Class .__ 12 a._L_ Book HkL_ CopiglitN" : COFUOGUT DEPOSIT. OUTLINES GENERAL HISTORY BY FRANK MOORE COLBY, M.A. ProfeHHor of Economics NEW YORK UNIVERSITY J^^oc NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 8EP 7189^ ■/ 41275 Copyright, 1899, by F. M. COLBY. OUT. GEN. HIST. rwoooptiEs REceivii^w >^v / .-. ^s— ;/ v^ ^kX^ \ '>>^ ^ ^ , PREFACE The present volume is designed for students who have not yet reached the point at which the special historical studies should properly begin. For advanced work specialization is of course indispensable, and historical " Outlines " are useful only in the early stages of the study or for purposes of general review. But within this limited sphere their functions are very important, since they not only supply the point of view which the student who specializes too early in his course is apt to neglect, but they aid the memory by affording a convenient nucleus for later acquisitions of knowledge. In writing them as well as in using them it is necessary to remember that they are intended to be suggestive and not exhaustive, and that compression means the omission of some topics that seem equal in importance to others which have been included. The preparation of such a volume is in fact a problem in selection. A fairly complete chronological sum- mary can perhaps be comprised within a single volume, but a general history which can be read without undue weariness and remembered without undue exertion must either overrun the space or limit its toj^ics. The present "Outlines" have been prepared with this fact in mind, and while the writer has attempted to cover as wide a held as possible, he has chosen at some points rather to restrict his scope than to give a mere catalogue of events. For exampl-e, the history of the 4 PREFACE United States has not been included, because, in the first place, it is more generally and more properly treated by itself, and, in the second place, so condensed a treatment as the limits of space allowed seemed of doubtful value. Again, the history of the non- Aryan peoples, especially since the begin- ning of the mediaeval period, has not received the attention that has been given" to the races to which the leading nations of the world belong. As in most other general histories the chief object of attention in the cliapters on mediaeval and modern history has been the European nations. In treating them, an effort has been made to trace their development so far as possible in a connected narrative, indicating the causal relations of events, for in the study of history nothing aids the memory so much as the perception of necessary sequences in historical facts. The narration of unrelated details, the enumeration of facts for their own sake, whether they lead any.where or not, provokes in the student's mind a vague and unproductive wonder, which he is better off without; and it is to be hoped that the present w^ork contains nothing that does not bear on its face the vindication of its usefulness. It is thought that the first and most natural question that presents itself to a reader's inind is, '-Of what use to me personally is the knowledge of this or that particular set of facts?" Much of the specialist's learning remains forever barred to the general reader merely for the former's unwill- ingness or inability to forestall this inquiry. In a brief general work the answer should be impressed on every page. At least such is the belief of the present writer, and by this means, rather than by what is termed pi(;turesque writing or by very frequent recourse to the pretty story, this volume attempts to hold the reader's interest. Desiring above all PREFACE 5 things to tell a plain tale simply, the writer has tried to abstain from the conventionalized historical ornamentation, and if those overworked metaphors, those dingy wax flowers of rhetoric, have found their way into these pages, they are there by accident and in spite of his good intentions. As in all shorter works on history, the main value of this volume should consist in providing at once a general founda- tion for historical knowledge and a stimulus to further read- ing. If it does not fall short of these requirements, it will have fulfilled the purpose for which it was designed. FRANK MOORE COLBY. University Heights, New York. MAPS The Ancient World according to Herodotus Ancient Oriental Peoples . Egypt .... Babylonia and Assyria Palestine .... Greece .... Empire of Alexander the Great Ancient Italy Rome and Vicinity . The Roman Empire, 241 i?.c. The Roman Empire, 201 b.c. The Roman Empire, 44 b.c. The Roman Empire, 96 a.d. The Roman Empire, oOo a.d. Europe in 520 .... Empire of Charlemagne, 814 a.i Central Europe in 843 ('entral P]urope in 887 Europe in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuri Mediterranean Lands after the Fourth Crusade Europe at the Middle of the Fourteenth Century The Period of Discovery .... Europe at the Time of the Reformation . Europe in the Eighteenth Century . Europe at the Time of Napoleon Europe at the End of tlie Nineteenth Century 6 PAGE 12 20 23 36 44 70 114 128 130 145 148 167 175 179 191 224 239 241 243 261 282 322 332 402 456 505 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction ^^ ANCIENT HISTORY II. Oriental Peoples 21 III. Kgypt • 23 IV. Babylonians and Assyrians 36 V. The Hebrews .... 43 VI. The Phoenicians .... 48 VII. China and India .... . 54 VIII. The Medes and the Persians . 64 GREECE IX. The Prehistoric Age .... X. The First Period of Greek History XL Sparta XII. Athens XIII. The Second Period : The Flourishing Era XIV. Athens at the Height of her Power . XV. The Peloponnesian War XVI. The Spartan and Theban Supremacy . XVII. The Third Period: The Macedonian Supremacy XVlil. Greek Civilization 71 77 79 84 90 99 101 108 110 118 ROME XIX. The Period of the Kings XX. The Period of Patrician Rule XXI. The Conquest of Italy XXII. Foreign Conquests XXIII. The Period of Civil Strife . XXIV. The Roman Empire . 7 127 132 136 142 154 170 CONTENTS XXV. The Teutonic Migrations . . . . . .181 XXVI. 'J'he Fall of Rome 190 XXVII. Roman Life and Manners 197 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY XXVIII. The New Barbarian Kingdoms XXIX. The Kingdom of the Franks . XXX. Charlemagne .... XXXI. Rise of the Papal Power XXXII. Europe under the Later Carolingians XXXIII. The Northmen .... XXXIV. Rise of the Mohammedan Power . XXXV. The Crusades XXXVI. Society in the Middle Ages XXXVII. The Papal Power . XXXVIII. England in the Middle Ages XXXIX. France in the Middle Ages XL. Germany and Italy 203 212 218 229 235 243 252 260 275 283 295 309 314 MODERN HISTORY XLI. Introduction 323 XLII. The Period of Discovery 325 XLIII. The Rise of Absolute Monarchies .... 333 XLIV. The Emperor Charles V 341 XLV. The Period of the Reformation 350 . XLVI. The Reformation in Germany . . . . . 352 XLVII. The Reformation in England ..... 359 XLVIII. The Reformation in Other European Countries . . 363 XLIX. Arrest of the Reformation 366 L. England in the Sixteenth Century . . . . 369 LL The Revolt of the Netherlands 377 LII. France in the Sixteenth Century 384 LIII. The Thirty Years' War 396 LIV. The Growth of Na'tions. The Ascendency of France . 403 LV. England in the Seventeenth Century. To the Out- break of the Civil War 415 LVI. Tlie Civil War and the Protectorate .... 422 LVII. The Restoration 427 LVIII. The Revolution of 1688 430 CONTENTS CHAPTER LIX, The Rise of Prussia LX. Russia and Sweden LXI. England in tlie Eighteenth Century LXII. The French Revolution LXIII. France under the Legislative Assembly LXIV. France under the National Convention LXV. France under the Directory . LXVI. France under Napoleon LXVII. Europe in the Nineteenth Century — 1815 to LXVIII. The Revolution of 1830 and its Effects LXIX. Europe from 1831 to 1851 LXX. Europe after 1851 .... LXXI. The Founding of the German Empire LXXII. England in the Nineteenth Century LXXIII. Europe since 1871 1830 PAGE 435 442 451 456 471 474 484 489 505 511 519 529 536 541 547 GENERAL HISTORY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION History defined. — History is the record of past events in the life of inankind. In detailing these events, however, it con- cerns itself with their relation, and seeks to point out the connection of cause and effect that exists between them. A bare catalogue of unrelated facts, though true in themselves, w^ould not make history in the modern sense. There must be some definite principle on which the selection of the facts is based. This principle is that a fact, in order to have histori- cal value, must help to explain what goes before or what comes after in the life of a people. Kinds of History. — It is clear that the past life of mankind may be regarded from different points of view. Thus, if the special purpose is to show how men have advanced in knowl- edge from age to age, and what influences have quickened their minds or changed their modes of thought, the narrative is called Intellectual History. If the object is to point out the changes which have taken place in men's ideas of right and wrong, and to trace the development of moral standards, the work is termed a History of Morals. Political History deals with the external events in the life of a nation, showing its varying relations to other nations and to its own government. Constitutional History has to do with changes in the form and principles of government, and in the character and administra- tion of law ; Economic History, with the past conditions of a people in respect to the possession and acquisition of wealth. 11 12 GENERAL HISTORY So the particular field to which the narrative is confined de- termines how the history is to be classified. It is very difficult, however, to keep these departments distinct, as events which properly fall within the scope of one department have often a very important bearing on those Avhich belong to another, A history which gives anything like a complete narrative of past events must investigate the facts pertaining to all sides of a nation's life. Related Branches of Learning. — Correct description and expla- nation of past events requires a knowledge of certain classes of laws and facts which properly belong to branches of study dis- tinct from history and yet closely connected with it. The most important of these are Geography, Ethnology, and Philology. Geography. — It is evident that unless we knew in what part of the world a nation was situated, who its neighbors were, and what boundaries it possessed, we could not understand the events which make up THE ANCIENT WORLD ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS Vana^ its history. AVe should have no definite idea of the meaning of the terms which historians employ. Thus the France and Germany of to-day differ widely in extent from the countries to which these names are ap- plied in writing of the Middle Ages ; and such terms as ' Burgundy,' ' Lotharingia,' and ' the Netherlands,' mean very different things at different periods of the history of those countries. Political Geogra- phy, therefore, dealing with STiccessive changes in the bound- aries of nations and principalities, is indispensable to the study of history. Again, without a knowledge of the physical features of the country in which a nation lives, we cannot understand the INTRODUCTION 13 course of its lii story. The long and irregular coast line of Greece, with its numerous bays and harbors, and the subdi- vision of the country by mountain ranges throw light upon the seafaring tendencies of the Greeks and their lack of politi- cal unity. Many similar instances might be given showing the intimate relation between physical features and national life. Climate, too, is a factor of the greatest importance. There are marked differences, both mental and moral, between the peoples of hot regions and those living in cold or temper- ate climates. Physical Geography, accordingly, as explaining national character and conditions, is one of the most effec- tive aids to historical knowledge. Ethnology. — The science that traces the origin of nations and tribes, classifies and groups them, shows the kinship between them, and points out their characteristic customs and institutions, is termed Ethnology. The historian needs the aid of the ethnologist in determining the race and origin of the peoples he describes, and in making a correct picture of their manners and mode of life at certain periods of their history and even before recorded history begins. Philology, or the science of language, helps to reveal the relationship of races, and aids the ethnologist in his classi- fication. It also shows the influence which mutual contact has exerted on races, and gives an insight into the effects of conquest or fusion : as in the countries of southern Europe, where, after the Gothic invasion of the Koman Empire, the conquering Goths came to speak a language which was neither Latin nor Gothic, but combined certain elements of each ; or again in England, wdiere the effects of the Norman Conquest can be traced in the resulting language, the simple, homely words deviating but slightly from the Anglo-Saxon, , while many of the more abstract terms, such as would be more likely to be used by the better educated or higher classes, were de- rived from the Norman-French spoken by the conquerors. Uses of History. — It is a very common saying that we can- not understand the present without a knowledge of the past. 14 GENERAL HISTORY Past events are the signs by which we can in a measure fore- cast the future. It is only by the knowledge of the world's experience that the repetition of past mistakes can be avoided. We should neither value nor retain the benefits we have if we knew nothing of the struggle which it cost to obtain them. Civilization is a product of slow growth, and must be studied in all its stages if we would understand that stage in which we live and if we would put forth intelligent efforts for im- provement. Prehistoric Man. — As the term itself indicates, there was a period in the life of mankind when no historical record of events was kept. Savages grouped together in a clan or tribe, roaming over uncultivated lands, and subsisting by hunting or by fishing, have no history in the proper sense of the word. History does not begin till civilization begins, till men live as members of society, and the fanciful and superstitious tales handed down by tradition give place to written records show- ing some power of sifting the true from the false. Yet in this dark, eporly period the researches of ethnologists have brought to light facts of the highest importance. In the first place, it is interesting to learn that the earliest re- mains show no difference in physical characteristics be- tween prehistoric man and the men of the present day. In the second place, that same law of development which is so manifest in the history of civilized man ap- pears in the prehistoric period. Eelics have been found showing successive stages in the progress toward civilizn.ti(m. These stages are termed respectively the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age, from the materials Fn^fT Arrowheads, Ax, and INTRODUCTION 15 out of which the primitive man coustruL'ted his implements of industry and war. Stone Age. — The early part of the Stone Age is marked by the absence of any traces of human dwellings. Men lived in caves, and subsisted on the lower animals, but did not do- mesticate them. Their rude utensils made of stone, neverthe- less, often show marks of considerable skill. Later in the Stone Age we see signs of a marked advance. Implements were more skillfully fashioned ; and men were no longer cave dwellers, but lived in huts, some of which, as in the case of the lake dwellings in Switzerland, were well adapted for shel- ter and protection. There are evidences, too, that the people of the later Stone Age cultivated the fields, raising crops of wheat and barley. Bronze and Iron Ages. — The Bronze Age shows a still greater advance in the arts of industry. Implements were made of copper, and often wrought into artistic shapes, and highly ornamented. In the last stage of the prehistoric period man had reached the Iron Age, in which implements were made of iron, as in the period of civilization. It must not be thought that all races passed through these three stages at the same time. Some had reached the second while others had bronze battle- not passed the first. At the present time we ^^ find barbarous tribes still living in one of the earlier stages. Until comparatively recent times the North American In- dians had not emerged from the Stone Age; and there are many tribes to-day, for example, the Aleuts (the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands), who remain in that stage. Classification of Races. — The division of races has puzzled scholars for centuries, and authorities even now disagree in points that are essential. The surest principle of classification is based on language, but the results must be tested by a study of the physical characteristics of the various races. According to this method of classification, the races of the 16 GENERAL HISTORY world may be divided as follows : Aryan, Semitic, Hamitii Turanian, Negroid. The name Caucasian is generally applie to the hrst three divisions, — Aryans, Semites, and Hamites. Aryan. — This includes the ancient Hindus (whose languag was Sanskrit, the oldest and most similar to the original Arya tongue), the Persians, Greeks, Italians, Celts, Teutons, an Slavs. Each of these races may in turn be divided into pe( pies which differ widely from one another in speech ; yet th basis of the various languages is the same, and all are descenc ants of one original stock. The theory is that this pareii tongue was spoken by the common forefathers of these race before successive migrations drew them from their origins home ; but where this ancient Aryan race lived is a matter c doubt, some scholars placing it in the plains of central Europ or on the slopes of the Caucasus, others adhering to the olde theory that the cradle of the race was somewhere in Asif probably in the region of the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers, nort of the Hindu-Kush range of mountains. However this may b( it is believed that the original Aryans, before they began t scatter, had advanced far beyond the savage state. Thi appears from the evidence of language; for such words a 'God,' 'father,' 'mother,' 'cow,' 'ax,' 'home,' and the name of numerous implements of industry, are similar in the var: ous languages of their descendants, indicating that befor the division took place the original stock must have beei acquainted with the ideas or things for which these word stand. Semitic. — The Semitic race includes the Babylonians, Assyi ians, Chaldeans, Syrians, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Ethiopians and Arabs. The term 'Semitic' is derived from Shem, th son of Noah, and was originally applied to those peoples wh^ are mentioned in Genesis as descended from Shem ; but ther is much difficulty in classifying them, because in the course o time, through conquest or intermingling, some peoples not o the Semitic race came to speak a Semitic tongue, while, on thi other hand, pure-blooded Semites in some cases adopted th INTRODUCTION IT non-Semitic langnage of their conquerors. The home of the original stock was northern Arabia. Hamitic. — The Hamitic group has as its principal member the Egyptians or Copts ; but, as in the case of the Semites, there is confusion in respect to the term, which was originally ap- plied to the descendants of Noah's son Ham. By some the Ethiopians and Phoenicians are included in the Hamitic group. Turanian.— The Turanian race embraces the Finns, Hunga- rians, Turks or Tartars, Mongols, and Malays. Negroid. — This division includes the African Negroes, the Hottentots and Bushmen, the Melanesians, and the Negritos. The Aryan Race. — As the object of history is to trace the progress of civilization, its chief concern is with those nations that have shown ability to advance in culture and enlighten-' ment. The leading peoples in the world in this respect belong to the Aryan race. The great majority of Europeans and of European colonists and their descendants in all parts of the world are Aryans. TMie history of Greece and Rome, of France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Spain, Italy, the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the United States is a record of the doings of Aryan peoples. Non-Aryan Races. — In the development of religions, the Semites hold the foremost place, for Christianity, Judaism, and Mohammedanism each had its rise among them. Nor is it to be denied that at certain periods of their history they have shown a high degree of civilization. Ancient Babylonia and Assyria at one time stood at the highest point of civiliza- tion that the world had yet attained; and as late as the eighth century a.d. a Semitic people, the Arabs, threatened to bring all Christendom under their control. Moreover, it must be noted that a Hamitic people, the Egyptians, was the earliest civilized nation of which we have historic records ; and that a Turanian nation, the Hungarians, settled in the heart of Europe, has kept pace in civilization with its Aryan neigh- bors. Yet, as a rule, the non-Aryan races have not been pro- gressive. They reach a certain point of civilization, and then Colby's gen. hist. — 2 18 GENERAL HISTORY remain stationary or even retrograde, leaving to others to carry further what has been begun. For example, in the Dark Ages the Moors of Spain, a branch of the Semites, were the most enlightened people of Europe ; but their intellectual energy declined, and it fell to the lot of Aryans to apply and improve upon what the Moors had taught. Periods of History. — The division of history into periods is in one sense misleading, for the chain of events of which his- tory treats is continuous, and there is no sharp line of division between them. But viewing certain periods of time as a whole, we find certain characteristics in one which are not j)resent in another, and it is therefore convenient to separate them in our minds. The most general division is into Ancient and Modern : the former ending with the downfall of the Roman Empire in the West in 476 a.d., when the invasion of the Teutonic barbarians prepared the way for a new distribu- tion of races and for the foundation of the states of modern Europe ; the latter beginning with that date, and continuing to our own day. The more useful division, however, and that which will be followed in the present work, is threefold, as follows : Ancient History, from the earliest times to 476 a.d. Mediaeval History, or the history of the Middle Ages, the period between the downfall of the Roman Empire in the West (476 A.D.) and the time when European nations assumed to a great extent the character which they still retain. A conven- ient point to mark the end of this period is the fall of Constan- tinople, in 1453 A.D. Modern History, from the fall of Constantinoi)le in 1453 to our own times. In treating of these periods it will be found convenient to divide each of them in turn into minor periods, according to certain characteristics which will appear later. INTRODUCTION 19 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Definition of History. Kinds of History: Intellectual History. History of Morals. Political History, Constitutional History. Economic History. Kelated Branches of Learning : Geography. Ethnology. Philology. Uses of History. Prehistoric Man : Stone Age. Bronze Age. Iron Age. Classification of Races: Grand Divisions: Aryan, Semitic, Hamitic, Turanian, Negroid. The Aryan Race. Periods of History: I. Ancient — to 476 a.d. II. Mediaeval — 476 a.d. to 1453 a.d. III. Modern — 1453 a.d. to the present time. 20 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER II ORIENTAL PEOPLES Divisions of Ancient History. — Ancient history carries the narrative of events down to the year 476 a.d. In writing of this long period it will be convenient to separate it into two divisions : the first extending from the earliest time of which we have authentic records down to the early part of the fifth cen- tury B.C. ; the second, from the latter date to 476 a.d. The reason for taking the early part of the fifth century b.c. as the dividing line is that before that time history deals with. Ori- ental nations, while after it Greece and Rome are the central points of interest. In other words, the scene shifts from Africa and Asia to Europe when, in 492 b.c, Persia, the last of the ancient monarchies of southwestern Asia, enters on her great war with Greece. Ancient Peoples of the East. — The ancient peoples of the East whose history falls within the first of these divisions are the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, Persians, Chinese, and Hindus. The first of these, the Egyp- tians, would seem from their geographical position to belong to the Western group of nations, but in reality they have more in common with the Oriental peoples. Wars and commerce brought them into contact with the latter, and their civilization was essentially of the Asiatic type. What this type was, as distinguished from the form which Greece, Rome, and the other European nations assumed, will appear later. For the present it is enough to say that the ancient nations of Asia 21 22 GENERAL HISTORY and Africa never advanced beyond a despotic form of govern- ment, in which the power of the ruler was absolute; and that their art, literature, and science, after reaching a certain stage of progress, remained stationary, while European nations showed a steady tendency to progress, both in forms of govern- ment and in learning. Geographical Situation of the Earliest Civilized Nations. — The first nations to advance beyond the stage of barbarism were those which inhabited regions favorable to the production of wealth, either because of the fertility of the soil or on account of an advantageous situation in respect to trade. Egypt was nothing more than the fertile valley of the Nile. So in Asia the great kingdoms arose in the valleys of the Tigris and Eu- phrates rivers, and in the land watered by the Ganges, the Indus, 1 he Hoang-Ho, the Yangtze Kiang, and their tributaries. Central Asia is a great plateau divided and bordered by chains of moun- tains. To the north are the plains of Siberia, stretching to the Arctic Ocean ; on the east and south, mountain ranges separate it from the lowlands of China and India. Southwestern Asia, ex- tending from the Indus Eiver on the east to the Mediterranean Sea on the west, comprises the table-lands of Iran, the valleys of the Euphra'tes and Tigris, and the rich plains of Mesopota- mia, the region between these rivers. West and south of the Euphrates lies the peninsula of Arabia, itself a plateau, but of lower elevation than that of Iran, and stretching from the Medi- terranean Sea to the Indian Ocean, and from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf. The barren plateau of central Asia has in all ages supported only a population of Mongols and Tartars, — nomad tribes which never advanced beyond the stage of bar- barism. On the other hand, the lowlands and valleys on the east and south were the seats of the ancient civilizations of China and India; and in southwestern Asia, in the regions bordering on the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, and on the Cas- pian, Black, and Mediterranean Seas, the flourishing kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Judea, and Phoenicia arose. CHAPTER III EGYPT The Land. — Ancient Egypt was a narrow strip of country extending along both banks of the Nile, from the first cata- ract near the old city of Syene \^Si-ee'nee ; modern Assuan'], n o r t h w a r d to the mouth of the river in the Mediterranean Sea. The ancients gave it the name of Kem, or the Black Country, on account of its rich black soil, fertilized by deposits of mud left by the river, which every year overflows its banks. "Egypt," says the Greek his- torian Herod'otus, " is the gift of the Nile ; " and this saying ap- plies not only to the country itself, but to the character and cus- toms of the people, for the whole history of the Egyptian peo- ple Avas determined by the natural features of the land in which they lived. Occupying the one fertile region in the midst of deserts, and having no neighbors except rude no- madic tribes, Egypt, during the greater part of her history, 23 24 GENERAL HISTORY was shut off from contact with any race that had reached a degree of civilization approaching her own. The People. — Although the Egyptiaus are here classed as Ha- niitic, they are included by some in the Semitic race ; in reality, their origin is unknown. They are thought to have come from Asia; but the earliest records that we have show them living in the valley of the Nile, and there is nothing to prove positively that they had ever lived elsewhere. Thousands of years before Greece or Rome became known to history, a pecul- iar race, of reddish brown color and smooth black hair, differ- ing both in appearance and in language from the tribes around them, dwelt in the land of Egypt. At that early period they had most of the characteristics tliat marked their later history, and they had already reached a high degree of civilization. This is all that is known in regard to them when they first appeared in history. All else is mere supposition. Sources of Information. — Man'etho, an Egyptian priest who lived in the third century n.c, prepared a list of the rulers of Egypt, dating from the earliest times. Unfortunately the original text of this list has been lost, but fragments of it have been preserved in the works of several ancient writers. These fragments of Manetho's list Avere the only important source for early Egyptian history till the nineteenth century, when the researches of European scholars led to the discovery of the art of reading the Egyptian manuscripts, and the inscriptions with which the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to adorn their monuments and other memorials of the dead. The information given by Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the fifth century e.g., is interesting but untrustworthy ; for he seems to have believed, without questioning, all the stories that were told him, and to have repeated mere traveler's tales which are not supported by what we have gathered from other sources. The Hieroglyphics. — We owe most of our knowledge of an- cient Egypt to the inscriptions and manuscripts written in the characters called Hieroglyphics. This curious style of writing consisted of pictures or symbols representing words or letters. EGYPT 25 Thus, a circle stood for the sun, a crescent for the moon, an oval figure for the mouth, etc.- As different pictures or signs were often used to represent the same word or sound, it is not strange that many centuries passed before scholars were able to decipher the hieroglyphic text. It was not till after 1799 that any clew to their meaning was discovered. In that year the linding of the Rosetta Stone gave the first key to the read- ing of hieroglyphics. On this stone the same inscription was given in three different sets of characters, — the hieroglyphics, the demotic text (a briefer and more running form of hiero- glyphics, commonly used in the papyri or manuscripts), and the Greek. By comparing the letters in certain Greek proper names with the letters of the same words in the Egyptian texts, the sounds for which the Egyptian characters stood were discovered. Note on the Rosetta Stone. — The Greek text, when translated, showed that the mscription was an ordinance of the priests decreeing cer- tain honors to Ptol'emy Epiph'anes on the occasion of his coronation, 196 B.C. (Ptolemy Epiphanes was one of a line of Greek sovereigns who ruled over Egypt from the time of its conquest by Alexander in the fourth century, to the first century n.c.) It contains a command that the de- cree should be inscribed in tlie sacred letters (hieroglyphics), the letters of the country (demotic), and Greek letters, — and this for the conven- ience of the mixed population of Egypt under its Greek rulers. It was natural to conclude that the three texts were the same in substance, and accordingly earnest efforts were made to decipher the hieroglyphics by aid of the Greek. The first clew was obtained by noticing that certain groups of the hieroglyphic characters were inclosed in oval rings, and that these groups corresponded in relative position with certain proper names, such as Ptolemy, etc., in the Greek text. The following line presents a few of the characters with a group in the oval ring. (Each word is- read from right to left.) (Ptolemy eternal beloved of Phtah) of Egypt king of statue raising 26 GENERAL HISTORY It was by comparison of the group judged on strong grounds to be the name Ptolemy, with another group (found on another stone) supposed to stand for the name Cleopatra, that the first great advance v.as made. The groups were as follows : — Suppooud tu be I'tultiiuj. Suiipused to be Cleopatra. In Greek Ptolemy is Ftolemaios, and Cleopatra is Kleopatra. If now the hieroglyphic characters were Zeiie^-signs, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, in Ptolemaios should correspond respectively with 5, 7, 4, 2, in Kleopatra (XXiQjirst letter in Ptolemaios being the fifth in Kleopatra, etc.). In this way several letters were discovered ; by means of other groups the whole alphabet was made out, and finally it was proved that by this phonetic alphabet the characters and groups could be resolved into the Coptic lan- guage of Egypt, which was already understood by scholars. It should not be forgotten that the great work of deciphering was mainly effected by the French savant, Champollion. Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization. — Egypt is the oldest civ- ilized nation of which we liave record Monuments and build- ings, constructed with such skill that they have stood the Avear and tear of thousands of years, bear witness to the fact that the people of this remote period were already far advanced in the arts of civilization. Just how far back to place the found- ing of the Egyptian kingdom we do not know : for scholars are not agreed, and between the earliest and the latest dates which they assign there is a difference of three thousand years. Some hold that Me'nes, the founder of the empire, lived as early as 5700 years before Christ, while others give his date as 2700 B.C. Most agree, however, in making it earlier than 3500 B.C.. and recent researches have led historians to incline toward earlier dates. Periods of Egyptian History. — The history of Egypt may be divided into three periods, — the Old Empire, to about 2100 B.c; the Middle Empire, from 2100 b.c. to the expulsion of the Kyksos or Shepherd Kings, about 1700 b.c. ; the New EGYPT 27 Empire, from 1700 B.C. to the conquest of Egypt by the Per- sians, in 525 B.C. The Old Empire, to 2100 B.C. — The seat of the original empire was Lower (that is, northern) Egypt, and its capital was Memphis. Of Menes, the first of the kings, or Pharaohs, little is known. He is said to have been a warlike monarch and to have reigned for sixty-two years, after which he was eaten by a crocodile. The* record of these remote times is by dynasties, or periods of rule by families, not by years, and it is not till the seventh century B.C. that the dates of events can be given. The Oukat Pyramid at Gizeii Fourth Dynasty. — Not much has come down to us in regard to the first three dynasties, but the fourth was an era of great progress in literature and the industrial arts. To this period belongs the great Pyramid of Gizeh [gee'zeh], near Memphis, till recent times the highest and largest building in the w^orld, which, with the two smaller pyramids near it, still stands, after thousands of years, as an evidence of the marvelous skill and industry of the builders. 28 GENERAL HISTORY Art and Literature. — The art of this period, as exliibitecl in the engravings on monuments and tablets, reached a higli degree of perfection, and in fact shows ratlier more skill in the imitation of nature than in later times, when a too rigid observance of established rules restricted the artist to a con- ventional or formal method of execution. The period of the hftli dynasty was also distinguished for the excellence of its artistic and literary works. During this time Avere produced the beautiful sculptures on the tomb of King Ti at Sakka'rah, illustrating events in the life of that monarch ; and we have, too, the papyrus or manuscript of Ptah-Hotep, a royal official, who gives wise moral advice much in the style of the Book of Proverbs in the Old Testament : thus, '' If thou art become great after thou hast been lowly and if thou hast heaped up riches after poverty, let not thy heart be puffed up because of thy riches, for it is God who has given them unto thee." To this period also belongs a portion of the Book of the Dead, the oldest book in existence, which recounts in mystical lan- guage the adventures of the soul after it has left the body, and tells how it can save itself by calling on the names of the gods. Twelfth Dynasty. — Prom the close of the sixth to the begin- ning of the eleventh dynasty there is a gap in historical records, and at the end of this period we find that the capital has been transferred from Memphis to Thebes. The period of the new Theban rulers was rich in the productions of art and litera- ture. Amenem'hat I., the founder of the twelfth dynasty, was a warlike prince, and under his successors the neighboring tribes were conquered, and the limits of the empire pushed farther south. User'tesen I. erected the obelisk of Heliop'olis, near Cairo. Another king of the same name conquered the Nubians ; and Amenemhat III. built the famous reservoir called Lake Moeris, for receiving and distributing the waters of the Nile. The Middle Empire, 2100 B.C. to about 1700 B.C, — The Theban kings, however, gradually lost power, and the fifteenth dynasty bears the name of the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. The period of the Middle Empire, therefore, was one of for- EGYPT 29 eign rule. There is much dispute as to the race and origin of these Hyksos kings, but it is generally thought that they were a Semitic people. Although they adopted the names and style of native Egyptian kings, the country was restless under their rule ; and so great was the hatred in which they were held, that when the Egyptians at last succeeded in plac- ing a native monarch on the throne they destroyed almost every trace that could remind them of their oppressors. Accord- ingly, the records of the time are very scanty. The Hyksos seem never to have fully subdued the people. In some parts of Egypt the country was in the hands of native gov- ernors ; and it was the efforts of the last of the Hyksos to reduce the southern dis- tricts to complete subjection that led to a war of independence and the expulsion of the foreigners. A native prince rebels against the last of the Hyksos, and drives him from power ; and after a long struggle we find the descendants of this suc- cessful patriot ruling securely on the throne of Menes. The New Empire, from 1700 B.C. to the Conquest of Egypt by the Persians, in 525 B.C. — After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Egypt entered on a flourishing period. Aah'mes or Ama'sis I. was the first great ruler of the New Empire. Under him and his successors Egypt departed from her old conservative policy, and waged wars of conquest not only with her immediate neigh- bors, but with the countries of the East. She annexed the Ojjelisk of IIeliopoli 30 GENERAL HISTORY region now called the Soudan, subdued Palestine, overran western Asia, filled her treasury with the wealth of conquered provinces, and brought ) back thousands of captives to work on her h.ifp great buildings. This was the period of the powerful sovereigns who bore the names Ameno'phis and Thothnies, and especially of Ramses II., called Sesostris by the Greeks, identified by many with the Pharaoh who oppressed the children of Israel. He won renown by his long wars with the Hittites, and even more by his works of peace, for he delighted in building great monuments and in having the story of his deeds inscribed upon them. A long epic poem, celebrating his exploits, was engraved ux^on the SlIKINE OF AliU SlMlSKL walls of many tem])les at Aby'dos, Karnak, Luxor, and other Xjlaces. Temples were l)uilt in his honor at Memphis and EGYPT 31 Thebes; and near Karnak stands the Ramesse'um, or House of Ramses, one of the famous buildings of antiquity. It was he, too, who built the rock-hewn shrine of Abu-Simbel, over- looking the Nile, with four huge statues guarding its entrance. Decline of Egyptian Power. — The period between 1600 b.o. and the close of Ramses' reign in the fourteenth century b.c. marks the highest point of Egyptian power. She was then the leading nation of the world, but under the successors of Ramses her power waned. The long wars had raised enemies on all sides, and at the same time created a military class, accnstomed to live by the spoils of war instead of the arts of peace. AVeakened internally, and beset by outside foes, she passed under the control of Ethiopian rulers, and at last went down before the rising power of Assyria. After regaining her independence for a short period, during which she enjoyed something of her old prosperity, she became tributary to Per- sia, whose king, Cambyses, defeated her army at Pelusinm in 525 B.C. After this she never regained her power, but merely exchanged the rule of one foreign oppressor for that of another. Egyptian Society. — The Greek accounts of Egypt show that the people were divided into distinct classes, of which the highest were the priests and the soldiers. Below these were the tillers of the soil, the artificers, and the herdsmen. But while particular rights were denied the lower classes, there was no such barrier between classes as existed in India. It was not required that a man should follow the profession of his fathers. Education was not generally diffused, but was conhned for the most part to the priests, who produced an extensive and varied litera- ture, and knew somethinsr of the sciences. The warrior class Soldiers of the Body Guard of Eaaises TI. 32 GENERAL HISTORY became especially important under the o^ew Empire. The army comprised infantry, cavalry, and charioteers. The priests and soldiers alone could hold land in their own right. The common people seem to have been in the condition of serfs, obliged to work on the land of the nobles and the king. Government. — The power of the king, though limited to some extent by the rights of the nobles, was still very great. The Pharaohs were, in fact, regarded as divine beings, de- scended from the gods. Religion. — The gods of the Egyptians w^ere very numerous, each locality paying especial homage to some particular deity. Yet there is evidence to show that, among the educated classes, there was a belief in a single god, all the other divinities being regarded as mere symbols of the divine power in its various aspects. Chief among the deities were Osi'ris and his sister Isis, who were worshiped by all Egyptians. Osiris was the chief snn god; Ho- rns, his son, the god of the new or rising sun; and they were regarded as the adversaries of the gods of darkness who wielded the power that made for evil. Anubis, the Guide . to OF THE Dead Animal Worship. — A peculiar feature of the Egyptian religion was the worship of animals. The bull, Apis, was worshiped as a god at Memphis ; and many other animals, such as the ibis, the cow, the crocodile, the cat, etc., were sacred to particular gods. The greatest reverence was shown for these animals, which were kept in the temples and most carefully tended. Burial. — Another striking religious custom was the embalm- ing of the dead. It was thought that the soul would reanimate the body at the resurrection, and for this reason great care was taken to preserve the body from decay and provide it with a suitable resting place. Embalming was so skillfully and effec- tively done that decay was often prevented for thousands of years. The interior of the sepulcher was often decorated, and EGYPT 33 food and drink were placed beside the body. These houses of the dead were among the finest and the most enduring of Egyptian buildings. Mummy Architecture. — Some of the most famous examples of Egyp- tian architecture have already been mentioned. In their talent for building and in the vast wealth and labor expended on pub- lic works, the Egyptians surpassed all the other ancient na- tions. The characteristics of their buildings and monuments were their massiveness and great size. Huge blocks of stones were moved long distances, to form the roofs of temples or the walls of pyramids. In the absence of modern appliances, the labor and time involved can scarcely be estimated. The chief architectural figure was the S2:)hinx ; a symbolical statue, often of colossal size, having the head of a human being or an animal, and the body of a lion with wings attached. The most noted of these is that still standing near Gizeh. Another remarkable feature of Egyptian architecture was the pyramid, a huge pointed structure of stone, designed as a royal sepulcher. The pyramids are very numerous, the most famous being the Great Pyramid, also at Gizeh. It was the tomb of the ancient king Khu'fu or Cheops [Ke'ops], and is said to have measured nearly 481 feet in height with a base 764 feet square, but it has been stripped of many of its stones for the building of the neighboring city of Cairo. The palaces and temples, were of enormous size, and the way to them was often lined by rows of gigantic pillars, sphinxes, or obelisks. COLBY'S GEN. HIST, — 3 34 GENERAL HISTORY Egyptian Arts. — The walls of temples and other structures were often highly ornamented, with figures suggested by the forms of Egyptian vegetation, such as the palm, the lotus flower, and papyrus. These sculptures often show great artis- tic skill, but the art of the Egyptians was not progressive, and the designs were conventional. Rules and traditions, rather An Egyptian Temple than the study of nature, governed the artist in his work. Bright colors were employed in decoration, but in painting, also, Egyptian art was stationary. Musical instruments of many kinds were known and used, and it is probable that the Egyptians were skilled in their use. Music accompanied the dance, and formed a part of religious ceremonies. In the practical arts, such as glass making, metal working, the engraving of gems, and the manufacture of linen, they were very skillful. From the papyrus, a reed that formerly grew in abundance in northern Egypt, they made, by an in- genious process, sheets of a paper-like substance which was used for writing. Rolls made of this material were the books Egyptians Sowing EGYPT 35 of the Egyptians, from whom in hiter times the Greeks and Komans learned the art of preparing the papyrus. Agriculture and Commerce. — The people were mainly agri- cultural, but employed rude methods of cultivation. In spite of this, the remarkably fertile soil yielded an abundance of produce, and Egypt was known as the granary of the world. The Egyptians were not an adventurous people, and they did not give much attention to maritime enterprise. The foreign trade finally passed to the Phoenicians. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Ancient History. Chief Ancient Peoples of the East: Egyptians; Assyrians ; Babylonians ; Hindus ; Hebrews ; Phoenicians ; Persians. Geographical Situation. Divisions of Ancient History : I. To the close of the fifth century B.C. II. From the close of the fifth century b.c. to 476 a.d. Egypt. The Land. The People. Sources of Information ; Manetho's list ; Hieroglyphics ; Herodotus. Periods of Egyptian History : I. The Old Empire, from 3500 (?) b.c. to 2100 b.c II. The Middle Empire, from 2100 b.c. to 1700 b.c III. The New Empire, from 1700 b.c to 525 b.c The Old Empire, 3500 (?) b.c to 2100 b.c. : Menes the founder. The fourth dynasty. The fifth dynasty. The Theban kings. The Middle Empire, 2100 b.c to 1700 b.c : Egypt under the Hyksos. Expulsion of the Hyksos. The Neav Empire, 1700 B.C. to 525 b.c : Conquests under Amasis and his successors. Ramses II. Decline of Egyptian power. Conquest by Cambyses, 525 b.c CHAPTER IV BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS Geography. — The Babylonians and the Assyrians lived in the region of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in southwestern ANCIENT BABYLONLV / A2HD ASSYKIA Asia. The former occupied the fertile district to the south of the point where these two rivers approach closely to each other, while the higher and more mountainous tract to the 36 BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS 37 north was the dwelling place of the Assyrians. It was natural that the fertile lowlands should support the larger population and produce the earlier civilization, and the Babylonians had become a numerous and civilized people long before their neighbors and kinsmen to the north are heard of in history. In fact, these alluvial valleys of the two great rivers, and the district adjoining the Persian Gulf, were the starting point of the civilization of western Asia. Wheat, barley, and many kinds of fruit grew wild, and the efforts of the cultivator were rewarded by rich liar vests. Besides the natural means of communication afforded by the rivers, the country was pro- vided with a vast system of canals. The Race. — Before scholars had learned how to decipher the cuneiform (v/edge-shaped) inscriptions of the Babylonians and Assyrians, the de- tails of their history were ^>^^ 1^^ A ^ti 1^ 1^ i scanty, being mostly con- •^ ' ^ . . "^ ilu Nabu- kudurri-uzur fined to the writings of the Name Nkbuchadnezzar m Ctr.EiFORM Herodotus, the Greek historian, and of Bero'sus, a Babylonian priest. The reading of the cuneiform texts, however, brought to light a great number of interesting and important facts, many of them described nearly at the time of their occurrence. The Babylonians and Assyrians were two divisions of the same race. The primitive ancestors of both seem to have belonged to the Turanian famil}^, that which includes the modern Turks and Chinese ; but at an early date large numbers of Semites, probably from Arabia, settled in the country, and, mingling with the natives, in the course of time gave the race a distinctively Semitic character. This change, however, was less pronounced among the Assyrians of the north than among the Babylonians, whose country was more inviting to immigrants. The Legendary Period. — Babylonian writers filled up the centuries that precede the period at which their genuine history begins with a mass of legends. They reckoned that 432,000 years elapsed before the Deluge, and this time was 38 • GENERAL HISTORY said to have been taken up with the reigns of ten kings. From the Deluge down to the time when Babylonia fell under the power of the Persians was a period of 36,000 years. Their story of the Deluge is almost the same as the account given in the Bible. Their Noah was Xisu'thros, who with his family and friends survived the flood, the rest of the human race being drowned for their sins. Like Noah, he built an ark, and stocked it with all kinds of animals; and the ark was stranded on a mountain top. The biblical account of the Tower of Babel appears with hardly any variation in the early Baby- lonian records. Many of their stories also bear a marked re- semblance to Greek myths, and, like the latter, were gathered in a great epic poem said to have been written 2000 years before Christ, and kept in the library of the city of Urukh. Early Babylonian History. — The land of the Babylonians was divided into the two regions Akkad, in the north, and Sumer or Shinar, in the south. To the west of the Euphrates the land was termed Edinna, and has been identified by some with the Eden of Genesis. The term Chaldea is sometimes applied to Babylonia, but is more properly confined to the low portion, bordering on the Persian Gulf; and the Chal- deans, who dwelt there, are not heard of in history till the ninth century b.c. The biblical account makes Nimrod the ancestor and founder of the Babylonians. Their early history is very obscure and confused. We hear of a great king named Lig-Bagas or Ur- Bagas, who ruled 'over both Akkad and Sumer, and built enor- mous structures of sun-dried bricks, one of which (200 feet square and 100 feet high) is estimated to have contained 30,000,000 bricks. Sargon. — But a greater name is that of Sargon, famous as a lawgirer, a conqueror, and a patron of learning. He made campaigns against Syria and Palestine, and carried the Baby- lonian culture to the shores of the Mediterranean. That culture was already extensive. A great mass of astronomical and astrological learning was collected for Sargon by the scholars BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS . 30 of his court, and gathered into seventy-two books, which were afterwards translated into Greek. The exact date of his reign cannot be ascertained, but the antiquity of Babylonian civiliza- tion is thought to surpass that of the Egyptian. One chronicler places the reign of Sargon's son and successor at 3750 b.c. The Babylonian monarchy, however, was weakened by dis- union. The greatest of its kings could hold the kingdom together for only a short time. Sargon himself could not bring the land 6f Sumer under his control. This weakness invited invasion ; and a foreign dynasty, the Cassite or Cos- sae'an, probably of Arabic origin, ruled the country for several centuries. Assyrians. — While the Cassites were ruling in Babylon, the princes of Assyria were gradually building up a powerful kingdom. After a while they became strong enough to treat on equal terms with Babylonia, and finally, a war arising, marched into the kingdom and captured Babylon (1270 b.c). Thenceforth the Assyrians were the dominant i)eople. For a time Babylonia kept its independence, but finally fell under the power of its more warlike neighbor. The Assyrian king Tig 'lath-Pile 'ser I. gave the finishing blow to the old Babylo- nian monarchy ; and he extended his conquests in other direc- tions, even, it is said, into Kurdistan' and to the shores of the Mediterranean. Then followed a period in which the Assyrian power waned and the Babylonians regained their independence. Later, however, a succession of strong Assyrian rulers not only made themselves supreme in Babylonia, but overran Armenia, Cil- icia,. Mesopotamia, and other countries of Asia Minor, and made the Phoenicians on the Mediterranean coast pay tribute. One of the greatest of these princes was Shalmane'ser II., who reigned in the middle of the ninth century b.c. He was constantly engaged in war, defeated a confederation of west- ern princes, of whom Ahab, King of Israel, was one, and humbled the power of Syria. Under him the First Assyrian Empire reached its height. It was the greatest power in west- 40 ^ GENERAL HISTORY ern Asia ; but, though its conquests were extensive, it did not hold the conquered lands under its sway. It knew how to win victories, but it did not organize the conquered lands and make them a part of its empire. The Second Assyrian Empire. — With the accession of Tig- lath-Pileser II. in 745 b.c. a new period begins, that of the Second Assyrian Empire, which differed from the first in its policy of consolidating the conquered provinces under its own rule. Tiglath-Pileser II. was not content with exacting tribute from his conquered enemies. He placed Assyrian governors over them, and turned their lands into provinces of his empire. He died in 727 b.c. ; and five years later another great con- quering prince, who had assumed the name of the old Baby- lonian Sargon, came to the throne. Sargon conquered all his enemies in Asia, including Hittites, Jews, Phoenicians, and Syrians. Babylonia having won her independence, he con- quered her again, and had himself crowned king in Babylon. All western Asia was fused into an Assyrian empire. The only dangerous rival was Egypt, whose conquest he left for his suc- cessors to complete, though he had defeated an Egyptian army in 720 B.C. Sennacherib. — Sennach'erib (705-681 b.c.) managed to hold the empire together ; but though his inscriptions boast of great conquests, he seems not to have been always successful. He tried to capture Jerusalem, and failed. He is famous as a builder of canals and aqueducts, and of a huge palace at Nin- eveli. Under his successor, Esar-haddon (681-669 b.c), the Second Empire reached the summit of its power. This mon- arch conquered Egypt on the south, and in the north pene- trated into the little-known region of Media. Sardanapalus. — The last great Assyrian king was Assur- bani-pal, known to the Greeks as Sardanap'alus. He was a magnificent and luxurious prince, famous rather as a patron of literature and art than as a Avarrior. Under him the empire reached its widest extent, but decay had already set in. Seri- ous revolts broke out in Babylonia and other parts of his BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS 41 dominions, and were put down with the greatest difficulty. The empire lasted only a few years after his death. Babylonia again became independent, in 625 B.c.,and soon afterwards the Medes and their allies captured Nineveh and overthrew the Assyrian kingdom. Assyria was then shared between Media and Babylonia. The Second Babylonian Empire. — For a time Babylonia re- gained something of its ancient greatness. Nebuchadnez'zar brought the empire to the height of its fame. Among his warlike deeds were his defeat of the Egyptians, whom he com- pelled to give up Syria, and the capture of Jerusalem, which resulted in the carrying away of the Jewish families of the upper class into captivity at Babylon. Assyrian Palace at Nineveu The city of Babylon, under Nebuchadnezzar, was enlarged and improved. For wealth, luxury, and the magnificence of its buildings, it was unequaled. No ancient city can be com- pared to it in size. Its walls are said to have measured forty miles in circumference, and seventy or eighty feet in height. The famous ' hanging gardens,' which were terraces made in imitation of mountain scenery, were constructed by Nebuchadnezzar to please his Median queen. Another famous structure was the temple of Bel or Baal, which was roofed with cedar overlaid with gold. Fall of the Kingdom. — Nebuchadnezzar died in 562 B.C., 42 GENERAL HISTORY after a reign of about forty -two years ; and with him perished the Babylonian kingdom, for his successors lacked the vigor to withstand the attacks of a new power that had appeared in Asia Minor; namely, the Persian monarchy. Under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, the Persians had gained do- minion over the Medes, and begun a career of conquest. The story of the capture and destruction of Babylon is told in the Bible. The last king was Naboni'dus, who was ruling in connection with Belshaz'zar. Babylonian and Assyrian Civilizations. — In science, particu- larly in astronomy, the early Babylonians surpassed the Egyp- tians. As they were worshipers of natural objects, especially of the heavenly bodies, it was not strange that they made care- ful astronomical observations. It is said that Alexander the Great foinid tliese observations extending for an unbroken period of 1903 years. The Babylonians divided the year into twelve months, the week into seven days, the day (from sun- rise to sunset) into twelve hours, and the hour into sixty min- ntes. From the Babylonians came the knowledge of weights and measures to the Western nations. Architecture and Sculpture. — In architecture they did wonder- ful work, constructing huge buildings from the rude materials which they had at hand. They knew the art of coloring, and many of their sculptures were brilliantly colored. Therein they differed from the Assyrians, whose work shows no regard for bright colors. Both the Babylonians and the Assyrians showed extraordinary skill in sculpture, especially in their bas-reliefs ; and while the figures are generally not lifelike, there is a certain simplicity and vigor especially in the drawing of animal figures. Other arts also flourished, as the cutting of gems, dyeing, weav- ing, and embroidering. The Babylonians were noted for their luxury. Religion. — Their religion was like that of the Phoenicians. Baal was their god, who was identified especially with the sun, the giver of life and light to his adorers, and of fierce heat to those who failed to do him honor. With him was associated BABYLONIANS AND ASSYKIANS 43 Baaltis, a female divinity, the goddess of the fertile earth. Be- sides, there were gods of the sky, of the moon, of the waters,, of love, etc. Ish'tar or Ash'- toreth was the goddess of war and love. The Assyr- ians had the same religion as the Babylonians, but the god Ass'ur was the guar- dian deity of their country. They were much more sav- age than the Babylonians, lacked their literary skill, but showed a greater apti- tude for trade. During their flourishing days Nineveh was the greatest commercial city in the world. ISIITAR From an Assyrian Cylinder SUMMARY Babylonians and Assyrians. — Geographical Situation. — The Race. — Legendary Period : Babylonian Chronology and Legends, — Early Babylonian History : Nimrod. Lig-Bagas. Sargon, The Cassite or Cossaean Dynasty. — Assyrian Ascendancy. Tiglath-Pileser I. As- syrian Conquests. Shalmaneser II. — Second Assyrian Empire: Tiglath-Pileser II. Sargon. Sennacherib. Esar-haddon. Assur- bani-pal. The Fall of the Empire. — Second Babylonian Empire: Nebuchadnezzar. Overthrow of Babylonia by Cyrus the Great. — Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization : Science. Religion. Art and Architecture. CHAPTER V THE HEBREWS Introduction. — The mission of the Jews was to found a reli- gion which should influence the entire world. Their history is the history of the development of that religion, and its survival in the midst of dangers and hostile influences, and in spite of the occasional backslidings of the Jews themselves. The de- 44 GENERAL HISTORY tails of the subject are of such interest and importance that they make up a special field of study by themselves. They belong to the department of Sacred History, and can not be treated fully in the present work. It is pos- sible to give here only some of the leading facts in Jewish history, espe- cially such as show their relations to other ancient races. The Race. — The Jews belonged to the Semitic race, and consequently were closely allied to the Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Arabs. They traced their descent from Abraham, who left his native place of Ur, on the Euphrates River, and came into the " prom- ised land" of Canaan, which was on the west- ern side of Syria, south of Phoenicia. There he wandered with his herds, and founded a family. According to the biblical narrative, one of his descendants, Joseph, was sold into slavery, and carried away into Egypt, where he won the favor of the Egyptian king or Pharaoh, who permitted Jo- seph and his family to settle in the land of Goshen, in north- ern Egypt. Here, in the pasture lands of Goshen, they lived as herdsmen, till there came to the Egyptian throne a new line of rulers, who, being jealous of the growing numbers and prosperity of the Hebrews, began to oppress them. The Book of Exodus tells how a great leader, Moses, arose to res- cue them from the land of bondage, how he communed with God THE HEBREWS 45 on Mount Horeb, and how he led his people through the Eed Sea, miraculously parted by " a strong east wind." The exodus (or flight) of the Jews from Egypt is placed by chronologists at about 1300 b.c. The Era of the Judges. — From the exodus (about 1300 B.C.), for a period of two hundred years, the Hebrews were governed by men who did not call themselves kings, but exer- cised their authority by common consent as possessed of a divine right. It was a period of struggle ; for, after forty years of wandering in the wilderness, the Jews found that the land of Canaan, to which they had returned, was in the hands of powerful foes, who could be dislodged only by hard fighting. Philistines, Moabites, Midianites, and Ammonites, all had to be exterminated ; but great leaders, like Gideon, Jephtha, and Samson arose to do the work. The last of the rulers in this period was the prophet Samuel, who reformed the state and stirred the courage of the Jews against their enemies. The Era of the Monarchy. — The people now insisted on hav- ing a king. They wished a more compact administration as likely to make the state stronger and more successful in war. The kingdom continued undivided during the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon (that is, from about 1090 to 975 b.c), and during these early years it reached the height of its glory ; but after Solomon's death the kingdom was divided, and never re- gained its former power. Saul was the first king. His reign was full of conflicts, and embittered by his envy at the growing popularity of David. Saul's death brought David to the throne ; and then followed the period of Israel's greatest power, for David extended his rule over the hostile tribes in the vicinity, and even as far as the Euphrates and the Red Sea. He made Jerusalem his ca.pital. He was by far the greatest of the kings, and he raised the Jewish state to a position of international importance, so that it seemed almost as if his people were to have a great political destiny as well as a religious mis- sion. Solomon's Reign, about 1015-975 B.C. — This was the most 46 GENERAL HISTORY splendid period in Jewish history. The magnificence of Solo- mon is i^roverbial. The kingdom whicli David had built up, Solomon brought to its highest power. He secured himself by alliances with Syria, Egypt, and Tyre. Hiram, the king of Tyre, was a fast friend of Solomon, as he had been of David, and the result of this alliance was greatly to advance the com- merce of the Jews in the Mediterranean and on the Red Sea. Tyrian sailors were often employed on Jewish vessels. By the acquisition of a port at the head of the Gulf of Elath the way for commerce was opened to the Indian Ocean. Jerusalem became a beautiful city, with a new wall, a magnificent palace, and, greatest of all, the famous Temple v/hich Solomon built on Mount Moriah. Yet the reign has its dark side. Solo- mon, whose wisdom is even more famous than his wealth, nevertheless managed to do his country a great deal of harm. He was a perfect type of the all-powerful Eastern ruler, — luxurious, lavish, care- less of the real welfare of his people. Heavy taxes were required to keep up the splendor of his court, and the resources exhausted. What was worse, the old strict exclusiveness, that had kept the faith of the Jews pure, was broken down, and religion was corrupted. He allowed the heathen to prac- tice idolatry in his kingdom, and even took part in heathen rites himself. The Divided Kingdom. — This dark side of the reign of Solo- mon was made apparent by the events that followed his death. Eevolt had broken out against him, and had been put down ; but his successor, Rehoboam, was less fortunate. The ten tribes north of Judah cut themselves loose, and set up an independ- ent kingdom, known as the kingdom of Israel, with the capi- tal at Samaria. The remaining tribes constituted the kingdom of Judah, with its capital at Jerusalem. The two kingdoms Seven-bkanched Candle- stick FROM THE Temple Pwclief on the Arch of Titus at Rome of the state were TPIE HEBREWS 47 continued separate until the downfall of both, which might not have occurred if they had remained united against their foes. In both Israel and Judah this was a period of decline. The kings made alliances with the hea- then, and permitted idolatry, in spite of the warnings of the x^i'ophets. ' -^ Israel was the first to fall. Sargon, the Assyrian king, captured Sama- ria, and carried off the inhabitants as captives, in 722 b.c, repeopling the country with his own subjects. The Israelites never returned, and what became of them is a matter of conjecture. Judah lasted for more than a century afterwards, till High Pkiest ^ 586 B.C. In that year Nebuchad- nezzar, King of Babylonia, took Jerusalem, and bore the peo- ple away to Babylon, where they remained in exile during many years. The period of the Babylonian captivity closed when Cyrus the Great, having conquered Babylonia, 538 b.c, gave the Jews permission to return to their homes. Later History. — From the time of the Babylonian captivity the Jews ceased to exist as an independent nation. They were ruled successively by the Persians, the Syrian successors of Alexander the Great, the Ptol'emies of Egypt, and the Komans ; and though there was a brief interval of freedom, when they rose in successful revolt under the Maccabees against the Syrian rulers, their history is merged in that of other races. Summary. — The Jews did not develop a great national state. They were not great conquerors, and never approached the political power of the empires of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. Nor did they add much to the world's knowledge of art or science. Their mission was to spread a higher form of religion than any other race had developed. Their whole history seems to tend in this direction. Had they conquered 48 GENERAL HISTORY and annexed other lands, they would have felt to a greater degree the influence of other religions. Political ambitions, stimulated by success, might have distracted them from their single purpose of keeping their faith pure. On the other hand, defeat and tyranny never made them abandon it. SUMMARY The Jews a Semitic People. Tlieir Origin. Their Mission. The Exo- dus. Era of the Judges, about 1300-1100 b.c. Era of the Monarchy. Saul. David. Solomon's Reign. The Divided Kingdom. Decline of Power. Later History. CHAPTER VI THE PHOENICIANS Land and People. — The name Phoenicia is derived from a Greek word meaning 'palm,' and signifies 'the land of the palm.' It consisted of a narrow strip of fertile territory on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, between the Lebanon Mountains and the sea. It was about 150 miles long, but only ten or fifteen miles wide ; and as the mountains shut it off from the interior, it was natural that its inhabitants should turn to the sea as the easier outlet for their commerce. The Phoenicians, therefore, became fishermen and sailors, and soon develope'd into the chief maritime nation among the ancients. They belonged to the Semitic race, being closely allied to the Hebrews, Arabs, and Babylonians. Antiquity. — They were known to the ancient Akkadians, the primitive inhabitants of Babylonia," and, according to tra- dition, came from the shores of the Persian Gulf. The exact dates of the founding of their cities, among which Tyre and Sidon were the chief, are not known, but they belong to a very remote period. It is said that the temple of Baal Mel- THE PHOENICIANS 49 karth, the Phoenician Her'cules, was founded 2750 b.c. ; and it is recorded that the Egyptian king, Ramses II., visited their country, finding evidences of an advanced civilization. Early History. — The period of their greatest prosperity was from the twelfth to the seventh century b.c. During this time, however, they were frequently conquered by foreign nations. Egyptian monarchs forced them to pay tribute, and Assyrian kings several times overran their country. The Phoenicians were not, in fact, a military people. They were essentially traders, and loved peace. Moreover, there was no strong cen- tral government. Each city managed its own affairs, and was virtually independent, though one among them commonly en- joyed a supremacy over the rest. In the early part of this period this position of supremacy was held by Sidon, which became the first great colonizing city of antiquity. Her de- votion to trade, and love of the pursuits of peace, are alluded to in the Book of Judges, when, speaking of the people of Dan, it is said, " They dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zido- nians, quiet and secure." But Sidon soon gave place to the more powerful city of Tyre. Tyre. — The height of Tyrian power was reached in the tenth century b.c, when a king named Hiram ruled the city. Hiram was the friend of David and Solomon, with whom he entered into an alliance resulting in great advantages to both countries ; for, while Phoenician culture was introduced among the ruder Isra- elites, David's conquest of Edom opened the way for Phoenician commerce through the Red Sea. Under Hiram, Tyre was adorned and fortified, colonies were planted in distant lands, and manufactures and commerce flourished. For some years after his death the affairs of the city prospered. Sidon was brought under its sway, and a colony was founded in the interior 01 Africa; but Assyrian conquests soon began to spread west- ward, and in 870 b.c. the kings of Tyre, Sidon, and two other Phoenician cities were obliged to pay tribute. Founding of Carthage. — Before the close of this century the Tyrians founded on the northern coast of Africa a colony Colby's gen. hist. — 4 50 GENERAL HISTORY which was destined to survive and outshine the mother city. This was Carthage, which, according to tradition, was settled by fugitives from the tyranny of a Tyrian usurper named Pygma'lion. Greek and Eoman writers have confounded leg- end with history, and made the founding of Carthage the subject of a picturesque story.^ Later History. — The Phoenician cities continued to pay trib- ute to the Assyrians for many years. Occasionally they re- volted, but fresh invasions of the Assyrians brought them to terms. The invaders, however, were not always successful. Sargon was obliged to grant easy terms to Tyre before it would capitulate after one of these revolts, and Sennacherib was unable to take the city (701 b.c). Assur-bani-pal and also the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar were glad to buy its submission by favorable treaties. The maritime power of the Phoenicians made them useful allies to the Egyptians and the Persians, who successively exercised a supremacy over them. It is said that their refusal to attack Carthage made it impossible for the Persian king Cambyses to carry out his plans against that city. Nevertheless they gradually lost their commercial impor- tance. Wars and foreign domination weakened them at home, and in the sixth century b.c. the Greeks became formidable rivals in the planting of colonies. The Phoenician colony of Carthage inherited the greatness of the mother country, and built up an empire Avhich, as we shall see, rivaled that of Pome. The ancient Phoenician cities fell into decay ; and finally Tyre, the greatest of them, was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. Its citizens were massacred or sold into slavery, and its greatness departed forever. Phoenicia became a part of Alexander's empire, and later was included in the dominions of Pome. 1 In Vergil's Aeneid, Carthage is said to have been founded by the beautiful Dido, whose husband, Sichae'us, the rightful ruler of Tyre, had been murdered ^J Pygmalion (see Aeneid, Book IV.). It is thought that Greek and Roman writers had confounded the foundress of the city with the Phoenician goddess Astar'te, who was sometimes worshiped under the name of Dido. THE PHOENICIANS 51 Colonies. — Besides Carthage, the greatest of their colonies, the Phoenicians made settlements in Crete, Rhodes, Cythe'ra, and other islands of the Grecian Archipelago, and even on the mainland of Greece. Farther westward they planted colonies on the coast of Africa, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and, passing through the Strait of Gibraltar, founded Ga'des (Cadiz) in Spain. The city of Tarshish, so often men- tioned in the Bible as a place of great wealth and commercial activity, is also said to have been on the coast of Spain. It was a flourishing city in the time of Solomon, as appears from the passage in 2 Chron. ix. 21 : " For the king's ships went to Tarshish with the servants of Hiram : every three years once came the ships of Tarshish bringing gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and jjeacocks." These colonies of the Phoenicians were active trading posts, exchanging the products of the new countries for the luxuries of the East. In founding them they entered upon a different policy from that practiced by either the Egyptians or the Assyrians, who sometimes conquered and annexed territory, or plundered or exacted tribute from its inhabitants, but did not plant colonies. The Phoenicians settled in the land, and traded with the natives. In so doing they rendered the latter a great service by spreading among them a higher civilization. Racial Character and Influence. — As a race, the Phoenicians lacked originality, but were skillful imitators, or rather adapters, of the ideas of other peoples. Thus, their art borrowed many of its forms from Babylonia, Egypt, and Assyria; and their science was an inheritance from neighboring races. But they did not merely imitate : they imparted a new character to what they borrowed, and shovv^ed a remarkable power of improving on their models. Their main strength lay in practical matters, such as the practice of industrial arts and the conduct of com- mercial enterprises. They were the most skillful artisans in the ancient world, as well as the most enterprising traders. In gem cutting, dyeing, and the manufacture of pottery, they were especially expert. The ' Tyrian purple,' a dye manufactured 52 GENERAL HISTORY from the murex, or purple-fish, was known throughout the civilized world, and the commercial prosperity of Tyre was at first largely due to its production. In commerce no race had ever before covered so wide a field. They brought tin from the island of Britain, precious metals from Spain, ivory and pearls from India. As a result of their commercial spirit and skill as colonizers, they became the dispensers of Asiatic civili- zation to Western nations. The Greeks especially felt their influence. Literature. — The Phoenicians were not a literary race, and only scanty fragments of their writings remain ; yet they are credited with having rendered literature an inestimable ser- vice by giving the Greeks their alphabet, which, through the Greeks, became the alphabet of the Western world. The alpha- bet of the Phoenicians was based on the old Egyptian hieroglyphics, but differed from the latter in being ex- clusively phonetic ; i.e. in employing each letter to indicate a distinct sound. The Greeks themselves said that a cer- tain fabulous personage named Cad- mus introduced sixteen letters into use in Greece, and that other letters were added by their own wise men. This, like the other stories relating to Cadmus, is a myth, but points to the fact, now generally admitted, that Phoenician colonists brought the alphabet into Greece. Religion. — Phoenician religion was gross in conception, and sensual in practice. The center of their worship was the sun god, but his many forms or manifestations each took on the character of a separate divinity. Baal was the name given to the deity in all his forms. The supreme god was Baal Samen ('lord of heaven'); but especial worship was paid to another Baal, the cruel Mo'loch, called by the Jews the " abomination of the children of Ammon." Moloch delighted in the blood of human victims; and in the hope of appeasing him parents Anc. Anc, Phoon. Greek. Latin. Eng:. 6< AA A4\ A ^ ^/^ P E 7 irn V? P ^J ^p RR R vV KS Si S Development of the Alphabet THE PHOENICIANS 53 offered up their children for sacrifice, the cries of the victims and of their relatives being drowned by the noise of drums and musical instruments. There were several female divinities, the consorts of the male. Thus, Ash'toreth, known to the Greeks under the name of the goddess Astar'te, was identified with the moon, the con- sort of the sun god. She was worshiped with cruel and im- pure rites. Then there were many minor gods and goddesses associated with natural forces or inanimate objects, — Asherah, the goddess of fertility, the Baalim, that represented rivers, — and the gods of particular localities or cities. It is curious to note that several of the Greek gods were of Phoenician origin, while the Phoenicians themselves borrowed them from the P)abylonians or Chaldeans. Thus, the old Chaldean solar hero, with his many adventures, his great feats of strength, and his ' twelve labors,' reappeared as Baal Melkarth, the god of Tyre, who in turn became the Hercules of Greek mythology. SUMMARY Geographical Situation of Phoenicia. The Phoenicians a Semitic People. The Period of their Greatest Prosperity from the Twelfth to the Seventh Century, b.c. Siclon at first Supreme. Tyre at the Height of its Power. Carthage. Later History of the Phoenicians. The Decline of their Power. Phoenician Colonies. Racial Character and Influence. Religion. CHAPTER VII CHINA AND INDIA I. China The Chinese are a Mongolian peo^^le of the Turanian race, occupying the eastern slopes of the tablelands of Central Asia. Their early annals are a matter of legend rather than his- tory, and authorities differ as to the date of the foundation of the empire. Some place it about 2800 b.c, and others about 2200 B.C. This purely legendary period lasted till 1123 or 1122 B.C., after which the records bear some traces of authentic history. Among the tales told of the earlier period is an account of a golden age, during which people led good and happy lives, and required little restraint by laws; and another legend refers to a great flood as occurring about 2200 b.c. In 1123 or 1122 b.c. the Chow dynasty came to the throne in the person of Wu Wang, who was famous as a lawgiver, and in- troduced important changes in the political system, dividing up the kingdom into vassal states. Under his successors the vassal x)rinces gained power at the expense of the throne, and the state was greatly weakened by internal disorders ; but in 255 B.C. a new line of rulers, the Tsin dynasty, put an end to this anarchy, and ruled with a firm hand. Members of this line held the throne till 206, and during this period work was begun on the " Great Wall," which was to guard the frontier against the barbarous nomads to the north. When completed, it was about fifteen hundred miles in length. The Han dynasty followed, and lasted till 263 a.d. This was a very flourishing period in Chinese history. The government was efficient, learning was revived, and the robber tribes on the borders were beaten back. Chinese Civilization. — The government was despotic in form ; but though the emperor had the power of life and death over his subjects, he was in some degree restrained by precedents 54 CHINA 55 which were regarded as sacred. Three forms of religion were professed by the Chinese, — Confucianism, Taoism, and Bud- dhism. Of these the first two were native forms of faith, while the third was introduced from India. Confucianism is based on the teachings of Confucius (551-478 b.c), many of which show a high morality, and apply practically to the daily life of the people. The founder of Taoism was Laou-Tse, who was a few years older than Confucius. His teachings are more Chinese Temple mystical and speculative than the latter's, and have not entered so deeply into the social life and political system of the people. Some account of the doctrines of Buddhism will be given in succeeding paragraphs on India. It was introduced into China in the second century b.c. The Chinese civilization has been characterized by a peculiar exclusiveness and an undue reverence for tradition. Yet in 56 GENERAL HISTORY the matter of inventions the people have shown great inge- nuity. Tlie arts of printing and of making gunpowder and the use of the compass are said to have been known to them centuries before they were understood by European nations. II. India Geography. — India occupies the great peninsuhi of southern Asia, stretching from the mountain region of the Himalayas southward into tlie Indian Ocean, by whose two arms — the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea — it is bound^ed respec- tively on the east and on the west. On the north the lofty Himalayas slope down to plains of great extent, watered by the Indus, Ganges, and Narbudda rivers. To the south of these lies a hilly region, known as the Deccan. The People. — The earliest inhabitants of India were a dark- skinned people, of whom few traces remain. AVhat is known of them comes chiefly from the writings of their conquerors. These conquerors were of pure Aryan blood, and entered India from the northwest at some time previous to 2000 b.c. Their migration was a part of that movement of the Aryans which brought the Persians into western Asia, and the ancestors of Greeks and Romans into southern Europe. The Language. — These Aryan invaders of India, or Hindus, spoke the Sanskrit language, which is regarded as the oldest Aryan tongue, '^^ to that spoken by ftHTt ^cR^TrT^I II ^ « the original Ary- The First Stanza of the Rig Veda, in Sanskrit Characters ^^IS. feanskrit IS the language of their Vedas (vd'dd), or collections of sacred writings, of which the oldest was the Rig Veda (probably 2000 b.c), containing a large number of hymns to the gods, written during the period of warfare Avitli the natives ancip:nt INDIA 57 The Conquered Race. — Six hundred years (2000-1400 b.c.) passed before the conquest was complete, for the natives were numerous and brave. It appears from the liig Veda that the invading race was far ahead of the natives in civilization. The latter were panic-stricken at the sight of the horses and chariots of the Hindus, against whose javelins, battle-axes, and swords they had only the rude weapons of savages with which to defend themselves. It was a conflict like that between the European settlers in America and the Indians, the Hindus feeling themselves to be a superior race. They too were white men, and the color line was sharply drawn. In fact, their word varna, meaning 'color,' came afterward to mean a ' caste,' or a distinct social class, class distinctions being fur- ther developed and more rigidly observed among the later Hindus than among any other people in the world. Nature Worship. — The religion of this early period was a form of nature worship, the different natural elements or forces being personified as divine beings. Thus, there was the sky god, worshiped under various names, of which Indra, or the ' sky that rains,' occurs the oftenest, for in India the luxuriance of the crops was especially dependent upon the abundance of rain. In course of time Indra became their chief deity ; but there were many others, such as Agni («//'- nee), the fire god, Va'runa, the god of the waters and the night, Vayu (vah'yoo), the wind god, and U'shas, the goddess of dawn. Period of Expansion (1400-320 B.C.). — Having completed the conquest of the natives about 1400 b.c, the Hindus settled on the plains along the Ganges. They were divided into several tribes, and the half-mythical record of their wars and rivalries gives the earlier part of this period (1400-1000) the character of an heroic age like that of the legendary Greeks whom Homer described in the Iliad. Before the close of the fourth century B.C. they had occupied all the inhabitable lands of India. In the meanwhile, one of their states, Mag'adha (South Behar), grew in strength, and came to exercise control over some of the others, although it did not reach the height 58 GENERAL HISTORY of its power till after the close of this period (320 B.C.). But the main interest of the period is not in wars and dynasties ; it is in the social and religious development of the people. Dur- ing this time the caste system became firmly fixed, and two forms of religion successively arose, — Brahmanism and Bud- dhism, — each differing widely from the simple nature worship described above. Caste. — From the time when the Hindus settled on the Ganges there Avas a marked change in the spirit of their reli- gion. It lost its simplicity, and laid more and more stress on forms and ceremonies. Worship was complicated by elaborate and minute regulations, determining, for example, the exact pronunciation of words, the proper time (calculated astronom- ically) for holding the ceremonies, and every movement of the worshiper during the service. Such an elaborate system required the attention of a special class ; and the Brah'mans or priests, who understood its mysteries, came to hold a place apart from other men, and to be viewed with peculiar rever- ence. The women of priestly families were forbidden to marry outside of their class, and as time passed the line that separated the priests from other members of society became more distinct. They became a separate caste. The next caste below the Brahmans was that of the Kshat'- riyas or warriors, who in turn were superior to the third caste, composed of the Vaisyas (vl'shyd) or farmers. Below the farmers was a still lower order in the social scale, the Su'dras or serfs, a despised class, probably descendants of the con- quered aborigines; and lowest of all were the Pari'ahs, who were mere outcasts. In European countries there have been social distinctions corresponding to these Indian castes, but they have not been so strictly observed. There has always been some intermar- riage between the classes. In India the caste system was carried too far, and proved hurtful. There was great inequal- ity in the laws. A Brahman paid a far lighter penalty for an offense than was imposed upon a Sudra. The latter could ANCIENT INDIA 59 be put to death for several classes of offenses, but a Brahman could never suffer capital punishment under the law. More- over, industrial progress was checked by a rule that caused all who worked at a trade or tilled the soil to be regarded as degraded. A^aisyas and Sudras, however industrious they might be, could never gain admittance to either of the higher orders. Brahmanism. — ^ The old nature worship, in which natural forces were personihed as different gods, gave place, in the course of time, to a belief in a single god as the cause and mover of all natural forces. Brah'ma was the name of this divine being. He was the creator of all things, but he was not viewed apart from what he created. He was thought to be in all his creatures, which have sprung from him, and will return to him. This doctrine is embodied in the books of in- struction called Upanishads', which are among the most remark- able works of antiquity. According to the Upanishads, the great truth of religion was revealed to a simple and illiterate boy, who spent his days alone, tending cattle. This truth was that " the four quarters, and the earth, the sky, the heavens beyond, and the ocean, and the sun, the moon, the lightning, and the fire, and the organs and minds of living beings, — yea, the whole universe, is God." Another remarkable feature of Brahmanism was the doc- trine of the transmigration of souls, — the idea that the soul, springing from Brahma, passes through various bodies, until finally, having freed itself from all imperfections, it goes back to Brahma again. The great aim of existence was to reach this final state, and mingle with God. Buddhism. — Brahmanism passed through the experience common to many forms of religion, losing in the course of time its simplicity and earnestness, and requiring reformers to remind believers of its essential truths. Of these reformers the greatest was Prince Gautama (Gotv'tama), commonly known as the Buddha {BotuVda), or 'the Enlightened,' whose reforms wore of such a radical nature as virtually to found a new 60 GENERAL HISTORY religion. Yet he did not quarrel with the old, but merely interpreted it anew, and gave it a more practical character. Buddha was born about the middle of the sixth century b.c. He was a member of a royal house, but left his home, his wife, and newborn child in order to find religious peace and the way to salvation. He sought truth from the Brahmans in vain, and spent seven years in re- ligious meditation. Final- ly he learned the truth that he had been seeking. It was summed up in the two ideas of self-culture and universal love. About 522 B.C. he proclaimed his creed at Bena'res. As to the details of worship, he left the ancient Brahman- ism unchanged; but he taught that every act in this life bears its fruit in the next. Every soul passes through successive lives or reincarnations. Its condi- tion during one life is the result of what- it has done in a previous state. The aim of life is the attainment of Nirvana (Neervah'na), — a sinless state of existence, to reach which constant self-culture is required. Four truths were taught es- pecially : first, that all life is suffering ; second, that this suf- ering is caused by the desire to live ; third, that the suffering ceases with the cessation of this desire; fourth, that this salvation can be found by following the path of duty. A very high morality was preached, including the duties of chastity, patience, mercy, fortitude, and kindness to all men. Spread of Buddhism. — Buddha, after his death, was worshiped as a divine being. His disciples carried the faith throughout Statue of Buddha, Japan ANCIENT INDIA 61 India, and thence it spread to China in the second century B.C., over Burniah 450 a.d., and over Siam and Java at later dates. In 377 b.c. there was a division among the Buddhists. The Northern Buddhists (i.e. those of China, Thibet, Nepal, and Japan) profess different doctrines from the Buddhists of Ceylon. In India Buddhism and Brahmanism existed side by side, and the modern faith known as Hinduism is a combina- tion of both. Greek Conquest of India. — India was first brought into con- tact with Europeans by the conquest of Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. Alexander found northern India divided into little kingdoms, many of which were less hostile to the conqueror than to one another. He reached the Hydas'pes or Jhe'lum River without fighting a battle, and finally passed down the River Indus to its mouth, having won several victories over the brave but ill-disciplined Hindus. His conquest comprised only northern India, which after his death fell to the share of Seleu'cus Nika'tor, the founder of the Syrian kingdom. Alexander founded cities in the conquered country, and Greek influence is traceable in Hindu art for many years after- wards. But the most important result of the conquest was in giving us the first European account of India. This was the narrative of Megas'thenes, a Greek ambassador at the court of Chan'dragup'ta, an Indian prince who had succeeded in build- ing up an empire in northern India after Alexander's departure. Megasthenes' account of Indian society in 300 b.c. shows it to have been in essential points about what it is at the present time. He notices the caste system and the division of the country into over a hundred kingdoms. He speaks with ad- miration of the purity of the women and the courage of the men. The people were remarkably law-abiding and truthful. Arts. — There are many beautiful remains of ancient archi- tecture in India, dating from the Buddhist period, and includ- ing churches, monasteries, and high stone structures (known as topes) built on sacred spots, to which pilgrimages were made. Buddhist churches and monasteries were often grot- 62 GENERAL HISTORY toes cut in the rock, and were frequently elaborately sculptured. Great numbers of these structures are found in the Presidency of Bombay, where rocks fitted for excavation abound. The rock-hewn temples of Ello'ra, belonging to the eighth or ninth The Taj Mahal, an Indian Tomb century, are the most remarkable of these. A pit measuring 270 feet by 150 feet is cut in the solid rock, and in the midst of it stands a temple with a tower 90 feet high. Commerce. — Tlie commerce of India attracted many traders. Phoenician caravans and ships carried the precious stones, gold, ivory, spices, and silks of India to the West. In later times the wealth of India played an important part in history by attracting the trade of the Italian cities. This trade, during the fourteenth and greater part of the fifteenth centuries, passed overland through Arabia and Asia Minor; but when the Portuguese, at the close of the fifteenth cen- tury, discovered the route around tlie Cape of Good Hope, the commerce of the Indies was carried on by sea, and passed from under the control of the Italian cities into the hands of ANCIENT INDIA 63 the nations on the Atlantic coast. The later history of India, however, has its main interest in its connection with Portngal, Holland, and England, and will be discussed in the chapters on the modern history of those nations. SUMMARY China. — The Race. —Legendary Period. — Dynasties. — Chinese Civili- zation : Government. Religions. Inventions. India. — Geography. — The People: The Natives. The Aryan Conquer- ors. Period of Expansion (1400-320 b.c). The Rise of Magadha. — Caste: Brahmans. Kshatriyas. Vaisyas. Sudras. — Brahman- ism: Origin. Characteristic Features. — Buddhism: Buddha. Doc- trines. Spread of Buddhism. — Greek Conquest, 327 b.c. : Alexander the Great's Invasion. Effects of the Greek Conquest. — Arts. — Commerce. CHAPTER VIII THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS Race. — The Medes and the Persians were kindred tribes be- longing to the Aryan division of races. At a very early date they had come westward from Bactria, and when first heard of in history were occupying the western part of the table-land of Iran and the shores of the Persian Gulf. The Medes, who lived in the more northerly of these regions, were the first to emerge from barbarism and build up an empire. The Median Kingdom. — The earliest mention of the Medes was in 840 n.o., when they appear to have been one of the subject peoples of the Assyrian king Shalmane'ser XL As the power of Assyria declined, that of Media increased, until a Median prince named Cyax'ares destroyed the Assyrian Empire in 606 B.C. Further conquests by this ruler raised Media to the first rank as an Asiatic power ; Lydia on the west and the restored Babylonian kingdom on the south being her only rivals. The river Halys became the boundary between his em]3ire and Lydia on the west, and he made the Persian tribes on the south his subjects ; but the Median supremacy lasted only a few years. Asty'ages, the weak successor of Cyaxares, could not hold his kingdom against a powerful rival who had arisen. This was Cyrus the Great, king of the Persians. Cyrus the Great. — While Astyages was ruling over Media, the Persians, under their king, Camby'ses, were in a position of dependence, and paid tribute to the Median king; but with the accession of Cyrus to the Persian throne all this was changed. The early life of Cyrus, like that of many other heroes of antiquity, is very obscure. There is a story that 04 THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 6b Astyages, the Median king, having dreamed that Cyrus was destined to conquer all of Asia, gave him to a courtier with orders to have him killed. The courtier handed him over to a shepherd, who agreed to expose him on the mountains. The shepherd pretended that he had done so, but spared the life of the young Cyrus, and brought him up as his own child. The king afterwards found this out, and took a barbarous revenge on the courtier, killing the latter's child, and serving him up to his father as food. But after a while the courtier's turn came for revenge. A rebellion having broken out, he sent for Cyrus to head the movement ; and the result was the overthrow of Astyages, and the elevation of Cyrus to the throne. This story is probably a later invention ; all that we know with certainty is that Cyrus triumphed over the Median Astyages, and made himself the ruler of Medes as well as Persians. The Conquests of Cyrus. — The Median kingdom was over- thrown in 557 B.C. There now remained two great rivals to the new kingdom, namely, Lydia and Babylonia. Cyrus first turned against Croesus, King of Lydia, and in a single cam- paign captured Sardis, the Lydian capital, and made Croesus his prisoner. A tradition relates that when Cyrus was about to put Croesus to death, the captive king was heard to mutter several times the name of Solon, ami, on being asked what he meant by it, replied that Solon i the Greek sage, had been the only man who refused to call him fortunate, saying that no man should be called happy before his death, for the reason that no one knov.^s what evils may befall him. Cyrus, accord- ing to the legend, thereupon spared the life of Croesus, and re- ceived him into his confidence. This story also rests on a slender basis of fact, but is significant as illustrating the leni- ency which the Persians showed their captives at a time when prisoners were almost invariably put to death and often bar- barously tortured. With the conquest of the Greek colonies on the Aegean, west- ern Asia Minor was added to the Persian Empire. Next came the fall of Babylon, about 538 e.g., which led to the important Colby's gen. hist. — 5 66 GENERAL HISTORY result of enabling the Jewish exiles to return to Jerusalem. Cyrus died in 529 b.c. after having raised the Persian kingdom from the position of a tributary state to that of the greatest imperial power in Asia. His sway extended from the Medi- terranean shore to the river Jaxartes, and from the Indus to the Hellespont. He was by far the greatest of the Persian monarchs, and his conquests were not disgraced by cruelty. Cambyses (529-522 B.C.). — In the reign of Cambyses, son of Cyrus, occurred the conquest of Egypt. This prince had some- thing of his father's warlike character, but lacked his ability and his clemency. Angered, it is said, by a deception practiced on him by the Egyptian king, he invaded the latter's territory and captured Memphis. Here the conqueror is said to have be- haved with such wanton cruelty as to give color to the belief that he was insane. He assumed the title and powers of an Egyptian king, but did not succeed in subduing the entire country. His long absence permitted political and religious revolts at home. The different races which Cyrus had bound together in his empire now tried to regain their independence. Failing to subdue the revolt, Cambyses committed suicide. Darius Hystaspes (521-485 B.C.). — A usurper seized the king- dom on the death of Cambyses; but Dari'us, the rightful heir, killed him and gained tho. throne. Darius was the great organ- izer of the Persian Empivt^. He divided the country up into more than twenty provinces or satrapies, at the head of each of which was a governor or satrap, bound to do the bidding of the king. The government was a perfect despotism, the king hav- ing power of life and death over all his subjects. The govern- ment has been compared to that of Turkey to-day, — a system in which the officers owe all their authority to a ruler who is responsible to no one for the use of his power. Vast wealth poured into the imperial treasury from the provinces; and the great king was able to fit out military expeditions against Scythians, Thracians, and Greeks. The conflict with the Greeks, however, and the story of Mar'athon, where Athe- nian valor drove back the greatly superior forces of the Per- THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 67 •>1 sians, fall more properly within the scope of Greek history. The main interest of Persian history from this time on lies in its relation to Grecian affairs, and will be discussed in connection | with them. Religion. — The religion of the Medes and Persians was one of the highest and purest forms of faith > found among ancient peoples. At tirst, like most savage tribes, they worshiped natural objects and nat- ural forces. Some of these forces were regarded as the manifestation of good spirits, and others of evil demons; and but of this grew the idea of a perpetual conflict between good and evil in the universe. Zoroastrianism. — Long before their authentic history begins, a Bactrian priest named Zarathush- tra or Zoroas'ter, who is supposed to have lived about 650 b.c, re- duced this crude nature worship to definite form. The chief fea- ture of Zoroastrianism, as the Per- sian religion is called, is the belief in a god" of light (the creator of all that is good) and a god of darkness (the founder and promoter of all that is evil). The former they termed Or'muzd, and the latter Ah'riman. Each was at the head of a host of minor gods ; those under Ormuzd being the "undying and well-doing ones," while those who aided Ahriman were the gods of evil thoughts, of death, sick- ness, and decay. It was thought that the world would last 12,000 years, after which it would end in winter or storm. Then would come a period of eternal spring, when the earth would be repeopled by the good, whose bodies would rise from ^|. Darius From an ancient relief. Above, tlie symbol of Ormuzd 68 GENERAL HISTORY the dead. Certain animals and natural objects were regarded as sacred. Thus, fire was looked upon as a manifestation of Ormuzd, and hence worshiped ; and among animals the dog was reverenced. The sacred writings were gathered in a work called the Avesta, written in the Zend language, which is thought to be the language of ancient Bactria. The Magi. — Such was the real essence of the Persian belief. There is evidence to prove that among the more enlightened worshipers there prevailed a belief in pure monotheism, that is, in one eternal Spirit above both Ormuzd and Ahriman : but the creed differed at different times, and was corrupted by the priestly class. The members of this class were called Ma'gi. Their origin is uncertain, but they seem early to have become the directors of worshij^, and to have won a high place in the councils of the king. Darius accused them of corrupting the ancient faith, and it is probable that they deprived it of its real spirit by laying too much stress on forms and ceremonies. They were astrologers as well as priests, and are especially associated with the worship of fire, although their veneration was by no means confined to that element. Our term 'magic' is derived from their name, in allusion to the arts which they practiced. Manners. — The Persians had an especial reverence for the truth. Lying, stealing, deception of any kind, were held in detestation. But if truthfulness was a Persian virtue, drunk- enness was to the same extent a Persian vice, for the too free use of wine characterized society from the court down. An- other vice was the cringing spirit they often showed toward their rulers, and their habit of flattery, the outcome of the extreme despotism of their government. The punishments which this government meted out to offenders were often very cruel, even for slight crimes. Xen'ophon, the G-reek historian, writing in the early jj^rt of the fourth century, says it was a common thing to see men lacking a foot, or an arm, or an eye, as a result of punishment inflicted for some offense. Yet toward their prisoners of war the Persians showed remarkable kindness. THE MEDES AND THE PERSIANS 69 As to their occupations, they were not a commercial people, but confined themselves chiefly to agriculture. In fact, a regard for agricultural pursuits was taught by their religion. Tlieir dress was that of a cold climate. They wore boots, stockings, trousers, and cloaks, which, in the case of the nobility, were often of very costly material and bright colors. In their later days they were not good soldiers. They depended on force of numbers and strategy rather than valor, and it was usual for commanders to flog their troops into battle. A lively, quick- witted people, they lacked stability of purpose and the capacity for sustained and vigorous action. Polygamy was practiced among them. Art and Literature. — In art the Persians were borrowers from the Babylonians and Assyrians. Their architecture was heavy, severe, and formal, but diversified by graceful columns. Like the Babylonians, they colored the walls and ceilings of their palaces. In their figures there is the same thickness of arms and legs that marks the Babylonian bas- reliefs, and the winged bulls that appear so frequently in Assyrian architecture occur often in the Persian ornamenta- tion. The best type of Persian architecture that survives is found in the ruins of Persep'olis, burned by Alexander the Great. Of their literature, all that remains is a portion of the Avesta. They were not a literary people, and they contributed nothing to science. SUMMARY Medes and Persians. — The Race. — Median Kingdom: Early De- pendence on Assyria, 840 b.c. Conquests under Cyaxares. Asty- ages.— Persia under Cyrus the Great (died 529 b.c.) : Early Life of Cyrus. His Accession to the Throne. Conquests. — Cambyses (529- 522 B.C.): Conquest of Egypt. Death of Cambyses. — Darius Hystaspes (521-485 b.c): Administration. Military Expeditions. Revolt of the Greeks. — Civilization of the Persians : Religion. The Magi. Manners. Art and Literature. ADRIATIC 70 GREECE 3>«Kc CHAPTER IX THE PREHISTORIC AGE Geography. — The Greeks called their land Hellas and them- selves Helle'nes, our words G-reece and Greek being derived from the Latin names of the land and its people. Greece, or Hellas proper, is the southern part of the most easterly of tlie three peninsulas that project southward into the Mediterranean Sea. The C a m b u n i a n and Oly m pus m o u n t a i n s bound it on the north. It is very irregular in shape, but may be rough- ly divided into three parts. The northern di- vision consists of Epi'rus and Thes'saly, south of which the Ambracian and Malian Gulfs indent the land on either sido, reducing the width of the peninsula to sixty - live miles. The middle divi- sion, or central Greece, is south of this point, where the land widens again. Below central Greece two other gulfs, the Saron'ic on the east and the Corinthian on the west, cut far into the country, leaving only the narrov\^ 71 B I^H 1 ■ ^' - ' ^^H 1 1 lf ^i'^. ^^^^1 ■ ^■H Pallas Athene 72 GENERAL HISTORY strip called the Isthmus of Corinth between. This isthmus, which is about three and a half miles across, joins central Greece with the third or southern division, called the Pelopon- ne'sus (island of Pelops) or in modern times More'a (mulberry leaf). The surface of Greece is as irregular as its outline. Ridges of limestone mountains traverse the country in all directions, making it a land of hills and valleys and small plains. In Greece thsre is no point from which the moun- tains can not be seen. Effect of Physical Features of Greece on the People. — The long and irregular coast line of Greece and the subdivision of its surface by mountain ranges have had an important influence on the history of its inhabitants. With an area about that of our state of Maine and less than that of Scotland, Greece, owing to its numerous bays, gulfs, and inlets, has a coast line equal in length to that of Spain and Portugal together. These indenta- tions brought the sea within easy reach of the dwellers in almost every part of the country. The effect of this was to make the water the easiest means of communication between the different parts of Greece, and so accustom them to sea voy- ages. Moreover, the waters that surround the peninsula are studded with islands, especially on the east, where the islands of the Aege'an Sea are so near one another that a ship can pass from Greece to Asia Minor without ever losing sight of land. It is not strange, therefore, that the Greeks were from very early times a race of sailors, and that they came in time to possess in the ancient world the same sort of maritime supremacy as that enjoyed later by the Venetians, the Dutch, and the English. The division of the land by mountain ridges largely explains another characteristic feature of Greek life; namely, the lack of political unity among the people. In spite of the bond of race, the ancient Greeks did not succeed in founding a national state, but lived in independent communities — a condition which the existence of these natural barriers of hills or mountains tended to produce. THE PREHISTORIC AGE 73 Race. — 111 prehistoric times the land of Greece was occupied by people to whom the Greeks gave the name 'Pelas'gi.' Their origin is doubtful, but by some of the Greek historians they were thought to be the ancestors of the Greeks themselves. They lived in villages, tilled the soil, kept flocks and herds, and left behind them remains of massive walls built of unhewn stone, but they never passed beyond a rude stage of life, or showed anything of the genius of the later inhabitants. If they were not the ancestors of the Greeks, they were, like the latter, of Aryan blood. It is probable that at some time previous to 2000 B.C., the Aryans had reached southern Europe and then divided into two swarms, of which one settled in Greece, be- coming the ancestors of Pelasgi and Greeks, and the other passed further westward and peopled Italy. The Hellenes, or Greeks proper, traced their descent from a mythical ancestor, Hellen, a native of Thessaly, and from his equally mythical sons, whose names — -Dorus, Ion, Ae'olus, and Achae'us, — are preserved in the names of the four chief divisions of the Hellenes, the Dorians, lonians, Aeolians, and Achaeans. Of these the Achaeans were at first the most pow- erful. They and the Aeolians were scattered throughout the peninsula, while the lonians occupied the eastern coast and islands, and the Dorians, the latest comers, occupied the moun- tains in the north. This disposition of the tribes, however, is largely a matter of conjecture ; for it belongs to the pre- historic period for the account of which we have to rely on traditions. Authentic history begins with the migration of these tribes into the regions which they occupied permanently. Legendary Period The myths, or stories with which the Greeks filled up the dark period befoi;^ their genuine history began, are not only interesting in themselves, but have a value for the light they throw on the early life of the people. It was called the Heroic Age, from the fact that so many of the legends deal with the exploits of heroes — founders of cities, lawgivers, and leaders, whose improbable adventures and superhuman deeds were the creation of their imaginative 74 GENERAL HISTORY descendants. Yet the tales abont them often point to some historical fact. Thus Athens, Thebes, and Argos all claimed as their founders foreign heroes who came into Greece from the East. In Athens a mass of legends gather about the dynasty of Ce'crops, the supposed founder of the city, who came from abroad, and The'seus, the last of this mythical line of foreign rulers, was the national hero of the Athenian state. In Thebes it was the equally mythical Cadmus who taught the peoj)le the art of mining, and how to read and write ; and in Argos the hero Dan'aiis was thought to have founded a line of kings who made the city the greatest state in the Peloponnesus. Probably the element of truth in all these stories is that the rude natives of Greece learned much from the enterpri- sing and civilized Phoenicians, who frequented the coasts in the course of trade, founded trading stations on the islands and capes, and opened up mines in the country. The story of Cadmus points to the fact that the Greeks borrowed their al})habet from the Phoenicians. The Homeric Poems. — Of all the writings that describe this Heroic Age, the most important are the two great narrative poems, — the IViad and the Od'yssey, — attributed to Homer. For many years scholars have disputed about the authorship of these poems, some denying that they were written by Homer, and holding that they were the work of many minds ; others see- ing in them a unity of style and har- mony of treatment that mark them as the products of a single fancy. The latter view is the more generally ac- cepted, yet it seems strange that Ave know so little of the author. The Greeks themselves, who never qtiestioned the identity of Homer, were ignorant of the facts of his life, and joked about the number of cities that claimed to be his birth- THE PREHISTORIC AGE 75 place. Two facts, however, are clear: the poems are of great antiquity, and their author describes very faithfully the times in which he lived, supplying materials from which historians have been able to construct a picture of primitive Greek society. The Iliad and the Odyssey are two long epic poems dealing with a war against the ancient city of Troy (Ilium) in Asia Minor, and the events which resulted from the conflict. The first describes the siege of Troy by the Greeks in revenge for an injury inflicted on one of their kings, Menela'us, whose wife Helen, the fairest woman in all Greece, had been stolen away by a Trojan prince named Paris while a guest in the house of her husband. Agamem'non, ^ j]v_^-^.^^,^ — ^ p>^ " ' - \^41 N__l^ '. J, -T^ n i \£ king of Mycenae and ^C^ J_ JJ^^flfcN M/^^ brother of Menela'us, -\I>;'"\'rl'^Vl'j\'i:i^S:> was the leader of all the '-^-CTf 7 ' _.X^/' -^ t ;">-♦ Gate of Mycenae, the City of Agamemnon Greeks, by virtue of his >k^v ^^' — * — ^^'"^ royal authority over the z"^*-^' '^- \ Peloponnesus ; but the ^^& bravest and most power- ful chieftain, without whom the Greeks could do nothing, was Achil'les. It was ten years before the Greeks captured the city, their victory being delayed by the refusal of Achilles to fight in consequence of a quarrel with Agamem- non, and success came finally only through the stratagem of the wooden horse in which Greek warriors were concealed and borne by the unsuspecting Trojans into the heart of the city. Such is the bare outline of the story. The poem fills it in with stirring accounts of battles and adventures, and with a vivid description of the armies engaged. The Odyssey tells the adventures of Odys'seus, or Ulys'ses, of Ithaca, who, after fighting in the Trojan War, was carried out of his course by a storm on his return voyage, and reached his home only after many years of wandering. 