the 
 mass and velocity of the moving body. 
 
 What is motion f — Motion in mechanics is a change 
 of place. 
 
 Name the different motions alluded to in mechan- 
 ics. — Absolute, accelerated, angular, compound, nat- 
 ural, parallel, relative, retarded, rotary, acd uniform. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 141 
 
 What is lost motion ? — Looseness in the recipro- 
 cating or revolving parts of steam-engines and other 
 machinery. 
 
 How would you take up lost motion ? — By the key 
 and gib, wedge, set-screw, or other mechanical ar- 
 rangement provided for that purpose. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term pneumatics. — It is 
 a science which treats of the mechanical properties 
 of elastic fluids, particularly of air. 
 
 What is power ? — The product of force and veloc- 
 ity. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term prime movers ? 
 — Steam-engines, water-wheels, wind-mills, etc. 
 
 What are tools ? — Instruments employed in facili- 
 tating mechanical operations. 
 
 What is the meaning of the term torsion ? — Twist- 
 ing or wrenching. 
 
 What is velocity ? — Rate of motion. 
 
 What is weight? — It is generally understood to 
 represent the force of attraction between the earth 
 and the quantity of matter in any given substance. 
 
 Is weight pressure, and vice versa ? — No ; weight 
 presses downward only, while pressure acts in all 
 directions. 
 
 Give the meaning of the term plant. — The term 
 plant, when employed in connection with manufac- 
 turing establishments, railroad companies, etc., means 
 all the movable property, tools, machinery, etc., be- 
 longing to them. 
 
142 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 All valves used for the admission and release of 
 steam may be divided into eight 
 classes, viz., the slide, poppet, 
 double-beat, gridiron, basket, 
 rotary, semi-rotary, and plug. 
 the slide-valve. T he first named is the oldest, 
 and, although many innovations have been intro- 
 duced since its advent, it has not so far been super- 
 seded by any of them, nor is it at all likely that 
 it ever will be, as it embodies certain mechanical 
 peculiarities which will render its use an imperative 
 necessity, under certain circumstances. 
 
 It is claimed, and generally admitted, by engineers, 
 that the slide-valve is more wasteful, and absorbs 
 more power to work it, than any other design ; never- 
 theless, it finds its own bearing, is positive in its 
 movements, simple in design, moderate in first cost, 
 can be repaired or renewed at a trifling expense, and 
 run at a rate of speed which no other valve would 
 stand. For locomotives, fast-speed engines, and 
 stationary engines of moderate size, the slide-valve 
 is better adapted than any other. 
 
 In some designs of engines, four valves are em- 
 ployed — two for the admission and two for the re- 
 lease ; but the slide-valve performs all the functions 
 of the four, and fulfils the requirements of admis- 
 sion, cut-off, release, and compression. The long 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 143 
 
 slide-valve, with the double port at each end of the 
 cylinder, is coming into very general use, and, when 
 properly designed and well constructed, is as eco- 
 nomical as any other design. 
 
 Friction of the slide-valve. — Many theories have 
 been advanced in relation to the friction of slide- 
 valves, and the amount of power absorbed in making 
 them, but the question still remains open, as it is one 
 of the most difficult problems to solve connected with 
 the steam-engine. It is equal in difficulty to any 
 attempt to estimate the horse-power of a steam- 
 engine, unless we know the condition of the slide- 
 valve, the piston, the amount of compression, leak- 
 age, back pressure, and whether the ports and valve 
 are well proportioned or not. 
 
 If the slide-valve was a solid piece of iron, sliding 
 on its seat with a pressure of so many pounds per 
 square inch on its back, and no counter-pressure 
 against its face, it would not be difficult to estimate 
 the amount of power required to work it ; but such 
 conditions never exist in a steam-engine, as the ex- 
 haust has a tendency to act as a counter-pressure 
 to the weight produced by the steam, and (see top 
 of page 149) partially relieve the friction this addi- 
 tional load on the valve would otherwise produce. 
 Besides, it is claimed that either a film of steam or 
 water is always floating between the valve space and 
 its seat. The former of these ideas is probably 
 wrong, while the latter is correct. 
 
 . 
 
144 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The gridiron valve is an abbreviation of the slide- 
 valve. Instead of one port, there are a number of 
 ports, for the admission and escape of steam, conse- 
 quently its movement is very limited, and induces a 
 small amount of friction. 
 
 The poppet or double-beat valve has the double 
 advantage of being easily made and inducing no 
 friction ; but, even when well proportioned and 
 thoroughly fitted, it becomes leaky when placed under 
 steam, on account of the expansion of the spindle 
 which connects the valves. 
 
 The rotary and plug valves are a failure, in conse- 
 quence of their liability to leak; while the semi- 
 rotary, working, or Corliss valves are open to this 
 objection, that the moment they are placed in use 
 the valve-seats begin to enlarge, while the diameter 
 of the valve diminishes, consequently leakage and 
 necessary repairs are the result. 
 
 The basket valve is now nearly out of use, and 
 does not call for a description here. 
 
 Balance slide-valves. — Different attempts have 
 been made to balance the slide-valve, in order to 
 diminish its friction, but so far such efforts have not 
 accomplished the desired object. This, probably, 
 arises from the fact that the adjustment has to be 
 made with such accuracy, and the margin is so nar- 
 row that, even if the valve could be successfully 
 balanced, it would not remain so for any time. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 145 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS APPLIED TO THE WORKING 
 OP STEAM IN THE CYLINDERS OF A STEAM- 
 ENGINE. 
 
 The term admission means the admission of the 
 steam to the cylinder at the commencement of the 
 stroke. 
 
 The term cut- off means that the steam was cut- 
 off at a given point in the cylinder. 
 
 The term release means exhaust. 
 
 The term compression means the pressure of the 
 steam between the piston and the cylinder-head at 
 the end of the stroke. 
 
 The terms induction and eduction were formerly 
 used to designate admission and release, but they 
 have now become obsolete, and what is now termed 
 compression was formerly called cushion. 
 
 Evaporation means converting water into steam ; 
 while re-evaporation as applied to the engine signi- 
 fies the re-conversion into steam during the exhaust 
 of the condensation formed in the cylinder by the 
 incoming steam parting with a portion of its heat. 
 
 The term cushion was formerly in very general 
 use, but it has become obsolete ; compression having 
 superseded it, the difference between cushioning and 
 compression is that, in the former case, the valves 
 were so arranged as to retain sufficient steam in the 
 cylinder to take up the lost motion in the recipro- 
 cating and revolving parts of the engine. 
 13 K 
 
146 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 HOW TO SET A SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 Place the crank on the centre, as shown in the 
 illustration on page 82 ; place the eccentric at right 
 angles with the crank, as seen in the cut on page 
 82 ; place the valve in the centre of its travel, as 
 shown in cut on page 14T ; place the rocker plumb 
 at right angles with both the cylinder and the crank- 
 pin. Then adjust the valve-gear to its proper length, 
 move the eccentric forward, as shown in cut on page 
 19, until the valve has the desired amount of lead; 
 then make the eccentric fast, and turn the crank 
 around to the other centre. 
 
 The travel of the valve is always twice the throw of 
 the eccentric, and therefore, if properly proportioned 
 to the ports, should, if the above instructions have 
 foeen complied with, present the same opening at the 
 commencement of each stroke. If, however, from any 
 cause, the lead prove to be greater on one end than 
 the other, the adjustment must be made by length- 
 ening or shortening the valve connection. 
 
 In the case of old engines, where the lead becomes 
 unequal by wear, the travel of the valve may be 
 equalized by placing a tin or sheet-brass liner behind 
 or in front of the box which connects the valve-rod 
 with the rocker ; when the attachment between the 
 valve and the rod is made with jam-nuts, the altera- 
 tion can be made there, but, when the valve-rod is 
 screwed into a yoke, it is more difficult to make the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 147 
 
 change, as half a turn of the rod backwards or for« 
 wards will make too much alteration. 
 
 The setting of valves, like everything else con* 
 nected with steam-engines, is controlled by circum- 
 stances, and no instructions can be given that will 
 meet the requirements of all cases — much must 
 depend on the intelligence and practical ideas of the 
 engineer. 
 
 LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 The object of " lap," as before stated, is for the 
 purpose of working steam expan- 
 sively. The terms outside "lap" 
 and inside "lap" are in very 
 general use; the former means 
 steam " lap, " while the latter means exhaust 
 "lap." 
 
 When the travel of the valve and point of cut-off 
 are known, the " lap" required can be determined by 
 table on page 148. Suppose the "lap" for a valve 
 of 3 \ -inch travel, to cut-off at f-stroke is required. 
 The table gives \ inch which the valve must overlap 
 each part when in the centre of its travel. 
 
 The amount of exhaust " lap " required is just 
 sufficient to prevent the steam from leaking through 
 between the lip of the valve and the edges of the 
 exhaust opening, while the steam " lap " must be 
 proportioned to the point of cut-off. In automatic 
 
148 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 cut-off engines, in which admission and release are 
 regulated by different valves, "lap" is not necessary. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF LAP REQUIRED FOR STATIONARY 
 AND LOCOMOTIVE SLIDE-VALVE ENGINES. 
 
 Travel of 
 
 The Travel of the Piston where the Steam is cut off. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Valve 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 fV 
 
 * 
 
 tV 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 T* 
 
 in Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The required " Lap." 
 
 2 
 21 
 
 * 
 
 it 
 
 t 
 
 ? 
 
 1 
 
 ft 
 
 
 f 
 
 A 
 
 3 
 
 It 8 * 
 
 1* 
 
 
 +* 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 3* 
 
 1* 
 
 1A 
 
 s 
 
 U 
 
 ItV 
 
 l 
 
 & 
 
 4 
 4* 
 
 If 
 2 
 
 ift 
 
 If 
 
 11 
 
 1A 
 U 
 
 1 
 l* 
 
 f 
 
 5 
 
 »* 
 
 2 
 
 W 
 
 1 + 
 
 if 
 
 H 
 
 l 
 
 51 
 
 2fk 
 
 *& 
 
 2 
 
 m 
 
 1# 
 
 U 
 
 if 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 n 
 
 % 
 
 »A 
 
 2 
 
 HI 
 
 it 
 
 1* 
 
 i* 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Required Amount of Lap 
 for a Slide-valve Corresponding to any Desired 
 Point of Gut-off. — From the length of stroke of 
 piston subtract the length of the stroke made before 
 the steam is cut off; divide the remainder by the 
 stroke of the piston, and extract the square root of 
 the quotient. Multiply this root by half the throw 
 of the valve; from the product subtract half the 
 lead, and the remainder will give the lap required. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 149 
 
 LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
 
 The object of lead is to enable the steam to enter 
 the port just before the crank 
 passes the centre, so that the 
 port opening may develop rap- 
 idly, as the piston and the 
 crank approach half stroke ; otherwise the admis- 
 sion would be too late, and the volume insufficient, if 
 the engine was travelling at a high piston speed, con- 
 sequently the power of the engine would be lessened. 
 
 There are other advantages for lead besides that 
 explained in the foregoing paragraph. For instance, 
 if the velocity of the piston is high, and the load 
 heavy, it may be found necessary to give the engine 
 more lead, in order to take up the lost motion, and 
 balance the momentum of the reciprocating and re- 
 volving parts. The amount of lead required for the 
 valve of any engine depends, as before stated, on 
 circumstances, and must be a matter of discretion 
 for the engineer. 
 
 When the shifting link is used, the lead and travel 
 of the valve are altered by any change in the position 
 of the link. With the stationary valve gear, however, 
 while the lead can be varied the travel remains constant. 
 
 Lead fop all classes of engines varies from one- 
 thirty-second to one-fourth of an inch, according to 
 circumstances, size of engine, and for what purpose 
 employed, etc. 
 13* 
 
150 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE GARDNER STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNOR. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNOR. 
 
 Governors may be divided into two classes, viz., 
 the fly-ball governor and the propeller ; these two 
 classes embrace many designs and mechanical ar- 
 rangements. The fly-ball governor is based on the 
 principle of centrifugal force. It makes no differ- 
 ence whether the balls are arranged perpendicularly, 
 as in the " Corliss," horizontally, as in the " Wal- 
 ters ;" whether weight is raised, as in the " Hun- 
 toon," or a spring-compressed, as in the " Pickering;" 
 whether a series of weights and springs are arranged 
 in a disc on the crank-shaft, as in the " Buckeye," or 
 whether they rise in the plane in which they swing, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 151 
 
 as in the " Shives." The principle is just the same 
 in all these cases ; it takes a certain speed to raise a 
 certain weight, and any increase above that will 
 cause the balls, weights, or springs to extend farther 
 from the centre to which they are attached, and close 
 the steam-valve. Any lagging behind will cause 
 them to lower or recede, and open the valve. 
 
 "The Huntoon " governor is based on the prin- 
 ciple of the screw propeller, and works in a 
 small cistern of oil. Any increase of speed urges 
 the propeller forward, and 
 causes it to act on a link 
 connected with the throttle- 
 valve, and diminish the sup- 
 ply of steam. Any dimi- 
 nution in the speed causes it 
 to recede, and increase the 
 volume of steam. 
 
 Different designs of gov- 
 ernors perform their func- 
 tions in different ways. The 
 " Corliss " pattern, which 
 has been almost universally 
 adopted for automatic cut- 
 off engines, acts directly on _= g 
 the valves outside of the 
 steam-chest, while in the THE Pickering steam- 
 
 _ , „ ,,. ENGINE GOVERNOR. 
 
 case of the throttlmg-en- 
 
 gine, the steam passes directly through the governor, 
 
 
152 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 and is either choked off or admitted, according to cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 A good governor, or speed-regulator, is very de- 
 sirable, as any variation in the speed of the engine is 
 attended with loss. The machinery in all factories, 
 and for whatever purpose employed, is supposed to 
 be speeded to accomplish that object ; any lagging 
 below the regular speed will induce loss of produc- 
 tion, while any increase of speed over that which the 
 engine was intended to accomplish will induce a loss 
 of steam, and consequently of fuel. 
 
 There are a great many good governors in the 
 market, but it may be said that not one of those 
 used for regulating the speed of throttling engines 
 ever fulfilled the requirements for which they were 
 intended, under all conditions. The invention of 
 the governor has been attributed to " Watt," but 
 such is not the fact ; the governor was employed for 
 other purposes prior to " Watt's " time. 
 
 To increase the speed of a steam-engine, the di- 
 ameter of the pulley on the governor-shaft must be 
 increased ; to reduce the speed of an engine, the di- 
 ameter of the governor pulley must be lessened. All 
 governors are speeded in the shops where they are 
 manufactured, and the number of revolutions at 
 which they will regulate stamped on them ; then all 
 that is necessary is to adapt pulleys on the engine 
 and governor-shaft to that speed. Though a good 
 governor is capable of producing economical results, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 153 
 
 still there is no power in the governor — it is simply 
 a bridle-bit in the horse's mouth. 
 
 THE BROWN REVOLUTION INDICATOR. 
 
 The annexed cut represents Brown's revolution 
 jator, which consists of a U- 
 shaped tube, with one end closed 
 and the other open, communica- 
 ting with a column of mercury, 
 which rises or falls according to 
 the speed, in accordance with 
 the law of centrifugal force. 
 This instrument is very conven- 
 ient, where engines have to be 
 speeded up and slacked down 
 for special purposes, in rolling- 
 mills, steel-mills, and where 
 large tires for the wheels of 
 locomotives are rolled. It in- 
 dicates a speed on a scale which the speed revolu. 
 obviates the necessity of count- TION indi cator. 
 ing, and shows the speed required for a special pur- 
 pose. 
 
 The machinery in all factories is geared for cer- 
 tain speeds, the driving-pulley on the engine-shaft 
 being made the basis of calculation. Experience has 
 shown that it requires a certain speed to cut, turn, 
 plane, bore, drill, or check certain materials. If the 
 
154 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 governor is well designed, and adapted to the pur* 
 pose for which it is intended, it will control the 
 speed of the engine within the limit which it was 
 intended to run, except in extreme changes. 
 
 There are circumstances, however, in which the 
 eDgine is required to run at an increased speed for 
 short intervals, and this speed should be exactly what ' 
 is required to perform the mechanical operation ; as it 
 would be impossible to determine the speed under 
 such circumstances, either by observation or calcula- 
 tion, it is absolutely necessary to have an instru- 
 ment that will show the engineer at a glance the 
 number of strokes, or revolutions, that the engine is 
 making, which requirement the illustration on page 
 153 accurately fulfils. 
 
 REVOLUTION AND STROKE. 
 
 The above terms are used to designate the speed 
 of steam-engines. The former implies that the crank 
 has started from a given point, and, after describing 
 a circle, has arrived at the same point again ; while 
 in the case of the latter, it is understood that the 
 crank moved only from one dead centre to the other, 
 and in so doing described a half circle, consequently 
 one revolution is equal to two strokes, and two 
 strokes to one revolution.- 
 
 Now, when the crank is at right angles with the 
 piston, as shown in the cut on page 82, it is at half- 
 stroke. The terms inboard and outboard stroke con* 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 155 
 
 vey the impression that the piston and crank are 
 moving inward or outward, as the case may be. If, 
 when the crank reaches the centre, it moves down- 
 ward, that is what is called a downward stroke, but 
 if, on the contrary, it moves upward, it is termed an 
 upward stroke. 
 
 Any engine may be adapted to either a downward 
 or an upward stroke — or to run under or over, as 
 it is sometimes called — by simply moving the valve 
 gear. Whether an engine will run under or over is 
 not a consideration of design ; it is simply an arrange- 
 ment to meet the circumstances of the case, and is 
 intended to meet the purposes for which the engine 
 is employed. 
 
 The stroke of an engine is twice the distance 
 between the centre of the crank-shaft and the centre 
 of the crank-pin. If the crank is 10 inches between 
 the centres, the engine will be 20 inches stroke ; if 
 12 inches, it will be 24 inches stroke, because its 
 travel from one dead centre to the other will be 2 
 feet or 24 inches. A revolution is two strokes ; 
 when the crank starts from the centre and returns 
 to the same centre, it has made a revolution. 
 
 The travel in feet of any piston may be found as 
 follows: — Multiply the distance it travels for one 
 stroke by the whole number of strokes, and if in 
 inches divide by 12. Example. — Stroke, 15 inches ; 
 number of strokes, 300. 300 X 15 = 4500 -r- 12 = 375 
 feet per minute. 
 
156 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 157 
 
 THE STEAM-WHISTLE. 
 
 THE STEAM-WHISTLE. 
 
 The steam-whistle, like chiming bells in churches, 
 
 is either a pleasure or a nuisance. Doubtless they 
 
 have done good service in the past as well as much 
 
 •mischief. A prudent use of the whistle has un- 
 
 14 
 
158 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 doubtedly saved many lives, by warning those in 
 the immediate vicinity of passing trains at railroad 
 crossings to beware, while a reckless use of it often 
 induces runaways, by frightening horses attached to 
 carriages and other vehicles. 
 
 It would be difficult to run railway trains without 
 the use of a whistle, especially at sharp curves in 
 the road, deep cuttings, and at the entrance and 
 exit of tunnels. Still, there ought to be a restrain- 
 ing influence in regard to its use. The bell on a 
 locomotive answers a good purpose, but can never 
 take the place of the whistle, nor vice versa. The 
 steam-whistle is very convenient, in fact it is even 
 desirable, in manufacturing localities, as it is cus- 
 tomary in some factories to blow it at six o'clock, 
 A. M., as an admonition to the operatives to be up 
 and prepare for the day's labor. 
 
 The foregoing is a strong plea for the whistle, as 
 it obviates any anxiety on the part of the sleeper, 
 or the annoyance of rising from bed to examine 
 clocks in inclement weather. A judicious use of the 
 whistle in every steam-using community would be 
 a great convenience, if they were all blown at 6.00, 
 6.30, and 6.55 o'clock, A. M. 
 
 The shrill sound of the whistle is caused by the 
 steam escaping through a narrow circular opening 
 in the cup, and impinging against the thin feather- 
 edge of the bell. If the bell is raised or lowered it 
 will make a different sound in the whistle. The 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 159 
 
 metal of which the bell is made can be mixed so as to 
 give the whistle any desired sound. Whistles are 
 almost invariably made of brass ; still there are 
 some large iron whistles in use, which have a deep, 
 heavy, sonorous sound, while good brass has a clean, 
 sharp, ringing sound. 
 
 THE STEAM PRESSURE-GAUGE. 
 
 THE STEAM-GAUGE. 
 
 Steam-gauges may be divided into four classes, 
 viz., mercury, spring, siphon, and vacuum. The 
 steam-gauge, like the glass water-gauge, is one of 
 the most useful, beautiful, and interesting inven- 
 tions that ever emanated from the mind of the 
 scientist, the inventor, or the mechanician Those 
 
 i 
 
160 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 who would neglect or abuse the steam or glass 
 gauges have no appreciation of useful inventions. 
 
 The advantages of spring gauges are, that they 
 are light, cheap, and simple, and are not affected by 
 jar or jolting. It can also be used as a vacuum- 
 gauge by reversing the application of the pressure, 
 which has a contrary effect on the tube, as shown 
 in cut on page 162. The siphon gauge has most 
 undoubtedly passed out of use, and has been super- 
 seded by the mercurial gauge, which consists of a 
 glass tube, open at the lower end and closed at the 
 top, containing air in its ordinary state. Its lower 
 end is placed in a cistern of mercury. 
 
 When the cock is opened the steam passes 
 through, forcing the mercury up the glass tube, 
 thereby compressing the air in the tube above the 
 mercury. The spring gauge is destined to super- 
 sede all others, as it is now made to meet almost 
 every requirement, and any designated pressure up 
 to thousands of pounds per square inch. 
 
 Cut on page 161 shows an inside view of the 
 Crosby standard steam-gauge. As may be observed, 
 it consists of a hollow brass tube, a lever, connect- 
 ing-link, sector, pinion, and pointer. Its operation 
 is as follows: Pressure is exerted on the tubes 
 through the nipple, the effect of which is to elon- 
 gate or straighten it. The consequence is that the 
 link draws the lever and the sector, which moves 
 the pinion, not shown, and carries the pointer. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 161 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE STEAM PRESSURE-GAUGE. 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE STEAM-GAUGE. 
 14* L 
 
162 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The higher the pressure the more the tubes will be 
 expanded or elongated, and the higher the pointer 
 will be carried up. As the pressure decreases, the 
 tubes have a tendency to contract, and the pointer 
 again assumes its natural position at zero. 
 
 In cut on page 161, the mechanical arrangement is 
 reversed, though the principle is the same as in the 
 former case. The pressure exerted in the hollow 
 tube has a tendency to expand or elongate it, the 
 result of which is that the link draws the sector 
 (which swings on the stud) to the right, the upper 
 end of which turns the pinion, which carries the 
 pointer to the right also ; a coiled spring is attached 
 to the stud, which carries the pointer to assist in 
 bringing it back to a state of rest as the pressure 
 decreases. 
 
 THE VACUUM GAUGE. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 163 
 
 ATTACHMENTS, TOOLS, AND FITTINGS USED IN 
 CONNECTION WITH STEAM-ENGINES AND 
 BOILERS. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Screw stop-valve. 
 No. 4. 
 
 Stop-valve, with 
 
 tap, union, 
 
 and pet-cock. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 9 s 
 
 Gauge-cock. 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 Stop-valve, check- 
 valve, and 
 goose-neck. 
 
 No. 6. 
 Drip-cock. 
 
 Flat spanner. 
 No. 10. 
 
 Round spanner. 
 
 Monkey-wrench. 
 
164 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 No. 11. No. 12. 
 
 Double-end fork-wrench. Yoke-wrench with slot. 
 
 No. 14. 
 
 No. 13. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Single fork-wrench. 
 
 No. 17. 
 
 Union or cup 
 and roll- 
 joint. 
 
 Tap-bolt. 
 
 Set screw. Hexagon nut 
 
 No. 19. 
 
 Stud-bolt. 
 No. 23. 
 
 Long tap-bolt. 
 
 No. 22. 
 
 No. 21. 
 
 , ..,.,, Elbow with 
 
 3£ta&. Tee. nipple. 
 
 No. 29. 
 
 Bushing. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 165 
 
 THE SCREW-PROPELLER AND PADDLE-WHEEL 
 
 The screw- propeller is precisely the same in prin- 
 ciple as the thread on a bolt, 
 and when the propeller makes 
 a revolution in the water the 
 vessel advances just the same 
 distance that it would if it 
 was a nut, and made a revo- 
 lution on the bolt. The screw 
 has been applied to different 
 purposes, such as raising the~Vour-bladed 
 water, transferring grain, as screw-propeller. 
 well as the propulsion of vessels, which is a very 
 ancient mechanical arrangement. Its invention has 
 been attributed to Archimides, but who the real in- 
 ventor was will probably never be known, as, ac- 
 cording to Erbank, it was used since time imme- 
 morial for raising fluids. 
 
 Propellers may be classed under two heads, viz., 
 the true screw and screw of expanding pitch, and 
 again by the number of blades ; the latter greatly 
 depending upon the duty the propeller has to 
 perform, four blades being the number most gen- 
 erally adopted for river, lake, and ocean steamers. 
 The reason of the general adoption of the four- 
 bladed propeller is, that there is less slip to it than 
 there is to the two- or three-biaded screw; conse- 
 quently the advance of a vessel for a revolution of 
 
166 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 the former is more positive than it would be in case 
 of the latter, but it induces more friction and absorbs 
 more power than either of the latter. 
 
 In experiments to determine the comparative 
 efficiency of a propeller and paddle-wheel, it has been 
 demonstrated that, under similar circumstances, there 
 is very little difference between them. For deep 
 water, the propeller is superior to the paddle-wheel ; 
 while in rivers, where the depth is limited, or in- 
 fluenced by load, the paddle-wheel is more available 
 than the propeller ; besides, the former is less liable 
 to be disabled by the shots of an enemy in the time 
 of war than the latter. 
 
 Paddle-wheel steamers are generally propelled by 
 beam engines, which are influenced by oscillation in- 
 duced by the wind. They have almost been aban- 
 doned for ocean service, and are now principally 
 employed for pleasure, excursion, lake, river, harbor, 
 and ferry-boat service. For the latter service they 
 are well adapted, as such boats are double-enders, 
 and do not require to be turned around. Paddle- 
 wheel boats are divided into two classes — side and 
 stern wheelers. 
 
 Paddle-wheels are designated under two heads — 
 radial and feathering. Of the latter the Manley has 
 probably achieved the greatest success, but owing 
 to the feathering arrangement being complicated, 
 it has not been adopted to any great extent. The 
 radial wheel is therefore in most general use. It 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. J 67 
 
 is based on the principle of the undershot water- 
 wheel, and such devices were used before for other 
 purposes, and even for propulsion in insignificant 
 and obscure cases. Robert Fulton was the first to 
 demonstrate its adaptability to steamboats. 
 
 The diameter of the screw is a circle which it de= 
 scribes m making a revolution; the pitch is the dis- 
 tance the screw would naturally travel forward in one 
 revolution were there no opposition. The slip of the 
 sere wis the amount that it lacks, by a revolution in the 
 water, behind that which it would advance if revolv- 
 ing on a solid nut. It is claimed that in some in- 
 stances the propeller runs faster than a ship, and 
 also that the ship runs faster than the propeller, 
 which, of course, is impossible. Nevertheless, there 
 are certain phenomena connected with the foregoing 
 statement which have never been clearly explained. 
 
 The best propeller for any vessel is the one best 
 suited for that model regardless of the number of 
 blades, diameter, or pitch. The Ericsson, Delameter, 
 and Herreshoff propellers are those most generally 
 used. Although the Loper screw is sometimes used, 
 it is fast giving way to the above-named propellers. 
 
168 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 AIR. 
 
 The atmosphere, according to Luecicks, extends 
 to an altitude of at least 45 miles above sea-level ; 
 100 cubic inches of air at the surface of the earth, 
 when the barometer stands at 34 inches, and the 
 temperature is 60° Fah., weighs about 31 grains. 
 
 Air is 815 times lighter than water, and 11,065 
 times lighter than mercury. The pressure of the 
 air is not the same at different altitudes ; at 7 miles 
 above the surface of the earth, the air is 4 times 
 lighter than it is at the surface ; at 14 miles, it is 16 
 times lighter ; and at 21 miles, it is 64 times lighter. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level, for 
 convenience' sake, is laid down in most of the scien- 
 tific works as 14 t 7 q pounds per square inch ; but, as 
 before stated, it varies with location and altitude. 
 For instance, while at Altoona, Pa., it is 14 t |-q, at 
 Mount Lincoln, Col., it is 7 T §-g-, and at Pike's Peak 
 it is Tyq. The pressure of a column of air, whose 
 base is one square foot and altitude the height of the 
 atmosphere, has been estimated to be 2156 pounds, 
 avoirdupois, or between 14 T 7 U and 15 pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 In Watt's time, atmospheric air, steam, or vapors 
 were not estimated in pounds per square inch, but 
 by atmospheres, thus : If the atmosphere, or vapor, 
 was equal to 30 pounds per square inch, it was said 
 to be two atmospheres, and capable of supporting 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 169 
 
 about 30 inches of mercury, or a column of water 34 
 feet high ; but the pressure of the atmosphere is not 
 constant, except at the equator. In some countries 
 the pressure of the atmosphere varies so much as to 
 support a column of mercury so low as 28 inches, 
 and at other times as high as 31, the mean being 
 
 29 T V 
 
 Air penetrates all porous substances, and mixes 
 with the blood of men, animals, fish, and fowl. 
 This circulation through the interior of the bodies 
 of men and animals counter-balances its outer press- 
 ure, because, if its weight were not neutralized, 
 neither man nor beast could walk, and would be as 
 mute as statues of stone, as the lips once closed 
 could never again be opened. If it was possible to 
 remove the atmosphere from a room, even for an in- 
 stant, all the glass in the doors and windows would 
 be immediately forced in, or, if a partial vacuum 
 was formed on the outside, all the windows in the 
 building would be expelled into the street. 
 
 Now, if the atmosphere exerts a pressure of nearly 
 15 pounds per square inch, why does it not crush 
 men and animals, cause bleeding at the nose and 
 ears, convulsions, etc. ? Because, though a pound of 
 air is as heavy as a pound of lead, in the case of the 
 air it is a balance under our feet, in our lungs, our 
 blood, and clothing, while the lead presses in one 
 direction, downward, only. 
 
 Thirteen thousand eight hundred and seventeen 
 15 
 
170 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 cubic feet of air will weigh about one pound ; conse« 
 quently, one cubic foot of air, at sea-level, will weigh 
 about 55 grains, or nearly one-quarter of an ounce 
 avoirdupois ; but, under a pressure of about 10,000 
 pounds, air becomes as dense as water, and weighs 
 about the same per cubic foot. 
 
 Air expands but one volume for every 493° Fah., 
 consequently, to double this volume, it would re- 
 quire a temperature of 986°. 1000 parts of air at 
 32°, or freezing, would only increase stso^^ m v °l" 
 ume at a temperature of 680° Fah., which explains 
 the fact that air-engines are incapable of developing 
 much power. A steam-engine, with a cylinder of a 
 given area, would develop more power than an air- 
 engine of four times the area or calibre. Besides, 
 the air-engine would require to be built more care- 
 fully to prevent leakage, as the same joints or con- 
 nections that will hold steam of a given pressure 
 will leak air under less pressure. 
 
 The caloric, or hot-air engine, that at one kime 
 W4S claimed would compete with, or even supercede, 
 tYe steam-engine, has signally failed, and is not em- 
 ptayed any more, except at country hotels, private 
 re* -j'dences, academies, schools, etc., for the purpose 
 of pumping water, in consequence of their freedom 
 frc oi the danger of explosion on account of the ab- 
 se; ce of a boiler. 
 
 The air is simply drawn in by a pump, and ex- 
 pa aded in a hot cylinder, after which it forces the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 171 
 
 piston up, and as the upper end of the cylinder is 
 open, and exposed to the pressure of the air, the 
 pressure of the atmosphere forces it down. The 
 substitution of air for steam is an old idea, but so 
 far it has proved a failure, as it ever must. 
 
 Under the pressure of a single atmosphere, the 
 density of the air is about the IT Oth part of that 
 of water ; hence it follows that, under the pressure 
 of 110 atmospheres, air is as dense as water. The 
 average atmospheric pressure being thus equal to 
 that of a column of water of about 32 feet in alti- 
 tude, at the bottom of the sea, at a depth of 24,640 
 (equals 110 multiplied by 32) feet, or 4f miles, air 
 would be heavier than water, and, even though it 
 should remain in a gaseous state, it would be inca- 
 pable of rising to the surface. 
 
 Air, next to electricity, is the most insinuating of 
 all gases or fluids, as, while it may be expelled 
 under certain conditions, and a partial vacuum pro- 
 duced, it is almost impossible to keep it out. For 
 this reason the joints, that would be perfectly 
 tight under steam or water pressure, would leak air 
 very rapidly under the same pressure. An air-en- 
 gine would require twice as many bolts to make 
 tight, under a given pressure, as the steam-engine, 
 working under the same pressure. 
 
 It will be seen from the following table, page 173, 
 that 1000 parts of air raised from 32° to 212° Fab. 
 increase only 315 fold in bulk, while 1000 parts of 
 
172 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 water raised through the same degrees of tempera, 
 ture increase 1*7,000 fold in volume, which proves 
 that the air- or caloric-engine can never possibly 
 supersede the steam-engine, or even compete with 
 it, even if air could be liquefied or condensed, which 
 is not at all likely that it ever will be for practical 
 purposes. Air has been condensed, but only under 
 circumstances which give no encouragement to its 
 employment as a motor. 
 
 Nevertheless, air is destined to play a very impor- 
 tant part in the mechanic arts and in the prosecution 
 of some very important enterprises, as compressed 
 air can be successfully employed instead of steam 
 for drilling in mines, driving tunnels, and for rapid 
 transit, as it obviates the objectionable and unhealthy 
 odors which result from the consumption of fuel in 
 confined localities, where ventilation is imperfect. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 173 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE EXPANSION OF AIR BY HEAT, AND THE INCREASE 
 IN BULK IN PROPORTION TO INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Bulk. 
 
 Temp. 32 Freezing-point. 
 
 1000 
 
 Temp. 75 Temperate 
 
 1099 
 
 33 
 
 1002 
 
 " 76 Summer heat... 
 
 1101 
 
 " 34 
 
 1004 
 
 77 
 
 1104 
 
 35 
 
 1007 
 
 78 
 
 1106 
 
 36 " 
 
 1009 
 
 79 " 
 
 1108 
 
 37 
 
 1012 
 
 80 
 
 1110 
 
 38 " 
 
 1015 
 
 81 
 
 1112 
 
 39 " 
 
 1018 
 
 82 " 
 
 1114 
 
 40 " 
 
 1021 
 
 83 
 
 1116 
 
 41 
 
 1023 
 
 84 
 
 1118 
 
 42 " 
 
 1025 
 
 85 
 
 1121 
 
 43 
 
 1027 
 
 86 
 
 1123 
 
 44 
 
 1030 
 
 87 
 
 1125 
 
 "45 " 
 
 1032 
 
 88 
 
 1128 
 
 46 
 
 1034 
 
 89 
 
 1130 
 
 47 
 
 1036 
 
 90 
 
 1132 
 
 48 
 
 1038 
 
 91 
 
 1134 
 
 49 " 
 
 1040 
 
 92 
 
 1136 
 
 50 
 
 1043 
 
 93 
 
 1138 
 
 51 
 
 1045 
 
 94 
 
 1140 
 
 52 " 
 
 1047 
 
 95 
 
 1142 
 
 53 
 
 1050 
 
 96 Blood heat 
 
 1144 
 
 « 54 
 
 1052 
 
 97 
 
 1146 
 
 55 
 
 1055 
 
 98 
 
 1148 
 
 " 56 Temperate 
 
 1057 
 
 99 
 
 1150 
 
 57 
 
 1059 
 
 " 100 
 
 1152 
 
 58 
 
 1062 
 
 110 Fever heat 112 
 
 1173 
 
 " 59 
 
 1064 
 
 120 
 
 1194 
 
 60 " 
 
 1066 
 
 " 130 
 
 1215 
 
 61 " 
 
 1069 
 
 " 140 
 
 1235 
 
 62 
 
 1071 
 
 150 
 
 1255 
 
 63 
 
 1073 
 
 160 
 
 1275 
 
 64 
 
 1075 
 
 170 Spirits boil 176 
 
 1295 
 
 ! « 65 
 
 1077 
 
 180 
 
 1315 
 
 66 
 
 1080 
 
 " 190 
 
 1334 
 
 67 
 
 1082 
 
 " 200 
 
 1364 
 
 68 
 
 1084 
 
 210 " 
 
 1372 
 
 69 
 
 1087 
 
 " 212 Water boils 
 
 1375 
 
 70 " 
 
 1089 
 
 " 302 
 
 1558 
 
 71 " 
 
 1091 
 
 " 392 
 
 1739 
 
 72 
 
 1093 
 
 " 482 
 
 1919 
 
 73 
 
 1095 
 
 572 " 
 
 2098 
 
 74 
 
 1097 
 
 " 680 
 
 2312 
 
174 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND COMPOSITION OP SATURATED 
 AIR. 
 
 1 cubic foot of air at 32° Fah., under a pressure of 14.7 
 pounds per square inch, weighs .080728 pound. 
 Therefore, 1000 cubic feet = 80.728 pounds. 
 
 23 per cent, oxygen, 
 per cent, nitrogen. 
 
 .29716 oz. oxygen. 
 
 .99484 oz. nitrogen. 
 1.29200 total weight. 
 ,0185725 lb. oxygen. 
 ,0621555 lb. nitrogen. 
 
 1 cubic foot = 1.292 oz. 
 
 1 cubic foot of air contains 
 
 1 cubic foot of air contains 
 
 f 23 
 
 1 77 
 
 •{ 
 
 53.85 cubic feet of air contain 
 
 ! 
 
 .080728 lb. 
 1.000 lbs. oxygen. 
 3.347 lbs. nitrogen. 
 I3471bs. 
 
 For combustion to carbonic acid 1 pound of coal 
 requires 2f pounds of oxygen, or 143.6 cubic feet of 
 air, supposing all of the oxygen to combine with the 
 coal. 280 to 300 cubic feet of air per pound of coal 
 is the usual allowance for imperfect combustion. 
 
 11.59 pounds of air for perfect combustion. 
 24 pounds of s,ir for imperfect combustion. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 175 
 
 AIR-PUMPS. 
 
 THE TURNER CONDENSER AND AIR-PUMP. 
 
 Air-pumps are used for a great variety of pur- 
 poses, the most important of which is the extraction 
 of the air and water from the condensers of low- 
 pressure or condensing engines. There appears to 
 be great latitude in proportioning air-pumps among 
 marine engineers, as, while some make the capacity 
 of the air-pump one-eighth that of the low-pressure 
 cylinder, others make it one-eleventh. This latter is 
 generally recognized in good practice. 
 
 The capacity of air-pumps for jet-condensing en- 
 gines ranges from one-fifteenth to one-twentieth of 
 the capacity of the cylinder. It is generally under- 
 stood by engineers that it takes from 20 to 26 times 
 as much vrater to condense steam as that from which 
 
176 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 it was evaporated, consequently an air-pump should 
 be proportioned to the quantity of water and air to 
 be extracted from the condenser. An air-pump too 
 large or too small to meet the requirements for which 
 it was intended, induces a loss of power. 
 
 The air-pump of a jet-condensing engine with- 
 draws both the injection water and the water of 
 condensation, while in the surface condenser it ex- 
 tracts only the water of condensation ; consequently, 
 the service to be performed in the former case would 
 be from 22 to 26 times greater than in the latter. 
 Air-pumps are generally worked from some portion 
 of the engine, to which they are attached in order 
 that the stroke of the air-pump and that of the en- 
 gine may be uniform. They are often located on 
 the top of the condenser, while in some instances 
 they are placed side by side, and in others worked 
 independent of the engine. Nearly all ocean steamers 
 carry auxiliary air-pumps, which are available in 
 case of accident. The strain to which an air-pump 
 is subjected on a condensing-engine is greater than 
 in the case of the ordinary lift and force pump, be- 
 cause, in the latter case, after a partial vacuum is 
 once formed, the atmosphere has a tendency to force 
 the water up, while in the former the air-pump has 
 to lift the water, and also resist the pressure of the 
 atmosphere, which is equal to 14 t 7 q pounds on each 
 square inch of the area of the piston. 
 
 Air-pumps may be either vertical, horizontal, or 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 177 
 
 incline, according to circumstances. They are con- 
 structed both single- and double-acting, and desig- 
 nated solid, bucket, and piston plunger, the latter being 
 invariably double-acting, but in any case the openings 
 through which the water enters the pump-barrel from 
 the condenser, and from which it escapes through 
 the valves, should be of such capacity as to not re- 
 quire a higher speed than from 8 to 10 feet per second. 
 A vacuum can be produced in the condenser without 
 an air-pump, but it cannot be maintained, for the air 
 cannot, though the steam may, be successfully con- 
 densed ; as a result, it will soon occupy the con- 
 denser, choke the engine, and prevent it from 
 working. 
 
 An air-pump may be dispensed with when there 
 is sufficient fall to use an injector-condenser, which 
 ought to be at least 13 feet; but when it becomes 
 necessary to use a pump for the purpose of lifting 
 the water into the condenser, such an arrangement 
 does not pay. 
 
 AIR-VESSELS. 
 
 Air-vessels are frequently placed on the delivery- 
 pipe, or over the valve casing of steam-, lift-, and 
 force-pumps, and fire-engines. The object of an air- 
 vessel on the delivery-pipe of a pump is to insure a 
 steady supply of water, which would otherwise be 
 interrupted by the presence of the atmosphere, and 
 M 
 
178 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 also to prevent the pump from knocking. The func- 
 tion of an air-vessel on the suction-pipe of a pump 
 is to aid in insuring a constant sup- 
 ply of fluid to the pump. Manufac- 
 turers of air-vessels, as well as those 
 who purchase or apply them, do not 
 seem to be governed by any fixed 
 rule in regard to their proportions. 
 Their capacity generally ranges from 
 four to six times that of the water 
 cylinder of ordinary steam-pumps; 
 for fire-engines they are much larger. 
 A cheap air-vesse! can be impro- 
 vised for either the suction or delivery pipes of lift- 
 and force-pumps by taking a piece of wrought-iron 
 tubing, with a thread on each end, one end of which 
 should be closed with a cap, and the other attached 
 to the pipe by means of a reducing coupling. Its 
 capacity for delivery-pipes through which water is 
 forced against pressure, should be at least four times 
 that of the water cylinder; for suction-pipes three 
 times that of the cylinder would suffice. The larger 
 the air-vessel, the better and steadier the pump will 
 work. Nevertheless, large air-vessels intended to 
 resist high pressures have to be manufactured with 
 great care, and are necessarily expensive. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 179 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Water is not, as was commonly supposed, a sim- 
 ple, but is composed of two gases, 
 oxygen and hydrogen, in the propor- 
 tions of two measures of hydrogen 
 to one of oxygen, or 1 weight of hy- 
 drogen to 8 of oxygen ; or, oxygen 
 89 parts by weight, and by measure 
 1 part; hydrogen by weight 11 parts, 
 and by measure 2 parts. Water, like all other fluids 
 and gases, expands with heat and contracts with 
 cold, down to 40° Fah. 
 
 Ebullition, op boiling of water, or other liquids, is 
 effected by the communication of heat through the 
 separation of their particles. The evaporation of 
 water is the conversion of it as a liquid into a va- 
 por. Water cannot be vaporized by the application 
 of heat to the top of the vessel containing it. 
 
 Water attains its minimum volume and maximum 
 density at 40° Fah., and any departure from this 
 temperature, in either direction, is accompanied by 
 expansion, so that 8 or 10 degrees of cold produce 
 the same amount of expansion as 8 or 10 degrees of 
 heat. The boiling-point of water is the temperature 
 at which the tension of its vapor exactly balances 
 the pressure of the atmosphere ; but the tempera- 
 ture at which ebullition begins depends upon the 
 elasticity or weight of the air, at sea-level, with the 
 
180 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 barometer at 29.905, or nearly 30 inches of mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Water will boil at 212° Fah., but at high altitudes 
 it will boil at a lower temperature. Water at a nor 
 mal temperature of 70° Fah. will boil at one degree 
 less for every 550 feet above sea-level. At the 
 height of a mile the boiling temperature of water 
 will correspond to about 560 feet elevation above the 
 sea. The force exerted by water in freezing by ex- 
 pansion is equal to j^q of its original bulk. Water 
 boils in a vacuum at 98° Fah. 
 
 All waters are not equally adapted for the produc- 
 tion of steam, as water holding salt in solution, 
 earth, sand, or mud in suspension, requires a higher 
 temperature to produce steam of the same elastic 
 force than that generated from pure water. If a 
 pound of ice at 32° Fah. be mixed with a pound of 
 water at 110° Fah., the water will gradually dissolve 
 the ice, being just sufficient for that purpose, and 
 the residuum will be two pounds of water 32° Fah., 
 showing that the 79 units of heat, which were ap- 
 parently lost, had been employed in performing a 
 certain amount of work, viz., in melting the ice, or 
 separating the molecules, and giving them another 
 shape ; and as all work requires a supply of heat to 
 do it, these 19 units have been consumed in perform- 
 ing the work necessary to melt the ice. 
 
 If a pound of water, at a given temperature, is 
 converted into ice, it would necessarily have to part 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 181 
 
 with 79 units of heat ; and if a pound of ice, at 32° 
 Fah., be mixed with a pound of water at 212° Pah., 
 the ice will be melted, and the result will be two 
 pounds of water at a temperature of 122° Fah., 
 which shows that the ice in melting has absorbed 
 enough heat to raise the temperature of two pounds 
 of water 122° Fah. This is what is termed latent 
 heat, the latent heat of liquefaction. Water is taken 
 at 142° Fah. 
 
 The specific gravity of the waters of different seas 
 vary — that of the Dead Sea being 1240, the Medi- 
 terranean 1029, the Irish Channel 1028, and the 
 Baltic Sea 1015. 
 
 A cubic foot of fresh water weighs 621 pounds 
 and contains 1i United States gallons; 36 cubit feet 
 of fresh water weigh one ton, and 35 feet of salt 
 water is the same weight. This is accounted for in 
 consequence of the salt water being more dense than 
 the fresh. 
 
 The quantity of water discharged in a given time 
 through the same orifice, but under different heads, 
 equals the square root of the corresponding height 
 of water. Circular orifices are the most efficient 
 through which to discharge a given quantity of 
 water in a given time. Small orifices discharge pro- 
 portionally in a given time sooner than those that 
 Are larger and of the same shape, which fact is dut 
 to the friction. 
 16 
 
182 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 BHOWING THE BOILING-POINTS OF LIQUIDS UNDER PRESSUR3 
 OF ONE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 
 Temp. Fall. 
 
 
 Temp. Fall. 
 
 Sulphuric ether 
 
 
 . 100 
 
 Sea-water 
 
 . 213 
 
 Sulphuret of carbon 
 
 . 118 
 
 Saturated brine 
 
 . 226 
 
 Ammonia • 
 
 
 . 140 
 
 Nitric acid . 
 
 . 248 
 
 Chloroform . 
 
 
 . 140 
 
 Oil of turpentine 
 
 . 315 
 
 Bromine 
 
 
 . 145 
 
 Phosphorus . 
 
 . 554 
 
 Wood spirits 
 
 
 . 150 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 . 570 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 
 . 173 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 . 590 
 
 Benzine 
 
 
 . 176 
 
 Linseed oil • 
 
 . . 597 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 . 212 
 
 Mercury . 
 
 . . 648 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 
 SHOWING THE BOILING-POINT FOR FRESH WATER AT DIFFER- 
 ENT ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA-LEVEL. 
 
 Boiling- 
 
 Altitude 
 
 Boiling- 
 
 Altitude 
 
 Boiling- 
 
 Altitude 
 
 point in 
 deg. Fah. 
 
 above sea- 
 
 point in 
 
 above sea- 
 
 point in 
 deg. Fah. 
 
 above sea- 
 
 level in ft. 
 
 deg. Fah. 
 
 level in ft. 
 
 level in ft. 
 
 184° 
 
 15221 
 
 195° 
 
 9031 
 
 206° 
 
 3115 
 
 185° 
 
 14649 
 
 196° 
 
 8481 
 
 207° 
 
 2589 
 
 186° 
 
 14075 
 
 197° 
 
 7932 
 
 208° 
 
 2063 
 
 187° 
 
 13498 
 
 198° 
 
 7381 
 
 209° 
 
 1539 
 
 188° 
 
 12934 
 
 199° 
 
 6843 
 
 210° 
 
 1025 
 
 189° 
 
 12367 
 
 200° 
 
 6304 
 
 211° 
 
 512 
 
 190° 
 
 11799 
 
 201° 
 
 5764 
 
 212° 
 
 sea- \ n 
 level/— u 
 
 191° 
 
 11243 
 
 202° 
 
 5225 
 
 
 192° 
 
 10685 
 
 203° 
 
 4697 
 
 
 
 193° 
 
 10127 
 
 204° 
 
 4169 
 
 Belov 
 
 j sea-level 
 
 194° 
 
 9579 
 
 205° 
 
 3642 
 
 213° 
 
 511 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 183 
 
 TABLE 
 
 «m»WING THE WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPE OF VARIOUS DIAM« 
 ETERS ONE FOOT IN LENGTH. 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 Pounds. 
 
 5 
 
 in 
 
 6 
 
 &A 
 ft 
 » 
 
 8A 
 
 <$A 
 9 K 
 
 9g 
 10 
 
 10K 
 
 i?« 
 
 \\A 
 
 \M 
 
 12 
 
 15^ 
 15^ 
 
 Weight 
 
 in 
 Pounds. 
 
 51 
 
 59^1 
 62i| 
 
 82 
 
 mi 
 
 & 
 
 90 
 92^ 
 
 101^ 
 104^ 
 107^ 
 
 113^ 
 116^ 
 
 123 
 
 129i| 
 
 132 
 
 13614 
 
 148*2 
 
 150^1 
 
 157^ 
 
 165 
 
 23H 
 
 8* 
 
 25^ 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 27^ 
 
 28 
 
 28^ 
 
 29 
 
 29^ 
 
 31^ 
 32 
 
 lt A 
 33 
 
 8* 
 
 8* 
 
 8* 
 
 8* 
 
 38 
 
 38^ 
 
 39 
 
 39^ 
 
 40 
 
184 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 RULES 
 
 FOR CALCULATING THE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED 
 FOR DIFFERENT SPECIFIC PURPOSES. 
 
 Rule for finding the Time a Cistern will take in 
 filling, when a known Quantity of Water is going 
 in and a known Quantity is going out, in a given 
 time. — Divide the contents of the cistern, in gallons, 
 by the difference of the quantity going in and the 
 quantity going out, and the quotient is the time in 
 hours and parts that the cistern will take in filling. 
 
 Rule for finding the Time a Vessel will take in 
 Emptying itself of Water. — Multiply the square 
 root of the depth in feet by the area of the falling 
 surface in inches ; divide the product by the area of 
 the orifice, multiply by 3.1, and the quotient is the 
 time required in seconds, nearly 
 
 Rule for finding the Quantity of Water discharged 
 through an Orifice per Minute. — Multiply the area 
 of the orifice in square feet by the square root of the 
 height of the level of the water above the orifice in 
 feet, and the product multiplied by 29T.6 will be 
 equal to the discharge in cubic feet, nearly. 
 
 Rule for finding the Quantity of Water a Steam- 
 boiler or any Cylindrical Vessel will contain. — 
 Multiply the area of the head or base in inches by 
 the length in inches, and divide the product by 1*728 ; 
 the quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water 
 the boiler or vessel will contain. If the boiler contains 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 185 
 
 flues or tubes, their combined area in inches by their 
 length in inches must be deducted from the above 
 product. 
 
 Rule for finding the Requisite Quantity of Water 
 for a Steam-boiler. — When the number of pounds 
 of coal consumed per hour can be ascertained, di- 
 vide it by 1.5, and the quotient will be the required 
 quantity of water in cubic feet per hour. 
 
 Rule for finding the Required Height of a Col- 
 umn of Water to supply a Steam-boiler against any 
 given Pressure of Steam. — Multiply the boiler press- 
 ure in pounds per square inch by 2.5 ; the product 
 will be the required height in feet above the surface 
 of the water in the boiler. 
 
 Ruh for finding the Diameter of a Pipe sufficient 
 to Discharge a given Quantity of Water per Minute 
 in Cubic Feet. — Multiply the square of the quantity 
 in cubic feet per minute by .96, and the product 
 equals the diameter of the pipe in inches. 
 
 Rule for finding the Number of U. S. Gallons 
 contained in a Foot of Pipe of any given Diameter. 
 — Square the diameter of the pipe in inches, multi- 
 ply the square by .0408 ; the product is F. S. gal- 
 lons. 
 
 Rule for finding the Power required to raise 
 Water to any Height. — Multiply the perpendicular 
 height of the water, in feet, by the velocity also in 
 feet, and by the square of the pump's diameter in 
 inches, and again by .341 ; divide this product by 
 16* 
 
186 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 33,000, and one-fifth of the quotient added to the 
 whole quotient will be the number of horse-power 
 required. 
 
 Rule for finding the Pressure in Pounds per 
 Square Inch exerted by a Column of Water. — 
 Multiply the height of the column in feet by 0.434, 
 and the product will be the pressure in pounds per 
 square inch. 
 
 Rule for finding the Head of Water in Feet, 
 Pressure being knoion. — Multiply the pressure per 
 square inch by 2.314. The pressure per square foot 
 equals the height of the column in feet multiplied by 
 62.4. 
 
 Rule for finding the Quantity of Water which any 
 Square or Rectangidar Box or Tank is capable of 
 containing in Cubic Feet or U. S. Gallons. — Multiply 
 the length of the sides in inches by their height in 
 inches; then multiply the width of the ends in inches 
 by their height in inches. Add these products together 
 and divide by 1728. The product will be the contents 
 in cubic feet. This result being multiplied by 7.5 
 gives the cubical contents in U. S. gallons. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 187 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF GALLONS OF WATER 
 USED PER CAPITA FOR CULINARY, MANUFACTURING, AND 
 SANITARY PURPOSES, AND FOUNTAINS, IN THE PRINCIPAL 
 CITIES OF THIS COUNTRY AND EUROPE. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Washington, D. C 158 
 
 New York 100 
 
 Brooklyn 50 
 
 Philadelphia 55 
 
 Baltimore 40 
 
 Chicago 75 
 
 Boston 60 
 
 Albany, N. Y 80 
 
 Detroit 83 
 
 Jersey City, N. J 99 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. . 61 
 
 Cleveland 40 
 
 Columbus 30 
 
 Montreal 55 
 
 Toronto 77 
 
 London, England 29 
 
 Liverpool, " . . 23 
 
 Glasgow, Scotland 50 
 
 Edinburg, " 38 
 
 Dublin, Ireland . 25 
 
 Paris, France 28 
 
 Tours, " 22 
 
 Toulouse, " 26 
 
 Lyons, ** 20 
 
 Leghorn, Italy 30 
 
 Berlin, Prussia 20 
 
 Hamburg 33 
 
188 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 o g 
 
 o 
 
 373.0 
 447.6 
 522.2 
 596.8 
 671.4 
 746.0 
 820.6 
 895.2 
 969.8 
 1044.4 
 1119.0 
 1193.6 
 1268.2 
 1342.8 
 1417.4 
 1492.0 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 189 
 
 Depth 
 
 ©oao-^Oi^^WtOH^OOQo-cictc^ i n Feet. 
 
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 Example. — Diameter of tank, 96 inches, depth 108 
 Liches— then the area x by 108 inches = 781725.6 
 inches ~ by 1728 the result will be 452.381 cubic 
 feet, which, if multiplied by 7.5, will give as a result 
 3393 gallons. 
 
190 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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 In the case of tapering tanks, take the diameter, 
 four-tenths, from the large end, square it, and mul- 
 tiply by the decimal .7854, which will give the area. 
 Multiply this product by. the entire depth in inches, 
 and divide by 1728. The result will be the cubic 
 feet, and if multiplied by 7.5, the quotient will be 
 the contents in gallons (see pages 189, 190). 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 191 
 
 HEAT. 
 
 At no very distant period heat was supposed to be 
 a fluid, and, like air and water, capa- ^^-r-^^nnnnn^ 
 ble of uniting with other substances, ^'/ 
 according to their affinities for it. ^ a "»«*MjSiy^ 
 
 Demonstration and experiment have shown that heat 
 is a mode of matter, and is due to cause and effect, 
 and that its influence, like gravity, is governed by 
 natural laws. 
 
 According to Rumford, the mechanical equivalent 
 of heat, as determined by Mr. Joule, of Manchester, 
 is one of the most useful factors in heat investigation. 
 This gentleman, by very careful and precise experi- 
 ments, extending through several years, established 
 the value in foot-pounds of work of a British ther- 
 mal unit, and conversely the energy requisite to pro- 
 duce a unit of heat. Joule discovered that the 
 energy necessary to add one thermal unit to one 
 pound of water was equal to 7 TO foot-pounds. 
 
 The specific heat of a body is the capacity of that 
 body to absorb heat as compared with water. Water 
 possesses the highest specific heat of any known sub- 
 stance except hydrogen gas. Thus, while one ther- 
 mal unit will raise the temperature of one pound of 
 water one degree at 60° Fah., at a pressure of one 
 atmosphere, 3000 thermal units are required to raise 
 the temperature of the same weight of hydrogen 
 one degree, under the same pressure and atmosphere. 
 
192 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 If the Marriotte law were strictly correct, the spe- 
 cific heat of gases would be the same for constant 
 volume or constant pressure ; but Regnault's exper- 
 iments have shown that the specific heat is greatest 
 for constant pressure. 
 
 Different bodies require different quantities of 
 heat, to effect in them the same change of tempera- 
 ture. The capacity of a body for heat is termed its 
 "specific heat," and may be defined as the number 
 of units of heat necessary to raise the temperature 
 of one pound of that body 1° Fah. 
 
 As different substances vary greatly in their mo- 
 lecular constitution, expanding and contracting the 
 same amount with widely different degrees of force, 
 it is to be expected that the same quantity of heat 
 that will raise one substance to a given temperature 
 will exert a different effect upon another body, which 
 may require a greater or less degree of heat to pro- 
 duce the same result ; and we find in practice that 
 such is the case. 
 
 The unit of heat, or the thermal unit employed, is 
 the quantity of heat, as before stated, that will raise 
 one pound of pure water l°Fah., or from 39° to 40° 
 Fah. Latent heat means a quantity of heat which 
 has disappeared, having been employed to produce 
 some change other than elevation of temperature. 
 By exactly reversing that change, the quantity of 
 heat which had disappeared is reproduced. Sensible 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 193 
 
 heat is that which is sensible to the touch or meas- 
 urable by the thermometer. 
 
 The mechanical equivalent of heat is the amount 
 of work performed by the conversion of one unit of 
 heat into work. This has been determined to be 
 equal in amount to the force required to raise 172 
 pounds one foot high, or one pound ?72 feet high. 
 
 The mechanical theory of heat is now generally 
 adopted. It is based on the assumption that heat 
 and work are mutually convertible, and on this 
 theory can be explained what becomes of the latent 
 heat. 
 
 When bodies expand, the molecules of which they 
 are composed are pushed farther asunder by the 
 oscillatory motion communicated to them. It is a 
 matter of every-day observation, that heat, by ex- 
 panding bodies, is a source of mechanical energy, 
 and conversely, that mechanical energy expended 
 either in compressing bodies or in friction becomes 
 a source of heat. . This is termed the dynamic equiv- 
 alent of heat. 
 
 The molecular op atomic force of heat. — All mole- 
 cules are under the influence of opposite forces, one 
 tending to bring them together and the other to 
 separate them. Molecular attraction is frequently 
 termed cohesion, affinity, or adhesion. 
 
 To find the actual heat in any body, we must sub- 
 tract the energy expended by the action of the sub- 
 stance on surrounding bodies. Heat may be com- 
 17 N 
 
194 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 municated from a hot body to a cold one in threfl 
 ways — by radiation, conduction, and circulation. 
 
 The rate at which heat is transferred from metal 
 to gases and from gases to metal has been found to 
 be as the difference of temperature, but in practice 
 the conditions are different from those in the experi- 
 ment. Generally, in experiments, the conditions are 
 such that the gases move under natural draught, 
 which is frequently found to be impossible under 
 ordinary conditions. 
 
 As a variable amount of the heat evolved in the 
 combustion of a body is absorbed in the work of 
 effecting alterations in the physical conditions of the 
 combustible elements necessary to their effective oxi- 
 dation, it is impossible to estimate the absolute quan- 
 tity of heat evolved by the combustion of a body ; 
 yet the relative quantities of heat evolved by the 
 combustion of different bodies, which may be util- 
 ized, can be accurately determined. 
 
 The medium heat of the globe is placed at 50° ; 
 at the torrid zone, 15°; in moderate climates, 50°; 
 near the Polar regions, 36° Fah. The extremes of 
 natural heat are from 10° to 120° ; of artificial heat, 
 91° to 36,000° Fah. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 195 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF FIRE, AND THE APPEARANCE 
 OF DIFFERENT FUELS AT DIFFERENT DEGREES FAH., AND 
 THAT IT IS NEARLY THE SAME FOR ALL KINDS OF COM- 
 BUSTIBLES UNDER LIKE CONDITIONS. 
 
 Appearance. 
 
 Temp. Fah. 
 
 Appearance. 
 
 Temp. Fah. 
 
 Red, just visible . . . 
 
 " dull 
 
 " cherry, dull . . 
 
 full . . 
 
 " " clear . 
 
 997° 
 1290 
 1400 
 1650 
 1830 
 
 Orange, deep 
 
 clear .... 
 White heat 
 
 " bright .... 
 
 " dazzling . . . 
 
 2010° 
 2190 
 2370 
 2550 
 2730 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE FUSING TEMPERATURE OF DIFFERENT SUB- 
 STANCES, IN DEGREES FAH. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Temp. 
 Fah. 
 
 Tallow. . . . 
 Spermaceti . 
 Wax, white . 
 Sulphur . . . 
 Tin 
 
 92° 
 120 
 154 
 239 
 
 455 
 
 Bismuth . 
 Lead .... 
 Zinc .... 
 Antimony 
 Brass . . . 
 
 518° 
 630 
 793 
 810 
 1650 
 
 Silver, pure . . . 
 Gold, coin .... 
 Iron, cast, Medm. 
 
 Steel 
 
 Wrought iron . . 
 
 1830° 
 2156 
 2010 
 2550 
 2910 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT NON-CON- 
 DUCTORS. 
 
 Non-Conductor. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Non-Conductor. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Wool Felt 
 
 1.000 
 .832 
 .715 
 .680 
 .676 
 .632 
 .553 
 
 Loam, dry and open . . 
 
 Slacked lime 
 
 Gas-House Carbon .... 
 Asbestos 
 
 .550 
 .480 
 .470 
 .363 
 .345 
 .277 
 .136 
 
 Mineral Wool No. 2 . . . 
 
 Do. with tar 
 
 Sawdust 
 
 Mineral Wool No. 1 . . . 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Pine Wood, across fibre 
 
 Coke in lumps 
 
 Air space, undivided . . 
 
 Where, when, by whom, or under what circum- 
 stances fire originated or was discovered, has never 
 been satisfactorily explained. 
 
196 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE MELTING-POINTS OF DIFFERENT SOLIDS. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Cast-iron 3479 
 
 " " very fusible 2010 
 
 " " white maximum 2010 
 
 " " second melting 2190 
 
 Gold 2590 
 
 " very pure 2280 
 
 " standard coin 2156 
 
 Copper 2548 
 
 Silver 1280 
 
 " very pure 1830 
 
 Brass 1869 
 
 " . . 1650 
 
 Antimony ......... 810 
 
 Zinc 700 
 
 « . 793 
 
 Lead ! ! ! 1 I I ! [ 630 
 
 Bismuth 493 
 
 " 518 
 
 Tin 426 
 
 SHOWING THE MELTING-POINT OF AIXOYS. 
 
 Tin 1, Lead 3 504 
 
 " 1, " 1 466 
 
 " 2, " 1 385 
 
 " 3, " 1 367 
 
 " 3, " 2 . 334 
 
 " 4, " 1 372 
 
 " 5, " 1 381 
 
 " 2, " 0, Bismuth 1 334 
 
 " 1, " 0, " 1 . . . . . . 286 
 
 " I, " 1, " 4 201 
 
 " 3, " 5, " 8 212 
 
 " 3, " 5, " 8 210 
 
 " 3, " 2, " 5 212 
 
 " 4, " 1, " 5 246 
 
 " 3, " 0, 1 392 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 197 
 
 COMBUSTION. 
 
 A certain amount of energy has necessarily to be 
 expended in effecting 
 the chemical combina- 
 tion of the different in- 
 gredients of which fuel 
 is composed, the result 
 of which is the amount 
 of heat developed. The 
 heat developed by the 
 combination of oxygen 
 with carbon and hydro- 
 gen, is that employed 
 in the mechanical arts. The chief constituents of 
 fuel are carbon and hydrogen, and the union of 
 oxygen with these elements is termed combustion. 
 
 The temperature of combustion depends upon the 
 rapidity with which the combination is effected, but 
 the heat developed by combustion is independent of 
 the time and depends only upon the caloric value of 
 the element with which the oxygen combines. 
 
 When the combustion is rapid, it is termed burn- 
 ing ; when slow, it is termed decomposition. The 
 atmosphere, from which source the oxygen is obtained 
 to support combustion, is composed of oxygen and 
 nitrogen in mechanical combination, in the propor- 
 tion of 8 atoms of oxygen to 28 atoms of nitrogen ; 
 or if chemical terms are used, one equivalent of 
 17* 
 
198 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 oxygen to two of nitrogen. The nitrogen is inert, 
 and neither assists nor retards combustion. 
 
 When I pound of carbon unites with 2f pounds of 
 oxygen, carbonic acid is formed, and combustion is 
 said to be perfect or complete ; but when 1 pound 
 of hydrogen combines with 8 pounds of oxygen, 
 vapor of water is formed. Thus water, or steam, 
 consists of one equivalent of hydrogen and one 
 equivalent of oxygen. 
 
 The total heat of the combustion of one pound of 
 hydrogen, when burned to vapor of water, is 62.032 
 thermal units ; and the total heat of combustion of 
 one pound of carbon, when burned to carbonic oxide, 
 is 4.400 thermal units. Thus the total heat of com- 
 bustion of one pound of carbon burned to carbonic 
 acid is 14.500 thermal units. 
 
 Experiments have shown that, with natural draught 
 of furnace, the theoretical quantity of air is insuffi- 
 cient for complete combustion, and that twice this 
 amount is really required. It has been shown that 
 when two equivalents of oxygen unite with one 
 equivalent of carbon, carbonic acid is the result; 
 consequently, the quantity of air required from com- 
 bustion can be determined with some degree of 
 accuracy. 
 
 Charcoal, coke, coal, wood, and peat are the fuels 
 principally in use. Charcoal is obtained by elimi- 
 nating the volatile matter from wood or peat by dis- 
 tillation in a retort, or by partial combustion in a 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 199 
 
 heap. A larger yield of carbon is obtained by the 
 distillation process. According to Pecht, charcoal 
 consists of carbon, 93 per cent., and non-combustible 
 material, or ash, ? per cent. 
 
 No substance in nature is combustible in itself, 
 whatever the degree of heat to which it may be ex- 
 posed ; and every substance can be ignited only when 
 in the presence of, or in mechanical combination with, 
 air, or its vital element, oxygen, because combustion 
 is continuous ignition, and can only be caused by 
 maintaining in the combustible mixture the heat 
 necessary to ignite it. Strictly speaking, chemical 
 combination, in every case, is accompanied by the 
 production of heat, and every decomposition by a 
 disappearance of heat equal in amount to that which 
 is produced by the combination of the elements 
 which are to be separated. 
 
 When a complex chemical action takes place, in 
 which various combinations and decompositions occur 
 simultaneously, the heat obtained is the excess of 
 the heat produced by the combinations above the 
 heat which disappears. In consequence of decom- 
 position, substances combine chemically in certain 
 proportions only. To each of the substances known 
 in chemistry a certain amount can be assigned, called 
 its chemical equivalent. 
 
 Chemical equivalents are sometimes atomic weights 
 or atoms, in accordance with the hypothesis that they 
 are proportionate to the weights of the supposed 
 
200 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 atoms of bodies, or smallest similar parts into which 
 bodies are assumed to be divisible by known forces. 
 The term atom is convenient from its shortness, and 
 can be used to mean chemical equivalent. 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion. — The chemical action 
 known as spontaneous combustion is frequently the 
 cause of fire. There can be no doubt that many 
 fires, whose origin it has been difficult to explain, 
 have arisen from this cause, and it is known that 
 greasy or oily cotton, saw-dust, etc., if left long 
 enough undisturbed, undergo a change, and finally 
 ignite, setting fire to whatever inflammable material 
 may be in their immediate vicinity. 
 
 Spontaneous ignition has been known to take place 
 in the cotton wipings or waste employed for wiping 
 the oil, etc., from machinery ; and there is little 
 doubt that many fires, for which no apparent cause 
 could be assigned, have thus originated. Even the 
 putrefaction of vegetable matter has been known to 
 occasion the development of so much heat as to 
 sometimes cause ignition. 
 
 Galletly, who investigated the subject, found that 
 cotton- waste soaked in boiled linseed oil, and wrung 
 out, if exposed to a temperature of 170°, set up oxi- 
 dation so rapidly as to cause actual combustion in 
 105 minutes. It is important to note these facts, as 
 they may be of great benefit to the owners and occu- 
 pants of shops and factories. 
 
 On this subject, however, there seems to be a wide 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 201 
 
 difference of opinion, as, while it is claimed by some 
 that steam-pipes will set fire to wood work, it is as- 
 serted by others that no pressure of steam used for 
 heating or manufacturing purposes is of a sufficiently 
 high temperature to produce such results. How long 
 it actually takes to effect this change in the wood has 
 never yet been satisfactorily settled. Experiments 
 are much needed to determine this important point. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH DIFFERENT 
 SUBSTANCES BECOME COMBUSTIBLE AND IGNITE WITHOUT 
 THE INTERVENTION OF A SPARK OF EITHER ELECTRICITY 
 OR FIRE. 
 
 Substances. Fan. 
 
 Phosphorus 140° 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon 300° 
 
 Fulminating powder 374° 
 
 Fulminate of mercury 392° 
 
 Equal parts of chlorate of potash and sulphur . 395° 
 
 Sulphur 400° 
 
 Gun-cotton 428° 
 
 Mtro-glycerine 494° 
 
 Rifle powder . . 550° 
 
 Gunpowder, coarse 563° 
 
 Picrate of mercury, lead or iron .... 565° 
 
 Picrate powder for torpedoes 570° 
 
 Picrate powder for muskets 576° 
 
 Charcoal, the most inflammable willow used for gun- 
 powder 580° 
 
 Charcoal, made by distilling wood at 500° . . 660° 
 
 Charcoal, made at 600° 700° 
 
 Picrate powder for cannon 716° 
 
 Very dry wood, pine . 800° 
 
 Oak 900° 
 
 Steam at 240 pounds pressure per square inch . . 403° 
 
202 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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 ye aiy jo Xpldng [■eo't 
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 yBJd iCauraiqO q»TM. 
 
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 -dng iBOijeaoaqx aqj 
 
 saraij,' aaaqj, qj}A\. 
 
 \ny jo 
 
 iflddng iBopajoaqj, 
 
 eq; aoiAj, q*i^ 
 
 uty jo Ajddng 
 pjoijajoaqj, aqj 
 sairiij y x \ qjijw 
 
 •jiy jo iCiddng 
 leopajoaq^ qjJAl 
 
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 M lO CO (M H 00 OS ' 
 
 cococoeoco (M <n ( 
 
 •aiqijsnqraoo jo 
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 spuno^ ui 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 203 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE THEORETIC VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
 AMERICAN COAL IN HEAT UNITS, POUNDS OF WATER EVAP- 
 ORATED, AND PERCENTAGE OF WASTE. 
 
 
 COAL. 
 
 o 
 l< 
 
 Theoretical Value 
 
 in Heat 
 
 in 
 Pounds 
 
 
 
 a> 
 Oh 
 
 Units. 
 
 of Water 
 Evap. 
 
 STATE. 
 
 KIND OF COAL. 
 
 
 
 
 Penn. 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 3.49 
 
 14,199 
 
 14.70 
 
 << 
 
 " 
 
 6.13 
 
 13,535 
 
 14.01 
 
 « 
 
 " 
 
 2.90 
 
 14,221 
 
 14.72 
 
 " 
 
 Cannel 
 
 15.02 
 
 13,143 
 
 13.60 
 
 " 
 
 Connellsville 
 
 6.50 
 
 13,368 
 
 13.84 
 
 u 
 
 Semi-bi'nous 
 
 10.77 
 
 13,155 
 
 13.62 
 
 11 
 
 Stone's Gas 
 
 5.00 
 
 14,021 
 
 14.51 
 
 (C 
 
 Youghiogheny 
 
 5.60 
 
 14,265 
 
 14.76 
 
 " 
 
 Brown 
 
 9.50 
 
 12,324 
 
 12.75 
 
 *7- 
 
 Caking 
 
 2.75 
 
 14,391 
 
 14.89 
 
 Cannel 
 
 2.00 
 
 15,198 
 
 16.76 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 14.80 
 
 13,360 
 
 13.84 
 
 " 
 
 Lignite 
 
 7.00 
 
 9,326 
 
 9.65 
 
 111. 
 
 Bureau Co. 
 
 5.20 
 
 13,025 
 
 13.48 
 
 it 
 
 Mercer Co. 
 
 5.60 
 
 13,123 
 
 13.58 
 
 " 
 
 Montauk 
 
 5.50 
 
 12,659 
 
 13.10 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Block 
 
 2.50 
 
 13,588 
 
 14.38 
 
 " 
 
 Caking 
 
 5.66 
 
 14,146 
 
 14.64 
 
 " 
 
 Cannel 
 
 6.00 
 
 13,097 
 
 13.56 
 
 Md. 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 13.98 
 
 12,226 
 
 12.65 
 
 Ark. 
 
 Lignite 
 
 5.00 
 
 9,215 
 
 9.54 
 
 Col. 
 
 " 
 
 9.25 
 
 13,562 
 
 14.04 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 4.50 
 
 13,866 
 
 14.35 
 
 Texas 
 
 it 
 
 4.50 
 
 12,962 
 
 13.41 
 
 Wash. 
 
 Ter. " 
 
 3.40 
 
 11,551 
 
 11.96 
 
 Penn. 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 
 20,746 
 
 21.47 
 
201 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE COMBUSTIBLE AND NON-COMBUSTIBLE 
 IN THE BEST QUALITY OP AMERICAN ANTHRACITE COALS. 
 
 Carbon 86-76 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter . . . . . 4.98 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.18 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 6.97 " " 
 
 Sulphur 11 " " 
 
 table showing the constituents op cumberland coals 
 (American). 
 
 Carbon 73.72 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter 14.20 " " 
 
 Sulphur 12 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.56 " " 
 
 Non-combustible . . . . . 10.40 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OP BEST PENNSYLVANIA 
 ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 Carbon 72.00 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter 16.01 " " 
 
 Sulphur 72 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.14 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 10.13 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE BASIS OP VIRGINIA CAKING COAL. 
 
 Carbon 58.01 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter 29-23 " " 
 
 Sulphur 90 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.36 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 10.50 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE COMBUSTIBLE VALUE OP OHIO COALS. 
 
 Carbon 56.62 per cent 
 
 Volatile matter 35.03 " " 
 
 Moisture . 3.19 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 5.16 " 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 205 
 
 TABLE DEDUCED PROM AN ANALYSIS OF INDIANA COALS. 
 
 Carbon 51.20 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter 42-79 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 6.01 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE INGREDIENTS IN NEWCASTLE COAL 
 (ENGLISH). 
 
 Carbon 56.99 per cent. 
 
 Volatile matter 35.59 " " 
 
 Sulphur 23 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.79 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 5.40 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE HEATING POWER OF COKE AS FUEL. 
 
 Carbon 85.00 per cent. 
 
 Non-combustible 15.00 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS OF WOOD. 
 
 Carbon 50.00 per cent. 
 
 Oxygen 42.00 " " 
 
 Hydrogen 5.25 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 2.75 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE VEGETABLE COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 
 
 Carbon 58.00 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen 6.00 " " 
 
 Oxygen 31.00 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 5.00 " " 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE CARBON, VOLATILE, SULPHUR, ETC.,, 
 IN PITTSBURGH COAL. 
 
 Carbon 54.93 per cent.. 
 
 Volatile matter 36.60 " " 
 
 Moisture 1.40 " " 
 
 Non-combustible 7.07 " " 
 
 1*8 
 
206 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE VALUE OF LIGNITE, AS FUEL. 
 
 Carbon 39.00 per cent. 
 
 Oxygen 10.00 " " 
 
 Hydrogen 2.50 " " 
 
 Non-combustible . . ' . . . 48.50 " ", 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF COMBUSTIBLES IN COAL, COKE, 
 WOOD, AND PEAT, ETC. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 "3 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Peat. 
 
 (2 
 
 'gGD 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 >» 
 
 
 
 Carbon .... 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Oxygen .... 
 
 Nitrogen and Sulphur 
 
 Water .... 
 
 Ashes .... 
 
 .812 
 .048 
 .054 
 .031 
 
 '.055 
 
 .850 
 
 Viso 
 
 .510 
 .053 
 .417 
 
 '.020 
 
 .408 
 .042 
 .334 
 
 '.200 
 .016 
 
 .930 
 '.070 
 
 .580 
 .060 
 .310 
 
 '.'650 
 
 .464 
 .048 
 
 .248 
 
 '.200 
 .040 
 
 Total 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE VALUE OF FLUID FUELS. 
 
 Constituents. 
 
 03 
 
 ! 
 
 3 6 
 HA 
 
 
 | 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 ffl 
 O 
 
 If 
 
 | 
 
 "3 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 0) 
 
 PQ 
 
 Carbon .... 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Oxygen .... 
 
 .850 
 .150 
 
 .884 
 .116 
 
 .5198 
 .1370 
 .3432 
 
 .7721 
 .1336 
 .0943 
 
 .6531 
 .1333 
 .2136 
 
 .790 
 .117 
 .093 
 
 .816 
 .139 
 .045 
 
 Total 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1.000 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 207 
 
 FUEL. 
 
 The term fuel may be applied to any substance 
 which gives out heat when subjected to the process 
 of combustion. It includes anthracite and bituminous 
 coals, peat, wood, lignite, etc., and the value of any 
 fuel may be estimated by the number of heat units 
 which its combustion will develop — a heat unit, as 
 shown under the head of standard units, in another 
 part of this work, being the amount of heat required 
 to raise one pound of water one degree Fah. The 
 fuel used in generating steam is composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and ash, with sometimes small quanti- 
 ties of other substances not materially affecting its 
 value. 
 
 The air required for complete combustion, the 
 temperature with different proportions of air, the 
 theoretical value, and the highest attainable value 
 under a steam-boiler, assuming that the gases pass 
 off at 320°, the temperature of steam at 15 pounds 
 pressure would be 311.2°, and the incoming chimney 
 draught twice 60° ; with a blast draught it would 
 require twice that amount of air for complete com- 
 bustion. 
 
 Slack, or the screenings of either anthracite or 
 bituminous coal, when properly mixed and burned 
 with a blower on grates adapted for it, develops 
 nearly as much heat as the best specimen of either 
 the coals above mentioned, but its percentage of loss 
 
208 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 is nearly twice that of broken nut, egg, lump, or 
 stove coal. Facts, experiment, and investigation 
 have shown that anthracite and bituminous coals 
 and lignite belong to the vegetable kingdom, and 
 that wood consists chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 
 ._ oxygen. By a process of natural evolution, the 
 wood suffers a loss of each of these elements, more 
 especially of the hydrogen and oxygen. Lignite 
 sustains a further loss of nearly all its oxygen, more 
 than half its hydrogen, and a large percentage of 
 carbon. When bituminous coal is the result, this 
 undergoes another change, and loses a portion of its 
 carbon, nearly all of its hydrogen and oxygen, and 
 results in the formation of anthracite coal. 
 
 It is estimated that the annual production of coal 
 in the world amounts to over 300,000,000 tons, one- 
 half of which, or 150,000,000 tons at least, is used 
 for steaming purposes, which, at an average of $2.50 
 per ton, the lowest estimate that can be placed on it, 
 will amount to $375,000,000. It must be observed 
 that a very small saving in that amount would add 
 materially to the wealth of the world. The com- 
 mercial value of the coal yield of the world is more 
 
 , than that of all mineral products, including refractory 
 clays and phosphates. 
 
 The commercial standards for the sale of differ- 
 ent kinds of fuels may be enumerated as follows: 
 Anthracite coal is purchased or sold by the ton, the 
 gross ton being 2240 pounds, the net 2000 pounds. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 20? 
 
 Bituminous coal, coke, and lignite are sold by the 
 bushel. Wood and peat are sold by the cord. 
 Burgy, slack, and cullum, which are the waste of 
 coal, are sold by the load. 
 
 The terms which designate the different sizes of 
 coal used for steam-boilers, are lump, broken, large 
 egg, small egg, large stove, small stove, nut, chest- 
 nut, pea, and dust. 
 
 It is customary to mix pea and dust, also bitu- 
 minous coal and dust, and burn them with an artifi- 
 cial draught created by a blower. Dust is frequently 
 burned by mixing it with shavings, tan-bark, or 
 other combustible substances. 
 
 Different attempts have been made to utilize the 
 waste resulting from the preparations of coal, but so 
 far without satisfactory results. This is to be re- 
 gretted, as not more than 60 per cent, of all the coal 
 mined is marketable, 40 per cent, being lost in the 
 different processes of preparation. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made, in this coun- 
 try and Europe, to employ petroleum as fuel for the 
 generation of steam, and, while it has been frequently 
 announced that such experiments have been success- 
 ful, the question still remains open. It would be 
 interesting to know why the use of petroleum fuel 
 has been abandoned, while such flattering pros- 
 pects were offered at one time, but it seems the 
 result of the experiments tried with it has not been 
 collected. 
 
 18* O 
 
210 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 WOOD. 
 
 It is asserted that the annual quantity of wood con- 
 sumed in the world amounts to over 50,000,000 cords, 
 which, at $2 per cord, would be worth $100,000,000; 
 ^besides, the chips, shavings, and sawdust which are 
 consumed is not included in this estimate, but ha& 
 been calculated to equal 10,000,000 cords of wood. 
 This shows that expenditure for wood alone as a fuel 
 is equal to $120,000,000. 
 
 The woods most generally used in the mechanical 
 arts are oak of different varieties, viz., white, black, 
 live, red, swamp, etc.; pine of different species, 
 white, yellow, pitch, resin, etc.; maple — hard, soft, 
 bird's-eye, curled, etc.; spruce, hickory, ash, mahog- 
 any, baywood, rosewood, boxwood, lignuin-vitae, 
 walnut, ebony, sandal, cocoa, tulip, granadilla, ama- 
 ranth, cedar, lancewood, dogwood, satin wood, snake« 
 wood, violet, holly, birch, beech, hornbeam, hemlock, 
 tamarack, hacmatac, white wood, teak, logwood, Cot- 
 tonwood, willow, basswood, elm, button wood, cherry, 
 chestnut, and redwood. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
 WOOD AS FUEL. 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 
 Kind of Wood. 
 
 
 Hickory, shell-bark 
 
 " red heart 
 
 White oak .... 
 
 lied oak 
 
 4.469 
 3.705 
 3.821 
 3.254 
 
 Southern pine . . 
 Virginia " . . 
 
 Spruce 
 
 New Jersey pine . 
 Yellow " 
 White 
 
 3.375 
 
 2.680 
 2.325 
 2.137 
 1.904 
 1.868 
 
 Beach 
 
 3.126 
 
 Hard maple . . . 
 
 2.878 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 211 
 
 STEAM. 
 
 Steam is an elastic vapor, into which water is 
 converted by application of heat. Its most impor- 
 tant property is due to its elastic pressure, and arises 
 from the absence of cohesion in the particles of 
 water from which it is generated, and the mutual re- 
 pulsion which gives them a tendency to separate 
 from the mass of fluid in which they are contained. 
 The pressure of steam is uniformly diffused over 
 the entire surface of the vessel in which it is gener- 
 ated, and it is to this quality that all mechanical 
 power of steam is due, because, when any gas or 
 vapor is contained in a close vessel, or boiler, the 
 inner surface of the boiler will sustain a pressure 
 equal to the pounds per square inch and the elastic- 
 ity of the vapor or the gas which it contains. 
 
 Steam cannot mix with air while its pressure ex- 
 ceeds that of the atmosphere; and this property 
 makes the condition of a body dependent on its 
 temperature, and explains the condensing property 
 of steam. When the pressure of steam in the cyl- 
 inder equals 15 pounds to the square inch, all the air 
 is expelled ; then, by immersing the cylinder in cold 
 water, as shown on page 136, under the head of 
 vacuum, the steam assumes the conditions produced 
 by the reduction of its temperature, and becomes 
 water. 
 
 The latent or concealed heat of steam is one of 
 
Zl2 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 its most noteworthy qualities. Though showing no 
 effect on the thermometer, it may be as easily known 
 as the sensible or perceptible heat. 
 
 To demonstrate this property of steam, 5| pounds 
 of water, at 32° Fah., may be placed in an open 
 vessel, with a pipe extending from the steam-boiler 
 nearly to its bottom, and on turning on the steam 
 it will be discovered that the water in the vessel 
 when raised to the boiling-point, 212° Fah., will 
 weigh 6-J pounds. 
 
 Now this addition of one pound to the weight of 
 the water resulted from the condensation of the 
 steam necessary to raise 5^ pounds from 32° to 212° 
 Fah. If steam is generated from water at a tem- 
 perature which gives it the same pressure as the 
 atmosphere, an additional temperature of 38° will 
 give it the pressure of two atmospheres, and a still 
 further addition of 42° gives it the tension of four 
 atmospheres. 
 
 A noticeable result attending the formation of 
 steam is that, when an engine is in operation and 
 working off a proper supply of steam, the water- 
 level in the boiler artificially rises, showing by the 
 gauge-cocks a greater supply than that which really 
 exists. Temperature and pressure must in all cases 
 be constant factors, consequently water at 212° Fah. 
 must be under the pressure of steam due to that 
 temperature, which is one atmosphere, or 15 pounds 
 to the square inch. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 213 
 
 If the normal pressure on the surface of water 
 from which steam is generated is removed without 
 a corresponding reduction in the temperature, a vio- 
 lent ebullition of the water is the immediate result, 
 which is due to a disturbance, or a want of balance, 
 in the relations which should be maintained between 
 temperature and pressure. 
 
 As pressure of steam increases, the sensible heat 
 is augmented and the latent heat diminished, and 
 vice versa, but the sum of either is always a con- 
 stant quantity, and one can only be increased at the 
 expense of the other. It has been asserted that by 
 mere mechanical compression steam may be con- 
 verted into water. This is an error, since steam, in 
 whatever state it may exist, must possess at least 
 212° of heat, and as this quantity of heat is suffi- 
 cient to maintain it in the form of vapor under 
 whatever pressure it may be placed, no compression 
 or increase of pressure can diminish the actual 
 quantity of heat contained in the steam. 
 
 If steam, under mechanical pressure, be reduced 
 to diminished volume, it will undergo an increase 
 of temperature which will exceed the diminution 
 of volume ; in fact, any change of volume which 
 it undergoes will be attended with a change of 
 temperature and pressure ; but it will be noticed 
 that when the steam has undergone a change of 
 volume, it will assume exactly the pressure and 
 temperature which it would have in the same vol- 
 ume, if it were immediately evolved from water 
 
214 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Water, while passing into steam, suffers a great 
 enlargement of volume, while steam, on the other 
 hand, in being converted into water, undergoes a I 
 corresponding diminution of volume. It has been 
 shown that a cubic inch of water evaporated at 
 the temperature of 212° Fah. swells into 1700 
 cubic inches of steam; it follows, therefore, that 
 if a closed vessel, containing 1700 cubic inches of 
 steam, be exposed to cold sufficient to take from 
 the steam all its latent heat, the steam will be 
 reconverted into water, will shrink into its original 
 dimensions, and will leave the remainder of the 
 vessel a vacuum. 
 