76 GENERAL HISTORY Greek Society in the Heroic Age. — The form of government that prevailed during the period described by Homer was the patriarchal monarchy, in which the king was regarded as the father of the tribe. He was not only its leader in war and the judge of disputes between its members in times of peace, but he was the chief priest of the tribe, their s^^okesman and agent in dealings with the gods. Yet he was not altogether without restraints, for his power depended on the general will, and if his government was unjust or his conduct on the field of battle cowardly or base, he was liable to dethronement. Below him were the nobles, who were the only class having political rights. They were the advisers of the king, who, however, was not always bound to act upon their advice. The great mass of the j)eople were freemen owning small parcels of land, but there was also a landless class who worked the land of others for hire. There were .some slaves, but they never became numerous, nor do they seem to have been harshly treated. Society, thus constituted, had the virtues and the vices of a rude but vigorous age. The spirit was aristocratic, and kings and nobles looked down upon the common people ; yet there was little state or display. Manual labor Avas not, as in later times, regarded as a sign of degradation. Kings were not above working in the fields, and queens attended in person to the details of domestic management. Amusements were sim- ple and healthful. Athletic games were common as in later Greece. Women were respected and polygamy was not prac- ticed. The duties of hospitality were strictly observed. The stranger was received kindly, and to harm a suppliaiit was reckoned the worst of crimes. On the other hand, it was a period of lawlessness. Piracy flourished, and plundering a weaker neighbor was regarded as a legitimate means of enrichment. Murder was common, and went unpunished unless the relatives of the victims chanced to demand reparation, in which case the matter was usually settled by a money payment. TJien, too, the conduct of war THE FIRST PERIOD OF GREEK HISTORY 77 was barbarous. There was no thought of sparing the lives of prisoners, unless, perhaps, they could be made useful ;is slaves. Human sacrifices were sometimes offered to the gods. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Geography of Greece. — Effects of Physical Features on the People: (1) Seafaring Tendencies. (2) Local Independence, The Race. The Pelasgi. The Hellenes, or Greeks Proper. — Chief Divisions : Dorians, lonians, Aeolians, and Achaeans. — The Legendary Period : The Heroic Age. — The Homeric Poems : The Iliad and the Odj/ssey. — Greek Society in the Heroic Age : The King. The Nobles. The People. Life and Manners. CHAPTER X THE FIRST PERIOD OF GREEK HISTORY Division into Periods. — In the previous chapter an outline has been given of the prehistoric age of Greece. Greek his- tory proper may be divided into three periods. The first extends to about 500 b.c, and includes the early development of the principal states of Greece. The second is the most flourishing period of Greek history, from 500 b.c. to 338 b.c. The third period (338-146 b.c.) was an age of decline, during which the separate Greek states lost their independence, first falling under the power of Macedonia and finally under that of Home. The Migrations. — The dividing line between the legendary period and the beginning of authentic history is formed by several important migrations of Greek tribes, which resulted in great changes in the political map of Greece. The Thes- salians, a savage tribe of northern mountaineers, came down and settled in the plains of Thessaly, driving out all who barred the way. The Dorians, Aetolians, and Boeo'tians were thus pushed southward and forced to find new homes for themselves. The Boeotians went no further than central Greece, founding there the state of Boeotia, which adjoined 78 GENERAL HISTORY the Ionian state of Attica. Aetolians and Dorians went down into the Peloponnesus, where the former seized upon the region in the northwest and the latter occupied all the southern portions. These movements threw all Greece into confusion. Up to this time the dominant race of Greece was the Achaeans, and the Dorians were unknown. Henceforth the Achaeans occupied merely a strip of the coast in the northern part of the Peloponnesus, while the Dorians gradually rose to a leading position among the tribes. But the effect of these movements was not merely to change the position and relations of the tribes in the mainland of Greece. The displaced populations sought new lands across the sea, founding three great groups of settlements on the coast of Asia Minor and colonizing the islands of the Aege'an together with Cyprus and Crete. The first of these Greek colonies in Asia Minor was founded by the Aeolians, who were fugitives of various tribes dislodged by the Dorian invasion. Theirs was the most northerly group of colonies, stretching along the coast from the Hellespont to the Bay of Smyrna. The settlements to the south of the Aeolian colonies were formed mainly by Ionian fugitives, and to the south of these were the colonies of the Dorians, for the conquerors them- selves had found the limits of their new territories in Greece too narrow, and had passed over into Asia Minor. The date of these movements is obscure. We only know that at their close the tribes were settled in the places that they continued permanently to occupy. Subsequent history deals with their development and mutual relations. The two chief states of Greece were Athens and Sparta, and about them the main interest centers. Athens did not come into promi- nence till many years after the migrations. It was not much affected by these movements, and still retained its old Ionian population. Sparta, however, was the chief city of the Dorian immigrants, and, having a brave, aggressive population, gradu- ally fought its way to the position of the ruling city in the Peloponnesus. CHAPTER XI SPARTA Rise of Sparta. — Of the three states founded by the Dorians in the Peloponnesus, namely, Sparta, Messenia, and Argos, Argos was the first to make herself supreme. During her ascendency Sparta and Messenia were fighting with each other, and the former state found it hard to hold her own ; for, owing to her bad system of government, she was weakened by mis- rule and anarchy. Finally, however, Sparta triumphed over both her rivals. This was due to a radical change in her form of government — to the establishment of a most peculiar sys- tem of laws and social customs. Lycurgus. — This system was ascribed by the Greeks to a Spartan sage named Lycur'gus, who lived about 800 B.C. Find- ing the country distracted by the feuds of kings and the law- lessness of the people, he proposed a new scheme of government. His object was to make Sparta a great military power. To accomplish this, he introduced a system of the strictest mili- tary discipline. It made no difference whether the state was at war or at peace, this discipline was never to be relaxed. At the same time stability was insured in the government by the introduction of new administrative officers with clearly defined powers. Not all the peculiar characteristics of the Spartan system were the work of Lycurgus, but enough was his to give him a just title to the credit of being its founder. Constitution of Sparta. — The Spartan state was under the joint government of two kings who were the absolute chiefs in time of war, the high priests of the people and the hereditary chief magistrates. As civil rulers, however, their authority was limited, for the government was rather aristocratic than monarchical. There was a Senate of elders who looked after public affairs, and the kings in times of peace merely had their votes among them like the rest. Then there was an Assembly 79 80 GENERAL HISTORY of the freemen, which coukl decide questions only when the Senate was divided. From this it is evident that the people did not have much voice in the government. At a later date there was created an official body of five magistrates called Ephors, Avho were selected by the Assembly of the freemen, and who became possessed of arbitrary power when the kings Avere away in time of war. As time went on, they acquired a superiority over the kings themselves. Two of them went with the king to war and thus always kept watch on his actions. Spartan Education. — A Spartan's whole life was passed in the service of the state, which viewed him as a mere instru- ment for maintaining the power of his race. The sole object The Kace Course at Sparta of his' education was to fit him for this purpose. The state had its eye on him from his birth. If he happened to be a weakly child, he was exposed on Mount Tay'getus to die. If he seemed worth keeping alive, his parents were allowed to bring him up; but when he reached the age of seven, he was taken from home and placed under state educators for training in the sort of exercises that would make him hardy and vigor- ous. He was obliged to go barefoot, to wear only a single SPARTA 81 garment at all seasons, to cook his own meals, and to sleep on a bed of rushes. Small and unappetizing portions of food were allowed, for the express purpose of leading him to hunt or to steal ; for the skill and strategy requisite for a successful theft were thought to be desirable accomplishments for a sol- dier, and punishment was not inflicted for the wrongfulness of thieving, but rather for the stupidity that permitted it to be found out. He was taught to endure the severest torture without showing signs of pain, and every one knows the old story of the Spartan boy who, having stolen a fox and con- cealed it under his shirt, permitted it to tear his flesh and kill him rather than betray the secret of the theft to his compan- ions. Constant gymnastic training and military exercises were required of him, and almost his only amusement was the annual festival in which he competed in music, dancing, and athletic contests with his fellows. Social Life and Character. — One of the most singular institu- tions of the Spartans was their system of public messes. Each mess was composed of fifteen men, who took their meals to- gether in public. Limited portions of food were allowed, each member contributing his share. Custom fixed not only the quantity but the quality of the food, which consisted chiefly of meal, cheese, figs, and a coarse kind of black broth. As soon as a young man reached the age of twenty, he left the training house for the barracks, and from that time was not exempt from the requirement to take his meals at the mess until he was sixty years old. Not even after marriage was he free from this duty. As to the military organization in the field, it surpassed that of any other Greek state. There were regular grades of offi- cers with definite commands, as in our modern armies. Mili- tary maneuvers were executed with remarkable rapidity and precision. Everything was done to make a Spartan delight in war. Some of the annoying restrictions of peace were relaxed and life was made more agreeable for him when he was under arms. 82 GENERAL HISTOKY The submission of a strong, high-spirited race to this galling interference of the state with what we regard as the most es- sential private rights seems very strange. It is in part ex- plained by the fact that the system of Lycurgus was applied to a rude, unlettered people, who had developed no taste except for war. To make them invincible warriors was its object, and in this it was successful. Success and the weight of tradition fastened it more firmly upon them. Its effects on the Spartan character were very important. A Greek writer said somewhat contemptuously of the Spartan soldiers that it was not surprising they met death so willingly in battle, since their lives were made so unpleasant for them. Their bravery was undeniable. It was a matter of course. The coward was the exception, and the scorn felt for him was universal. Even the appearance of cowardice was feared more than death, and men sometimes killed themselves rather than return home after a defeat. So far, then, as fighting qualities were concerned, the Spartans were the foremost of their time. In other respects, the}'' were on a much lower plane. They cared nothing for art or literature. The oratory which made Athens famous was despised by the Spartans, who looked upon what was beautiful or picturesque as wholly superfluous, and aimed above all at that brevity of speech which we still describe as laconic (from Laconia, the name of their country). If their training made them brave, it made them harsh and cruel too. They neither showed nor expected mercy. They were ungenerous and deceitful in dealing with their foes. In the most essential arts of civilized life they were very backward. Their aristocratic spirit forbade a citizen to labor with his hands. Commerce was forbidden, and the cultivation of the soil was left to slaves. Spartan money consisted solely of iron, which, from its bulk and weight, could suffice only for a very low order of industrial life. The women received much the same kind of training as the men, and shared the latter's courage and physical strength. In public affairs, they had greater influence and showed more SPARTA 83 ability than the women of the rest of Greece. On the other hand, they had something of the same hardness that dis- tinguished the men. They were neither gentle nor modest. So, on the whole, the Spartan training developed a fine, brave, but unlovely race, a race better fitted for conquering others than for civilizing itself. Early Spartan Conquests. — The effect of the reforms of Lycurgus was felt almost immediately. Within about fifty years of their adoption, Sparta conquered Laconia. Then fol- lowed two long wars with the Messenians. The first lasted from 743 to 723 b.c, and resulted in the defeat of the Messe- nians, in spite of the desperate resistance of their chief, Aris- tode'mus, who offered up his daughter as a sacrifice to the Messenian national god. The Messenians remained vassals of Sparta for many years, but suddenly, when Sparta was in the midst of a war with Argos, they broke out in revolt under the leadership of Aristom'enes. Many stories are told of the valor of this Messenian hero. He is said to have killed 300 Spartans with his own hand, and to have visited Sparta by night and placed a shield in the temple of Athe'ne as an insult to his enemies. At this time Sparta seemed on the point of destruction, for, besides the Messenians, she was fighting Argos and a league of Arcadian tribes. She was repeatedly beaten in the field, 'but held out stubbornly, encouraged, it is said, by the songs of the poet Tyrtae'us, who predicted ultimate victory. Finally the alliance against her was broken, and she was able to crush the Messenians (about 630 b.c). This time she made the inhabitants not vassals merely, but slaves. Argos was the next to suffer. Part of her land was taken from her, and thence- forth her power declined. Before the close of the sixth century B.C., Sparta had reduced all the states of the Peloponnesus except Argos to vassalage. Helots and Perioeci. — As the Spartan dominions grew in extent, the ruling race came to form a very small part of the population, the bulk of which consisted of slaves and vassals, Colby's gen. hist. — 6 84 GENERAL HISTORY the descendants of the conquered tribes. These subject peoples were divided into two classes, the Ferioe'ci and the He'lots. The Perioeci (meaning literally those ' dwelling around ') were merely required to pay a tribute and send a certain number of troops to the Spartan army. They retained their personal freedom. On the other hand, the condition of the Helots was almost unendurable. Tbey were the descendants of those tribes to which the conquerors, for some reason or other, had seen fit to mete out very harsh terms. Far more numerous than the ruling class, and coming from a race at one time free, they were nevertheless kept in the position of mere slaves, subject to every caprice of their conquerors. Naturally they were always ready for revolt, and the Spartans had constantly to be on their guard. It was this ever-present danger of an uprising of slaves that made the strict maintenance of mili- tary discipline especially needful among the Spartans. The latter followed successfully a policy of terrorism. A secret or- ganization is said to have existed for the purpose of spying on the Helots, and making away with such of them as seemed likely to stir up revolt. The Helots always remained a despised and degraded class despite their superior numbers. The Spartans even made them fight in their armies. The land was worked by the Helots, but owned by the Spartans, who lived in their barracks in the city and enjoyed the fruits of their serfs' labor. CHAPTER XII ATHENS The Athenian Monarchy. — Athens lagged far behind Sparta in its development. Down to the sixth century b.c. it was a comparatively unimportant state. During the early period of its history it was ruled by kings, the first of whom was Cecrops, a foreigner, probably a Phoenician, and the founder ATHENS 85 of the dynasty called Cecrop'idae. The lives of these riders fall within the Heroic Age, and accounts of them are merely legendary. The last of this line was The'sens, who was wor- shiped by the Athenians as their national hero and the real founder of the state. It was under the next dynasty that Athens came near falling under the power of the Dorians, who, having overrun the Pelo- ponnesus and the Isthmus of Corinth, invaded Attica and captured the city of Meg'ara. According to a legend, Codrus, who was king of Athens at the time, saved the city at the sacri- fice of his own life. There Avas a prophecy that Athens would not fall if her king should be killed by the enemy, and Codrus went alone into the Dorian camp and was slain. The invaders were repulsed and the memory of Codrus was ever afterwards held sacred by the Athenians. The kingship was now aboh ished, we are told, and thereafter the head of the state was the Archon, who was at first chosen for life from the family of Codrus ; but later the Archon was elected for ten years. The Athenian Oligarchy. — Before the close of the eighth century the government had become an oligarchy (government by a few), in which all power was confined to a few noble families called the Eupat'ridae. They alone had the right to sit in the Areop'agus or national council and to become archons. These latter officers were nine in number and chosen each year by the council, which retained complete control over them. The mass of the people who were not nobles had no political rights. Such a system is always liable to abuse, and in Athens it worked very badly. The nobles oppressed the people, and the state was torn by factions. There was always a large body of men whose wrongs made them ready to join conspiracies or follow the lead of demagogues. The city was governed less by law than by the caprice of the nobles, and the people could not tell what punishment was attached to an offense. This latter grievance finally became so intolerable that the nobles were forced to consent to the drawing up and publication of a 86 GENERAL HISTORY code of laws fixing definitely the penalties lur crimes. The work was intrusted to the archon Draco (621 b.c), who im- posed such cruel punishments for offenses that a later Athenian writer declared that his laws seemed to be written in blood. Solon. — The laws of Draco did not put an end to factional strife. There were frequent popular outbreaks, and the city was approaching a state of anarchy. The condition of the debtor class presented a serious problem. The poor tenants on the estates of the Eupatridae had fallen greatly into arrears with their rent, owing to several years of bad harvests, and by the laws of Draco were liable to be sold into slavery by their landlords. If this were done, it would reduce the entire lower class in Athens to the position of slaves ; and since that class was numerous, it seemed likely that it would break out in rebellion rather than submit. At this crisis an Athenian noble named Solon was chosen as a mediator. Solon had won the respect of all classes for his wisdom and for the courage and skill he had shown in a war with the neighboring city of Megara. Being a man of high character and patriotism, he did his best to bring aI)oat per- manent harmony between the different classes. First he came to the rescue of debtors by canceling all debts and making the land the property of those who had formerly worked in the capacity of mere serfs or villeins. He relaxed the severity of all the old laws of Draco; checked the arbitrary power which parents exerted over their children ; improved the coinage ; encouraged trade, and tried in every way to promote the prosperity of the city. Still more important were the changes which he made in the system of government. The Constitution of Solon. — In his governmental changes it was Solon's object to check tlie oppression of the nobles, while still leaving the power chiefly in their hands. He made wealth and not birth the qualification for holding office, divid- ing society into four classes according to the amount of landed property possessed by the citizens. The archons were to be chosen only from the first or richest class, while the fourth or ATHENS 87 poorest class was wholly excluded from office. As the nobles were apt to be rich, this plan still left them the ruling class, but their power was held in check by certain changes made in the forms of government. As a result of these changes the Athenian demos, or people, came to have a voice in public affairs, and a long step was taken in the direction of that democratic or popular form of government for which Athens was afterwards distinguished. The Tyrants. — The government of many of the Greek cities passed through the stage which they called a tyranny. Some ambitious man, finding the people ready to revolt against the aristocracy, would assume the leadership, overthrow the rulers, and with the consent of the people make himself the sole governor. He was called a tyrant, but the word was not used in the bad sense at present attaching to it ; it merely meant a man who had assumed absolute power. Oftentimes he governed wisely and well. For example, the tyrants of the city of Sicyon (070-570 B.C.) were frequently mild as well as able rulers. On the other hand, many of these arbitrary rulers were bitterly hated, like Periander of Corinth (625-585 b.c), who practiced the policy of killing or driving into exile any citizen whose wealth or popularity seemed too great. As everything de- pended on the personal character of the man who possessed this vast power, the time was sure to come when the office fell to the lot of a ruler too weak or too unpopular to keep it ; so tyrannies were never permanent. Tyranny in Athens. — Athens had its experience of tyranny in common with the other cities of Greece. Solon's reforms brought peace to the state for a little while, but soon the differ- ent factions fell to quarreling again. The old lawgiver lived long enough to see all his work undone and a tyranny estab- lished in place of his carefully planned constitution. When he died in 558 b.c, his own kinsman Pisis'tratus was ruling as tyrant of Athens. Pisistratus governed mildly and dealt so gently with his enemies that they were able to form a combination against him and drive him from the throne. This happened twice, and 88 GENERAL HISTORY after his second expulsion it was ten years before he regained his power. When restored to the throne for the third time, he governed more strictly, but still with wisdom and moderation. He kept Athens at peace with other states, and spent the public money on the improvement and adornment of the city. He made his court a gathering place for literary men from all parts of Greece. On his death in 527 b.c. he was succeeded by his sons Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, who at first governed well. Hipparchus, however, soon got into trouble. Having a private grudge against a citizen named Harmo'dius, he publicly insulted the latter's sister. Harmodius with his intimate friend Aristo- gi'ton determined to kill both tyrants. They formed a con- spiracy and planned to carry out their purpose on the occasion of a public festival. They succeeded in killing only Hippar- chus. Harmodius was cut down at once by the guards and Aristogiton was put to death with torture soon afterwards by the surviving tyrant. Hippias now became cruel and suspicious, and his rule was so harsh that in 511 e.g. he was driven out by the aid of the Spartans, and the republic was restored. Thus the Athenian tyranny came to an end and the credit for its overthrow was given to Harmodius and Aristogiton, who, although their deed was merely an act of private revenge, were long regarded as the patriotic restorers of the city's liberty. The Reforms of Clisthenes. — After the expulsion of the tyrants, the aristocratic and popular parties fell to fighting for the control of affairs. The leader of the popular or democratic party was Clis'thenes, who, being a man of singular ability, not only succeeded in suppressing the aristocrats, but effected changes in the constitution of Athens which proved to be of the utmost importance. He really transformed the state into a pure democracy. He admitted all the free inhabitants of Attica to citizenship. Both the Senate or Boule {Boo'lay) and the Popular Assembly or Eccle'sia were increased in numbers, but the latter was increased in power as well. It not only ATHENS 89 received foreign ambassadors, decided questions relating to foreign affairs, and required magistrates to give an account of their conduct while in office, but it could pass new laws and change the constitution, and exercise full authority in matters of taxation and revenue. Any citizen could rise and address the assembly, a right which was freely exercised and perhaps accounts for that almost universal taste for oratory which characterized the Athenian people. Ostracism. — A peculiar feature of the constitution estab- lished by Clisthenes was the right of ostracism, that is, of banishing any citizen whose presence in the city seemed likely to cause a political disturbance or interfere with good govern- ment. A special meeting was held, and if 6000 votes were cast for expulsion, the citizen voted against was obliged to go into exile for ten years. The term ' ostracism ' is derived from the Greek word os'trakon, a shell, the votes being written upon shells and placed in the ballot box. The resort to it was merely a matter of political expedienc}^ and did not necessarily imply that the person against whom it was used had done any- thing deserving of punishment. Men of excellent character were sometimes banished in this way, but their property was not confiscated, and when they returned they were restored to all their rights. Party strife was the bane of Athenian politi- cal life, and it sometimes happened that a party leader, how- ever honest and worthy he might be personally, was a source of danger to the state. But after all it was a severe measure and liable to fail in its object. By the close of the fifth cen- tury B.C. it had fallen into disuse. Effects of the Reforms of Clisthenes. — By this constitution the body of free citizens gained the real control of affairs, and Athens became the most democratic city of Greece. The cen- tury that followed the introduction of these reforms in 508 was the most flourishing period in Athenian history. This may not have been wholly due to the changes in the government, but it is probable that they aroused the patriotism and civic pi'ide of the people, and it is certain that in commerce, in war, 90 GENERAL HISTORY literature, and art Athens began almost at once to show surpris- ing energy and in a few years held the foremost place among Greek cities. In less than twenty years from the adoption of the constitution of Clisthenes, she stood forth as the cham- pion of Greece against the Persians and won the great battle of Mar'athon. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Periods of Greek History : (1) From the Earliest Times to about 500 B.C., the Period of Early Development. (2) From 500 b.c. to 338 B.C., the Flourishing Period. (3) From 338 b.c to 146 b.c, the Period of Decline. — The Migrations : The Dorian Conquest. Greek Colonies in Asia Minor, — Aeolian, Ionian, Dorian. Sparta Sparta and her Neighbors. — The System of Lycurgus : Its Objects. — The Spartan Constitution : Kings. Senate. Assembly. Ephors. — Spartan Education. — Social Life and Character : The Public Mess. The Army. The Effect of Spartan Training. Racial Traits. — Spar- tan Conquests : Defeat of the Messenians. Spartan Supremacy in the Peloponnesus. Helots and Perioeci. Athens The Athenian Monarchy. — The Athenian Oligarchy : Abuse of Power by the Nobles. The Laws of Draco. — The Constitution of Solon : Society classified according to Wealth. Boule. Areopagus. Ec- clesia. — The Tyrants : Pisistratus, Hippias, and Hipparchus. — Over- throw of the Tyranny. — Reforms of Clisthenes : Athens a pure Democracy. The Ecclesia. — Ostracism : Its Purpose. — P]ffects of the Reforms of Clisthenes. CHAPTER XIII THE SECOND PERIOD: THE FLOURISHING ERA The Persian Wars The Greeks in Asia Minor. — Before the close of the sixth century b.c. the Persian Empire was firmly established in Asia Minor. The Greek colonists there had first fallen under the THE FLOURISHING ERA 91 dominion of Lydia, and when that state was merged in the Per- sian Empire as a result of the conquests of Cyrus the Great, the Greeks became dependents of the Persian monarch. Darius organized the administration in a very efficient manner, divid- ing the country into provinces or satrapies, the governors of which were wholly under his control. The Greek cities found the rule of these governors oppressive. Moreover, one of the chief characteristics of the Greeks was a disposition to resent interference with their local affairs. Each city wished to gov- ern itself, and this local patriotism was so strong that Greece always remained a collection of independent cities or states. Only the consciousness of common danger could draw them into a union in which the interests of the individual communities were subordinated to the welfare of the whole league. Revolt of the Ionian Cities. — Such a common danger was threatening the Ionian cities in Asia Minor in the reign of Darius. In 500 b.c. they broke out in revolt. Knowing that unaided they were no match for the vast armies of Persia, they appealed to their kinsmen in Greece proper. Sparta refused to aid them ; Athens sent a small fleet to their assistance. With these allies the colonists attacked and burned the city of Sardis in Lydia; but after this the Athenians gave no more aid. Darius, enraged at the burning of Sardis, carried on the war with vigor, and in 495 b.c. cap- tured and destroyed Mile'tus, the chief city of the rebels. This ended the revolt. Its failure was due chiefly to the local selfishness of the Greek communities, which were always slow to act in a common cause, each being intent on its own advan- tage and regardless of others if its own affairs Avere going well. Invasion of Greece. — Having taught the Greeks of Asia Minor the folly of revolt, Darius determined to bring their kinsmen in Greece to the same condition of dependence. He sent an expedition under his general Mardo'nius, but the fleet was wrecked on the rocky coast of Mt. Ath'os and the land forces were checked by the savage tribes of the north. Noth- ing daunted, he resolved on another expedition against Greece. 92 GENERAL HISTORY He was especially angry at the insolence of Athens in having sent aid to his rebellions subjects in Asia Minor, but he now gave her, as well as the other cities of Greece, the chance of peaceful submission. In accordance with the Persian custom he sent heralds to all the cities, demanding the gift of earth and water in token of their complete submission to the authority of the great king. The heralds were received in a way to make him still more angry. The Athenians threw one of them into a pit and told him to take earth from there, and in Sparta the de- mand for water was answered by hurling the herald into a well. No pains were spared to make the second expedition success- ful. A year and a half was silent in preparations, and the army is said to have numbered 310,000 and the fleet to have contained GOO galleys. Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). — The plain of Marathon, about six miles long and two wide, lies on the shore of the bay of the same name and is shut off from the interior of Attica by the foothills of Mount Pentel'icus. In this bay a large number of the Persian ships were anchored while their army was encamped near the shore. Against this great force the Athenians were able to muster about 10,000 heavy- armed soldiers ; for of all the cities of Greece the little town of Platae'a alone sent them aid. Sparta, being in the midst of a religious festival, refused to act till five days had passed, and her troops arrived too late for the battle. The Persian and Athenian forces faced each other for several days, the latter occupying the slopes of the hills. Finally Milti'ades, the leader of the Athenians, sounded the advance. His troops, running down the slope to the Persian lines, struck them with such force that they were almost immediately thrown into confusion. It was an easy victory for the Athenians, who lost less than 200 heavy-armed soldiers, while the Persians lost 6400 and left seven of their ships in the hands of the con- querors. The rest of the Persian army escaped in the fleet. In the meanwhile traitors had been busy at Athens, and at this moment they signaled the Persians that the city lay open THE FLOURISHING ERA 93 to attack. Miltiades, however, saw the signal and, guessing what it meant, hurried off his army to Athens ; and by the time the Persians came, he was there with his army, ready for another battle. Completely disheartened, the Persians dared not land. They gave up their expedition and returned to Asia. Effects of the Victory. — Thus in the year 490 b.c. the Athenians had shown their ability to defend the cause of Greek independence against the greatest power in the world. The battle of Marathon was not remarkable in point of general- ship or of the numbers slain. Its importance is in its moral effects. The victory came as a surprise to both Greeks and Persians. Hitherto the Persians had seemed invincible, and for the Greeks they had the utmost contempt. The latter had gone into the battle as a forlorn hope. They came out of it with the consciousness of not only having beaten their enemy, but of having beaten him against tremendous odds. Miltiades. — The chief credit of it all belongs to Miltiades. But for his courage, the Athenians would have shut themselves up in their city and stood a siege ; and it was the stimulus of his heroism that nerved his little army to the victory of Marathon. And the people of Athens fully appreciated what he had done. No man was more popular in the city and none had more honors bestowed upon him. His greatness, however, was of the sort that only great crises call forth. When peace returned, he showed himself selfish and even dishonorable. Securing an armament from the city under false representations, he used it to gratify a private grudge against the people of Paros. He laid siege to their capi- tal, was unsuccessful, and returned in disgrace. He was put on trial, convicted, and fined, but died a few days afterwards. Darius. — Darius, the Persian king, survived the defeat of his great army only about four years. Had he lived longer, he Miltiades 94 GENERAL HISTORY would have renewed the war ; for his determination to destroy Athens was only strengthened by reverses. As it was, he left the execution of this i^olicy to his successor, Xerxes. It was a lucky thing for the Greeks that it happened so ; ^ for Xerxes and his successors were men far inferior in ability to the old king. They were mere despots, while Darius was a far-sighted and skillful statesman. The Years 490-480 B.C. — It was ten years before the Per- sians renewed their attacks, and in the meanwhile Athens had another war on her hands — one of those profitless conflicts between neighboring states that occurred too often in Grecian history. This time it was the inhabitants of the island of Aegi'na that the Athenians were fighting. The war is impor- tant from its effect on the naval policy of Athens. The strong fleet of the Aegine'tans enabled them to hold out against Athens for several years, till finally the Athenians became exasperated and determined to build a navy that should crush their enemy once and for all. This policy was urged by Themis'tocles, but there was a strong party, headed by Aris- ti'des, who opposed it, partly on the score of expense, but more especially because they thought that the strength of the state should be in its land forces, and because they feared that a powerful navy would tempt to foreign conquest and lead to endless wars. Party spirit ran high, and at last the people had recourse to the expedient of ostracism. Aristides was ostracized and Themistocles had things his own way. Two hundred new vessels were built. As it turned out, this was fortunate. Already the rumor of a new invasion by the Persians had been brought to Greece. The Preparations of Xerxes. — The work begun by Darius was continued by his successor Xerxes, but the latter deter- mined that this time he would make failure impossible by raising such an army as the world had never seen. In this he succeeded. All the nations subject to the vast Persian Empire sent troops, and it was probably the most motley throng ever gathered under a single leader. According to some accounts, THE FLOURISHING ERA 95 it numbered 5,000,000, and the lowest estimates place it at 800,000, a figure probably nearer the truth. And the fleet was equally formidable. It is said to have comprised 1200 war vessels. To facilitate the march of the army into Greece, Xerxes had a bridge of boats built across the Hellespont, and to avoid the risk of damage to his fleet in rounding the head- land of Mount Athos, he had a canal cut through the isthmus that connected the promontory with the mainland. These things done, the army and fleet advanced on Greece. The Defense of Thermopylae (480 B.C.). — The Pass of Ther- mop'ylae is a narrow strip of land lying between the Malian Gulf and one of the offshoots of Mount Oeta. Two miles across in some places, it contracts to a width of a few yards about midway. It was at this narrow point that the Greeks decided to take their stand against the Persian army. Yet only a small force was sent to defend the pass. Leon 'i das, the Spartan king, at the head of 300 Spartans, with their Helots, 700 Thespians, and other allies, amounting in all to about 10,000 men, undertook to block the path of the Persians. With a part of his forces he encamped in the pass ; the rest he stationed on a height several miles inland to guard a path which led to the rear of his position. Xerxes, despising the small force that he learned was hold- ing the pass, sent a messenger to command them to give up their arms. " Come and take them," was Leonidas' reply. The king waited a while to give the Greeks a chance to come to their senses, and then sent a body of his troops with orders to capture them and bring them before him. To his great chagrin, this body was beaten back with loss. He next called out the famous ' Immortals,' a chosen band of 10,000, the finest troops in the Persian army, but in fighting at close quarters in the narrow pass they fared no better than the others. For two whole days the Persians tried in vain to break through the Greek line. The check was complete ; the whole Persian army came to a standstill. At this crisis a Greek traitor told the king: of the round- ^ 96 GENERAL HISTORY about path over the mountains and, in return for money, offered to guide the Persian army to a point in the pass behind the army of Leonidas. The offer was accepted, and a ' Persian force passing over the mountains dislodged the Greek guards stationed there and suddenly appeared in the rear of the force in the pass. The latter were thus hemmed in by vastly superior forces. Their cause was hopeless ; but Leonidas was a Spartan and took the Spartan view of military duty. He allowed his allies to retire, but the 700 Thespians chose to remain. In the death struggle of this little band hundreds of Persians were killed, and even after Leonidas had fallen and only a few of his followers were left, the Per- sians did not dare to fight hand to hand. They stood at a dis- tance and showered the Greeks with arrows till all were killed. Though one of the most famous battles in history, the de- fense of Thermopylae was not important in its immediate effects. The Greeks did not hear at first how a handful of their countrymen had held the whole Persian army in check. They knew merely that a Greek force had been cut to pieces in the pass. And the loss to the Persians, though heavy, did not amount to much for so large an army. The chief result of Thermopylae was to give the Persians a very exalted idea of Greek valor. Xerxes judged the other Greeks by those who had held his army at bay in the pass. Thenceforth the Per- sians never showed the same confidence in fighting them. They thought they were all like Leonidas — a far too favor- able estimate, and one that proved of much profit to the Greeks. The Battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). — The Persian and Greek fleets met first off Cape Artemis'ium, where several inde- cisive battles were fought; but when the news came that the Persians had gained the Pass of Thermopylae, the Greek fleet' was obliged to retreat. Still, there was some encouragement in the fact that the enemy had lost heavily by storm. It now seemed hopeless to the Greeks to check the advance of the land forces of the Persians, and it was decided to abandon THE FLOURISHING ERA 97 Athens and stake everything on a naval battle. Superstition pointed to this course ; for the oracle of Delphi had declared that the only safety to the Athenians lay in their '^wooden walls," which the ingenious Themistocles construed as mean- ing their ships. So when the Persians reached Athens, they found the city deserted by all save a few desperate citi- zens. They captured the city without difficulty, and burnt it down in plain sight of the Greek fleet which was lying near by in the narrow waters between the island of Sal 'amis and the Attic coast. Themistocles, the admiral of the Athenian fleet, was bent on awaiting the Persian fleet and bringing on a battle at this point. The Peloponnesian admirals wanted to retreat westward and take their stand at the Isthmus of Corinth, leaving central Greece to its fate. Themistocles succeeded by a stratagem. He sent word secretly to Xerxes that the Greek fleet was preparing to retreat, and that if the king wanted to capture it, he must send ships to both entrances of the bay. Accordingly, on the next day the Greeks found themselves surrounded, and a battle was unavoidable. Despite the loss through shipwreck, the Persian fleet num- bered about 1000 ships, while the Greek contained only 380 ; but in seamanship and courage the Greeks were far superior. Xerxes, sitting on the rocky height looking over the bay, saw the whole combat. The issue was doubtful at first. Each side fought bravely. After a while it was seen that the Persians suffered the heavier losses. They began to lose courage, and as the panic grew they fell into confusion and suffered rather than gained by their excess of numbers ; for their ships became huddled together and impeded action. The Persian admiral, a brother of Xerxes, was killed while trying to board an Athenian vessel, and about nightfall the Persian ships began to fall back. By the close of the day the Persians had lost 200 ships and the Greeks 40, and though the former still remained superior in numbers, they had become completely demoralized. The Persian fleet was soon hastening back to Asia. 98 GENERAL HISTORY The Battles of Plataea and Mycale (479 B.C.). — Xerxes appar- ently lost all hope after the battle of Salamis. He returned to Asia, but left 300,000 of his best troops under his general Mardonius to winter in Thessaly and complete the subjugation of Greece in the following spring. By that time, however, the Greeks had gathered an army 100,000 strong and were ready to meet him. The battle took place at Plataea. It was a strange, irregular figlit, in which the Greeks owed their victory to their heavy armor and better fighting qualities, rather than to superior generalship. Losing only about 1300 of their own troops, they almost totally destroyed the Persian army. On the same day the Greeks won a naval battle off Myc'ale, on the coast of Asia Minor. The effects of the battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale were decisive. Salamis demonstrated the naval superiority of the Greeks, and sent the king, the fleet, and the larger part of the Persian army in full retreat. Plataea was followed immediately by the submission of all the allies of the Persians throughout Greece ; and Mycale secured at once the independ- ence of the Ionian subjects of the Persian king, for all the islands and many of the Greek cities of Asia Minor at once asserted their freedom. Thus the king had not only failed to subdue Greece, but actually lost a large part of one of his own provinces. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Second Period. — The Greeks in Asia Minor : Oppression by the Persian Rulers. Mutual Jealousy of the Greek Cities. — The Revolt of 500 b.c. : Its Suppression. The Demands of Darius. — The Persian Invasion.—^ The Athenian Victory of Marathon, 490, b.c. — Effects of the Victory. — Miltiades. — Darius. — The Years 490-480 b.c. : The Strengthening of the Athenian Navy. Themistocles. — Preparations of Xerxes : Size of the Persian Army and Fleet. — Defense of Thermopylae, 480 b.c. : Leonidas and the Spartans. The Greeks betrayed. Their Defeat. Their Heroism. — Battle of Salamis, 480 b.c: The Stratagem of Themistocles. The Defeat of the Persians. — Battles of Plataea and Mycale, 479 b.c. : Effects of the Greek Victories. CHAPTER XIV ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER Themistocles. — Without the Athenian navy, these successes against the Persians would have been impossible. Themis- tocles had done more than any one else to make Athens a great naval power, and it was he, too, who had the wisdom and the courage to force a battle at the right time. The main credit for the result of the war belonged to him, but he was not long allowed to enjoy his honors. His success made him many enemies and rivals, and what was worse, his own faults gave color to their accusations against him. He was an open taker of bribes. His old foe Aristides, who had returned to Athens and regained the popular confidence, taunted him with not having " clean hands." The people became disgusted with his corrupt practices and tired of hearing him boast of the services that he had rendered. Again recourse was had to ostracism, and this time Themistocles was the victim. He left Athens, and later falling under suspicion of treason became so generally hated that he had to leave Greece. He fled to the Persian country, where he was received with favor and made the governor of a province. Here he remained till his death, about 460 b.c. By some it was believed that he committed suicide. His career proves him to have been possessed of remarkable politi- cal sagacity and strength of will ; but the means which he employed to gain his ends were often unscrupulous, and his motives were selfish. He aimed to make himself the greatest man in Greece, but his success was transitory. The Naval Power of Athens. — After the fall of his rival, Aristides was for several years the m^ost influential man at Athens; but he no longer opposed the building of a strong navy. In fact, it was he who, by bringing about the important Confederacy of Delos, led to the establishment of the mari- time empire of Athens. This confederacy arose from a tem- porary alliance of Athens with the Ionian cities to carry on Colby's GEN. HIST, — 7 99 100 GENERAL HISTORY the war until all Greeks, whether in Greece proper or in Asia Minor, were free from the domination of the Persians. The Spartans, too, sent a contingent of ships ; and the Spartan general Pausanias, who had commanded at Plataea, was at lirst the admiral of the allied fleet; but his insolence and treachery led to a mutiny, and the fleet chose as its com- manders the Athenian admirals Aristides and Cimon. This was just after the fleet had captured Byzan'tium (Constantinople), a Greek city which held out for the Persians. The Spartans iV «M Hcrll M The Piraeus on Hahbok of Atiii;.n> now withdrew their ships, but Aristides concluded treaties with the Ionian cities for the joint prosecution of the war. Under Athenian leadership the war continued till its object was realized and the Greeks of Asia Minor had gained their freedom. The Confederacy of Delos had been formed to accomplish this one thing. Nevertheless, the Confederacy continued in force, Athens refusing to let its members withdraw. She became in reality the head of a league, and received money from the other members. Her naval power was greatly strengthened, and under the leadership of her able commander Cimon she won many victories and made herself the greatest maritime state of Greece. ATHEXS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER 101 Pericles and Cimon. — Cimon inclined toward the aristo- cratic or conservative party and favored a policy of friend- liness toward Sparta. Per'icles, though he belonged to an old and wealthy family, was a champion of the democracy. Act- ing on the advice of Cimon, the Athenians sent a force to aid Sparta in putting down a revolt of the Messenians and Helots ; but it accomplished nothing and was treated by the Spartans with marked discourtesy. This brought Cimon into disfavor and he was banished (461 b.c.) ; but his banishment did not last long, for the Athenians were • defeated by the Spaitans in the battle of Tan'agra (457 b.c), and, thinking it wise to forget all party differences in the presence of danger, they recalled Cimon. For several years Athens was involved in wars, which, though marked by occasional successes, did not result in any great gain. Athens in the Time of Pericles Cimon died in 449 e.g., and thenceforth, for many years, Pericles controlled the affairs of the city. For a short time he directed the campaigns against the neighboring states with which x\thens was at war ; but he soon saw that permanent conquests in Greece were impossible and his policy was 102 GENERAL HISTORY mainly one of peace. He concluded the so-called Thirty Years' Peace with Sparta in 445 b.c. It was not destined to last for more than fourteen years, but this was a sufficient interval to enable Pericles to introduce many reforms and greatly to improve the city. This i^eriod marks the highest point of the prosperity of Athens, as well as the acme of the power of the great statesman whose name has been applied to this epoch in Athenian history. The Age of Pericles. — The interval of about fifty years be- tween the close of the Persian and the beginning of the Pelo- ponnesian war has been called the Age of Pericles, — a somewhat misleading term, as Pericles was at the head of Athenian affairs for only twenty years (449-429 b.c). But he was the most brilliant statesman that Athens produced during that period, and his work is so closely identified with the greatness of the city that it is not strange that his name has been given to the period. Pericles -'• Soon after the battle of Salamis, Athens reached the height of her power. She aspired to be the ruling state of northern and central Greece, just as Sparta was the leading state of the Peloi)onnesus ; but her conquests by land did not prove enduring, and it was chiefly as a sea power that she possessed strength. She had the greatest maritime empire of all Greece. During the fourteen years of peace that pre- ceded the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, Pericles intro- duced many democratic reforms into the constitution. Some of these were of doubtful value. While they educated the great body of the citizens in political matters, so that it was said that the humblest Athenian was fit to hold office, they led to confusion, vacillation, and other evils which became apparent after the great influence of Pericles was withdrawn. It was during this period that the Par'thenon and several other of the finest structures on the Acropolis were built — ATHENS AT THE HEIGHT OF HER POWER 103 buildings which are still models of architectural beauty. The frieze running around the outside of the Parthenon and con- taining a vast number of sculptured figures representing a Interior of the Parthenon religious procession was the work of Phid'ias, the most re- nowned sculptor of ancient Greece. Athens was the resort of learned and talented men from the whole Hellenic world. This was the age. of the tragic masterpieces of Aes'chylus, Soph'o- cles, and Eurip'ides, and of the comedies of Aristoph'anes. 104 GENERAL HISTORY The period marks not only the highest point of Athenian powei', but the climax of Greek art. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Athens at the Height of her Power. — Themistocles : His Loss of I'opularity. Banishment. — The Naval Power of Athens : The Con- federacy of Delos. Athens the Head of the League. — Pericles and Cimon : Rival Parties. Banishment of Cimon. His Recall and Death. Pericles in Control, 449 b.c. — The Age of Pericles: Great Power of Athens. Democratic Reforms. Architecture, Literature, and Art. CHAPTER XV THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR Causes of the War. — The real cause of the Peloponnesian War was the jealousy felt by the other Greek states at the leadership of Athens. In time of danger the Greek cities might forget their local differences, but with the return of peace, all the old love of independence asserted itself. Athens retained the supremacy which she had gained for herself during the Persian Avars. She remained the head of the Delian Con- federacy and applied the contributions of members to her own uses. Many of the fine sculptures and buildings with which Peri- cles adorned the city were paid for out of these common funds. There was another thing which raised up enemies for Athens. She stood for the democratic principle. Not only was her own constitution thoroughly democratic, but her influence was always exerted in favor of the democratic party in other states. Sparta, on the other hand, was as invariably the champion of THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 105 the opposite principle. It was natural that the oligarchical or aristocratic cities should look to Sparta for protection, while the democratic communities ranged themselves under the lead- ership of Athens. The occasion of the war was the aid rendered by Athens to Corey 'ra in a conflict between the latter and Corinth, of which Corcyra was a colony. Corinth appealed to Sparta for aid. This was granted, and Athens soon found herself opposed by a formklable league of Greek states with Sparta at the head. In 431 B.C. hostilities began. The First Ten Years, 431-421 B.C. — The strength of Athens lay in her fleet ; that of her enemies in their land forces. Dur- ing the first period of the war the contestants were fairly well matched, but Athens suffered from a deadly visitation of the plague, which carried off thousands of her citizens and among them Pericles (429 b.c). The death of Pericles deprived the city of the only man who was fit to direct her affairs. New leaders arose, but they lacked his influence and ability and could not repress party strife. Cleon was the leader of the democracy and Nic'ias of the more conservative party. The former won a victory at the island of Sphacte'ria, which he took by storm, cap- turing some 300 Spartans, but he was defeated soon after- wards in a battle at Amphip'olis. This and other calamities gave the aristocratic party the control of affairs, and its leader Nicias concluded a truce with Sparta. The truce of Nicias (421 b.c.) was to last fifty years, and both parties agreed to restore their conquests and prisoners. Thus all these years of fighting, with its waste of life and treasure, had brought little advantage to either side. To the Athenians it should have proved the wisdom of a policy of self-defense. This was the policy which Pericles had favored, but as later events will show, they departed from it with disastrous results. These years had also shown that Athens would do well to con- fine herself exclusively to naval warfare. Her land expedi- tions were almost always failures. 106 GENERAL HISTORY The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 B.C.). — In spite of the truce of Nicias, there was no real interval of peace ; for though the truce was partially observed for a period of seven years, Athens and Sparta were continually trying to injure each other. Athens joined an alliance of Peloponnesian states against Sparta in 419 b.c, and in the battle of Mantine'a in the follow- ing year the Spartans gained a victory over the army of the allies, which included a contingent of several hundred Athenian troops. At this time one of the political leaders in Athens was the young Alcibi'ades, a man of unusual talents, but selfish and unscrupulous. Believing that he had more to gain from war than from peace, he did all he could to bring about a re- newal of the conflict. It was largely his influence which induced the Athenians to undertake the ill-fated Sicilian expe- dition for the purpose of conquering Syracuse, and, if success- ful, of asserting supremacy over all Sicily. This was certain to stir the jealousy of Sparta and cause a renewal of the war. Moreover, Athens had not recovered from the effects of the previous years of fighting, and could ill afford this drain upon her resources. It was one of the largest expeditions that ever set out from a Greek city, comprising 134 vessels and a considerable land force. The three generals in command were Alcibi- ades, Nicias, and Lam'achus, but Alcibiades was soon recalled on a charge of impiety. Alcibiades Fearing to facc his accuscrs, he went to Sparta and did what he could to injure his native city. Nicias, who had long opposed the expedition, car- ried it out in a dilatory and unskillful way. Although rein- forced by a considerable body of men under the brave and skillful general Demos 'thenes, the Athenians were wholly unsuccessful. They were beaten in a sea fight in the harbor of Syracuse, driven ashore, and obliged to burn such of their THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 107 vessels as had not been sunk or captured. Then followed a desperate attempt to retreat by land through the enemy's country. The whole force was cut to pieces or captured, and the generals were taken prisoners and killed. This was the worst disaster that had ever befallen Athens. The Close of the War. — Before the close of the Sicilian expedition, the war had broken out again in Greece ; for the Spartans had sent aid to Syracuse and contributed to the de- feat of the Athenians there. In revenge Athens sent a fleet to ravage the Laconian coast (414 b.c), but the city was weakened by the strife of factions. Alcibiades was recalled, and for a time Athens Avas victorious on sea; but Lysan'der, the Spartan admiral, won a battle, and Alcibiades, who had not been pres- ent at the engagement, fell into disfavor and was deposed from his command. Another victory which Lysander gained at Aegospotami (405 b.c.) decided the war. He took by sur- prise a large force of Athenian soldiers and sailors, killing many and taking 3000 prisoners. The aristocratic party in Athens was favorable to Sparta and in the following year, 404 B.C., the city surrendered. This was the end of the Peloponnesian War. It reduced Athens to the rank of a second-rate power and completely destroyed her maritime strength. All that remained of her navy was a fleet of twelve ships which she retained by permis- sion of her conquerors. She was given up to the rule of the aristocratic party, and for some time was governed by the so- called '■ Thirty Tyrants,' who allowed a Spartan garrison to occupy the citadel and drove from the city all who opposed their plans. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Peloponnesian War. — Causes : Jealousy of Athenian Power. Athens the Champion of Democracy. The Difficulty with Corcyra. — The First Ten Years: Death of Pericles, 429 n.c. Cleon and Nicias. The Truce of Nicias, 421 b.c. — The Sicilian Expedition. — Close of the War : The Spartan Victory at Aegospotami, 405 b.c. Effects of the War. CHAPTER XVI THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — The downfall of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens was accompanied by civil strife and the city was given over to anarchy ; but the democratic party finally triumphed and peace was restored. Athens did not regain her former supremacy. The leadership in Greece had passed over to Sparta. But Athens was still the center of art and learning, and among her citizens were the foremost men of Greece. The greatest of these was Socrates, the wisest of philosophers and the best of men. His teachings and conversation as recorded in the writings of his pupils show the highest moral purpose reinforced by the keenest logic ; but his fearless attacks on evil doers made him many enemies. He was brought to trial on a trumped-up charge of corrupting the youth of Athens, and condemned to take poison (399 b.c). His pupil Xenophon was famous as an author and as a general. His Anabasis is a graphic account of an expedition of the Greeks against the Persian king Artaxerxes. Cyrus the Younger, the brother of Artaxer'xes, revolted against him and called in the aid of 10,000 Greek mercenaries. With these allies he gained a complete victory at Cunax'a, in the very heart of the Persian country, but lost his life in the battle. After his death the Persian troops in his army went over to Artaxerxes, and the Greeks were left to find their way home as best they might. Their generals were tricked into an interview with the Persian leaders and all murdered; but the Greeks chose as their new general Xenoj)hon, who had accompanied the expedition as a private soldier, and under his able leadership they at last found their way through a hostile country and amid the greatest hard- ships to the seacoast. Xenophon's account of the upward journey and the retreat is one of the masterpieces of historical 108 THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN SUPREMACY 109 Sparta. — The period of Sparta's supremacy was brief and troubled. It lasted from the close of the Peloponnesian War in 404 B.C. to the defeat of the Spartans at Leuctra in 371 b.c. Within five years from the victory at Aegospotami Sparta was involved in a war with the Persians, who were trying to bring the Greek cities of Asia Minor again under their rule. Under their king Agesila'us, the Spartans w^ere victorious in Asia Minor, and at one time seemed on the point of ovei'throw- ing the Persian Empire; but the Persian king saved his throne by stirring up jealousy among the states of Greece, and Sparta soon had her hands full in dealing with her enemies at home. The Thebans, aided by the Corinthians and Argives, made war upon her. Athens, too, joined the allies, and the supremacy of Sparta was seriously threatened in spite of her victories on land. Athens gained a naval victory at Cnidus and strength- ened herself by an alliance Avith the Persian king, but at last, in 387 B.C., Sparta made peace with Persia, giving up to the latter all the Greek cities of Asia Minor. By these means she secured the friendship of the Persian king and reestablished her power in Greece; but by surrendering the Asiatic Greeks to Persian tyranny, she forfeited all claim to respect as a champion of Grecian 'liberty against Oriental despotism. Thebes. — Sparta abused her power in Greece. It has been said before that the weight of her influence was always thrown on the side of the oligarchical or aristocratic party in the other Greek cities. Acting on this policy, she interfered in the affairs of Thebes and in concert with the aristocratic party there seized the citadel and set up a tyranny. The Thebans suffered this oppression for three years, then formed a conspiracy, assassinated the tyrants, and drove out the Spartans (379 b.c). The leaders in the movement for Theban independence were the two friends Pelop'idas and Epaminon'das, both brave men and ardent patriots. Epaminondas especially deserves his title to renown for his high and unselfish char- acter, and his ability both as a general and a statesman. He has been compared to our own Washington. Under these two 110 GENERAL HISTORY leaders Thebes entered on a long war with Sparta, in the course of which her soldiers showed the utmost valor and steadfastness. It was closed by the decisive battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.), in which Epaminondas won a complete, victory over the Spartans. Sparta now fell from her supreme position in Greece, and Thebes took her place. For nine years Thebes remained the foremost city of Greece, but she owed her power to the statesmanlike qualities of her great liberator, Epaminondas. In 362 B.C. he fought another battle with the Spartans at Mantinea, but fell at the moment of victory. After this the power of Thebes declined. Results of the Wars. — Peace was now restored, but it was the result of exhaustion rather than of genuine reconciliation. Jealousies and bickerings continued between the cities. It was a time of weakness and disunion, and the way was open for the rise of a new power which should hold the rival com- munities in subjection to a common tyranny. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Spartan and Theban Supremacy. — Retreat of the Ten Thousand : The Leadership in Greece passes over to Sparta. Athens still the Center of Learning. Socrates. Xenophon. The Expedition of Cyrus. Re- > turn of the Greeks. — Sparta : The Supremacy of Sparta. Her Wars. Her Alliance with Persia. — Thebes : Spartan Tyranny in Thebes. The Theban Patriots, Epaminondas and Pelopidas. The Theban Victories of Leuctra (371 n.c.) and Mantinea (362 b.c). Decline of Theban Power. — Results of the Wars. CHAPTER XVII THE THIRD PERIOD : THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY The Macedonians. — The most flourishing period of Greek history was the time of local independence, when each city was free to manage its own affairs in its own way. Unfor- THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 111 timately, the cities fell to fighting among themselves and became so weak as a result of the continued conflicts that they could not ward off attacks from without. To the north of Greece proper lay the country of the Macedonians, a semi- barbarous but hardy and warlike people, whose king, Philip, saw that the time had come for extending his power over his kinsmen in the south and building up an empire of which his kingdom should be the head. He began by interfering in the disputes between t'he Greek states, and by a free use of money bought the friendship of many who had opposed his designs. He provided himself with a well-drilled standing army and conquered the western part of Thrace. He next waged a war on behalf of the sacred temple at Delphi, and being successful in this, posed as a religious champion of the Greeks. The way lay open to leader- ship in Greece, but in the Athenian orator Demosthenes he found a vigorous opponent of his schemes. Demosthenes. — Seeing clearly that Philip was aiming at the subjugation of Athens along with the other cities of Greece, Demosthenes determined to oppose him. Some of the speeches of Demosthenes have come down to us and show his remarka- ble talent for persuasive speaking. He is placed among the foremost orators of ancient and modern times. All the powers of his oratory were directed against Philip in a series of famous speeches called the Philippics, with the design of expos- ing the Macedonian schemes and uniting all Greece in resisting them. At first they were all in vain. The Greek states would not unite because they Avere corrupted by Macedonian gold. Nevertheless, Demosthenes finally formed an alliance against Philip between Athens and Thebes, and these two cities sent troops against him ; but the allies were beaten in the battle of Chaerone'a in 338 b.c. This decided the fate of the Greek cities. They had to admit the supremacy of Macedonia. Alexander the Great. — Philip enjoyed the leadership in Greece for only a short time. He was assassinated two years after his victory at Chaeronea, leaving the throne to his son 112 GENERAL HISTORY Alexander, who was then only twenty years old, bat had already given proof of remarkable military genius. Alexander was the greatest general that Greece ever produced. He was not only wonderfully skilled in military tactics, but he knew the art of organizing and maintaining the most efficient army that up to that time had ever been seen. The peculiar feature of this force was the phalanx, which consisted of foot soldiers armed with long spears and drawn up in ranks at such a short distance from each other that the spears of the inen behind projected beyond the men in the rank in front, thus presenting the appearance of a thick impassable hedge of spear points. In a charge a force thus disposed proved especially effective. Alexander was recognized as the general of all Greece on the death of Philip, and he soon made it clear that in spite of his youth he was quite able to enforce his authority. A rebellion having broken out when he was absent on a campaign against the barbarians of the north, he returned to Greece, suppressed the revolt at once, and punished with great severity those who had taken part in it. With Greece at his feet, he was now free to carry out his scheme of foreign conquest. This was at first directed against the Persian Empire, but his ambition, increas- ing with each success, finally aimed at nothing less than the conquest of the whole world. He left Greece, never to return. The Conquest of Persia. — With a small but splendidly equipped and disciplined force, Alexander crossed the Hel- lespont into Asia Minor and passed on to the river Grani'cus. Here the way was blocked by a Persian army, but he inflicted upon it such a crushing defeat that almost all of Asia Minor submitted to him at once. Marching on into Syria, he encountered at Issus, near the borders of that province and Cilicia, a vast Persian army com- manded by the king Darius III., in person. Alexander's vic- tory at Issus was equally decisive, resulting in the capture of the Persian camp and treasures and the family of the king. All the western part of the Persian king's dominions was now under the control of the conqueror. THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 113 Egypt was next invaded and in a short time was completely subdued. Here Alexander founded the city of Alexandria, which in later times became one of the greatest centers of Greek culture in the West. Alexander now followed the fugi- tive king into the heart of his empire. Darius made his final stand in the plains of Gaugame'la, not far from the village of Arbe'la, which has given its name to the battle. He led an army estimated at twenty times the strength of the invaders; but the old superiority of the Greek over the Asiatic soldier was again demonstrated. Alexander was completely successful (331 B.C.). This was the deathblow to the Persian Empire. Alexander Darius The Battle of Issus (From an old Mosaic) The king managed to escape, but was assassinated soon after- wards. The great cities of Persia submitted to Alexander, who was now, at twenty -five years of age, the master of west- ern Asia. The Invasion of India. — Curiosity as well as the greed of con- quest tempted Alexander to penetrate the great empire to the east. The Greeks had heard wonderful tales of its wealth, but of the real nature of the country they knew nothing. Alexander led his army down the right bank of the Indus, repulsing with 114 GENERAL HISTORY little difficulty the attacks of the natives until he reached the Hy das 'pes (Jhelum) Eiver. There he fought a battle with the Indian king Porus. The Greeks gained the day, but lost more heavily than when they defeated the vast armies of Darius at Arbela and Issus. Alexander subdued a large part of northern India, and would have carried his conquests further but for the mutiny of his troops. When he reached the river Hyph'asis, his Macedonian == =^ ' v; " ^ / , EMPIRE OF II X' T 1- 1 A y- ^ VLEVAiNDER THE GREAT {| _^ f "~^. o r i ''' ^ "^ --- 1 1 1 ^ P A R T H f A f it 111 l^ s , t H A N \ ■ / -? ■"""v / - \' lip Ji-, M o - i- CELUCH -TAN =^)> ^_^ A "^r i- ^ i J lis fi k '-%\ / ^ 11} nih iL i\ A ^ ^ — soldiers declared they would not go a step further. This was the limit of his conquests. He returned to Persia by a new route, passing down the Indus to its mouth and thence to Persia by way of what is now Beluchistan. On the return journey the main body took the usual road, but Alexander with a chosen band passed through an unexplored region and three fourths of his force died on the way. He reached Susa in the spring of 325 b.c. Death of Alexander. — It was plainly Alexander's purpose to form his European and Asiatic dominions into a single empire, of which he should be the sole and absolute despot. Since his conquest of Persia, he had assumed the style of an Oriental THE MACEDONIxVN SUPREMACY 115 monarch, and liis arrogance and vanity were so great as to ott'end many of his Macedonian followers. Before he went to India, he showed all the violence and cruelty of a tryant whose head had been completely turned by success. In a drunken fury he killed his friend Clitus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. To be sure, Alexander repented of this on coming to his senses, but he did not give up his drinking bouts or show moderation in his government. When he returned from his Indian expedition, he planned to make Babylon his capital ; but he fell a victim to a fever contracted in the sur- rounding marshes, which, aggravated by his continual excesses, caused his death in 323 B.C., at the age of thirty-three, after winning for himself the fame of one of the world's greatest generals. He had proved himself able to conquer a wider domain than any one before him, but he did not possess the highest qualities of a statesman. The great empire that he founded fell to pieces after his death. Nevertheless, his con- quests had one lasting result ; they spread the Greek civiliza- tion at least in some degree throughout the world. The Successors of Alexander. — After Alexander's death, his successors fell to fighting among themselves, each striving to gain for himself a large- slice of the divided empire. Finally, as a result of the battle of Ipsus in 301 b.c, the empire was di- vided into three parts under separate rulers : Egypt, Macedonia, and Syria. Egypt. — In the partition of the empire, the throne of Egypt fell to the share of Ptol'emy Lagi, an energetic and able ruler, the first of a long line of kings who also bore the name of Ptolemy. Alexander had transferred the capital from Mem- phis to Alexandria, and the latter city became a great center of Greek learning. Ptolemy protected the old religion and did no violence to the customs of the natives; but the impor- tant offices were filled with Greeks, and the civilization of the country was Greek rather than Egyptian. Ptolemy encouraged learning, began the collection of the great Alexandrine library, and founded the Mus^jum or university which drew students COLBY'S GEN. HIST. 8 116 GENERAL HISTORY from all parts of the East. The line of the Ptolemies lasted till the death of Cleopatra in 30 e.g., when Egypt became a Koman province. Syria. — The kingdom of Syria was founded by Seleucus, whose successors are knoAvn as the Seleucidae. Under Seleu- cus the kingdom extended to the Ganges and Jaxartes rivers and included the best part of the Asiatic empire of Alex- ander. At first the capital was Babylon, but Seleucus trans- ferred it to Antioch. Under his successor the empire declined and split into fragments, and finally, in 60 b.c, the portion called Syria w^as conquered by Pompey and became a Roman province. Macedonia and Greece. — After the death of Alexander several Greek cities, with Athens at their head, tried to regain their liberty ; but the attempt failed, and the Macedonians inflicted a heavy penalty on the patriots, Demosthenes was one of the leaders in this revolt and after it was put down took flight, but finding himself pursued, he died by his own hand rather than fall into the power of his enemies. The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues The independent spirit of the Greek cities declined during the third century b.c, and they were willing to renounce some of their individual rights in the attempt to rid themselves of the Macedonian supremacy. This is shown by the formation of the Achaean and Aetolian leagues, which were not unlike the union of the Swiss states in modern times. Each city, while managing its own local affairs, surrendered to the central organ of government the control over external matters, especially the decision of peace and w^ar. The Achaean League, comprising at first ten Achaean cities, included finally the Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta. Athens and Aegina also became members. The Aetolian League included several of the cities to the north of the Corinthian Gulf. LTnfortunately, the formation of these leagues did not tend to promote the harmony of the Greek states. Tliey were involved in frequent wars and even fought with each other. THE MACEDONIAN SUPREMACY 117 Macedonia, though not retaining her former power, was strong enough to act as an umpire in these conflicts. But the time was now a})proaching when a greater people than the Mace- donians shoukl assert its supremacy over the Greeks. Weak- ened by these internal wars, Macedonia fell, after a long conflict (200-168 B.C.), under the power of Rome, and after the battle of Pydna, Perseus, the last of the Macedonian rulers, was car- ried as a captive to Italy. Greece a Roman Province. — Now that the most powerful of the Greek states had fallen under a foreign tyranny, it might be supposed that the other Greek communities w^ould have maintained peace among themselves and gathered strength to guard against a similar calamity. They did not do this, but continued to flght among themselves as before, and in 146 b.c. the last remnant of Greek liberty was destroyed and Greece became a Roman province under the name of Achae'a. The period of the Macedonian supremac}^ and of the con- flicts of the leagues was, on the whole, a period of declining civilization in Greece. There were still scholars of note, but the original genius of the people seemed to be on the wane. It was not a time that produced great poets or philosophers, and something of Oriental servility and inertness is discernible in the Greeks of this period. Some writers attribute this to the reflex influences of Alexander's Oriental conquests, main- taining that while the Greeks imposed their civilization on the Oriental peoples, they tended to approach the Oriental tyj)e themselves. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Third Period. — The Macedonian Supremacy. — The Macedonians : The Weakness of Greece. King Philip of Macedon. His Policy. — Demosthenes: His Orations against Phihp. Victory of Phihp at Cliaeronea, 338 b.c. — Alexander the Great: His MiHtary Genius. The Macedonian Phalanx. His Supremacy in Greece. — The Con- quest of Persia : Alexander's Victories. Graiiicus. Issus. Arbela. Submission of Persia. — The Invasion of India : Alexander's Victory over Porus. Extent of his Conquests. His Return to Persia. — Death 118 GENERAL HISTORY of Alexander: His Despotism. His Cruelty. Effect of his Conquests. — The Successors of Alexander. — The Partition of his Empire. — Egypt: The Ptolemies. — Syria: Seleucus and his Successors. — Macedonia and Greece : Destruction of Greek Liberty. Death of Demosthenes. — The Achaean and Aetolian Leagues. — Greek^ Wars: Macedonia conquered by Rome. — Greece a Roman Province : Lack of Harmony among the Greek States. The Roman Conquest. Chamcter of the Period of the Macedonian Supremacy. CHAPTER XVIII GREEK CIVILIZATION Religion. — The religion of the Greeks was singularly poeti- cal. They believed in many gods, whom they invested with human qualities and about whom they constructed countless picturesque legends. As time went on, the number of these gods increased, and worship was extended to the heroes of antiquity and to the supposed children of gods and goddesses. The king of the gods was Zeus (corresponding to the Latin Jupiter), from whom all law emanated. He was the source of the orderly principle discernible in the universe, but shared his government with his two brothers, Posei'don (Neptune) and Ha'des (Pluto), the former ruling over the sea, and the lat- ter over the lower world, where the wicked were punished or passed through a period of probation. With Zeus and Posei- don were associated ten other gods and goddesses who dwelt with them on Mount Olympus.^ 1 The Greek poet Hesiod does not include Pluto or Ha'des among the greater gods, although his power was scarcely inferior to theirs. These greater gods were twelve in number. Besides Zeus and Poseidon there were Apol'lo or Phoe'bus, the god of poetry and music ; Hephaes'tus, the god of fire, corre- sponding to the Roman Vulcan and represented as a blacksmith ; Ar'temis, the counterpart of the Roman Dia'na, the goddess of the chase, and the divinity of the moon ; Her'mes, the Roman Mercury, the messenger of the gods and the divinity of eloquence ; A'res, the Roman Mars, the god of war ; Hera, cor- GREEK CIVILIZATION 119 Beside these twelve greater gods, there was a host of minor divinities, such as He'lios, the god of the sun, Bacchus, the god of wine, tlie Muses, the Ne'- reids or Sea Nymphs, the Graces, etc. The Greeks personified fate or destiny in the three sisters called Parcae or Moirae, who were superior even to Zeus him- self. They controlled the destinies of man's life, and prayers were unavailing against their absolute power. The Greeks farther believed in a principle of justice, or, rather, vengeance, called Nem'esis, which pursued the proud to their ruin and brought the guilty to pun- ishment. These are only a few of the many deities of the Greek religion. It dif- fered at different periods and at different places. Almost every locality had its guardian deity, every stream its god, and every grove its nymph. Hosts of satyrs, fawns, hamadryades, Nereids, Tritons, and centaurs peopled the Avorld of the imaginative Greeks. Oracles. — One of the chief features of the religious life of the Greeks was a belief in oracles, of which the most noted were those of Zens at Dodo'na and of Apollo at Delphi. The sayings of these oracles were regarded by the Greeks as revela- tions of the divine will. On the occasion of a great national responding to the Roman Jnno, the wife of Zens; Athe'ne (Minerva), the mod- eless of wisdom; Aphrodi'te (Venns), the goddess of beanty and love; Deme'- ter (Ce'res), the goddess of agriculture; and Hestia (Vesta), the goddess of the hearth, 120 GENERAL HISTORY emergency the Greeks consulted the oracle and shaped their conduct according to its answer. The answer was often framed in words capable of a double construction. For instance, when the Athenians consulted the oracle before the battle of Salamis, as to what was the best course for them to pursue, the oracle replied that they should seek safety in their " wooden walls." This dubious response gave Themistocles a ground for main- taining that the fleet of the Athenians was their only hope of deliverance from threatened conquest by the Persians. There are many instances of these doubtful and unintelligible replies of the oracle ; for the priests or priestesses that presided at the shrine were clever enough to invent phrases which were capable of meaning more than one thing. Festivals and Games. — Another feature of the Greek reli- gious life was the holding of festivals. There were four great national festivals, — the Olym'pic, the Pyth'ian, the Isth'mian, and the Neme'an. The Olympic festival was held every four years in honor of Zeus, in the plain of Olympia in Elis. It was the most famous of all the gatherings of the Greeks. The time at which it was held marked the beginning of the Greek New Year, and the Greeks divided their calendar into four-yearly periods, measuring the interval between these festivals. At these assemblies of the Greeks, contests were held in which prizes were awarded for excellence in athletic exercises, chariot races, music, and poetry. The prize was merely a chaplet of olive or laurel placed on the head of the victor, but his name was proclaimed in all the states of Greece and his return home was signalized by a triumph. These gatherings became the competing grounds for talent in every field. The works of artists, poets, and historians were exhibited and read before their countrymen, and prizes were awarded to the best. These assemblies, by bringing together the people from all parts of Greece for the purpose of friendly contests, tended to make them conscious of the ties of race. During the greater part of Grecian history they were almost the only really national institution. GREEK CIVILIZATION 121 Literature. — Of all peoples of antiquity the Greeks had the greatest literary gift. The writings of Homer are nearly as familiar to the modern reader as to the ancient Greeks. Another very ancient poet was Hesiod, the author of the 21ie- ogony and the Works and Days, the former describing the origin and history of the numerous gods, and the latter dealing with the daily life of the cultivator of the soil, and containing practical suggestions and moral reflections. Of the lyric poets, one of the most famous is Tyrtae'us, the lame schoolmaster of Athens, who, as the story goes, was sent by his countrymen to Sparta, and by his inspiring battle songs gained victory for the Spartans in the Second Messenian War. The writings of Ar- chil'ochus, another lyric poet, were regarded by the ancients themselves as nearly equal to those of Homer, but they were of a very different character, being satirical and at times caus- tic. The poems of Sappho (Saf'o) were so valued by her countrymen that she was called by them the "tenth muse." Love was the usual subject of her songs. Alcae'us was another passionate lyric poet, and his verses on love and wine, and war and political subjects were especially admired by the Greeks. Anac'reon may be called the poet of pleasure, for his odes are largely given up to the praise of love and wine. Pindar, on the other hand, was a poet of more serious tone. By many he is considered the greatest lyric poet of Greece. Among the poems that have come down to us, are hymns to the gods, choral songs, dirges, songs of victory, and odes celebrating the na- tional games. In tragedy the three great poets, Aes'chylus, Soph'ocles, and Eurip'ides, surpassed all others. Of these, Aeschylus (525-4:56 b.c.) was the most serious and perhaps the most impressive in style. Seven of his tragedies are extant. They deal with supernatural subjects, such as the anger of the gods, and the exploits of mythical heroes, and in their grandeur and force are perhaps the finest of all the classic tragedies. The style of Sophocles (495-406 b.c.) is more graceful and polished, though less imposing. As in the case of Aeschylus, only seven of his tragedies are extant, but these 122 GENERAL HISTORY include (E'dijms the King, which was classed by Aristotle as the greatest of all tragedies. Euripides (480-406 b.c.) was more philosophical in spirit than either of the others. He had not their faith in the reality of the gods, the fates, and the furies, and he took his characters more from real life. Eight- een of his plays have been preserved. In comedy Aristoph'a- nes (about 450-about 380 b.c.) was the greatest of all the ancient Avriters. He wrote The Birds, The Clouds, The Wasps, and The Frogs, satirizing Athenian society in an amusing man- ner. In history, as in tragic poetry, three great names over- shadow all others. These are Herodotus (484-420 e.g.), Thucyd'ides (471-400 e.g.), and Xenophon (about 445-355 e.g.). Herodotus was a graphic and agreeable writer, but lacked criti- cal discrimination in sifting the true from the false. He was a great traveler and studied the national customs and geog- raphy of many lands. Thucydides showed the true historical spirit. He was painstaking and impartial, and his w^ork is written in a clear and spirited style. Xenophon was perhaps more of a memoir-Avriter than a historian, but his Anab'asis, already described, proves him a master of historical narrative. In oratory the genius of Demosthenes had no equal, although a talent for public speaking was widely diffused among the Greeks. Aeschines, the famous opponent of Demosthenes, was an eloquent speaker, and the speeches of Pericles and Isocrates are fine oratorical compositions. Philosophy. — Greece produced x^hilosophers whose Avritings influenced the Avorld to our own time. Among the early phi- losophers were Tha'les, Pythag'oras, and Zeno. Socrates, whose death has been recorded in the previous account of the age of Pericles, left no written Avorks, but his teachings Avere preserved in the Avritings of his disciples, of whom the most famous Avas Plato. The philosophy of Plato had a great in- fluence upon all departments of human thought, but its effect upon the Avorld Avas surpassed by the more ^^ractical and logical pihilosophy of Ar'istotle (384-322 e.g.). Aristotle's reasoning dominated the minds of men doAvn to the beginning of our GREEK CIVILIZATION 123 modern age. The scholars of the Middle Ages followed the methods laid down by Aristotle with hardly any deviation. Grecian Art. — Tn art the Greeks excelled all the nations of antiquity, and the forms which they designed have remained models to the world for all time. The masterpiece of Grecian architecture was the Parthenon, which has already been de- scribed. But there were other temples in great number which showed their marvelous skill in execution and their appre- ciation of the beautiful. The sculptures of the Greeks remain to this day as models of artistic perfection. In our own public buildings we see the preservation of the Greek genius in the graceful Ionic column, the highly ornamented Corinthian col- umn, and the severe but imposing Doric style of architec- ture. The Theater. — The Greek theater was semicircular in form, with rising tiers of seats. It was usually without a roof, and the stage was provided with little scenery. The theatrical performances grew out of the songs and dances in honor of 124 GENERAL HISTORY T3acchus. A peculiar feature was the chorus, which, in a sort of chant, commented on the actions of the players or narrated parts of the plot. Women were not allowed to appear on the stage. The actors wore masks adapted to the character of the part portrayed, and in comedy these masks were often caricatures of the public men who were being burlesqued. Greek taste would not permit murders to be represented on the stage. The deed was supposed to have been done behind the scenes, and the report of it was brought by a messenger. A Gkeek Theater, Athens The great dramatists held it beneath the dignity of their call- ing to write for money. They worked merely for fame. The performance lasted all day, one play following another in quick succession, and meals were eaten in the theater. The actors wore high-heeled shoes and padded their clothes in order to make them look more majestic, for the drama commonly dealt with gods and heroes. Marriage Customs. — A priest was not necessary to an Athenian marriage, but the favor of the gods was first invoked by suitable offerings. The omens were studied, and if not GREEK CIVILIZATION 125 favorable the wedding was postponed. The bride was escorted by a procession of friends to her husband's house, where all partook of a wedding banquet. She wore the veil for three days after the wedding. Burial. — The token of death in a family was a vessel of water placed at the entrance to the house. A curious custom was the placing of a coin in the mouth of the dead to pay the boatman for his passage over the mystic river Styx to Hades. The funerals were often elaborate, bands of mourners and a chorus of hired musicians taking part in the procession. Sometimes the body was buried and sometimes it was burned. When it was burned, the ashes were afterwards collected and placed in an urn of bronze or clay. Sacrifices were offered at the funeral pyre and the grave, and, as among the Egyp- tians, articles of value or practical use were placed by the side of the dead. Meals. — A light repast in the early morning was followed by a more substantial meal at noon ; but the chief meal was the dinner at the close of the day. The guests reclined at the banquets, and used neither napkins nor knives and forks. The scraps of food left over were thrown under the table and after- ward cleared away by slaves. After the substantial courses were finished, the symposium (drinking together) began, the guests being first decorated with garlands. The wine was mixed with water by the chosen ruler of the feast. Music was a feature of the banquet. Houses. — The house was entered by a corridor opening into a large court surrounded by porticoes. The rooms opening into this court were the apartments of the men. The women's apartments surrounded another large court entered by a second corridor behind the men's apartments. The walls were often beautifully decorated with frescoes and the rooms furnished with articles of graceful and artistic design and costly materials. The first court contained an altar to Zeus, and the second court an altar to Hestia. The rooms were heated by fireplaces or braziers. 126 GENERAL HISTORY Political Life. — The Greeks never rose to the conception of patriotism in tlie modern sense. Their patriotism consisted in the love for the city, to which they never joined a love for the race. They never developed a national state. Political strife was the curse of their existence. They were intensely local in their spirit, and apparently preferred to sacrifice their liberty to a foreign oppressor rather than merge any of their local privileges in a national Greek organization. They be- lieved in slavery, and even the greatest of their philosophers, Aristotle, argued that the wise and the good had a natural right to make slaves of the foolish and bad. Slavery was a recog- nized institution among the Greeks, and we must not imagine that to their minds freedom meant the liberty of all men dwelling in a community. While they surpassed all the nations of antiquity in their philosophy, literature, and art, they lacked political capacity and in the end became the subjects of a foreign power. Su- perior to the Eomans in all things that pertained to culture and refinement, they were, nevertheless, far inferior to them in political energy and common sense. They became the masters of the Romans in literature and art, but their subjects in tli^e domains of law and politics. . ROME CHAPTER XIX THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS Race. — ■ Before the authentic history of Italy begins, the country was inhabited by four races, — the Pelas'gians, the Etrus'cans, the Greeks, and the Italians. The Pelasgians were probably the earliest inhabitants. They were the kins- men of the people whom we have described under that name in the early history of Greece. The Etruscans lield the land of Etruria to the north of the river Tiber. Their origin is unknown, but is thought to have been of great antiquity, and long before Rome was founded they had devel- oped a civilization of their own. Neither they nor the Pelasgians, however, were destined to play an important part in the history of Italy. As to the Greeks, they were colonists sent out from the cities of Greece, and were confined to the southern coast, which, with the island of Sicily, came to be known as Magna Graecia, or Great Greece. The most important race of all was the Italian, which was of Aryan origin and akin to the Greeks. The Greeks and Italians had probably formed a single swarm which left the original home of the Aryan race at a date 127 Roman Standard Bearer 128 GENERAL HISTORY long before authentic records begin, and afterwards had divided into two parts, of which one occupied the peninsula of Greece and the other the peninsula of Italy. The Latins. — The Italians were divided into several tribes, — Latins, Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, etc., — of which the most important were the Latins, who lived in Latium, between the river Tiber and the river Liris to the south. There was a long period during which the Italian tribes fought among themselves for the mastery, and at the end of it the Latins proved them- selves the strongest. The means by which they accomplished THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS 129 this are involved in obscurity ; for the only account which we have of the history of the j^eriod is a mass of legends, full of marvels and unworthy of belief, except in their general out- line. The Romans themselves believed them, and as they throw some light on the character of those early times, they are worth our notice. The Founding of Rome. — The Romans traced their origin directly to the Trojan hero Aene'as, who, after the destruction of his city, went to Italy and founded a kingdom there. The capital of this kingdom was Alba Longa, but about the middle of the eighth century b.c. the twin sons of the god Mars by Rhea Silvia, a virgin priestess, founded the city of Rome. A variety of picturesque myths cluster about Rom'ulus and Remus, the founders of the city. They were said to have been thrown into the Tiber by a usurping king, but to have been cast up on the shore and suckled by a she-wolf. Later they were rescued by a shepherd, who brought them up as his own sons. When they had founded the city, they quarreled, and Romulus, the elder of the twins, killed his brother and named the city Roma (Rome) after himself. The date of this event was 753 B.C., and from this year the Romans dated their calendar. The Thirty Cities. — As Rome increased in power. Alba Longa began to fear her as a rival. A league of thirty Latin cities was formed, and in this Alba Longa at first held the foremost place, but Rome was remarkable for her stern and warlike energy. By means which are matters of legend rather than of history, she formed an alliance with some of the neighboring cities, and finally grew strong enough to attack Alba Longa. After a long war the latter city was captured, and Rome became supreme among the Latin tribes. Society and Government. — Rome was intensely aristocratic in spirit. The descendants of the original Romans and of the tribes admitted to an equal footing with them held for them- selves all political rights. They constituted the Patric'ian class or nobility ; they alone could hold office and control the gov- 130 GENERAL HISTORY ernment. All the others were classified as Plebe'ians, who, though personally free and possessing the right to hold prop- erty, were utterly without political authority. The Senate was chosen from the patricians, and even the Popular Assembly was made up wholly of that class. This division into classes was of the utmost impor- tance in Eoman history. For many years the main interest centers in the conflicts of the two, resulting from the oppressions of the ruling class and the persistent efforts of the plebeians to work their way upward to a posi- tion of equal political authority. As to the form of government, it was a monarchy, and remained so for nearly 250 years from the founding in 753. The Kings. — According to the legends, the reign of seven kings filled up this period, and the events of each reign are narrated with considerable detail, but can not be taken as his- torical facts. After Romulus, the founder, came Numa Pompil'ius, renowned as a peaceful sovereign and a lawgiver. He is reputed to have introduced many important features of the Roman religion, and his wisdom was so great as to give rise to the legend that he was in frequent communion v/ith the nymph Ege'ria, who taught him divine things. Tullus Hostilius. — Tul'lus Hostil'ius, the next king, was constantly engaged in war. To his reign belongs the well- known story of the combat between the Hora'tii and the Curia'tii. The armies of the rival cities, Rome and Alba Longa, were on the point of joining battle when it was agreed that the contest should be decided by a combat between the Horatii, three brothers in the army of Rome, and the three Curiatii, chosen from the Alban army. Two of the Horatii were killed in the combat, but the survivor managed to en- gage the victors separately in fight and slew them one by one. WHien Horatius returned in triumph to the city, his sister, who THE PERIOD OF THE KINGS 131 was betrothed to one of the Curiatii, overvvhehned him with re- proaches and lamentations. Angered by this, he killed her, and was condemned to death for the crime, but his life was spared on account of the great service which he had rendered Rome. Ancus Marcius. — Like Numa, Ancus Mar'cius was a wise administrator and lawgiver. He was also successful in war, conquering several of the Latin cities, and bringing many of the inhabitants to Rome, where they settled on the Av'entine Hill. Tarquinius Priscus. — Tarquin'ius Pris'cus was a native of Etruria, who, coming to Rome in the reign of Ancus, soon won the favor of the king, and rose to a high position in the state. On the king's death Tarquinius ascended the throne, the king's children being too young to rule. He built the great sewer or drain (Cloa'ca Max'ima), which still exists, laid out the Circus Maximus, the great public race course, and completed the con^ quest of Latium. He was murdered by the sons of Ancus, who thought he was planning to deprive them of the succession in favor of Ser'vius Tul'lius, a youth who had been brought up at the palace, and was much loved both by Tarquinius and his wife Tanaquil. Tanaquil, however, concealed the death of her husband long enough for Servius Tullius to secure himself upon the throne. Servius Tullius. — Under Servius Tullius the plebeians se- cured a share in the government, on account of a change in the constitution, which made all citizens possessed of a cer- tain amount of property sharers in the government, whether they were patricians or plebeians. From his reign dates a new Assembly called the Comit'la Centuria'ta, or Assembly of the Hundreds, representation in which depended on this new principle of property. In this Assembly patricians and ple- beians voted alike, but the older body, called the Comitia Curia'ta, in which the patricians alone had the right to vote, still existed. Tarquinius Superbus. — The last of the kings was Tarquinius Super'bus (534-510 b.c). He tried to establish a tyranny, and 132 GENERAL HISTORY his rule was so oppressive that not only was he expelled from the kingdom, but he made the kingly form of government so hateful to the Romans that for hundreds of years they could not tolerate even the name of king. Value of the Legends. — These stories, and a hundred others dealing with the period of the kings, are in their details purely imaginary, but they have a value as national traditions point- ing to some historical facts. Thus the legend of Romulus and Remus has as its probable basis the fact that the city was settled by shepherds; but its details, like those of many of the other stories, were borrowed from the Greeks. It is probable, too, that Latium contained many independent communities, of which Alba Longa was the chief; that there were many wars between them, and that Rome conquered them and added greatly to the number of her citizens. Facts of this broad and general nature are doubtless at the bottom of the legends. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Four Races of Italy. — Pelasgians, Etruscans, Greeks, and Italians. Aryan Origin of the Italians. — Tlie Latins: Division of the Itahan Race. The Latins dominant. — Founding of Rome, 753 b.c. : Aeneas. Alba Longa. The Legend of Romulus and Remus. — The Thirty Cities: Rivalry between Rome and Alba Longa. Rome Supreme in Latium. — Society and Government: Patricians. Plebeians. — The Kings : Legendary Character of the Period. Romulus and his suc- cessors. End of the Monarchy. CHAPTER XX THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE Periods of History. — From the overthrow of the monarchy to the establishment of the Empire was a period of 482 years. During all this time Rome was under a republican form of government. This long interval may be divided into four periods: first, the Period of Patrician Rule (509-304 b.c), THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE 133 during which the plebeians were steadily struggling to assert their rights ; second, the Period of the Conquest of Italy (304- 26G B.C.) ; third, the Period of Foreign Conquest, including the wars with Carthage and Macedonia (266-133 b.c.) ; fourth, the Period of Civil Strife (133 b.c. to the establishinent of the Empire in 27 b.c). The New Government. — After the kingship was abolished in 509 B.C., the heads of the government were two magistrates called Consuls, elected each year by the Comitia Centuriata, the assembly in which, it will be remembered, the plebeians had a right to vote. The first consuls were Brutus and Col- lati'nus, of whom the former (known as the 'elder Brutus') had taken an active part in the expulsion of the king. The legends represent him to have been a fine example of the stern Koman virtues. His opposition to the king had arisen from a resolve to avenge a grievous wrong which the king's son had committed. Another story illustrates the rigid manner in which Brutus administered justice. When his own sons were found to have been engaged in a plot to reinstate the king, Brutus refused to pardon them and ordered them to be put to death with the other conspirators. The Authority of the Consuls. — The power of the consuls was almost as great as that of the king had been ; they were the chief magistrates of the state, and they appointed the senators and the officers who had charge of the treasury. In times of special danger one of the consuls might appoint a dictator, with power of life and death during the interval for which he was appointed. Quarrels between Patricians and Plebeians. — The establish- ment of the Republic did not improve the political position of the plebeians. All offices of the government were monopo- lized by the patricians, and what was worse, many of the ple- beians having fallen into debt during the long w^ars became, according to the old Roman law, the slaves of their creditors. Though they had few political privileges, the burden of mili- tary service fell chiefly upon the plebeians. Finally, when the^ Colby's gex. hist. ■ — -9 134 GENERAL HISTORY could stand this state of things no longer, the plebeians with- drew from the city to the Sacred Mount, about three miles from Kome, where they declared that they would remain and found a new city (493 B.C.). This brought the patricians to terms, and it was agreed that two officers, called Tribunes of the people, should be chosen from the plebeians. The per- sons of these officers, who were to hold office for a year, were sacred, and they could annul by a simple veto any act of the consuls which they thought oppressive to the common people. Further than this, the debts of the poor plebeians were canceled. The Comitia Tributa. — Another gain for the popular party which was secured some years after was the institution of the Assembly of Tribes {Comitia Tribit'ta), in which the plebeians alone had the right to vote. This body chose the tribunes and afterwards secured other rights. From this time on the plebeians steadily increased in power, securing one important privilege after another. The Decemvirs and the Twelve Tables. — Down to the middle of the fifth century b.c, there was no regular code of laws ; but finally it was decided that ten men, chosen from both patricians and plebeians, should prepare a code of laws and in the meanwhile exercise complete control over the government. These decem'virs framed the famous code known as the Twelve Tables, which were the basis of all later legislation. It was decided to continue this form of government for another year, but the decemvirs for the next year governed in an arbi- trary way and the plebeians again withdrew to the Sacred Mount. The decemvirs were forced out of office, and it was at this time that the Comitia Tributa acquired an equal place with the older Assembly of the Hundreds and that the trib- unes gained the right to veto an act of the senate. Later Changes. — The consular offices w^ere still closed to the plebeians, but soon after the struggle over the decemvirate a law was passed creating the new office of Military Tribunes, who were chosen from both plebeians and patricians and were to have the power of consuls. For several years the attention THE PERIOD OF PATRICIAN RULE 135 of the Roman citizens was taken up with wars, but before the fourth century had far advanced the political strife was re- newed. In 367 B.C. the so-called Licinian Laws were passed, which marked another great step in the upward movement of the plebeians. These laws provided for the relief of material Avant by canceling the debts of the poor and by forbidding the concentration of land in the hands of a single person beyond a certain limit. They also decreed that one of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians. There was a long struggle between the two classes before these changes went into effect, but it resulted in a complete victory for the plebeians ; all the offices were thrown open to them, and by the close of the fourth century b.c. political equality was secured. Wars. — Erom the establishment of the Republic to the close of the fourth century, Rome was engaged in frequent wars, the chief of which were : first, the wars with the Ae'quians and the Vol'sciaus; second, war with the Etruscans; third, war with Veii ( Vay'ee) ; fourth, the repulse of the Gauls ; and fifth the wars with the Samnites and Latins. As these struggles really led up to the first conquest of Italy, they are described in the next chapter. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Periods of History : (1) Period of Patrician Rule, 509-304 b.c. ; (2) Period of tlie Conquest of Italy, 304-266 b.c. ; (3) Period of Foreign Conquest, 266-133 b.c. ; (4) Period of Civil Strife to tlie Establisliment of tlie Empire, 133-27 b.c. — The New Government. — The Consuls. — Brutus. — The Consular Authority. — Quarrels between Patricians and Plebeians : Wrongs of the Plebeians. Their Withdrawal to the Sacred Mount. The Office of the Tribunes. — The Comitia Tributa. — The Decemvirs and the Tvi^elve Tables. — Abuse of Power by the Decemvirs. — Second Withdrawal of the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount. — Later Changes : The Military Tribunes. Political Equality Secured by the Plebeians. — Wars during this Period. CHAPTER XXI THE CONQUEST OF ITALY Roman Foot Soldier War with the Volscians and Aequians. — While Rome was weakened by internal conflicts of the social classes, her ene- mies, the Aequians and the Volscians, began to encroach upon her. The story of the wars Avhich followed is a mere matter of tradition. There is a legend that a pa- trician named Coriola'nus proposed that the grain which had been procured with some difficulty in a time of famine should not be distributed among the plebeians unless they would agree to give up the Tribunate. So great was the outcry against this proposal that Coriolanus was obliged to leave the city. In his resent- ment he went over to the Volscians and led their armies against Rome ; and, it is said, with such success that he soon had the city at his mercy. All supplications were in vain until his mother and wife joined in entreating him to spare the city. He then gave way, and, telling his mother that she had saved Rome but lost her son, led the Volscian army back. Another story relates to the war with the Aequians. For some time they had been successful against Rome, and finally seemed on the point of taking the city. In these straits the Senate sent messengers to Cincinna'tus, a patrician who had formerly held the offices of senator and consul. Roman his- torians illustrate the simplicity of their hero by citing the fact that the messengers found him plowing on his farm. He responded to the call, and, becoming dictator, drove back the enemy and rescued the state. Having accomplished this in a little more than two weeks, he gave up his office and returned to the plow. 136 THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 13T ^^ The War with the Etruscans and Capture of Veil. — Some his- torians believe that before the beginning of authentic history Rome formed a part of a great Etruscan empire, and that she won her independence with great difficulty. However this may be, it is certain that the two races became involved in war early in the fifth century b.c, the Etruscans having held cer- tain towns on the Roman side of the river Tiber. These wars lasted many years, and finally the Etruscan town of Veii be- came the center of the conflict. The Romans laid siege to this town for ten years, and in 396 b.c. it was captured by the dic- tator Camil'lus. After this many of the other Etruscan towns fell under the power of Rome. The Gallic Invasion (390 B.C.). — The Gauls were a Celtic race dwelling in southern France and northern Italy. While the Etruscan wars were going on, these barbarians pressed down into Italy and were soon ad- vancing on Rome. A great battle was fought between them and the Romans near the river AUia, about eleven miles north of the city, and the invaders were completely victorious. The Roman army was panic- stricken and the people fled in despair across the Tiber. Some escaped to Veii, but the greater part were slain. A handful of men, however, remained in Rome and undertook to save the capitol. Under their chief, Brennus, the Gauls poured into the city, plundered and burned the temple, and murdered the aged senators, who, according to the legend, were sitting silent in the Forum, clad in their robes of state. Another story tells how the Gauls, having found a path up to the capitol, planned a night attack, but the cackling of geese awoke the defenders just in time to repulse the attack. Then Gall Horsemen 138 GENERAL HISTORY the Gauls settled down to the policy of starving out the little garrison, but finally offered to retire on condition of receiving 1000 pounds in gold. According to the legend, when the Romans complained that the weights of the scales in which the gold w^as being weighed were false, Brennus cast his sword into the balance, exclaiming, " Woe to the conquered ; " but at this very moment Camillus, who had gathered an army from the fugitives, appeared in the city and scattered the insolent barbarians in flight. Whatever may be the foundation of these tales, it is certain that the Gauls left Rome. After the withdrawal of the Gauls, the Romans returned to find the city in ruins, but they set about the task of rebuilding with such energy that in a short time the damage was repaired. Legend connects the name of the patrician Manlius with the defense of the citadel against the Gauls, and it is said that after this brave deed he took up the cause of the plebeians and tried to relieve the debtor class. This roused the bitter enmity of the men of his own. rank. When attacked by the patricians, he withdrew to the Capitoline hill with a band of followers and tried to defend himself. It was all in vain. He was seized and condemned to death, being thrown from the Tar- pe'ian Rock, a cliff on the side of the Capitoline hill where traitors were executed. The First Samnite War. — The details of the First Sam- nite War, begun in 343 b.c, are given by the historian Livy, but are very dubious. The Romans, according to his ac- count, were victorious in three great battles and made peace only because they were afraid of an attack from their Latin allies. The War with the Latins. — When the Romans incorporated another tribe within their state, they did not admit them to the same privileges as the original Roman citizens. In fact, the whole struggle between the patricians and plebeians sprang in the first instance from the difference in race. The patricians were the descendants of the original tribes, while the ple- beians were the descendants of those other tribes which were THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 139 afterwards incorporated in the state, but were not admitted to the same position of authority as the original Romans. Even though a member of an incorporated tribe was of noble birth in his own city, he became merely a plebeian in Rome. So the revolt of the Latin states which broke out in 340 b.c. was of the same nature as the struggles already described between the patricians and the plebeians. The Latins demanded an equal share in the public offices of Rome and an equal distribution of the spoils of conquests. Finding their demands unheeded, they refused to recognize Rome any longer as the head of the league. It was a ver}^ formidable revolt, but the Romans were in the end successful. A famous battle was fought near Vesuvius, at which, according to the legend, the general Decius Mus saved the Roman army at the cost of his own life. Another victory was won at Trifa'num, and the league of the cities was dissolved. They lost even such privileges as they had formerly possessed, they were not allowed to govern them- selves, and the inhabitants of the Latin cities were required to come to Rome for the purchase and sale of goods. They had not the right to vote, and the law forbade the inhabit- ants of different cities to intermarry or to trade with one another. The Second Samnite War (326-304 B.C.). — This war arose from the encroachment of the Romans on Samnite territory. It really meant the conquest of Italy for the successful con- testant. It is remarkable for one of the most serious reverses that ever befell a Roman army. In the famous Caudine Pass, or Caudine Forks, in 321 B.C., a Roman army was ambuscaded by the Samnites and obliged to surrender. The victorious Samnites were now joined by the Etruscans, and it looked for a moment as if Rome w^ould be overthrown by the allies ; but in 310 B.C. the Romans Avon a decided victory over the Etrus- cans on the shores of the Vadimonian Lake, and a few years later the capital of the Samnites fell into the hands of the Romans and peace was restored. The Third Samnite War (298-290 B.C.). — The peace did not 140 GENERAL HISTORY last long. The Samnites formed a powerful league, having as their allies the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls. More than all that, they were joined in the south by Apulians, Lucanians, and Greeks. It seemed like a simultaneous uprising on the part of all Italy to shake off the Eoman yoke. The war was decided at Senti'num, 295 b.c, where the Samnites and their allies were defeated, and though the contest was kept up for several years longer, in the end the Komans won the day. Pyrrhus. — In 282 b.c, after a victory over the Gauls and Etruscans, the Komans had but one formidable enemy to block their way in their attempt to conquer all of Italy. Kome had made herself supreme in central Italy, and it now remained for her to conquer the Greek cities of the southern part of the penin- sula. The excuse for the conflict was an alleged insult offered by the inhabit- ants of Taren'tum to an ambassador from Rome. Both cities delayed awhile before coming to blows; but Tarentum finally called in the aid of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus. Pyrrhus was an ad- venturous and brave soldier, and his fame had already spread to Italy. In the first battle, at Heracle'a, the Ro- mans were defeated, chiefly, it is said, on account of a new and strange mode of fighting which Pyrrhus for the first time employed. He employed elephants to give to his troops an advantage in hurl- ing missiles and to crush down the opposing, ranks. Never- theless, his victory was so dearly bought that he is said to have declared afterwards, " Another such victory and I must return to Epirus alone." He always admitted openly the fine discipline which his enemies displayed. Pyrrhus was again victorious in 279 at As'culum, but his loss was very heavy. After this the Romans gained a brief respite on account of the absence of Pyrrhus for two years on an expedition in aid of THE CONQUEST OF ITALY 141 his Greek countrymen in Sicily, who had been attacked by tlie Carthaginians. He was worsted in his Sicilian contest, but returned to Italy and renewed the fight with the Romans. This time he was completely routed at Beneven'tum (274 b.c). After this he returned to Epirus and died in 272 b.c. This success established the Roman supremacy over the whole penin- sula of Italy, south of the river Ru'bicon. The Roman State. — With the establishment of Roman domi- nation over Italy, it is important to notice the nature of the gov- ernment and to ascertain whether or not the newly conquered people received the rights of Roman citizens. The real ruling power in the Roman state was the people of Rome; that is, the comparatively small number of persons who were centered in the districts to the north and south of the Tiber, comprising the Roman territory proper. '' The Roman domination in Italy was a domination of a city over cities." In Rome itself all citizens enjoyed the same rights. A Roman could marry into the families of all other citizens irrespective of their birth or social standing, and had the right to hold and bequeath property and purchase and sell goods. He had also the right of suffrage and of holding office. In the conquered towns it was different. To some cities Rome gave the right of personal citizenship ; that is to say, when any inhabitant of these cities visited Rome, he became in fact a Roman citizen. To other cities Rome granted a full measure of private rights and withheld all public rights ; that is, the right to vote and to be elected to office. There were other towns called colonies, which were formed by the cession of lands to the poorer classes in Rome, and there were still others called prefectures, the government of which was in the hands of a prefect, who was appointed at Rome. The most favored cities were those which were called the allies of Rome. These appointed their own chief magis- trates and governed themselves, though their inhabitants did not have the right of Roman citizenship. Rome reserved for herself the right of making peace or declaring war, of receiv- 142 GENERAL HISTORY ing embassies, and of coining money. Special privileges were sometimes granted to the conquered cities under the name of the Latin franchise, so called because it was first originally held by the citizens of Latium. This did not confer citizen- ship, but made it easy to obtain it. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Conquest of Italy : War with the Volscians and Aequians. Coriolanus. Cinciniiatus. — War with the Etruscans and Capture of Veii. — The Gallic Invasion, 390 b.c. : The Battle of the Allia. The Gauls capture Rome. Defense of the Capitol. Defeat and Expul- sion of the Gauls. — First Samnite War. — War with the Latins : Demand of the Latins for Political Equality. Roman Victories. — Second Samnite War, 326-304 b.c. : Roman Defeat at the Caudine Forks. Their Victory near the Vadimonian Lake. — Tliird Samnite War, 298-290 b.c. : Success of the Romans. — Fyrrhus : Difficulty with Tarentum. Pyrrhus aids the Tarentines. Defeat of the Romans at Heraclea and Asculum. Their Victory at Beneventum, 274 B.C. — The Roman State: The Roman People the Real Ruling Power. Privileges Granted to the Allies of Rome. CHAPTER XXII FOREIGN CONQUESTS Character of the Period. — By 266 b.c. Kome held sway over all Italy south of the Rubicon. For more than a century and a quarter after this she was engaged in foreign wars. The most important of these wars was the conflict with the Car- thaginians, which lasted until the destruction of Carthage in 146 B.C. The other great foreign war that Rome had on her hands during this period was the war with the Greeks, which closed almost at the same time as the Carthaginian War, and resulted in the reduction of Greece to the position of a Roman province. The Carthaginians. — Carthage was a colony of the Phoeni- FOREIGN CONQUESTS 143 cians, and inheriting the commercial genius of the race from which she sprang, she soon became the most important mari- time power of the Mediterranean. It was natural that the two great states on opposite shores of the Mediterranean should come into conflict. Each was desirous of extending its empire. Of the two, Carthage had the advantage on sea, for she had a powerful navy, while Rome owed her strength merely to the prowess of her land forces. The immediate cause of the conflict between Rome and Car- thage was the seizure of the town of Messa'na in Sicily by a body of Campanian mercenaries called Mam'ertines or Sons of Mars, who were afterwards attacked by the king of Syracuse and appealed to the Romans for aid. The Carthaginians were the allies of the Syracusans in the war with these Campanian troops, and thus the Romans were involved in war with the Carthaginians. The Romans had no real grievance against the Carthaginians, but they were bent on foreign conquest and were glad of an opportunity to measure their strength with their rivals. The First Punic or Carthaginian War (264-241 B.C.). — Early in the war the Romans captured Agrigen'tum ; but though suc- cessful on land, they were greatly inferior to the Carthaginians on sea. With extraordinary energ}^, however, the Romans built a fleet, using as their model, it is said, a Carthaginian vessel which was stranded on the Italian coast. With this hastily constructed fleet the Romans encountered the Cartha- ginians and, as might have been expected, were defeated ; but afterwards they won an important naval victory at Mylae, and soon after this they gained possession of almost all Sicily. Rome now decided to dispatch an expedition against Africa. The fleet in which this expedition set out met a Carthaginian fleet at Ec'nomus, and defeated it. The Carthaginians now sued for peace, but the terms were so hard that they rejected them, and, gathering an army, fell upon the Romans (who had by this time landed on the shores of Africa), defeated them, and captured their general Reg'ulus in 255 b.c. 144 GENERAL HISTORY Rome now equipped another fleet, but after some success it was destroyed by storm. The war was then confined to Sicily, where the Carthaginians suffered a severe defeat near the town of Panormus on the island (251 B.C.). After this the Romans lost heavily by sea until, under their general Cat'ulus, they won a victory over the Carthaginians at the Aega'tes Islands near Lilybae'um (241 B.C.). The Carthaginians now made peace, agreeing to the terms which the Romans imposed. ^ A Roman War Ship They paid a considerable sum of money to Rome, gave up their claim to Italy and the neighboring small islands, and permitted the Romans to form the Avestern part of Sicily into a province. This brought the First Punic War to a close in 241 B.C. An interesting story is told of the fate of Regulus, which, though doubtful as history, is of value as showing the ideas of the ancient Romans in regard to honor and the value of a promise. It is said that Regulus was sent out from Carthage after his capture in company with Carthaginian ambassadors to sue for peace from Rome. Before he left Carthage he promised to come back and endure whatever penalty the Car- FOREIGN CONQUESTS 145 thaginians chose to impose upon hirii. The embassy was un- successful. The Carthaginians naturally thought that to save himself he would advise Kome to conclude peace. Instead of this, he advised his countrymen to continue the war and in his strict regard for the fulfillment of his promise, returned to THE ROMAN E3IPIRE AT THE END OF THE First Punic War, 211 C.C. SCALE OF MILES " " B e/t « » I A '■■'Si?? -W '*"""-* - '-• ' ^- "^-l'~^)f Wi-st '.'11 Carthage to suffer the punishment which was the lot of prison- ers of war. According to the legend, he received this punish- ment in full, being put to death Avith tortures. The Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.). — In the interval between the First and Second Punic Wars, Rome acquired the northern part of Italy, known as Cisal'pine Gaul, sending three successive armies against the barbarians of that region and completely defeating them. In the meanwhile the Cartha- ginians, who were dissatisfied with the treaty that had con- cluded the previous war with Rome, had tried to make up for the loss of Sicily by conquering southern Spain. Under their 146 • GENERAL HISTORY general, Hamilcar Barca, they succeeded in this enterprise, and turned southern Spain into a dependency of Carthage. The genius of Hamilcar was inherited by his son Hannibal, whom his father had obliged to swear eternal enmity to Rome. Hannibal completed the schemes of his father, and established the Carthaginian empire in Spain. At the age of twenty-six he assumed the command of the entire Carthaginian army in the Spanish peninsula, and soon afterwards captured the city of Saguntum, which was an ally of Kome. This caused Rome to declare war, and the conflict which followed was known as the Second Panic War, beginning in 218 b.c. and ending in 202 B.C. Hannibal's Passage of the Alps. — Hannibal determined to carry the war into Italy. To do this, he had to fight his way through Spain and cross the Alps, which were regarded as an impassable barrier between Italy and the North. In this he succeeded, although he lost one half of his troops and almost all the beasts of burden in the passage. This is justly regarded as one of the greatest military feats in history. In modern times Napoleon accomplished it, but both he and his historians have accounted it one of the best proofs of his genius, that he, in the nineteenth century, should be able to do what Hannibal had accomplished in the Hannibal third ccutury B.C. Hannibal crossed the Alps probably by way of what is now known as the Little St. Bernard Pass. The Gauls on the Italian side of the Alps welcomed him as their deliverer, and he was soon in the plains of northern Italy. Hannibal in Italy. — The Romans were taken wholly by sur- prise by Hannibal's appearance in Italy. They sent an army against him under Cornelius Scipio, and the two forces met near the river Tici'nus, a northern branch of the river Po. The Romans were routed and soon afterwards suffered another defeat at the river Trebia. In the following year, 217 b.c, FOREIGN CONQUESTS 147 Hannibal won another victory at Lake Trasume'nus. These successes opened the way to Rome, and Hannibal seemed on the point of destroying forever the Roman power. But he thought it was better to make sure of success by winning over the tribes of eastern Italy to his side and opening communica- tions with the Carthaginians. Accordingly he marched toward the south, and did not direct his course toward Rome. The Romans now chose as their general Quintus Fabius Maximus, whom they made dictator. The policy of Fabius was one of delay. He is known in Roman history as the 'Delayer' (Cunctator). He dared not risk an open fight with the great general, but contented himself with harassing his army and wearing him out by delay. Fabius persisted in this in spite of all efforts on the part of Hannibal to draw him into an engagement. The wisdom of this course was soon apparent ; for when the Romans actually did venture to fight the Cartha- ginians on the field of Cannae (216 e.g.), they suffered one of the most serious losses they had ever experienced, and their defeat was complete. Up to this time there had been much discontent with the policy of Fabius at Rome, but after the news of the battle of Cannae the peopJe began to trust him. Many of Rome's allies remained loyal, and in spite of the suc- cess of the invader she was still able to resist him. Whether Hannibal could have destroyed his enemy by a march on Rome has always remained a disputed question. Apparently he did not think it was possible, and he contented himself with the capture of the second city of the peninsula, that is, Cap'ua. Here he and his army spent the winter, and it is said that his troops were weakened by the vices and in- dulgences to which they were tempted in this luxurious town. The Romans in Africa. — Realizing the impossibility of dis- lodging Hannibal from their own country, the Romans finally determined to carry the war into Africa. In Italy, however, they gained some success. They won a victory over Han- nibal in 215 B.C., and in 211 b.c. captured the city of Capua. The hero of the African campaign was Publius Cornelius 148 GENERAL HISTORY Scipio, whose first efforts were directed to driving out the Carthaginians from Spain. This he accomplished, and although a Carthaginian army was able to leave Spain for Italy, it was defeated by the Romans in 207 b.c. Having driven out the Carthaginians from the Spanish peninsula, Scipio returned to Rome and was appointed to the office of consul in 205 b.c. He now determined to invade Africa. Landing on the coast, he vrj/". 50 THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE END OF THE Second Punic War, 201 B.C. SCALE OF MILES Longitude 10 was joined by the king of Numidia, and with the troops of the latter as his allies marched against the Carthaginians. Han- nibal was now recalled to Carthage, and led the army that opposed the march of the invading Romans. The two armies met at Zama in 202 b.c, and at last the Romans defeated Han- nibal. Result of the Second Punic War. — Carthage was obliged to consent to very hard terms. She gave up to Rome all her pos- sessions in Spain, together with the islands in the Mediterra- nean, and promised to pay an annual tribute for the term of FOREIGN CONQUESTS 149 fifty years and to destroy all but a few of her ships of war. This victory won for Scipio the title of Africa'nus and secured for him one of the finest triumphs that a Roman general had ever received. Hannibal and Scipio. — In spite of the great services that Hannibal had rendered his country, he was extremely unpopu- lar after his defeat. He was obliged to leave Carthage and seek refuge in Asia Minor, but it seemed as if he could find no corner of the world in which he was safe from the Roman thirst for vengeance. Finally, after he had taken refuge in Bithynia, Rome decided that the ruler of that coun- try must give him up. Hannibal, rather than fall into the- hands of the Romans, took his own life by drinking poison. The one purpose of his life had been to avenge the insolence of Rome towards his city, and at no time in her history did Rome come so near destruction as during the period of Hanni- bal's occupation of Italy. To the end, he never relaxed his hatred toward Rome. Scipio, though victorious, was treated with equal ingratitude by his countrymen. After winning the victory at Zama, he returned to Rome, where he took an active part in the politics of the city. His success as a general had raised up many ene- mies against him, and, he was charged with corruption. He left Rome in disgust and returned to his country seat in Cam- pania, where he died in the same year in which Hannibal's death occurred (183 B.C.). Conquest of Macedonia and Syria. — At the close of the Second Punic War (202 b.c), Rome was supreme in the west and was ready to carry her conquests over the eastern countries. First, she became engaged in a war with Philip III., king of Mace- donia, on the pretext that Philip had given aid to the Cartha- ginians. The Greek leagues were anxious to rid themselves of the Macedonian yoke and to join the side of Rome. The Roman general Flamini'nus defeated Philip in the battle of Cynosceph'alae in Thessaly in the year 197 e.g., and the power of Macedonia was broken, Rome succeeding to her place. Colby's gen. hist. — 10 150 GENERAL HISTORY , The Greek cities found that they had merely exchanged the Macedonian for the Roman supremacy, and soon revolted against Rome, obtaining the aid of Anti'ochus III., king of Syria, who had offended the Romans by sheltering Hannibal after the lat- ter had fled from Carthage. In the battle of Magne'sia the Romans defeated Antiochus and made him give up all his Asiatic possessions, which were formed into a kingdom depend- ent upon Rome. Soon after this, war broke out between the Romans and Per- seus, the son and successor of the Macedonian king Philip III. The Romans in this war completed the conquest of Macedonia, winning a decisive victory under Lucius Aemi'lius Paulus at Pydna (168 B.C.). After the destruction of the Macedonian monarchy, Rome enjoyed a protectorate over the Greek states, but her government was so unjust and oppressive that the Achaean League revolted. In 146 b.c. the Roman consul Mum- mius, .having invaded Greece, captured the city of Corinth and razed it to the ground. After this Greece became merely a Roman province under the name of Achaea. The Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.). — Although the Second Punic War had left Carthage in a condition of weakness and humiliation, Rome was in constant dread lest she should regain her former power and again become a rival. Nothing would do but that the city should be destroyed. Every sign of a return of prosperity to Carthage was viewed with jealousy at Rome. The old Roman Cato was especially bitter in his de- nunciation of Carthage, and wearied the ears of the senators by the incessant repetition of the words, " Carthage must be destroyed." Finally, the Carthaginians took up arms against Masinis'sa, an ally of Rome, who had repeatedly encroached upon the rights of the Carthaginians. Rome chose to regard this as a breach of the treaty which had closed the Second Punic War, and a Roman army was sent to Africa. It was demanded of Carthage that she should surrender her arms and ships of war. This the Carthaginians did, but the Roman demands became more excessive. The Carthaginians were re- FOREIGN CONQUESTS 151 quired to abandon their city, and when they refused to consent to this Kome prepared to lay siege to it. The defense of the city was conducted with great heroism, the women and children aiding in the work. It is said that the sacred vessels in the temples and the cooking utensils of the dwelling houses were melted down and turned into weap- ons. At all events, when the Romans attacked the city they found that the inhabitants ^had somehow managed to arm themselves. The Romans were repulsed at first, but they hemmed in the city by land and sea and after a siege of four years succeeded in taking it. During the last part of the siege the Roman general was Scipio the Younger, the adopted son of Scipio, the conqueror of Hannibal. The city was com- pletely destroyed by fire in spite of Scipio's wish to preserve it; for the Roman Senate was relentless and demanded that not a trace of Carthage should be left. So complete was the work of destruction that for centuries the site of Carthage was uncertain, and it was only in recent times that its remains were excavated. They were found to be covered with a layer of ashes and to contain many bits of iron, probably fragments of weapons used in the siege. Only a tenth of the inhabitants had survived the siege, and these were sold into slavery. There is hardly a parallel in history to this sudden and com- plete extinction of an empire. Roman Conquests. — Although the conquests of Greece and Carthage were the principal events of this period, Rome had other wars on her hands and spread her empire over a wide extent of territory, both in the East and in the West. At the beginning of the period in 266 b.c, her empire was limited to the peninsula of Italy. At the close of it she ruled southern Europe from the Black Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, and a large part of northern Africa. Thus the basin of the Mediterranean Sea was completely under her influence, and besides this she was the dominant power in Asia Minor. In Spain, where Scipio had such success before Hannibal was recalled from Italy, Rome had some difficulty in repress- 152 GENERAL HISTORY ing the spirit of freedom among the native tribes. There was a war of nine years, from 149 b.c. to 140 b.c, with the Lusi- tanians, who inhabited the modern Portugal, and the Eomans were successful only after the chief of the repulsed tribe, Viri- athus, had been assassinated. Another long war followed, between 143 and 133 b.c, with the Celtiberians, whose capital city was Numantia, but after varying fortunes the war closed with the capture of this city by the Romans under the leader- ship of Scipio the Younger, the conqueror of Carthage. Effects of the Conquests. — The conquered territory was formed into provinces, which were commanded by officers sent out from Rome. These provinces retained their own laws and customs, but were completely subject to Rome, and were obliged to pay an annual tribute. This tribute or tax was collected by a class called publicans, who engaged to pay in a certain amount to the Roman treasury, but were to keep for themselves all that they raised in excess of this amount. This practice gave rise to great oppression and injustice, for a greedy publican would be apt to extort more money from the natives than they could justly be required to pay. But in spite of this difficult system of collecting taxes, a vast amount of wealth poured' constantly into the Roman treasury. One result of this was that it enabled Rome to carry out a great system of public works. Italy had become a perfect network of mili- tary roads, which remain to this day models of the art of road building ; and the public buildings of Rome, its sewers, aque- ducts, and bridges, are among the most splendid works of antiquity. Another result of this wealth was to corrupt the independent and industrious spirit of the Roman citizens. There was a great increase of luxury and of display. The incentive to industry was removed ; men looked less to their own exertions than to the spoils of conquest for the acquisition of wealth. Slavery became far more generally practiced than before. Most of the large plantations were worked by slaves, of whom the number was greatly increased by the foreign wars. The FOREIGN CONQUESTS 153 independent Roman cultivator of the soil disappeared, and the work was largely done by slave labor. Moreover, there was a constantly increasing class of people in the city who looked f-i^'SJliu ai4ti4^^ Roman Aqueduct near NImes, in France to the State for their support. To satisfy the demands of this class and possibly to prevent a dangerous uprising, the govern- ment permitted the giving of largesses or the public distribu- tion of alms on a very extensive scale. This was naturally an encouragement of the very evil it was supposed to check. Another effect of the conquest was to bring Rome into con- tact with foreign civilizations. The effect of Greek culture on Rome was especially marked, and there was a host of Greek scholars, tragedians, rhetoricians, schoolmasters, and philoso- phers in the city. Formerly the old nar- row provincial spirit of Rome had despised the culture of the Greeks, and some of Ancient Roman Plow her ablest men continued to abuse it as certain to induce Greek effeminacy. Nevertheless, Greek lit- erature and art became more and more fashionable at Rome, 154 GENERAL HISTORY and there is scarcely a Roman writer of note who does not bear traces of their influence. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Character of the Period : Foreign Wars. — The Carthaginians : Ri- valry of Rome and Carthage. The Occasion of the War. — First Punic War, 264-241 b.c. : Founding of the Roman Navy. Roman Victories. Story of Regulus. —Second Punic War, 218-202 b.c. : The Romans acquire Cisalpine Gaul. Carthaginian Successes in Spain. — Hanni- bal's Passage of the Alps. — Hannibal in Italy : His Victories at the Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasumenus. Fabius and his Policy of Delay. Hannibal's Victory at Cannae, 216 b.c. The Winter at Capua. — The Romans in Africa : Roman Successes. Scipio in Spain. The War in Africa. Roman Victory at Zama, 202 b.c. — Result of the Second Punic War : Hard Terms imposed on the Carthaginians. — Hannibal and Scipio : Ingratitude shov^^n them. Their Death. — Conquest of Macedonia and Syria: War v^^ith Philip HI. of Mace- donia. Roman Victory at Cynoscephalae, 197 b.c. Conquest of Syria. Final Overthrow of the Macedonians at Pydna, 168 b.c. Greece a Roman Province. — Third Punic War, 149-146 b.c. : Harsh- ness of the Romans. The Pretext for the War. Siege of Carthage by Scipio the Younger. Heroism of the Carthaginians. Destruction of the City. — Roman Conquests : Their Wide Extent. Conquest of Spain completed. — Effects of the Conquests : Administration of the Provinces. The Publicans. — Great Wealth of Rome and its Effects : Public Works. Luxury. Increase of Slavery. — Demoralization of the People : Influence of Greek Civilization. CHAPTER XXIII THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 133-27 B.C. Social Condition. — In the last half of the second century b.c, Rome was in a wretched condition. All power was in the hands of the wealthy classes, and the number of the poor was continu- ally increasing. Slave labor had supplanted the work of the THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 155 honest Roman peasant. A few aristocratic families held all the public lands and great crowds of people swarmed in the cities, especially in Rome, and subsisted for the most part on the money paid for their votes. A poor man found it hard to earn a living, and he became far too dependent upon the public distribution of bread for his support. The Gracchi. — It will be remembered that the Licinian Law regulated the amount of public land which could be held by a single citizen. In spite of this law, members of the wealthy classes held a far larger amount of the land than was legally permissible. Stirred by the sufferings of the lower classes, Tibe'rius Gracchus proposed a law to limit the amount of land which a single citizen could hold and to distribute the rest among the poorer classes in small homesteads. This law was passed by the people. At this time Gracchus held the office of tribune, and in order to carry the law into effect it was neces- sary that he should be reelected. The wealthy classes opposed this, and when his name came up for reelection, they gathered a mob, fell upon him and his adherents, and murdered him and 300 of his followers (133 b.c). Ten years later Gains Gracchus, the younger brother of Tiberius, took up the cause of the people and secured the pas- sage of an Agrarian Law and of a law for the sale of grain at less than cost to all citizens who might choose to apply for it. He also demanded other important reforms, and, among them, the granting of the right of voting to the Latins and even to the Italians. Like Tiberius Gracchus, he was a tribune of the people ; but in 121 b.c. he lost his position and in a riot which followed was killed by the party of the nobles, together with about 3000 of his adherents. Such was the fate of the Gracchi. They were sincere men, striving to improve the condition of the poor people of Rome ; but to the aristocratic party they seemed too radical, and they were sacrificed to the fury of their enemies. War with Jugurtha. — For a few years after the death of the Gracchi, Rome enjoyed peace, but the ruling class was corrupt and the administration of the government was marked by ex- travagance. In 111 B.C. the city was involved in a war with Jugur'tha, the adopted son of the king of Numidia. Jugurtha, being ambitious of power, had killed one of the king's sons, who was the rightful heir to the throne. Another son applied to Eome for aid. Eome interfered on behalf of the rightful suc- cessor of their ally, but Jugurtha by judicious bribes escaped punishment and ruled the kingdom. A Koman army was sent against him, but he bribed the general and the expedition amounted to nothing. Finally the anger of all the people led to the appointment of Quintus Metel'lus as general, and he defeated Jugurtha in 108 b.c. Then the command of the army was transferred to Gains Marius, and the latter brought the war to an end, conquering the African chief, who was brought as a prisoner to Rome. Thus Marius secured a triumph and became the idol of the popular party at Kome. His glory was shared by one of his officers, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who after- wards became the rival of Marius and the leader of the aristo- cratic party. The Cimbri and Teutones. — The Cimbri and Teu'tones were two great hordes of barbarians, numbering, according to some accounts, about 300,000 fighting men who had left their home in the Alpine regions to the north of Italy and, after conquering the Gauls, actually threatened Italy. Several Roman armies were sent against them and defeated, and the barbarians in 103 b.c. planned to subdue Italy. The popular party attributed the defeats of the Roman armies to the mis- management of the aristocratic party, and Marius was now chosen consul in order to avert the danger to the state. The barbarians attacked him in his camp, but Marius drove them back. He then followed them up and defeated them in two great battles in 103 and 101 b.c. It is said that more than 100,000 of the barbarians were killed in the second battle and about 60,000 taken prisoners and carried to Rome to be sold as slaves. For these great services Marius was regarded as the savior of his country. THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 157 The Social War. — It has already been shown that the Ital- ian allies of Rome were not admitted to the same rights, as Roman citizens. Having fought in Roman wars and won victories for the benefit and for the glory of Rome, the Ital- ians, as was natural, demanded the same rights as the Roman people. The refusal to grant these demands led to the war known as the Italian or Social War (90-88 b.c). The Italians formed a republic for themselves, but Rome sent her armies to bring them back to their allegiance. The Italians had the juster cause; for they were of the same race, language, and religion as the Romans, and in all essentials were their equals. Rome, however, was successful in this as in most of her con- tests, but she gained the victory more by policy than by arms; for she promised the rights of full citizenship to all who did not take part in the war. At the end of this war (88 b.c.) all Italy to the south of Cisalpine Gaul, with the exception of the Lucanians and the Samnites, acquired the same rights as Roman citizens. Sulla and Marius. — Sulla, who had been an officer in the army of Marius, became his rival in political affairs at Rome and was chosen by the nobles or senatorial party as their leptder. For many years there was a struggle for mastery between the popular party, whose chief was Marius, and this aristocratic faction, headed by Sulla. After the Social War there arose serious trouble in Pontus in Asia Minor, where Mithrida'tes, the king, had conquered several of the Roman allies and had caused the murder of nearly 70,000 Roman citizens. Marius and Sulla both desired the command of the expedition against Mithridates, but Sulla finally prevailed, and when his opponents tried to set aside his election, marched against Rome and forced Marius to flee into Africa. Sulla was completely successful against Mithridates, and forced the Greek states which had joined forces with the Asiatic ruler back into submission. While Sulla was absent, Marius re- turned to Italy and took a terrible revenge upon the adherents of his rival. The consul was murdered and the leaders of the 158 GENERAL HISTORY aristocratic party were forced to flee from Rome. Mariirs died before the return of Sulla, but his party still continued in power. When Sulla heard of the events at Rome, he made peace with Mithridates (83 b.c.) and returned to the city. His revenge was no less bloody than that of Marius. He caused the body of Marius to be taken from its tomb and thrown into the river Anio. Hundreds of the supporters of Marius were assassinated, and it is said that in Rome alone 3000 people were killed and their property conti seated. The Career of Sulla. — Sulla was proclaimed dictator of Rome for an unlimited period (81 b.c). He used his power for the benefit of the aristocratic party, and he ruled as an Oriental despot. But he wearied of the duties of his office and resigned in three years. He died in 78 b.c. The spirit of the man is well shown by the epitaph which he caused to be inscribed on his monument: "I am Sulla the Fortunate, who have sur- passed both friends and enemies ; the former by the good, the latter by the evil, I have done them." The War in Spain. — From 77 to 72 B.C. there was a serious revolt in Spain under a brave general named Sertorius. At times it seemed as if the entire peninsula would be lost to Rome, but the command of the Roman army in Spain was in the hands of an energetic general named Pompey, who suc- ceeded in capturing city after city. As he conquered prov- inces he placed in command of them men on whom he could rely as friends of the Roman state. Spartacus. — Another revolt nearer home was that of the gladiators. This class of men comprised prisoners of .war who were trained to fight combats in public for the pleasure of the Roman mob. One of this degraded class, Spartacus, stirred up his comrades to revolt, and, aided by a large number of dis- contented men, ravaged the country and threatened Rome. A Roman general named Marcus Crassus defeated them in 71 b.c, and Spartacus was killed. Pompey, however, had the glory of bringing the war to a close. He followed up the remnant of THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 159 the gladiators, who were about 5000 strong, and cut them to pieces. Pompey's Campaigns. — At this time, that is, in the first half of the first century B.C., the history of Rome becomes more and more identified with the lives of prominent Roman citizens. Rome was fast approaching the time when one of her great generals or statesmen would assume the entire control of the city. The old liberties of Rome were dead ; patriotism had disappeared ; and the attention of the public was directed away from good government at home to .conquests abroad. Men who had the ability to win these conquests could secure almost anything they pleased from their countrymen at home. Pompey was one of the men who, having dis- tinguished himself in foreign wars, was looked upon as the natural leader of the city. He increased his already great reputation by his victory over the pirates of the Mediterranean, who had rav- aged the coasts of Asia Minor and had become so daring that they attacked the towns on the Italian coast. Worse than this, they intercepted the ships which brought grain to Rome. Pompey secured complete command of the territory infested by the pirates, and within three months he succeeded in break- ing up their power. It is said that he put 10,000 of them to death and captured 3000 of their vessels. Soon after this he was chosen as the general to command in the war against Mithridates. In this campaign he was no less successful. The war lasted from 66 to 64 b.c, ending with the complete overthrow of Mithridates, whoin Pompey put to flight and who finally committed suicide. As a result of Pompey 's expedition in the East, all western Asia was reduced to subjec- tion. On account of these successes he became the idol of his countrymen. No general had ever enjoyed such a triumph as that which was granted to him on his return to Rome. It is said that hundreds of princes walked as captives in his tri- 160 GENERAL HISTORY umphal procession. It was his boast that he had conquered Africa, Europe, and Asia, thus completing for Rome the con- quest of the world. Party Strife in Rome. — During the years that followed the death of Sulla, Eome was the victim of constant party struggles. On the one side was the aristocratic party, which was conserv- ative in temper ; on the other was the popular party. At the head of the army was Pompey, whose friend and representa- tive during his absence in Asia was Marcus Tullius Cicero, the foremost orator in Rome. The leader of the popular party was Julius Caesar, who in a few years was destined to prove himself the greatest of the Romans and one of the most remarkable men of all / / . I i \ time. Besides these well-de- r //! '^ ' / I ^ fined parties, there were vari- '^ «i -'^ i/-' - ^ ^^^g discontented elements in (JlCEEO 1 • 1 1 • the state, which, being com- posed of disreputable or anarchistic men, were opposed to any stable form of government. To this latter class belongs Cat'iline, whose conspiracies at one time threatened to overturn the government. Catiline was a young patrician who had been in the service of Sulla and had distinguished himself by his bravery as well as by his vices. Wishing to secure for himself and his partisans the control of the forces of the city, he planned during Pom- pey's absence to murder the consul Cicero and burn Rome. This plot, however, was betrayed to Cicero, who denounced Catiline with such vigorous eloquence that he was obliged to flee from Rome. He was accompanied by many of his revo- lutionary companions, but they were overtaken before they had proceeded far and were slain in 62 b.c. THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 161 The First Triumvirate. — Foiiipey was a weak and vacillating politician, and he owed his fame more to good luck than to any very extraordinary ability. Caesar succeeded in winning him over to his views, and formed with him an alliance against the aristocratic party in Rome as represented by the Senate. What is known as the First Triumvirate was a union be- tween Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, for the purpose of further- ing their own ends. All real power in Rome was in the hands of these three men, and the chief offices of the state were divided among them. Caesar secured the consulship in 59 B.C., and after the expiration of his term of office became the pro- consul of Gaul for five years, this term afterwards being pro- longed through his efforts for another five years. Pompey obtained the command of Spain, and Crassus of Syria, but the main interest of history for the next few years centers in the career of Caesar in Gaul. Caesar's Gallic Campaigns. — From 58 to 50 B.C. Caesar was engaged in subduing the barbarous tribes of Gaul, and he has left us a record of his campaigns in his famous Commentaries on the Gallic War. He saw that there was a chance for him to win great military renown, and he improved every oppor- tunity. At this time Gaul on the Italian side of the Alps was already a Roman province; but among the barbarians to the north, although there were some allies of Rome, little reverence was felt for the Roman name. In two years Caesar succeeded in reducing them to submission. But there were other enemies of Gauls and Romans alike on the other side of the Rhine. These were the Germans, whose aggression on the Gauls caused the latter to appeal to Caesar for aid. Caesar drove the Germans across the Rhine, but did not effect any permanent conquest on their own land, although lie established a barrier against them which endured for sev- eral hundred years. From Gaul Caesar made two expeditions against Britain, where he defeated the natives but did not bring them under the control of Rome. On his return to Gaul, he was called upon to put down a serious rebellion of the 162 GENERAL HISTORY Gallic tribes. In this he was successful. As a result of his campaigns in Gaul, the entire country from the Pyrenees Mountains to the lihine was subdued and for several centuries remained a Roman province. Pompey and Crassus. — While Caesar was in Gaul, Pompey and Crassus, the other two members of the Triumvii-ate, ruled as consuls during the year 55 b.c. Crassus then set out for Syria, but was killed in the course of a campaign in Parthia. Thus Caesar and Pompey remained as the sole leaders of the Roman people. It was natural that a bitter rivalry should arise between them; for Caesar continued the leader of the democratic party, while Pompey returned to the aristocratic party to which he formerly had belonged. The latter remained in Rome, and, while he watched with anxiety the success of his rival in Gaul, did all he could to win the favor of his fellow-citizens. He distributed alms freely and spent large sums of money on the public games. The nobles were natu- rally on the side of Pompey ; for they feared the growing power of Caesar, who was the democratic champion. It was soon evident that Caesar intended to stand for the consulship ; for as his command in Gaul would expire in 49 b.c, unless he were in the meantime chosen to an office, he would have to fall back to the rank of a private citizen. The friends of Pompey determined to prevent Caesar's becoming consul, and required that before he ran for the office he should lay down his command of the armies of Gaul. To this Caesar replied that he would take this step if Pompey also would lay down his military command. The Senate refused to consent to this, and demanded that Caesar should resign and disband the army on a certain day. Crossing the Rubicon. — At this crisis it was a matter of very serious concern what Caesar's decision would be. If he refused to obey the Senate's order, he would be in effect a traitor to the state. On the other hand, if he did obey and disbanded his army, he would merely be a private citizen again, and his enemies would have the complete control of THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 163 affairs. Caesar knew, moreover, that all the soldiers in his army were sincerely devoted to him. He knew, too, from long experience of their good discipline and valor, that by their aid he could accomplish almost anything that he chose. Accordingly he did not wait long to make up his mind. With a body of veteran troops he left his headquarters at Ravenna and advanced to the little river Rubicon, which divided his province from Italy proper. If he crossed the stream, it amounted really to a declaration of war. With the full knowl- edge of this he crossed the river, exclaiming : " The die is cast ! " Civil War. — In a short time Caesar was master of all Italy, for Pompey and his friends fled in hot haste across the Adriatic Sea to Greece. He hoped in the East, which was the scene of his former victories, to be able to gather a large army with which to oppose Caesar. While Pompey was thus engaged, Caesar conquered Sicily, Sardinia, and Caesar Spain, and then set out in pursuit of Pompey. The forces of the two generals met on the plain of Pharsalus in Thessaly, and the result of the battle was the utter defeat of Pompey, who then fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously murdered. This left Caesar the sole ruler of the Roman world, — a ruler in fact but not in name, for he did not assume the title of king. There was still some work for him to do in Africa, where the adherents of Pompey held out, and in Asia Minor, where a revolt had been started against the Roman power. 164 GENERAL HISTORY In Egypt Caesar took up the cause of Cleopatra, the queen, and defeated a younger brother, Ptolemy, with whom she had quarreled. Having seen her securely established on the throne, Caesar turned his attention to the revolt in Asia Minor, which he put down after a brief campaign, recording his success in the famous dispatch : Veni, vidi, vici — " I came, I saw, I conquered." The last stand of the adherents of Pompey was made in Africa and in Spain, but Caesar com- pletely overthrew the republican forces at Thapsus in Africa (46 B.C.) and at Munda in Spain (45 b.c). Caesar as a Civil Ruler. — These events placed all power in the hands of Caesar. Rome was from this time forth in effect a monarchy; for the republic came to an end when the last hopes of Pompey's allies were destroyed in the battle of Thap- sus, and when the stern republican Cato killed himself rather than see the state transformed to a despotism. Yet Caesar preserved all the old forms of the constitution and did not assume the name of king, but remained as a dictator, the office having been granted to him at first for ten years and later made perpetual. He was also allowed to retain the title of Imperator (from which our word emperor is derived), which up to this time had been merely a temporary title held by a victorious general until he laid down his command. Although Caesar possessed this absolute power, he governed with wisdom and justice. He pardoned those who had been in arms against him and broke with the old and narrow policy of the state b}^ granting important privileges to the provincials. Thus he bestowed the citizenship on the inhabitants of Gaul. He did his best to secure an honest administration of the provinces ; he adorned Rome with beautiful public buildings, and in the short time between his rise to power and his death, introduced many important reforms and improvements in all departments of the administration. He planned to execute still more extensive ones, but was murdered before he had time to complete them. The Death of Caesar. — Naturally such extraordinary success THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 165 made him enemies, and though the city seemed in the main to be contented with his rule, it was easy for his ill- wishers to play on tlie passions of the people by pointing out that he had aimed at the complete overthrow of the constitu- tion and the establishment of a tyranny. It was said that he intended to assume the title of king. Several times a crown The Death of (Jaesar was publicly offered to him and he refused it ; but his refusal was thought to proceed merely from his perception of the displeasure of the people. A plot was formed against him, and the Ides (loth day) of March, 44 b.c, was fixed upon for his assassination. The rumors of the intended murder got abroad and Caesar was warned of the plot, but he took no notice of these warnings. On the appointed day he was surrounded in the Senate by the conspirators and killed. Among the assassins was one whom Caesar had always regarded as his especial friend. This was Brutus, and it is said that Caesar, when he recognized him among his assailants, COLBY'S GEN. HIST. 11 166 GENERAL HISTORY ceased to offer resistance, and exclaiming, " Thou too, Brutus ! " allowed himself to be slain. The Greatness of Caesar. — In Shakespeare's play Caesar is styled "the foremost man of all the world," and the title seems to be deserved; for he was great not only as a general, but as a statesman and an author. To summarize his exploits as a general, it may be mentioned that he conquered Gaul, invaded Britain and Germany, conquered Spain, scattered the forces of Pompey, subdued Egypt, routed the King of Pontus, and crushed out the final opposition of Pompey 's adherents in the battles of Thapsus and Munda. It is said that he fought fifty pitched battles, in which the lives of over a million men were lost. His merit as a statesman is twofold. He had, in the first place, the wisdom to see that Rome ought no longer to endure the mob rule from which she was suffering during the period of civil strife, and that the time had come for the establishment of a one-man power in the state. In the second place, when he gained this jjower, although it was absolute, he did not use it for selfish or unwise ends. He used it for the public good, and though the time of his rule was short, he did work of lasting benefit which won for him fame as a statesman equal to, or even greater, than his fame as a general. His title to literary renown rests upon his two books, the one on the civil war and the other on the Gallic war. The latter is an almost perfect model of concise and graphic historical writing, and remains to this day a familiar classic of literature. Antonius and Octavius. — The conspirators who struck down Caesar gained nothing by their act. His colleague in the con- sulship was ]Mark Antony (Marcus Anto'nius), who, in an elo- quent oration at the funeral of Caesar, aroused the feelings of the multitude against the conspirators to such a pitch of fury that the latter were obliged to leave Rome. Antony, for a time, was the foremost man in the city, but he had a danger- ous rival in the young Octavius, whom Caesar had made his heir, bequeathing to him both his name and his property. THE PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 167 Octavius, or, to give him the name to which he was entitled on the cleatli of Caesar, Gains Julius C'aesar Octavianus, was at this time but eighteen years of age. When the news of Caesar's death reached him, he was pursuing his studies at Apollonia, and the veteran troops stationed at that place, were ready to support him loyally as the heir and adopted son of their old general. On Caesar's death Antony appropriated his wealth, and it was thought at first that Octavius would THE ROMAN E3IPIRE AT THE Death of Caesar, U B.C. SCALE OF MILES lead an army against Rome and seek vengeance. Instead of this, however, he came to Rome with only a few followers. Antony's reckless and dishonest conduct had brought him into public disfavor. Octavius and he were soon at odds, but were finally reconciled. The Second Triumvirate. — As a result of their agreement, the Second Triumvirate was formed, comprising Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus, who possessed all the powers of gov- ernment. Almost their first act was to draw up a list of 300 168 GENERAL HISTORY senators and 2000 knights of the hostile party to be put death. The first name on the list of senators was Cicero's, and he perished in the wholesale massacre that followed. One object of forming the Triumvirate was to crush the forces of the murderers of Caesar. Brutus and Cassius, the leaders of the conspirators, had fled to the East, and had there gathered a considerable force. Antony and Octavius went over to Macedonia and met the army of the republicans at Philippi (42 B.C.), and there won a decisive victory. After this defeat Brutus and Cassius killed themselves, and all hope of a restoration of the republic was lost. The Koman world was divided between the triumvirs, Antony governing in the East, Octavius in the West, and Lepidus in Africa. Lepidus was a man of weak character and slight ability, and his share soon passed into the hands of his colleagues. The Overthrow of Antony. — Antony's governmeut in the East had been unwise and oppressive. He made his head- quarters at Alexandria, and there coming under the influence of the famous Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, he seems to have lost all ambition and prudence. Finally, when he had insulted Octavius by divorcing his wife, Octavius' sister, and had an- gered the people by giving Roman provinces to Cleopatra, the peace between him and Octavius came to an end. Both sides made preparations for war, and the first decisive battle was fought off the promontory of Actium on an inlet of the Ambracian Gulf (31 b.c). It is said that Cleopatra deserted Antony's side in this battle, and that Antony, seeing her take flight, gave up the fight and followed her. At all events, the battle of Actium was a complete victory for Octavius, to whom both the fleet and the army of Antony at once surrendered. Antony followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, but Octavius pursued them and laid siege to the city. Deserted by his troops and deceived by the rumor that Cleopatra had committed suicide, Antony killed himself. Cleopatra, fearing that she would be brought as a captive to Rome, also committed suicide. Octavius. — Octavius was now without a rival. The Senate TIIF, PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE 169 had sunk to the position of a servile body and all its powers were exercised by a sort of Privy Council, composed of the friends of Octavius. On his return to Rome, he received three triumphs. The Senate was willing to grant him all the powers that he desired. He avoided, however, the kingly title, and even resigned his command in the army, but he was requested to resume it for a period of ten years, and the term was after- wards continued. Though nominally ruling under the old forms, he was really an emperor, and the date 27 b.c, when the title of Augustus was bestowed upon him, may be taken as marking the beginning of the imperial monarchy. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Period of Civil Strife. — Social Conditions: Increase in the Numbers of the Poor. — The Gracchi : The Efforts on Behalf of the Poor. Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 138 b.c. Death of Gaius Gracchus, 121 b.c. — War with Jugurtha : Bribery of the Romans. The Defeat of Jugur- tha, 108 B.C., by Quintus Metellus. The Success of Marius. — The Cimbri and Teutones : Their Aggressions in Northern Italy. Their De- feat by Marius, 103-101 b.c — The Social War: Rome's Unfair Treat- ment of her Allies. Rome successful in the War, but makes Concessions. — Sulla and Marius : Sulla the Leader of the Aristocratic, Marius of the Democratic Party. Sulla's Overthrow of Mithridates. Marius causes the Murder of Sulla's Partisans. Sulla's Revenge. — The Career of Sulla : His Despotic Power. His Character. — The War in Spain: Success of Pompey, 77-72 b.c. — Spartacus : The Revolt of the Gladiators, Over- throw by Crassus and Pompey. — Pompey's Campaigns: Affairs at Rome. Pompey the Leading Citizen. His Success in the War with the Pirates. His Success against Mithridates. — Party Strife at Home: Prominent Men. Cicero. Caesar. Catiline's Conspiracy. — The Eirst Triumvirate : Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey. Division of Power. — Caesar's Gallic Campaigns, 58-50 b.c. : His Success in Gaul. Expeditions to Britain. Complete Subjugation of Gaul. — Pompey and Crassus : Death of Crassus. Pompey the Champion of the Aristocratic Party. His Jealousy of Caesar. The Senate orders Caesar to lay down his Command. — Crossing the Rubicon : Caesar refuses to obey the Senate and enters Italy. — Civil War : Italy in Caesar's Power. Defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus. Final Overthrow of the Republicans. — Caesar as a Civil Ruler : His Absolute Power. His Wise Government. — The Death of Caesar : His Enemies. The Ides of March, 44 b.g. — The Greatness of Caesar: Military Genius. 