 No accurate formula has ever been demonstrated 
 by which to express the relation between the tem- 
 perature and pressure of steam, or to determine the 
 temperature due to augment the volume which 
 results when water expands by evaporation; but 
 steam, having been formed from water by evapora- 
 tion, may, like all other substances, receive an ac- 
 cession of heat from any external source, and its 
 temperature may therefore be elevated. 
 
 Steam, at atmospheric pressure, requires 1700 
 times the volume from which it was raised ; a cubic 
 foot of water weighs 62 I pounds ; a cubic foot of 
 steam of atmospheric pressure weighs about .038 
 pound. In order to exert a pressure by its mere 
 dead weight of 14.7 pounds per square inch, such 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 215 
 
 steam of uniform density would have to stand at 
 a height of 10j miles. 
 
 If a pound of steam has a pressure of 120 pounds 
 above atmosphere, it is equal to a pound of water 
 heated at 1681° above the absolute zero of a per- 
 fect gas thermometer, 1220° above Fah. zero, 1188° 
 above the freezing-point, or 1118° above the sensible 
 pressure of steam of one pound absolute pressure 
 per square inch. 
 
 Steam which is employed for mechanical pur- 
 poses, as it arises from the water from which it is 
 generated, is termed saturated steam ; while steam 
 which is subjected to extra heat outside of the 
 vessel in which it is formed, is called superheated 
 or dry steam. 
 
 ECONOMY OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 
 
 Expansion is the most extraordinary property of 
 steam. The merit of its discovery is due to Horn- 
 blower, who, in 1T81, obtained a patent for the 
 invention. The principle of expanding the steam 
 in the condensing-engine is the same as in the 
 non-condensing engine, with this exception, that 
 the steam which exhausts undue atmospheric press- 
 ure cannot expand below 15 pounds per square 
 inch, because the exhaust is open to the pressure 
 of the surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 The resistance of the atmosphere, which is nearly 
 
216 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 It pounds per square inch, must be added to the 
 steam pressure when making calculations. For 
 instance, if steam at 20 pounds pressure above 
 atmosphere is admitted to the cylinder of the 
 steam-engine and cut-off at one-fourth stroke, it 
 would show a terminal pressure of 8 i pounds. 
 
 If steam at 45 pounds per square inch above 
 atmosphere is admitted to the cylinder and cut-off 
 at one-fourth stroke, the average pressure through- 
 out will be, allowing 1 pound for friction and back 
 pressure to force out the steam in the cylinder, 19| 
 pounds. Thus : 45 pounds of steam cut-off at one- 
 fourth the stroke, with 15 pounds added, make 60 
 pounds. 
 
 Thirty pounds of steam per square inch cut-off, at 
 one-third the stroke, with the atmosphere added, 15 
 pounds, equal 45, and will give an average pressure 
 of 31J pounds for the whole length of the stroke. 
 From the above it will be seen that, as it requires 
 a certain quantity of fuel to raise a certain volume 
 of steam, if that steam is allowed to escape into 
 the atmosphere, or condense without expansion, the 
 benefit which should be derived from the consump- 
 tion of fuel will be lost to a certain extent. 
 
 If any further proof was needed to show the econ- 
 omy of working steam expansively, it might be as- 
 serted, without fear of contradiction, that steam at 
 t>5 pounds pressure per square inch, if cut off in the 
 tyiinder and expanded, will perform seven times the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 217 
 
 amount of work that steam at 25 pounds pressure to 
 the square inch would if allowed to follow the piston 
 seven-eighths of the stroke. No intelligent me- 
 chanic or manufacturer of steam-engines will arrange 
 the valves of an engine at the present time without 
 taking into consideration the benefits to be derived 
 from working steam expansively. Of course, steam 
 is sometimes worked whole stroke, but only to meet 
 special requirements. 
 
 It will be seen from the above, that if steam at 25 
 pounds pressure was cut off at one-fourth stroke, the 
 average pressure for the whole length of the stroke 
 would be 15 pounds per square inch; or, if the 
 pressure was 80 pounds per square inch, and the cut- 
 off was at one-fourth stroke, the average pressure for 
 the whole length of stroke would be 4?f pounds. 
 This table must be used in estimating the horse- 
 power of steam-engines. (See formulae on page 220.) 
 
 If steam be supplied to the cylinder of an engine 
 for the full length of the stroke, the average pressure 
 will be as the pressure per square inch upon the pis- 
 ton ; but if the steam be cut off at half stroke — sup- 
 pose the pressure to be 65 pounds per inch when 
 the pressure of the atmosphere is added — there will 
 be a mean equivalent or average pressure throughout 
 the stroke of 55 pounds per square inch. 
 
 From the foregoing it would appear evident that 
 the expansive property of steam is strictly mechani- 
 cal, and is a property common to all fluids, air, gas, 
 19 
 
218 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 etc. It simply consists in this, that vapor, of a given 
 elastic force, will expand to certain limits, and during 
 the process of expansion will act on opposing bodies 
 with a force gradually decreasing, causing a diminu- 
 tion of elastic power in ratio inverse to the increase 
 of volume, until it has reached the limits of its pow- 
 er, or is counterbalanced by the resistance of the 
 surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 If the load on a steam-engine is such as to allow 
 the steam to be cut off early, and to expand down to 
 its most available limits in the cylinder, then the 
 best economy will be realized, because the highest 
 boiler pressure had been used at admission, and re- 
 duced down to the lowest possible pressure at release 
 or exhaust. 
 
 In the non -condensing engine, the steam, after 
 acting on the piston, escapes into the open air; 
 therefore, the pressure of the outgoing steam must 
 exceed atmospheric pressure, or 14. t to the square 
 inch. Thus, if steam at 45 lbs. average pressure above 
 vacuum be admitted to the piston of a high-pressure 
 engine, it will exert a force equal to its pressure ; but 
 14.7 lbs. per square inch of that pressure will not be 
 converted into work, as it will be lost in overcoming 
 the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Amount of Benefit to be 
 Derived from Working Steam Expansively. — Divide 
 the length of a stroke by the distance the steam fol- 
 lows the piston before being cut off ; then find in the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 219 
 
 annexed table the hyperbolic logarithm that will cor- 
 respond nearest to the quotient, to which add 1, the 
 sum of which will show the ratio of gain. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF HYPEEBOLIC LOGARITHMS TO BE USED IN CONNECTION 
 WITH THE ABOVE RULE. 
 
 No. 
 
 Logarithm. 
 
 No. 
 
 Logarithm. 
 
 No. 
 
 Logarithm. 
 
 1.25 
 
 .22314 
 
 5. 
 
 1.60943 
 
 9. 
 
 2.19722 
 
 1.5 
 
 .40546 
 
 5.25 
 
 1.65822 
 
 9.5 
 
 2.25129 
 
 1.75 
 
 .55961 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.70474 
 
 10. 
 
 2.30258 
 
 2. 
 
 .69314 
 
 5.75 
 
 1.74919 
 
 11. 
 
 2.39789 
 
 2.25 
 
 .81093 
 
 6. 
 
 1.79175 
 
 12. 
 
 2.48490 
 
 2.5 
 
 .91629 
 
 6.25 
 
 1.83258 
 
 13. 
 
 2.56494 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.01160 
 
 6.5 
 
 1.87180 
 
 14. 
 
 2.63905 
 
 3. 
 
 1.09861 
 
 6.75 
 
 1.90954 
 
 15. 
 
 2.70805 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.17865 
 
 7. 
 
 1.94591 
 
 16. 
 
 2.77258 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.25276 
 
 7.25 
 
 1.98100 
 
 17. 
 
 2.83321 
 
 3.75 
 
 1.32175 
 
 7.5 
 
 2.01490 
 
 18. 
 
 2.89037 
 
 4. 
 
 1.38629 
 
 7.75 
 
 2.04769 
 
 19. 
 
 2.94443 
 
 4.25 
 
 1.44691 
 
 8. 
 
 2.07944 
 
 20. 
 
 2.99573 
 
 4.5 
 
 1.50507 
 
 8.5 
 
 2.14006 
 
 21. 
 
 3.04452 
 
 4.75 
 
 1.55814 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 3.09104 
 
 A MISSISSIPPI STEAMER. 
 
220 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 
 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 221 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Average Pressure in 
 Steam- Cylinders. — Divide the length of the stroke 
 by the distance the steam follows the piston before 
 being cut off; the quotient will show the measure 
 of expansion. Then find in the following table, in 
 the expansion column, the number corresponding to 
 this, which, if multiplied by the number opposite, 
 will give the average pressure. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OP MULTIPLIERS BY WHICH TO FIND THE AVERAGE PRESSURE 
 OF STEAM IN THE CYLINDERS OF STEAM-ENGINES, FOR 
 ANY POINT OF CUT-OFF. 
 
 Expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 Expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 Expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.000 
 
 3.4 
 
 .654 
 
 5.8 
 
 .479 
 
 1.1 
 
 .995 
 
 3.5 
 
 .644 
 
 5.9 
 
 .474 
 
 1.2 
 
 .985 
 
 3.6 
 
 .634 
 
 6. 
 
 .470 
 
 1.3 
 
 .971 
 
 3.7 
 
 .624 
 
 6.1 
 
 .466 
 
 1.4 
 
 .955 
 
 3.8 
 
 .615 
 
 «.2 
 
 .462 
 
 1.5 
 
 .937. 
 
 3.9 
 
 .605 
 
 6.3 
 
 .458 
 
 1.6 
 
 .919 
 
 4. 
 
 .597 
 
 6.4 
 
 .454 
 
 1.7 
 
 .900 
 
 4.1 
 
 .588 
 
 6.5 
 
 .450 
 
 1.8 
 
 .882 
 
 4.2 
 
 .580 
 
 6.6 
 
 .446 
 
 1.9 
 
 .864 
 
 4.3 
 
 .572 
 
 6.7 
 
 .442 
 
 2. 
 
 .847 
 
 4.4 
 
 .564 
 
 6.8 
 
 .438 
 
 2.1 
 
 .830 
 
 4.5 
 
 .556 
 
 6.9 
 
 .434 
 
 2.2 
 
 .813 
 
 4.6 
 
 .549 
 
 7. 
 
 .430 
 
 2.3 
 
 .797 
 
 4.7 
 
 .542 
 
 7.1 
 
 .427 
 
 2.4 
 
 .781 
 
 4.8 
 
 .535 
 
 7.2 
 
 .423 
 
 2.5 
 
 .766 
 
 4.9 
 
 .528 
 
 7.3 
 
 .420 
 
 2.6 
 
 .752 
 
 5. 
 
 .522 
 
 7.4 
 
 .417 
 
 2.7 
 
 .738 
 
 5.1 
 
 .516 
 
 7.5 
 
 .414 
 
 2.8 
 
 .725 
 
 5.2 
 
 .510 
 
 7.6 
 
 .411 
 
 29 
 
 .712 
 
 5.3 
 
 .504 
 
 7.7 
 
 .408 
 
 3. 
 
 .700 
 
 5.4 
 
 .499' 
 
 7.8 
 
 .405 
 
 19* 
 
222 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 PROPERTIES OP SATURATED STEAM. 
 
 Ice is liquefied, and becomes water at 32° Pah. ; 
 above this point water increases in temperature up 
 to the steaming point, nearly at the rate of 1° for 
 each unit of heat added per pound of water. The 
 steaming point, 212° at atmospheric pressure, rises 
 as the superimposed pressure increases. For each 
 unit of heat added above the steaming point, a por- 
 tion of the water is converted into steam, having the 
 same temperature and the same pressure as that at 
 which it is evaporated. The heat so absorbed is 
 called " latent heat." 
 
 The amount of heat rendered latent by each pound 
 of water in becoming steam, varies at different press- 
 ures, decreasing as the pressure increases. This 
 latent heat, added to the suitable heat (or thermo- 
 metric temperature), constitutes "total heat ;" the 
 " total heat " being greater as the pressure increases, 
 it will take more heat, and consequently more fuel, 
 to make a pound of steam the higher the pressure. 
 
 The tables on pages 255, 256 give the properties 
 of steam, at different pressures, from 1 pound to 400 
 pounds, "total pressure " above vacuum. The gauge 
 pressure is about 15 pounds less than the total press- 
 ure, so that, in using this table, 15 must be added 
 to the pressure as given by the steam-gauge. The 
 column of temperatures gives the thermometric tem- 
 perature of steam and boiling-point at each pressure. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 223 
 
 The "factor of equivalent evaporation" shows the 
 proportionate cost, in heat or fuel, of producing steam 
 at the given pressure, as compared with atmospheric 
 pressure. 
 
 To ascertain the equivalent evaporation at any 
 pressure, multiply the given evaporation by the factor 
 of its pressure, and divide the product by the factor 
 of the desired pressure. Each degree of difference 
 in temperature of feed-water makes a difference of 
 .00104 in the amount of evaporation. Hence, to 
 ascertain the equivalent evaporation from any other 
 temperature than 212°, add to the factor given as 
 many times .00104 as the temperature of feed-water 
 is degrees below 212°. 
 
 CALORIC. 
 
 Caloric is generally treated as if it was a material 
 substance, but, like light and electricity, its true 
 nature has hitherto not been determined. The term 
 caloric means every conceivable existence of tem- 
 perature. This fact has led to the division of bodies 
 into conductors and non-conductors of caloric ; the 
 former include such bodies as metals, which allow 
 caloric to pass freely through them, and the latter 
 comprise those which do not give an easy passage 
 through them, such as stones, glass, wood, char- 
 coal, etc. 
 
 When heated bodies are exposed to the air, they 
 
224 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 lose portions of their heat by projections in right 
 lines into space from all parts of their surface. 
 Radiation is affected by the nature of the surface of 
 the body ; thus black and rough surfaces radiate and 
 absorb more heat than light and polished surfaces. 
 Bodies which radiate heat best absorb it best. 
 
 The reflection of caloric differs from radiation, as 
 the caloric is in this case reflected from the surface 
 without entering the substance of the body ; hence 
 the body which radiates, and consequently absorbs 
 most caloric, reflects the least, and vice verm. Sen- 
 sible caloric is free and unconfined, passing from one 
 substance to another, affecting the senses in its pas- 
 sage, determining the height of the thermometer, 
 and giving rise to all the results which are attributed 
 to this active principle. Caloric is either free and 
 sensible, or latent or insensible, and is the cause of 
 fluidity or solidity ; as, if heat is applied to ice, it 
 becomes fluid, if heat is extracted, it resumes its solid 
 form. Evaporation produces cold, because caloric 
 must be absorbed in the formation of vapor (a large 
 quantity of it passing from a sensible to a latent 
 state), the capacity for heat of the vapor formed 
 being greater than that of the fluid from which it 
 proceeds. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 225 
 
226 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 STEAM-BOILERS. 
 
 Steam-boilers may be divided into nine different 
 classes, viz., flue, plain cylinder, tubular, double-deck, 
 locomotive, fire-box or marine, fire-tube, water-tube, 
 tubulous, and sectional, which in turn may be divided 
 into two, viz., those which are externally and those 
 which are internally fired. They were all designed 
 to meet some special requirement, and they in turn 
 have accomplished some apparent purpose. As might 
 be expected, they all have their advantages and dis- 
 advantages. 
 
 All boilers, for whatever object designed or purpose 
 employed, are divided into three distinct parts, whose 
 functions are independent of each other — fire-surface, 
 water-space, and steam-room. The fire-space furnace, 
 or combustion chamber, is the part in which the pro- 
 ducts of combustion are liberated ; the water-space 
 is the part occupied by the water ; while the steam- 
 room is the reservoir which supplies the necessary 
 quantity of steam to the engine. 
 
 All steam-boilers, of whatever design, or for what- 
 ever purpose employed, are either externally or in- 
 ternally fired. Locomotive, marine, and portable 
 boilers are internally fired, because the fuel is con- 
 sumed in an iron furnace surrounded with a water- 
 leg ; while the cylinder flue, double-deck, tubulous, 
 and sectional are externally fired, and the fuel is 
 consumed in a furnace inclosed in fire-brick walls. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 22? 
 
 The plain cylinder, one of the oldest types of 
 modern steam-boilers, possessed the merit of being 
 light, cheap, easy to clean and repair, was safer, and 
 required less attention than any other design ; but 
 it had the disadvantage of being wasteful of fuel, 
 ,as a great part of the heat of combustion passed 
 into the chimney that would have been otherwise 
 absorbed and transmitted to the water. It was ob- 
 jectionable on account of its extreme length, where 
 economy of space was an object. The plain cylin- 
 der boiler is fast disappearing, its use at the present 
 time being confined to blast-furnaces, bloomeries, 
 etc., where steam is generated from the escaping 
 gases from the furnaces. 
 
 The flue boiler possessed many advantages over 
 the cylinder, as it occupied less space, and was a 
 good steamer on account of its great amount of 
 heating surface; but it had the disadvantage of 
 being heavy, expensive, difficult to clean or repair, 
 and dangerous on account of the liability of the 
 flues to collapse. It is still quite extensively used 
 in Western manufacturing establishments and on 
 Western waters, but in the Eastern or Middle 
 States the tubular has almost entirely superseded it. 
 
 The tubular boiler, like the high-pressure auto- 
 matic cut-off engines, is an American invention, 
 and is fast taking the place of all other designs, 
 on account of the limited space which it occupies, 
 its great efficiency as a steamer, and from the fact 
 
228 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 that the tubes are capable of resisting, with safety, 
 almost any pressure that may be exerted on their 
 external surface. Its disadvantages are that it is 
 difficult to clean and almost impossible to repair, 
 as the tubes have to be frequently removed, for 
 the purpose of cleaning off the incrustation which 
 becomes attached to them. This is quite an ex- 
 pensive operation, nevertheless it always pays on 
 account of the saving in fuel effected. 
 
 THE HARRISON SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILER. 
 
 The double-deck, which is an embodiment of the 
 cylinder and tubular, embodies many good points. 
 It consists of a tubular boiler with a plain cylinder 
 on the top, which are connected by necks riveted 
 to each other. The tubes in the lower boiler are 
 submerged in water, while the upper boiler is the 
 steam-room ; the draught passes under the tubular 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 229 
 
 boiler through the tubes, and returns between the 
 two boilers. It cannot be said to possess any 
 advantages over the above-named designs, as it is 
 heavy, expensive, and the steam-room is farther 
 from the fire. This has a tendency to induce con- 
 densation and a waste of fuel. 
 
 The upright, or Corliss tubular, shown on page 
 60, is in very general use, that design of boiler 
 being desirable where economy of space is an object. 
 In large manufacturing establishments they are gen- 
 erally placed in nests, with a plain cylinder in the 
 centre, surrounded by five, six, or seven tabulars on 
 the outside, which are inclosed in a wrought-iron 
 shell and surrounded with brick. 
 
 Such boilers are very efficient when new and 
 clean, but, where muddy water is used, the crown- 
 sheets are liable to burn out, and the water-legs, on 
 which they rest, rot away by dampness and the 
 action of the lime on the mortar with which the 
 foundations are made. They are very difficult and 
 expensive to repair. The locomotive boiler possesses 
 many advantages in point of strength, efficiency, and 
 evaporative capacity over any other design, and a 
 modification of it, called the dog-house, is very ex- 
 tensively used on small tug-boats and yachts — in 
 fact, all the boilers used on tugs or yachts are either 
 upright, locomotive, or dog-house. The only draw- 
 back to this latter design is, that the loss of heat by 
 radiation is very great, as it has no water-leg in front. 
 20 
 
230 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Tubulous. — The tubulous boilers, shown on page 
 225, are very efficient, safe, and economical, and 
 have maintained a reputation equal to any other 
 design in point of efficiency, durability, safety, and 
 economy for the past ten years, and have received 
 honorable mention at the Centennial Exposition, 
 held at Philadelphia in 1816, for their excellent 
 performances. 
 
 The most necessary and important features to be 
 considered in the design of a boiler or steam gener- 
 ator, may be partly enumerated as follows: They 
 must be simple in design, easy of access for clean- 
 ing or repairs, have a good circulation for the 
 water, abundant heating surface, unobstructed pas- 
 sages between the steam and water room, have a 
 large capacity, and be well proportioned for the 
 work to be performed. They should also be made 
 of the best material and in the best possible man- 
 ner, and have a wide margin of safety over any 
 pressure to which it might be subjected. In ordi- 
 nary use, it should be a quick steamer and furnish 
 dry steam, and embody sufficient steam room to 
 prevent the possibility of wire-drawing, pruning, 
 or foaming. Its parts should be so arranged as to 
 be capable of absorbing the greatest amount of the 
 heat resulting from the products of combination. 
 
 Boiler tests are very desirable and interesting, 
 inasmuch as they show what has been done, what 
 is doing now, and what may be expected in the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 231 
 
 future ; but, like experiments tried in a laboratory, 
 they never produce results similar to those that 
 take place in the factory. This is impossible to do 
 under the carefully conducted experiments, because 
 the conditions are entirely different from those which 
 exist in shops or factories. 
 
 The horse-power of steam-boilers. — The term 
 horse-power of a steam-boiler can have no definite 
 meaning, because the volume of steam that any 
 boiler will generate is simply the dynamic effect 
 of the fuel consumed. As boilers are necessary to 
 supply engines of a given capacity, as a matter of 
 convenience we must have some standard propor- 
 tion, or formula, by which to be guided in the 
 design of the boiler or generator. 
 
 In the early days of the steam-engine, one cubic 
 foot of water evaporated per hour from 212° Fah. 
 Was considered equal to one horse-power. At the 
 present time less than one-third of that amount 
 will suffice, which may be thus illustrated: The 
 constant number 200 divided by the square root 
 of the pressure, 64 pounds per square inch, is equal 
 to 25 pounds of water per horse-power per hour, 
 and for the most economical class of engines, with 
 a working pressure of 100 pounds per square inch, 
 would require an evaporation of 20 pounds of 
 water per horse-power per hour, or less than one- 
 third of what it required in " Watt's " time. 
 
 When we come to consider the evaporative ca« 
 
232 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 This cut represents the McKee & Rankin flue-boiler, 
 showing the smoke-stack, dome, flues, man-hole, plate, 
 bolt and brace ; c, c, c, c, c, show the curvilinear seams, 
 single-riveted, while the longitudiual seams shown at d, 
 d, are double-riveted, which is due to the fact that there 
 is twice as much strain on the latter as on the former. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 233 
 
 parity of any steam-boiler many features must be ex- 
 amined ; first, the design of the boiler ; second, the 
 quality of material ; third, the draught ; fourth, the 
 attendance; fifth, the condition of the boiler as to 
 cleanliness, etc. 
 
 STEAM-BOILER PERFORMANCES. 
 
 The coal required to develop a horse-power de- 
 pends on the design, circulation, conducting powers 
 of the boiler, and its management. A pound of coal 
 will evaporate 9 pounds of water, and that the engine 
 required 30 pounds of water per hour per horse- 
 power, there would be an expenditure of fuel equal 
 to 3.33 pounds per horse-power per hour. In gen- 
 eral practice, however, such economy is rarely at- 
 tained, but it has been exceeded in some special cases. 
 
 The equivalent evaporation of boilers in general 
 at the same temperature of feed-water and furnace, 
 with anthracite coal, is about 8 pounds of water per 
 pound of coal per hour. The amount of water evap- 
 orated per pound of coal is universally conceded to 
 be the proper measure of the efficiency of the boiler, 
 but, in order to compare one boiler with another, 
 they should have equally good coal, be fed with 
 water at the same temperature, and furnish steam 
 at the same pressure. 
 
 As this is impracticable in making tests, a stand- 
 ard has been accepted, to which all tests should be 
 brought for comparison. This is called the equiv- 
 20* 
 
234 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 alent evaporation from and at 212° per pound of 
 combustible ; that is, what the evaporation would 
 have been if the coal had been without ash, the feed* 
 water at boiling-point, and the steam delivered at 
 atmospheric pressure. 
 
 When boilers are to be laid up for an indefinite 
 time, it is always best to blow out the boiler, and 
 dry it thoroughly by burning a few shavings, or a 
 bundle of straw, in the furnace ; then allow the flame 
 to pass through the tubes, after which a moderate 
 quantity of sal soda should be introduced, say five 
 pounds to an ordinary sized boiler ; then fill the boiler 
 with water up to the safety-valve. This treatment 
 will preserve it from corrosion, etc. 
 
 When the water used in steam-boilers is impreg- 
 nated with mineral salts, the lips and seats of the 
 man-hole and hand-hole plates should receive a coat- 
 ing of tallow and plumbago, to prevent pitting. 
 
 Sectional boilers, for which so much was claimed 
 and from which so much was expected a few years 
 ago, seem to have almost entirely disappeared. The 
 " Weigan," " Phlegger," " Moorehouse," and others, 
 are rarely met with in steam-using establishments. 
 Though being termed safety-boilers by their invent- 
 ors, they prove to be just the reverse. The terrible 
 accidents at " Trott & Gordon's" and " Hoopes & 
 Townsend's," Philadelphia, convinced steam-users 
 that such boilers were not only unsafe, but expensive 
 and inefficient. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 235 
 
 In the general design and arrangement of such 
 boilers, flat cast-iron surfaces were embraced, which 
 is an element of danger. Besides, the connection of 
 heavy masses of cast-iron with wrought-iron tubes 
 prevented the possibility of equal expansion and 
 contraction, which is a very desirable feature in a 
 steam generator, as far as regards safety. The 
 " Harrison " sectional boiler, illustrated on page 228, 
 seems to hold its own, and, though it may not be 
 capable of withstanding heavy firing and great forc- 
 ing, it is, nevertheless, efficient and safe, for the pur- 
 pose of heating buildings with steam. It possesses 
 many features. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. 
 
 The object of a chimney is to produce a draught, 
 increase combustion, and carry off the 
 smoke and obnoxious gases. But the 
 quantity of the latter discharged into 
 the atmosphere depends materially on 
 the size of the chimney, velocity of the 
 draught, and flow and density of the 
 gases. Height and area are the only con- 
 ditions to be considered in the propor- 
 tion of chimneys ; nevertheless, design 
 and shape have their influence. 
 
 As the density of gas decreases as 
 the temperature increases, while the 
 velocity increases with a given height, 
 
236 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OAVN BOOK. 
 
 only as the square root of the density, it follows 
 that there is a temperature at which the weight of 
 gas delivered is a maximum, which is about 550° 
 above the surrounding air, all above that involving 
 loss. Temperature, however, makes so little differ- 
 ence, that at 550° the quantity is only 4 per cent, 
 greater than at 300°. 
 
 The intensity of draughts is independent of the size 
 of the chimney, and depends upon the difference in 
 the weights of the inside and outside columns of air, 
 but it is usually understood to be equivalent to a 
 column of water, which varies generally from to 2 
 inches. This variation depends on the height and 
 difference of temperature. It also varies with the 
 kind and condition of fuel used and thickness of the 
 fire. 
 
 Wood as fuel requires the least draught, and fine 
 coal the most intense ; in the latter case it requires the 
 weight of a column of water 1\ inches high, and this 
 can be attained in well-proportioned chimneys of or- 
 dinary height in localities where there is no obstruc- 
 tion. The draught for any given chimney may be 
 found by multiplying the height of the chimney 
 above the grate, in feet, by the decimal .0073 ; the 
 product will give the draught in inches of water. 
 
 Round chimneys, or funnels, as they are sometimes 
 called, produce better draught than square ones, conse- 
 quently wrought-iron chimneys are coming into very 
 general use in different parts of the country, partic- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 237 
 
 STEARN'S TUBULAR FIRE-BOX BOILER. 
 
 This cut represents the Steam's Tubular Fire-box Boil- 
 er, with base of smoke-stack, dome, pressure-gauge, safety- 
 valve, steam-pipe, whistle, gauge-cocks, glass water-gauge, 
 man-hole, fire- and ash-pit jaws, back and front legs, 
 skids, etc. 
 
238 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ularly in the New England States. A round wrought- 
 iron chimney 50 feet high would produce as good a 
 draught as a square brick chimney TO feet high, 
 although the first cost of the latter would be three 
 times that of the former. The wrought-iron chimney 
 is less durable than the brick. 
 
 The inside, or core, should increase in diameter 
 from its base, in the proportion of one brick to every 
 25 feet ; while the outside should taper about six 
 inches for every 25 feet from the bottom to the top. 
 The proper size of core for the chimney, intended for 
 any boiler or boilers, may be found by multiplying 
 the combined area of all the tubes and flues together, 
 and adding one-fifth to the result. 
 
 HOW STEAM-BOILERS ARE MADE. 
 
 The first condition to be determined in relation to 
 the construction of steam-boilers is capacity, which 
 includes diameter, length, heating surface, etc. The 
 next is the pressure to be carried, tensile strength, 
 quality of material, workmanship, resistance to rup- 
 ture, margin of safety, etc. 
 
 The foregoing facts being determined, the boiler= 
 plate may be ordered from the rolling-mill, to form 
 a ream of any diameter, or the tensile strength and 
 thickness to safely resist any given pressure, after 
 which it is laid off with template, and the rivet holes 
 centred. They are next punched, then sheared, and, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 239 
 
 in all large shops, planed on the edges, in order to 
 prevent the necessity of chipping, after which they 
 are rolled to the desired circle and diameter. 
 
 The punched sheets or reams are next fitted up, 
 which means put together and basted with rough 
 bolts, nuts, and washers, after which they are drifted 
 with tapering steel pins, for the purpose of bringing 
 the holes of the sheets in line. They are next reamed 
 out with a steel reamer, for the purpose of rendering 
 the holes parallel. 
 
 The distance between the centre of the rivets is 
 termed the pitch, which varies according to the thick- 
 ness of the plate in the diameter of the rivet. The 
 size of the latter has been approximately determined 
 by experience and experiment. There are two 
 methods of riveting boiler seams, viz., hand and 
 machine riveting. In the former the rivet is heated 
 to nearly its fusing temperature, either by gas, soft 
 coal, or charcoal, after which it is inserted in the 
 hole, upset, and riveted down, until a steam- and 
 water-tight joint is effected. 
 
 In the case of steam riveting, after the rivet is in- 
 serted in the hole, the material is headed together by 
 a die in the riveting-machine bull or ram, or what 
 other name it may be termed, which exerts pressure 
 against it varying from 50 to 100 tons per square 
 inch, after which the piston of the machine is with- 
 drawn and allowed to recoil, which gives the rivet a 
 powerful stroke, which results in a permanent set. 
 
240 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Machine riveting is very much superior to hand 
 riveting", a proof of which may be found in the fact, 
 that, when new machine work has to be altered, or 
 old work taken apart, it is more difficult to separate 
 it than it would be in the case of hand riveting. 
 This is due to the fact that the holes in the sheet, 
 and every crevice in the material, are better filled with 
 the rivet than could be effected by hand, under the 
 most favorable condition and with the best skilled 
 operatives. 
 
 After the riveting is finished, the chippers and 
 caulkers commence operations, for the purpose of 
 making the joints steam- and water-tight, after which 
 the boiler is filled with cold water, for the purpose 
 of ascertaining if there are any leaks. If any should 
 appear, the location is chalk-marked, the water run 
 out, and the seam or rivets recaulked. The tubes 
 are next inserted, and in some cases, particularly in 
 the case of locomotives, the boiler is placed under 
 steam, for the purpose of ascertaining if it is steam- 
 worthy, after which the crown dome, front, and back 
 braces are adjusted. 
 
 Locomotive or marine boilers maybe divided into 
 three sections, viz., fire-box, waste, and smoke-box. 
 Ordinary stationary tubular boilers consist of the 
 combustion chamber shell, and tubes or flues, as the 
 case may be. 
 
 A direct draught is that which escapes directly from 
 the furnace to the chimney, while a return draught 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 241 
 
 passes under the shell of the boiler, and returns 
 through the tubes or flues to the chimneys. 
 
 It will be observed that the seams of steam-boilers 
 which run parallel to the length of the boiler are 
 called the longitudinal seams, and are almost in- 
 variably double riveted, because there is twice the 
 amount of strain on them that there is on the curvi- 
 linear seams. The curvilinear are those which en- 
 circle the boiler, and which sustain only half the 
 resistance that the longitudinal seams do, and may 
 be single riveted. 
 
 SMOKE. 
 
 Very few subjects connected with steam engineer- 
 ing have attracted so much of the attention of vis- 
 ionary theorists, or on which so many vagaries have 
 been advanced, as the immense saving which would 
 be effected by the consumption of smoke. 
 
 Numerous inventions, contrivances, and arrange- 
 ments have been introduced for the purpose of con- 
 suming smoke, but they invariably failed to produce 
 satisfactory results. The combustion appliance and 
 the smoke-consuming furnace are the latest, and it. 
 has been claimed that they have successfully accom- 
 21 Q 
 
242 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 plished the desired object, and that the old adage, 
 which says " smoke in the wood and no fire," is en- 
 tirely reversed, as the proverb reads now " fire in 
 the wood and no smoke." 
 
 Now there is no such thing as a smoke-consuming 
 furnace, because smoke cannot be consumed by any 
 known mechanical arrangement, and if it could it 
 would effect no saving in fuel, because there is no 
 combustible in it that is of any value as fuel. If it 
 was established beyond argument, evasion, or denial, 
 that smoke could be successfully consumed, then we 
 could consume exhaust-steam, because 90 per cent, 
 of smoke is steam, the other 10 per cent, being color- 
 ing matter, which chemically unites with the steam 
 and gives the volume a black appearance. Smoke 
 and steam might be designated under two heads by 
 white and black steam. 
 
 The desirability of consuming smoke is urged on 
 the ground that, when large quantities of it are de- 
 livered into the atmosphere, it impregnates the air 
 with a disagreeable odor, and has a tendency to ob- 
 struct the sun's rays, darken the firmament, and 
 obstruct that light, agreeable, and genial sunshine 
 which is £0 desirable to man, birds, beasts, and ani- 
 mals, and so necessary to vegetation. 
 
 But it must be remembered that, if it were pos- 
 sible to extract the coloring matter from the smoke 
 at the point of its delivery at the top of the chimney, 
 it would fall down in black powder on the surface 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 243 
 
 beneath it, ruin clothing, obstruct vegetation, and 
 prove to be a more intolerable nuisance than in its 
 present form. 
 
 It has been demonstrated by experience and ob- 
 servation that the presence of smoke in the atmos- 
 phere, though objectionable, is not unhealthy. The 
 inhabitants of Birmingham and Swansea, England, 
 and of Pittsburgh, Pa., are just as healthy and as 
 free from epidemics as the denizens of any other 
 cities in Great Britain or the United States. 
 
 Smoke may be rarefied, so that it will be freed 
 from its black color, and escape unobserved at the 
 top of the chimney ; but this can only be accom- 
 plished by keeping the fuel on the grates evenly dis- 
 tributed, so that there will be no interstices through 
 which the cold air may enter the furnace, when, by 
 keeping the furnace at a uniform pressure, and sup- 
 plying* fresh fuel evenly, frequently, and in small 
 quantities, the smoke will assume the appearance of 
 gas or rarefied air ; but as soon as the temperature 
 of the furnace is lowered, and fuel supplied in large 
 quantities, the smoke will make its appearance again. 
 
 There has been more money lost, both in this 
 country and England, in attempts to consume smoke 
 than would be gained if the smoke from every steam- 
 boiler in the world could be consumed. Attempts 
 to consume smoke, like the attempts to substitute the 
 air-engine for the steam-engine, and the rotary for 
 the reciprocating engine, were prevalent in the days 
 of Watt, but they always produce the same results. 
 
244 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 
 SAFE WORKING INTERNAL 
 
 PRESSURES FOR 
 
 
 IRON BOILERS. 
 
 
 
 Birmingham Wire 
 
 Gauge. 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Thickness of Iron. 
 
 .375 
 
 t 
 
 .358 
 f Scant. 
 
 .340 
 ii 
 
 32" 
 
 .300 
 A 
 
 .284 
 
 9 
 3"2" 
 
 
 Dia. 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 
 In. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 External 
 
 24 
 
 180.65 
 
 172.20 
 
 163.29 
 
 143.59 
 
 135.75 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 26 
 
 166.34 
 
 158.58 
 
 150.39 
 
 132.28 
 
 125.08 
 
 
 28 
 
 154.13 
 
 146.96 
 
 139.38 
 
 122.63 
 
 115.95 
 
 
 30 
 
 143.59 
 
 136.92 
 
 129.88 
 
 114.29 
 
 108.07 
 
 
 32 
 
 134.40 
 
 128.17 
 
 121.58 
 
 107.01 
 
 101.20 
 
 
 34 
 
 126.31 
 
 120.47 
 
 114.29 
 
 100.60 
 
 95.14 
 
 
 36 
 
 119.15 
 
 113.64 
 
 107.81 
 
 94.92 
 
 89.77 
 
 
 38 
 
 112.75 
 
 107.54 
 
 102.04 
 
 89:84 
 
 84.98 
 
 
 40 
 
 107.01 
 
 102.07 
 
 96.85 
 
 85.28 
 
 80.67 
 
 
 42 
 
 101.81 
 
 97.12 
 
 92.11 
 
 81.16 
 
 76.77 
 
 Longitudinal 
 
 44 
 
 97.11 
 
 92.63 
 
 87.90 
 
 77.42 
 
 73.24 
 
 Seams, 
 
 46 
 
 92.82 
 
 88.54 
 
 84.02 
 
 74.01 
 
 70.01 
 
 Single 
 
 48 
 
 88.89 
 
 84.80 
 
 80.47 
 
 70.89 
 
 67.06 
 
 Riveted. 
 
 50 
 
 85.28 
 
 81.36 
 
 77.21 
 
 68.02 
 
 64.35 
 
 
 52 
 
 81.95 
 
 78.18 
 
 74.20 
 
 65.37 
 
 61.84 
 
 
 54 
 
 78.87 
 
 75.25 
 
 71.42 
 
 62.92 
 
 59.53 
 
 
 56 
 
 76.02 
 
 72.53 
 
 68.84 
 
 60.65 
 
 57.38 
 
 
 58 
 
 73.36 
 
 70.00 
 
 66.43 
 
 58.54 
 
 55.38 
 
 
 60 
 
 70.89 
 
 67.63 
 
 64.19 
 
 56.57 
 
 53.52 
 
 It will be noticed that if a boiler was 24 inches 
 in diameter and three-eighths of an inch thick, and 
 single riveted, the safe working pressure would be 
 180.65 pounds; while if it was 80 inches in diame- 
 ter, and the same thickness of plate, the safe work- 
 ing pressure would be 53 pounds. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 245 
 
 TABL E— (Continued) 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 THE 
 
 SAFE WOEKING INTEENAL PEESSUEES FOR 
 
 
 
 IEON BOILEES. 
 
 Birmingham 
 Wire Gauge. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Thickness 
 
 .259 
 
 .238 
 
 .220 
 
 .203 
 
 .180 
 
 .165 
 
 of Iron. 
 
 i Full. 
 
 ^ Scant. 
 
 h 
 
 & Full. 
 
 3 6 2Sca't. 
 
 3 5 2FU11. 
 
 
 Dia. 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 sq. in. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 External 
 
 24 
 
 123.53 
 
 113.31 
 
 104.58 
 
 96.36 
 
 85.28 
 
 78.07 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 26 
 
 113.84 
 
 104.44 
 
 96.40 
 
 88.83 
 
 78.63 
 
 71.99 
 
 
 28 
 
 105.55 
 
 96.85 
 
 89.40 
 
 82.39 
 
 72.94 
 
 66.79 
 
 
 30 
 
 98.39 
 
 90.29 
 
 83.36 
 
 76.83 
 
 68.02 
 
 62.29 
 
 
 32 
 
 92.14 
 
 84.56 
 
 78.07 
 
 71.96 
 
 63.72 
 
 58.35 
 
 
 34 
 
 86.64 
 
 79.51 
 
 73.42 
 
 67.68 
 
 59.93 
 
 54.89 
 
 
 36 
 
 81.75 
 
 75.04 
 
 69.29 
 
 63.88 
 
 56.57 
 
 51.81 
 
 
 38 
 
 77.39 
 
 71.04 
 
 65.60 
 
 60.48 
 
 53.56 
 
 49.06 
 
 
 40 
 
 72.47 
 
 67.44 
 
 62.29 
 
 57.42 
 
 50.86 
 
 46.58 
 
 
 42 
 
 69.93 
 
 64.19 
 
 59.29 
 
 54.66 
 
 48.41 
 
 44.35 
 
 
 44 
 
 66.71 
 
 61.24 
 
 56.57 
 
 52.15 
 
 46.20 
 
 42.32 
 
 Long. 
 
 46 
 
 63.78 
 
 58.55 
 
 54.08 
 
 49.87 
 
 44.17 
 
 40.46 
 
 Seams, 
 
 48 
 
 61.09 
 
 56.09 
 
 51.81 
 
 47.77 
 
 42.32 
 
 38.77 
 
 Single 
 
 50 
 
 58.62 
 
 53.82 
 
 49.72 
 
 45.84 
 
 40.61 
 
 37.21 
 
 Riveted. 
 
 52 
 
 56.35 
 
 51.74 
 
 47.79 
 
 44.07 
 
 39.04 
 
 35.77 
 
 
 54 
 
 54.24 
 
 49.80 
 
 46.00 
 
 42.42 
 
 37.58 
 
 34.43 
 
 
 56 
 
 52.28 
 
 48.01 
 
 44.35 
 
 40.90 
 
 36.23 
 
 33.20 
 
 
 58 
 
 50.46 
 
 46.34 
 
 42.81 
 
 39.48 
 
 34.98 
 
 32.04 
 
 
 60 
 
 48.77 
 
 44.78 
 
 41.37 
 
 38.15 
 
 33.80 
 
 30.97 
 
 It will be seen by the above table that if a boiler 
 was made of No. 8 iron, and 80 inches in diameter, 
 it would be safe only under a pressure of 23 pounds. 
 If a partial vacuum could be produced in such a 
 boiler, it would be in danger of collapsing under the 
 pressure of the atmosphere on its external surface. 
 21* 
 
246 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE- 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 
 SAFE WORKING INTERNAL 
 
 PRESSURES POK 
 
 
 IRON BOILERS. 
 
 
 Birmingham Wire 
 Gauge. 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Thickness of Iron. 
 
 .375 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 .358 
 | Scant. 
 
 .340 
 i i 
 
 32 
 
 .300 
 
 .284 
 
 9 
 32 
 
 
 Dia. 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 
 In. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 External 
 
 24 
 
 225.81 
 
 215.26 
 
 204.12 
 
 179.49 
 
 169.67 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 26 
 
 207.93 
 
 198.23 
 
 187.91 
 
 165.35 
 
 156.34 
 
 
 28 
 
 192.66 
 
 183.70 
 
 174.23 
 
 153.28 
 
 144.94 
 
 
 30 
 
 179.49 
 
 171.15 
 
 162.35 
 
 142.86 
 
 135.09 
 
 
 32 
 
 168.00 
 
 160.21 
 
 151.98 
 
 133.76 
 
 126.49 
 
 
 34 
 
 157.89 
 
 150.58 
 
 142.86 
 
 125.75 
 
 118.93 
 
 
 36 
 
 148.94 
 
 142.05 
 
 134.77 
 
 118.64 
 
 112.21 
 
 
 38 
 
 140.94 
 
 134.43 
 
 127.55 
 
 112.30 
 
 106.22 
 
 
 40 
 
 133.76 
 
 127.58 
 
 121.06 
 
 106.60 
 
 100.83 
 
 Longitudinal 
 
 42 
 
 127.27 
 
 121.40 
 
 115.20 
 
 101.45 
 
 95.96 
 
 Seams, 
 
 44 
 
 121.39 
 
 115.79 
 
 109.88 
 
 96.77 
 
 91.55 
 
 Double 
 
 46 
 
 116.02 
 
 110.68 
 
 105.03 
 
 92.51 
 
 87.52 
 
 Eiveted, 
 
 48 
 
 111.11 
 
 106.00 
 
 100.59 
 
 88.61 
 
 83.83 
 
 Curvilinear 
 
 50 
 
 106.19 
 
 101.70 
 
 96.51 
 
 85.02 
 
 80.43 
 
 Seams, 
 
 52 
 
 102.44 
 
 97.73 
 
 92.75 
 
 81.71 
 
 77.33 
 
 Single 
 
 54 
 
 98.59 
 
 94.10 
 
 89.27 
 
 78.69 
 
 74.41 
 
 Eiveted. 
 
 56 
 
 95.02 
 
 90.66 
 
 86.04 
 
 75.81 
 
 71.73 
 
 
 58 
 
 91.70 
 
 87.49 
 
 83.04 
 
 73.17 
 
 69.23 
 
 
 60 
 
 88.61 
 
 84.54 
 
 80.24 
 
 70.71 
 
 66.90 
 
 It will be observed by the above table that if a 
 boiler was 24 inches in diameter, made of three- 
 eighths of an inch iron and double riveted, its safe 
 working pressure would be 225.81 pounds; while if 
 the same boiler was 80 inches in diameter, its safe 
 working pressure would be only 45.62 pounds. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 247 
 
 TABL E-( 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 
 SAFE WORKING INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON 
 
 BOILERS. 
 
 Birmingham 
 Wire Gauge. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Thickness 
 
 .259 
 
 i 
 Full. 
 
 .238 
 
 .220 
 
 .203 
 
 A 
 
 Full. 
 
 .180 
 
 .165 
 
 of Iron. 
 
 Scant. 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 Scant. 
 
 A 
 
 Full. 
 
 
 Dia. 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 lbs. per 
 
 
 In. 
 
 sq. m. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 sq. in. 
 
 External 
 
 24 
 
 154.42 
 
 141.64 
 
 130.73 
 
 120.45 
 
 106.60 
 
 97.59 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 26 
 
 142.30 
 
 130.54 
 
 120.50 
 
 111.04 
 
 98.21 
 
 89.99 
 
 
 28 
 
 131.94 
 
 121.06 
 
 111.76 
 
 102.99 
 
 91.17 
 
 83.48 
 
 
 30 
 
 122.99 
 
 112.86 
 
 104.19 
 
 96.03 
 
 85.02 
 
 77.86 
 
 
 32 
 
 116.32 
 
 105.70 
 
 97.59 
 
 89.95 
 
 79.65 
 
 72.94 
 
 
 34 
 
 108.30 
 
 99.39 
 
 91.78 
 
 84.60 
 
 74.91 
 
 68.61 
 
 
 36 
 
 102.19 
 
 93.80 
 
 86.61 
 
 79.84 
 
 70.71 
 
 64.76 
 
 
 38 
 
 96.74 
 
 88.80 
 
 82.00 
 
 75.60 
 
 66.95 
 
 61.32 
 
 
 40 
 
 91.84 
 
 84.30 
 
 77.86 
 
 71.78 
 
 63.57 
 
 58.23 
 
 
 42 
 
 87.41 
 
 80.24 
 
 74.11 
 
 68.33 
 
 60.52 
 
 55.44 
 
 
 44 
 
 83.39 
 
 76.56 
 
 70.71 
 
 65.19 
 
 57.75 
 
 52.90 
 
 Long. 
 
 46 
 
 79.72 
 
 73.19 
 
 67.60 
 
 62.33 
 
 55.22 
 
 50.58 
 
 Seams, 
 
 48 
 
 76.37 
 
 70.11 
 
 64.76 
 
 59.71 
 
 52.90 
 
 48.46 
 
 Double 
 
 50 
 
 73.28 
 
 67.28 
 
 62.11 
 
 57.31 
 
 50.77 
 
 46.51 
 
 Riveted. 
 
 52 
 
 70.43 
 
 64.67 
 
 59.74 
 
 55.08 
 
 48.80 
 
 44.71 
 
 Curvil. 
 
 54 
 
 67.80 
 
 62.25 
 
 57.51 
 
 53.40 
 
 46.98 
 
 43.04 
 
 Seams, 
 
 56 
 
 65.35 
 
 60.01 
 
 55.44 
 
 51.12 
 
 45.29 
 
 41.50 
 
 Single 
 
 58 
 
 63.07 
 
 57.92 
 
 53.51 
 
 49.35 
 
 43.72 
 
 40.06 
 
 Riveted. 
 
 60 
 
 60.96 
 
 55.98 
 
 51.71 
 
 47.69 
 
 42.25 
 
 38.71 
 
 It will be understood in the above table that, if a 
 boiler was 24 inches in diameter, made of No. 6 iron 
 and double riveted, its safe working pressure would 
 be 120.45 pounds ; while if the diameter was 80 
 inches, the safe working pressure would be only 35. 11 
 pounds, the bursting pressure in all cases being taken 
 at five times the safe working pressure. 
 
248 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE DIMINUTION IN THE TENACITY OP WROUGHT- 
 IRON WHEN EXPOSED TO HIGH TEMPERATURES. 
 
 
 
 Diminution 
 
 
 
 Diminution 
 
 c. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 per cent, of 
 Max. Tenacity 
 
 C. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 per cent, of 
 Max. Tenacity 
 
 
 
 
 
 271° 
 
 520° 
 
 0.0738 
 
 440° 
 
 
 0.2010 
 
 299 
 
 
 0.0869 
 
 500 
 
 932° 
 
 0.3324 
 
 313 
 
 
 0.0899 
 
 508 
 
 
 0.3593 
 
 316 
 
 
 0.0964 
 
 554 
 
 
 0.4478 
 
 332 
 
 630 
 
 0.1047 
 
 599 
 
 
 0.5514 
 
 350 
 
 
 0.1155 
 
 624 
 
 1154 
 
 0.6000 
 
 378 
 
 
 0.1436 
 
 626 
 
 
 0.6011 
 
 389 
 
 732 
 
 0.1491 
 
 642 
 
 
 0.6352 
 
 390 
 
 
 0.1535 
 
 669 
 
 
 0.6622 
 
 408 
 
 
 0.1589 
 
 674 
 
 1245 
 
 0.6715 
 
 410 
 
 
 0.1627 
 
 708 
 
 1306 
 
 0.7001 
 
 The contraction of a wrought-iron rod in cooling 
 is about equivalent to 7 q Joir °f * ts length from a de- 
 crease of 15° Fah., and the strain thus induced is 
 about one ton for every square inch of sectional area 
 in the bar. 
 
 Fop a rod of the lengths given below, the contrac- 
 tion will be as follows : 
 Length of rod, in feet, 10 20 30 40 50 75 100 150 
 
 f 15° .012 .024 .036 .048 .060 .090 .120 .180 
 
 totoS^for 1 100 ° - 080 - 160 - 240 - 320 - 400 - 600 - 800 1 - 200 
 ( 150° .120 .240 .360 .480 .600 .900 1.200 1.800 
 
 Contraction and expansion being equal, the press- 
 ure per square inch induced by heating or cooling is 
 as follows : 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 249 
 
 Fop temperatures varying by 15° Fah. : 
 
 Variation, 15 30 45 60 75 105 120 150 degrees. 
 Pressure, 12345 7 8 10 tons. 
 
 Stoney gives 14.4 Fah. as equivalent to a pressure 
 of one ton per square inch for wrought-iron, and 27 
 Fah. for cast-iron. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE LINEAR EXPANSION OP DIFFERENT METALS 
 BY HEAT FOR EACH DEGREE FAH. 
 
 Zinc . 
 
 . 0.00294 
 
 
 
 Lead 
 
 . 0.00284 
 
 
 
 Tin . 
 
 . 0.00222 
 
 
 
 Copper, yellow 
 
 . 0.00188 
 
 
 
 Copper, red 
 
 . 0.00171 
 
 
 
 Forged iron * . 
 
 . 0.00122 
 
 .0000122 
 
 .00000677 
 
 Steel f 
 
 . 0.00114 
 
 .0000114 
 
 .00000633 
 
 Cast-iron * 
 
 . 0.00111 
 
 .0000111 
 
 .00000616 
 
 Fop a change of 100° Fah., a bar of iron 1475' 
 long will extend one foot. Similarly, a bar 100 feet 
 long will extend .0678 foot, or .8136 inch. 
 
 According to the experiments of Du Long and 
 Petit, we have the mean expansion of iron, copper, 
 and platinum, between 0° and 100° C, and 0° and 
 300° C, as below: 
 
 From 0° to 100° C. From 0° to 300° G 
 
 Iron 0.00180 0.00146 
 
 Copper 0.00171 0.00188 
 
 Platinum 0.00884 0.00918 
 
 * Laplace and Lavoisier. 
 
 t Ramsden. 
 
250 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The law for the expansion of iron, steel, and cast, 
 iron at very high temperatures, according to Rin* 
 man, is as follows : 
 
 
 From 25° to 525° C. 
 
 
 
 Bed Heat = 500° C. 
 
 For 1° C. 1° Fah. 
 
 Iron 
 
 . . .00714 
 
 .0000143 = .0000080 
 
 Steel . 
 
 .01071 
 
 .0000214 = .0000119 
 
 Cast-iron 
 
 .01250 
 From 25° to 1300°. 
 
 .0000250 = .0000139 
 
 
 Nascent White = 1275° C. 
 
 Iron 
 
 .01250 
 
 .00000981 = .00000545 
 
 Steel . 
 
 .01787 
 
 .00001400 = .00000777 
 
 Cast-iron 
 
 .02144 
 
 .00001680 = .00000933 
 
 From 500° to 1500°. 
 Dull Red to White Heat = 1000° C. 
 Difference. 
 Iron . . . .00535 .00000535= .0000030 
 
 Steel . . . .00714 .00000714= .0000040 
 
 Cast-iron . . .00893 .00000893= .0000050 
 
 RATIO OF EXPANSION IN HUNDRED PARTS, ASSUMING FORGE 
 IRON TO EXPAND BETWEEN 0° AND 100° C. = .00122. 
 
 From 0° to 100°. 25° to 525°. 
 
 Iron . 100 per ct. 117 per ct. 
 Steel . 93 " 175 " 
 Cast-iron 91 " 205 " 
 
 25° to 1300°. 500 to 1500°. 
 
 80 per ct. 44 per ct. 
 
 114 " 58 " 
 
 137 " 73 " 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS, 
 
 IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
 Materials. Tension. 
 
 Steel plates, English 78,000 
 
 " " American 70,000 
 
 " " " 94,450 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 251 
 
 Materials. Tension. 
 
 Steel plates, Bessemer 98,600 
 
 tool ..... 112,000 
 
 " wire 225,000 
 
 " rolled and hammered, ingots .... 125,000 
 
 "bar 120,700 
 
 " " tempered ....... 214,400 
 
 . " Chrome 180,000 
 
 " round bars 95,558 
 
 " plates 85,792 
 
 " Hematite 72,285 
 
 " Krupps . 93,229 
 
 11 Fagersta 87,718 
 
 Wrought-iron, bars 65,520 
 
 . 56,000 
 
 charcoal bars 63,616 
 
 Cast-iron 
 
 cold rolled, Staffordshire 
 Low Moor plates 
 
 Amer: 
 
 can boiler plate 
 
 bar 
 
 " mean 
 
 " good . . . 
 " refined . 
 " best . 
 wire, unannealed . 
 
 " annealed 
 rivet rods .... 
 
 large forgings 35,000 
 
 average 16,500 
 
 superior quality 18,000 
 
 with wrought scrap .... 28,000 
 average, English 15,299 
 
 85,030 
 55,530 
 60,000 
 57,639 
 
 52,000 
 57,500 
 44,800 
 60,000 
 70,000 
 76,160 
 75,000 
 45^000 
 65)000 
 
252 THE YOtJNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Materials. Tension. 
 
 Cast-iron, pigs . . . . ... . 12,880 
 
 1st melting 20,877 
 
 2d 24,774 
 
 3d ...... 26,790 
 
 4th " 27,888 
 
 " 38 samples from a Rodman gun . . 37,811 
 
 " gun metal 60,000 
 
 Copper, wrought 33,600 
 
 cast 22,557 
 
 20,000 
 
 " " 19,000 
 
 sheet 30,000 
 
 " wire 60,000 
 
 bolts 35,840 
 
 Gun metal, bronze, average 33,000 
 
 ■ «■'■■« 36,000 
 
 Aluminum " 90 copper, 1 aluminum . . 73,181 
 
 Phosphor, bronze, average 34,465 
 
 Brass, cast 18,000 
 
 " wire, annealed 49,000 
 
 " hard 80,000 
 
 Antimony 1,000 
 
 Bismuth 3,200 
 
 Gold, cast 20,000 
 
 " wire 30,000 
 
 Silver, cast 41,000 
 
 " wire at 32° F., . . . . . . 40,320 
 
 " 212° R, . . ... . . 33,152 
 
 " 392° F., 26,432 
 
 Tin, cast 4,600 
 
 "_"-..' 4,725 
 
 " wire . 7,000 
 
 Lead, cast . ' 1,800 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 253 
 
 Materials. 
 
 
 Tension. 
 
 Lead, sheet 
 
 
 . 1,925 
 
 " pipe . 
 
 
 . 2,240 
 
 Zinc, cast . 
 
 
 . 2,990 
 
 " sheet 
 
 
 . 16,000 
 
 " wire . 
 
 TABLE 
 
 . 22,000 
 
 SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SUR- 
 FACE WHICH EXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN TO BE CAPABLE OF 
 EVAPORATING THE NECESSARY QUANTITY OF WATER, TO 
 DEVELOP A HORSE-POWER UNDER ORDINARY CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 Relative 
 
 Type of Boiler. 
 
 Sq. ft. for 
 
 for each 
 
 Relative 
 
 Rapidity 
 of Steam- 
 
 one H. P. 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 Economy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing. 
 
 Flue . 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 .4 to .5 
 
 .80 
 
 .26 
 
 Plain cylinder . 
 
 8 to 10 
 
 .3 
 
 .60 
 
 .19 
 
 Tubular . 
 
 16 to 20 
 
 25 
 
 .90 
 
 .51 
 
 "Water tube 
 
 12 to 14 
 
 .4 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 Locomotive 
 
 16 to 25 
 
 .275 
 
 .96 
 
 .70 
 
 Vertical tubular 
 
 14 to 20 
 
 .25 
 
 .80 
 
 .65 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere on the outside of a 
 steam-boiler is equal to 14.T pounds per square inch, 
 consequently it balances an equal steam pressure on 
 the inside. If the air was exhausted from the in- 
 side of the boiler, and a partial vacuum produced, 
 the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside would 
 have a tendency to produce collapse. 
 
 The ordinary steam-gauge employed in conneo- 
 22 
 
254 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 tion with steam-boilers does not record pressure 
 below that of the atmosphere, consequently if the 
 pressure on the gauge represents ten pounds per 
 square inch, the actual pressure would be 24. 7 pounds. 
 
 TABSLE 
 
 SHOWING THE INCREASE OF SENSIBLE HEAT AND THE DE- 
 CREASE OP LATENT HEAT, ACCORDING TO PRESSURE, AND 
 VICE VERSA. 
 
 'Steam Pressure. 
 
 Sensible Heat. 
 
 Latent Heat. 
 
 Relative Volume. 
 
 15 lbs. 
 
 212° 
 
 966.2° 
 
 1669 cubic feet. 
 
 30 " 
 
 251° 
 
 939.0° 
 
 881 " 
 
 45 " 
 
 275° 
 
 922.7° 
 
 608 " 
 
 60 " 
 
 294° 
 
 909.2° 
 
 467 " " 
 
 75 " 
 
 309° 
 
 898.5° 
 
 381 " " 
 
 90 " 
 
 320° 
 
 891.3° 
 
 323 " 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that tempera- 
 ture and pressure are constant factors, and the sen- 
 sible and latent heat are nearly so, but the volume 
 varies according to pressure. Steam at a pressure of 
 15 pounds per square inch has a volume of 1669 
 cubic feet, while at 90 pounds the volume is reduced 
 to 323 cubic feet, for every cubic foot of water em- 
 ployed. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 25^ 
 
 OiOOiOWOOiO 
 
 888 
 
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 Saturated is steam which is saturated with the 
 water from which it was generated. 
 
256 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 
 till 
 
 9* 
 
 
 cdo^c5i>irf«D«di>o5c4o»i>i>adc5cot" 
 
 CCCO(MIM(M<NIN(NlM(N<MrHr-tr-(r-(rHrHi2 
 
 
 
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 Superheated is steam which has been admitted to 
 a superheater and receives additional heat and elas- 
 ticity by being dried or relieved of its moisture. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 257 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE ELASTICITY, TEMPERATURE, VOLUME, AND 
 VELOCITY, WITH WHICH STEAM WOULD ESCAPE INTO THE 
 ATMOSPHERE, AT A PRESSURE OF FROM 14.7 POUNDS PER 
 SQUARE INCH, 212° FAH., TO 441 POUNDS TO 426.3° FAH., 
 ABOVE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 Inches of 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Press, above 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 
 Velocity of) 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Square Inch 
 
 Atmosphere 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 Escape. 
 
 30.00 
 
 14.70 
 
 0. 
 
 212. ° 
 
 1700 
 
 
 30.60 
 
 15.00 
 
 
 212.8 
 
 1669 
 
 
 31.62 
 
 15.50 
 
 0.8 
 
 214.5 
 
 1618 
 
 
 32.64 
 
 16.00 
 
 1.3 
 
 216.3 
 
 1573 
 
 
 33.66 
 
 16.50 
 
 
 218. 
 
 1530 
 
 
 34.68 
 
 17.00 
 
 2.3 
 
 219.6 
 
 1488 
 
 
 35.70 
 
 17.50 
 
 
 221.2 
 
 1440 
 
 
 36.72 
 
 18.00 
 
 3.3 
 
 222.7 
 
 1411 
 
 
 37.74 
 
 18.50 
 
 
 224.2 
 
 1377 
 
 874 
 
 38.76 
 
 19.00 
 
 4.3 
 
 225.6 
 
 1343 
 
 
 39.78 
 
 19.50 
 
 
 227.1 
 
 1312 
 
 
 40.80 
 
 20.00 
 
 5.3 
 
 228.5 
 
 1281 
 
 
 41.82 
 
 20.50 
 
 
 229.9 
 
 1253 
 
 
 42.84 
 
 21.00 
 
 6.3 
 
 231.2 
 
 1225 
 
 
 43.86 
 
 21.50 
 
 
 232.5 
 
 1199 
 
 
 44.88 
 
 22.00 
 
 7.3 
 
 233.8 
 
 1174 
 
 1135 
 
 45.90 
 
 22.50 
 
 
 235.1 
 
 1150 
 
 
 46.92 
 
 23.00 
 
 8.3 
 
 236.3 
 
 1127 
 
 
 47.94 
 
 23.50 
 
 
 237.5 
 
 1105 
 
 
 48.96 
 
 24.00 
 
 9.3 
 
 238.7 
 
 1084 
 
 
 49.98 
 
 24.50 
 
 
 239.9 
 
 1064 
 
 
 51.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 10.3 
 
 241. 
 
 1044 
 
 
 53.04 
 
 26.00 
 
 11.3 
 
 243.3 
 
 1007 
 
 1295 
 
 55.08 
 
 27. 
 
 12.3 
 
 245.5 
 
 973 
 
 
 57.12 
 
 28. 
 
 13.3 
 
 247.6 
 
 941 
 
 
 59.16 
 
 29. 
 
 14.3 
 
 249.6 
 
 911 
 
 1407 
 
 61.20 
 
 30. 
 
 15.3 
 
 251.6 
 
 883 
 
 
 63.24 
 
 31. 
 
 16.3 
 
 253.6 
 
 857 
 
 
 65.28 
 
 32. 
 
 17.3 
 
 255.5 
 
 833 
 
 
 67.32 
 
 33. 
 
 18.3 
 
 257.3 
 
 810 
 
 1491 
 
 69.96 
 
 34. 
 
 10.3 
 
 259.1 
 
 788 
 
 
 71.40 
 
 35. 
 
 20.3 
 
 260.9 
 
 767 
 
 
 22 -> 
 
258 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 —(Continued). 
 
 
 Inches of 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Press, ahove 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Velocity of 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Square Inch 
 
 Atrnosphex - e 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 Escape. 
 
 73.44 
 
 36. 
 
 21.3 
 
 262.6° 
 
 748 
 
 
 75.48 
 
 37. 
 
 22.3 
 
 264.3 
 
 729 
 
 1550 
 
 77.52 
 
 38. 
 
 23.3 
 
 265.9 
 
 712 
 
 
 79.56 
 
 39. 
 
 24.3 
 
 367.5 
 
 695 
 
 
 81.60 
 
 40. 
 
 25.3 
 
 269.1 
 
 679 
 
 1600 
 
 83.64 
 
 41. 
 
 26.3 
 
 270.6 
 
 664 
 
 
 85.68 
 
 42. 
 
 27.3 
 
 272.1 
 
 649 
 
 
 87.72 
 
 43. 
 
 28.3 
 
 273.6 
 
 635 
 
 
 89.76 
 
 44. 
 
 29.3 
 
 275. 
 
 622 
 
 1652 
 
 91.80 
 
 45. 
 
 30.3 
 
 276.4 
 
 610 
 
 
 93.84 
 
 46. 
 
 31.3 
 
 277.8 
 
 598 
 
 
 : 95.88 
 
 47. 
 
 32.3 
 
 279.2 
 
 586 
 
 
 97.92 
 
 48. 
 
 33.3 
 
 280.5 
 
 575 
 
 1690 
 
 i 99.96 
 
 49. 
 
 34.3 
 
 281.9 
 
 564 
 
 
 102.00 
 
 50. 
 
 35.3 
 
 283.2 
 
 554 
 
 
 104.04 
 
 51. 
 
 36.3 
 
 284.4 
 
 544 
 
 1720 
 
 106.08 
 
 52. 
 
 37.3 
 
 285.7 
 
 534 
 
 
 108.12 
 
 53. 
 
 38.3 
 
 286.9 
 
 525 
 
 
 110.16 
 
 54. 
 
 39.3 
 
 288.1 
 
 516 
 
 
 112.20 
 
 55. 
 
 40.3 
 
 289.3 
 
 508 
 
 1750 
 
 114.24 
 
 56. 
 
 41.3 
 
 290.5 
 
 500 
 
 
 116.28 
 
 57. 
 
 42.3 
 
 291.7 
 
 492 
 
 
 118.32 
 
 58. 
 
 43.3 
 
 292.9 
 
 484 
 
 1774 
 
 120.36 
 
 59. 
 
 44.3 
 
 294.2 
 
 477 
 
 
 122.40 
 
 60. 
 
 45.3 
 
 295.6 
 
 470 
 
 
 124.44 
 
 61. 
 
 46.3 
 
 296.9 
 
 463 
 
 
 126.48 
 
 62. 
 
 47.3 
 
 298.1 
 
 456 
 
 
 128.52 
 
 63. 
 
 48.3 
 
 299.2 
 
 449 
 
 
 130.66 
 
 64. 
 
 49.3 
 
 300.3 
 
 443 
 
 
 132.60 
 
 65. 
 
 50.3 
 
 301.3 
 
 437 
 
 
 134.64 
 
 66. 
 
 51.3 
 
 302.4 . 
 
 431 
 
 1816 
 
 136.68 
 
 67. 
 
 52.3 
 
 303.4 
 
 425 
 
 
 138.72 
 
 68. 
 
 53.3 
 
 304.4 
 
 419 
 
 
 140.76 
 
 69. 
 
 54.3 
 
 305.4 
 
 414 
 
 
 142.80 
 
 70. 
 
 55.3 
 
 306.4 
 
 408 
 
 
 144.84 
 
 71. 
 
 56.3 
 
 307.4 
 
 403 
 
 
 146.88 
 
 72. 
 
 57.3 
 
 308.4 
 
 398 
 
 
 148.92 
 
 73] 
 
 5S.3 
 
 309.3 
 
 393 
 
 1850 
 
 150.96 
 
 74. 
 
 59.3 
 
 310.3 
 
 388 
 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 259 
 
 
 TABL ~&— (Continued). 
 
 
 Inches of 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Press, above 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 
 Velocity of 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Square Inch 
 
 Atmosphere 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 Escape. 
 
 153.02 
 
 75. 
 
 60.3 
 
 311.2° 
 
 383 
 
 
 155.06 
 
 76. 
 
 61.3 
 
 312.2 
 
 379 
 
 
 157.10 
 
 77. 
 
 62.3 
 
 313.1 
 
 374 
 
 
 159.14 
 
 78. 
 
 63.3 
 
 314. 
 
 370 
 
 
 161.18 
 
 79. 
 
 64.3 
 
 314.9 
 
 366 
 
 
 163.22 
 
 80. 
 
 65.3 
 
 315.8 
 
 362 
 
 
 165.26 
 
 81. 
 
 66.3 
 
 316.7 
 
 358 
 
 
 167.80 
 
 82. 
 
 67.3 
 
 317.7 
 
 354 
 
 
 169.34 
 
 83. 
 
 68.3 
 
 318.4 
 
 350 
 
 
 171.38 
 
 84. 
 
 69.3 
 
 319.3 
 
 346 
 
 
 173.42 
 
 85. 
 
 70.3 
 
 320.1 
 
 342 
 
 
 183.62 
 
 90. 
 
 75.3 
 
 324.3 
 
 325 
 
 1904 
 
 193.82 
 
 95. 
 
 80.3 
 
 328.2 
 
 310 
 
 
 203.99 
 
 100. 
 
 85.3 
 
 332. 
 
 295 
 
 
 214.19 
 
 105. 
 
 90.3 
 
 335.8 
 
 282 
 
 1950 
 
 224.39 
 
 110. 
 
 95.3 
 
 339.2 
 
 271 
 
 
 234.59 
 
 115. 
 
 100.3 
 
 342.7 
 
 259 
 
 
 244.79 
 
 120. 
 
 105.3 
 
 345.8 
 
 251 
 
 1980 
 
 254.99 
 
 125. 
 
 110.3 
 
 349.1 
 
 240 
 
 
 265.19 
 
 130. 
 
 115.3 
 
 352.1 
 
 233 
 
 
 275.39 
 
 135. 
 
 120.3 
 
 355. 
 
 224 
 
 2006 
 
 285.59 
 
 140. 
 
 125.3 
 
 357.9 
 
 218 
 
 
 295.79 
 
 145. 
 
 130.3 
 
 360.6 
 
 210 
 
 
 306. 
 
 150. 
 
 135.3 
 
 363.4 
 
 205 
 
 2029 
 
 316.19 
 
 155. 
 
 140.3 
 
 366. 
 
 198 
 
 
 326.29 
 
 160. 
 
 145.3 
 
 368.7 
 
 193 
 
 
 336.59 
 
 165. 
 
 150.3 
 
 371.1 
 
 187 
 
 
 346.79 
 
 170. 
 
 155.3 
 
 373.6 
 
 183 
 
 
 357. 
 
 175. 
 
 160.3 
 
 376. 
 
 178 
 
 
 367.2 
 
 180. 
 
 165.3 
 
 378.4 
 
 174 
 
 
 377.1 
 
 185. 
 
 170.3 
 
 380.6 
 
 169 
 
 2074 
 
 387.6 
 
 190. 
 
 175.3 
 
 382.9 
 
 166 
 
 
 397.8 
 
 195. 
 
 180.3 
 
 384.1 
 
 161 
 
 
 408. 
 
 200. 
 
 185.3 
 
 387.3 
 
 158 
 
 
 44S.8 
 
 220. 
 
 205.3 
 
 392. 
 
 
 2109 
 
 524.28 
 
 257. 
 
 242.3 
 
 406. 
 
 
 2136 
 
 599.76 
 
 294. 
 
 279.3 
 
 418. 
 
 
 2159 
 
 848.68 
 
 367. 
 
 352.3 
 
 429. 
 
 
 2196 
 
 889.64 
 
 441. 
 
 426.3 
 
 457. 
 
 
 2226 
 
260 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE VELOCITY WITH WHICH STEAM WILL ESCAPE 
 INTO THE ATMOSPHERE AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES FROM 
 1 TO 130 POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
 
 Pressure above 
 the Atmosphere. 
 
 Velocity of Es- 
 cape per 
 Second. 
 
 Pressure above 
 the Atmosphere. 
 
 Velocity of Es- 
 cape per 
 Second. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 1 
 
 540 
 
 50 
 
 1,736 
 
 2 
 
 698 
 
 60 
 
 1,777 
 
 3 
 
 814 
 
 70 
 
 1,810 
 
 4 
 
 905 
 
 80 
 
 1,835 
 
 5 
 
 981 
 
 90 
 
 1,857 
 
 10 
 
 1,232 
 
 100 
 
 1,875 
 
 20 
 
 1,476 
 
 110 
 
 1,889 
 
 30 
 
 1,601 
 
 120 
 
 1,900 
 
 40 
 
 1,681 
 
 130 
 
 1,909 
 
 It will be observed from the above table, that 
 steam, at a pressure of 1 pound per square inch 
 above atmosphere, will escape through an aperture 
 at the rate of 540 feet per second, and that steam at 
 130 pounds will escape with a velocity of nearly 2000 
 feet per second. 
 
 A cubic foot of water generated into steam at one 
 pound pressure per square inch above the atmos- 
 phere, will have a volume of nearly 1700 cubic feet 
 Steam at this pressure will flow into the atmosphere 
 with a velocity of 540 feet per second. Suppose the 
 steam was generated in 5 minutes, or 300 seconds, 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 261 
 
 and that the area of an orifice to allow its escape 
 as fast as it is generated is required, then 1100 di- 
 vided by 540 x by 300, will give the area of the ori- 
 fice in square inches. 
 
 If the same quantity of water was generated 
 into steam at a pressure of 50 pounds per square 
 inch, it would have a volume of 508 cubic feet, and 
 would flow into the atmosphere at a velocity of 1136 
 feet per second. The area required to allow this 
 steam to escape in the same time as in the former 
 case may be found by dividing 508 by 1136 x by 300. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING. 
 
 The first operation, preparatory to firing-up, is to 
 remove all the ashes and cinders from the surface of 
 the grate-bars and corners of the furnace ; then, if 
 the fuel is fine coal, viz., chestnut, pea, or pea and 
 dust, scatter a small quantity of it over the sur- 
 face of the grates, for the purpose of protecting 
 them from the intense heat resulting from the fresh 
 fire and the clean bars. 
 
 Grate-bars are frequently ruined the first time 
 they are used, after being inserted in the furnace. 
 This arises from the fact that, at almost any other 
 time, they would be protected by a coating of ashes, 
 which acts as a non-conductor, but when a fresh fire 
 is made by placing wood on the grates, and covering 
 it with coal, if the draught is good, the combustion 
 
262 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 is so rapid and the heat so intense that the fuel soon 
 arrives at what is termed a white heat, which will 
 melt almost any metal, however refractory. 
 
 If the fuel is lump, broken, egg, or large stove-coal, 
 it will not be necessary to cover the grates with fresh 
 fuel before firing-up, because the circulation of the air 
 through the coarse fuel is more rapid than through 
 fine, consequently the heat is not so intense. Coke 
 and wood give out an immense heat, and are very 
 destructive to grate-bars, and if these fuels did not 
 pack close together, they would melt down any 
 grate-bar. 
 
 Before commencing to clean a fire, or slice it, as 
 it is sometimes called, be sure that you have sufficient 
 fuel in the furnace to use as kindlers ; then get up a 
 full head of steam, close the damper and open the 
 furnace-door, in order to take the white glare off the 
 fuel ; then skim the coal back from the cinders to the 
 bridge-wall and clean all the ashes out from the fur- 
 nace, after which you may draw the coal which was 
 pushed back down on the bars, and with the slice- 
 bar dig out the cinders which remained near the 
 bridge-wall. Hook them out carefully and quickly 
 over the live coal, distribute the latter evenly over 
 the bars, cover it uniformly with fresh fuel, shut 
 the furnace-door, and open the damper to its full 
 extent. 
 
 In case there are two or three boilers, with a fur- 
 nace extending under all, it is better to clean one fire 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK, 263 
 
 at a time, and when that is burning clearly clean an- 
 other, and so on. In cases where coke, wood, saw- 
 dust, shavings, tan-bark, or other fuels of this de- 
 scription are used, no cleaning is required. Fires in 
 which the fuel is pea and dust are the most particular 
 of all others to clean, as the body of live fuel on the 
 grates is always so thin that a slight miscalculation 
 in cleaning may serve to put the fire entirely out. 
 
 When the fuel is bituminous coal, start the fire 
 with shavings and kindling, and, when the kindles 
 are consumed, strike the coke or coal with the hoe or 
 rake, and when it ignites push it back near the bridge- 
 wall, and fill the front of the furnace with fresh coal ; 
 shut the furnace-door, open the damper, and when 
 you discover the coal is coked break it up, push it 
 back as before, and fill the mouth of the furnace with 
 fresh coal, and so on. 
 
 Never waste a particle of fuel that you can possi- 
 bly save, because by so doing you commit a great 
 moral wrong. Remember, that if you would aspire 
 to be a first-class engineer, you must first be sure 
 that you are a good fireman. How could an engi- 
 neer, however high the position he might occupy, 
 expect to be recognized as a practical man, unless he 
 could show his fireman how to handle the shovel, the 
 poker, the slice-bar, and the rake ? Perhaps some 
 engineers would consider it a disgrace to acknowl- 
 edge that they were once firemen, when in fact it is 
 an honor. 
 
264 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 265 
 
 DAMPERS. 
 
 The damper is the mechanical device most gener- 
 ally employed for regulating the draught in furnaces 
 and chimneys. Dampers may be divided into two 
 classes, automatic and adjustable. A cut of tho 
 former may be seen on page 264. It is unquestion- 
 ably the most proper and economical method of reg- 
 ulating the draught of furnaces in chimneys. It will 
 commence to close the draught when the steam repre- 
 sents about 5 pounds per square inch below the work- 
 ing pressure, and will begin to open as soon as the 
 steam pressure falls below that point. 
 
 The variation in steam pressure, when regulated 
 by an automatic damper, rarely exceeds 3 pounds 
 per square inch, while with the damper regulated by 
 hand the pressure frequently varies from 10 to 15 
 pounds per square inch. The regulation of the draught 
 by the damper has not received that attention here- 
 tofore that its importance as a condition of economy 
 deserves. In consequence of an ignorant or careless 
 adjustment of the damper, there is frequently twice 
 as much air admitted to the furnace as is necessary, 
 while in other cases the quantity is not sufficient. 
 
 In the former case, the products of combustion, 
 which should have been absorbed by the boiler, are 
 expelled to the chimney ; while in the latter case, the 
 combustion is so imperfect that the fuel is actually 
 wasted without producing any beneficial result. It 
 23 
 
266 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 is well known that it requires a certain volume of 
 air to expite combustion in a given quantity of fuel; 
 more than that will produce waste, while less will 
 induce unsatisfactory results. By observation, the 
 careful and intelligent engineer will learn to set his 
 damper so as to give the required draught, and, in 
 many instances, it will remain in the same position 
 for hours, while other engineers and firemen will be 
 opening the damper to its full extent, and closing it 
 every few minutes, causing great waste of fuel, and 
 in many instances variation in the steam and speed. 
 The automatic damper, for its respective purpose, 
 like the automatic engine and the automatic steam- 
 trap, is destined to supersede all primitive arrange- 
 ments for the regulation of draught. 
 
 CARE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 
 
 Don't fire up under a boiler until you are sure it 
 contains sufficient water. 
 
 Don't forget to look at the glass water-gauge, to 
 try the. gauge-cocks, and lift the safety-valve the 
 first thing in the morning. 
 
 Don't allow the fire to burn fast, when you fire up 
 under a steam-boiler containing cold water. 
 
 Don't disturb the safety-valve while the engine is 
 stopped and a heavy fire is in the furnace. 
 
 Don't attempt to caulk a boiler while it contains 
 either water or steam. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 267 
 
 Don't allow a boiler, or any of its connections, to 
 leak, when it is practicable to repair them. 
 
 Don't place extra weights on the safety-valve lever 
 because the boiler is too small, or you cannot keep 
 
 » p steam. 
 
 Don't allow a boiler to become dry before com- 
 mencing to clean it. 
 
 Don't use a cold-chisel, or any other steel instru- 
 
268 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 ment except a scraper, for the purpose of removing 
 scale from a boiler. 
 
 Don't envelop a boiler in brick-work, or any non- 
 conducting substance, without first ascertaining if it 
 is steam- and water-tight. 
 
 Don't forget that a boiler will leak cold water 
 when it will be perfectly tight under steam. 
 
 Don't forget to examine a boiler on the inside be- 
 fore putting into service. 
 
 Don't pour water in the ash-pit of marine, locomo- 
 tive, or fire-box boilers. 
 
 Don't forget that lime-water is objectionable for 
 setting boilers, and that cement is preferable. 
 
 Don't neglect to clean the boiler in your charge as 
 often as practicable. 
 
 Don't use spring water in a boiler, when lake, 
 loch, river, or rain water is attainable. 
 
 Don't leave the boiler-room, even for a short time, 
 without examining the damper, the glass water- and 
 steam-gauges. 
 
 Don't ridicule any fuel, safety, or labor-saving ar- 
 rangement connected with steam-boilers. 
 
 Don't condemn any adjunct connected with the 
 steam-engine or boiler, without giving it a fair trial. 
 
 Don't encourage the purchase of any appliance 
 unless you think it is absolutely necessary. 
 
 Don't allow things in your charge to run on from 
 bad to worse, with the idea that some day you will 
 make a general overhauling. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 269 
 
 Don't neglect to shut the stop-cock between the 
 boiler and the check-valve before removing the lat- 
 ter. 
 
 Don't neglect to clean off the head of the boiler, 
 glass gauge, and gauge-cocks after you clean the fire. 
 
 Don't neglect to clean the tubes or flues at least 
 once a week. 
 
 Don't neglect to remove the ashes under the grate- 
 bars every day. 
 
 Don't neglect to grind in the safety-valve, check- 
 valve, and gauge-cocks, whenever they need it. 
 
 Don't undertake to clean a fire unless you are sure 
 you have sufficient kindles in the furnace. 
 
 Don't disturb a fire when it is low, or part of it is 
 dead. 
 
 Don't allow any dead places to exist in the corners 
 of the furnace, or any other part of the fire-surface. 
 
 STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 
 
 Steam-boiler explosions, in the majority of cases, 
 are attended with loss of life and property. Many 
 abstruse theories have been advanced to account for 
 such occurrences, but experience and intelligent in* 
 vestigation have shown that there is no mystery 
 about them, as they are all due to cause and effect 
 There may be some instances in which there is a 
 certain amount of mystery connected with such 
 catastrophes, but if all the facts in the case were 
 23* 
 
270 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 known it would be susceptible of an easy and 
 rational explanation. 
 
 When a building falls down, a ship is wrecked in 
 a hurricane, a sewer caves in, or a bridge gives way 
 under a railway train, nobody tries to invest it with 
 mystery. All agree that the structure did not pos- 
 sess strength to sustain the pressure, or that the 
 ship was not equal to the force that was concen- 
 trated against it. The party who refuses to admit 
 that any structure may be crushed, any column 
 shattered, any beam broken, or mast snapped if 
 subjected to a greater strain, force, or pressure than 
 that which it was intended to bear, is an infidel. 
 
 Boiler explosions have been comparatively rare 
 for thirty years, which may be attributed to the fact 
 that an inquisitive investigation had demonstrated 
 the cause of them in almost every case, and shown 
 that they were all the result of weakness, or resulted 
 from the fact that they did not possess sufficient 
 strength to resist the pressure, or the strain to 
 which they were subjected. While some were yet 
 new, and comparatively safe, it was shown that 
 the accident resulted from a latent defect, which 
 neither the boiler-maker nor inspector was able 
 to discover. 
 
 Until quite recently all boiler explosions were 
 attributed to one cause — "low water." Doubtless 
 some have occurred from that cause, but they were 
 few compared to those which occurred from other 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 271 
 
 causes. Explosions, resulting from an insufficiency 
 of water, are less destructive than those which take 
 place when there is sufficient water in the boiler, 
 since if the iron is overheated a portion of its 
 tensile strength is destroyed, and it requires less 
 pressure to tear it apart than if there was sufficient 
 water in the boiler. 
 
 Some of the most terrible and destructive ex- 
 plosions that ever occurred in this country, both on 
 land and water, took place when, it was in evidence, 
 there was abundance of water in the boiler. The 
 only cause that can be assigned for boiler explo- 
 sions is weakness, which may be attributed to the 
 following causes, viz., poor material, inferior work- 
 manship, injury inflicted in punching the sheets and 
 riveting the seams, incrustation, overheating and 
 burning (which induces granulation and brittleness 
 in the material), overstraining, faulty design, defec- 
 tive bracing, overfiring, loading down the safety' 
 valve, neglect, ignorance, etc. 
 
 When a boiler does explode, the conclusion that 
 the pressure was too strong for the boiler, or the 
 boiler did not possess sufficient strength to resist 
 the pressure, and that it gave way in the weakest 
 place, is the most logical to advance. 
 
272 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE ADAMS GRATE-BAR. 
 
 GRATE-BARS. 
 
 The object of the grate-bar is to sustain the fuel 
 in the furnace, and to admit the necessary quantity 
 of air, through their interstices, to insure rapid 
 combustion. The oxygen of the air is the only 
 supporter of combustion, consequently the amount 
 of heat developed in the furnace depends on the 
 quantity of air supplied, which in turn depends on 
 the size and shape of the orifice through which 
 it enters. 
 
 Grate-bars, to be durable and efficient, should 
 have a narrow concave surface exposed to the fire ; 
 the spaces for the admission of the air should be as 
 numerous as would be compatible with sufficient 
 strength ; they should be skilfully designed, and 
 the metal so distributed as to induce the least pos- 
 sible strain by expansion or contraction. This was 
 one of the great difficulties experienced in the use 
 of old-style grate-bars. 
 
 Grate-bars should be as thin and as deep as cir- 
 cumstances will permit, because this insures free 
 access of the air, and prevents the bars from being 
 over-heated. They should be bevelled or wedge- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 27S 
 
 on one end, so that the bar, when expand- 
 ing, may remove any obstacle in front of it, and 
 obviate the difficulties induced by springing. Lock- 
 jointed bars are desirable, because they keep intact 
 better than single bars ; but bars cast in gangs or 
 in sections, with small intermediate bars between 
 them, do not always prove economical at the first 
 cost, because a small piece may be cracked by extra 
 expansion and drop out, the result of which is the 
 whole section is ruined. 
 
 THE "COMMON SENSE" STEAM-BOILER. 
 
 BOILER BRACES. 
 
 Boiler braces may be enumerated as follows: 
 crown, dome, angle, diagonal, toggle, lug, crow-foot, 
 leg, hip, fire-box, tap-bolt, side, fore, aft, head, and 
 
274 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 tube-sheet. There are various methods in vogue 
 for the purpose of attaching braces and stay-bolts to 
 the shells, crowns, and water-legs of steam-boilers, 
 but experience has shown that a lug, attached to the 
 part to be braced by one, two, or more moderate 
 sized rivets, is much stronger than when the stay, 
 stud, or brace is tapped into the plate or shell. 
 
 The difficulty in the case of stay-bolts does not 
 ordinarily arise from the tensile strength exerted 
 upon the bolt by the steam pressure, but from rela- 
 tive changes in position of the two sheets through 
 which the bolt passes, caused by a difference in the 
 temperature of the two sheets, and the consequent 
 difference in expansion. 
 
 For instance, if the side-sheet of a fire-box of a 
 locomotive or marine boiler expands in a vertical 
 direction one-eighth of an inch or more than the 
 outside sheet, then all bolts in the top row will have 
 their inner ends forced upwards from their original 
 position to that extent, and the boilers must bend or 
 spring accordingly ; whereas, when both sheets be- 
 come again of the same temperature, the ends of the 
 bolts are drawn back to their original position. 
 
 If a stay is properly attached to the part which it 
 was intended to strengthen, it will withstand, on a 
 straight pull, a resistance equal to its tensile strength, 
 or it will resist the force of compression equal to its 
 crushing strength ; but, if it stands slightly oblique, 
 its power of resistance will be very much diminished. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 275 
 
 SOLVENTS TOR REMOVING SCALE AND INCRUS- 
 TATION FROM STEAM-BOILERS. 
 
 Incrustation, or scale, as it is more generally 
 called, resulting from the precipitation of the matter 
 held in suspension and solution by water, has been a 
 source of more or less anxiety, and an obstacle pre- 
 venting the full realization of economy anticipated 
 by the adoption of steam as a motor. It was not, 
 however, until after the perfection of the materials 
 now universally used in boiler construction, admit- 
 ting of the employment of high pressures, that the 
 real danger from incrustation became apparent and 
 a remedy imperative. 
 
 Under the head of Chemistry, many compounds 
 and solutions have been prepared, designedly for the 
 purpose of preventing the disastrous consequences so 
 apt to result from the formation of large quantities 
 of scale, and also to reduce the loss occasioned by 
 its presence. 
 
 Some of these are honestly compounded to relieve 
 the steam used of this most potent cause of boiler 
 deterioration; while others, manufactured by inex- 
 perienced persons lacking the knowledge essential to 
 the production of a chemical preparation, will prove 
 of little use in but a limited number of instances ; 
 their value as solvents being more imaginative than 
 real. On the other hand, many chemical prepara- 
 tions are compounded and sold as a mere matter of 
 
276 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 business, being simple mixtures of soda ash, barks, 
 or other cheap refuse chemicals, having no especial 
 virtue in preventing incrustation, and are merely 
 factors for increasing bulk, weight, and profit ; com- 
 pounds of this character not infrequently prove in- 
 jurious to the boiler iron, causing serious weakness 
 from internal corrosion. 
 
 A Compound that has secured universal recog- 
 nition from manufacturers, engineers, inspectors, 
 chemists, and others, as the only scientific prepara- 
 tion of a chemical character known, is that manu- 
 factured by George W. Lord, of Philadelphia, Pa. ; 
 this compound possesses the merit of removing scale 
 and preventing deposits, under all the varying con- 
 ditions known to the steam users of Canada, Mexico, 
 and the United States, when applied intelligently, 
 and according to the directions furnished to every 
 purchaser, who forwards Mr. Lord a sample of the 
 scale formed for analysis. This compound is guar- 
 anteed to prevent oxidation, deformation, rupture, 
 and all other accidents resulting from large deposits 
 of scale. 
 
 Lord's Compound contains no chemical that will 
 in any wise injure the material of the boiler ; but, on 
 the contrary, acts as a preservative, protecting the 
 iron from the corrosive action of the acid and mineral 
 solutions, which, but for the neutralizing effects of 
 the compound, would develop into some one of the 
 numerous forms of internal corrosion; neither does 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 277 
 
 it act injuriously on the steam cylinder or valves of 
 engines taking steam from boilers in which it is used, 
 a not infrequent occurrence when compounds largely 
 composed of soda ash are used. 
 
 Professors Liebig and Mapes asserted that the 
 
 reason why Americans were so much afflicted with 
 dyspepsia, tetter, and frequently scrofula, was be- 
 cause they never eat a sufficient quantity of onions 
 and apples ; the same may be said in regard to the 
 general use in steam-boilers of a compound, such as 
 that manufactured by Mr. Lord to remove the cause 
 now rendering so many boilers unserviceable. 
 
 THE GALLOWAY STEAM-BOILER. 
 
 BOILER MATERIALS. 
 
 Boiler-plate is designated under two heads, be- 
 cause charcoal is the fuel used in the heating and 
 smelting process. They are also known as waste 
 and flange iron. The advantages of this latter brand 
 are not due to the fact that it possesses great tensile 
 strength or reliance, but that the plates, after being 
 heated in a charcoal, coke, or soft coal fire, may be 
 24 
 
278 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 flanged or shaped into any desirable form, by the use 
 of wooden mauls instead of sledges, consequently 
 it Las superseded cast-iron for boiler-heads of almost 
 every design — convex, concave, inverted, bulge, egg- 
 shaped, etc. 
 
 Charcoal iron is incapable of resisting high tem- 
 perature, but when backed by water, as in the case 
 of steam-boilers, it meets all the requirements of 
 good boiler-plates ; besides, it is easily chipped and 
 caulked, and when re-heated and hammered shows 
 increased tensile strength, and is capable of great 
 resistance. The furnace plates for the fire-boxes of 
 locomotives and marine boilers are generally manu- 
 factured by this process, but great care must be ex- 
 ercised m the heating, moulding, ruling, and ham- 
 mering process, otherwise defects will develop after 
 the boilers are in use. 
 
 Owing to the fact that it is impossible for the pur- 
 chaser to determine the exact quality of the plate, 
 he has to rely, to a certain extent, on the reputation 
 of the manufacturer ; even then it frequently occurs 
 that, though a majority of the plates may prove 
 what they were recommended to be, some will turn 
 out to be worthless, and require removal, patching, 
 and repairs, while the boiler is yet new. However 
 generously steel has been used for the shells and tubes 
 of boilers, after a trial of several years, under vary- 
 ing circumstances, it has not superseded good 
 wrought-iron. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 279 
 
 FURNACES. 
 
 The furnaces of steam-boilers, like the steam 
 boiler itself, have never received that attention from 
 engineers which their importance in an economical 
 point of view deserves. In a majority of cases the 
 
280 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 furnace consists of a fire-brick chamber, was con- 
 structed under the idea that, if it would hold a cer- 
 tain quantity of coal, and insure sufficient draught to 
 consume it, it met all requirements. 
 
 Recently, however, attention has been directed to 
 the improvement of the furnace ; as a result, ordi- 
 nary furnaces are better constructed, and more prac- 
 ticably designed, to produce perfect combustion, and 
 assist in transmitting more of its products to the 
 water, while such an improvement as the " Jarvis " 
 furnace, illustrated on page 219, is proving to be a 
 decided innovation over anything heretofore intro- 
 duced in the furnace line. 
 
 It has been demonstrated, by both theory and 
 practice, that the loss of heat in the best constructed 
 ordinary furnaces is equal to 50 per cent, of that 
 stored up in good fuel, while in ordinary or inferior 
 furnaces the waste is much greater, and is aggravated 
 by ignorance in the regulation of the draught. Worn- 
 out furnaces, miserably designated grate-bars and 
 bridge-walls, were designed and constructed by par- 
 ties who did not understand the first requirement of 
 such an adjunct of the furnace. 
 
 SAFETY-VALVES. 
 
 The function of a safety-valve is to relieve the 
 boiler from extra or increasing pressure in case all 
 other avenues of escape are closed. It is designed 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 281 
 
 on the supposition that it will rise, when the pressure 
 is equal to the weight on the lever, and discharge the 
 steam as fast as it is formed ; even 
 then the draught may be wide open, 
 the furnace-door closed, and a suf- 
 ficient supply of fuel on the grates. 
 
 Many inexperienced persons are led to believe 
 that the higher the pressure the larger the safety- 
 valve should be. The facts are just the reverse ; for 
 pressures varying from 50 to TO pounds per square 
 inch, about one-half square inch to the square foot 
 of grate surface is the proportion which experience 
 has shown to be sufficient, and which has been most 
 generally adopted for ordinary pressures ; but if the 
 pressure is very high, smaller proportions will answer. 
 
 By looking at table, page 260, it will be seen that 
 steam at 50 pounds pressure will escape through an 
 orifice into the atmosphere at the rate of 1736 feet 
 per second, while at 120 pounds it will escape with 
 a velocity of 1900 feet, which goes to show that the 
 volume at the latter pressure will be discharged 
 through a smaller aperture in a given time than it 
 can be at the former pressure. Still, safety-valves 
 are generally made of the same proportions for all 
 pressures. The weight necessary to carry a certain 
 pressure, if a certain length of lever, and also the 
 weight on the lever, may be accurately calculated by 
 the following rules : 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Weight Necessary to .^ut 
 
282 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 on a Lever when the Area of Valve, Pressure, etc., 
 are known. — Multiply the area of valve by the press- 
 ure in pounds per square inch ; multiply this prod- 
 uct by the distance of the valve from the fulcrum. 
 Multiply the weight of the lever by one-half of its 
 length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply the 
 weight of valve and stem by their distance from the 
 fulcrum, add these last two products together, and 
 subtract their sum from the first product, and divide 
 the remainder by the length of lever ; the quotient 
 will be the weight of the ball. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Pressure per square inch 
 when the Area of Valve, Weight of Ball, etc., are 
 known. — Multiply the weight of ball by length of 
 lever, and multiply the weight of lever by one-half 
 its length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply 
 the weight of the valve and stem by its fulcrum ; 
 add these three products together ; this sum, divided 
 by the product of the area of the valve, and the dis- 
 tance from the fulcrum, will give the pressure in 
 pounds per square inch. 
 
 INCRUSTATION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 
 
 All waters, whether well, river, spring, or lake, 
 contain mineral substances in solution and earthy 
 matter in suspension. In fact, no such thing as pure 
 water exists, and, strange as it may seem, waters 
 best adapted for drinking purposes, and most agree- 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 28? 
 
 rfble to the taste, are the most destructive to steam- 
 boilers. Lough, pool, and other stagnant waters are 
 generally poisonous, as they contain vegetable and 
 animal acids. 
 
 The minerals which form the basis of scale in 
 boilers using fresh water, are sulphate of lime, car- 
 bonate of lime, magnesia, silica, and alumina, with 
 small quantities of sesquioxide of iron, baryta, car- 
 bonic acid, organic matter, chlorine, sulphuric acid, 
 potassa, calcium, soda, phosphoric acid, and magne- 
 sium. 
 
 It is well known that scale or incrustation is a 
 powerful non-conductor, and that the waste of fuel is 
 in proportion to the thickness of the scale, which 
 becomes attached to the shell, flues, tubes, and other 
 parts of the boiler. This causes a loss of fuel rang- 
 ing from 1 to 37 per cent. 
 
 If waste of fuel were the only evil incident to the 
 mismanagement of steam-boilers, it might be toler- 
 ated in localities where fuel is abundant and cheap ; 
 but other evils result from incrustation, such as the 
 burning of the iron, destroying its tensile strength, 
 elasticity, and resistance, and rendering it liable to 
 explode at any time with disastrous effect. 
 
 If a steam-boiler is expected to render efficient 
 service, to be safe and durable, and an easy steam 
 generator, certain conditions must invariably be com- 
 plied with, viz., it must be intelligently managed, 
 carefully fired, not overtaxed, and, above all, kept 
 
284 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 clean on the inside. This last object is not so easily 
 accomplished as may be supposed, and this may be 
 illustrated as follows : 
 
 Suppose a boiler has 10,000 gallons of water forced 
 into it in 24 hours, which escapes from it in the form 
 of vapor or steam ; now if each gallon of this water 
 contains only a very few grains of minerals in solu- 
 tion, or earthy matter in suspension, it will be seen 
 that, under the process of evaporation, the quantity 
 of sediment deposited must in process of time be 
 enormous. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made, at different 
 times, to remedy the disastrous results caused by- 
 incrustation, and a great variety of nostrums have 
 been made and sold to steam-users under the heads 
 of "compounds," " solutions," "eradicators," "sal- 
 amanders," " anti-incrustators," etc., etc., but it has 
 been demonstrated that while some of these prepara- 
 tions gave temporary relief only, but one of them — 
 Lord's Cleansing Compound — has demonstrated the 
 utility of chemicals (properly compounded) in reliev- 
 ing the boiler of incrustation. 
 
 It was at one time very generally supposed that 
 rain, or distilled water, was the best for use in steam- 
 boilers. Experiment, however, has shown that such 
 is not the fact, as, while it may be admitted that such 
 waters do not induce the accumulation of scales, they 
 inflict other injuries equally great, because they in- 
 duce internal corrosion, pitting, decomposition, and 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 285 
 
 waste of material. It is quite common to find in a 
 marine boiler, when distilled water is used, places 
 where the material has wasted away two-thirds of 
 its thickness, and even the rivet-heads in whole 
 seams have disappeared, leaving no margin of safety. 
 
 Chemistry is undoubtedly the source from which 
 to seek relief and protection from the disastrous re- 
 sults occasioned by the formation of scaly deposits ; 
 and, although many of the preparations under this 
 head have proven ineffectual in the majority of prac- 
 tical tests, yet the fact that Mr. Lord has produced 
 a compound which meets every want and anticipation 
 of the steam users, not alone in the United States, 
 but Canada and Mexico as well, affords ample 
 grounds for the assertion that those preparations 
 which have failed have done so, not because the sci- 
 ence of chemistry is at fault, but to the ignorance of 
 their compounders, whose efforts have been defeated 
 by a lack of the knowledge of its principles, and the 
 requirements needed to secure harmonious action. 
 
 The chemicals entering into any preparation for 
 the prevention and removal of incrustation should 
 be those which act only in concert with the water, 
 and in a perfectly natural way ; first, by softening 
 the surface of the formation ; and, second, by impart- 
 ing to the water the quality to hold in suspension 
 large quantities of earthy matter. 
 
 As the combined action of the chemicals and water 
 destroys the cohesion of the scale, the particles are 
 
286 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER S OWN BOOK. 
 
 caught up and retained in suspension by the water, 
 until finally the particles thus disintegrated pass out 
 with the water when the boiler is emptied. Lord's 
 Compound prevents the formation, and effects the 
 removal of scales by this process ; and, although a 
 longer time may be necessary by it than by some 
 other methods, it is unquestionably the only manner 
 that can be safely employed. 
 
 FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 The subject of feed -water heaters has not, until 
 within a few years, received that 
 attention from manufacturers that 
 its importance in an economical 
 point of view would entitle it 
 to. This is partly due to the fact 
 that fuel could be procured at mod- 
 erate cost, and years of unbounded 
 prosperity in manufacturing pur- 
 suits made the owners of steam-en- 
 gines careless in the matter of small 
 savings, which in the long run 
 amount to enormous sums. The 
 gain induced by thoroughly heating 
 the feed-water before entering the 
 boiler may be shown in the follow- 
 ing paragraphs : 
 Suppose that a pair of boilers are required to fur- 
 nish steam to a 100 horse-power engine for 10 hours 
 
 iMim 
 
 The Baningwarith 
 Feed-water Heater. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEERS OWN BOOK. 287 
 
 per day for their reasonable life, say fifteen years, 
 and that 4 pounds of coal are required per horse- 
 power per hour, and we assume 300 working days 
 per year, which will be 4500 days for the 15 years, 
 and 100 horse-power at 4 pounds per hour is 4000 
 pounds of coal per day of 10 hours, and 18,000,000 
 pounds for the 15 years ; which at J cent per pound 
 is $45,000. Now, supposing 5 per cent, of this can be 
 saved, it would induce an economy of $2250. The 
 quantity of fuel that can be saved by heating the 
 feed-water by the exhaust steam is shown by the 
 fact that 1 pound of water must be converted into 
 steam to heat 5J pounds of water from a tempera- 
 ture of 32° up to 212° Fah. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that, to develop 
 
 100 horse-power at an evaporation of 30 pounds of 
 
 water per horse-power, it will require 3000 pounds 
 
 I per hour, and 30,000 pounds for 10 hours, and to raise 
 
 this water from 32° to 212° it will require 1 pound 
 
 additional for every 5J pounds, which will require 
 
 the evaporation of 5545 pounds of water in excess 
 
 | of what would be needed for 100 horse-power, if the 
 
 i water was heated up to 212° by the exhaust steam 
 
 from the engine. If the boilers evaporate T pounds 
 
 of water from 32° under TO pounds pressure to the 
 
 pound of coal, it will be necessary to evaporate with 
 
 the heater 35,545 pounds of water. This, divided by 
 
 t, gives 50 TT pounds of coal required in this case, 
 
 and with the heater 30,000 pounds of water to be 
 
288 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 evaporated ; this, divided by 7, gives 4285 pounds 
 of coal, a saving of 792 pounds of coal for 100 horse- 
 power 10 hours per day, or 
 about 15 per cent. 
 
 A feed water heater, to be an 
 efficient economizer of fuel, must 
 be of ample capacity to permit 
 the elevation of the temperature 
 of the feed water to at least 200 
 degrees prior to its entrance into 
 the boiler. Where Lord's Cleans- 
 ing Compound is employed for 
 preventing or removing incrus- 
 tation, the simplest type of 
 heater is desirable; i. e., one 
 ■ without a filtering device, to pre- 
 vent the solid matter held in 
 suspension in the water from entering the boiler, such 
 an arrangement being objectionable from the fact 
 that it has a tendency to interfere with the action of 
 the compound. 
 
 BADGER HEATER. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 289 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF SAVING OP FUEL EFFECTED 
 BY HEATING FEED-WATER, STEAM PRESSURE 60 POUNDS. 
 
 is 
 
 £<2 
 
 INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF FEED-WATER. 
 
 32° 40° 
 
 50° 
 
 60° 
 
 70° 
 
 80° 
 
 90° 
 
 100° 
 
 120° 
 
 140° 
 
 160° 
 
 180° 
 
 200° 
 
 60° 
 
 2.39 1.71 
 
 0.86 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 4.09; 3.43 
 
 2.59 
 
 1.74 
 
 0.88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 5.79 5.14 
 
 4.32 
 
 3.49 
 
 2.64 
 
 1.77 
 
 0.90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1O0 
 
 7.50 
 
 6.S5 
 
 6.05 
 
 5.23 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.55 
 
 2.68 
 
 1.80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140 
 
 9.20 
 
 8.57 
 
 7.77 
 
 6.97 
 
 6.15 
 
 5.32 
 
 4.47 
 
 3.61 
 
 1.84 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IfiO 
 
 10.90 
 
 10.28 
 
 9.50 
 
 8.72 
 
 7.91 
 
 7.09 
 
 6.26 
 
 5.42 
 
 3.67 
 
 1.87 
 
 
 
 
 
 ISO 
 
 12.60 
 
 12.00 
 
 11.23 
 
 10.46 
 
 9.68 8.87 
 
 8.06 
 
 7.23 
 
 5.52 
 
 3.75 
 
 1.91 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 14.30 
 
 13.71 
 
 13.00 
 
 12.20 
 
 11.43 10.65 
 
 9.85 
 
 9.03 
 
 7.36 
 
 5.62 3.82 
 
 1.96 
 
 
 
 oo 
 
 16.00 
 
 15.42 14.70 
 
 14.00 
 
 13.19 12.33 
 
 11.64 
 
 10.84 
 
 9.20 7.50 5.73 
 
 3 93 
 
 1.98 
 
 240 
 
 17.79 
 
 17.13 16.42 
 
 15.69 
 
 14.96 . 14.20 
 
 13.43 
 
 12.65 
 
 11.05 9.37 
 
 7.64 
 
 5.90 
 
 3.97 
 
 ?60 
 
 19.40 
 
 18.85 18.15 
 
 17.44 
 
 16.7115.97 
 
 15.22 
 
 14.45 11.88 11.24 
 
 9,56 
 
 7.86! 5.96 
 
 ?M 
 
 21.10 
 
 20.56il9.87 
 
 19.18 
 
 18.47 117.75 
 
 17.01116.2614.72,13.02 
 
 11.46 
 
 9.73 7.94 
 
 300 
 
 22.88 
 
 22.27 i 21.61 
 
 20.92j20.23 19.52 
 
 18.81 j 18.07 ,16.49 14.99 
 
 13.37 
 
 11.70 9.93 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that if the 
 feed- water enters the heater at 32° Fah., and escapes 
 to the boiler at 60 D Fah., it would make a saving of 
 2.39 per cent. If the feed- water entered the heater 
 at 60^ Fah., and was delivered to the boiler at 180° 
 Fah., it would make a saving of fuel of 10.46 per 
 cent. 
 
 The term initial temperature means the tempera- 
 ture at which the feed-water was delivered from the 
 pump to the heater, and the term terminal temper- 
 ature means the temperature at which the water 
 escapes from the heater to the boiler. 
 25 T 
 
290 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE 
 EACH POUND OF FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A 
 STEAM-BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND EVAP- 
 ORATED UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 
 
 » ffi -s 
 
 % a 4 
 
 
 
 
 cggg 
 
 & $ <S 
 
 Temperature of feed-water in Fahrenheit degrees. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CQ ft 
 
 32° 
 
 35° 
 
 40° 
 
 45° 
 
 50° 
 
 55° 
 
 60° 
 
 
 
 212° 
 
 1146.6 
 
 1143 
 
 1138 
 
 1133 
 
 1128 
 
 1123 
 
 1118 
 
 5 
 
 228° 
 
 1151.5 
 
 1149 
 
 1144 
 
 1139 
 
 1134 
 
 1129 
 
 1124 
 
 10 
 
 240° 
 
 1155.3 
 
 1152 
 
 1147 
 
 1142 
 
 1137 
 
 1132 
 
 1127 
 
 15 
 
 250° 
 
 1158.0 
 
 1155 
 
 1150 
 
 1145 
 
 1140 
 
 1135 
 
 1130 
 
 20 
 
 259° 
 
 1161.0 
 
 1158 
 
 1153 
 
 1148 
 
 1143 
 
 1138 
 
 1133 
 
 25 
 
 267° 
 
 1163.3 
 
 1160 
 
 1155 
 
 1150 
 
 1145 
 
 1140 
 
 1135 
 
 30 
 
 274° 
 
 1166.0 
 
 1162 
 
 1157 
 
 1152 
 
 1147 
 
 1142 
 
 1137 
 
 35 
 
 281° 
 
 1167.6 
 
 1164 
 
 1159 
 
 1154 
 
 1149 
 
 1144 
 
 1139 
 
 40 
 
 287° 
 
 1169.0 
 
 1165 
 
 1160 
 
 1156 
 
 1150 
 
 1145 
 
 1141 
 
 45 
 
 292° 
 
 1171.0 
 
 1168 
 
 1163 
 
 1158 
 
 1153 
 
 1148 
 
 1143 
 
 50 
 
 298° 
 
 1173.0 
 
 1170 
 
 1165 
 
 1160 
 
 1155 
 
 1150 
 
 1145 
 
 55 
 
 303° 
 
 1174.0 
 
 1171 
 
 1166 
 
 1161 
 
 1156 
 
 1151 
 
 1146 
 
 60 
 
 308° 
 
 1175.7 
 
 1172 
 
 1167 
 
 1162 
 
 1157 
 
 1152 
 
 1147 
 
 65 
 
 312° 
 
 1177.0 
 
 1174 
 
 1169 
 
 1164 
 
 1159 
 
 1154 
 
 1149 
 
 70 
 
 316° 
 
 1178.0 
 
 1175 
 
 1170 
 
 1165 
 
 1160 
 
 1155 
 
 1150 
 
 75 
 
 321° 
 
 1179.0 
 
 1176 
 
 1171 
 
 1166 
 
 1161 
 
 1156, 
 
 1151 
 
 80 
 
 324° 
 
 1180.5 
 
 1177 
 
 1172 
 
 1167 
 
 1162 
 
 1157 
 
 1152 
 
 85 
 
 328° 
 
 1182.0 
 
 1179 
 
 1174 
 
 1169 
 
 1164 
 
 1159 
 
 1154 
 
 90 
 
 331° 
 
 1182.7 
 
 1180 
 
 1175 
 
 1170 
 
 1165 
 
 1160 
 
 1155 
 
 95 
 
 335° 
 
 1184.0 
 
 1181 
 
 1176 
 
 1171 
 
 1166 
 
 1161 
 
 1156 
 
 100 
 
 338° 
 
 1185.0 
 
 1182 
 
 1177 
 
 1172 
 
 1167 
 
 1162 
 
 1157 
 
 110 
 
 344° 
 
 1186.7 
 
 1184 
 
 1179 
 
 1174 
 
 1165 
 
 1164 
 
 1159 
 
 120 
 
 350° 
 
 1188.6 
 
 1186 
 
 1181 
 
 1176 
 
 1171 
 
 1166 
 
 1161 
 
 130 
 
 356° 
 
 1189.8 
 
 1187 
 
 1182 
 
 1177 
 
 1172 
 
 1167 
 
 1162 
 
 140 
 
 360° 
 
 1191.4 
 
 1189 
 
 1184 
 
 1179 
 
 1174 
 
 1169 
 
 1164 
 
 150 
 
 366° 
 
 1193.5 
 
 1191 
 
 1186 
 
 1181 
 
 1176 
 
 1178 
 
 1166 
 
 1 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 291 
 
 T A B L E— (Continued) 
 
 SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE EACH 
 POUND OP FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A STEAM- 
 BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND EVAPORATED 
 UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 
 
 2m 
 
 8-8 g 
 a s £ 
 
 |a| 
 
 ■Tag 
 
 Temperature of feed- water in Fahrenheit degrees. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OQ.S w 
 
 En's So 
 
 70° 
 
 80° 
 
 90° 
 
 100° 
 
 110° 
 
 120° 
 
 130° 
 
 140° 
 
 
 
 212° 
 
 1108 
 
 1098 
 
 1088 
 
 1078 
 
 1068 
 
 1058 
 
 1048 
 
 1038 
 
 5 
 
 228° 
 
 1114 
 
 1104 
 
 1094 
 
 1084 
 
 1074 
 
 1064 
 
 1054 
 
 1045 
 
 10 
 
 240° 
 
 1117 
 
 1107 
 
 1097 
 
 1087 
 
 1077 
 
 1067 
 
 1057 
 
 1047 
 
 15 
 
 250° 
 
 1120 
 
 1110 
 
 1100 
 
 1090 
 
 1080 
 
 1070 
 
 1060 
 
 1050 
 
 20 
 
 259° 
 
 1123 
 
 1113 
 
 1103 
 
 1093 
 
 1083 
 
 1073 
 
 1063 
 
 1053 
 
 25 
 
 267° 
 
 1125 
 
 1115 
 
 1105 
 
 1095 
 
 1085 
 
 1075 
 
 1065 
 
 1055 
 
 30 
 
 274° 
 
 1127 
 
 1117 
 
 1107 
 
 1097 
 
 1087 
 
 1077 
 
 1067 
 
 1057 
 
 35 
 
 281° 
 
 1129 
 
 1119 
 
 1109 
 
 1099 
 
 1089 
 
 1079 
 
 1069 
 
 1059 
 
 40 
 
 287° 
 
 1131 
 
 1121 
 
 1111 
 
 1101 
 
 1091 
 
 1081 
 
 1071 
 
 1061 
 
 45 
 
 292° 
 
 1133 
 
 1123 
 
 1113 
 
 1103 
 
 1093 
 
 1083 
 
 1073 
 
 1063 
 
 50 
 
 298° 
 
 1135 
 
 1125 
 
 1115 
 
 1105 
 
 1095 
 
 1085 
 
 1075 
 
 1065 
 
 55 
 
 303° 
 
 1136 
 
 1126 
 
 1116 
 
 1106 
 
 1096 
 
 1086 
 
 1076 
 
 1066 
 
 60 
 
 308° 
 
 1137 
 
 1127 
 
 1117 
 
 1107 
 
 1097 
 
 1087 
 
 1077 
 
 1067 
 
 65 
 
 312° 
 
 1139 
 
 1129 
 
 1119 
 
 1109 
 
 1099 
 
 1089 
 
 1079 
 
 1069 
 
 70 
 
 316° 
 
 1140 
 
 1130 
 
 1120 
 
 1110 
 
 1100 
 
 1090 
 
 1080 
 
 1070 
 
 75 
 
 321° 
 
 1141 
 
 1131 
 
 1121 
 
 1111 
 
 1101 
 
 1091 
 
 1081 
 
 1071 
 
 80 
 
 324° 
 
 1142 
 
 1132 
 
 1122 
 
 1112 
 
 1102 
 
 1092 
 
 1082 
 
 1072 
 
 85 
 
 328° 
 
 1144 
 
 1134 
 
 1124 
 
 1114 
 
 1104 
 
 1094 
 
 1084 
 
 1074 
 
 90 
 
 331° 
 
 1145 
 
 1135 
 
 1125 
 
 1115 
 
 1105 
 
 1095 
 
 1085 
 
 1075 
 
 95 
 
 335° 
 
 1146 
 
 1136 
 
 1126 
 
 1116 
 
 1106 
 
 1096 
 
 1086 
 
 1076 
 
 100 
 
 338° 
 
 1147 
 
 1137 
 
 1127 
 
 1117 
 
 1107 
 
 1097 
 
 1087 
 
 1077 
 
 110 
 
 344° 
 
 1149 
 
 1139 
 
 1129 
 
 1119 
 
 1109 
 
 1099 
 
 1089 
 
 1079 
 
 120 
 
 350° 
 
 1151 
 
 1141 
 
 1131 
 
 1121 
 
 1111 
 
 1101 
 
 1091 
 
 1081 
 
 130 
 
 356° 
 
 1152 
 
 1142 
 
 1132 
 
 1122 
 
 1112 
 
 1102 
 
 1092 
 
 1082 
 
 140 
 
 360° 
 
 1154 
 
 1144 
 
 1134 
 
 1124 
 
 1114 
 
 1104 
 
 1094 
 
 1084 
 
 150 
 
 366° 1156 
 
 1146 
 
 1136 
 
 1126 
 
 1116 
 
 1106 
 
 1096 
 
 1086 
 
292 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABL E— {Continued) 
 8H OWING THE UNITS OP HEAT REQUIRED TO EVAPORATB 
 EACH POUND OP FEED-WATER WHEN SUPPLIED TO A 
 STEAM-BOILER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES AND 
 EVAPORATED UNDER DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 
 
 Ill 
 Sol 
 
 £°3 
 
 Temperature of feed-water in Fahrenheit degrees. 
 
 150° 
 
 160° 
 
 170° 
 
 180° 
 
 190° 
 
 200° 
 
 210° 
 
 212° 
 
 
 
 212° 
 
 1028 
 
 1018 
 
 1008 
 
 998 
 
 988 
 
 978 
 
 968 
 
 966 
 
 5 
 
 228° 
 
 1034 
 
 1024 
 
 1014 
 
 1004 
 
 994 
 
 984 
 
 974 
 
 972 
 
 10 
 
 240° 
 
 1037 
 
 1027 
 
 1017 
 
 1007 
 
 997 
 
 987 
 
 977 
 
 975 
 
 15 
 
 250° 
 
 1040 
 
 1030 
 
 1020 
 
 1010 
 
 1000 
 
 990 
 
 980 
 
 978 
 
 20 
 
 259° 
 
 1043 
 
 1033 
 
 1023 
 
 1013 
 
 1003 
 
 993 
 
 983 
 
 981 
 
 25 
 
 267° 
 
 1045 
 
 1035 
 
 1025 
 
 1015 
 
 1005 
 
 995 
 
 985 
 
 983 
 
 30 
 
 274° 
 
 1047 
 
 1037 
 
 1027 
 
 1017 
 
 1007 
 
 997 
 
 987 
 
 985 
 
 35 
 
 281° 
 
 1049 
 
 1039 
 
 1029 
 
 1019 
 
 1009 
 
 999 
 
 989 
 
 987 
 
 40 
 
 287° 
 
 1051 
 
 1041 
 
 1031 
 
 1021 
 
 1011 
 
 1001 
 
 991 
 
 989 
 
 45 
 
 292° 
 
 1053 
 
 1043 
 
 1033 
 
 1023 
 
 1013 
 
 1003 
 
 993 
 
 991 
 
 50 
 
 298° 
 
 1055 
 
 1045 
 
 1035 
 
 1025 
 
 1015 
 
 1005 
 
 995 
 
 993 
 
 55 
 
 303° 
 
 1056 
 
 1046 
 
 1036 
 
 1026 
 
 1016 
 
 1006 
 
 996 
 
 994 
 
 60 
 
 308° 
 
 1057 
 
 1047 
 
 1037 
 
 1027 
 
 1017 
 
 1007 
 
 997 
 
 995 
 
 65 
 
 312° 
 
 1059 
 
 1049 
 
 1039 
 
 1029 
 
 1019 
 
 1009 
 
 999 
 
 997 
 
 70 
 
 316° 
 
 1060 
 
 1050 
 
 1040 
 
 1030 
 
 1020 
 
 1010 
 
 1000 
 
 998 
 
 75 
 
 321° 
 
 1061 
 
 1051 
 
 1041 
 
 1031 
 
 1021 
 
 1011 
 
 1001 
 
 999 
 
 80 
 
 324° 
 
 1062 
 
 1052 
 
 1042 
 
 1032 
 
 1022 
 
 1012 
 
 1002 
 
 1000 
 
 85 
 
 328° 
 
 1064 
 
 1054 
 
 1044 
 
 1034 
 
 1024 
 
 1014 
 
 1004 
 
 1002 
 
 90 
 
 331° 
 
 1065 
 
 1055 
 
 1045 
 
 1035 
 
 1025 
 
 1015 
 
 1005 
 
 1003 
 
 95 
 
 335° 
 
 1066 
 
 1056 
 
 1046 
 
 1036 
 
 1026 
 
 1016 
 
 1006 
 
 1004 
 
 100 
 
 338° 
 
 1067 
 
 1057 
 
 1047 
 
 1037 
 
 1027 
 
 1017 
 
 1007 
 
 1005 
 
 110 
 
 344° 
 
 1069 
 
 1059 
 
 1049 
 
 1039 
 
 1029 
 
 1019 
 
 1009 
 
 1007 
 
 120 
 
 350° 
 
 1071 
 
 1061 
 
 1051 
 
 1041 
 
 1031 
 
 1021 
 
 1010 
 
 1008 
 
 130 
 
 356° 
 
 1072 
 
 1062 
 
 1052 
 
 1042 
 
 1032 
 
 1022 
 
 1012 
 
 1010 
 
 140 
 
 360° 
 
 1074 
 
 1064 
 
 1054 
 
 1044 
 
 1034 
 
 1024 
 
 1014 
 
 1012 
 
 150 
 
 366° 
 
 1076 
 
 1066 
 
 1056 
 
 1046 
 
 1036 
 
 1026 
 
 1016 1014 
 
 
 
 j 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 293 
 
 THE CIRCLE. 
 
 □ 
 
 A circular vessel will contain a greater quantity 
 than a vessel of any other shape, made of 
 the same amount of material. 
 
 The diameter of a circle is a straight 
 line through its centre, touching both 
 sides. 
 
 The radius of a circle is half its diam- 
 eter. 
 
 The areas of circles are to each other 
 as the squares of their diameters. 
 
 The diameter of a circle being 1, its 
 circumference equals 3.1416. 
 
 The diameter of a circle is equal to 
 .31831 of its circumference. 
 
 The square of the diameter of a circle 
 being 1, its area equals .7854. 
 
 To find the area of any circle, multiply 
 the diameter by itself and the quotient 
 by .7854, the product will be the area of the circle, 
 
 The capacity of any other cylinder, in United 
 States gallons, may be found by multiplying the 
 square of its diameter, in inches, by its length in 
 inches, and dividing by 1728 ; the result will be the 
 contents in cubic feet, which is multiplied by 7.5, and 
 will give the quantity in United States gallons 
 25* 
 
294 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE DIAMETER AND AREAS OP CIRCLES FROM 0.10 
 TO 1.00 INCH, ADVANCING BY .005. 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 at 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 cS 
 
 5 
 
 eg 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 eS 
 
 •51 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 0.10 
 
 .007854 
 
 0.330 
 
 .085530 
 
 0.560 
 
 .246301 
 
 0.790 
 
 .490167 
 
 0.105 
 
 .008659 
 
 0.335 
 
 .088141 
 
 0.565 
 
 .250719 
 
 0.795 
 
 .496391 
 
 0.110 
 
 .009503 
 
 0.340 
 
 .090792 
 
 0.570 
 
 .255176 
 
 0.800 
 
 .502655 
 
 0.115 
 
 .010387 
 
 0.345 
 
 .093482 
 
 0.575 
 
 .259672 
 
 0.805 
 
 .508958 
 
 0.120 
 
 .011310 
 
 0.350 
 
 .096211 
 
 0.580 
 
 .264208 
 
 0.810 
 
 .515299 
 
 0.125 
 
 .012272 
 
 0.355 
 
 .098980 
 
 0.585 
 
 .268783 
 
 0.815 
 
 .521681 
 
 0.130 
 
 .013273 
 
 0.3P0 
 
 .101788 
 
 0.590 
 
 .273397 
 
 0.820 
 
 .528102 
 
 0.135 
 
 .014314 
 
 0.365 
 
 .104635 
 
 0.595 
 
 .278051 
 
 0.825 
 
 .534562 
 
 0.140 
 
 .015394 
 
 0.370 
 
 .107521 
 
 0.600 
 
 .282743 
 
 0.830 
 
 .541061 
 
 0.145 
 
 .016513 
 
 0.375 
 
 .110447 
 
 0.605 
 
 .287475 
 
 0.835 
 
 .547600 
 
 0.150 
 
 .017671 
 
 0.380 
 
 .113411 
 
 0.610 
 
 .292247 
 
 0.840 
 
 .554177 
 
 0.155 
 
 .018869 
 
 0.385 
 
 .116416 
 
 0.615 
 
 297057 
 
 0.845 
 
 .560794 
 
 0.160 
 
 .020106 
 
 0.390 
 
 .119459 
 
 0.620 
 
 .301907 
 
 0.850 
 
 .567451 
 
 0.165 
 
 .021382 
 
 0.395 
 
 .122542 
 
 0.625 
 
 .306796 
 
 0.855 
 
 .574146 
 
 0.170 
 
 .022698 
 
 0.400 
 
 .125664 
 
 0.630 
 
 .311725 
 
 0.860 
 
 .580881 
 
 0.175 
 
 .024053 
 
 0.405 
 
 .128825 
 
 0.635 
 
 .316692 
 
 0.865 
 
 .587655 
 
 0.180 
 
 .025447 
 
 0.410 
 
 .132025 
 
 0.640 
 
 .321699 
 
 0.870 
 
 .594468 
 
 0.185 
 
 .026880 
 
 0.415 
 
 .135265 
 
 0.645 
 
 .326745 
 
 0.875 
 
 .601321 
 
 0.190 
 
 .028353 
 
 0.420 
 
 .138544 
 
 0.650 
 
 .33183 L 
 
 0.880 
 
 .608212 
 
 0.195 
 
 .029865 
 
 0.425 
 
 .141863 
 
 0.655 
 
 .336955 
 
 0.885 
 
 .615144 
 
 0.200 
 
 .031416 
 
 0.430 
 
 .145220 
 
 0.660 
 
 .342119 
 
 0.890 
 
 .622114 
 
 0.205 
 
 .033006 
 
 0.435 
 
 .148617 
 
 0.665 
 
 .347323 
 
 0.895 
 
 .629124 
 
 0.210 
 
 .034636 
 
 0.440 
 
 .152053 
 
 0.670 
 
 .352565 
 
 0.900 
 
 .636173 
 
 0.215 
 
 .036305 
 
 0.445 
 
 .155529 
 
 0.675 
 
 .357847 
 
 0.905 
 
 .643261 
 
 0.220 
 
 .038013 
 
 0.450 
 
 .159043 
 
 0.680 
 
 .363168 
 
 0.910 
 
 .650389 
 
 0.225 
 
 .039761 
 
 0.455 
 
 .162597 
 
 0.685 
 
 .368528 
 
 0.915 
 
 .657556 
 
 0.230 
 
 .041548 
 
 0.460 
 
 .166191 
 
 0.690 
 
 .373928 
 
 0.920 
 
 .664762 
 
 0.235 
 
 .043374 
 
 0.465 
 
 .169823 
 
 0.695 
 
 .379367 
 
 0.925 
 
 .672007 
 
 0.240 
 
 .045239 
 
 0.470 
 
 .173494 
 
 0.700 
 
 .384845 
 
 0.930 
 
 .679292 
 
 0.245 
 
 .047144 
 
 0.475 
 
 .177205 
 
 0-705 
 
 .390363 
 
 0.935 
 
 .686615 
 
 0.250 
 
 .049087 
 
 0.480 
 
 .180956 
 
 0.710 
 
 .395919 
 
 0.940 
 
 .693978 
 
 0.255 
 
 .051071 
 
 0.485 
 
 .184745 
 
 0.715 
 
 ,401515 
 
 0.945 
 
 .701381 
 
 0.260 
 
 .053093 
 
 0.490 
 
 .188574 
 
 0.720 
 
 .407150 
 
 0.950 
 
 .708822 
 
 0.265 
 
 .055155 
 
 0.495 
 
 .192442 
 
 0.725 
 
 .412825 
 
 0.955 
 
 .716303 
 
 0.270 
 
 .057256 
 
 0.500 
 
 .196350 
 
 0.730 
 
 .418539 
 
 0.960 
 
 .723823 
 
 0.275 
 
 .059396 
 
 0.505 
 
 .200296 
 
 0.735 
 
 .424292 
 
 0.965 
 
 .731382 
 
 0.280 
 
 .061575 
 
 0.510 
 
 .204282 
 
 0.740 
 
 .430084 
 
 0.970 
 
 .738981 
 
 285 
 
 .063794 
 
 0.515 
 
 .208307 
 
 0.745 
 
 .435916 
 
 0.975 
 
 .746619 
 
 0.290 
 
 .066052 
 
 0.520 
 
 .212372 
 
 0.750 
 
 .441787 
 
 0.980 
 
 .754297 
 
 0.295 
 
 068349 
 
 0.525 
 
 .216475 
 
 0.755 
 
 .447697 
 
 0.985 
 
 .762013 
 
 0.300 
 
 .070686 
 
 0.530 
 
 .220618 
 
 0.760 
 
 .453646 
 
 0.990 
 
 .769769 
 
 0.305 
 
 .073062 
 
 0.535 
 
 .224801 
 
 0.765 
 
 .459635 
 
 0.995 
 
 .777564 
 
 0.310 
 
 .075477 
 
 0.540 
 
 .229023 
 
 0.770 
 
 .465663 
 
 1.000 
 
 .785398 
 
 0.315 
 
 .077931 
 
 0.545 
 
 .233283 
 
 0.775 
 
 .471729 
 
 1.128 
 
 999227 
 
 0.320 
 
 .080425 
 
 0.550 
 
 .237583 
 
 0.780 
 
 .477836 
 
 
 
 0.325 
 t- 
 
 .082958 
 
 0,555 
 
 .241922 
 
 0.785 
 
 483983 
 
 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 295 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE DIAMETER AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES 
 FROM TO | OF AN INCH, ADVANCING BY EIGHTHS. 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 .0 
 
 -t 
 
 ■* 
 
 •1 
 
 l 
 •2" 
 
 •1 
 
 •1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 .3927 
 
 .7854 
 
 1.178 
 
 1.570 
 
 1.963 
 
 2.356 
 
 2.74S 
 
 l 
 
 3.141 
 
 3.534 
 
 3.927 
 
 4.319 
 
 4.712 
 
 5.105 
 
 5.497 
 
 5.890 
 
 2 
 
 6.283 
 
 6.675 
 
 7.068 
 
 7.461 
 
 7.854 
 
 8.246 
 
 8.639 
 
 9.032 
 
 3 
 
 9.424 
 
 9.817 
 
 10.21 
 
 10.60 
 
 10.99 
 
 11.38 
 
 11.78 
 
 12.17 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 
 
 12.95 
 
 13.35 
 
 13.74 
 
 14.13 
 
 14.52 
 
 14.92 
 
 15.31 
 
 5 
 
 15.70 
 
 16.10 
 
 16.49 
 
 16.88 
 
 17.27 
 
 17.67 
 
 18.06 
 
 18.45 
 
 6 
 
 18.84 
 
 19.24 
 
 19.63 
 
 20.02 
 
 20.42 
 
 20.81 
 
 21.20 
 
 21.59 
 
 7 
 
 21.99 
 
 22.38 
 
 22.77 
 
 23.16 
 
 23.56 
 
 23.95 
 
 24.34 
 
 24.74 
 
 8 
 
 25.13 
 
 25.52 
 
 25.91 
 
 26.31 
 
 26.70 
 
 27.09 
 
 27.48 
 
 27.88 
 
 9 
 
 28.27 
 
 28.66 
 
 29.05 
 
 29.45 
 
 29.84 
 
 30.23 
 
 30.63 
 
 31.02 
 
 10 
 
 31.41 
 
 31.80 
 
 32.20 
 
 32.59 
 
 32.98 
 
 33.37 
 
 33.77 
 
 34.16 
 
 11 
 
 34.55 
 
 34.95 
 
 35.34 
 
 35.73 
 
 36.12 
 
 36.52 
 
 36.91 
 
 37.30 
 
 12 
 
 37.69 
 
 38.09 
 
 38.48 
 
 38.87 
 
 39.27 
 
 39.66 
 
 40.05 
 
 40.44 
 
 13 
 
 40 84 
 
 41.23 
 
 41.62 
 
 42.01 
 
 42.41 
 
 42.80 
 
 43.19 
 
 43.58 
 
 14 
 
 43.98 
 
 44.37 
 
 44.76 
 
 45.16 
 
 45.55 
 
 45.94 
 
 46.33 
 
 46.73 
 
 15 
 
 47.12 
 
 47.51 
 
 47.90 
 
 48.30 
 
 48.69 
 
 49.08 
 
 49.48 
 
 49.87 
 
 16 
 
 50.26 
 
 50.65 
 
 51.05 
 
 51.44 
 
 51.83 
 
 52.22 
 
 52.62 
 
 53.01 
 
 : 17 
 
 53.40 
 
 53.79 
 
 54.19 
 
 54.58 
 
 54.97 
 
 55.37 
 
 55.76 
 
 56.15 
 
 18 
 
 56.54 
 
 56.94 
 
 57.33 
 
 57 72 
 
 58.11 
 
 58.51 
 
 58.90 
 
 59.29 
 
 19 
 
 59.69 
 
 60.08 
 
 60.47 
 
 60^86 
 
 61.26 
 
 61.65 
 
 62.04 
 
 62.43 
 
 20 
 
 62.83 
 
 63.22 
 
 63.61 
 
 64.01 
 
 64.40 
 
 64.79 
 
 65.18 
 
 65.58 
 
 21 
 
 65.97 
 
 66.36 
 
 66.75 
 
 67.15 
 
 67.54 
 
 67.93 
 
 68.32 
 
 68.72 
 
 22 
 
 69.11 
 
 69.50 
 
 69.90 
 
 70.29 
 
 70.68 
 
 71.07 
 
 71.47 
 
 71.86 
 
 23 
 
 72.25 
 
 72.64 
 
 73.04 
 
 73.43 
 
 73.82 
 
 74.22 
 
 74.61 
 
 75.00 
 
 24 
 
 75.39 
 
 75.79 
 
 76.18 
 
 76.57 
 
 76.96 
 
 77.36 
 
 77.75 
 
 78.14 
 
 25 
 
 78.54 
 
 78.93 
 
 79.32 
 
 79.71 
 
 80.10 
 
 80.50 
 
 80.89 
 
 81.28 
 
 26 
 
 81.68 
 
 82.07 
 
 82.46 
 
 82.85 
 
 83.25 
 
 83.64 
 
 84.03 
 
 84.43 
 
 27 
 
 84.82 
 
 85.21 
 
 85.60 
 
 86.00 
 
 86.39 
 
 86.78 
 
 87.17 
 
 87.57 
 
 28 
 
 87.96 
 
 88.35 
 
 88.75 
 
 89.14 
 
 89.53 
 
 89.92 
 
 90.32 
 
 90.71 
 
 . 29 
 
 91.10 
 
 91.49 
 
 91.89 
 
 92.28 
 
 92.67 
 
 93.06 
 
 93.46 
 
 93.85 
 
 30 
 
 94.24 
 
 94.64 
 
 95.03 
 
 95.42 
 
 95.81 
 
 96.21 
 
 96.60 
 
 96.99 
 
 31 
 
 97.39 
 
 97.78 
 
 98.17 
 
 98.57 
 
 98.96 
 
 99.35 
 
 99.75 
 
 100.14 
 
 32 
 
 100.53 
 
 100.92 
 
 101.32 
 
 101.71 
 
 102.10 
 
 102.49 
 
 102.89 
 
 103.29 
 
 33 
 
 103.67 
 
 104.07 
 
 104.46 
 
 104.85 
 
 105.24 
 
 105.64 
 
 106.03 
 
 106.42 
 
 ! 34 
 
 106.81 
 
 107.21 
 
 107.60 
 
 107.99 
 
 108.39 
 
 108.78 
 
 109.17 
 
 109.56 
 
 1 35 
 
 109.96 
 
 110.35 
 
 110.74 
 
 111.13 
 
 111.53 
 
 111.92 
 
 112.31 
 
 112.71 
 
 l 36 
 
 113.10 
 
 113.49 
 
 113.88 
 
 114.28 
 
 114.67 
 
 115.06 
 
 115.45 
 
 115.85 
 
 37 
 
 116.24 
 
 116.63 
 
 117.02 
 
 117.42 
 
 117.81 
 
 118.20 
 
 118.60 
 
 118.99 
 
 38 
 
 119.38 
 
 119.77 
 
 120.17 
 
 120.56 
 
 120.95 
 
 121.34 
 
 121.74 
 
 122.13 
 
 39 
 
 122.52 
 
 122.92 
 
 123.31 
 
 123.70 
 
 124.09 
 
 124.49 
 
 124.88 
 
 125.27 
 
 1 40 
 
 125.66 
 
 126.06 
 
 126.45 
 
 126.84 
 
 127.24 
 
 127.63 
 
 128.02 
 
 128.41 
 
 41 
 
 128.81 
 
 129.20 
 
 127.59 
 
 129.98 
 
 130.38 
 
 130.77 
 
 131.16 
 
 131.55 
 
 42 
 
 131.95 
 
 132.34 
 
 132.73 
 
 133.13 
 
 133.52 
 
 133.91 
 
 134.30 
 
 134.70 
 
 43 
 
 135.09 
 
 135.48 
 
 135.87 
 
 136.27 
 
 136.66 
 
 137.05 
 
 137.45 
 
 137.84 
 
 44 
 
 138.23 
 
 138.62 
 
 139.02 
 
 139.41 
 
 139.80 
 
 140.19 
 
 140.59 
 
 140.98 
 
 45 
 
 141.37 
 
 141.76 
 
 142.16 
 
 142.55 
 
 142.94 
 
 143.34 
 
 143.73 
 
 144.12 
 
296 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF DIAMETERS AND AREAS OP CIRCLES FROM TO f OF AH 
 INCH, ADVANCING FROM -g-. 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 .0 
 
 .* 
 
 •i 
 
 •1 
 
 •i 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 .0122 
 
 .0490 
 
 .1104 
 
 .1963 
 
 .3068 
 
 .4417 
 
 .6013 
 
 i 
 
 .7854 
 
 .9940 
 
 1.227 
 
 1.484 
 
 1.767 
 
 2.073 
 
 2.405 
 
 2.761 
 
 2 
 
 3.1416 
 
 3.546 
 
 3.976 
 
 4.430 
 
 4.908 
 
 5.411 
 
 5.939 
 
 6.491 
 
 3 
 
 7.068 
 
 7.669 
 
 8.295 
 
 8.946 
 
 9.621 
 
 10.32 
 
 11.04 
 
 11.79 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 
 
 13.36 
 
 14.18 
 
 15.03 
 
 15.90 
 
 16.80 
 
 17.72 
 
 18.66 
 
 5 
 
 19.63 
 
 20.62 
 
 21.64 
 
 22.69 
 
 23.75 
 
 24.85 
 
 25.96 
 
 27.10 
 
 6 
 
 28.27 
 
 29.46 
 
 30.67 
 
 31.91 
 
 33.18 
 
 34.47 
 
 35.78 
 
 37.12 
 
 7 
 
 38.48 
 
 39.87 
 
 41.28 
 
 42.71 
 
 44.17 
 
 45.66 
 
 47.17 
 
 48.70 
 
 8 
 
 50.26 
 
 51.84 
 
 53.45 
 
 55.08 
 
 56.74 
 
 58.42 
 
 60.13 
 
 61.86 
 
 9 
 
 63.61 
 
 65.39 
 
 67.20 
 
 69.02 
 
 70.88 
 
 72.75 
 
 74.66 
 
 76.58 
 
 10 
 
 78.54 
 
 80.51 
 
 82.51 
 
 84.54 
 
 86.59 
 
 88.66 
 
 90.76 
 
 92.88 
 
 11 
 
 95.03 
 
 97.20 
 
 99.40 
 
 101.6 
 
 103.8 
 
 106.1 
 
 108.4 
 
 110.7 
 
 12 
 
 113.0 
 
 115.4 
 
 117.8 
 
 120.2 
 
 122.7 
 
 125.1 
 
 127.6 
 
 130.1 
 
 13 
 
 132.7 
 
 135.2 
 
 137.8 
 
 140.5 
 
 143.1 
 
 145.8 
 
 148.4 
 
 151.2 
 
 14 
 
 153.9 
 
 156.6 
 
 159.4 
 
 162.2 
 
 165.1 
 
 167.9 
 
 170.8 
 
 173.7 
 
 15 
 
 176.7 
 
 179.6 
 
 182.6 
 
 185.6 
 
 188.6 
 
 191.7 
 
 194.8 
 
 197.9 
 
 16 
 
 201.0 
 
 204.2 
 
 207.3 
 
 210.5 
 
 213.8 
 
 217.0 
 
 220.3 
 
 223.6 
 
 17 
 
 226.9 
 
 230.3 
 
 233.7 
 
 237.1 
 
 240.5 
 
 243.9 
 
 247.4 
 
 250.9 
 
 18 
 
 254.4 
 
 258.0 
 
 261.5 
 
 265.1 
 
 268.8 
 
 272.4 
 
 276.1 
 
 279.8 
 
 19 
 
 283.5 
 
 287.2 
 
 291.0 
 
 294.8 
 
 298.6 
 
 302.4 
 
 306.3 
 
 310.2 
 
 20 
 
 314.1 
 
 318.1 
 
 322.0 
 
 326.0 
 
 330.0 
 
 334.1 
 
 338.1 
 
 342.2 
 
 21 
 
 346.3 
 
 350.4 
 
 354.6 
 
 358.8 
 
 363.0 
 
 367.2 
 
 371.5 
 
 375.8 
 
 22 
 
 380.1 
 
 384.4 
 
 388.8 
 
 393.2 
 
 397.6 
 
 402.0 
 
 406.4 
 
 410.9 
 
 23 
 
 415.4 
 
 420.0 
 
 424.5 
 
 429.1 
 
 433.7 
 
 438.3 
 
 443.0 
 
 447.6 
 
 24 
 
 452.3 
 
 457.1 
 
 461.8 
 
 466.6 
 
 471.4 
 
 476.2 
 
 481.1 
 
 485.9 
 
 25 
 
 490.8 
 
 495.7 
 
 500.7 
 
 505.7 
 
 510.7 
 
 515.7 
 
 520.7 
 
 525.8 
 
 26 
 
 530.9 
 
 536.0 
 
 541.1 
 
 546.3 
 
 551.5 
 
 556.7 
 
 562.0 
 
 567.2 
 
 27 
 
 572.5 
 
 577.8 
 
 583.2 
 
 588.5 
 
 593.9 
 
 599.3 
 
 604.8 
 
 610.2 
 
 28 
 
 615.7 
 
 621.2 
 
 626.7 
 
 632.3 
 
 637.9 
 
 643.5 
 
 649.1 
 
 654.8 
 
 29 
 
 660.5 
 
 666.2 
 
 671.9 
 
 677.7 
 
 683.4 
 
 689.2 
 
 695.1 
 
 700.9 
 
 30 
 
 706.8 
 
 712.7 
 
 718.6 
 
 724.6 
 
 730.6 
 
 736.6 
 
 742.6 
 
 748.6 
 
 31 
 
 754.8 
 
 760.9 
 
 767.0 
 
 773.1 
 
 779.3 
 
 785.5 
 
 791.7 
 
 798.0 
 
 32 
 
 804.3 
 
 810.6 
 
 816.9 
 
 823.2 
 
 829.6 
 
 836.0 
 
 842,4 
 
 848.8 
 
 33 
 
 855.3 
 
 861.8 
 
 868.3 
 
 874.9 
 
 881.4 
 
 888.0 
 
 894.6 
 
 901.3 
 
 34 
 
 907.9 
 
 914.7 
 
 921.3 
 
 928.1 
 
 934.8 
 
 941.6 
 
 948.4 
 
 955.3 
 
 35 
 
 962.1 
 
 969.0 
 
 975.9 
 
 982.8 
 
 989.8 
 
 996.8 
 
 1003.8 
 
 1010 8 
 
 36 
 
 1017.9 
 
 1025.0 
 
 1032.1 
 
 1039.2 
 
 1046.3 
 
 1053.5 
 
 1060.7 
 
 1068.0 
 
 37 
 
 1075.2 
 
 1082.5 
 
 1089.8 
 
 1097.1 
 
 1104.5 
 
 1111.8 
 
 1119.2 
 
 1126.7 
 
 38 
 
 1131.1 
 
 1141.6 
 
 1149.1 
 
 1156.6 
 
 1164.2 
 
 1171.7 
 
 1179.3 
 
 1186.9 
 
 39 
 
 1194.6 
 
 1202.3 
 
 1210.0 
 
 1217.7 
 
 1225.4 
 
 1233.2 
 
 1241.0 
 
 1248.8 
 
 40 
 
 1256.6 
 
 1264.5 
 
 1272.4 
 
 1280.3 
 
 1288.2 
 
 1296.2 
 
 1304.2 
 
 1312.2 
 
 41 
 
 1320.3 
 
 1328.3 
 
 1336.4 
 
 1344.5 
 
 1352.7 
 
 1360.8 
 
 1369.0 
 
 1377.2 
 
 42 
 
 1385.4 
 
 1393.7 
 
 1402.0 
 
 1410.3 
 
 1418.6 
 
 1427.0 
 
 1435.4 
 
 1443.8 
 
 43 
 
 1452.2 
 
 1460.7 
 
 1469.1 
 
 1477.6 
 
 1486.2 
 
 1494.7 
 
 1503.3 
 
 1511.9 
 
 44 
 
 1520.5 
 
 1529.2 
 
 1537.9 
 
 1546.6 
 
 1555.3 
 
 1564.0 
 
 1572.8 
 
 1581.6 
 
 45 
 
 > 
 
 1590.4 
 
 1599.3 
 
 1608.2 
 
 1617.0 
 
 1626.0 
 
 1634.9 
 
 1643.9 
 
 1652.9 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 29? 
 
 TABLE 
 
 O? DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND 
 
 AREAS OF 
 
 CIRCLES 
 
 FROM T V OF 
 
 AN INCH TO 25 INCHES. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circnm. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 .1963 
 
 .0030 
 
 A 
 
 7.6576 
 
 4.6664 
 
 if 
 
 15.1189 
 
 18.1900 
 
 £ 
 
 .3927 
 
 .0122 
 
 i 
 
 7.8540 
 
 4.9087 
 
 ¥ 
 
 15.3153 
 
 18.6655 
 
 A 
 
 .5890 
 
 .0276 
 
 A 
 
 8.0503 
 
 5.1573 
 
 If 
 
 15.5716 
 
 19.1472 
 
 ¥ 
 
 .7854 
 
 .0490 
 
 * 
 
 8.2467 
 
 5.4119 
 
 5 
 
 15.7080 
 
 19.6350 
 
 t 
 
 .9817 
 
 .0767 
 
 f 
 
 8.4430 
 
 5.6727 
 
 A 
 
 15.9043 
 
 20.1290 
 
 1.1781 
 
 .1104 
 
 8.6394 
 
 5.9395 
 
 ¥ 
 
 16.1007 
 
 20.6290 
 
 f 
 
 1.3744 
 
 .1503 
 
 it 
 
 8.8357 
 
 6.2126 
 
 A 
 
 16.2970 
 
 21.1252 
 
 1.5708 
 
 .1963 
 
 i 
 
 9.0321 
 
 6.4918 
 
 f 
 
 16.4934 
 
 21.6475 
 
 A 
 
 1.7671 
 
 .2485 
 
 if 
 
 9.2284 
 
 6.7772 
 
 f 
 
 16.6897 
 
 22.1661 
 
 % 
 
 1.9635 
 
 .3068 
 
 3 
 
 9.4248 
 
 7.0686 
 
 16.8861 
 
 22.6907 
 
 H 
 
 2.1598 
 
 .3712 
 
 t 
 
 9.6211 
 
 7.3662 
 
 A 
 
 17.0824 
 
 23.2215 
 
 1 
 
 2.3562 
 
 .4417 
 
 9.8175 
 
 7.6699 
 
 ¥ 
 
 17.2788 
 
 23.7583 
 
 it 
 
 2.5525 
 
 .5185 
 
 A 
 
 10.0138 
 
 7.9798 
 
 f 
 
 17.4751 
 
 24.3014 
 
 i 
 
 2.7489 
 
 .6013 
 
 i 
 
 10.2120 
 
 8.2957 
 
 17.6715 
 
 24.8505 
 
 if 
 
 2.9452 
 
 .6903 
 
 A 
 
 10.4065 
 
 8.6179 
 
 H 
 
 17.8678 
 
 25.4058 
 
 T 
 
 3.1416 
 
 .7854 
 
 f 
 
 10.6029 
 
 8.9462 
 
 i 
 
 18.0642 
 
 25.9672 
 
 A 
 
 3.3379 
 
 .8861 
 
 A 
 
 10.7992 
 
 9.2806 
 
 it 
 
 18.2605 
 
 26.5348 
 
 ¥ 
 
 3.5343 
 
 .9940 
 
 ¥ 
 
 10.9956 
 
 9.6211 
 
 £ 
 
 18.4569 
 
 27.1085 
 
 A 
 
 3.7306 
 
 1.1075 
 
 A 
 
 11.1919 
 
 9.9678 
 
 if 
 
 18.6532 
 
 27.6884 
 
 ¥ 
 
 3.9270 
 
 1.2271 
 
 * 
 
 11.3883 
 
 10.3206 
 
 6 
 
 18.8496 
 
 28.2744 
 
 f 
 
 4.1233 
 
 1.3529 
 
 tt 
 
 11.5846 
 
 10.6796 
 
 A 
 
 19.0459 
 
 28.8665 
 
 4.3197 
 
 1.4848 
 
 i 
 
 11.7810 
 
 11.0446 
 
 ¥ 
 
 19.2423 
 
 29.4647 
 
 * 
 
 4.5160 
 
 1.6229 
 
 it 
 
 11.9773 
 
 11.4159 
 
 f 
 
 19.4386 
 
 30.0798 
 
 4.7124 
 
 1.7671 
 
 i 
 
 12.1737 
 
 11.7932 
 
 19.6350 
 
 30.6796 
 
 A 
 
 4.9087 
 
 1.9175 
 
 if 
 
 12.3700 
 
 12.1768 
 
 A 
 
 19.8313 
 
 31.2964 
 
 * 
 
 5.1051 
 
 2.0739 
 
 4 
 
 12.5664 
 
 12.5664 
 
 1 
 
 20.0277 
 
 31.9192 
 
 H 
 
 5.3014 
 
 2.2365 
 
 A 
 
 12.7627 
 
 12.9622 
 
 A 
 
 20.2240 
 
 32.5481 
 
 1 
 
 5.4978 
 
 2.4052 
 
 4 
 
 12.9591 
 
 13.3640 
 
 X. 
 
 20.4204 
 
 33.1831 
 
 H 
 
 5.6941 
 
 2.5801 
 
 A 
 
 13.1554 
 
 13.7721 
 
 A 
 
 20.6167 
 
 33.8244 
 
 % 
 
 5.8905 
 
 2.7611 
 
 i 
 
 13.3518 
 
 14.1862 
 
 1 
 
 20.8131 
 
 34.4717 
 
 n 
 
 6.0868 
 
 2.9483 
 
 A 
 
 13.5481 
 
 14.6066 
 
 H 
 
 21.0094 
 
 35.1252 
 
 2 
 
 6.2832 
 
 3.1416 
 
 1 
 
 13.7445 
 
 15.0331 
 
 1 
 
 21.2058 
 
 35.7847 
 
 iV 
 
 6.4795 
 
 3.3411 
 
 A 
 
 13.9408 
 
 15.4657 
 
 if 
 
 21.4021 
 
 36.4505 
 
 JL 
 
 6.6759 
 
 3.5465 
 
 i 
 
 14.1372 
 
 15.9043 
 
 i 
 
 21.5985 
 
 37.1224 
 
 A 
 
 6.8722 
 
 3.7582 
 
 A 
 
 14.3335 
 
 16.3492 
 
 if 
 
 21.7948 
 
 37.8005 
 
 i- 
 
 7.0686 
 
 3.9760 
 
 t 
 
 14.5299 
 
 16.8001 
 
 7 
 
 21.9912 
 
 38.4846 
 
 A 
 
 7.2640 
 
 4.2001 
 
 f 
 
 14.7262 
 
 17.2573 
 
 A 
 
 22.1875 
 
 39.1749 
 
 1 7.4613 
 f 
 
 4.4302 
 
 14.9226 
 
 17.7205 
 
 4 
 
 22.3839 
 
 39.8713 
 
 i 
 
298 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 
 
 TABL E— (Continued.) 
 
 
 Dian, 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Dian, 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 Inch. 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 22.5802 
 
 40.5469 
 
 4 
 
 30.6306 
 
 74.6620 
 
 A 
 
 22.7766 
 
 41.2825 
 
 30.8269 
 
 75.6223 
 
 22.9729 
 
 41.9974 
 
 1 
 
 31.0233 
 
 76.5887 
 
 1 
 
 23.1693 
 
 42.7184 
 
 » 
 
 31.2196 
 
 77.5613 
 
 ft 
 
 23.3656 
 
 43.4455 
 
 31.4160 
 
 78.5400 
 
 \ 
 
 23.5620 
 
 44.1787 
 
 i 
 
 31.8087 
 
 80.5157 
 
 f 
 
 23.7583 
 
 44.9181 
 
 
 32.2014 
 
 82.5160 
 
 23.9547 
 
 45.6636 
 
 | 
 
 32.5941 
 
 84.5409 
 
 tt 
 
 24.1510 
 
 46.4153 
 
 i 
 
 32.9868 
 
 86.5903 
 
 1 
 
 24.3474 
 
 47.1730 
 
 1 
 
 33.3795 
 
 88.6643 
 
 tt 
 
 24.5437 
 
 47.9370 
 
 1 
 
 33.7722 
 
 90.7627 
 
 1 
 
 24.7401 
 
 48.7070 
 
 i 
 
 34.1649 
 
 92.8858 
 
 H 
 
 24.9364 
 
 49.4833 
 
 11 
 
 34.5576 
 
 95.0334 
 
 8 
 
 25.1328 
 
 50.2656 
 
 i 
 
 34.9503 
 
 97.2053 
 
 A 
 
 25.3291 
 
 51.0541 
 
 I 
 
 35.3430 
 
 99.4021 
 
 4 
 
 25.5255 
 
 51.8486 
 
 
 35.7357 
 
 101.6234 
 
 25.7218 
 
 52.8994 
 
 \ 
 
 36.1284 
 
 103.8691 
 
 A 
 
 25.9182 
 
 53.4562 
 
 f 
 
 36.5211 
 
 106.1394 
 
 26.1145 
 
 54.2748 
 
 1 
 
 36.9138 
 
 108.4342 
 
 I 
 
 26.3109 
 
 55.0885 
 
 f 
 
 37.3065 
 
 110.7536 
 
 26.5072 
 
 55.9138 
 
 12 
 
 . 37.6992 
 
 113.0976 
 
 * 
 
 26.7036 
 
 56.7451 
 
 \ 
 
 38.0919 
 
 115.4660 
 
 ft 
 
 26.8999 
 
 57.5887 
 
 \ 
 
 38.4846 
 
 117.8590 
 
 1 
 
 27.0963 
 
 58.4264 
 
 | 
 
 38.8773 
 
 120.2766 
 
 tt 
 
 27.2926 
 
 59.7762 
 
 \ 
 
 39.2700 
 
 122.7187 
 
 1 
 
 27.4890 
 
 60.1321 
 
 1 
 
 39.6627 
 
 125.1854 
 
 « 
 
 27.6853 
 
 60.9943 
 
 1 
 
 40.0554 
 
 127.6765 
 
 } 
 
 27.8817 
 
 61.8625 
 
 I 
 
 40.4481 
 
 130.1923 
 
 » 
 
 28.0780 
 
 62.7369 
 
 13 
 
 40.8408 
 
 132.7326 
 
 9 
 
 28.2744 
 
 63.6174 
 
 \ 
 
 41.2338 
 
 135.2974 
 
 ft 
 
 28.4707 
 
 64.5041 
 
 
 41.6262 
 
 137.8867 
 
 A 
 
 28.6671 
 
 65.3968 
 
 | 
 
 42.0189 
 
 140.5007 
 
 28.8634 
 
 66.2957 
 
 \ 
 
 42.4116 
 
 143.1391 
 
 4 
 
 29.0598 
 
 67.2007 
 
 •| 
 
 42.8043 
 
 145.8021 
 
 29.2561 
 
 68.1120 
 
 | 
 
 43.1970 
 
 148.4896 
 
 t 
 
 29.4525 
 
 69.0293 
 
 | 
 
 43.5897 
 
 151.2017 
 
 ft 
 
 29.6488 
 
 69.9528 
 
 14 
 
 43.9824 
 
 153.9384 
 
 A 
 
 29.8452 
 
 70.8823 
 
 \ 
 
 44.3751 
 
 156.6995 
 
 30.0415 
 
 71.8181 
 
 J 
 
 44.7676 
 
 159.4852 
 
 1 
 
 30.2379 
 
 72.7599 
 
 45.1605 
 
 162.2956 
 
 H 
 
 30.4342 
 
 73.7079 
 
 \ 
 
 45.5532 
 
 165.1303 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOH. 
 
 299 
 
 TABL E— (Continued.) 
 
 45.9459 
 46.3386 
 46.7313 
 47.1240 
 47.5167 
 47.9094 
 48.3021 
 48.6948 
 49.0875 
 49.4802 
 49.8729 
 50.2656 
 50.6583 
 51.0510 
 51.4437 
 51.8364 
 52.2291 
 52.6218 
 53.0145 
 53.4072 
 53.7999 
 54.1926 
 54.5853 
 54.9780 
 55.3707 
 55.7634 
 56.1561 
 56.5488 
 56.9415 
 57.3342 
 57.7269 
 58.1196 
 
 167.9896 
 170.8735 
 173.7820 
 176.7150 
 179.6725 
 182.6545 
 185.6612 
 188.6923 
 191.7480 
 194.8282 
 197.9330 
 201.0624 
 204.2162 
 207.3946 
 210.5976 
 213.8251 
 217.0772 
 220.3537 
 223.6549 
 226.9806 
 230.3308 
 233.7055 
 237.1049 
 240.5287 
 243.9771 
 247.4500 
 250.9475 
 254.4696 
 258.0161 
 261.5872 
 265.1829 
 268.8031 
 
 Diam. Circum. 
 
 69.1150 
 69.9004 
 70.6858 
 71.4712 
 72.2566 
 73.0420 
 73.8274 
 74.6128 
 75.3982 
 76.1836 
 76.9690 
 77.7544 
 78.5398 
 
 272.4479 
 
 276.1171 
 
 279.8110 
 
 283.5294 
 
 287.2723 
 
 291.0397 
 
 294.8312 
 
 298.6483 
 
 302.4894 
 
 306.3550 
 
 310.2452 
 
 314.1600 
 
 322.06 
 
 330.06 
 
 338.16 
 
 346.36 
 
 354.66 
 
 363.05 
 
 371.54 
 
 380.13 
 
 388.82 
 
 397.61 
 
 406.49 
 
 415.88 
 
 424.56 
 
 433.74 
 
 443.01 
 
 452.39 
 
 461.86 
 
 471.44 
 
 481.11 
 
 490.87 
 
 The area of any circle larger than those in the 
 table may be obtained by squaring the diameter and 
 multiplying the product by .7854. 
 
 Example. — 20x20 equals 400, which, multiplied 
 by .7854, gives 314.16 
 
300 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 STANDARD UNITS 
 
 ADOPTED IN THIS COUNTRY AND ENGLAND. 
 
 The unit of capacity adopted in this country and 
 England is the cubit foot, pint, and gallon. 
 
 The unit of heat recognized in this country is the 
 amount required to raise one pound of water 1° Eah., 
 or from 32° to 33° Fah. 
 
 The unit of length recognized in this country and 
 England is the yard, foot, and inch. 
 
 The unit of pressure, as adopted in this country 
 and England, is that of the atmosphere at sea-level 
 with the barometer at 30 inches of mercury. 
 
 The unit of surface employed in this country and 
 England is the square foot, yard, and inch. 
 
 The unit of time is the same in all civilized coun- 
 tries — the second, minute, and hour. 
 
 The unit of duration is the twenty-fourth part of a 
 solar day, and is called an hour, and contains 60 min- 
 utes, which is again divided into 60 seconds. 
 
 The unit of velocity differs slightly with different 
 scientific authorities, and in different countries, but 
 in the case of some falling bodies, projectiles, etc., 
 which is generally expressed in feet per second, and 
 in light and electricity, miles, etc. 
 
 The unit of weight is recognized in this country 
 and England as the pound. 
 
 The unit of work recognized in this country and 
 England is the foot-pound, which is the force neces- 
 sary to raise one ^ound one foot. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 301 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES 
 
 PER CUBIC FOOT. 
 
 Specific Weight 
 
 Gravity. per cu. ft 
 
 Water at 62° Fah 1.000 62.321 
 
 Platinum ... . 21.522 1342.000 
 
 Gold . 19.425 1205.000 
 
 Mercury .... . 13.596 848.750 
 
 Lead ... . . 11.418 712.000 
 
 Silver 10.505 655.000 
 
 Bismuth 9.900 616.978 
 
 Copper, hammered .... 8.917 556.000 
 
 " sheet 8.805 549.000 
 
 " cast 8.600 537.000 
 
 Gun metal, 84 copper, 16 tin . ■ . 8.560 533.468 
 
 83 " 17 " . 8.460 527.235 
 
 Nickel, hammered .... 8.670 540.223 
 
 " cast 8.280 516.018 
 
 Bearing metal, 79 copper, 21 tin . . 8.730 544.062 
 
 Brass, wire 8.540 533.000 
 
 " cast, 75 copper, 25 zinc . . 8.450 526.612 
 
 " " 66 " 34 " . . 8.300 517.264 
 
 " " 60 " 40 " . . 8.200 511.032 
 
 Bronze 8.400 524.000 
 
 Steel 7.852 490.000 
 
 Iron, wrought, average . . . 7.698 480.000 
 
 " cast 7.110 444.000 
 
 Zinc, sheet 7.200 449.000 
 
 " cast .....*. 6.860 424.000 
 
 Tin . \ . . . . . . 7.409 462.000 
 
 Antimony 6.710 418.174 
 
 Iron ores j 5 ' 251 j 327 ' 247 
 
 13.829 1238.627 
 26 
 
302 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABL E— (Continued) 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC. 
 
 Specific Weight 
 
 Gravity. per cu. ft 
 
 Aluminum, cast . ... 2.560 159.542 
 
 Manganese 8.00 498.568 
 
 Basalt . . ... 3.00 187.000 
 
 Glass, flint 3.00 187.000 
 
 " plate 2.70 169.000 
 
 Marble ...... A 2M { 176 " 991 
 
 1 2.52 1 157.049 
 
 Granite { 3 f j 190 ' 702 
 
 ( 2.36 1 147,077 
 
 Soapstone, steatite . . . . 2.73 140.000 
 
 Flint .... . . 2.63 164.200 
 
 Feldspar. ... . 2.60 162.300 
 
 Limestone P* |™ 
 
 1 2.7 1 169.000 
 
 2.90 f 181.000 
 
 2.80 \ 175.000 
 
 Trap rock 2.72 170.000 
 
 Quartz j 1 ' 26 { 78 " 524 
 
 H 12.65 1165.000 
 
 Shale 2.60 162.000 
 
 Sandstone, average . . . 2.30 144.000 
 
 Gypsum, plaster of Paris . . . 2.30 144.000 
 
 Slate . . A 
 
 30 f 144.000 
 
 85 U 16.000 
 
 f 2 ' 
 Masonry . . . • . A " 
 
 Graphite . . . . . . 2.20 137.106 
 
 Brick . . .j 
 
 2.167 / 135.000 
 2.000 '1 125.000 
 
 r 2.78 { 174.000 
 1 1.87 1 117.000 
 Clay 1.92 120.000 
 
 Chalk .... . .{^ 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 303 
 
 TABL JZ-iContinued) 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GEAVITY, ETC 
 Specific 
 
 Sand, damp J! 
 
 " dry j 
 Sulphur 
 
 Marl 
 
 Mud 
 
 Coal, anthracite 
 
 " bituminous 
 
 Coke, dry, loose, average 
 Scoria .... 
 Cement, Amer., Eosendale, loose . 
 
 " well shaken, . 
 thor'ly shaken . 
 " struck bushel, 75 pounds 
 
 Acid, sulphuric 1.840 
 
 " nitric 1.220 
 
 " acetic 1.080 
 
 Milk 1.030 
 
 Sea water . . . . . . 1.026 
 
 Linseed oil 0.940 
 
 Sperm oil 0.923 
 
 Olive oil 0.915 
 
 Alcohol, proof spirit .... 0.920 
 
 " pure 0.791 
 
 Petroleum . ... 0.878 
 
 Turpentine oil 0.870 
 
 Naphtha 0.848 
 
 Ether 0.716 
 
 Ash .'..,... 0.753 
 
 Weight 
 
 per cu. ft. 
 
 118.000 
 
 88.600 
 
 125.000 
 
 (119.000 
 
 (100.000 
 
 102.000 
 
 100.000 
 
 (89.900 
 
 (77.400 
 
 28.000 
 
 51.726 
 
 60.000 
 
 70.000 
 
 80.000 
 
 114.670 
 76.031 
 67.306 
 64.100 
 64.050 
 58.680 
 57.620 
 57.120 
 57.335 
 49.380 
 54.810 
 54.310 
 52.940 
 44.700 
 47.0 
 
304 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABL E— {Continued) 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC 
 
 Specific Weight 
 
 Gravity. per cu. ft 
 
 Bamboo . . . . . . . 0.400 25.0 
 
 Beech 0.690 43.0 
 
 Birch 0.711 44.4 
 
 Blue gum 0.834 52.5 
 
 Boxwood 0.960 60.0 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon .... 0.486 30.4 
 
 Cherry, dry 0.672 42.0 
 
 Chestnut 0.535 33.4 
 
 Cork ... ... 0.250 15.6 
 
 Ebony, West India .... 1.193 74.5 
 
 Elm 0.544 34.0 
 
 Greenheart 1.001 62.5 
 
 Hawthorn 0.910 57.0 
 
 Hazel ... ... 0.860 54.0 
 
 Hemlock, dry . ... 0.400 25.0 
 
 Holly . . .... 0.760 47.0 
 
 Hickory 0.850 53.0 
 
 Hornbeam 0.760 47.0 
 
 Laburnum 0.920 . 57.0 
 
 T , / 1.010 (63.0 
 
 LanCeW00d i 0.675 142.0 
 
 T . ., / 1.330 J 83.0 
 
 Lignum vita, . . . .{^ { ^ 
 
 Locust 0.710 44.0 
 
 Mahogany, Honduras .... 0.560 35.0 
 
 Spanish . . . . 0.850 53.0 
 
 Maple 0.790 49.0 
 
 Oak, live, dry 0.950 59.3 
 
 " white, dry 0.830 51.8 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 305 
 
 TABL E— {Continued) 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC 
 
 Specific Weight 
 
 Gravity. per cu. ft 
 
 Pine, white, dry 0.400 25.0 
 
 " yellow, dry ..... 0.550 34.3 
 
 " Southern, dry .... 0.720 45.0 
 
 Sycamore . . 0.590 37.0 
 
 m , T ,. $0,880 $55.0 
 
 Teak, Indian ... . Z < 
 
 I 0.660 * 41.0 
 
 Water gum 1.001 62.5 
 
 Walnut . • . , 0.610 38.0 
 
 Willow . . ... . , . 0.400 25.0 
 
 Yew 0.800 50.0 
 
 Ivory 1.82 114.000 
 
 India rubber 0.92 58.000 
 
 Lard .... ... 0.95 59.000 
 
 Gutta-percha 0.98 61.100 
 
 Beeswax 0.97 60.500 
 
 Turf, dry, loose 0.401 25.000 
 
 Pitch ...... . 1.15 71.700 
 
 Fat . 0.93 58.000 
 
 Tallow 0.936 58.396 
 
 Gases. 
 
 Weight per cubic foot at 32° Fah., and under pressure 
 of one atmosphere . 
 
 Air .... .... 0.080728 
 
 Carbonic acid 0.12344 
 
 Hydrogen . 0.005592 
 
 Oxygen 0.089256 
 
 Nitrogen 0.078596 
 
 Steam (ideal), Eankine 0.05022 
 
 Vapor of ether, Eankine (ideal) . . . 0.2093 
 
 " bi-sulphide of carbon, Eankine . . 0.2137 
 
 Oleflant gas (marsh gas) 0.0795 
 
 26* U 
 
306 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 
 
 
 Weights. 
 
 IS 
 
 02 tUD 
 
 Name of Substance. 
 
 Per cu. 
 foot. 
 
 Per sq.ft., 
 1 inch 
 thick. 
 
 Per cu. 
 inch. 
 
 Water, pure . 
 " sea . 
 Wrought-iron . 
 Cast-iron 
 
 Steel .... 
 Lead . 
 
 Copper, rolled . 
 Brass " 
 Sand 
 Clay . 
 
 Brickwork, common 
 " close join 
 Limestone . 
 Glass . 
 Pine, white . 
 " yellow 
 Hemlock 
 Maple . 
 Oak, white . 
 Walnut. . . 
 
 ts 
 
 
 62.3 
 
 64.3 
 480 
 450 
 490 
 710 
 548 
 524 
 
 98 
 120 
 120 
 140 
 168 
 156 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 . 25 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 
 5.19 
 5.36 
 40.00 
 37.50 
 40.84 
 59.16 
 45.66 
 43.66 
 8.23 
 10.00 
 10.00 
 11.66 
 18.00 
 13.00 
 2.50 
 2.91 
 2.08 
 4.08 
 4.16 
 3.41 
 
 .036 
 .037 
 .277 
 .260 
 .283 
 .410 
 .317 
 .302 
 .057 
 .069 
 .069 
 .081 
 .124 
 .090 
 .017 
 .019 
 .015 
 .028 
 .030 
 .023 
 
 1.000 
 1.028 
 7.70 
 7.20 
 7.84 
 11.36 
 8.80 
 8.40 
 1.57 
 1.92 
 1.92 
 2.24 
 2.68 
 2.49 
 .48 
 .56 
 .40 
 .78 
 .80 
 .65 
 
 LOGARITHMS. 
 Logarithms are of very great importance in facili- 
 tating the arithmetical operations of multiplication 
 and division. If a multiplication is to be effected, 
 it is only necessary to take from the logarithmic 
 table the logarithms of the factor, and add them 
 together; this gives the logarithm of the required 
 product. On finding in the table the number corre- 
 sponding to this new logarithm, the product itself 
 is obtained. Thus, by means of a table of loga- 
 rithms, the operation of multiplication is performed 
 by simple addition. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 307 
 
 
 p 
 
 OStCKOOCCNQOli^OOtOl-'OOCC-vtOJOl^OJtOHOO 
 
 
 00000 
 04139 
 07918 
 11394 
 14613 
 17609 
 20412 
 23045 
 25527 
 27875 
 30103 
 32222 
 34242 
 36173 
 38021 
 39794 
 41497 
 43436 
 44716 
 46240 
 47712 
 49136 
 50515 
 51851 
 
 © 
 
 00000 
 00432 
 04532 
 08278 
 11727 
 14921 
 17897 
 20682 
 23299 
 25767 
 28103 
 30319 
 32428 
 34439 
 36361 
 38201 
 39967 
 41664 
 43296 
 44870 
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 47856 
 49276 
 50650 
 51982 
 
 - 
 
 30103 
 00860 
 04921 
 08636 
 12057 
 15228 
 18184 
 20951 
 23552 
 26007 
 28330 
 30535 
 32633 
 34635 
 36548 
 38381 
 40140 
 41830 
 43456 
 45024 
 46538 
 48000 
 49415 
 50785 
 52113 
 
 ti 
 
 47712 
 01283 
 05307 
 08990 
 12385 
 15533 
 18469 
 21218 
 23804 
 26245 
 28555 
 30749 
 32838 
 34830 
 36735 
 38560 
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 41995 
 43616 
 45178 
 46686 
 48144 
 49554 
 50920 
 52244 
 
 w 
 
 60206 
 01703 
 05690 
 09342 
 12710 
 15836 
 18752 
 21484 
 24054 
 26481 
 28780 
 30963 
 33041 
 35024 
 36921 
 38739 
 40483 
 42160 
 43775 
 45331 
 46834 
 48287 
 49693 
 51054 
 52374 
 
 >f- 
 
 69897 
 02118 
 06069 
 09691 
 13033 
 16136 
 19033 
 21748 
 24303 
 26717 
 29003 
 31175 
 33243 
 35218 
 37106 
 38916 
 40654 
 42324 
 43933 
 45484 
 46982 
 48430 
 49831 
 51188 
 52504- 
 
 01 
 
 77815 
 02530 
 06445 
 10037 
 13353 
 16435 
 19312 
 22010 
 24551 
 26951 
 29225 
 31386 
 33445 
 35410 
 37291 
 39093 
 40824 
 42488 
 44090 
 45636 
 47129 
 48572 
 49968 
 51321 
 52633 
 
 55 
 
 84510 
 02938 
 06818 
 10380 
 13672 
 16731 
 19590 
 22271 
 24797 
 27184 
 29446 
 31597 
 33646 
 35602 
 37474 
 39269 
 40993 
 42651 
 44248 
 45788 
 47275 
 48713 
 50105 
 51454 
 52763 
 
 <! 
 
 90309 
 03342 
 07188 
 10721 
 13987 
 17026 
 19865 
 22530 
 25042 
 27415 
 29666 
 31806 
 33845 
 35793 
 37657 
 39445 
 41162 
 42813 
 44404 
 45939 
 47421 
 48855 
 50242 
 51587 
 52891 
 
 X 
 
 95424 
 03742 
 07554 
 11059 
 14301 
 17318 
 20139 
 22788 
 25285- 
 27646 
 29885 
 32014 
 34044 
 35983 
 37839 
 39619 
 41330 
 42975 
 44560 
 46089 
 47567 
 48995 
 50379 
 51719 
 53020 
 
 !0 
 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 Orfi-OOCOOOCO(X)K|x ( -'^rOl^tObOCOOiCO^I- t OCOCDCC>CTT 
 
 > 
 
308 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 p, 
 
 o 
 
 ©(M05C0WON'*Ma00C0^(NO00C0'rtl(NHO00Nl0^C0C<l 
 NN1-IHHHOOOQ050J030305COOOOOOOOOQONNNNNN 
 
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 54282 
 55509 
 56702 
 57863 
 58995 
 60097 
 61172 
 62221 
 63245 
 64246 
 65224 
 66181 
 67117 
 68033 
 68930 
 69810 
 70671 
 71516 
 72345 
 73158 
 73957 
 74741 
 75511 
 76267 
 77011 
 77742 
 78461 
 
 00 
 
 54157 
 
 55388 
 56584 
 57749 
 58883 
 59988 
 61066 
 62117 
 63144 
 64147 
 65127 
 66086 
 67024 
 67942 
 68842 
 69722 
 70586 
 71433 
 72263 
 73078 
 73878 
 74663 
 75434 
 76192 
 76937 
 77670 
 78390 
 
 t» 
 
 54033 
 55266 
 56466 
 57634 
 58771 
 59879 
 60959 
 62013 
 63042 
 64048 
 65030 
 65991 
 66931 
 67851 
 68752 
 69635 
 70500 
 71349 
 72181 
 72997 
 73798 
 74585 
 75358 
 76117 
 76863 
 77597 
 78318 
 
 « 
 
 53907 
 55145 
 56348 
 57518 
 58658 
 59769 
 60852 
 61909 
 62941 
 63948 
 64933 
 65896 
 66838 
 67760 
 68663 
 69548 
 70415 
 71265 
 72098 
 72916 
 73719 
 74507 
 75281 
 76042 
 76789 
 77524 
 78247 
 
 W 
 
 53781 
 55022 
 56229 
 57403 
 58546 
 59659 
 60745 
 61804 
 62838 
 63848 
 64836 
 65801 
 66745 
 67669 
 68574 
 69460 
 70329 
 71180 
 72015 
 72835 
 73639 
 74429 
 75204 
 75996 
 76715 
 77451 
 78175 
 
 *< 
 
 53655 
 54900 
 56410 
 57287 
 58433 
 59549 
 60638 
 61700 
 62736 
 63749 
 64738 
 65705 
 66651 
 67577 
 68484 
 69372 
 70243 
 71096 
 71933 
 72754 
 73559 
 74351 
 75127 
 75891 
 76641 
 77378 
 78103 
 
 M 
 
 53529 
 54777 
 55990 
 57170 
 58319 
 59439 
 60530 
 61595 
 62634 
 63648 
 64640 
 65609 
 66558 
 67486 
 68394 
 69284 
 70156 
 71011 
 71850 
 72672 
 73480 
 74272 
 75050 
 75815 
 76566 
 77305 
 78031 
 
 « 
 
 53102 
 54654 
 55870 
 57054 
 58206 
 59328 
 60422 
 61489 
 62531 
 63548 
 64542 
 65513 
 66464 
 67394 
 68304 
 69196 
 70070 
 70927 
 71767 
 72591 
 73399 
 74193 
 74973 
 75739 
 76492 
 77232 
 77959 
 
 - 
 
 53275 
 54530 
 55750 
 56937 
 58002 
 59217 
 60314 
 61384 
 62428 
 63447 
 64443 
 65417 
 66370 
 67302 
 68214 
 69108 
 69983 
 70842 
 71683 
 72509 
 73319 
 74115 
 74896 
 75663 
 76417 
 77158 
 77887 
 
 © 
 
 53148 
 54407 
 55630 
 56820 
 57978 
 59106 
 60206 
 61278 
 62325 
 63347 
 64345 
 65321 
 66276 
 67210 
 68124 
 69020 
 69897 
 70757 
 71600 
 72428 
 73239 
 74036 
 74818 
 75587 
 76342 
 77085 
 77815 
 
 6 
 
 'flOtONOOroOHNCO^lOONOCaOHMCO^lOCONOOaO 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 309 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OP CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 «d 
 
 
 
 
 •2-M* 
 
 .8© 
 
 
 Material. 
 
 Unguent. 
 
 |2 
 
 o+3 
 
 Wood 
 
 on wood, minimum .... 
 
 Surfaces dry 
 
 .30 
 
 .20 
 
 " 
 
 " " mean 
 
 tt n 
 
 .50 
 
 .36 
 
 " 
 
 " " maximum. . . . 
 
 a tt 
 
 .70 
 
 .48 
 
 " 
 
 " " minimum .... 
 
 Water . . 
 
 .65 
 
 
 « 
 
 " " mean 
 
 " . . 
 
 .68 
 
 .25 
 
 « 
 
 " " maximum. . . . 
 
 " . . 
 
 .71 
 
 
 " 
 
 " " mean 
 
 Hogs' lard . 
 
 .21 
 
 .07 
 
 u 
 
 " " minimum .... 
 
 Tallow . . 
 
 .14 
 
 .06 
 
 tt 
 
 " " mean 
 
 " . . 
 
 .19 
 
 .07 
 
 tt 
 
 " " maximum. . . . 
 " " minimum .... 
 
 tt 
 Polished and 
 
 .25 
 
 .08 
 
 
 
 greasy . . 
 
 .30 
 
 .08 
 
 tt 
 
 " " mean 
 
 Polished and 
 
 
 
 
 
 greasy . . 
 
 .35 
 
 .12 
 
 ft 
 
 " " maximum .... 
 
 Polished and 
 
 
 
 
 
 greasy . . 
 
 .40 
 
 .15 
 
 " 
 
 " metal 
 
 Dry surfaces 
 
 .60 
 
 .42 
 
 " 
 
 " " 
 
 Water . . 
 
 .65 
 
 .24 
 
 " 
 
 " " 
 
 Hogs' lard . 
 
 .12 
 
 .07 
 
 " 
 
 tt tt 
 
 Tallow . . 
 
 .12 
 
 .08 
 
 It 
 
 tt it 
 
 Polished and 
 greasy . . 
 
 .10 
 
 
 Metal 
 
 on metal, minimum .... 
 
 Dry . . . 
 
 .15 
 
 .15 
 
 " 
 
 " " mean 
 
 " ... 
 
 .18 
 
 .18 
 
 " 
 
 " " maximum. . . . 
 
 " ... 
 
 .24 
 
 .24 
 
 " 
 
 " " minimum .... 
 
 Olive oil . . 
 
 .11 
 
 .06 
 
 " 
 
 " " mean ..... 
 
 " " . . 
 
 .12 
 
 .07 
 
 " 
 
 " " maximum. . . . 
 
 " " . . 
 
 .16 
 
 .08 
 
 " 
 
 " " mean 
 
 Hogs' lard . 
 
 .10 
 
 .09 
 
 a 
 
 " " " 
 
 Tallow . . 
 
 .11 
 
 .09 
 
 it 
 
 tt it a 
 
 Polished and 
 
 
 
 
 
 greasy . . 
 
 .10 
 
 — 
 
310 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABL E— {Continued) 
 OF CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Unguent. 
 
 Thick sole-leather on wood on edg< 
 " flat, 
 on edge 
 flat . 
 on edge 
 flat . 
 
 Stone on stone polished, minimum 
 " " " " maximum 
 
 " " wrought-iron, minimum 
 " " " maximum 
 
 Hemp in ropes on wood, minimum 
 a u u u u m ean . 
 " " " " " maximum 
 u u a t( (( mean m 
 
 Bronze on lignum vitse (Ban/cine) 
 Smooth surfaces " 
 
 " " best results " 
 
 Masonry on dry clay ( Trautwine) 
 
 " " moist clay " 
 
 Masonry and brickwork, dry 
 
 {Trautwine) 
 
 Masonry and brickwork, wet 
 
 mortar {Trautwine) 
 
 Masonry and brickwork, damp 
 
 mortar [Trautwine) ... 
 
 Brick on brick 
 
 Leather belts on wood . . . 
 " " " metal . . . 
 
 Dry . 
 Water 
 Olive oil 
 Dry . 
 
 Water 
 
 Random lu- 
 brication 
 
 Continuou 
 lubrication 
 
 Continuous 
 lubrication 
 
 Dry 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 31] 
 
 TABLE 
 
 
 OF FRACTIONAL PARTS OF AN INCH EXPRESSED 
 
 DECIMALLY 
 
 Correspond'g Decimal 
 
 1-64 
 
 = .015625 
 
 2-64= 1-32= 
 
 = .03125 
 
 3-64 
 
 = .046875 
 
 4-64= 2-32= 1-16 
 
 = .0625 
 
 6-84= 3-32 
 
 = .09375 
 
 8-64= 4-32= 2-16 = 1-8 
 
 = .125 
 
 10-64= 5-32 
 
 = .15625 
 
 12-64= 6-32= 3-16 
 
 = .1875 
 
 14-64= 7-32 
 
 = .21875 
 
 16-64= 8-32= 4-16=2-8=1-4 
 
 = .25 
 
 18-64= 9-32 
 
 = .28125 
 
 20-64 = 10-32= 5-16 
 
 = .3125 
 
 22-64 = 11-32 
 
 = .34375 
 
 24-64 = 12-32= 6-16 = 3-8 
 
 = .375 
 
 26-64 = 13-32 
 
 = .40625 
 
 28-64 = 14-32= 7-16 
 
 = .4375 
 
 30-64 = 15-32 
 
 = .46875 
 
 32-64 = 16-32= 8-16 = 4-8=2-4 = 1-2 
 
 = .5 
 
 34-64 = 17-32 
 
 = .53125 
 
 36-64 = 18-32= 9-16 
 
 = .5625 
 
 38-64 = 19-32 
 
 = .59375 
 
 40-64 = 20-32 = 10-16 = 5-8 
 
 = .625 
 
 42-64 = 21-32 
 
 = .65625 
 
 44-64 = 22-32 = 11-16 
 
 = .6875 
 
 46-64 = 23-32 
 
 = .71875 
 
 48-64 = 24-32 = 12-16 = 6-8 = 3-4 
 
 = .75 
 
 50-64 = 25-32 
 
 = .78125 
 
 52-64 = 26-32 = 13-16 
 
 = .8125 
 
 54-64 = 27-32 
 
 = .84375 
 
 56-64 = 28-32 = 14-16 = 7-8 
 
 = .875 
 
 58-64 = 29-32 
 
 = .90625 
 
 60-64 = 30-32 = 15-16 
 
 = .9375 
 
 62-64 = 31-32 
 
 = .96875 
 
 64-64 ■= 32-32 = 16-16 = 8-8 = 4-4 — 2-2 
 
 - 1.00000 
 
312 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OP STANDARDS OF ENGLISH AND UNITED STATES LINEAR, 
 SQUARE, CUBIC, SOLID, AND LIQUID MEASURES. 
 
 LINEAR MEASURE. 
 
 12 inches 1 foot 
 
 3 feet 1 yard 
 
 5£ yards 1 rod, perch, or pole. 
 
 40 rods ....... 1 furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs 1 mile. 
 
 3 miles 1 league- 
 
 SQUARE MEASURE. 
 
 144 square inches 1 square foot. 
 
 9 square feet 1 square yard. 
 
 30£ square yards 1 square rod. 
 
 40 square rods 1 square rood. 
 
 4 roods 1 acre. 
 
 CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 
 
 1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard. 
 
 24| cubic feet 1 cubic perch. 
 
 LIQUID MEASURE. 
 
 United States Standard. Cubic in. 
 
 4 gills .... lpint. . . 28.875 
 
 2 pints . . . . 1 quart. . . 57-750 
 
 4 quarts .... 1 gallon. . . 231 
 63 gallons • . .1 hogshead. 
 
 British Standard. Cubic in. 
 
 i gills .... lpint, . . . 34.6592 
 
 2 pints .... 1 quart. . . . 69.3185 
 
 2 quarts .... 1 pottle. . . . 138.637 
 
 2 pottles . . 1 gallon. . . . 277.274 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 31$ 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 12 inches = 1 foot. 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard = 36 ins. 
 
 5^ yards =lrod = 198 ins. = 16|ft. 
 
 40 rods = lfurl'g = 7920 ins. = 660 ft. = 220 yds.. 
 
 8 furlongs = 1 mile = 63360 ins. = 5280 ft. = 1760 yds. 
 
 Ounter's Chain. 
 7.92 inches = 1 link. 
 100 links = 1 chain = 4 rods = 66 feet. 
 80 chains = 1 mile. 
 6 feet = 1 fathom. 
 
 MEASURES OF SURFACE. 
 
 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 
 9 square feet = 1 square yard. 
 100 square feet = 1 square (architect's measure)- i 
 
 Land. 
 30£ square yards = 1 square rod. 
 40 square rods = 1 square rood. 
 4 square roods 1=1 acre. 
 10 square chains } = 160 sq. rods. 
 640 acres = 1 sq. mile. 
 
 102,400 square rods = 2560 square roods. 
 208.71 feet square = 1 acre. 
 
 MEASURES OF VOLUME. 
 
 1 gallon liquid measure = 231 cubic inches, contains* 
 8.339 avoirdupois pounds of distilled water at 39.8° Fah. 
 
 1 gallon dry measure = 268.8 cubic inches. 
 
 1 bushel ( Winchester) contains 2150.42 cubic inches, or: 
 77.627 pounds distilled water at 39.8° Fah. 
 
 A heaped bushel contains 2747.715 cubic inches* 
 27 
 
314 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Dry. 
 2 pints = 1 quart = 67.2 cub. ins. 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 8 pints = 268.8 cub. ins. 
 2 gallons = 1 peck = 16 pints = 8 qts. = 537.6 cub. ins. 
 4 pecks = 1 bush. = 64 pints = 32 qts. = 8 gallons = 
 2150.42 cubic inches. 
 1 chaldron = 36 heaped bushels = 57.244 cubic feet. 
 1 cord of wood = 128 cubic feet. 
 
 4 gills = 1 pint. 
 
 2 pints = 1 quart = 8 gills. 
 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 32 gills = 8 pints. 
 
 The Imperial gallon = 277.274 cubic inches, and contains 
 10 lbs. of distilled water at 62° Fah. = 1.2003 standard 
 gallon. 
 
 Fluid. 
 
 60 minims = 1 drachm = 57 grains Troy at 39.8° Fah. 
 
 8 drachms = 1 oz. =480 minims = .9501 oz. Troy at 39.8 9 
 Fah. 
 
 16 ounces = 1 pint =7680 minims = 128 drachms. 
 
 8 pints = 1 gallon = 61440 minims = 1024 drachms =» 
 128 ounces. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 16 drachms =1 ounce. 
 
 16 ounces =1 pound = 256 drachms. 
 
 112 pounds = 1 cwt. = 28672 drachms = 1792 oz. 
 
 20 cwt. =1 ton =573440 drachms = 35840 oa.= 
 2240 pounds. 
 
 1 pound = 14 ounces, 11 dwts., 16 grains Troy, or 7000 
 grains. 
 
 1 ounce = 18 dwts., 5J grains Troy, or 437 J grains. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 315 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE CRUSHING STRENGTH OP DIFFERENT MATE- 
 RIALS, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
 Materials. Compression. 
 
 Steel, Hematile, bar 159,578 
 
 Krupp, specimen 200,032 
 
 cast 225,000 
 
 Bessemer, length 30 diams 41,328 
 
 crucible, " " .... 45,763 
 
 bars, 7 specimens 55,328 
 
 blister and shear 150,000 
 
 American black diamond .... 102,500 
 American black diamond, hardened in oil 1 
 
 at 82° Fan } 185,200 
 
 same, hardened in water at 79° Fan. . . 337,800 
 
 Wrought-iron 35,840 
 
 bars, Low Moor 31,792 
 
 " Yorkshire 29,120 
 
 hammered bars, Swedish . . . 36,000 
 
 specimen 1" X 1" square . . 184,128 
 
 1 5" X 1 5" round . . 148,842 
 
 15"X3" " . . 84,896 
 
 15"X15" " . . 28,067 
 
 Cast-iron, averages, ordinary 86,296 
 
 " " stirlings .. . . . „ 133,330 
 
 " American gun metal .... 175,000 
 
 " hot blast 111,328 
 
 " cold " . . . . . . . 99,232 
 
 " American 2d melting .... 99,680 
 
 u "3d "... . 140,000 
 
 U U oj U N 
 
 * • * i o ao ^- ' C 167,104 
 of mixture 1, 2, and 3 meltings . J 
 
 Brass 164,800 
 
 Tin 15,500 
 
 Lead 7,730 
 
316 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Materials. . Compression. 
 
 Copper, cast 117,000 
 
 " wrought 103,000 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Alder. 6,900 
 
 Ash 8,600 
 
 Beech, unseasoned 7,700 
 
 " seasoned 9,300 
 
 Birch, American, unseasoned 6,000 
 
 " seasoned 11,600 
 
 Cedar, unseasoned 5,700 
 
 " seasoned 6,500 
 
 Elm " 10,000 
 
 Fir — Spruce, unseasoned . . . ... . 6,500 
 
 " " seasoned 6,800 
 
 " Eiga 6,000 
 
 Hickory, white 8,925 
 
 Hornbeam, unseasoned 4,500 
 
 " seasoned 7,300 
 
 Larch, unseasoned 3,200 
 
 " seasoned ....... 5,500 
 
 Locust ......... 9,113 
 
 Mahogany, Spanish 8,200 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE MODULUS OP ELASTICITY OF DIFFERENT 
 MATERIALS, IN TONS, OF TWO THOUSAND POUNDS EACH. 
 
 n Kolled iron, bars and bolts . . . 14,500 
 
 " wire . . . ... 12,650 
 
 " " beams . . . . . 12,000 
 
 Cast-iron \ d , fffirfiTlt stw . Wtis . . j 6,821) 
 
 Steel bars 
 
 ( 6 821 ) 
 different specimens . . -L-^^f 9,135 
 
 ) u « f 14,182) 
 
 | ■ ' J21,000} 17 > 951 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 317 
 
 Copper, wire 8,500 
 
 Bronze (copper 8, tin 1) . . . . 4,950 
 
 Brass, wire 7,115 
 
 " castings 4,585 
 
 Wire rope, iron 7,500 
 
 Lead, sheet 360 
 
 Glass 4,000 
 
 Slate 7,250 
 
 Ash 800 
 
 Beech 675 
 
 Birch 823 
 
 Chestnut 570 
 
 Elm) (350) k , a 
 
 Larch) ( 450) 
 
 "I'''"--- t680} 565 
 
 Mahogany 627 
 
 Oak European) J 600) 
 
 « f • • " ' \ m l 737 
 
 " American white .... 448 
 
 "red .... . 1,075 
 
 Pine, New England 647 
 
 " pitch 696 
 
 <> «} J950| 77 ° 
 
 " yellow 506 
 
 SP -} {2} soo 
 
 Sycamore 520 
 
 The modulus of elasticity is based on theory, or 
 an imaginary idea, which assumes perfect elasticity 
 of all kinds of materials, but it is never realized in 
 practice. 
 27* 
 
SI 8 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 NON-CONDUCTORS FOR PREVENTING RADIA- 
 TION AND CONDENSATION IN STEAM-CYLIN* 
 DERS, PIPES, BOILERS, STEAM-DOMES, ETC. 
 
 The value of different substances varies, in the 
 inverse ratio of their conducting power for heat, up 
 to their ability to transmit as much heat as the sur- 
 face of the pipe will radiate, after which they be- 
 come detrimental rather than useful as covering. 
 A smooth or polished surface is of itself a good pro- 
 tection — polished tin or Russia iron having a ratio, 
 for radiation, of 100 for cast-iron ; mere color makes 
 but little difference. 
 
 Hair op felt has the disadvantage of becoming 
 charred by the heat of steam, especially at high 
 pressure, and from being liable to take fire, and there- 
 fore many different non-conductors have been intro- 
 duced, consisting of potters' clay, mixed with ashes, 
 asbestos, paper fibre, charcoal, etc., all of which in- 
 duce a saving of fuel, by preventing radiation. 
 
 A cheap and very efficient non-conductor may be 
 made for steam-pipes, drums, etc., by covering the 
 pipe with asbestos paper, then laying on strips of 
 wood, binding them with wire, and covering the 
 whole structure with canvas, or paper, after which 
 it may be painted in any color to suit the fancy of 
 the engineer or proprietor. 
 
 Another good non-conductor may be made by 
 covering the surface with a rough flour paste, mixed 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 315 
 
 with saw-dust, until it forms a moderately stiff dough. 
 Apply with a trowel, in layers of about one-quarter 
 of an inch thick ; give four or five layers in all. If 
 iron surfaces are well cleaned from grease, the ad- 
 hesion is perfect. For copper, first apply a hot 
 solution of clay in water. A coating of tar will 
 render the composition impervious to the weather. 
 
 It has been shown, by careful experiment and ob- 
 servation, that the condensation of steam in pipes 
 covered with some good non-conductor, as compared 
 with naked pipes, is as 100 to 61. Mineral wool, 
 fossil meal, and articles manufactured from the slag 
 produced in blast-furnaces, are coming into very gen- 
 eral use, but asbestos, or mineral flax, as it is called, 
 is superior to any other material as a non-conductor ; 
 it cannot be charred, burned, or consumed by any 
 ordinary heat to which it may be subjected. 
 
320 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 321 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE VALUE OF DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES AS NON- 
 CONDUCTORS. 
 
 Conducting 
 Power. 
 
 Blotting-paper . 
 Eiderdown 
 
 Cotton or wool; any density- 
 Hemp, canvas . 
 Mahogany dust . 
 Wood ashes . 
 Straw . . . . 
 Charcoal powder 
 Wood, across fibre . 
 
 Cork 
 
 Coke, pulverized 
 India rubber . 
 Wood, with fibre 
 Plaster of Paris 
 Baked clay 
 
 Glass 
 
 Stone 
 
 .274 
 .314 
 .323 
 .418 
 .523 
 .531 
 .563 
 
 .83 
 1.15 
 1.29 
 1.37 
 .1.40 
 3.86 
 4.83 
 
 13.68 
 
 It will be observed that blotting-paper has the 
 least, while stone has the greatest, conducting 
 powers. Smooth, bright, polished surfaces are 
 better non-conductors than dark, rough surfaces. 
 Tin or Russia sheet-iron are better than either 
 cast- or wrought-iron. 
 
 V 
 
322 THE YOUNG ENGINEERS OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE INJECTOR. 
 
 WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S INJECTORS. 
 
 Injectors may be classed under three heads, viz., 
 adjusting, self-adjusting, and fixed nozzle. These 
 again are divided into two classes, i. e., lifting and 
 non-lifting. 
 
 The adjustable injector requires to be set or ad- 
 justed by the attendant or engineer, otherwise it will 
 not discharge its functions under varying conditions, 
 such as steam pressure, water supply, etc. 
 
 The self-adjusting injector will accommodate itself 
 to an extra steam or water supply, or to a lack of 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 323 
 
 volume in either, provided it is arranged in the first 
 place to meet these requirements. 
 
 The fixed nozzle injector will in most instances 
 work under steam pressure of from 10 to 100 pounds 
 per square inch, provided the steam and water sup- 
 ply are sufficient. 
 
 The adjustable injector has good qualities, as, if 
 the steam pressure should become very low, and the 
 water supply insufficient, or nearly cut-off, the injector 
 may be adjusted to work under an immense pressure 
 and supply ; but the self-adjusting is more convenient 
 and reliable, as it will not slip the water like the ad- 
 justable. The lifting injector is very desirable in 
 localities where there is no head or water pressure, 
 and in cities and towns where, on certain days in the 
 week, the consumption or waste almost exceeds the 
 supply. All injectors have peculiarities inherent in 
 themselves, which are the result of design and con- 
 struction. 
 
 The injector is one of the most wonderful machines 
 ever invented by man, on account of its utility, sim- 
 plicity, and energy, and from the fact that its first 
 cost is trifling, its proportions diminutive, its develop- 
 ment of power wonderful, and that it may be set up 
 horizontally, vertically, or inclined, in any place, 
 where sufficient steam or water can be procured to 
 work it. It occupies little space, requires no oil, 
 tallow, or packing, and very slight attention, when 
 constructed on correct mechanical principles. 
 
324 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 The principles involved in the working of the in- 
 jector were looked upon, when it was first introduced, 
 as a mystery, but there is no mystery in it. Its 
 performance was demonstrated by Nicholson and 
 Young nearly a hundred years ago, but they did not 
 know how to apply it as a steam-boiler feeder. Gif- 
 ford was the first to make the attempt, but his instru- 
 ment was very crude and unreliable. It may be said, 
 in justice to him, that when he invented his injector, 
 he invented them all. The Mack, the Keystone, the 
 Eclipse, the Clipper, the Duplex, the Rue, etc., like 
 the different types of the Corliss engine, all belong 
 to the same mechanical brood. 
 
 William Sellers, of Philadelphia, was the first 
 scientist in this country to attempt the construction 
 of the injector on scientific mechanical principles. 
 The world is more indebted to him for the improve- 
 ment of the injector than to all others who have 
 claimed to have done so. The principle involved in 
 the working of the injector is similar to that pro- 
 duced in the smoke-stack of the locomotive by the 
 action of the exhaust steam. Air, being expelled 
 from the top of the stack, rushes in under the grate 
 to supply the partial vacuum, and causes energetic 
 combustion of the fuel. 
 
 The same principle is demonstrated in the steam 
 siphon, the inspirator, the pulsometer, the aque- 
 ometer, etc. — the air being expelled from the cham 
 ber, barrel, or pipe by the elastic force of steam, the 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 325 
 
 water rises in accordance with natural laws 33 feet : 
 as long as the current of steam is kept up, the sup- 
 ply of water will follow in its wake. 
 
 The foregoing may be susceptible of a further ex- 
 planation. Suppose the steam-pipe that supplied the 
 injector were one inch in area, and that the steam 
 pressure were 60 pounds per square inch, it would 
 escape with a velocity of 1*1*1*1 feet per second into 
 the atmosphere, or into the steam of a lower press- 
 ure. 
 
 Now, supposing the steam were condensed as fast 
 as it escaped from the boiler, the water resulting 
 from the condensation would be only equal to LIT 
 of the steam from which it was condensed. If the 
 steam and water supply were kept up, the injector 
 would work on forever, or until it was worn out. 
 
 Injectors supplied with steam of 60 pounds press- 
 ure per square inch have been known to force water 
 into boilers against a pressure of 180 pounds per 
 square inch, or three times the pressure of the steam 
 with which it was supplied. This arises from the 
 fact that in the application of the principle on which 
 the action of the injector is based, a large force may 
 be concentrated against a small one. 
 28 
 
326 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
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6*28 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING UP INJECTORS. 
 
 First. Care should be taken that all the supply- 
 pipes, whether steam, water, or delivery, should have 
 the same internal diameter as the hole nipple, plug, 
 branch, tee (T), reducer, to which they are attached, 
 and that they should be as straight, direct, and 
 smooth on the inside as possible. 
 
 Second. When the water contains floating par- 
 ticles, such as saw-dust, shavings, hay, straw, weeds, 
 etc., a strainer should be placed over the end of the 
 supply-pipe, and the holes in the strainer must be of 
 small diameter, but at the same time the combined 
 area must exceed that of the supply-pipe. 
 
 Third. The steam for the injector should in all 
 cases be taken from the highest part of the boiler, in 
 order to prevent the passage of water with the steam. 
 
 Fourth. In setting lifting injectors, care must be 
 taken to have the pipes air- and water-tight, for if 
 they draw air it will cause a sputtering, and a lia- 
 bility to break the jet. 
 
 Fifth. If the water is not lifted by the injector, but 
 , fed to it from a tank, hydrant, head, or other supply, 
 a stop-cock should be placed on the pipe, in order to 
 prevent flooding in the boiler when the steam is down. 
 
 Sixth. A stop-valve must be placed in the steam- 
 pipe, between the steam-room and the boiler and 
 injector, and a check-valve between the water-space 
 and injector. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 329 
 
 Seventh. To obtain the best results, self-adjusting 
 injectors should be set to lift water, or should be fed 
 through a self-regulating-valve. 
 
 Remarks. Injectors in general will give a fair 
 range, if set up in accordance with the foregoing 
 instructions, and the minimum might be taken at 60 
 per cent, of the maximum. They are both influenced 
 by circumstances ; the higher the steam is carried in 
 the boiler, the greater will be the pressure in the 
 supply -pipe, and vice versa. 
 
 WMM 
 
 THE DEAN STEAM-PUMP. 
 
 PUMPS. 
 
 The idea entertained by many engineers that 
 water is raised by suction is erroneous, as, properly 
 speaking, there is no such principle as suction, 
 28* 
 
830 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Water, or other liquids, are raised through -a tube 
 or hose by the pressure of the atmosphere on their 
 surface. 
 
 When the atmosphere is removed from the tube, 
 there will be no resistance to prevent the water from 
 rising, as the water outside of the pipe, still having 
 the pressure of the atmosphere upon its surface, forces 
 water up into the pipe, supplying the place of the 
 excluded air ; while the water inside the pipe will 
 rise above the level of that outside of it proportion- 
 ally to the extent to which it is relieved of the press- 
 ure of the air. 
 
 If the first stroke of a pump reduces the pressure 
 of the air contained in the pipe from 15 pounds on 
 the square inch (which is its normal pressure) to 14 
 pounds, the water will be forced up the pipe to the 
 distance of about 21 feet, since a column of water an 
 inch square and 21 feet high is equal to about 1 pound 
 in weight. 
 
 Now, if the second stroke of the pump reduces 
 the pressure of the atmosphere in the pipe to 13 
 pounds per inch, the water will rise another 2 i feet. 
 This rule is uniform, and shows that the rise of a 
 column of water within the pipe is equal in weight 
 to the pressure of the air upon the surface of the 
 water without. 
 
 The distance that a pump will lift, or draw water, 
 as it is termed, is about 33 feet, because water of one 
 inch area 33 feet high weighs 14.T pounds. When 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 331 
 
 a column of air 45 miles high weighs just the same 
 at sea-level, consequently 33 feet of water, 45 miles 
 of air, and 30 inches of mercury form a balance, as 
 they weigh just the same ; but the pump must be in 
 good order to lift 33 feet. Any pump will give better 
 satisfaction and lift from 22 to 25 feet. 
 
 Pumps are divided into several classes — lift, 
 force, single-acting, double-acting, rotary, centrif- 
 ugal, bucket-plunger, solid piston, etc., and are 
 adapted to a great variety of mechanical purposes 
 They are simply a hydraulic machine, and their 
 action is based on the same principle. 
 
 Steam-pumps are among the most important ma- 
 chines in use at the present day. 
 
 There are many things to be considered in locating 
 steam-pumps, such as the source from which the 
 water is to be obtained, the point of delivery, and 
 the quantity required in a given time ; whether the 
 water is to be lifted or flows to the pump ; whether 
 it is to be forced directly into the boiler or raised 
 into a tank 25, 50, or 100 feet above the pump. 
 
 When purchasing a steam-pump to supply any 
 steam-engine or boiler, their minimum and maximum 
 capacity, or the greatest decrease that would ever be 
 made on the boiler, should be known, when a pump 
 should be selected capable of delivering one cubic 
 foot of water per horse-power per hour. 
 
 It must be understood when selecting pumps for 
 lifting water, that their actual capacity is at least 20 
 per cent, less than their theoretic capacity. 
 
332 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 When the lift is high, or approaching the theoretic 
 lift, 33 feet, it is absolutely necessary that the pipes 
 should be perfectly air-tight, as a pump will draw 
 water on a level 1000 feet, providing it is in good 
 condition, and all the pipes and connections are per- 
 fectly air-tight. 
 
 No pump, however good, will lift hot water, be- 
 cause, as soon as the air is expelled from the barrel 
 of the pump, the vapor occupies the space, destroys 
 the vacuum, and interferes with the supply of water. 
 As a result of all this, the pump knocks. 
 
 Pumps should be located as near to the boiler 
 which they are intended to feed, or the work they 
 are expected to perform, as possible. 
 
 The suction and delivery pipes should be as short 
 and as straight as possible, because a pipe 2 inches 
 in diameter and 2 inches long will deliver four times 
 as much water in a given time as a pipe 2 inches in 
 diameter and 100 feet long. 
 
 When the well is deep, or the lift high, a check- 
 valve should be placed near the bottom, and a strainer 
 on the bottom of the pipe, to prevent any floating 
 substance in the water from obstructing the action 
 of the valves. 
 
 The exhaust-pipes of steam-pumps should be 
 turned downward when practicable, but, when not 
 possible, a drip-cock should be placed in the elbow 
 next the pump. 
 
 The steam- and exhaust-pipes should be the full size 
 
IrtE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 333 
 
 of the holes in the pump-chest, as any reduction of their 
 diameter will diminish the capacity of the pump. 
 
 Avoid short angles or bends in the pipes of steam- 
 pumps, as they induce friction, and retard the free 
 supply and delivery of the water. 
 
 When long pipes are used for suction and delivery, 
 their diameters should be increased over that of the 
 diameter of the steam and exhaust openings in the 
 pump. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to pump hot water, 
 the pump should be placed below the supply, so that 
 the water may flow into the valve-chamber. 
 
 Steam-pumps are frequently employed to take the 
 place of traps, for returning the water of condensa- 
 tion to the boilers, when buildings are heated with 
 steam, for which purpose they are superior to any 
 other mechanical arrangement. They are also used 
 for running hydraulic elevators in hotels, stores, ware- 
 houses, and public institutions. 
 
 To prevent a steam -pump from freezing in cold 
 localities, be sure that the steam- and water-valves 
 are perfectly tight, and that the drip-cocks are left 
 open at night. 
 
 The steam-pump should be an object of care and 
 solicitude to the engineer or fireman, and, like the 
 injector, it is a mechanical arrangement of wonderful 
 utility and convenience. 
 
 What should we do without the steam-pump ? 
 
834 
 
 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE DAYTON CAM STEAM-PUMP. 
 TABLE 
 
 OF PROPORTIONS OF THE DAYTON CAM PUMP. 
 
 is 
 
 
 go 
 
 to* 
 
 h5od 
 
 slip® 
 o.S* 
 Sec g 
 
 OOD g- 
 
 33 It 
 -is p- 
 
 GO 
 
 
 o o 
 
 4 
 
 8| 
 
 Q2.S 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 3* 
 
 2* 
 
 o 
 
 .046 
 
 i 
 
 2" 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4f 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .122 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3£ 
 
 6 
 
 .199 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 «*» 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 .38 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 .544 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2* 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 .850 
 
 I* 
 
 2* 
 
 3 
 
 2* 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 1.66 
 
 H 
 
 2h 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 6* 
 
 14 
 
 2.01 
 
 1* 
 
 2* 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 13* 
 
 74 
 
 14 
 
 2.68 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 X6J 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 6.12 
 
 2J 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 335 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS. 
 
 First. The most necessary condition to the satis- 
 factory working of the steam-pump is a full and 
 steady supply of water. 
 
 Second. The pipe connections should in no case 
 be smaller than the openings in the pump. 
 
 Third. The suction, lift, and delivery pipes should 
 be as straight and smooth on the inside as possible. 
 
 Fourth. When the water contains foreign sub- 
 stances, such as chips, shavings, saw-dust, straw, 
 etc., a strainer should be placed on the end of the 
 supply-pipe — the holes in this strainer should never 
 be less than three times the area of the pipes. 
 
 Fifth. When the lift is high, or the draw long, a 
 foot-valve should be placed on the end of the suction 
 pipe, and the area of the foot-valve should exceed to 
 a certain extent the area of the pipe. 
 
 Sixth. A suction air-chamber is a great advantage 
 to the pump, when the lift is high. 
 
 Seventh. The area of the steam- and exhaust-pipes 
 should in all cases be fully as large as the nipples in 
 the pump to which they are attached. 
 
 Eighth. The cylinders of steam-pumps should in 
 all cases be oiled before starting in the morning or 
 stopping at night. 
 
 Ninth. Stuffing-boxes on the piston and valve-rods 
 should in all cases be kept well filled with soft and 
 moist packing, as, if the packing is allowed to be- 
 
66b THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 come hard and dry, it will flute the rods, and induce 
 leakage, and necessitate repairs. 
 
 Tenth. The air vessel on the delivery-pipe of the 
 steam-pump should never be less than five times the 
 area of the water cylinder. 
 
 Eleventh. When pumps are standing still, idle, or 
 out of service in cold weather, all the drain, drip, and 
 pet-cocks should be left open. 
 
 Twelfth. When the pump does not behave well, 
 care should be taken and patience and observation 
 exercised, in order to ascertain what is the cause. 
 
 Thirteenth. Never undertake to break the joints, 
 or pull the pump apart, until you are satisfied where 
 the drip may exist. 
 
 Fourteenth. If you wish a pump to work well, and 
 discharge all the functions for which it is intended, 
 treat it well, oil it, pack it carefully, and see that all 
 the joints, connections, elbows, T's, couplings, unions, 
 ferrules, reducers, and bonnets are steam- and water- 
 tight. 
 
 Fifteenth. It must be understood that no pump, 
 however perfect it may be, will lift hot water any 
 considerable distance. If the temperature of the 
 water is high, or, in other words, if the water is 
 very hot, the supply should be placed above the 
 pump. 
 
 Sixteenth. Never strike the pump with a monkey- 
 wrench, hammer, or any other steel tool. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 337 
 
 0005020>^*»tOi4^4^tOK)0-<r 
 
 Diam. of steam- 
 cylinder 
 in inches. 
 
 0O0DGO00^rO5O5"<IOiO5CnOl^ 
 
 Diam. of water- 
 cylinder 
 in inches. 
 
 HWHMMMMHHMMHM 
 
 Length of stroke 
 in inches. 
 
 W(Sp5C«Wl- 1 MU) i HMHM ( 
 
 Gallons 
 per stroke. 
 
 oo"oo"o~o~o"oo"oo"oo 
 
 OOOOOrOiOiCnOiOiOiOlOl 
 
 ooooooooooooo 
 
 Strokes 
 per minute. 
 
 MOitOOMMSOOOOOOJ 
 OiOOiOOiOidOOOOiOiO 
 
 CD 
 
 Capacity per 
 
 minute at 
 
 ordinary speed. 
 
 1— I 
 
 Extreme length 
 in inches. 
 
 
 Extreme width 
 in inches. 
 
 COfcObOtdbSbCtOtCtOtOtOI- 1 !-' 
 
 Size of steam 
 supply-pipe. 
 
 tO(HtC(l-bO)MtOiMl^MtOlHtO|MlC(l-itO|MtC(HtO|H M|H 
 
 Size of steam 
 exhaust-pipe. 
 
 H3 H 
 r R s a 5 r3 - ~3 
 
 o o 
 
 Size of 
 suction. 
 
 H i-3 
 r r a r r r3 a r3 
 
 o o 
 
 bo|H*a|H 
 
 Size of 
 discharge. 
 
 H i-3 
 
 W O 
 Q W 
 
 29 
 
 W 
 
338 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.'S MULE PULLEYS. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 339 
 
 BELTING. 
 
 The belt, whether made of leather, rubber, or 
 
 canvas, is the cheapest, most convenient, and simplest 
 arrangement for the transmission of the power of 
 the motor to the different machines on which me- 
 chanical operations have to be performed. Naturally, 
 the intuitive ingenuity of the American mechanic 
 discovered those facts, and, as a result, belting is 
 more extensively employed for the transmission of 
 power in this country than in any other in the world. 
 
 Belts, with proper mechanical appliances, as shown 
 on pages 338, 341, may be run at any angle and be of 
 any reasonable length. This gives them a stronger 
 recommendation over cog, mitre, or bevel gearing, 
 with its accompanying noise and jar, which is so ex- 
 tensively used in the different manufacturing coun- 
 tries of Europe. Though the motion imparted by 
 the belt is not positive like that of cog-gears, never, 
 theless, when the belt is of the proper width, and in 
 good condition, and the pulleys of suitable size, the 
 power that it will transmit can be easily calculated. 
 
 The smoother the surface of the belt, and the pul- 
 leys on which it travels, the more power it will 
 transmit, providing it is in good condition, moist, 
 and pliable. Yertical belts transmit less power than 
 horizontal ones, while belts that run over convey 
 more power than those which run under. Long 
 belts transmit more power with the same tension 
 
340 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 than short ones. Cross belts will transmit more 
 power than straight ones, but they are objectionable. 
 No belt will carry much, if there is a great dispro- 
 portion between the driving and driven pulleys, and 
 vice versa. The quarter-twist belt is a nuisance, 
 both in appearance and behavior. 
 
 Double belts cost twice as much as single belts, 
 and do not render service in proportion, because they 
 are exposed to two strains, elongation and compres- 
 sion. The single belt is more desirable, if propor- 
 tioned to its work. If belts were of the proper 
 width, and pulleys of the right diameter, to transmit 
 the required power without straining, they would 
 last twice as long. Any belt ought to be of such a 
 width that it will transmit the required power with 
 a certain amount of sag. 
 
 All belts ought to be oiled with fish, castor-oil, 
 tallow, or other preparations, whenever they become 
 dry ; but if they are very dry and husky, they ought 
 to be first soaked in water for a short time, and the 
 unguent applied when they are moist. The narrow 
 belt may be put on so tight as to transmit a great 
 amount of power, but the fibre of the leather will be 
 so extended that it will soon rot ; besides, the holes 
 will pull out and the belt will be ruined. 
 
 Never place a belt on a pulley in motion ; always 
 place it on the loose pulley, and, if the belt is long 
 and heavy, it is always best to slacken the speed of the 
 engine. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 341 
 
 WILLIAM SELLERS &. CO.'S IDLERS. 
 29* 
 
342 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Desired Length of Pul- 
 ley Belt. — Add the diameter of the two pulleys 
 together, multiply by 3 J, divide the product by 2, 
 add the quotient to twice the distance between the 
 centres of the shafts, and you have the length re- 
 quired. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Required Size of a Driv- 
 ing-Pulley for any Required Speed. — Multiply the 
 diameter of the driven pulley by the number of 
 revolutions it should make, and divide the product 
 by the revolution of the driver ; the quotient will be 
 the required size of the driver. 
 
 Rule. — For Finding the Diameter of a Driven 
 Pulley, a Given Number of Revolutions of the 
 Driver being known. — Multiply the diameter of the 
 driver pulley by its number of revolutions, and 
 divide the product by the number of revolutions of 
 the driven pulley ; the quotient will give the proper 
 size of the driven pulley. 
 
 The wider the belt, and the larger the diameter 
 of the pulleys, the more power will be transmitted, 
 because with a wide belt there are more square inches 
 of surface in contact with the peripheries of the driver 
 and driven pulleys, besides the arms of the pulleys 
 are levers, and the longer they are the more they 
 will lift, convey, or transmit. 
 
THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 THE STEAM LUBRICATOR. 
 
 Hitherto, the introduction of visible feed lubri- 
 cators on small engines was 
 impracticable, owing to their 
 cost, complex construction, 
 difficulty of application, and 
 the skill required to operate 
 them. 
 
 In the cut, the Lubricator 
 is shown attached to the steam- 
 pipe of an engine by one con- 
 nection, which contains a steam 
 inlet, and oil outlet, the former 
 communicating between the 
 steam and balloon-shaped con- 
 denser, the latter between the 
 steam-pipe and oil vessel. At 
 the front of the oil chamber is 
 an angular extension, through which, by the re- 
 moval of the filler valve (as shown), the oil chamber 
 is filled with oil or tallow ; the sides of the angular 
 extension are provided with circular observation 
 ports, exposing to view a glass indicator tube, 
 through which is made visible both the rate of feed 
 of oil, and its entire displacement from the oil cup. 
 
 *THE ECLIPSE. 
 
 * Inventor and manufacturer, J. Vin. Kenchard, Detroit, 
 Mich. 
 
344 THE YOUNG ENGINEER'S OWN BOOK. 
 
 On each side of the oil chamber is located a valve ; 
 that on the left to regulate the feed, or the flow of 
 water from the balloon to the interior of the oil 
 chamber, and that on the right, to admit the dis- 
 charge of the oil from the oil chamber into the steam- 
 pipe, where it mingles with the steam on its passage 
 to the engine. The valve at the bottom of the oil 
 chamber is for emptying the Lubricator. 
 
 The Lubricator injects oil into the steam-pipe of 
 engines at any convenient attachment point between 
 the engine and boiler, infusing the steam with foam 
 of oil, and as the steam thus saturated passes 
 through the engine, it lubricates the throttle, gov- 
 ernor, steam or cut-off valve, cylinder and piston. 
 The feed of the oil being visible, it can be regulated 
 to suit the requirement of the engine, and will con- 
 tinue with unerring regularity. 
 
 The engine requires but half the packing, half the 
 oil, used by the old method. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Acceleration, 138. 
 
 Actual heat, 193. 
 or net horse-power, 39. 
 
 Adams grate-bar, 272. 
 
 Adjust the indicator, how to, 
 129. 
 
 Adjustable injector, 322. 
 
 Admission, 145. 
 
 Advance, angular, 84. 
 
 Affinity, 138. 
 
 Agricultural portable engine, 
 58. 
 
 Air, 168. 
 
 Air-pump, 175. 
 and condenser, the Turner, 
 
 175. 
 vessels, 177. 
 
 Alter a steam-engine, 48. 
 
 Amateur engineer, 117. 
 
 Amount of benefit to be derived 
 from working steam ex- 
 pansively, rule for find- 
 ing, 218. 
 of lap for slide-valve cor- 
 responding to any desired 
 point of cut-off, rule for 
 finding required, 148. 
 
 Amount of lap required for 
 stationary and locomotive 
 
 slide-valve engines, tablet 
 
 showing, 148. 
 Analysis of Indiana coals, 
 
 table deduced from an, 
 
 205. 
 AncJior-botts, 99. 
 Angle, 138. 
 Angular advance, 84. 
 Area of crank, 65. 
 valve, pressure, etc., are 
 
 known, rule for finding 
 
 weight necessary to put on 
 
 a lever when, 281. 
 valve, weight of ball, etc., 
 
 are known, rule for finding 
 
 pressure per square inch 
 
 when, 282. 
 Armington & Sims' engine, 40. 
 Arms, 110. 
 Atmosphere, pressure of, 168, 
 
 253. 
 resistance of, 35, 215. 
 Atmospheric pressure, 214. 
 Atomic force of heat, 193. 
 Attraction, capillary, 138. 
 Automatic cut-off engine, 
 
 Buckeye, 59. 
 cut-off engine, Twiss, 34. 
 cut- off engine, Whitehall, 65. 
 345 
 
346 
 
 Automatic steam-damper, 
 Murrill & Kyser's, 264. 
 
 Average pressure in steam- 
 cylinders, rule for finding, 
 221. 
 
 Axle, 138. 
 
 Back, 110. 
 view of Hoven Owens & 
 Richter's Corliss engine, 
 36. 
 Badger heater, 288. 
 Balance slide-valves, 14 
 Ball steam-engine, 71. 
 Baningwarith feed-water 
 
 heater, 286. 
 Basis of Virginia caking coal, 
 
 table showing, 204. 
 Basket valve, 144. 
 Beam engine, the, 56. 
 Bed-plates, 76. 
 and housings, 76. 
 box and side, 79. 
 Belly, 110. 
 Belting, 339. 
 
 Belts, Sellers & Co.'s binder- 
 frame for guiding, xxvi. 
 Binder-frame for guiding 
 belts, Sellers & Co.'s, xxvi. 
 Bib-cock, 163. 
 
 Blymyer horizontal stationary 
 engine, 45, 50. 
 portable engine, 61. 
 Boiler braces, 273. 
 double-deck, 228. 
 flue, 227. 
 materials, 277. 
 
 Boiler test, 230. 
 tubular, 227. 
 upright, 229. 
 Boiler-plate, 277. 
 Boilers, locomotive or marine, 
 240. 
 sectional, 234. 
 Boiling-point for fresh water 
 at different altitudes above 
 sea-level, table showing, 
 182. 
 Boiling-points of liquids un- 
 der pressure of one atmos* 
 phere, table showing, 182. 
 Bonnet, 113. 
 Boss of crank, 65. 
 depth of, 66. 
 diameter of, 66. 
 Box and side bed-plates, 79. 
 Boxes, connecting-rod, 86. 
 Braces, boiler, 273. 
 Brass or copper, to clean, 98. 
 Breadth of gib and key, 66. 
 
 of strap, 65. 
 Breast, 110. 
 Breeches, 113. 
 Brown revolution indicator, 
 
 153. 
 Buckeye automatic cut-off en- 
 gine, 59. 
 Bushing, 164. 
 
 Caloric, 223. 
 
 Cam, 83. 
 
 Cameron steam-pump,the, 36oi 
 
 Cap, 113. 
 
 Capacity, unit of, 300. 
 
347 
 
 Capillary attraction, 138. 
 
 Carbon, volatile, sulphur, etc., 
 in Pittsburgh coal, table 
 showing, 205. 
 
 Core of steam-boiler, 266. 
 of steam-engine, 94. 
 
 Cast-iron, 91. 
 
 Charcoal iron, 278. 
 
 Check-valve, 163. 
 
 Checks, 110. 
 
 Chemical equivalents, 199. 
 of wood, table showing, 205. 
 
 Chimneys, 235. 
 round, 236. 
 
 Circle, the, 293. 
 
 Circles, diameters and areas of, 
 from to | of an inch, ad- 
 vancing from i, table* of, 
 296. 
 from to £ of an inch, ad- 
 vancing by eighths, table 
 showing diameter and cir- 
 cumference of, 295. 
 from 0.10 to 1.00 inch, ad- 
 vancing by .005, table 
 showing diameter and 
 areas of, 294. 
 from ^ of an inch to 25 
 inches, table of diameters, 
 circumferences, and areas 
 of, 297-299. 
 
 Cisterns and tanks, table show- 
 ing capacity of, 188. 
 
 Clean brass or copper, 98. 
 steam-engine, how to, 95. 
 
 Clearance, 67. 
 
 Coal, American anthracite, ta- 
 
 ble showing the combusti- 
 ble and n on -combustible in 
 the best quality of, 204. 
 Coal, analysis of Indiana, tabla 
 deduced from, 205. 
 
 best Pennsylvania anthra- 
 cite, table showing compo- 
 sition of, 204. 
 
 combustible value of Ohio, 
 table showing, 204. 
 
 Cumberland (American), ta- 
 ble showing constituents 
 of, 204. 
 
 ingredients in Newcastle 
 (Eng.), table showing, 205. 
 
 Pittsburgh, table showing 
 carbon, volatile, sulphur, 
 etc., in, 205. 
 
 screenings of, 207. 
 
 Virginia caking, table show- 
 ing basis of, 204. 
 Co-efficients of friction, table 
 
 of, 309, 310. 
 Coke as fuel, table showing 
 
 heating power of, 205. 
 Collar, 113. 
 
 Combustible and non-combus- 
 tible in the best quality of 
 American anthracite coals, 
 table showing, 204. 
 
 value of Ohio coal, table 
 showing, 204. 
 Combustion, 197. 
 
 spontaneous, 200. 
 
 temperature of, 197. 
 ^Common-sense' 9 steam-boiler, 
 273. 
 
348 
 
 Composition of best Pennsyl- 
 vania anthracite coal, ta- 
 ble showing, 204. 
 Compression, 145. 
 Condenser and air-pump, the 
 Turner, 175. 
 jet, 135. 
 surface, 135. 
 Condensing and non-condens- 
 ing engines, difference be- 
 tween, 54. 
 engine, Watt's, 56. 
 Connecting-rod, 86. 
 boxes, 86, 88. 
 diameter of, 66. 
 Connecting -rods, main, 87. 
 Constituents of Cumberland 
 coals (American), table 
 showing, 204. 
 Conversation between young 
 engineer and his employer, 
 124. 
 Cooper tubular steam-boiler, 
 
 etc., 267. 
 Corliss engine, Owens & Rich- 
 ter's, 36. 
 frame, 78. 
 Crank, 79. 
 and eccentric, single, 79. 
 area of, 65. 
 at half-stroke, 82. 
 at whole stroke, 82. 
 boss of, 65. 
 diameter of, 66. 
 disc, 81. 
 double, 80. 
 moving outboard, or over, 82. 
 
 Crank of a steam-engine, 81. 
 single, 80. 
 thickness of, 67. 
 travelling inboard, or under, 
 82. 
 Crank-pin, diameter of, 66. 
 
 length of, 67. 
 Crank-shaft, diameter of, 66* 
 
 bearing, length of, 67. 
 Crist vibrating engine, 30. 
 Cross-head bearings, length 
 
 of, 67. 
 Cross-heads, 73. 
 Crushing strength of different 
 materials, table showing, 
 315. 
 Cushion, 145. 
 Cul-off, 145. 
 
 Cylinder, how to set out pia 
 ton -packing in, 99. 
 plain, 227. 
 steam-engine, 73. 
 
 Dampers, 265. 
 
 Dayton cam steam-pump, 334 
 
 proportions of, 334. 
 Dean steam-pump, the, 329. 
 Depth of boss of crank, 66. 
 
 piston-ring, 66. 
 Design of steam-engines, 56. 
 peculiarities of, 32. 
 symmetry of, 64. 
 Diagram, indicator, 128. 
 Diameter and areas of circles 
 from 0.10 to 1.00 inch, 
 advancing by .005, table 
 showing, 294. 
 
349 
 
 Diameter and circumference 
 of circles from to & of 
 an inch, advancing by 
 eighths, table showing, 
 295. 
 
 circumferences, and areas 
 of circles from ^ of an 
 inch to 25 inches, table of, 
 297-299. 
 
 of boss of crank, 66. 
 
 of connecting-rod, 66, 
 
 of crank, 66. 
 
 of crank-pin, 66. 
 
 of crank-shaft, 66. 
 
 of eccentric-rod, 66. 
 
 of exhaust-pipe, 67. 
 
 of fly-wheels, 69. 
 
 of packing, right, 102. 
 
 of pipe sufficient to dis- 
 charge a given quantity 
 of water per minute in 
 cubic feet, 185. 
 
 ef piston-rod, 66. 
 
 of rock-shaft bearing, 67. 
 
 ©f rock-shaft pin, 67. 
 
 of screw, 167. 
 
 of steam-pipe, 66. 
 
 of valve-rod, 66. 
 
 of wrist or cross-head pin, 66. 
 Diameters and areas of circles 
 from to | of an inch, 
 advancing from |, table 
 of, 296. 
 Diamond Baxter engine, 55. 
 Difference between condensing 
 and non-condensing en- 
 gines, 54. 
 30 
 
 Directions for setting up 
 steam-pumps, 335. 
 
 Disc crank, 80, 81. 
 
 Distance from key-slot, 67. 
 
 Double crank, 80. 
 
 Double-beat valve, 144. 
 
 Dotible-deck boiler, 228. 
 
 Drip-cock, 163. 
 
 Driven-pulley, rule for find- 
 ing diameter of, 342. 
 
 Driving -pulley for any re- 
 quired speed, rule for find- 
 ing required size of a, 342. 
 
 Duration, unit of, 300. 
 
 Dynamics, 138. 
 
 Ear, 110. 
 
 JEbullition, 179. 
 
 Eccentric, 83. 
 and single crank, 79. 
 
 Eccentric-rod, diameter of, 66, 
 
 Economy and waste in th& 
 steam-engine, 49. 
 of working steam expan- 
 sively, 215. 
 young engineers should 
 practise, 119. 
 
 Eduction and induction, 145. 
 
 Effect of vacuum on the work- 
 ing of the steam-engine, 
 133. 
 
 Elasticity, temperature, vol« 
 ume, and velocity, etc.* 
 table showing, 257-259. 
 
 Elbow, 111. 
 with nipple, 164. 
 
 Energy, 138. 
 
350 
 
 Engine, agricultural portable, 
 58. 
 
 Armington & Sims', 40. 
 
 beam, 56. 
 
 Blymyer horizontal station- 
 ary, 45, 50. 
 
 Blymyer portable, 61. 
 
 Buckeye automatic cut-off, 
 59. 
 
 Crist vibrating, 30. 
 
 Diamond Baxter, 55. 
 
 Greenfield yacht, 57. 
 
 how to locate an, 92. 
 
 how to set up an, 98. 
 
 how to treat the, 105. 
 
 Kriebel's vibratory cylinder 
 valveless yacht, 87. 
 
 marine, 33. 
 
 sectional view of Kriebel 
 vibrating valveless, 75. 
 
 stationary, 85. 
 
 Steam's, the, 93. 
 
 Taylor vertical, 109. 
 
 Twiss automatic cut-off, 34. 
 
 Twiss yacht, 77. 
 
 Westinghouse, the, 137. 
 
 Whitehall automatic cut-off, 
 65. 
 Engineer, amateur, 117. 
 TZngines, condensing and non- 
 condensing, difference be- 
 tween, 54. 
 
 fire, 33. 
 
 portable and semi-steam-, 58. 
 
 table showing amount of lap 
 required for stationary and 
 locomotiveslide- valve, 148. 
 
 Engines, traction, 32. 
 Equivalents, chemical, 199. 
 Exhaust-pipe, diameter of, 67, 
 Expansion, 215. 
 of air by heat, table show* 
 ing, 173. 
 Explosions, steam-boiler, 269. 
 Eye, 111. 
 
 Feed-water heater, Baning- 
 warith, 286. 
 heaters, 286. 
 
 Feet, 111. 
 
 Ferrule, 164. 
 
 Finding the distance the pis- 
 ton travels ahead of its 
 central position on out- 
 board stroke, rule for, 72. 
 
 Fingers, 111. 
 
 Fire-box boiler, Steam's tubu- 
 lar, 237. 
 
 Fire-engines, 33. 
 Amoskeag, 62. 
 
 Firing, instructions for, 261. 
 
 Flat spanner, 163. 
 
 Flue boiler, 227. 
 McKee & Bankin, 232. 
 
 Fly-wheel, diameter of, 68. 
 functions of, 68. 
 
 Fly-wheels, 68. 
 
 Follower-plate, thickness, 67. 
 
 Force, 138. 
 
 Four-bladed screw-propeller, 
 165. 
 
 Fractional parts of an inch 
 expressed decimally, table 
 of, 311. 
 
351 
 
 Frame, Corliss, 78. 
 
 the Tangye, 78. 
 Frames, upright, 79. 
 Friction of the slide-valve, 
 143. 
 table of co-efficients of, 309, 
 310. 
 Front view of Twiss automatic 
 
 cut-off engine, 34. 
 'Fuel, 207. 
 
 waste of, 288. 
 Full gear and mid gear, 85. 
 Function of safety-valve, 280. 
 Functions of fly-wheel, 68. 
 
 of indicator, 127. 
 Furnace, Jarvis improved, 279. 
 Furnaces, 279. 
 
 Fusing temperature of differ- 
 ent substances, in degrees 
 Fah., table showing, 195. 
 
 Galloway steam-boiler, 277. 
 Gardner steam-engine gover- 
 nor, 150. 
 Gas-engine, the Sombert, 96. 
 Gases, 305. 
 
 Gear, full and mid, 85. 
 Gib and key, breadth of, 66. 
 
 thickness of, 68. 
 Girder, the, 78. 
 Governor, Gardner steam-en- 
 gine, 150. 
 
 Pickering steam-engine, 151. 
 
 the steam-engine, 150. 
 Grate-bar, the Adams, 272. 
 Grate-bars, 272. 
 Gravity, 139. 
 
 Gravity, specific, 139. 
 Greenfield yacht-engine, 57. 
 Gridiron valve, 144. 
 Guiding belts, Sellers & Co.'s 
 binder-frame for, xxvi. 
 
 Hand, 111. 
 
 Harrison sectional steam- 
 boiler, 228. 
 Hat, 114. 
 Head, 111. 
 
 Head of water in feet, pressure 
 being known, rule for find- 
 ing, 186. 
 Heat, 191. 
 actual, 193. 
 atomic force of, 193. 
 mechanical equivalent of, 
 
 193. 
 mechanical theory of, 192. 
 molecular force of, 193. 
 unit of, 192, 300. 
 Heater, Badger, 288. 
 Heaters, feed-water, 286. 
 Heating power of coke as fuel, 
 table showing, 205. 
 surface, etc., to develop a 
 horse-power under ordi- 
 nary circumstances, table 
 showing number of square 
 feet of, 253. 
 Hemp, raw, 101. 
 High pressure or non-condens* 
 
 ing steam-engine, 54. 
 Hood, 113. 
 Horse-power, 139. 
 actual or net, 39. 
 
352 
 
 Horse-power, indicated, 39. 
 
 nominal, 39. 
 
 of steam-engine, rule for 
 finding, 39. 
 
 of steam-engines, 37. 
 
 of steam-boilers, 231. 
 Housings and bed-plates, 76. 
 Mow steam-boilers are made, 
 238. 
 
 steam-engines are made, 89. 
 
 to attach the indicator, 129. 
 
 to clean a steam-engine, 95. 
 
 to locate an engine, 92. 
 
 to set a slide-valve, 146. 
 
 to set out piston -packing in 
 cylinder, 99. 
 
 to set up an engine, 98. 
 
 to treat the engine, 105. 
 Hydrodynamics, 139. 
 Hydrostatics, 139. 
 Hyperbolic logarithms, table 
 of, 219. 
 
 Idlers, Sellers & Co.'s, 341. 
 Ignition, spontaneous, 200. 
 Impact, 139. 
 Impetus, 139. 
 Incrustation of steam-boilers, 
 
 282. 
 Indicated horse-power, 39. 
 Indicator, Brown's revolution, 
 153. 
 
 diagram, 128. 
 
 functions of, 127. 
 
 how to adjust the, 129. 
 
 speed-revolution, 153. 
 
 steam-engine, 126. 
 
 Indicator, Thompson's steam« 
 engine, 126. 
 Watt's, 127. 
 Induction and eduction, 145. 
 Inertia, 139. 
 
 Ingredients in Newcastle coal 
 (English), table showing, 
 205. 
 Inhumanity to the machine, 
 
 man's, 106. 
 Initial pressure, 35. 
 temperature, 289. 
 Injector, 322. 
 adjustable, 322, 323. 
 fixed nozzle, 323. 
 self-adjusting, 322. 
 Injectors, William Sellers & 
 Co.'s, 322. 
 instructions for setting up, 
 328. 
 Instructions for firing, 261. 
 
 for setting up injectors, 328. 
 Iron boilers, table showing 
 safe working internal 
 pressures for, 244-247. 
 charcoal, 278. 
 
 Jacket, 113. 
 
 Jarvis improved furnace, 279. 
 
 Jaws, 111. 
 
 Jet condenser, 135. 
 
 Key-slot, distance from, 67. 
 
 Knees, 111. 
 
 Knocking in steam-engines, 
 
 114. 
 Knuckles, 111. 
 
353 
 
 JLriebeVs vibrating valveless 
 engine, sectional view, 75. 
 vibrating cylinder valveless 
 yacht-engine, 87. 
 
 Kuntzing's piston-rod pack- 
 ing, 101. 
 
 Zane & Bodey traction or self- 
 propelling steam-engine, 
 63. 
 Zap on the slide-valve, 147. 
 required for stationary and 
 locomotive slide-valve en- 
 gines, table showing, 148. 
 Zazy tongs, or the Pantograph, 
 
 131. 
 Zead of the slide-valve, 149. 
 Zegs, 111. 
 
 Zength of crank-pin, 67. 
 of crank-shaft bearing, 67. 
 of cross-head bearings, 67. 
 of rock-shaft bearing, 67. 
 unit of, 300. 
 Zet the steam-engine alone, 
 
 104. 
 Zevers, 140. 
 Zink. the. 85. 
 Zips, 111. 
 
 Zocate an engine, how to, 92. 
 Zocomotive or marine boilers, 
 
 240. 
 Zogarithms, 306. 
 of numbers from to 60, 
 
 table of, 307, 308. 
 table of hyperbolic, 219. 
 Zoss of heat by radiation, etc., 
 table showing, 320. 
 30* X 
 
 Zost motion, 141. 
 
 Zubricator Eclipse, 343, 344. 
 
 Machine, 140. 
 
 man's inhumanity to the 
 
 106. 
 riveting, 240. 
 
 Main connecting- rods, 87. 
 
 Mantle, 114. 
 
 Manufacture of steam-en- 
 gines, materials employed 
 in, 91. 
 
 Marine engine, 33. 
 
 Mass, 140. 
 
 Materials, boiler, 277. 
 employed in the manufac- 
 ture of steam-engines, 
 91. 
 
 Matter, 140. 
 
 McKee and Rankin flue-boiler, 
 232. 
 
 Measures and weights, table 
 of, 313, 314. 
 standards of English and 
 United States linear, cu- 
 bic, square, solid, and 
 liquid, table of, 312. 
 
 Mechanical and natural proc ■ 
 ess, vocabulary of, 138. 
 equivalents of heat, 193. 
 powers, 140. 
 theory of heat, 193. 
 
 Melting-points of different sol- 
 ids, and of alloys, table 
 showing, 196. 
 
 Mid and full gear, 85. 
 
 Modem steam-engine, 64. 
 
 Modulus of elasticity of dif- 
 
354 
 
 ferent materials, etc., table 
 
 showing, 316. 
 Molecular force of heat, 193. 
 Momentum, 140. 
 Monkey-wrench, 163. 
 Motion, 140. 
 
 lost, 141. 
 Mouth, 111. 
 Movers, prime, 141. 
 Moving outboard, or over 
 
 crank, 82. 
 Mule pulleys, Sellers & Co.'s, 
 
 338. 
 Multipliers, table of, 221. 
 Murrill & Kyser's automatic 
 
 steam-damper, 264. 
 
 Natural and mechanical proc- 
 ess, vocabulary of, 138. 
 
 Neck, 112. 
 
 Net horse-power, 39. 
 
 Nominal horse-power, 39. 
 
 Non-condensing and condens- 
 ing engines, difference be- 
 tween, 54. 
 steam-engine, 54. 
 
 Non-conductors for preventing 
 radiation and condensation 
 in steam-cylinders, pipes, 
 boilers, steam-domes, etc., 
 318. 
 
 Normal pressure, 213. 
 
 Nose, 112. 
 
 Number of strokes or revolu- 
 tions required for a given 
 piston speed, table show- 
 ing, 156. 
 
 Number of U. S. gallons con* 
 tained in a foot of pipe of 
 any given diameter, rule 
 for finding, 185. 
 
 Ocean steamers, 133. 
 Owens & Richter's Corliss en- 
 gine, 36. 
 
 Packing, Kuntzing's piston- 
 rod, 101. 
 piston- and valve-rod, 101, 
 
 102. 
 right diameter of, 102. 
 Paddle-wheel and screw-pro- 
 peller, 165. 
 steamers, 166. 
 Paddle-wheels, 166. 
 Pantograph, or lazy tongs, 
 
 131. 
 Payne & Son's vertical engines 
 
 and boilers, 60. 
 Peat, vegetable composition of, 
 
 table showing, 205. 
 Peculiarities of design, 32. 
 Performances, steam-boiler, 
 
 233. 
 Pet-cock, 163. 
 Petticoat, 113. 
 
 Pickering steam-engine gov- 
 ernor, 151. 
 Piston- and valve-rod packing, 
 
 101, 102. 
 Piston of steam-engine, 33. 
 ring, depth of, 66. 
 rod, diameter of, 66. 
 thickness of, 67. 
 
855 
 
 Pisten-pacMng in cylinder, 
 how to set out, 99. 
 packing, Kuntzing's, 101. 
 stains on, 72. 
 Plain cylinder, 227. 
 Planhneter, the, 131, 132. 
 Plant, 141. 
 Plug, 164. 
 Pneumatics, 141. 
 Pocket, 113. 
 Poppet or double-beat valve, 
 
 144. 
 Portable and semi-steam-en- 
 gines, 58. 
 
 engine, agricultural, 58. 
 Blymyer, 61. 
 Power, 141. 
 of steam-engine, 46. 
 required to raise water to 
 any height, rule for find- 
 ing, 185. 
 Potvers, mechanical, 140. 
 Pressure, atmospheric, 214, 
 
 253. 
 Pressure, initial,, 35. 
 in pounds per sq. in. exerted 
 by a column of water, rule 
 for finding, 185. 
 normal, 213. 
 of atmosphere, 168. 
 of steam, 211. 
 unit of, 300. 
 Presstire - gauge, the steam, 
 
 159, 161. 
 Prime movers, 141. 
 Proper thickness of steam-cyl- 
 inders of steam-engines of 
 
 different diameters, table 
 showing, 76. 
 
 Properties of saturated steam, 
 222. 
 
 Proportions of steam -engines, 
 65. 
 
 Pulley -belt, rule for finding de- 
 sired length of, 342. 
 
 Pulleys, mule, Sellers & Co.'s, 
 338. 
 
 Pumps, 329. 
 
 Punched sheets, 239. 
 
 Quantity of water a steam- 
 boiler or any cylindrical 
 vessel will contain, rule 
 for finding, 184. 
 
 of water discharged through 
 an orifice per minute, rule 
 for finding, 184. 
 
 of water which any square or 
 rectangular box or tank is 
 capable of containing in 
 cubic feet or U. S. gallons, 
 rule for finding, 186. 
 
 Radiation and condensation 
 in steam-cylinders, pipes, 
 boilers, steam-domes, etc., 
 non - conductors for pre- 
 venting, 318. 
 
 Railroad train, 122. 
 
 Saw hemp, 101. 
 
 Reducer, 164. 
 
 Re-evaporation, 145. 
 
 Relative value of different non- 
 conductors, table, 195. 
 
356 
 
 Release, 145. 
 
 Required height of a column 
 of water to supply a steam- 
 boiler against any given 
 pressure of steam, rule for 
 finding, 185. 
 
 "Requisite quantity of water for 
 a steam-boiler, rule for 
 finding, 185. 
 
 Resistance of atmosphere, 35, 
 215. 
 
 Return bend, 164. 
 
 Revolution and stroke, 154. 
 indicator, the Brown, 153. 
 indicator, the Speed, 153. 
 
 Ribs, 112. 
 
 RicJiter's Corliss engine, 36. 
 
 Right diameter of packing, 102. 
 
 Riveting machine, 240. 
 
 Rock-shaft bearing, diameter 
 of, 67. 
 length of, 67. 
 pin, diameter of, 67. 
 
 Rolling -mills, 69. 
 
 Root sectional steam - boiler, 
 225. 
 
 Rotary and plug valves, 144. 
 
 Round chimneys, 236. 
 spanner, 163. 
 
 Rule for calculating the quan- 
 tity of water required for 
 different specific purposes, 
 184. 
 for finding amount of benefit 
 to be derived from work- 
 ing steam expansively, 
 218. 
 
 Rule for finding average press- 
 ure in steam-cylinders, 221. 
 
 desired length of pulley belt, 
 342. 
 
 diameter of a driven pulley, 
 a given number of revolu- 
 tions of the driver being 
 known, 342. 
 
 diameter of a pipe sufficient 
 to discharge a given quan- 
 tity of water per minute in 
 cubic feet, 185. 
 
 distance the piston travels 
 ahead of a central position 
 on the outboard stroke, 
 and lags behind on the in- 
 board, 72. 
 
 head of water in feet, press- 
 ure being known, 186. 
 
 horse-power of a steam-en- 
 gine, 39. 
 
 number of U. S. gallons con- 
 tained in a foot of pipe of 
 any given diameter, 185. 
 
 power required to raise water 
 to any height, 185. 
 
 pressureinpounds per square 
 inch exerted by a column 
 of water, 186. 
 
 pressure per square inch 
 when area of valve, weight 
 of ball, etc., are known, 
 282. 
 
 quantity of water a steam- 
 boiler or any cylindrical 
 vessel will contain, 184. 
 
 quantity of water discharged 
 
357 
 
 through an orifice per 
 minute, 184. 
 Bute for finding quantity of 
 water which any square 
 or rectangular box or tank 
 is capable of containing in 
 cub. ft. or U. S. gals., 186. 
 
 required amount of lap for 
 slide-valve corresponding 
 to any desired point of cut- 
 off, 148. 
 
 required height of a col- 
 umn of water to supply a 
 steam-boiler against any 
 given pressure of steam, 
 185. 
 
 required size of a driving- 
 pulley for any required 
 speed, 342. 
 
 requisite quantity of water 
 for a steam-boiler, 185. 
 
 thickness of steam - engine 
 cylinders, 76. 
 
 time a cistern will take in 
 filling, when a known 
 quantity of water is going 
 in and a known quantity 
 is. going out, in a given 
 time, 184. 
 
 time a vessel takes in emp- 
 tying itself of water, 184. 
 
 weight necessary to put on a 
 lever when area of valve, 
 pressure, etc., are known, 
 282. 
 Safety-valves, 2.80. 
 
 functions of, 280. 
 
 Sal-soda, 275. 
 
 Saturated air, table showing 
 weight and composition of, 
 174. 
 steam, properties of, 222. 
 steam, table showing proper- 
 ties of, 255, 256. 
 Scale and incrustation from 
 steam-boilers, solvents foi 
 removing, 275. 
 Screenings of coal, 207. 
 Screw, diameter of, 167. 
 
 stop-valve, 163. 
 Screw -'propeller and paddle- 
 wheel, 165. 
 four-bladed, 165. 
 Seas, specific gravity of differ- 
 ent, 181. 
 Sectional boilers, 234. 
 steam-boiler, Harrison, 228. 
 steam-boiler, Root, 225. 
 view of Kriebel vibrating 
 
 valveless engine, 75. 
 view of steam-gauge, 161. 
 view of steam -pressure gauge, 
 161. 
 Self-adjusting injector, 322. 
 Self-propelling or traction 
 steam-engine, the Lane & 
 Bodey, 63. 
 Sellers & Co.'s binder-frame, 
 xx vi. 
 idlers, 341. 
 injectors, 322. 
 mule pulleys, 338. 
 self-adjusting injectors, etc., 
 table showing, 326. 
 
358 
 
 Semi-steam and portable en- 
 gines, 58. 
 Sensible heat and decrease of 
 latent heat, according to 
 pressure, and viae versa, 
 table showing, 254. 
 Set-screw, 164, 
 
 Set out piston-packing in cyl- 
 inder, how to, 99. 
 up an engine, how to, 98. 
 Sheets, punched, 239. 
 Shoes, 113. 
 Shoulder, 112. 
 Side-bed, the, 76. 
 Single crank, 80. 
 and eccentric, 79. 
 fork-wrench, 164. 
 Skin, 112. 
 Sleeve, 113. 
 Slide-valve, 142. 
 friction of, 143. 
 how to set a, 146. 
 lap on the, 147. 
 lead on the, 149. 
 Slide-valves, balance, 144. 
 Small steam-engines, 60. 
 Smoke, 241. 
 
 Solvents for removing scale 
 and incrustation from 
 steam-boilers, 275. 
 Sombert gas-engine, the, 96. 
 Spanner, flat, 163. 
 
 round, 163. 
 Specific gravity, 139. 
 and weight of various sub- 
 stances, table showing, 306. 
 of different seas, 181. 
 
 Specific gravity of different 
 substances per cubic foot, 
 table showing, 301-305. 
 Speed-revolution indicator, 
 
 153. 
 Spontaneous combustion, 200. 
 
 ignition, 200. 
 Standard units adopted in 
 this country and England, 
 300. 
 Standards of English and 
 United States linear, 
 square, cubic, solid, and 
 liquid measures, table of, 
 312. 
 Stationary and locomotive 
 slide-valve engines, table 
 showing amount of lap 
 required for, 148. 
 Stationary engine, 85. 
 back view of Blymyer hori- 
 zontal, 50. 
 front view of Blymyer hori- 
 zontal, 45. 
 Steam, 211. 
 and water-cylinders, etc., 
 table showing diameter 
 of, 337. 
 economy of working, 215. 
 in cylinder for whole stroke, 
 table showing average 
 pressure, 220. 
 in cylinders of a steam-en- 
 gine, technical terms ap- 
 plied to working of, 145. 
 pressure of, 211. 
 pressure-gauge, 159. 
 
359 
 
 Steam pressure-gauge, section- 
 al view of, 161. 
 
 will escape into the atmos- 
 phere at different press- 
 ures from 1 to 130 pounds, 
 etc., table showing, 260. 
 Steam-boiler, care of the, 266. 
 
 Cooper tubular, 267. 
 
 explosions, 269. 
 
 Harrison sectional, 228. 
 
 performances, 233. 
 
 Root sectional, 225. 
 
 the " Common Sense," 273. 
 
 the " Galloway," 277. 
 Steam-boilers, 226. 
 
 horse-power of, 231. 
 
 how are made, 238. 
 
 incrustation of, 282. 
 
 solvents for. removing scale 
 and incrustation from, 275. 
 Steam-cylinders of steam-en- 
 gines of different diam- 
 eters, table showing proper 
 thickness of, 76. 
 Steam-damper, Murrill & 
 
 Kyser's automatic, 264. 
 fteam-engine, 27. 
 
 alter a, 48. 
 
 Ball, 71. 
 
 care of, 94. 
 
 crank of a, 81. 
 
 cylinder, 73. 
 
 cylinders, rule for finding 
 thickness of, 76. 
 
 economy and waste in the, 49. 
 
 governor, 150. 
 
 governor, Gardner, 150. 
 
 Steam-engine governor, Pick* 
 ering, 151. 
 
 high-pressure, 54. 
 
 how to clean, 95. 
 
 indicator, Thompson's, 126. 
 
 non-condensing, 54. 
 
 power of, 46. 
 
 the Lane & Bodey traction 
 or self-propelling, 63. 
 
 let alone, 104. 
 
 modern, 64. 
 
 piston of, 33. 
 
 rule for finding horse-power 
 of a, 39. 
 
 straight-line, 103. 
 Steam-engines, 31. 
 
 and boilers which designate 
 garments, technical terms 
 applied to different parts 
 of, 113. 
 
 design of, 56. 
 
 effect of vacuum on working 
 of, 133. 
 
 horse-power of, 37. 
 
 how made, 89. 
 
 indicator, 126. 
 
 indicator, Thompson's, 126. 
 
 knocking in, 114. 
 
 materials employed in manu- 
 facture of, 91. 
 
 proportions of, 65. 
 
 small, 60. 
 
 traction, 62. 
 
 technical terms applied to 
 different parts of, 110. 
 Steam-gauge, 159. 
 
 seotional view of, 161. 
 
360 
 
 Steam-pipe, diameter of, 66. 
 Steam-piston, 70. 
 Steam-pump, Cameron, 363. 
 
 the " Dean," 329. 
 Steam-pumps, 331. 
 
 directions for setting up, 
 335. 
 Steam-riveting, 239. 
 Steam-ivhistle> 157. 
 Steamers, paddle-wheel, 166. 
 Steam's tubular fire-box boil- 
 er, 237. 
 
 engine, the, 91. 
 Stop-valve, 163. 
 
 screw, 163. 
 
 with tap, union, and pet- 
 cock, 163. 
 Straight - line steam - engine, 
 
 103. 
 Strains on piston-rod, 72. 
 Straj), breadth of, 65. 
 Straps, thickness of, 67. 
 Stroke and revolution, 154. 
 Stud-bolt, 164. 
 Surface condenser, 135. 
 
 unit of, 300. 
 Symmetry of design, 64. 
 
 Table deduced from an analy- 
 sis of Indiana coals, 205. 
 
 of co-efficients of friction, 
 309, 310. 
 
 of diameters, circumferences, 
 and areas of circles from 
 •jig of an inch to 25 inches, 
 297-299. 
 
 of diameters and areas of cir- 
 
 cles from to £ of an inch, 
 advancing from J, 296. 
 Table of fractional parts of an 
 inch expressed decimally, 
 311. 
 
 of hyperboliclogarithms, 219. 
 
 of logarithms of numbers 
 from to 60, 307. 
 
 of multipliers, 221. 
 
 of proportions of the Dayton 
 cam pump, 334. 
 
 of standards of English and! 
 U. S. linear, square, cubic, 
 solid, and liquid measures, 
 312. 
 
 of weights and measures, 313, 
 314. 
 
 showing amount of lap re- 
 quired for stationary and 
 locomotive slide-valve en- 
 gines, 148. 
 
 showing average number of 
 gallons of water used per 
 capita for culinary pur- 
 poses, etc., 187. 
 
 showing average pressure of 
 steam in cylinder for whole 
 stroke, 220. 
 
 showing basis of Virginia 
 caking coal, 204. 
 
 showing boiling - point for 
 fresh water at different 
 altitudes above sea-level, 
 182. 
 
 showing boiling-points of 
 liquids under pressure of 
 one atmosphere, 182. 
 
361 
 
 Table showing capacity of cis- 
 terns and tanks, etc., 188. 
 
 showing capacity of tanks 
 of different diameters and 
 depths in .gallons, 189, 
 190. 
 
 showing carbon,volatile, sul- 
 phur, etc., in Pittsburgh 
 coal, 205. 
 
 showing chemical equiva- 
 lents of wood, 205. 
 
 showing combustible and 
 non - combustible in best 
 quality of American an- 
 thracite coals, 204. 
 
 showing combustible matter 
 in different substances, etc., 
 202. 
 
 showing combustible value 
 of Ohio coals, 204. 
 
 showing comparative value 
 of different kinds of wood 
 as fuel, 210. 
 
 showing composition of best 
 Pennsylvania anthracite 
 coal, 204. 
 
 showing constituents of Cum- 
 berland coals (American), 
 204. 
 
 showing crushing strength 
 of different materials, in 
 pounds per square inch, 
 315. 
 
 showing diameters and areas 
 of circles from 0.10 to 1.00 
 inch, advancing by .005, 
 294. 
 31 
 
 Table showing diameter and 
 circumference of circles 
 from to f of an inch, 
 advancing by eighths, 295. 
 
 showing diameter of steam- 
 and water-cylinders, etc., 
 337. 
 
 showing diminution in ten- 
 acity of wrought-iron when 
 exposed to high tempera- 
 tures, 248. 
 
 showing elasticity, tempera- 
 ture, volume, and velocity, 
 etc., 257-259. 
 
 showing expansion of air by 
 heat, and increase in bulk 
 in proportion to increase 
 of temperature, 173. 
 
 showing fusing temperature 
 of different substances, in 
 degrees, Fah., 195. 
 
 showing heating power of 
 coke as fuel, 205. 
 
 showing increase of sensi- 
 ble heat and decrease of 
 latent heat, according to 
 pressure, and vice versd, 
 254. 
 
 showing ingredients in New- 
 castle coal (English), 205. 
 
 showing linear expansion of 
 different metals by heat 
 for each degree Fah., 249. 
 
 showing loss of heat by ra- 
 diation through uncovered 
 steam-pipes, 320. 
 
 showing maximum capacity 
 
362 
 
 of Sellers' self-adjusting 
 injectors, etc., 326. 
 Table showing melting-points 
 of different solids, and of 
 alloys, 196. 
 
 showing modulus of elastici- 
 ty of different materials, 
 etc., 316. 
 
 showing number of square 
 feet of heating surface, etc., 
 to develop a horse-power 
 under ordinary circum- 
 stances, 253. 
 
 showing number of strokes 
 or revolutions required for 
 a given piston speed, 156. 
 
 showing percentage of saving 
 of fuel effected by heating 
 feed-water, steam-pressure 
 60 pounds, 289. 
 
 showing proper thickness of 
 steam-cylinders of steam- 
 engines of different diam- 
 eters, 76. 
 
 showing properties of satu- 
 rated steam, 255, 256. 
 
 showing relative value of dif- 
 ferent non-conductors, 195. 
 
 showing safe working inter- 
 nal pressures for iron boil- 
 ers. 244-247. 
 
 showing specific gravity and 
 weights of various sub- 
 stances, 306. 
 
 showing specific gravity of 
 different substances per cu- 
 bic foot, 301-305. 
 
 Table showing temperature at 
 which different substances 
 become combustible, etc., 
 201. 
 
 showing temperature of fire, 
 and the appearance of 
 different fuels at different 
 degrees Fah., 195. 
 
 showing tensile strength of 
 different materials, etc., 
 250. 
 
 showing theoretic value of 
 different kinds of American 
 coal in heat units, etc., 203. 
 
 showing units of heat re- 
 quired to evaporate each 
 pound of feed-water, etc., 
 290-292. 
 
 showing vacuum in inches 
 of mercury and pounds 
 pressure per square inch 
 taken from above atmos- 
 phere, 136. 
 
 showing value of different 
 substances as non-conduct- 
 ors, 321. 
 
 showing vegetable compo- 
 sition of peat, 205. 
 
 showing velocity with which 
 steam will escape into the 
 atmosphere, etc., 260. 
 
 showing weight and compo- 
 sition of saturated air, 174. 
 
 showing weight of water in 
 pipe of various diameters 
 one foot in length, 183. 
 Tangye frame, 78. 
 
363 
 
 Tanks of given diameters and 
 depths in gallons, table 
 showing capacity of, 189, 
 190. 
 
 Tap-bolt, 164. 
 long, 164. 
 
 Taylor vertical engine, 109. 
 
 Technical terms applied to dif- 
 ferent parts of steam-en- 
 gines and boilers which 
 designate garments, 113. 
 terms applied to different 
 parts of steam-engines 
 which designate the mem- 
 bers of the human body, 
 110. 
 terms applied to the working 
 of steam in cylinders of a 
 steam-engine, 145. 
 
 Tee, 164. 
 
 Teeth, 112. 
 
 Temperature, initial, 289. 
 of combustion, 197. 
 of fire, and the appearance 
 of different fuels at differ- 
 ent degrees Fah., table 
 showing, 195. 
 terminal, 289. 
 
 Template, 98. 
 
 Tensile strength of different 
 materials in pounds per 
 square inch, table show- 
 ing, 250. 
 
 Terminal temperature, 289. 
 
 Test, boilers, 230. 
 
 Thickness of crank, 67. 
 of follower-plate, 67. 
 
 Thickness of gib and key, 68. 
 of piston, 67. 
 
 of steam-engine cylinders, 
 rule for finding, 76. 
 Thompson's steam-engine in- 
 dicator, 126. 
 Time a cistern will take in fill- 
 ing, when a known quan- 
 tity of water is passing in 
 and out, rule for finding, 
 184. 
 a vessel will take in empty- 
 ing itself of water, rule for 
 finding, 184. 
 unit of, 300. 
 Toes, 112. 
 Tongue, 112. 
 Tools, 141. 
 what young engineers should 
 have, 121. 
 Torsion, 141. 
 Traction engines, 32. 
 or self-propelling steam-en- 
 gine, Lane & Bodey, 63. 
 steam-engines, 62. 
 Train, railroad, 122. 
 Travelling inboard, or under 
 
 crank, 82. 
 Treat the engine, how to, 105. 
 Tubular boiler, 227. 
 
 fire-box boiler, Steam's, 237. 
 Tubulous, 230. 
 
 Turner condenser and air- 
 pump, 175. 
 Twiss automatic cut-off engint, 
 front view of, 34. 
 yacht- engine, 77. 
 
864 
 
 Union, 164. 
 
 or cup and roll-joint, 164. 
 Unit of heat, 192. 
 Upright boiler, 229. 
 
 frames, 79. 
 
 Vacuum, 133. 
 in inches of mercury, etc., 
 table showing, 136. 
 Vacuum-gauge, 162. 
 Value of different substances 
 as non-conductors, table 
 showing, 321. 
 Valve, basket, 144. 
 gridiron, 144. 
 
 poppet or double-beat, 144. 
 Valve- and piston-rod packing, 
 
 101, 102. 
 Valve-rod, diameter of, 66. 
 Valueless yacht-engine, Krie- 
 bel's vibratory cylinder, 
 87. 
 Valves, function of safety-, 280. 
 rotary and plug, 144. 
 safety, 280. 
 Vegetable composition of peat, 
 
 table showing, 205. 
 Velocity, 141. 
 unit of, 300 
 I Vertical engine, the Taylor, 
 109. 
 engines and boilers, Payne 
 & Son's, 60. 
 Vibrating engine, Crist, 30. 
 valveless engine, sectional 
 view of Kriebel's, 75. 
 Vibratory cylinder valveless 
 
 yacht- engine, Kriebel's, 
 87. 
 Vocabulary of natural and 
 mechanical process, 138. 
 
 Waist, 113. 
 
 Waste and economy in the 
 steam-engine, 49. 
 of fuel, 288. 
 Water, 179. 
 required for different spe- 
 cific purposes, rules for 
 calculating quantity of, 
 184. 
 used per capita for culinary 
 purposes, etc., table show- 
 ing, 187. 
 Watt's condensing- engine, 56. 
 
 indicator, 127. 
 Weight, 141. 
 of water in pipe of various 
 diameters one foot in 
 length, table showing, 183. 
 unit of, 300. 
 Weights and measures, table 
 
 of, 313, 314. 
 Westinghouse engine, 137. 
 What should the young en- 
 gineer be ? 115. 
 should the young engineer 
 
 know ? 117. 
 tools should the young en- 
 gineer have ? 121. 
 Wheels, paddle, 166. 
 Whitehall automatic cut-off 
 
 engine, 65. 
 Whole stroke, crank at, 82. 
 
365 
 
 Wood, 210. 
 as fuel, table showing com- 
 parative value of different 
 kinds of, 210. 
 chemical equivalents of, 
 table showing, 205. 
 Work, unit of, 300. 
 Working of steam-engine, ef- 
 fect of vacuum on, 133. 
 of steam in cylinders of a 
 steam-engine, technical 
 terms applied to, 145. 
 Wrist, 112. 
 or cross-head pin, diameter 
 of, 66. 
 
 Wrought-iron when exposed 
 to high temperatures, table 
 showing diminution in 
 tenacity of, 248. 
 
 Yacht-engine, Greenfield, 57. 
 
 Twiss, 77. 
 Yoke-wrench with slot, 164. 
 Young engineer, 115. 
 
 and his employer, conversa- 
 tion between, 124. 
 
 should have what tools, 121. 
 
 should practise economy, 
 119. 
 
 what should know, 117. 
 
 THE CAMERON STEAM-PUMP. 
 THE END. 
 
David McKay, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 Publisher of 
 
 Roper's Hand-Book of the Locomotive, including the 
 Modelling, Construction, Eunning, and Management of 
 Locomotive Engines and Boilers. Fully Illustrated. By 
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aq 0.990 
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