170 GENERAL HISTORY Statesmanship. Literary Talent. — Antonius and Octavius : Antony's Funeral Oration. Antony's Reckless Conduct. Octavius. — The Second Triumvirate : Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus. Murder of their Oppo- nents. Defeat of the Republicans at Philippi, 42 b.c. — Overthrow of Antony : Antony's Folly. Cleopatra. Defeat of Antony at Actium, 3i B.C. — Octavius: All Power in the State concentrated in his Hands. The Empire. CHAPTER XXIV THE ROMAN EMPIRE The Government. — We have seen already that although Rome was in re- ality an absolute monarchy, the forms of the re- public were con- tinued . The Senate was still kept up and there were consuls chosen every year, but the Senate always voted as Augus- tus wished and the consuls and other magistrates were obliged to do the emperor's bidding. Augus- tus united in him- AuGusTus self the functions of all the magis- trates, both civil and ecclesiastical. His officers were his own creatures and for the most part were mere figureheads. He THE ROMAN EMPIRE 171 was careful not to offend the people by assuming the pomp appropriate to his great position, and he contented himself with having the substance rather than the show of power. It was the principle of the Eoman state tliat the emperor was the source of all authority. The Extent of the Empire. — Augustus is said to have ruled over 100,000,000 people living within the confines of the empire. The geographical limits of this empire were the Atlantic in the west, the Euphriites in the east, the forests of Germany in the north, and the African desert in the south. In other words, it took in all the civilized Western world. Outside of Italy, the empire was divided into provinces, which in the time of Augustus numbered twenty-seven and may be grouped under the heads of Western or European, numbering fourteen, Eastern or Asiatic, numbering eight, and Southern or African, numbering five. It will be noted from this what a great variety of races must have been comprised within the dominion of the emperor. There were in reality three distinct civilizations ; viz. the Latin, which included the western part of the empire ; the Greek, including both Greece proper and the Greek cities of Asia Minor ; and the Oriental civilization, including the countries as far east as the Euphrates. It was the aim of Augustus to unite these discord- ant civilizations into an harmonious whole, and for this purpose he traveled throughout his wide domains granting privileges here and there, founding colonies, and trying to make all classes of his subjects turn to him as the source of all power and beneficence. The Reign of Augustus. — Augustus ruled for about forty-tAvo years, that is, from 27 b.c. to 14 a.d., and this period is known in history as the Golden Age of Latin Literature. To it belongs the great historian Liv'y ; the poet Vergil, the author of the Aeneid; Horace, the writer of many odes, satires, and other poems ; Lucre'tius, the philosophical poet ; Catul'lus, the lyrical poet ; Sallust, the author of the history of the Jugurthine War and of Catiline's conspiracy. Besides these, there are many 172 GENERAL HISTORY writers who, although they did not flourish until after the death of Augustus, were so near his reign in point of time that they seem to belong to the Golden Age. Among these are the poet Ov'id; Martial, the writer of epigrams; Plin'y, the author of a natural history ; Ju'venal, the satirist; and Tac'itus, the historian. Augustus and his famous minister, Maece'nas, were generous patrons of literature, art, and architecture. In regard to external affairs, the policy of Augustus was one of peace. He endeavored to persuade the Koman people that it was foolish to attempt to push their conquests further. The temple of Janus, which, according to the ancient Roman custom, was opened in time of war and closed in time of peace, was opened only three times during the reign of Augustus. There was one war, however, which was of importance as bringing the Romans into conflict with the people that were destined ultimately to overthrow the empire. This was the war in Germany, where Varus, who had tried to force the Teutonic tribes to submission, was attacked by them under their chief Ar- min'ius or Hermann. The whole army of Varus was destroyed and he himself was killed (9 a.d.). This was one of the worst disasters that had ever befallen a Roman army, and it THE ROMAN EMPIRE 173 is said that Augustus never ceased to grieve over the de- feat, exclaiming in his sorrow: "0 Varus, give me back my legions ! " The importance of this event can be better under- stood in tracing the whole history of Rome's relations with the barbarians. It is sufficient now to state merely that this reverse changed the policy of Rome ; henceforth she contented herself with a policy of self-defense, maintaining the line of the frontier, but not as a rule seeking to extend her power beyond it to the north. The Augustan Line of Emperors, 14-68 A.D. — One of the weaknesses of the Roman state was the lack of a definite law of succession. The principle was not firmly established that the emperor's son should succeed him, and much of the history of the empire is taken up with the wars resulting from disputed claims to the throne. It will not be possible within the limits of this book to mention, or to give in detail, the reigns of the long line of Roman emperors after Augustus. The principal emperors, or those in whose reigns some especially striking events have taken place, will alone be described. All the Roman emperors after Augustus were called by his name, but the title Augustus was merely a sign of the office and there were only four emperors who actually belonged to his family. These emperors of the Augustan line were, in the order of their reigns, Tiberius, Calig'ula, Claudius, and Nero. Their reigns lasted until 6S a.d. These four emperors were among the worst in the history of the Roman Empire. The reign of Tiberius is marked by an important change affecting the Praetorian guard, a body of 10,000 picked troops. They were gathered in a fortified camp near one of the gates of the city. Formerly they had been scattered throughout the city. This concentration of the guard had a great influence upon subsequent history. They soon came really to rule Rome, for emperors were set up or deposed according to their wishes. The reign is also marked by an extreme usurpation of au- thority on the part of the emperor. His word was law, and 174 GENERAL HISTORY he could punish with the penalty of death any one of his sub jects without trial. A. cruel and licentious ruler, he tired of governing after a while and devoted the latter part of his life to the gratification of his vices, surrendering the power at Rome to one of his friends named Seja'nus. The latter plot- ted against his master, who became so suspicious on the dis- covery of the conspiracy that hundreds of men and women who had taken no part in it were put to death. Finally he was killed by one of his servants. Caligula was even worse. His savage cruelty was such that there seems to be nothing to account for it but a supposition of madness. He, too, after a reign of monstrous vice and brutal cruelty, was murdered by his own guards. His successor, Claudius, was less vicious than Caligula, but was weak in character, and wholly under the influence of his wife Agrippina, an unprincipled and ambitious woman, who finally murdered her husband in order that her own son by a previous marriage might come to the throne. In this design she was successful, and Nero became emperor. Nero inherited all the vices of his mother, and added to them many of his own. One of the greatest authors of his time, Sen'eca, was put to death as the result of the emperor's jealousy. Nero was one of the persecutors of the Christians. Down to his reign they were looked upon merely as a Jewish sect and were unmolested ; but now that they were discovered or recognized as a separate body, they were hunted out, brought before the magistrates, and condemned to death in large num- bers. Their execution was accompanied with tortures. Some were killed by wild beasts, others nailed to crosses or burnt alive. In Nero's reign occurred the great fire. He was long supposed to have caused it himself, and, according to one story, he amused himself by playing on a flute while Rome was burn- ing. Finally his legions broke out in revolt, and fearing that he was going to fall into their hands, he caused himself to be killed by one of his slaves in 68 a.d. After a contest between rival chiefs during several months, the empire was finally 1 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 175 quieted by a member of the Flavian house by the name of Vespa'sian. The Flavian Emperors. — The first of the Flavian emperors was Vespasian, who reigned from 69 to 79 a.d. He was one of the good emperors. He re- stored order to the state, reformed the finances, and improved the city. His son Titus captured Jerusalem in the year 70 a.d., and it is said that over a million Jews lost their lives at this time. The temple of Jerusalem was de- stroyed, and the inhabitants of the city nvho survived the attack were sold as slaves. It was also in the reign of Vespasian that Britain was subdued by an able Roman general, Agric'ola, Akcii of Titus (Eome) who made the island a Eoman province, and was its governor 78-85 A.D. 176 GENERAL HISTORY Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, who reigned only- two years, from 79 to 81 a.d., but in this short time he won the regard of the people by his many kindly acts. Three great disasters befell Eome during this reign. The first was a ter- rible fire which was almost as disastrous as the great fire of Nero's reign. The second was the visitation of the plague, which destroyed the lives of many Romans ; and the third was the eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Hercu- la'neum and Pompe'ii (Pompa'yee). The ruins of these cities Excavating a House at Pompeii were not brought to light until the early part of the eighteenth century. Excavations made then and since have sliown the cities exactly as they were at the time of the disaster, thus enabling us to see what a Eoman city was 1900 years ago. Titus was succeeded by his younger brother, Domitian, who reigned from 81 to 96 a.d. He was of a cruel and jealous temper, and his reign is stained by many acts of tyranny and THE ROMAN EMPIRE 177 by revolting crimes. The so-called " second persecution of the Christians" took place in his time, for this class of worshipers were especially hated by Domitian. At last he was murdered in his palace by one of his freedmen, 96 a.d. Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian (96-138 A.D. ). — After the mur- der of Domitian the Senate elected one of their own mem- bers to the throne. This was Nerva, whose short reign was marked by mildness and a wise administration of the govern- ment. More important in history was the reign of Trajan, who was a native of Spain and one of the best of the Roman emperors. Trajan pushed the boundaries of the empire farther to the east and to the north than they had ever been carried before, and his renown as a soldier was equaled by his taste in litera- ture ; for he was the patron of some of the greatest of the Roman writers, — Juvenal, Plutarch, and Pliny the Younger. He was also the great patron of architecture, adorning the city of Rome and the other cities of the empire with temples, theaters, and other structures. He died in 117 a.d., after a reign of nineteen years. The successor of Trajan was Hadrian, who reigned from 117 to 138 A.D., and he, too, was a patron of arts and learning. He founded many fine buildings in different parts of the empire. He passed most of his time in traveling throughout the provinces of the empire, but spent the latter part of his reign at Rome, where he built one of the finest of the Roman temples, — the temple of Rome and Venus. The Two Antonines (138-180 A.D.). — From 138 to 161 a.d., the imperial throne was occupied by Antoni'nus, surnamed Pius, whose reign was peaceful and prosperous, but is not remarkable for any very striking events. His adopted son, Marcus Aurelius, who came to the throne in 161 A.D., is more famous in history. He was a philosopher and an author, but although he would have chosen a life of retirement given over to study, he showed himself energetic in dealing with the barbarians, guarded the eastern frontier, and 178 GENERAL HISTORY drove back the invading troops of the Germans across the Danube. The Rule of the Army. — For a period of nearly 100 years the emperors were set up and pulled down at the will of the soldiery, and in consequence their reigns were very short. It will not be necessary to go into the details of each reign, but the accompanying table ^ will show the names and dates of these emperors. During this time the Germans were pressing upon the frontier of the empire and in the short reign of Decius, 250 a.d., the Goths defeated the Roman army, and killed the emperor. Not long after this they seized the province of Dacia, and began sending plundering expeditions through the eastern domain of Rome. Diocletian (284-305 A.D.). — Under the energetic rule of Diocle'tian and his successors, the empire was strengthened and the government became an absolute monarchy. ^AU pre- tense of ruling under republican forms was thrown aside, and the personal authority of the emperor was supreme in name as well as in fact. Diocletian, thinking it too difficult for one man to govern his vast domains, chose a colleague, Maxim 'ian, who ruled in the West while he himself ruled in the East. Besides these two emperors, who each bore the title of Augustus, there were two subordinate officers called Caesars, to each of whom was assigned a portion of the empire. Thus a precedent was established for the division of the Roman state. Another feature of this reign was the fierce persecution of the Christians. Diocletian did his best to destroy the new ti^ 1 Com'modus 180-192 Per'tinax 193 Did'ius Jiilia'uus . . . , 193 Septim'ius Seve'rus . . . 19,3-211 fCaracal'la 211-217 (Geta 211-212 Macri'nus 217-218 Heliogab'alus 218-222 Alexander Seve'rus . . . 222-2.35 Maximi'nus 235-238 Gordia'nus 238-244 Philip'pus 244-249 Dec'ius 249-251 Period of the Thirty Tyrants 251-2«8 Claudius 268-270 Aurelian 270-275 Tacitus 275-276 Floria'nus 276 Probus 276-282 Cams 282-283 jCari'nus 283-284 1 Numeria'nus 283-284 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 179 religion. Christian cliurclies were pulled down; the wor- shipers were hunted like wild beasts, and when taken were put to death with tortures. Constantine the Great (306-337 A.D.) and his Successors. — Con- stantine was the son of Constan'tius Chlorus who had ruled over Gaul, Spain, and Britain under Diocletian, and on the latter's death had been raised to the rank of Augustus. In the follow- ing year Constantius died in Britain, and Constantine was pro- claimed emperor by the troops. But there were several rival claimants, and it was only by hard fighting that he gained the im- perial power. There is a legend that just before meeting one of these rivals (Maxentius) on the field of battle, Constantine saw a sign of the cross in the sky with the words " By this conquer," and that, being victorious in the fight that followed, he gave np his pagan gods and became a Christian. It is certain that he showed a friendly spirit toward the new faith early in his reign, and in 313 a.d., by the Edict of Mil 'an, he granted it toleration. 180 GENERAL HISTORY ^ At first he ruled as joint emperor with Licinius, but by the year 324 a.d. he made himself sole ruler. He transferred the capital from Rome to Byzan'tium on the Bosporus, the latter city being thenceforth called, in his honor, Constantinople. This change was of great importance ; for it prepared the way for the separation of the empire into the Eastern and Western divisions, the former with its capital at Constantinople and the latter with its capital at Rome. In Constantine's time, however, the new city was the seat of government of the whole Roman world. The chief event of Constantine's reign was the making of Christianity the state religion. The Christian church had already become a very powerful body and the friendship of Constantine added greatly to its strength. Although a later emperor, Julian the Apostate, who came to the throne in 361 AD., tried to restore the old pagan gods, he failed com- pletely, and before the close of the century Christianity was the dominant religion of the Roman state. In the reigns of Constantine's successors the main interest attaches to the relations of the empire with the Germanic tribes who were trying to force their way across its frontiers. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Roman Empire. —The Government. —The Reign of Augustus, 27 B.C. to 14 A.D. — The Augustan Lme of Emperors, 14-68 a.d. — The Flavian Emperors. —Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian, 96-138 a.d. — Two Antonines, 138-180 a.d. —The Rule of the Army, 180-284 a.d. — Diocletian, 284-305 a.d. — Constantine the Great (300-337 a.d.) and his Successors. CHAPTER XXV THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS ROMP] AND HER GeRMAN FoES The Roman Frontier. — The frontier of tlie Roman Empire on the continent of Europe was marked almost exactly by the courses of the Rhine and the Danube rivers. To the north of this irregular line lived a number of barbarous tribes all be- longing to that division of the Aryan race which is called Germanic or Teutonic, but having no common government, and, if we may judge from their constant wars among them- selves, quite unaware of their kinship. The Germans ; their Origin. — It has already been said that at a very remote period the forefathers of all the Aryan races lived together, and that the home of the original stock was probably in western Asia. Of those divisions which remained in Asia, that is, the Persians, Medes, and Hindus, some ac- count has been given. The other divisions, five in number, migrated to Europe more than 2000 years b.c. These were the Greeks, Italians, Celts, Slavs, and Germans, of whom the first two were fortunate in securing the spot.s most favored by nature and best adapted to the development of civilization. Consequently the Greeks and Romans were the first of the European Aryans to emerge from barbarism and build up great states. Their story also has been told. Of the three remaining races the Germans have the most interest for us, for it was they who founded the great Eu- ropean states of to-day. Beginning their migration at about the same time as the other Aryan tribes, they spread over the vast tract of country between the Black and Caspian Seas on the east and the North Sea on the west. To the north of them were the Slavs, who do not become of histori- cal importance till many centuries later, and to the south were the Celts, who at the t:me of which we are treating Colby's oiiN. hist. — 12 181 182 GENERAL HISTORY lived within the limits of the Roman Empire and may for our purposes be regarded as Romans. Early German Civilization. — These German ancestors of ours, for so we must consider them, since the chief element of the English-speaking race is German, continued in the barbarous stage while the Romans advanced to the founding of a great empire and were already on the road to decline ; and from the first century b.c. to the fourth century a.d. there was little change in their condition. To judge from the accounts of Roman writers during this period, they had hardly passed the Early Germans degree of civilization reached by our North American Indians of to-day. They lived in huts, kept herds of cattle, and tilled the ground, but at short intervals the whole tribe would move away either in search of new lands or in the hope of conquering and plundering their neighbors. They knew no higher organiza- tion than that of the tribe, and they valued no authority but that of the chief whom they themselves had chosen. Even THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 183 he held his office by their consent and had but little power in time of peace ; for their main object in electing him was that they might have a leader in war, and if he attempted to enforce the same obedience to his commands when war had ceased, he was promptly deposed or murdered. In other words, the real power was in the people themselves ; for they were, above all, liberty-loving and unruly. Physical and Moral Characteristics. — Physically the Germans were a fine race. Tall, well-formed, with muscles hardened by constant exercise, they seemed like giants to the smaller, weaker Romans, who, in spite of superior discipline, were often no match for them in battle. Roman writers give strik- ing accounts of their fierce blue eyes and blond hair, their enormous size, their feats of strength and daring, and the absolute fearlessness with which they would rush to certain death on the battlefield. Another matter of surprise to the Romans was the high standard of morality which they found among these savages. The German was content with one wife. The women were pure and treated with respect. Any violation of chastity met with the severest punishment, and as a rule the marriage vow was respected. Yet the Germans had the vices of barbarians. They drank to excess and were possessed by the passion of gambling, sometimes even staking their liberty on the chance of the game, the loser becoming the slave of the winner. Such is the account which the Roman writers have given us of the Germans. In some points it may be exaggerated; for, as the Romans were worsted in their encounters with their warlike neighbors, pride might naturally lead them to magnify the strength of these victorious enemies. Then, too, the hope of improving the corrupt morals of the Romans might induce the historian to paint in too glowing colors the virtues of barbarians, that his countrymen might be put to shame by the contrast. Yet it is safe to conclude that these primitive Germans were a brave and sturdy race, and in many respects were superior to ordinary barbarians. 184 GENERAL HISTORY Roman Attempts at Conquest. — At first the Komans hoped to conquer the Germans and make them as good subjects of the empire as they had made tlie Gauls, but they found that they had undertaken a very difficult task. In the middle of the first century B.C. Caesar crossed the Khine into Germany to punish the insolence of the German chief Ariovis'tus, who had made war upon the Gallic allies of Rome ; but neither at this time nor on the occasion of a second invasion did the greatest of Rome's generals succeed in gaining permanent control over any portion of the German territory. In the reign of Augus- tus the Romans fared still worse. Varus, at the head of three Roman legions, crossed the Rhine and joined battle with the Germans in the Teu'toberg Forest (9 a.d,). He Avas killed, and his army was almost wholly destroyed. Thenceforth Rome was content in the main with a policy of self-defense, and bent all her energies to keeping the Rhine frontier unbroken. The Period of Successful Defense. — For about 150 years after the defeat of Varus, the Roman Empire managed to hold its own and the troublesome neighbors on the north were unable to break through the line of the frontier; but in 168 a.d. a confederation of German tribes, including the Marcoman'ni and others, being pushed on by the tribes behind them, crossed the border from what is now Bohemia and took pos- session of some Roman lands. After a long period of Avar- fare, the imperial government granted them certain lands along the Danube, and there the most of them remained, a constant source of trouble to the empire on account of their quarrels and lawlessness. Later a part of the Aleman'ni, an- other confederation of German tribes, seized some lands along the Danube and upper Rhine. After a time these tribes felt the effect of the Roman civilization. For nearly a century, that is, till the reign of the emperor Decius (249-251 a.d.), the empire was not seriously threat- ened, but Decius came into conflict with a new foe. The Goths, one of the largest divisions of German tribes, invaded the province called Moe'sia, and started on their usual course of THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 185 plundering and killing. Decius met them in battle, but was defeated and slain, and a few years later the emperor Aure- lian gave them the Roman province of Dacia as the price of peace. Another century of comparative security followed. At its close, the Goths again were the disturbers. The eastern divi- sion, who were called Ostrogoths, had as neighbors in the region about the Black and Caspian Seas a peculiar and war- like race, called Huns, who were constantly pressing westward and making war on all who stood in their way. These Huns attacked the Ostrogoths, defeated them, and forced them into their service as allies. Then the combined force of Huns and Ostrogoths fell upon the western division of the Goths, known as Visigoths, and crowded them southward to the Danube. In these straits the Visigoths begged the emperor to let them occupy the lands just to the south of the Danube, agreeing to defend them against attack. This was granted, and in 376 they crossed the river and settled in Moesia. ^ The Battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.). — These newcomers, the Vis'igoths, were hard people to deal with at best, but the Komans seem to have given them a just cause of offense. The officials of the empire misgoverned them and robbed them until finally the barbarians broke out in revolt. The Roman emperor Valens thereupon set out with an army to punish them, and the forces met in battle at Adriano'ple, 378 a.d. The Roman army was beaten, and Valens himself was killed in the retreat. This battle was very important ; for it taught the Germans that they were more than a match for the Roman legions, and it opened the way for the invaders. Great throngs of barbarians crossed the frontier, the Visigoths pressed on and took what lands they chose, and it looked for the moment as if the empire was at an end ; but the skill and bravery of one able ruler checked for a time the progress of the enemy and prolonged the life of the Roman state. This ruler was the emperor Theodo'sius. But before going on to the events of his reign, it will be well 186 GENERAL HISTORY to learn something about the names and position of the various German tribes with whom he and his successors had to deal. The German Tribes in the Fourth Century A.D. — Starting from the east, in the region to the north of Greece and between the Adriatic and Black seas, we first find these Goths of whom we have spoken. They were of pure German blood, and it is in their dialect that the Moeso-Gothic version of the Bible was written, the oldest book in a Germanic language that has come down to us. Both divisions of them — the Western or Visi- goths, and the Eastern or Ostrogoths — were occupying portions of the Roman territory in the latter part of the fourth cen- tury, but the Visigoths had penetrated further into the empire than their kinsmen. North and east of the Goths lived two races, the Slavs and the Huns, who were not of German blood. The Slavs, who occupied the southern part of what is now Bussia, did, indeed, belong to the same grand division as the Germans; that is, they were Aryans; but the Huns, who lived near the Black Sea, were of an entirely different race, the Turanian, and closely allied to the Turks or Tartars. To the west the nearest German neighbors to the Goths at this period were the descendants of those German tribes, the Marcomanni and others, who had settled in the lands near the Danube in the second century. Still further west along the upper Rhine lived the Ale- manni, who at one time had threatened Italy itself, and beyond them to the west dwelt the Franks, who were des- tined to become the most powerful of all the Teutonic tribes. The Franks held the lands along the lower Ehine near its mouth, and a x^art of what is now northern France. To the north and east of them, between the mouth of the Rhine and the mouth of the Elbe, were the Saxons, our nearest relatives among all these peoples; for at a later time, with two neighboring tribes, the Angles and Jutes, they conquered and settled in Britain. Finally, two more tribes. THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 187 the Burgundians and Vandals, are found along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. Such was the situation of the German tribes in the fourth century. Already one of these tribes, the Goths, had begun that great movement which was to destroy the Roman Empire and cliange entirely the face of western Europe. Theodosius saves the Empire. — After the defeat of Valens at Adrianople in 378, it seemed as if nothing could stop the rush of the barbarians into the very center of the empire. Not only had the imperial crown descended to feeble rulers un- worthy to wear it, but the empire had fallen apart and the power was divided between an emperor at Constantinople and another at Rome. The Eastern emperor, however, had the wisdom to call in the aid of the only man who could save the state from destruction. He sent for Theodosius from Spain, and gave him command of the army. Theodosius did not try to drive out the Goths, but he set them to quarreling among themselves and weakened their power. He gave them lands, but he made them keep within limits that he defined. To the Visigoths he gave Thrace and to the Ostrogoths Pannonia. In his reign something like the old power of the empire was restored and his rule extended over both East and West ; but on his death in 395 the empire Avas divided between his two sons, Honorius ruling in the West and Arcadius in the East, They were as weak and foolish as any of their predecessors, and their folly helped on the fall of Rome almost as much as the attacks of the barbarians. The Visigoths. — Already it had become the practice to re- cruit the Roman army from German subjects, so that the empire was relying for defense on the kinsmen of the very men who were attacking it. Almost immediately after the death of Theodosius, the Visigoths began to give trouble. They chose for their chief Al'aric, an able and valiant leader, who determined to gain for his people new and better lands, and with this end in view marched them directly into the heart of Greece. The Romans still had one able general. 188 GENERAL HISTORY Sti'licho, a Vandal in the service of the Western Empire, led an army into Greece and forced Alaric to withdraw into Illyria; but this province was so near Italy that the temptation to the Goths to pass around the head of the Adriatic and march on Rome proved too strong. They did so ; but there they again found Stilicho in front of them. This time the two armies met in a fierce battle at PoUentia (403), and the Goths were defeated and driven out. If Stilicho had been permitted to follow up his advantage, there might still have been some hope for the empire; but at this juncture the emperor Honorius, having taken it into his head that Stilicho was plotting to overthrow him, caused him to be murdered, thus depriving Italy of the only man able to hold an army together in the face of her foes. The Breaking up of the Empire. — In the meanwhile, since it required all the available troops to meet these Visigoths, the western provinces of the empire were left without defenders and a large body of Franks broke into northern Gaul. The Vandals and Burgundians also, leaving their homes on the Baltic, began their southward journey ; and the Suevi, another German tribe, entered the Roman dominions. Thus early in the fifth century we find six barbarous German tribes within the limits of the empire : Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Bur- gundians, Franks, and Suevi. The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths (410). — Promptly on the death of Stilicho, Alaric and his followers returned to Italy. Finding no one to bar their way, they were soon at the very gates of Rome, bargaining with the inhabitants in regard to the terms on which the city should be spared. Receiving a promise that he should have a certain amount of treasure, Alaric consented to leave the city unharmed, and passed on; but the emperor, who at this time was shut up safely in Ra- venna many miles away, refused to accept the terms. Alaric then came back and having again failed to bring the emperor to reason, besieged Rome and was soon inside its walls. For- tunately for the Romans, the barbarians were Christians, though THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS 189 not of the orthodox faith, and what they wanted was plunder which they could take away with them. The churches and the buildings generally were spared, nor is it likely that a large number of the people were killed, but the fact still re- mained that for the first time in 800 years Rome had fallen into the hands of an enemy. It had been believed that the city could never be conquered, and the easy victory of Alaric was a source of mingled surprise and terror to the superstitious, who thought that the end of all things was at hand. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Teutonic Migrations. — The Roman Frontier. — The Germans; their Origin : A Branch of the Aryan Race. Their Habitat. — Early German Civilization : Their Rude Life. Tribal Organization. Pop- ular Power. — Physical and Moral Characteristics : Vices and Vir- tues of the Germans. — Roman Attempts at Conquest : Caesar and Ariovistus. Defeat of Varus. — The Period of ^Successful Defense, to 168 A.i). : Invasion of the Marcomanni and Other Tribes. Reign of Decius, 249-251 a.d. Inroads of the Goths and the Huns. —The Battle of Adrianople, 378 a.d. : Defeat of the Romans by the Goths at Adrianople. The Goths checked by Theodosius. — The German Tribes in the Fourth Century : The Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, the Marcomanni and the Alemanni, the Franks, the Saxons, the Bur- gundians, and the Vandals. —Theodosius saves the Empire: Policy of Theodosius. Old Power of the Empire restored to Some Extent. The Empire divided between his Two Sons. —The Visigoths : Alaric invades the Empire. Successful Resistance of Stilicho. The Battle of Pollentia, 403 a.d. —The Breaking up of the Empire : The Franks enter Gaul. The Vandals and Burgundians begin to move South- ward. In the Fifth Century there are Six Barbarous Tribes within the Empire : Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks, and Suevi. — The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, 410 : Alaric cap- tures Rome. The Effect on the Popular Mind. CHAPTER XXVI THE FALL OF ROME The Founding of the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain (415). — Alaric lived but a short time after the sack of Eome. While planning new and extensive conquests, he died in southern Italy and, according to the story, was buried in the bed of the river Busentius, which was turned from its course. That the place might never be known, the slaves who had buried him were killed. His followers became nominally the servants of the emperor Honorius, but in reality did about as they pleased. They went first into Gaul to drive out some rivals of the em- peror, and then into Spain, where some rivals of their own, the Vandals and the Suevi, had already settled. They soon cleared a place for themselves in that country, and about the year 415 founded the Visigothic kingdom of Spain, which at first ex- tended as far north as the river Loire in France. This was the first kingdom founded by the Teutonic invaders in southern Europe, and it may be regarded as the beginning of the modern kingdom of Spain. The Vandals. — Now that we have traced the movement of the Visigoths till their final settlement in Spain, it remains to describe the way in Avhich the other tribes each founded a barbarian kingdom on the territory of the weakened and dismembered Eoman Empire. The next to appear after the Visigothic kingdom was that founded by the Vandals. This people moved down from the shores of the Baltic and were occupying Spain at the time the Visigoths entered it, but were crowded by the latter into that portion of the Spanish peninsula which still preserves the recollection of them in the name Andalusia (formerly Van- 190 THE FALL OF ROME 191 dalos). Discontented with these narrow quarters and unable to make headway to the north, they naturally turned to Africa as a promising field for plunder and perhaps for settlement. Accordingly, they crossed the Straits of Gibraltar about the year 429, and in ten years possessed themselves of all the northern coast as far east as Carthage. We may thus place the founding of the Vandal kingdom at the year 439, and it lasted for a little less than 100 years, till 534, when Beli- sa'rius, the general of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian, conquered it and reannexed it to the empire in the East. EUROPE in 526 Italics indicate the original home: e.g -Vandals SCALE OF MILES The Vandals were a Germanic people and, like the Goths, had been converted to the Christian faith. But in one re- spect they differed greatly from all other German tribes; they were destroyers merely. They built up nothing in the place of what they pulled down, and their name is so closely as- 192 GENERAL HISTORY sociated with the idea of plundering that the term 'vandalism' has passed into common use to indicate useless, senseless de- struction. They were the early pirates of the Mediterranean, steering their vessels to any coast that promised to yield a booty. They planted colonies in Sicily, Corsica, and the Bal- earic Isles, but neither there nor in Africa did they leave any permanent traces of their rule ; for when their kingdom fell they disappeared completely from the pages of history, and all that we have to remind us that they ever lived in Africa is the presence of an occasional light-complexioned type among the dark-skinned natives of the North African coast. The Burgundians. — Between 413 and 443 the Burgundians, who had been the neighbors of the Vandals on the Baltic coast, moved down as far as the city of Worms, and a few years later we hear of them in the valley of the Rhone. They established a kingdom in southeastern France and western Switzerland. The term ' Burgundy,' applied to a portion of the region they occupied, preserves their name in history ; but they ceased to exist as an independent nation at the same time that the Vandal kingdom was overthrown, in the year 534. Their very powerful and warlike neighbors, the Franks, subdued them in that year, and thenceforth they formed a part of the Frankish kingdom. Invasion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. — In the year 449, almost at the same time that the Burgundians founded their kingdom, other German tribes made their appearance in Britain. The island of Great Britain was at that time a Roman province inhabited by a Celtic race called Britons. That portion of the race which lived in England had become thoroughly Romanized and had reached a high degree of civil- ization ; but the northern part of the island was occupied by savage tribes called Picts and Scots, who made frequent in- roads into the lands of their civilized neighbors. So long as the latter had Roman legions to protect them, they were secure ; but when the empire began to fall to pieces, these legions were needed nearer Rome. Accordingly the Roman soldiers were THE FALL OF ROME 193 Avitlidrawn, and the Britons, left to fight their own battles, could not defend themselves against the Picts and Scots. Going from bad to worse, they finally called in the aid of the German tribes that lived in the region north of the mouth of the Rhine. Two Jutish chieftains, Hengist and Horsa, were the first to come over. But the Britons found that in saving them- selves from one foe they had simply fallen into the hands of another ; for their allies, after driving out the Picts and Scots, determined to keep the country for themselves. The first band invited others to join them, and the eastern and south- ern coasts of England were peopled by hungry hordes of Jutes, Angles, and Saxons who every year drove the natives further to the north and west, until by the end of a century and a half from the time of their landing they were in posses- sion of the best part of the island. So it happened that the language and customs of Englishmen and Americans to-day are German and not Celtic-Koman in their origin ; for the war between the two races was one of extermination, and the victory of the German was so complete that the native race left but few traces of itself in England. The very name of the country was changed from Britannia (Britain) to Engla-land (England), the land of the Angles. The Huns. — Thus by the middle of the fifth century four Teutonic kingdoms were founded on territory that once be- longed to Rome : the Yisigothic kingdom in Spain, the Bur- gundian in eastern France and western Switzerland, the Vandal in Africa, and the Anglo-Saxon in Great Britain. There still remain two tribes, the Franks and the Ostrogoths, who before the close of the same century were to found king- doms on Roman soil ; but before passing on to them, it is neces- sary to speak of some events which mark the closing days of the Roman Empire in the West. As if Rome had not enough to do in holding out against her numerous German foes, she was called upon to face a new enemy far more savage and merciless than any of the Teutonic 194 GENERAL HISTORY tribes. This was the people known as Huns, whom we have noticed before as causing that westward movement of the Goths which resulted in breaking down the barriers of Eome's provinces in southeastern Europe. They were a terrible race, these Huns, hideous in appearance, with flattened noses, short, thick, misshapen bodies, and yellow skins, and the fear which their repulsive looks aroused in their enemies was justified by the fierceness and bravery they showed in battle and by the cruelty with which they treated all who fell into their power. Attila. — About the year 433, this people, who were then living in what is now Austria-Hungary, chose for their chief the famous At'tila, a bloodthirsty savage of remarkable mili- tary skill and vast ambition. Almost at the same time that the Anglo-Saxon tribes were setting out for Britain, Attila, gathering a large army made up of Huns and German troops whom he had forced into his service, started westward with the object of driving the Komans out of Gaul. City after city fell into his hands, and the country through which he passed was so completely desolated as to give rise to the saying that the grass never grew where the horses of Attila had trod. But the Romans had an able defender in their general Ae'tius, who succeeded in drawing to his side a large body of Franks from the north and Visigoths from the south of Gaul, and when Attila laid siege to Orleans, the allied Eomans and Germans drove him from its walls. Attila then retreated to Chalons', where he turned and joined battle with his pursuers (451). According to the old historians, the numbers in each of the two opposing armies were enormous, and the battle was the most terrible that had ever occurred. Over 160,000 are said to have been slain. Night came before either side could claim the victory ; but on the following day, while the Romans were ready to fight, Attila dared not renew the battle and retreated. The battle of Chalons is regarded as one of the most im- portant in history ; for it was a struggle for mastery between two widely different branches of the human race, the Aryan and the Turanian, and the prize to the victor was the whole of I THE FALL OF ROME 195 western Europe. It decided that Europe should remain in the hands of the Aryans, and should advance to a higher degree of civilization than it would have ever attained if it had fallen to the lot of a race akin to the Chinese and the Turks. Attila in Italy. — Yet it is probable that the Huns could not have long retained their power even if they had won this battle ; for, like the Vandals, they were mere destroyers, and showed no ability to build up anything that could last. After the de- feat at Chalons their story is soon told. Attila led them into Italy, where the road lay open to Home, and it seemed for a moment as if the city must fall into his hands ; but the prayers of Leo, Bishop of Rome, induced Attila to abandon his plan.' It was a strange thing that Leo's appeals should have moved this cruel barbarian to give up so splendid and so easy a prize, and some of the early writers account for it by a miracle, saying that while Leo was talking to him the heavens opened and 8i . Peter and St. Paul appeared before the frightened Hun. What- ever was his motive, he left Italy aluiost immediately. Soon after this he died and his people, when deprived of the lead- ership of this 'Scourge of God,' as he was called, scattered and from this time forth were of no importance in the history of Europe. Sack of Rome by the Vandals (455 A.D.). — It is to be noted that what life there was in the declining empire was wholly due to the Christian Church. The story of Leo and Attila is a good illustration of the awe which the Church inspired in the barbarians. And we must remember that Attila was not only a barbarian, but a pagan, while most of the German tribes who had entered the empire were already Christianized, though they did not hold the orthodox belief. Yet four years after Attila's invasion, when Rome was again besieged, this time by a Christian foe, and when this same Leo again begged the con- queror to spare the city, his prayer was refused. In 455 Gai'seric or Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, sailed with a troop of plunderers across the Mediterranean from Africa, and, having neither pity, fear, nor reverence, made Rome again the scene of 196 GENERAL HISTORY Dm I pillage and murder. These pirates went back to Africa with rich supply of booty and with many Roman captives whom they sold as slaves. Fall of the Roman Empire in the West. — For twenty years longer the western division of the empire continued to exist in name, but in reality the whole power was in the hands of the barbarians. The German mercenaries who composed the Eoman army decided who should be emperor, and if he gov- erned in a way that Avas not to their liking, they pulled him down and set up another. Naturally the reigns of these emperors were very short. At last, in 475, the bar- barians chose a mere boy who, under the high-sounding name of Rom'ulus Angus 'tulus, enjoyed the title but not one vestige of the real power of a Roman emperQr. The real ruler in Italy was a barbarian named Odoa'cer, kii^ of the Herulian Goths. For a time Odoacer put up with this state of things, but finally he grew tired of the pretense and demanded that the young Augustulus should be deposed and the title of Roman Emperor of the West abolished. Further than this, he himself asked to be recognized as ruler in the West under the title of Patrician. The Eastern emperor at Constantinople granted these requests, for he could not help himself. Odoa- cer became Patrician, nominally ruling in Italy as the agent of the emperor at Constantinople, but really doing about as he chose, with little regard for authority anywhere. Augustulus was deposed and is heard of no more in history. So came to an end the Roman Empire in the West in the year 47G a.d. It made very little difference to the people at the time, for they were governed in much the same way as they had been before ; but the date is one of great importance, for it makes a break in the old traditional order of things and Rome is no longer even in name the capital of the Western world. It is the date at which we may place the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Eastern Empire lasted nearly 1000 years longer, that is, to the capture of Constantinople in 1453. ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 197 The Fall of Romk. — Founding of the Visigotliic Kingdom, 415. — Founding of the Vandal Kingdom, 439. — The Burgundians. — Inva- sion of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. — Invasion of the Huns. — Attila : The Battle of Chalons, 451. Invasion of Italy. Withdrawal of the Huns. — Fall of Roman Empire in the West, 476 A.I). : Genseric's Capture of Rome, 455. Romulus Augustulus. Odoacer. Deposition of Romulus Augustulus, 476. CHAPTER XXVII ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS Roman Buildings. — In early times the private houses of the Romans were very simple, showing little attempt at adornment A KoMAN House or luxury, but in the later days of the republic and under the empire, the dwellings of the wealthy were costly and beautiful. colby's gen, hist. — 13 198 GENERAL HISTORY The excavations at Pompeii have brought to light many good specimens of Roman domestic architecture as it existed toward the close of the first century a.d. In the center of the ground floor was the atrium, the main hall or reception room, from which doors opened into the principal apartments. The Lares, or household gods, and the family fireplace were placed in the atrium. The floor was often a mosaic of many-colored stone, and the bare walls brightly painted or covered with frescoes. Fine and costly furniture, including articles of gold, silver, ivory, and bronze, filled the rooms, and the carving showed beauty in design and skill in execution. The Roman town was usually built around a height on which stood the citadel or place of refuge, as well as the various temples of the gods. Near by was the forum, or market place, an open space surrounded by i^ublic buildings, the center of the business and political life of the town. Military System. — The Roman army was divided into legions, each of which contained about 6000 men, although at first the number was much smaller. Each legion was in turn subdivided into ten cohorts. Besides the legionary soldiers, the army comprised bodies of auxiliary troops from the provinces or the allies of Rome. The common weapons were the pilam, or javelin, and a short sword, but slings and bows were also used. Cavalry and artillery were employed, but made up a comparatively small portion of the fighting force. The military engines corresponding to the modern artillery included the cata- pult for throwing darts, the ballista for discharging heavier missiles, and the battering ram for breaking in the walls of a besieged town. Another important contrivance was the besieging tower, a wooden Catapult ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 199 structure with several floors or stories from which the soldiers hurled darts at the besieged, or passed to the top of the walls by means of a drawbridge. One of the most striking military customs of the Eomans was the triumph or reward of honor to a victorious general. It was the highest honor which could be given to a soldier, and was decreed by vote of the Senate. It consisted of a splendid procession through the Triumphal Gate and along the Via Sacra (sacred street) to the Capitol. It was headed by the Senate and the magistrates, after whom came a long line of wagons containing the spoils of conquest, followed by the prin- cipal captives. The victorious general, wearing a laurel wreath, was carried in a four-horse chariot at the head of the army. Religious Worship. — From the Greeks the Romans borrowed many of their religious notions, and there is a marked likeness be- tween the Greek and Roman forms of wor- ship. The chief Ro- man gods were Jupiter, — the father of heaven, and his wife Juno; Minerva, the goddess of wisdom ; Diana, the goddess of the chase; Mars, the god of war; Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and of the national safety ; Ceres, the goddess of agricul- ture ; Mercury, the god of trade; Neptune, the god of the sea; and Venus, the goddess of beauty and love. Besides these was a host of minor deities, Diana 200 GENERAL HISTORY for the Romans saw a divine agent in every natural force Spirits presided over marriage and birth; every person was under the special care of a genius; and there were gods of the forest, of the boundary, of planting, and of sowing. Religious Officers. — The chief religious officers in the state were the pontiffs, the chief of whom was the Pontifex Maxi- mas. They regulated religious worship and saw that all observ- ances were properly maintained. Another important class of priests was the Augurs, whose duty it was to ascertain the will of the gods by means of certain signs, such as the flight of birds, the appearance of the sky, the approach of a storm, etc. This was known as taking the auspices, and was a matter of great importance, for the Romans would undertake no im- portant business unless the omens were favorable. Another way of learning the divine will was employed by the sooth- sayers (Harusjnces), who pretended to do so by studying the entrails of animals killed in sacrifice. Besides these were the Flamens, who were the priests of particular gods; the Fetiales, who were concerned with the relations of Rome with foreign states, and performed the proper religious rites on the declara- tion of war and the conclusion of peace ; and the Vestals, the six virgins who attended to the worship of Vesta and kept the sacred fire burning on her hearth. The Roman worship lacked the vivacity and joyousness of the Greek. It was sober and self-restrained. Deep rever- ence was paid to the gods, who were stern taskmasters that must be appeased, rather than those half-human deities whom the Greeks treated with serene familiarity. But as the old simplicity of the Roman character disappeared, religion lost its hold on the popular mind. Worship was empty and formal, and it is said that two augurs could not meet on the street without laughing. Dress. — The distinctive article of Roman dress was the toga, a - woolen garment, semicircular in form, draped over the shoulders in such a way as to leave one arm free. It was the Roman full dress, and every citizen was expected to wear s I ROMAN LIFE AND MANNERS 201 it on public occasions. At the age of seventeen a young man assumed the pure white toga in place of the toga with the purple hem, as a token of full citizenship. Women wore a loose over-dress and an inner tunic. On the street a long cloak or shawl of bright colors was worn. Meals. — In the luxurious days of the later republic and the empire, great attention was paid to the pleasures of the table. The costliness and variety of the food can hardly be conceived. The chief meal was dinner (cena), of which the "Romans partook ii^ iiuMAM JjAKl toward evening. At table they reclined on couches, and ate with two pointed spoons instead of knives and forks. At the banquets of the rich, musicians and dancing girls were often brought in to entertain the guests while feasting. Each guest brought with him a linen napkin, which he wore over his breast. Wine was used freely at the feasts, and before the drinking began the guests crowned themselves with chaplets of flowers or vines. 202 GENERAL HISTORY Baths. — The Eoman baths were very numerous, and some of them were on a magnificent scale and fitted with every luxury. Everyone resorted to them for amusement and for the interchange of gossip. They were provided with libraries and with facilities for playing games. Education. — The Roman schoolmaster treated his pupils with great severity, using the rod freely. The sons of wealthy parents were accompanied to school by a slave. The elemen- tary branches were reading, writing, arithmetic, and music, but in the higher schools the best works of Greek and Latin authors were studied. Much attention was paid to the study of rhetoric and public speaking. It was common for the Roman youth to finish his education by a course of study at Athens. Burial. — Like the Greeks, the Romans believed -that the souls of the unburied dead were obliged to wander for a hun- dred years before they were allowed to enter the place of departed spirits. Accordingly, they took great pains in all matters that pertained to burial. The ceremonies preceding and accompanying the interment of the well-to-do Roman were elaborate and expensive. Incense was placed beside the funeral couch, which was decorated with flowers and boughs. The body was kept on exhibition for seven days, after which it was carried to the Porum in a solemn funeral procession, consisting of the nearest relatives, who carried the bier, and bands of hired mourners and actors, the latter by recitation or mimicry recalling the events in the life of the deceased, or his personal peculiarities. Another curious feature of the funeral procession was the band of hired attendants who wore waxen masks representing the features of the distinguished ancestors of the deceased. In the Eorum a eulogy was pronounced over the body, which was then taken to the place of burial or to the funeral pyre, for both interment and cremation were cus- tomary. If the body was burned, the ashes were collected and placed in a funeral urn. If it was buried, it was usual to employ a stone coffin in which the ornaments were placed along with the body. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY CHAPTER XXVIII THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS Value of the Study of the Middle Ages. — The term ^Middle Ages ' is applied to the period between the fall of the Roman Empire in the West (476 a.d.) and the capture of Constanti- nople by the Turks (1453 a.d.). It thus embraces nearly a thousand years of the middle ground between ancient and modern history. It used to be thought that this period was one with which the modern scholar need have very little to do, because civilization was at low ebb and the events of a half- savage and ignorant age seemed to have no lessons for those who were fortunate enough to live in the later days of culture" and enlightenment. But a deeper study has proved this period to be of the greatest interest to the historical student. It was the time in Avhich the great states of modern Europe had their beginnings, and we never can understand what these nations are unless we study them in their origin and development. Character of the Middle Ages. — Because the men of this period were ignorant, because the invasion of hordes of bar- barians had changed the Avhole face of the Roman Empire, overturned its elaborate system of government, destroyed its commerce, and caused its art and literature to be neglected and forgotten, we must not think that all progress received a sudden check or that the world stood still for the next thou- 203 204 GENERAL HISTORY sand years. The outward splendor of the old civilization, to be sure, was gone, but in place of it there were elements which when combined and developed were to bring in a new civiliza- tion higher and more lasting than that which had passed away. The invading tribes learned much from the conquered peo- ple. Many of them gave up their barbarous dialects for the language of the Komans. They gave up their wandering habits and learned to live in cities. They copied the Roman system of law, and they cherished the hope of building a great world empire like that Avhich Rome had been. On the other hand, the barbarians had ideas of personal liberty, of the responsibility of the rulers to the people whom they ruled, which had long ceased to exist in the minds of the slavish Romans under the despotic government of the empire. Again, the fall of political Rome did not bring with it the fall of the Roman Church. The Church, in fact, rather profited by the change, being no longer overshadowed by the State, but standing forth as the only compact and orderly institution in a world of confusion. As Rome had conquered by force, the Church conquered by the gospel of peace, and soon brought all western Europe into the fold by her steady and vigorous policy of conversion. . These, then, were the influences that tended to shape society in the Middle Ages : Roman ideas preserved in literature and systems of law; Germanic customs and characteristics; and the power of the Christian Church. Many prefer the date 378 a.d. as marking the transition from Ancient to Modern history, since at that time the migrations began on a large scale, and within the century that followed several of the mediaeval monarchies had their beginning. The date 476 a.d. is on some accounts the more convenient, but it must be remembered that within the limits of Roman Empire four Teutonic kingdoms had already been established; namely, the Visigothic, the Vandal, the Anglo-Saxon, and the Burgundian. The Founding of the Frankish Kingdom. — In 406 a.d., a large THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 205 body of the Franks had crossed the Rhine. From that time they spread slowly over northern Gaul, although they con- tinued to hold their original land. In this respect their movement differed from that of other German tribes, for it • was less a migration than a gradual extension of dominion. Perhaps it Avas because they did not waste their time and strength in useless wandering, but held fast to the good lands they had, that they became the strongest and most progressive race in Europe. We have nothing but doubtful legends about their early his- tory and we know only that they were ruled by kings called Merovin'gians, from Mero'veus, the mythical ancestor of the line. We do not get into the region of fact till the year 481, when Clovis, the greatest of all the Merovingians and the founder of a powerful monarchy, succeeded to the throne. Clovis (481-51 1). — Clovis was young, daring, and ambitious, and to the south of his territory was the fairest and richest portion of the empire. He resolved to put it to the test whether Franks or Romans should possess the country, and with this end in view he marched down into the lands he cov- eted. In the battle of Soissons in 486 he destroyed the last remnant of Roman power in Gaul, and gained for his people all the lands of modern France as far south as the river Loire. In governing the country which he had conquered, he showed much shrewdness and skill ; for instead of letting his i)eople oppress the natives and make enemies of them, as was the usual way with the barbarians, he contrived it so that the lead- ing men among the Roman-Celtic population were friendly to his rule. The chief means by which he brought this about was his protection of the Church. He and his warriors had no religion in the proper sense of the Avord. Their belief was a mass of superstitions without system or consistency, a mere matter of signs and omens and unreasoning fear ; and the mysterious power and impressive ceremonies of the Christian Church naturally took strong hold of their imaginations. Now Clovis 206 GENERAL HISTORY knew that if the Franks accepted the orthodox faith and made the Church their friend, they would be far better off than any of the other tribes ; for the Germans generally had been converted, not to the Christianity taught by the Church, but to what was called Arianism, a form of Christianity which the Church considered an odious heresy no better than paganism itself. As a result, the orthodox Christians and the Arian invaders Avere forever quarreling in the countries where they lived together. Clovis then, thinking that he would have an easier time in governing if he were backed up by the Church, was disposed to accept what was regarded as the orthodox faith. A few years after the battle of Soissons, he married a Burgundian princess named Clotilda, a very loyal supporter of Catholic Christianity, who did her best to bring Clovis around to her way of thinking ; yet it seemed to be a hard matter for him to give up his old gods, especially when a son who was born to them, and whom Clovis permitted to be baptized, died in infancy. His conversion finally came about in a rather curious way. He was leading his Franks in a fierce battle with the Ale- manni, and the fight was going against him. In his despair he thought his own gods had deserted him, and vowed that if the God of the Christians would grant victory to the Franks, he would forsake his old religion for the Christian faith. Kal- lying his troops, he made another attack, and this time drove the Alemanni from the field. True to his promise, on Christmas Day, 496, he was bap- tized in the presence of a large multitude, and soon after- ward thousands of the Franks followed his example. The anniversary of this great event is still kept by Frenchmen, who regard Clovis as the founder of their nation. Its impor- tance consists in the fact that the conversion of the Franks to the Catholic form of Christianity made the strongest of the German tribes an ally of the Church. Both the Church and the Frankish state profited by the alliance. The Roman bishop became the acknowledged head of western Christendom, while THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 207 the Frankish rulers gradually built up the most powerful em- pire in Europe. There are two more events to be noticed in the life of Clovis. As a champion of the true faith, he attacked the Arian king of the Burgundians, and made his kingdom tributary to his own (500), although the conquest was not completed till a few years later (534). In 507-508 Clovis attacked the Visigoths and drove them almost to the Pyrenees, so that with the excep- tion of a narrow strip north of those mountains the whole of France was in the hands of the Franks. Clovis died in 511. The Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy. — In the meanwhile Italy had fallen into the hands of another German tribe. We have seen that Odoacer, the Visigothic chieftain who deposed the last of the Roman rulers in the West in 476 a.d., really had things his own way in Italy, although he was outwardly a mere agent of the Eastern emperor. Zeno, the Eastern emperor, took alarm at this ; but, being too weak to restore the imperial power himself in Italy, applied for aid to Theod'oric, king of the Ostrogoths, who were then living near the lower Danube. Theodoric (493-526 A.D.). — Theodoric, like Clovis, was one of the heroes of the early Germans. He had been brought up as a boy at Constantinople, and knew something of the splendor and culture of the empire. He also knew something of its weakness ; so he was more than willing to act as the emperor's avenger against Odoacer, hoping to gain for himself and his people the lands which Odoacer ruled. The whole tribe of Ostrogoths moved into Italy in the year 490, and having de- feated Odoacer and driven out his followers, established them- selves there in their place. The conquest was completed in three years, so the year 493 marks the real beginning of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. Theodoric had no idea of giving up his conquest to the em- peror, and although he rendered him a sort of allegiance, he was really independent, just as Odoacer had been. But he was a much greater and stronger ruler than Odoacer, and his kingdom was more extensive and more powerful ; for he did 208 GENERAL HISTORY all lie could to make the natives friendly to him and to pre- serve peace between them and his own people. Though an Arian, he did not persecute the Catholics. Though a con- queror, he did not seize all the lands of the conquered, but allotted a certain portion to his followers and allowed the natives to keep the rest. He invited the best scholars of the time to his court and tried in every way to promote learning, though he himself did not know how to read or write. He governed according to the Roman law, which he saw was far better than the rude German system, and his reign was both peaceful and prosperous, but in its closing years he became cruel and suspicious. He thought that Boe'thius, the most learned man of his kingdom, was plotting against him, and he had him put to death. His orthodox subjects came to hate and fear him, and after his death, in 526, they took his ashes from the tomb and scattered them. His successors were weak rulers and the kingdom lasted less than thirty years after his death. As a result of the campaign of Belisa'rius and afterwards of Nar'ses, generals of the Eastern emperor Justinian, Italy was reconquered in 552, and reannexed for a short time to the Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire in the East. — For fifty years after the fall of the empire in the West, the Eastern rulers had been of little importance ; but we now come to an emperor whose reign is well worth notice. Justinian L, sometimes called the Great, ruled from 527, the year following Theodoric's death, to 565, and in the course of these years showed more capacity as a ruler than any other emperor in the East except Constantine. His reign is remarkable both for works of peace and for war- like achievements. Of the former the most important is the reduction to writing of the Koman law, a work involving enor- mous labor, which he intrusted to the great jurist Tribo'nian. When completed, this vast collection, containing imperial edicts, principles of legal procedure, and opinions of jurists, formed what is called the Body of the Civil Law, the basis of the law of most European countries to-day. THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 209 Another thing he did was to improve architecture. The Church of St. Sophi'a at Constantinople was built in his reign, and many strong fortresses were erected to defend the frontiers of his empire. Then^ too, his merchants introduced the manu- facture of silk into his dominions, stealing the secret, it is said, from the Chinese. In military matters, also, he knew how to select the right men to accomplish great results. Belisa'rius, his general, entered Africa with a small force and in a short time conquered the Vandals so completely that they disappear as a nation from history from that time forth. The Vandal kingdom was reannexed to the Eastern Empire in 534. Belisarius was just as successful in Italy, but there his suc- cess provoked the jealousy of Justinian, who recalled him and allowed another able general, named Narses, to complete the conquest (552). There are a great many stories about the in- gratitude of the emperor to Belisarius, and according to one account this brave and skillful general, who, even after he had been nnjustly recalled, saved Constantinople from the bar- barians, was deprived of his eyes and reduced to the condi- tion of a beggar. This may be doubted, but it is certain that he was very ill paid for his great services. Justinian died in 565. Only one emperor after Justinian did anything really remarkable. This was Herac'lius, who is noted for his military exploits in his campaigns against the Persians. He defeated the Persian king at Issus in Asia Minor, and again at Nin'eveh after a wonderful march into the heart of the enemy's country. He is classed with the world's great generals, but he accomplished nothing that lasted, and after his death, in 641, the territory of the empire was greatly curtailed. From this time till the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, the doings of the rulers in the East will have very little interest for us, and we shall notice them only when they have some connection with events occurring in the West. The Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy (568). — The Lombards (or Langobards, the long-bearded people) were the last tribe to settle within the limits of the ancient Roman Empire. When 210 GENERAL HISTORY Justinian died, Narses, who had completed the work begun by Belisarius in Italy, was ruling at Eavenna as the representa- tive of the empire ; but he soon found that his enemies at Con- stantinople were plotting to have him recalled. The imperial power was at that time in the hands of a woman named Sophia, who listened to the slanders of his rivals, and finally decided to call Narses back, sending him word that his proper place was " with the women in the palace, where a distaff should be placed in his hand." On hearing of this, Narses replied angrily that he would '' spin her a thread that she would never unravel in her life," and he straightway sent word to the Lom- bards, who were then living in Pannonia, that, so far as he was concerned, they would be welcome in Italy. Accordingly, the whole nation marched down and, in 568, set up a kingdom in Italy. Thus the restored power of the empire over Italy lasted just sixteen years, from 552 to 568. These- Lombards were harder rulers at first than the Ostro- goths had been. They were Arians and persecuted the Church. Their savage character is illustrated by a story that is told of their chief Al'boin. Alboin had married Rosamund, daughter of a Gepid chieftain whom Alboin had killed in battle, and on the occasion of a feast he offered her wine to drink in a cup made of her father's skull. Rosamund promptly avenged the insult by causing his murder. Conclusion. -^— The invasion of the Lombards in 568 brings us to the end of the period of the migrations. In the 190 years between 378 and 568 there were gathered in the lands that had belonged to the Roman Empire a motley crowd of barbarians who left very little of the old order of things. They were the material out of which the new nations of Europe were formed. It now remains to trace the early his- tory of these nations, and to show their relations with each other and with the Christian Church. THE NEW BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 211 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The New Barbarian Kingdoms. — Value of the Study of the Middle Ages : The Period 476-1453 a.d. The Time of the Development of Modern Nations. — Character of the Middle Ages : Fusion of Romans and Barbarians. Effect of Rome's Civilization upon the Barbarians. The Influences that shaped Society in the Middle Ages. — The Found- ing of the Frankish Kingdom : The Migration of the Franks. The Merovingian Dynasty. Clovis, 481-511, His Victory at Soissons, 480. His Policy toward the Christian Church. His Conversion, 4S)G. The Conversion of the Franks to Catholic Christianity and its Ef- fects. The Conquest of the Burgundians. The Visigoths driven out of France. —The Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy : Theodoric, 493-526 a.d. His Invasion of Italy, 490. His Overthrow of Odoacer. Character of his Rule. Prosperity of Italy. Tyranny of Theodoric in his Later Years. — The Roman Empire in the East : Justinian I., 527-565. Great Achievements of the Reign. The Body of the Roman Civil Law. Architecture. Industry. The Vandal King- dom reannexed to the Eastern Empire, 534. Belisarius. Italy reannexed to the Empire, 552. The Reign of Heraclius. — The Kingdom of the Lombards in Italy : The Lombards Conquer Italy, 568. The Harsh Character of their Rule. — Conclusion : The Great Variety of Tribes within the Empire. CHAPTER XXIX THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS ]'^^A, The Merovingians and the Mayors of the Palace. — The family of the Merovingians, after producing one great man, seemed to degenerate, and the successors of Clovis were weak or vicious men who let the royal power slip from their grasp and pass finally into the hands of a new dynasty. It would have been a hard task even for a strong and able ruler to enforce his au- thority over the Franks ; for they, like the other Germans, were extremely restive under royal control. Clovis himself found it diffi- cult to manage them ; for at first they viewed their king merely as one of themselves chosen to lead them in time of war. Their spirit is illustra- ted by the famous story of the vase of Soissons. Clovis, after gaining a victory over his enemies, reserved a beautiful vase as his share of the spoils; but one of his warriors, an- gered by the king's assuming a right which the others did not possess, broke the vase to pieces with his bat- tle-ax. For this he was slain; but the story shows how hard it was for the rude Franks to view their king as having any special rights or au- thority. The descendants of Clovis spent their time in idleness or, worse yet, in bloody feuds with members of their own family, while the royal power constantly diminished. In the reign of Dag'obert (628-638), who seems to have had more ability than any of the others, there was a brief interval of vigorous gov- 212 Fkankish Foot Soldier THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 213 eminent, but lie was followed by rulers as bad as those who had preceded him. Those who came after Dagobert are known as the Do-iSTothing Kings (rois faineants), and the period of their misrule is one of the darkest in history. As the king's power decreased, his officers became stronger and more independent. Next to the king the highest officer ill the country was he who bore the title 'Major Domus ' or Mayor of the Palace, and whose duty consisted originally in looking after the affairs of the king's household, but after- wards included very im^^ortant functions of state, correspond- ing roughly to those of a Prime Minister in modern times. In the latter part of the seventh century the office of Mayor of the Palace of the Eastern Franks became hereditary in the great family of the Pep'ins, who gained power at the expense of the king and finally under the name of the Carlovingians occupied the throne. Pepin of Heristal, as Mayor of the Pal- ace, ruled over the Eastern Franks as if he were their king, and by the victory of Testiy, in 687, extended his authority over the Western Franks as well. So he ruled over the entire kingdom with very little regard for the nominal king. Charles Mattel (714-741). — Charles, the son and successor of Pepin of Heristal, was a great fighter, and his reign was almost wholly taken up with Avars. There were enemies on all sides, and but for his unceasing efforts the kingdom would have been overrun by barbarous hordes. One great obstacle in his way was the independent spirit of the nobles, who dur- ing the decline of the royal power had come to feel that no one had any right to make demands on them. Since he could not force their obedience, he determined to buy it, and the only way he could manage this was by taking the lands of the Church. He seized a considerable amount of church property and granted it to fighting men on condition that they should aid him in his wars. This was an offense which the Church never forgave, but it was the only means open to him, and the time soon came when he needed all the forces he could raise to save Christendom from destruction ; for Colby's gen. hist. — 14 214 GENERAL HISTORY the Mohammedan Saracens had conquered Spain and were pour- ing into southern France. They had conquered Africa, Asia Minor, and the East, and now they were bent on conquering all of Europe. It seemed as if they must succeed, for they had been uniformly victorious. They had advanced far into the in- terior of the Prankish territory before Charles could stop them, but in the plains between the cities of Tours and Poitiers he met them in a great battle and gained a complete victory, 732. The battle of Tours is one of the most important battles of history, for it decided whether Europe was to be Christian or Mohammedan. The heavy blows which Charles struck on this day on behalf of his country and his Church gained for him his surname of Martel', that is, the Hammer. After this no one questioned his power. He was in effect king of the Pranks, and yet he did not assume the kingly title, but al- lowed the insignificant Merovingian to wear the crown. By this time the Merovingian kings had sunk to the posi- tion of mere puppets of the Mayors of the Palace. Once a year they were clad in royal robes and carried in an ox cart to the National Assembly, where they recited a speech which was put into their mouths, received ambassadors, and ex- changed compliments with their officers. Then they were carried back again and shut up in their palace till the time came to repeat the solemn farce. Pepin the Short (741-768). — Charles Martel's extraordinary energy and ability were inherited by his son Pepin the Short. All power Avas concentrated in the hands of the Mayor of the Palace, and revolts were crushed out with promptness and severity. At last the time came for the assumption of the royal title ; but Pepin was cautious. He asked the pope (the Bishop of Rome) whether it was a good thing that one man should have the title of king without the power, while another had the power without the title. The pope replied that the man who had the power ought also to have the title. Soon afterwards the last of the old line of kings was shorn of his long hair, which was regarded as the sign of royalty, and was THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 215 confined in a monastery. Pepin was then crowned king witli the sanction of the pope (752). Thus ended the Merovin- gian line. The new dynasty of the Carlovingians or Carolin- gians thenceforth ruled over the Franks. The pope had a good reason for the favor he had shown Pepin in the matter of his coronation ; for he was at that time threatened by a powerful enemy and needed the aid of the Franks. The Lombards wanted to extend their power over all Italy, and after seizing the city of Ravenna and the adjoin- ing district, their king Ais'tulf demanded that the pope should acknowledge his supremacy. Pope Stephen in great distress crossed the Alps and in person begged Pepin to come to his aid. While at the king's court he repeated the ceremony of coronation, thus seeming to establish the principle that the popes alone could bestow the crown and were therefore superior to the temporal ruler. Pepin granted the pope's request and in two expeditions against Aistulf won back all that he had seized. Then he took a step that had very important results. He not only secured the pope in all that he had formerly pos- sessed, but he made him sovereign over an extensive strip of land in northern Italy, promising that he and his succes- sors should rule this land forever. This was the famous Donation of Pepin, by which the popes gained possession of what are known hi history as the Papal States and .became civil rulers like the kings of France or Germany. But for Pepin's assistance, the Lombards would have obtained all Italy, and the pope would have been merely the head of the Church, just as he is to-day. But as it was, Italy was under a divided government for 1100 years; for it was not till times very near our own that another king of Lombardy, Victor Emmanuel, succeeded in doing what Aistulf had at- tempted, and united all Italy under his sway. Pepin died in 768, after gaining almost every object that he had worked for. He was a singularly Avise and vigorous ruler. Nicknamed ^the Short' from his small size, — he is said to 216 GENERAL HISTORY have been only four feet and a half in height, — he neverthe- less seems to have been both strong and brave. There is a story that Avhen looking at a combat between a lion and a bull he asked his courtiers if there was any one among them who dared to separate the two animals. When no one volunteered, he jumped into the arena himself and killed both the lion and the bull. After this no one laughed at him for being "a little man." This is probably an invention like a good many of the other tales about him, but it is very significant as showing the respect in which he was held. Men do not invent such stories about weak and cowardly princes. The Character of the Period. — During all these years be- tween the death of Clovis in 511 and the death of Pepin the Short in 768, the Franks had been making progress in civiliza- tion, but this progress was slow. The need of the times was for fighting, since, until they secured themselves against at- tacks, they were likely to be swept back into barbarism by an invasion of tribes less civilized than themselves. Under the later Merovingians this fighting energy was spent in useless wars among themselves rather than in extending and strength- ening their frontiers ; but men like Charles Martel and Pepin the Short turned it to better account, and by their ability built up a kingdom which the genius of their great successor Charle- magne Avas able to make into a powerful empire. One great difficulty Avhich the king had to overcome was the tendency of the nobles to make themselves independent. Weak kings could not check this tendency, and we have seen that even Charles Martel had to buy the services of his nobles by grants of land. Both Charles and Pepin strove with all their might to keep the nobles under their control, and they succeeded in greatly strengthening the royal power; but just as soon as an inefficient ruler comes to the throne we find the same force at work again, and it was destined to divide the state into little countships and duchies almost independent of the king. In other words, in this tendency we can trace the beginning of that condition of things which we call Feudalism (chap. 36). THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS 217 Another very important fact about this period is that it was the time of the conversion of Germany to Christianity. The Frankish kings were strong friends of the Church, and they did all they could to convert the barbarians around them. St. Bon'- iface, called the Apostle to the Germans, was aided in every way by Charles Martel and Pepin. He carried the Gospel to the barbarous tribes living north of the Franks and along the shores of the Baltic Sea, and as fast as he won them to tlie faith he established bishoprics among them and brought them under the spiritual rule of the pope. With his own hand he cut down the sacred oak at Geismar, which they held in superstitious reverence, believing that the anger of their gods would send a terrible punishment to any one who injured it. When no light- ning fell from heaven to avenge this deed, many of them accepted the faith of Boniface. He closed his career with martyrdom, being slain by the Frisians, whom he was trying to convert. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW TiTE Kingdom of the Fkamcs. — The Merovingians and the Mayors of the Palace : The Weakness of the Later Merovingians. Unruly Spirit of the People. The Do-Nothing Kings. The Mayor of the Palace. Pepin of Heristal. His Victory at Testry, 687 a.d. Pepin the Real though not the Nominal King. — Charles Martel, 714-741 : Charles wins the Support of the Nobles by giving them the Lands of the Church. Mohammedan Invasion of Spain and Gaul. The Battle of Tours, 732, Importance of Charles's Victory. — Pepin the Short, 741-768 : Pepin assumes the Title of King, 752, Encroachments of the Lombards on the Church. The Pope's Appeal to Pepin. Pepin checks the Lombards. The Donation of Pepin. Character of Pepin. — The Character of the Period : Slow Progress of Frankish Civilization. Warlike Spirit. Usurpation of Power by the Nobles. The Franks as Allies of the Church. Conversion of Barbarous Tribes. CHAPTER XXX CHARLEMAGNE Charlemagne's Inheritance. — At Pepin's death in 768 the kingdom of the Franks inchided the greater part of what is now France, together with a portion of Germany. This terri- tory was divided between his two sons, Carloman and Charles, who ruled over it together for three years, until 771, when, by the death of Carloman, Charles became the sole ruler. Charles, or to give him the title by which he is best known, Charle- magne (that is, Charles the Great), is the greatest figure in the history of the Middle Ages, and one of the ablest rulers of all time. His reign is itself an epoch in history ; for the work he did lived after him, and influenced the nations of Europe for centuries to come. From the first his object seems to have been to unite all German peoples in one great empire, and then to make that empire so strong that it would last forever. It was a work of enormous difficulty. On his accession he found his territory threatened by many ene- mies. To the north and east were the Danes and Saxons, who had not yet become civilized or converted to Christi- anity. In the region north of Italy ^j^t ■ y were the Bavarians, who, although their ^^tm duke had acknowleged Pepin as his "^S^: _ __ overlord, were ready to assert their in- dependence at the first chance. East of them were the Avars, a savage heathen race akin to the Huns. In the valley of the Po and to the north and northwest of Italy were the Lombards, enemies alike to the pope and to the Franks ; 218 Portrait Statue of Char LEMAGNE, IN PaRIS CHARLEMAGNE 219 and in the southernmost part of France, on the Spanish border, were the Saracens. Add to these the Slavonic tribes of north- ern Germany, and the long list of Charlemagne's enemies is complete. With every one of these peoples he was called upon to fight ; and some idea of the amount of fighting he had to do can be had from the fact that in the course of his reign he directed fifty-three separate campaigns. It is possi- ble here to give only the main results of all these wars. Charlemagne's War with the Lombards. — The Lombards were no longer Arians. They had gradually come to accept the form of Christianity which was represented by the pope at Kome, but their belief in the pope's religion did not incline them to respect what he considered his rights to the lands of the Church. They wanted these lands for themselves, and Pepin's punish- ment of their king, Aistulf, for an attempt to seize them was soon forgotten. Deside'rius, who was king of the Lombards at the time Charlemagne was ruling the Franks, renewed the claim to the papal territory. The pope applied to Charle- magne for aid, just as he had applied to Pepin before. Charle- magne responded very willingly, and appeared in Italy with so powerful an army that the Lombards were too badly fright- ened to resist, and Desiderius was taken prisoner almost with- out striking a blow in his own defense. Charlemagne shut him up in a monastery, crowned himself with the iron crow^n of the Lombard kings, and thenceforth ruled over Lombardy, styling himself King of the Franks and Lombards. Tlius, in the year 774, the Lombard kingdom came to an end, after lasting a little over 200 years ; and from this time the Ger- man kings and emperors had a claim on Italy as a part of their inheritance. It now remained for Charlemagne to give back to the pope the lands which the Lombards had taken from him. This he did in the most solemn manner, taking an oath that he would protect the pope in the possession of all his lands, and formally renewing the gift of Pepin. The Saxons. — Two years before the Lombard conquest, Charlemagne began the first of a long series of campaigns 220 GENERAL HISTORY against the Saxons. Of all his foes they were the bravest and the hardest to subdue. It took over thirty years to complete the conquest. Living along the lower courses of the Rhine and Elbe and in the country between those rivers, they had not come in contact with the Roman civilization, nor had they given up their old Pagan worship for the Christian faith. In fact, they were at about the same stage of development as that of the Franks four centuries before. Now that the Franks had become civilized, the presence of these lawless plunderers on their borders was a constant source of trouble, and at the same time it was thought to be the duty of a Christian people to bring their neighbors to the true faith, even if conversion could be accomplished only by force. So Charlemagne felt that he was serving his own interest and doing his duty to the Church at the same time when, in 772, he entered on his war with the Saxons. The details of his many campaigns against them are not known, but the general results of his expeditions seem to have been about the same. He would lead a large army into their territory, frighten them into submission, and then withdraw, thinking that he had conquered them ; but as soon as his back was turned, revolts would break out in another part of the Saxon country, and he would have it all to do over again. Thus, after a successful campaign in 772, when he entered their country and made them swear obedience to his rule, he turned his attention to the Lombards, but returned from Italy only to find the Saxons in open rebellion; and when he thought he had subdued them a second time in 776 and started off to punish the Saracens in the south, they again revolted. In this second revolt their leader was Wid'ukind, Avho for years held out against the Franks, and on one occasion won a decisive victory over them — a victory, however, which pro- voked Charlemagne to a very cruel revenge; for he took a large force into their country, and having as usual forced them to submit, required them to send to him all the warriors who had taken part in the revolt under Widukind. The Saxons i CHARLEMAGNE 221 dared not disobey, and in a short time gave up to liini 4500 of their lighting men. Charlemagne gathered these prisoners at Verden and massacred them all. It would be hard to conceive of a more cruel act than this, and it is certainly a very dark page in the history of this great prince; but it must be remembered that it was a barbarous age, and that Charlemagne was dealing with a savage race, which could be governed only by fear. He had tried mild methods hitherto, and they had had no effect. It is probable that he hoped by this one act of cruelty to strike such terror into the Saxons that they would lay down their arms forever; but it had just the opposite effect, for the whole people united again under their brave leader Widukind, and fought more desperately than ever. Gradually, however, their strength gave way before the repeated attacks of the Franks, and each campaign left them in a worse condition to meet their ene- mies. Widukind lost all hope and surrendered himself to Charlemagne in 785, after which he is heard of no more in history. He had been the soul of the resistance, the ablest and bravest of all the Saxons, and there was no one fit to take his place ; but revolts continued to break out at intervals, and the country was not thoroughly subdued till 804. The conquest of the Saxons carried with it their conversion to Christianity, for Charlemagne believed in Christianizing by force. He spread the Gospel as far as he carried the sword, and obliged the conquered people to be baptized under the fear of death. As fast as he gained Saxon territory, he established bishoprics and enforced the strictest obedience to the repre- sentative of the Church, punishing by death any act of sacrilege or of violence toward the clergy. The laws were very severe, and the death penalty was inflicted for what seem to us com- paratively slight offenses ; but by these very means he increased the power of the Church, for it was provided that any Saxon who had committed a crime could save himself from the sentence of death by confessing his deed to a priest. His policy was very successful. The Saxons were soon the most devout of 222 GENERAL HISTORY churchmen, and at the same time they became the most loyal subjects of the empire. The Bavarians. — Tassilo, Duke of the Bavarians, had ac- knowledged Charlemagne's father, Pepin, as his chief, but had continued to rule without much regard to the king of the Franks. His territory bordered on the Prankish kingdom and on the lands of the Lombards whom Charlemagne had sub- dued, so that if it were annexed to the Prankish state it would give Charlemagne control of all the country as far east as the Danube. Charlemagne at first demanded that the Bavarian duke should acknowledge him as his overlord. Tassilo dared not refuse, but soon afterwards showed a rebellious spirit, and even asserted his independence. Thereupon Charlemagne promptly marched into Bavaria and forced the duke to ac- knowledge his supremacy a second time, in 787. A little later he deposed him altogether and shut him up in a monastery, thus putting an end to the Bavarian line of rulers. In this way another strong German people was united with the Pranks, whose rule now extended from the Atlantic Ocean as far east as Bohemia, over regions occupied wholly by Ger- manic tribes. Saracens, Slavs, and Avars. — Charlemagne now had to deal with certain non-Germanic peoples who were threatening his borders. These were the Saracens, Slavs, and Avars. The Mohammedan Saracens, or Moors, had gained posses- sion of the whole of Spain, but there were still small fragments of the ancient Visigothic kingdom in the north. It was to save these little Christian states from their Mohammedan oppres- sors, as well as to round out the limits of his own kingdom, that Charlemagne imdertook a campaign against the Saracens. Sakacen Arm8 1 CHARLEMAGNE 223 Without much trouble he drove the Saracens beyond the Ebro, and made that river the southern boundary of his domin- ions. On his way back the rear guard was attacked in the mountain pass of Roncesvalles, and some of his bravest war- riors were killed — among them Koland, whose exjoloits are celebrated in the famous Song of Roland, which has come down to us from the Middle Ages ; but the deeds of Roland are more a matter of legend than of history, for all that we know positively about him is that he perished in the fight at Roncesvalles. This battle did not regain for the Saracens what they had lost ; for so long as Charlemagne lived, the sway of the Franks extended to the Ebro. The Slavs lived in the lands east of the river Elbe, and in the country now called Bohemia. Charlemagne found it easy to subdue them, but not so easy to keep them in subjection ; for they were a rude, unruly people, constantly fighting with the Germans on the border. The Avars occupied the country east of Bavaria, and kept the Bavarians busy in defending themselves from their attacks ; but Charlemagne brought them to terms in a single campaign in 791. Charlemagne's Dominions. — At the close of the eighth cen- tury Charlemagne's dominions extended from the Atlantic Ocean on the west to modern Hungary on the east, and from the Baltic Sea to the river Ebro in Spain. They covered as much ground as the western division of the old Roman Empire. All this territory was occupied by Germanic peoples, many of whom, before the time of Charlemagne, were wholly independ- ent of the Franks. Restoration of the Empire. — Yet Charlemagne still had only the title King of the Franks and Lombards. To the men of that day it seemed natural that the ruler of this vast territory, which was, in fact, an empire, should receive the title of emperor; for his power was far greater than that of the ruler at Constantinople, who was still called Roman Emperor. It seemed as if the empire in the West had, in fact, been restored ; but instead of being Roman, as before, it was now 224 GENEEAL HISTORY German from one end of it to tlie other, altliougli in the southern portions, in France, Spain, and Italy, there was a strong Eomaii element in the population. But the question was, how was Charlemagne to obtain the title of emperor ? Should he assume it himself, and if not, by whom should it be given to him ? The matter was settled in the following way. The popes, as Ave have seen, were strong friends of the Franks, from whose kings they had received many favors in the past and hoped for more in the future. At the same time they had become enemies of the Eastern Roman emperors, who were still the nominal rulers over Italy and the West, although no one respected their authority in those regions. The East- ern and Western churches had divided on questions relating to the worship of images and other matters, and the emperors had often tried to curtail the powers of the popes. So by restoring CHARLEMAGNE 225 the empire in the West and giving the crown to the king of the Franks the Church woukl secure a protector against any en- croachments from Constantinople. Charlemagne crowned Emperor. — Such w as the condition of things in the year 800. On Christmas Day of that year Char- lemagne was in Rome, attending the services at St. Peter's; while he was kneeling in prayer, Pope Leo III. suddenly approached him, placed on his head a golden crown, and saluted him as emperor. This act was regarded as the resto- ration of the Eoman Empire, and Charlemagne was hailed as the successor of the Caesars, although there had been no Caesars in the West for over 300 years ; that is, since 476. It seems strange to us that the people of that day could re- gard this as in any sense a Roman Empire, but they did; and what is more, this idea of a great imperial government extend- ing over all Europe possessed men's minds for many centuries, for it was not till modern times that people came to believe that each nation should be left to govern itself in its own way. The lands that Charlemagne ruled passed through many changes after his death, but his successors in Germany were called emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, and this title was held by them till the year 1806. Rome was the capital of this restored empire, and Italy be- longed in theory to the successors of Charlemagne on the Ger- man throne. As a result, the German emperors were continually engaged Avith Italian affairs to the neglect of their national interests, and neither Italy nor Germany developed a strong, centralized government till centuries after the states of west- ern Europe had reached that stage. Another thing to be noted is the fact that the pope crowned Charlemagne. This seemed to imply that the pope was superior to the emperor, and that no emperor's title was valid unless sanctioned by him. Thus there was established a precedent for later popes to assert the claim of supremacy over all earthly rulers in temporal as well as religious matters, a claim which led to a long and bitter con- flict between -emperors and popes. So it is clear that this core- 226 GENERAL HISTORY nation of Charlemagne had some very important and lasting effects. German Independence. — Charlemagne died in 814. During the fourteen years that followed his coronation, he applied himself to the work of building up a strong centralized govern- ment and improving the condition of his people. To centralize the government, that is, to get all the power into the hands of the emperor, was a hard task ; for the Germans had always been very jealous of any attempt to restrict their freedom. They believed in an exactly opposite kind of government, — one in which power did not come from the king, but from the people gathered in their national assemblies. The idea of the Roman Empire was that all authority came from above; that is, from the emperor. The idea of the Germans had been that all authority came from below; that is, from the freemen. More- over, the Germans were inclined to form little states under dukes or counts who were virtually independent. Charlemagne's Government. — Charlemagne tried to check this tendency by making every one take an oath of allegiance to him and by appointing the officers who should rule for him in different parts of the country, but there was danger that these officers would usurp some of his authority and come to regard themselves as ruling in their own right. This was especially likely to happen on the frontier or mark, where the local count or margrave was constantly fighting with enemies across the border and perhaps winning new lands by conquest. To meet this difficulty, Charlemagne created a set of officers, called the Missi (messengers), whose duty it was to visit all parts of the country, and bring back reports of what the various governors were doing. By these means and, above all, by his great personal energy and the awe that his name in- spired, he held his vast dominions together and made his will supreme. But his work was not lasting; for his successors were not great enough to keep it up, and we shall find that after his death the tendency towards separation and independ- CHARLEMAGNE , 227 ence proved too strong to be controlled, and finally resulted in that division of Europe into petty countships and dukedoms which is the characteristic of what is called the Feudal System. Charlemagne's Influence on Literature. — One of the best proofs of Charlemagne's greatness is the fact that in a barbarous age, when fighting seemed to be the only object in men's lives, he saw so clearly the advantages of education, and did so much to encourage learning. According to the standard of those times, he himself was a learned man; for he read and spoke Latin, is said to have understood Greek, and was familiar with some of the best writings of scholars, although he never learned to write even in his native German language. He called learned men to his court and lived in daily intercourse with them, discussing all sorts of subjects on which he thought they could give him . „ ,. AT- ,1 /. T-IT1 Charlemagne's Sig- mformation. Alcum, the famous English nature. scholar, lived at his court, and Eginhard, (Only the central portion who wrote The Life of Charlemagne, was his the other letters, form- . T j>". nxi "iTi ing: the name Karolus, secretary. in lact, all the great literary being written by a sec- men received encouragement from him, and ^^^^^^•■^ he did an important literary work himself by making a col- lection of German popular songs. Education. — But the work he did directly for education was the most important. He established a school at his own resi- dence, called the School of the Palace, for the education of his family and all who were attached to the court, and he required every monastery to maintain a school, where the monks were to give instruction to the youth of the neighborhood, especially to those entering the priesthood. He seems to have valued learning and industry more highly than noble birth ; for his biographer tells a story about his returning after a long ab- sence to a school which he had founded and promising high offices and rich rewards to the lowborn scholars who had done good work, while for the noblemen's sons who had idled away their time he had only harsh words, saying that he cared little 228 GENERAL HISTORY for their " pretty looks and noble birth, though others think them so fine," and that they should have no favors from him unless they worked to deserve them. Character of Charlemagne. — He himself was the busiest and most energetic man of his time. No detail seemed beneath his notice, and he managed everything in his empire, from the affairs of his own household to the government of the most remote districts. In size and strength he was a giant, and he was fond of testing his powers by the hardest kinds of exercise. He was simple in his habits, and hated drunk- enness, which was the prevailing vice of the Germans. At table it was his practice to have some one read aloud to him from some standard woi'k on history or religion, his favorite book being St. Augustine's City of God. Results of his Reign. — In general, he was generous and kindly in all his relations, both as a ruler and as a man, and his biographers have much to say of the mildness that characterized his dealings with friends and foes alike. He was something more than a mere conqueror; for he aimed to civilize as well as to subdue, and he saw that he could do this best by limiting his empire to peoples of the same race. What he did was to gather the German peoples of Europe together, make them conscious of their kinship, and teach them a lesson in civilization which they never forgot, although the empire which he founded soon passed away. Division of the Empire. — In the reign of Charlemagne's weaker son, Louis the Pious, the empire began to go to pieces, and on his death it was divided between his three sons, one of whom was called emperor, but ruled over only a small portion of the original empire. Under these Carolingian emperors and kings, the successors of Charlemagne, we shall trace in a later chapter the beginnings of modern France and Ger- many. RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 229 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Charlemagne. — His Inheritance: He becomes Sole Ruler, 771. Im- portance of his Reign. His Enemies. Necessity of Constant Fight- ing. — Charlemagne's War with the Lombards: Charlemagne's Championship of the Pope. Charlemagne becomes King of the Lombards. He confirms Pepin's Gift to the Pope. — The Saxons: Difficulty of subduhig the Saxons. General Character of the Campaigns. The Murder of Saxon Prisoners. Widukind. Impor- tance of the Conquest of the Saxons. Their Forcible Conversion to Christianity. — The Bavarians : Tassilo. Charlemagne's Invasion. The Conquest of the Bavarians. — Saracens, Slavs, and Avars : Char- lemagne's Invasion of Spain. Prankish Power extended to the Ebro. Charlemagne's Successes against the Slavs and Avars. — Charle- magne's Dominions: Wide Extent of the Prankish Territory. — Restoration of the Empire : The Causes that led to the Coronation of Charlemagne. — Charlemagne crowned Emperor, 800 a.d. : Im- portance of the Coronation. The Papal Claim to Superiority. — German Independence : The Difficulty of enforcing Obedience. — Charlemagne's Government : His Efforts at Centralization. The Missi. The Effects not Permanent. — Charlemagne's Influence on Literature : His Encouragement of Learning. — Education : The Palace School. His Encouragement of Education. — Character of Charlemagne : His Mastery of Details. His Habits. — Results of his Reign : Civilizhjg Effect. — Division of the Empire. CHAPTER XXXI RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER The Early Christian Church. — At first the apostles of Christ were the governors of the Church. Under the apostles the bishops, or elders, directed the affairs of the congregation of believers. Following the death of the apostles, there was a period lasting many years, during which we have very scanty records of church history, and when in the second century A.D. the sources of information become more complete, we find Colby's c;e\. nisx. — 15 230 GENERAL HISTORY that the bishops are regarded as the successors of the apostles, and have authority over several congregations. Church Government. — At the head of every Roman province was a provincial governor, who controlled the governors of the smaller divisions of the province. In like manner there arose among the bishops of a province one who possessed author- ity over the rest. He was called an Archbishop or Metropoli- tan Bishop. Finally, in some of the great cities the heads of the Church acquired authority over all the church officers in that region and became what were called Patriarchs. There were five great Patriarchates, whose capitals were Rome, Con- stantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Next came the archbishops or metropolitan bishops, then the bishops, and finally the priests, who were the heads of single congrega- tions. Rise of the Christian Church. — In the meanwhile the Church had risen from the position of a poor and obscure sect, hold- ing its meetings in secret and suffering continual and bitter persecution, to a state of dignity, power, and wealth. In the eyes of the Romans a Christian had been regarded as a crimi- nal, for he detested their gods and refused to believe in the divinity of their emperors after death. He was a member of an illegal association, and as such liable to the severest punishments. But in spite of every kind of persecution, the Church grew in numbers and power till, as we have seen, Con- stantine granted it full legal tol- eration in 313. From this time on its power increased year by year. Power of the Bishop of Rome. Papai, Embi.kms — Ii^ speaking of the Roman bishop we shall often refer to his spiritual power as distinguished from his temporal power. By the first is meant his authority in matters of church gov- RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 231 ernmeiit aud doctrine, his power to bind men's consciences and decide finally on questions of belief. Temporal power, on the other hand, means the same kind of authority as that exercised by kings or magistrates, and pertains only to worldly matters. By various means the Koman bishops secured both these kinds of power. They were both spiritual directors and civil rulers. It is important to understand how they came to possess this vast authority. The chief ground of the Roman bishop's greater power was the belief that St. Peter had founded the Roman Church and was himself its first bishop. As St. Peter was the ' Prince of the Apostles,' so the Roman Church was regarded as superior to the other churches. Another thing which gave the Roman bishops an advantage over all others was the awe which people felt for the city of Rome, as the capital of the world. It was natural that the bishop of the Roman diocese should be regarded as more important than the head of the Church in some minor city. Then the emperors had removed from Rome to Constan- tinople, and the Roman bishop was not overshadowed by the presence of a more imposing personage than himself, nor was he liable to be interfered with so often as if the emperor had been close at hand. When the empire was destroyed, the Bishop of Rome was the only great representative of law and order in the West, and was obliged to exercise much of the authority that had formerly belonged to the emperor. The Early Popes. — These are some of the circumstances that tended to build up the papacy, but much was due to the per- sonal character of some of the early bishops, and to the great services the Roman Church had rendered to Christianity and civilization. Leo the Great (440-461), the pope whose prayers induced Attila to spare Rome, was a man of extraordinary ability and devotion to the Church, and he bent all his ener- gies to winning for the Roman bishop a position of authority over the whole Church. Another singularly able pope was Gregory the Great (590-604), whose missionary, Augustine, 232 GENERAL HISTORY began the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons (596). Men like these made the office venerable, and people turned to the Roman bishop as the final authority on church matters. In fact, from the time of Gregory the Great we may apply to these bishops the higher title of pope (Lat. papa, father), for their power was greater than that of any other ecclesiastical officers in Christendom. Temporal Power of the Popes. — The influences above de- scribed tended chiefly to increase the spiritual power of the popes, but there were some forces which affected mainly their temporal power. In the first place, they became large owners of land, through the piety of wealthy Christians, who, on dying, left their estates to the Church. In the same way they ac- quired much property of other kinds, and increase of wealth brought increase of power. Moreover, they took their place in the feudal system, and feudal privileges were granted to them as to other vassals (chap. 36). Donations of Constantine and Pepin. — The most magnificent gift of land was Avliat was called the Donation of Constantine. According to the story, Constantine was miraculously cured of the leprosy by Pope Sylvester, and in his gratitude gave the pope the right to rule over all Italy. Furthermore, it was said that Constantine's motive in moving his capital from Rome to Constantinople was that the popes might not be hampered by the presence of an emperor in the West. Al- though it is now held that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery, it was accepted for many years and aided the popes in extending their temporal power. A more substantial basis for that power, however, was Pepin's donation of the strip of land in northern Italy, a gift which was afterwards renewed by Charlemagne. This land was the nucleus of the Papal States, which the pope governed as a civil ruler. The popes not only gained lands which they governed in their own right, but they gained certain impor- tant powers in the lands of other sovereigns. For instance, in the matter of punishing the crimes of the clergy, the popes RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 233 claimed that their courts alone had jurisdiction, while the king or emperor held that as the clergy were his subjects, they should be tried by his courts. The Isidorian Decretals. — The papal claim was greatly strengthened by the so-called Isidorian Decretals, a collection of documents which appeared about the middle of the ninth century, and appeared to show that from the earliest times the popes had actually exercised all the rights which they claimed in later times. Hundreds of years passed before their falsity was discovered. The Papacy in the Ninth Century. — Before the end of the ninth century the papal power had become very extensive, as is evident from the following illustration. Lothair II., king of Lotharingia, had grown tired of his wife Teutberga and sent her away after accusing her of all manner of horrible crimes. He wished the Church to legalize the divorce and permit him to marry another. Two councils of the German clergy, being afraid to decide against his wishes, agreed that Teutberga was guilty of the crimes charged and that he might lawfully divorce her. The pope did not hesitate to set aside the decision of both these councils and declare the king's act illegal. He then made Lothair take back his lawful wife. If a pope could discipline a king in this way and decide upon the legality of his acts, it is evident that the power of the papacy had already become well established. Monasticism. — During the persecutions of the early Church many left the cities and took refuge in the mountains or in the desert, where they led lonely lives, but at least found safety and peace. At the same time many sought those places of their own free will, from a desire to escape the temptations of the world, and to give themselves up wholly to religious medita- tions and prayer. The deserts of Egypt were the earliest resort for this class of people ; some of them, called hermits or anchorites, dwelling entirely alone ; others, known as monks or cenobites, living together in small bands. Their aim being to rid themselves of all worldly thoughts and desires and fix their 234 GENERAL HISTORY minds solely on the next world, they resorted to the severest kind of penances, thinking to kill the desires of the flesh by torturing the body. These self-inflicted punishments were carried to a point that is almost inconceivable to the modern mind ; for the voluntary endurance of suffering seemed to them a proof of the highest virtue and a guarantee of salvation in the world to come. It is told of St. Macarius of Alexandria that he lived for six months in a marsh and exposed his naked body to the stings of insects. Other saints would starve themselves for months ; carry heavy weights of iron wherever they went ; live in the vilest kind of dens — holes in the ground or caves; go without sleeping and without washing. The idea that saintliness was measured by suffering had a firm hold on men's minds. A very famous saint, named John, is said to have spent three years leaning against a rock. He never lay down, and his only nourishment is said to have been the Sacrament, which was brought to him on Sundays. But most famous of all was St. Simeon Styli'tes, the Pillar Saint, who stood for thirty years on the top of a column, in all kinds of weather, continually bending his body in prayer. Pilgrims came to see him from far and near, and he had sev- eral imitators. The Benedictines. — But all this applies especially to the early period of monasticism, and chiefly to the form of it that flourished in Egypt and the East. In the West the system showed a more practical tendency. There the order founded by St. Ben 'edict (480-543), and called after him Benedic'tine, did good w^ork in the cause of civilization. To the usual vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience was added the rule that the monks must work in the fields during a part of each day. As a result, the best-cultivated lands of Europe were those around the monasteries, which thus set a good example to the people, and improved the methods of agriculture. The Monasteries and Learning. — The monasteries rendered a great service to learniug by preserving and copying the writ- RISE OF THE PAPAL POWER 235 ings of classic authors. They were, moreover, the charitable institutions of the time, caring for the poor and the infirm, and giving shelter to travelers. But one thing especially deserves attention. They were stanch supporters of the papacy and greatly aided in advancing its power; for a monk was, in a sense, a soldier of the Church. Without wife or children to bind his interests with those of the people among whom he lived, his whole devotion was centered in the Church. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Rise of the Papal Power. — The Early Christian Church : The Power of the Bishops. Authority from Above. Church Government : The Archbishops. The Five Patriarchs. — Rise of the Christian Church: The Toleration of Christianity, 313 a.d,— Power of the Bishop of Rome : Spiritual Power. Temporal Power. Influences that extended the Power of the Roman Bishops. Character of the Early Bishops. — The Early Popes: Leo the Great. Gregory the Great. — Temporal Power of the Popes. — Donation of Constantine : The Donation of Pepin. The Papal States. — The Isidorian Decre- tals : Their Effect on the Temporal Power of the Popes. — The Papacy in the Ninth Century. — Monasticism : Hermits. Anchor- ites. Self-inflicted Punishments, The Pillar Saints. — The Bene- dictines : The Industry of the Monks. — The Monasteries and Learning. Charities. Their Devotion to the Church. CHAPTER XXXII EUROPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS The Later Carolingians. — The descendants of Charlemagne ruled in Germany till 911, in France till 987. but in all these years the family did not produce a single prince capable of carrying on the work begun by their great ancestor. To be sure, the work of holding the empire together became far more difficult as the years passed, on account of the tendency to separation and subdivision of its parts ; but these kings, with 236 GENERAL HISTORY few exceptions, were feeble rulers, whose very names seem to indicate the slight regard in which they were held, for they have come down to us coupled with disrespectful nicknames, such as • the Bald,' '■ the Fat,' ' the Stammerer,' ' the Simple,' nhe Do-Nothing,' and 'the Child.' Division of the Empire. — Charlemagne had the old German idea that each son must inherit a portion of his father's land. Accordingly, in his lifetime he divided his empire between his three sons, thus setting an example for the very thing he wished to avoid ; namely, the breaking up of the great empire which he himself had taken such pains to hold together. But the death of the two elder sons left Louis, surnamed the Pious, the sole heir to his father's dominions. Louis the Pious. — Charlemagne himself is said to have placed the imperial crown on his son's head. Whether this is so or not, it is certain that Louis was not in the first instance crowned by the pope, and that on his father's death in 814 he succeeded to all the latter's power without the express sanction of the Roman bishop; but Louis was a strong friend of the Church, and seems not to have regarded his coronation as valid, for he soon afterwards had the pope recrown him. Thus both Charle- magne and Louis the Pious received their crowns from the pope, giving color to the later claims of the papacy to supe- riority over the empire. Character of Louis. — Louis had many virtues as a man, but they were not of the kind to make him a good ruler. He was gentle and humane, but lacked force of character. He could not hold either his sons or his nobles to obedience, and he gave himself up completely to the influence of his advisers; so that in complying too much with the wishes of one person, he would often forget the rights of another. Quarrels with his Sons. — Almost all his reign was taken up with quarrels with his sons about the share of the empire which each should inherit ; for, like Charlemagne, he seemed to think that the empire must be divided. In the first place, he gave his eldest son Lothair the central part of the empire, europp: under the later carolingians 237 including Italy. This was by far the largest share, and besides tliis Lothair was to receive the title of emperor. Naturally the younger brotliers, Pepin and Louis the German, felt ag- grieved, and matters were further complicated by the birth of a fourth son, Charles (afterwards known as Charles the Bald), for whom a share had to be found. The Field of Lies. — The attempts of Louis the Pious to carve out a kingdom for Charles by taking from the lands of the others involved him in continual disputes. First one and then another would think himself unfairly treated and threaten to revolt. On one occasion the three elder sons joined forces and prepared to meet their father in battle. For three days the two armies stood face to face, but Lothair won over his father's followers by fair promises and the old emperor, finding himself deserted by his troops, was forced to yield. This scene of treachery and shame is known in history as the Field of Lies. Finally Pepin, Avhose share included part of what is now France, died, and Charles the Bald obtained all the western part of the empire. Lothair held abnost all the rest, and Louis the German had little more than Bavaria for his share. This was the state of things when the miserable reign of Louis the Pious came to an end. This prince had shown him- self utterly incapable of dealing with the difficult questions of the time, and to his successors he bequeathed a weakened and divided empire and the necessity of a disastrous war. Battle of Fontenay. — Just before his death Louis the Pious had sent Lothair the imperial crown. Lothair took this to mean that he had authority over his brothers, who, seeing their com- mon danger, combined to oppose him. The allied army of Louis the German and Charles the Bald met Lothair's forces in the battle of Fon'tenay in 841. The result was the .complete defeat of Lothair and the formation of a treaty which recog- nized the younger brothers in the independent possession of their lands. Treaty of Verdun. — This was the famous Treaty of Verdun' 238 GENERAL HISTORY (843). By it Lotbair retained Italy and a strip of territory extending between tbe lands of bis brotbers from tbe Alps to tbe Nortb Sea. To tbe east of tliis strip was tbe dominion of Louis tbe German, a territory inbabited by purely German peoples. To tbe west of it was tbe sbare of Cbarles tbe Bald, almost wbolly witliin tbe limits of modern France. So tbe Treaty of Verdun is of tbe greatest bistorical importance ; for in tbe respective sbares of Louis tbe German and Cbarles tbe Bald we see tbe beginnings of tbe two great modern nations, Germany and France. In tbe part over wbicb Cbarles tbe Bald ruled tbere was a strong Gallic and Roman element in tbe population, and tbe language spoken tbere was already beginning to resemble tbe modern Frencb, wbile in Louis tbe German's territory the peo- ple spoke only German. In Lotbair's strip of land between tbese two divisions tbere was a mixed population. Part of tbis territory seemed naturally to belong to tbe Western king- dom, and part of it to tbe Eastern. So, as we sball see, tbese lands became in after years a bone of contention between tbe rulers of France and Germany. For tbese reasons it is some- times said tbat all tbe later bistory of western Europe is "but an exposition of tbe Treaty of Verdun." Lothair's Share. — Tbe ''enquire" of Lotbair appears very insignificant in comparison with tbe vast dominions of bis grandfather Charlemagne. The part north of Italy included tbe land between the Rhone and Scheldt on the west and Rhine on the east, together with the country known as Frisia, at tbe mouth of the Rhine. To keep tbis long, narrow region, with its indefensible frontier and ill-assorted peoples, under a single government was an impossible task, and Lotbair divided it among bis three sons, giving to one of them the title of emperor, just as Louis tbe Pious had done before him. It is evident tbat tbis dividing and subdividing Avould soon leave very little of tbe original empire. One of Lotbair's sons, Lotbair IT., obtained all tbe part north of Italy except Bur- gundy and Provence. This was known as Lotlmrii Regnum EUROPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS ^39 (Lothair's kingdom), a term which was afterwards corrupted into Lotharin'gia, whence the modern name Lorraine' (German Loth'ringen), still applied to a portion of the lands once ruled by Loth air II. But even this comparatively small tract of land could not be held together, for on Lothair Il.'s death his uncles seized and, in 870, divided it between them, Louis the German taking the eastern portion. Hence arose the claim of Germany to the CENTKAL E\ in A.D. lands between the Moselle and the Rhine, and the dispute between France and Germany which exists to-day in what we know as the Alsace-Lorraine question. The lands which Louis the German obtained in 870 Avere, after the changes of a thou- sand years, again annexed to Germany by the Emperor Wil- liam as a result of the Franco-German war of 1870-71. The Carolingians in Germany. — Louis the German managed, by dint of hard lighting, to keep his dominions together and transmit them to his three ^ons. Two of these sons died, and the survivor, Charles the Fat, inherited the whole land. For a short time it seemed as if the empire of Charlemagne had been restored, for Charles, who had been crowned emjDcror by 240 GENERAL HISTORY the pope (882), also obtained the throne of the Western Franks, but he was weak in body and in mind, and quite unequal to the task of government. He let the Northmen plunder France, and on one occasion, having started to rescue Paris from their attacks, he was afraid to risk a battle, and made the disgraceful promise that they should have Burgundy to i^lunder if they Avould let Paris alone. The nobles soon tired of him, and were glad enough when a new claimant for the throne put in an appearance. The End of the Dynasty in Germany. — This new claimant was Arnulf of Bavaria. He was a man of energy and strong will, and having caused the deposition of his uncle, Charles the Fat (887), he determined to make himself a real emperor. In 896 he was crowned at Rome, and even before that his supremacy had been acknowledged in France and Germany. But it was too late to piece together the fragments of the empire. Italy and France were under separate and indepen- dent rulers, and he had all he could do to hold his own in Germany against the growing power of the dukes and to pro- tect his eastern frontiers against the Slavs. With Arnulf's successor, Louis the Child, the Carolingian line in Germany came to an end (911). State of Germany. — During all this time the royal or im- perial power in Germany had been steadily decreasing, while the duchies had been gradually gaining strength. These duchies were four in number, — Franconia, Saxony, Suabia, Bavaria, — and there were, besides, several marches, or border countries, which, like the duchies, tended to make themselves independent of royal control. So Germany became the scene of endless conflict between the kings and the dukes or counts. The Carolingians in France. — Much the same state of things existed in France. Charles the Bald and his successors were too Aveak to repulse the attacks of the Northmen, and permitted them to burn and plunder some of their fairest cities. When the Northmen besieged Paris in 885, it was not the Carolingian king, but one of his feudal subjects, Count EUKOPE UNDER THE LATER CAROLINGIANS 241 Odo of Paris, who saved the city. After the deposition of Charles the Fat, Odo gained the throne as a reward ; bnt on his death the Carolingians returned to power, Odo naming as his successor Charles the Simple, who allowed the Northmen under Rollo to settle in the north of France, in the province thenceforth known as Normandy (911). End of the Dynasty in France. — Already two little separate kingdoms, Burgundy and Provence', had set themselves up within the limits of what is now France, and under Charles the Simple and his successors, the great lords usurped more and more of the royal power until they became nearly, if not quite, as strong as the Fi-ench king himself. Finally, when the last Carolingian in the direct line had died (987), the dukes and counts decided to elect one of their own number as king, and they chose Hugh Capet, the descendant of that Odo who had fought the Northmen at Paris. Thus ended the Carolingian line in France. The new dynasty, called Cape'tian from the name of its founder, ruled the country for nearly three centuries and a half (987-1328). 242 GENERAL HISTORY Character of the Period. — This is one of the darkest periods in European history. It was a time of lawlessness and mis- rule, when there was no authority strong enough to repress violence and prevent private w^ar. Men found that their rulers could not protect them against w^rong. So they took the law into their own hands and redressed their wrongs themselves. The strong oppressed the weak, and society was distracted by continual feuds and outrages. Just as the empire of Charle- magne came to be divided into kingdoms, so these kingdoms split up into smaller fragments, and both in France and Ger- many the kings became more and more insignificant, till in point of power they were hardly to be distinguished from their great vassals. They could not reach the people except through the local rulers, and these local rulers often had no regard for the royal will. As a result, France and Germany became, not nations in the modern sense of the word, but loosely joined col- lections of little states, ■ — duchies, counties, principalities, — owning slight obedience to the central authority. Italy, too, was divided among many masters. The popes were trying to extend their power over the whole peninsula, and the German emperors w^ere trying to force the country into the empire ; but neither popes nor emperors were able to check the general tendency toward anarchy and subdivision. This division of power between the king and his lords, and be- tween the lords and his vassals, is the chief characteristic of what we call the Feudal System, which by the close of this period of the later Carolingians had established itself firmly in Europe. Growing Power of the Popes. — Yet in this breakdown of royal and imperial power the popes found an opportunity to extend their authority. They caused themselves to be re- garded as the spiritual heads of Europe, and even in political matters they steadily gained ground. No coronation of an emperor was valid unless performed by the pope, and by threat of spiritual punishment he was often able to bring princes to submission. s 1 I3f O^^i ^v^ ^ \ W:S^' X -. ^ Uf5§ ■' S-'^ W<^ o' THE NORTHMEN 248 SYNOPSIS FOR REViEW Europe under the Later Carolingiaxs. — The Later Carolingians : Incapacity of the Rulers. — Division of the Empire. — Louis tlie Pious: Louis crowned by the Pope. — Character of Louis. — Quar- rels with his Sons. — The Field of Lies : The Shares of Charles the Bald, Lothair, and Louis the German. — Battle of Fontenay : The Victory of Louis the German and Charles the Bald over Lothair at Fontenay, 8-il a.d. — Treaty of Verdun. The Shares of Lothair, Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. Importance of the Treaty of Verdun. — Lothair's Share : Its Division in 870. The Beginning of the Alsace-Lorraine Question. — The Carolingians in Germany : Charles the Fat crowned Emperor, 882. — The End of the Dynasty in Germany : Arnulf of Bavaria. Impossible to reunite the Empire. — State of Germany: Four Duchies. Growing Importance of the Dukes. — The Carolingians in France : Weakness of the Royal Power. — End of the Dynasty in France : The Capetian Dynasty. — Character of the Period : Confusion of the Times. Private Wars. France and Germany loosely joined Collections of Little States. Condition of Italy. — Growing Power of the Popes. CHAPTER XXXIII THE NORTHMEN Who were the Northmen? — Early in the ninth century, while Cliarlemagne was still ruling, a strange race of pirates made their appearance on the coasts of what is now France. Their long, sharp-pointed boats sailed up the Trench rivers and put into shore just long enough to enable their crews to attack some unsuspecting village, kill the inhabitants, and reembark with the booty. They vanished as mysteriously as they came, and it seemed impossible either to guard against the attacks or to punish the invaders. Charlemagne appreciated the danger and tried to protect his frontier, but without permanent effect. The attacks continued, and after his death became more frequent, 244 GENERAL HISTORY till finally they resulted in the conquest and occupation of some of the best lands of his successors. These new invaders are known by the name of Northmen, from the fact that they came from Scandinavia and Denmark, the two northern peninsulas of western Europe. They were of pure German blood and knew nothing of Christianity or of the civilization of Rome ; so their migration in the ninth and tenth centuries was a new German invasion like that which we have described in treating of the period between 378 and 568. Those who staid at home built up the states which we know to-day as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The others settled in France, England, Russia, and Iceland, in each case adding a most important element to the population and shaping the subsequent history of those countries. They also made inroads into Spain, and settled in Sicily, Italy, Ireland, Scotland, and many of the smaller islands off the British coast, but in these regions they left few permanent traces. Tliey were a rude, THE NORTHMEN 245 vigorous race, delighting in war and adventure, and worshiping gods of the same savage and bloodthirsty character as them- selves. They were skillful seamen and were called Vikings, from the vicks, or bays, with which the Scandinavian coast abounds. I. The Kokthmen in France Inroads of the Northmen. — Since even Charlemagne could not defend his borders against these robbers, not much was to be expected of his weak successors. Early in the reign of Charles the Bald, who ruled over France on the division of the empire, the Northmen sailed up the Seine, burned the beauti- ful city of Eouen, and escaped unpunished. They soon came back and not only pillaged and murdered, but even exacted a tribute as the price of peace. This was several times repeated, the region north of the Seine and around Paris suffering the most. As the king could not defend them, the inhabitants of that territory had to look out for themselves, and Kobert the Strong became their champion against the invaders. The latter killed him in battle, but his son, Count Odo of Paris, took his place as the chieftain of the Franks, and when the Northmen laid siege to Paris in 885, he beat them back and saved the city. By this act he won for his family a respect which was not felt for the Carolingians, and laid the foundation of royal power ; for the descendants of this Odo were the Capetian kings who succeeded the Carolingians on the throne of France. Settlement of Normandy. — But the Northmen kept up their attacks, and finally their chief Hollo, or Kolf, secured from the French king, Charles the Simple, a grant of the land which was afterwards called Normandy. This was the Treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte (911). By it Bollo agreed to do homage to the king and become the ^king's man,' in return for the lands which he had received. In other words, Rollo became Duke of the Northmen (now called Normans), and ruled over northern France as the feudal subject of the French king. But though Colby's gen. hist. — 16 246 GENERAL HISTORY nominally subjects, the Norman dukes, successors of Kollo, be- came almost as powerful as the king himself, and their duchy of Normandy was one of the richest and strongest provinces of Prance. The invaders quickly adopted the language and customs of their new country, but they did not lose their natural vigor or warlike habits, and a century and a half after they had settled in France, we shall find a descendant of Eollo winning for himself the crown of England. II. England and the Northmen The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom. — The invasion of the island of Britain by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, in 449, has already been mentioned. We have noticed, too, that the war between these German invaders and the Eoman-Celtic natives was a war of extermination, and resulted in crowding the latter into the western part of the island. It took the Germans a century and a half to accomplish this result. When it was done, there followed a long period of warfare among the conquerors. First one and then another of the petty states into which England was divided would win for itself a sort of leadership over the rest, but there was no central gov- ernment or real unity. The details of the endless rivalries and wars between these half -barbarous peoples have not much in- terest for us. They have been compared to the ^'battles of kites and crows." This time is called the period of the Hep- tarchy (seven kingdoms, rule of seven) because during a part of the period there were seven of these little states. Synod of Whitby. — Yet there were certain influences that tended toward unity. In the first place, ever since the conver- sion of Kent by Augustine, in 596, the country had been under one ecclesiastical government, that of which the pope at Kome was the head. At one time it had looked as if the island might be divided in religion as well as in government ; for the Celtic Church, which differed in several re&pects from the Eoman, THE NORTHMEN 247 had a strong hold in the north. Oswy, the king of the power- ful state of Northunibria, hesitated between the two forms of faith, but the matter was decided at the Synod of Whitby in 664. There Oswy, on hearing that Christ had given the keys of heaven to Peter, and that the popes were Peter's successors, declared himself on the side of the Roman Catholic Church, lest when he came " to the gates of heaven, there should be none to open them." Unity in religious belief and in church government led to unity in political affairs. Attacks of the Northmen. — Another thing which tended to bring about the same result was the consciousness of common interests in the presence of a common enemy. This enemy was the Northman, who paid his first visit to the English coast in the year 787. From that time on, the ravages of the Northmen, or Danes, as they are called in English history, be- came frequent, and the Anglo-Saxons began to feel the need of combined action under a single leader in their own defense. Egbert, king of Wessex, was the first king of all England (827), and from this time the history of the English monarchy really begins. He was a strong ruler, and was followed by worthy successors who did good service against the Danes. But the attacks of the latter continued with increasing success until, at the beginning of the reign of Alfred, Egbert's grandson (871), they had all England north of the Thames. Alfred the Great and the Danes. — Alfred inherited a war rather than a kingdom; for the Danes attempted to seize even the country south of the Thames, so that he had to fight if he would retain a single foot of land to rule over. The manner in which he faced his enemies and finally triumphed over them, and the fine qualities he displayed as a ruler, have rightly earned for him the title of the Great. At first he had to buy off the Danes, for he had not force enongh in his little kingdom to resist them. Nor was he a match for them when they came back with larger numbers and renewed the war a few years later. He was defeated and hnnted like a runaway slave in his own country. On this 248 GENERAL HISTORY occasion, according to the well-known story, he escaped in disguise, and found shelter in a peasant's hut, where the housewife set him to watching her cakes and scolded him when he absent-mindedly let them burn. But he raised a new army, and this time was successful. By the Treaty of Wed- more in 878, the Danes acknowledged his right to the western half of England and all the land south of the Thames. The eastern half north of the Thames remained with the Danes, and was called the Da'nelagh (Danelaw). Twice afterwards he came into conflict with these people, but on each occasion he was successful and toward the end of his reign his suprem- acy was acknowledged over almost all England. Character and Work of Alfred the Great. — It was as hard a task to restore order and prosperity to his kingdom as it had been to wrest it from the Danes ; for war had devastated the fields, ruined the towns, and demoralized the peojjle. Alfred's work of restoration was as wise as it was unwearied. He collected and revised the old laws, administering them with strictness, but with justice. The general lawlessness gave place to a wholesome respect for the king's peace, and it was said that a man could travel from one end of his dominions to the other without danger to his life or property. His best work was the education of his people. Seeing their need of books in their own language, he himself learned Latin and translated several important works into Anglo-Saxon ; so that he may be said to have really founded the native litera- ture. He began the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, one of the most valuable authorities on the history of the period, and he wrote the record of his own reign. In all this he had but one motive, — the welfare of his people, and he seems on this account to stand almost alone among the great rulers of the world ; for he regarded his office as a trust and himself as the servant of his people. He was England's best and greatest king. The Danish Conquest of England. — Alfred died in 901. His successors governed well, and the Danish inhabitants gradually settled down to peaceful occupations and mingled with the THE NORTHMEN 249 natives. Under Edgar (959-975) the power of the kingdom reached its height. All Britain acknowledged the sway of this ruler, and, according to the story, the royal barge was rowed by eight vassal kings. But in 991 the Danes renewed their attacks, this time on a larger scale, and King Olaf of Norway and Swegen or Sweyn of Denmark each headed expeditions. Eth'elred the Bedeless (without counsel), the English king, was an incapable prince, and being unable to meet the Danes in fair fight, resorted to the cruel and cowardly plan of a general massacre of the Danish settlers (1002), killing the sister of King Swegen among the rest. Swegen retaliated by overrunning and plundering the country, and finally in 1013 made himself king of England in place of Ethelred, who was forced to flee to Normandy. Swegen died soon afterward, but the fight went on between his son, Cnut, or Canute, and Ethelred. Ethelred died in 1016, and his son, Edmund Ironsides, a braver and better ruler than his father, succeeded in keeping half of the kingdom, but he died a few months later, and left Canute master of all England. The Reign of Canute. — Canute ruled from 1016 to 1035. His empire covered a wider territory than any other state in Europe at that time, for it included Denmark, Sweden, Nor- way, and England. Though a foreigner, he ruled England wisely and well, dealing impartially with Danes and English- men, and doing his best to make them one people. In this he was successful ; for the Danes were of the same blood as the natives, and quickly fell into their ways and learned their language. Instead of governing like a conqueror, Canute seems actually to have loved England better than his native Denmark. He was a Christian, and ashamed of the cruelties of his heathen ancestors toward the English, as well as of his own doings when he was fighting for the English crown. He ruled as if he wished to make atonement. He was simple in his tastes, and cared little for royal show. There is a familiar story of his re- buking the flattery of his courtiers. He asked them if they 250 GENERAL HISTORY thought the waves of the sea would stand still at his com- mand, and when they said they were sure of it, he tried the experiment in a very solemn manner in their presence. When it was clear that the waves paid no attention to the royal command, he gave the flatterers a wholesome little lecture on the feebleness of earthly kings as compared with the power of Heaven. Unfortunately for the English, his sons were men of a very different stamp. Harold (1035-40) and Hardicanute (1040-42) were bad rulers and roused the hatred of the English. The old Anglo-Saxon line was restored by the accession of Edward the Confessor, who ruled till within a few months of the Nor- man conquest (1042-66). III. Other Settlements by the Northmen The Northmen in Russia. — While bands of Northmen were plunderiiig the coasts of England and France, others were invading Russia. At first they held the lands just east of the Baltic, but gradually they advanced into the interior. In 862 their chief, Ruric, established a kingdom with its capital at Novgorod. This was the beginning of the Russian Empire, for Ruric's successors in the direct line ruled for over 700 years. Thus the ruling people in Russia were of the German race, but these German Northmen were quick in adapting themselves to the manners and language of the Slavs and Finns of Russia, just as they were quickly transformed into Englishmen in Eng- land, and into Frenchmen in France. Many of the later comers from Scandinavia passed down the rivers of Russia and settled in Constantinople, where they became the bodyguard of the Eastern emperors, and served in their wars. These Varan'- gians, as they were called, were very brave and faithful de- fenders of the rulers at Constantinople. Norse Settlements in Iceland and the British Isles. — Sea rovers from Scandinavia settled in Iceland as early as 874. There they established a little Norse state, shut off by its remote THE NORTHMEN 251 situation from European rivalries and wars, and preserving uncorrupted the original traditions of the race. The mediaeval literature of Iceland, especially the collections known as the Eddas, are the best sources we have for knowledge of the customs and character of the early Northmen. Norse tribes settled also in the Orkney Islands, the Heb'rides, and on the coast of Scotland and Ireland ; and they penetrated as far west as Greenland and America. In America it is doubtful whether they made any settlement, but it is believed that they visited the country early in the eleventh century, and the Vinland of which their writers speak has been identi- fied with a part of New England. Such, in brief, is the story of the migrations of the Northmen. It does not include their wanderings after they had become thoroughly nationalized in the countries in which they settled. We shall see that those who settled in France and had become to all appearances Frenchmen nevertheless kept their old adventure-loving spirit, and made more conquests. We shall encounter again these French Northmen or Normans when we come to trace the history of England and of Italy. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Northmen. — Who were the Northmen ? Their Plundering Expe- ditions. Their Home. Countries settled by them. — Inroads of the Northmen : Their Attacks on England and France. Repulse by Count Odo of Paris. — Settlement of Normandy : The Northmen secure Normandy by Treaty, 911. Rollo. — Power of the Norman Dukes. — The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom: The War of Extermination. — Synod of Whitby : England becomes Roman Catholic. — Attacks of the Northmen : The Beginning of the English Monarchy. — Alfred the Great and the Danes : His Long Struggle with the Invaders, His Final Success. — Character and AVork of Alfred the Great: Wisdom of his Government. Justice. Prosperity. Security of the People. — The Danish Conquest of England : Power of Edgar, 959-975. The Expeditions of the Danes. King Swegen and Ethelred the Redeless. Edmund Ironsides. Canute becomes King of England. — The Reign of Canute (1016-1035) : His Wisdom and Impartiality. The Char- 252 GENERAL HISTORY acter of his Successors. — The Northmen in Russia : Ruric estab- lishes a Kingdom at Novgorod, 862. The Varangian Guard. — Norse Settlements in Iceland and the British Isles : Icelandic Civilization. Settlements in the Orkney Islands, Hebrides, etc. The Norse Dis- covery of America. The Adaptability of the Northmen. CHAPTER XXXrV RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER The Mohammedan Movement. — So far we have concerned our- selves chiefly with Christian nations or with races that eventually became Christian. We come now to the history of a new re- ligious movement, that of Mohammedanism or Islam (meaning submission) which disputed with Christianity the possession of the West, and at one time seemed on the point of mastering the whole of Europe. Like Christianity, it originated with a Semitic people, the Arabs, kinsmen of the Jews, but it differed from Christianity in the rapidity with which it spread. Founded by Mohammed early in the seventh century, it forced itself upon the peoples of central and western Asia and northern Africa before a hundred years had passed. In one century it acquired a far wider territory than Christianity had gained for itself in seven, and to-day its adherents number over a hundred mil- lions. The Arabs. — The Arabs are a branch of the Semitic race. Their original home, Arabia, is a table-land, barren for the most part, but with fertile regions here and there of consider- able extent. Before the time of Mohammed the Arabs were a semicivilized people without either a settled government or a fixed abode. Their religion was a mixture of superstitions, many of their religious notions being borrowed from other races with whom they came in contact ; for the great caravan route between Egypt and the East lay through Arabia, bringing RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 258 numbers of foreign merchants into the country every year. The worship of the stars was observed among them, and they believed in genii, giants, and various kinds of demons. Their chief city was Mecca, famous as the seat of a temple called the Ka'aba, containing a holy stone which they thought had been sent from heaven by the angel Gabriel, and had originally been pure white, but had become blackened by tears shed by pilgrims for their sins. The guardianship of this sa- cred object was intrusted to a particular family called Ko'reish, who were thus the high priests of the Arab religion. Mohammed ; his Early Life. — Mohammed was a member of this family of the Koreish, the strongest and most orthodox upholders of the religion that he was destined to overthrow. He was born about 570, and, being left without support by the death of both his parents, was brought up by his uncle. The latter, however, was very poor and Mohammed had to work for his living at any humble occupation that offered itself, even such as was thought to be fit only for slaves. At last he was employed as camel driver by a rich widow named Kadi 'j ah, who after some years married him, thus raising him at once to a position of some importance. Early in his life he had shown himself very susceptible to religious impressions and he used often to retire to lonely places to pray. He seems to have had trances, — possibly of an epi- leptic origin, — in the course of which he thought he heard voices and saw visions. At first he thought that these were sent by evil spirits, but at last he came to believe that they were messages from God, calling him to testify to the truth of religion. In other words, he thought he was a prophet, whose mission it was to call men back to belief in God. At first he did not think that he was the apostle of a new faith, but merely that he was a prophet of the old. Later, however, he believed that he had received a special revelation and that he had learned new truths. He wrote down on bits of bone or stones the words of the being that appeared to him in his dreams, whom he took to be the angel Gabriel, and these scattered writings, 254 GENERAL HISTORY afterwards gathered together, formed the Koran', the Bible of the Mohammedans. The Hegira (622 A.D). — It was hard to convince others of his divine mission, and conversion was a slow process. Only his wife and some of his relatives believed him at tirst. In three years he made but forty converts, and these were so persecuted and harassed by the orthodox people of Mecca, that it seemed as if the new faith must be crushed out. But Mohammed was very persistent and very sincere, and the faith he preached was better and purer than the old. His followers gradually increased till they formed quite a numerous body, but the feel- ing against them was so strong on account of Mohammed's attacks on the idols of the old religion that many ran away to the city of Medi'na, where the people were more tolerant. Finally Mohammed himself was driven out and took refuge in the same city in 622. This was the famous Heg'ira or Flight from Mecca to Medina, an event considered so important by the Mohammedans that they reckon their time from it just as Christians reckon theirs from the birth of Christ. Mohammed as a Conqueror. — After reaching Medina, where he was kindly received, Mohammed began to spread his reli- gion by the sword. It is said that his character entirely changed and that from being a peaceful prophet, he now be- came a merciless conqueror, saying, "The sword is the key of heaven and hell." The truth is, while he no longer relied on the slow method of peaceful conversion, he was more lenient in dealing with his enemies than one would expect from an Arab chief of that day. The Koran, tribute, or the sword was the choice offered them, and, in the case of Jews and Chris- tians, tribute was readily accepted. His first victory was at Badr or Bedr, where he defeated his old enemies, the people of Mecca, in 62-4. It was an insignifi- cant battle in respect to the numbers engaged, but important from the fact that the odds were so much against Mohammed that his victory seemed miraculous and many were led to believe in him as the true prophet. A few years later he captured RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 255 Mecca, and in the meanwhile his expeditions against the tribes in the interior had been ahnost invariably successful. In the ten years between the Hegira in 622 and his death in G32 he had made almost all the tribes of Arabia accept his new reli- gion, and had even written a letter to the Eastern emperor demanding that he, too, should become a convert. Mohammedanism. — The essence of Mohammed's faith is contained in the words, "There is but one God, Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet." He believed that God's word had been revealed to others be- sides himself, — that Abra- ham, Moses, Christ, each had a divine mission, — but Mohammed was the last and greatest prophet. The Koran clearly shows the influence of the Bible, as we should naturally expect from the associa- tion of the Arabs with the Jews and Christians, but it lays great stress on certain virtues and observ- ances. The duties of the Mohammedans are alms- giving, pilgrimages to Mecca, reciting three prayers daily, and fasting during the holy month of Ramadan'. Mohammed forbade them to drink wine or eat pork. They believed in a Paradise where everything was to be found that could gratify the senses, but the way to it was across the bridge of Al Sirat, which Avas as narrow as a dagger's edge. Only the soids of the blest could cross the bridge The others fell off and were lost forever. They believed that Allah, God, had determined all things beforehand, and ordained who should be saved and who should Interior of a Mosque 256 GENERAL HISTORY be eternally punished. They expressed this idea by saying that Allah took two handfuls of earth, and threw one in one direction, saying, "These to heaven, and 1 care not," and another in another direction, saying, " These to hell, and I care not." A man could not, by his own act, lengthen or shorten his life by a single minute. Believing this, a Mohammedan could rush into battle with perfect fearlessness, for the term of his life was fixed by Allah. This accounts, in some measure, for the desperate bravery shown by the Moslems {i.e. believers) in their wars of conquest. Early Conquests. — The first caliph, or successor of the prophet, was Abu-bekr, the father-in-law of Mohammed ; but there was a considerable party who were disappointed because Mohammed's son-in-law, Ali, was not chosen. This disagree- ment led to a division, which has continued to our own time, between those who believed in All's claim and those who opposed it ; the former, called Shi'ahs, or Shi'ites, being repre- sented by the Persians to-day, while the Turks are Sun'nites, that is, opponents of Ali. Abu-bekr completed the conquest of Arabia, and then sent armies into Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire. Under his two successors, Omar and Othman, these conquests were made complete, and the new faith was carried eastward into central Asia, and westward into Egypt and along the northern coast of Africa. In less than forty years from the death of the prophet, his successors ruled the land from India in the east to Trip'oli in northern Africa in the west. They had destroyed the Persian Empire and robbed the Eoman emperor in the East of some of his richest provinces. To Chris- tians and Jews they gave the choice of tribute or the Koran. All others were forced on pain of death to accept the Koran. Both Omar and Othman were assassinated, and the sup- porters of Ali at last succeeded in raising him to the throne, but his reign was short and troubled. Rival claimants set themselves up, and finally Ali was assassinated. Thus ended the line of ^ orthodox ' caliphs, so called because they had all RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 257 been related to or in some way associated with Mohammed. The rule now passed to the family of the Ommi'ads. The Peril of Europe. — The Ommiads made Damascus their capital, and ruled from 661 to 750. Under this dynasty the Mohammedan power threatened to overthrow Christendom. Europe was attacked from two quarters at once — from the east and from the west. In the east the Moslems tried to seize Constantinople, but after several desperate onslaughts between 668 and 675, and a renewed attack in 717, they gave up the attempt. In repelling their assailants, the inhabitants made use of Greek fire, an inflammable compound which ignited anything that it struck. In the west they first conquered northern Africa to the Atlantic Ocean. Only the narrow Straits of Gibraltar now separated them from Spain, which, as we have seen, had been the seat of a Visigothic kingdom since 415. A traitor in the service of Roderick, the last of the Visigothic kings, is said to have aided them in entering Spain. At all events, they landed without opposition and advanced into the interior, till at Jerez (ha'reth) de la Fronte'ra they found their way blocked by Rod- erick and his men. The battle of Jerez (711) decided the fate of Spain. The country was now in the hands of the Saracens. The next thing was to win the lands of the Franks. Cross- ing the Pyrenees, they soon had southern France in their power. How Charles Martel came to the rescue of Europe ar«d won the decisive battle of Tours (732) has already been told. Thenceforth they held but little land north of the Pyrenees. Their plan, had been to conquer the entire world. A glance at the map will show that their empire curved like their own emblem, the crescent, with one point near Constanti- nople, and the other at the Pyrenees. But for the repulse at Constantinople and the defeat at Tours, the two points might have been made to meet in the heart of Europe, and all Chris- tendom might have been brought under the Mohammedan power. Division of the Mohammedan Empire. — The Ommiads were 258 GENERAL HISTORY overthrown in 750 and a new family, the Abbas 'sids, came into power. One of the Ommiads, named Abderrah'man, escaped to Spain, where his rule was acknowledged. The Abbassicls moved the capital to Bagxlad, but by transferring the seat of their power to the East, they gradually lost control of the w^estern part of their dominions. The Saracens, or Moors, in Spain became independent, and in 909 another independent Mohammedan power was founded in northern Africa by the Fat'imites or descendants of Fatima, the daughter of Moham- med. Thus at the close of the tenth century, there were three great divisions of the Mohammedan Empire : first, the Abbas- sid Caliphate, with its capital at Bagdad ; second, the Spanish Caliphate, with its capital at Cor'dova; and third, the Fatimite Caliphate, with its capital at Cairo. The Moors in Spain. — The term ' Moors ' is applied to those Arab tribes that settled in northern Africa and Spain. They held Spain for over 750 years, but they never got possession of the entire country. Fragments of the Visi- gothic kingdoms still re- mained, and these little Christian kingdoms in the north were destined to grow into a power strong enough to master the whole peninsula. But all through the Middle Ages Spain was the seat of a Mohammedan civilization. In most respects it was a higher civilization than that of the neighboring Christian states, for the Arabs were great students of philosophy and science, and in the arts, Moorish Gatk. Toledo RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN POWER 259 especially in the art of building, tliey led all Europe. In the tenth century their power reached its height, but in the eleventh century, after fresh invasions by more barbarous tribes from Africa, it gradually declined. It was not till the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, however, that the last vestige of the Moorish power was destroyed (1492). The Caliphate of Bagdad. — Although they lost control over the West, the Abbassid caliphs possessed great power. Bag- dad became for a time the most splendid city of the world. The ' golden age ' of the Caliphate was the early part of the ninth century. This was the time of the great Haroun'-al- Rasch'id, who is mentioned in the Arabian Nights. Many stories are told of his vast wealth and the magnificence of his court. But not long after his death, the Caliphate began to split up into nearly independent states, and at the same time the Turks began to invade its provinces. The caliphs hired the Turks to defend them, establishing a standing army which, like the Praetorian Guard of the Roman Empire, became the real power in the state. In 1058 the caliph gave his authority to the Turk- ish conqueror, Togrul Beg, and thenceforth the caliph was merely a religious officer, while all political power was in the hands of the Turkish sultan. Conclusion. — Such were the principal events in the early period of the Moslem power. Spain was lost to Christendom, but Europe was spared. The Eastern Empire was still standing, but Africa, Egypt, and its eastern provinces were in the hands of the Moslems. The danger of Mohammedan conquest was averted, and did not reappear till the fifteenth century. We shall then find that the Mohammedan aggressors were no longer the Semitic Arabs, but a Turanian people whom the Arabs had converted. It was the Turks that finally captured Constantinople in 1453 and again threatened Christian Europe with Mohammedan conquest. In the meanwhile, however. Christian Europe had been the aggressor in the series of wars known as the Crusades. 260 GENERAL HISTORY SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Rise of the Mohammedan Power. — The Mohammedan Movement: Its Semitic Origin. Rapidity of its Progress. — The Arabs : Their Country. Their Civilization and Religion. Mecca. The Family of the Koreish. — Mohammed ; his Early Life : His Early Poverty. His Marriage. His Visions. The Beginning of the Koran. — The He- gira, 622 a.d, : Slowness of the Conversions. Mohammed driven from Mecca. — Mohammed as a Conqueror : His First Victory. Its Importance. — Mohammedanism : The Essence of the Mohammedan Faith. The Mohammedan Paradise. Fate. — Early Conquests : Abu-bekr. Conquest of Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, and the Persian Empire. Omar and Othman. Their Conquest. The Assassination of Ali. — The Peril of Europe : The Dynasty of Om- miads, 6G1-750. Rapid Spread of Mohammedanism. Attacks on Constantinople. Conquest of Spain. Invasion of Gaul. The Bat- tle of Tours, 732. — Division of the Mohammedan Empire : The Rise of the Abbassids. Capital at Bagdad. The Caliphate of Cordova. The Fatimite Caliphate. — The Moors in Spain : Cl>aracter of their Civilization. The Height of their Power. — The Caliphate of Bag- dad: The 'Golden Age' of the Caliphate. Its Decline. — Conclu- CHAPTER XXXV THE CRUSADES Nature and Causes of the Crusades. — The crusades were the attempts of the Christian nations to rescue the Holy Land from the Mohammedans or "infidels." They fall within a period of two centuries, the first beginning in 1096, and the last coming to an end in 1270. The first and immediate cause of these expeditions was the occupation of the Holy Land by the Seljuks', a Turkish tribe from Western Asia, who, in 1058, had overrun Syria and Asia Minor, making Nicaea their capital. Syria had previously been held by the Arabs ; for, as we have seen, it was one of the earliest conquests of the Mohamme- THE CRUSADES 261 dans. Under Arab rule, however, the Christians were generally treated with some toleration. Treatment of Pilgrims. — It had long been the practice of ^oious Christians to make pilgrimages to the holy places, the scenes of the Saviour's life and sufferings, and about the beginning of the eleventh century the number of the pilgrims greatly increased. They were subjected to many restrictions, and regarded Avith contempt by the Arabs, but they were not as a rule ill used. The Seljuk conquerors of Syria, liowever, adopted a different policy. They, too, were Mohammedans, but they were far more savage and intolerant than the Arabs. They treated the pil- grims with cruelty, and outraged Christendom by their dese- cration of the holy places. The Religious Sentiment. — The eleventh century was a period of deep religious feeling ; the power of the Church was on the '"V ERTHE C MEDiTEKUANEI LA? AFTER Fourth Cms 1 1 "^V 1204 SCALE OF M LES I6U ZliU 3UU 400 -^^-LJ_^ W f increase, and the papal chair was successively occupied by able and sincere men, bent on strengthening the influence of the Holy See. It was represented that God and his saints were offended by these insults to the true faith ; and the tales of wrong and cruelty brought back by the pilgrims added motives of hatred and revenge to the natural desire of the Christians to save Palestine from the enemies of Christ. Colby's (ii;x. hist. — 1 7 262 GENERAL HISTORY Suchj in the first instance, were the causes of the crusades. The main impulse was religious zeal, and selfish and worldly motives did not at first control them ; but in the course of time the movements lost much of their original character. Greed, policy, and the desire for adventure deprived them of the appearance of holy wars. The Beginning of the First Crusade. — The emperor of the East, Alex'ins I., found his empire threatened by the Turks, and applied to Pope Gregory VII. for aid. None came, be- cause the pope was then in the midst of his struggle with the German emperor ; but under Pope Urban 11. the matter was revived. This pope was the real author of the first crusade. He did not advocate it on the ground that the Eastern Empire was in danger, for the people of western Enrope cared nothing for the Eastern emperor; but he appealed directly to the religious sentiment of the people and brought to bear on them the full weight of the authority of the Church. Council of Clermont. — He assembled in France the famous Council of Clermont, in 1095, and there, in the presence of an immense throng, made a powerful plea for the undertaking of a holy war. He declared that the cause was the cause of God himself, who would not allow labor on his behalf without due reward. The man who perished in this pious service was sure of Paradise. If he lived, he would march to victory and reap a rich reward in the plunder of his enemies. Moreover, it was believed that service against the enemies of Christ washed away the stains of guilt. When he finished, the mul- titude shouted, '' It is the will of God ! " The cross was chosen as the badge of the movement, which from this circum- stance received the name of Crnsade. Peter the Hermit. — The efforts of Urban II. were aided by an eloquent and earnest monk, known as Peter the Hermit. After the Council of Clermont he traveled through Italy and Prance, drawing crowds to hear him whenever he spoke. He pictured the sufferings of the Christians and the insolence of the Turks, appealing now to the pity, and now to the passions THE CRUSADES 263 of the listeners. The excitement was intense. Thousands took the cross and stood ready to follow him to the Holy Land. The Crusaders. — There were two classes of the crusaders. First there were those who were carried away by mere blind fanaticism, and believed that they would gain their ends by the favor of God, without regard to the nature of the means employed. They gathered in ill-disciplined and unorganized bands, around any leader who happened to take their fancy, and started pellmell for the Holy Land, without adequate supplies or effective guidance. The largest body of this sort was the rabble that followed Peter the Hermit, who, whatever his abilities as a preacher, was quite unfit for military leader- ship. Another motley crowd joined the standard of Walter the Penniless, a knight with more pretensions to military skill than Peter, but utterly unable to control his disorderly fol- lowers. Similar bands were got together by other leaders. The other class of the crusaders consisted of the chivalrous armies of France and Italy, led by prominent feudal lords, such as Godfrey de Bou'illon, Duke of Lorraine, Eobert ot Normandy, son of William I. of England, and Raymond of Toulouse', from France, and Boemund of Otranto and his cousin Tancred, from Italy. Though a volunteer force and lacking the efficiency of a modern army, it was better disci- plined and better led than the loose masses just described. It should be noted, ho\fever, that the troops were merely personal followers of their chiefs. No king took part in the first cru- sade, and there was nothing to hold the different bodies to- gether except their enthusiasm in a common cause. The Fate of the Vanguard. — The band led by Walter the Penniless grew tired of waiting for the others and started first, passing through Hungary and Bulgaria and reaching Constan- tinople in the summer of 1096. Their lawlessness on the way provoked the natives of the countries through which they passed, and many of the band were slain. Peter the Hermit's band soon followed and passed through the same experience, losing an even larger number on the way. 264 GENERAL IIISTOIIY Reaching Constantinople, the two forces joined, and being permitted by Alexius to cross into Asia Minor advanced to the vicinity of Nicaea, where they paused, not daring to go on till reinforcements came. But it was impossible to keep them in order. They scattered throughout the plains in search of food, paying no attention to the commands of their leaders. At last they were attacked by the Seljuks and cut to pieces. The Main Body. — The divisions of the main army passed over to Asia Elinor by three different routes. The number of the whole force is said to have been 700,000, but this is doubt- less exaggerated. When they reached Constantinople, they had trouble with the emperor Alexius, who, while he hated the Turks, had no desire to see Syria fall into the hands of the crusaders. Syria had formerly been a province of the Eastern Empire, and it was the ambition of Alexius to regain it. He was perfectly willing that the crusaders should do the lighting, but their conquests, he held, should belong to him. Accordingly he required the Christian princes to take an oath acknowledging themselves to be his vassals. Godfrey de Bouillon refused to do this, but the emperor attacked the crusaders and finally Godfrey consented. Capture of Nicaea. — The first important action of the cru- saders was the siege of the Turkish capital, Nicaea. They had reached that city in May, 1097. The Turks, having defeated the first band of crusaders so easily, thought there was no need of hastening to its assistance. The siege was conducted in an irregular manner, each division of the attacking force (tarrying out its plans in its own way. Nevertheless the cru- saders were successful and the inhabitants Avere on the point of surrendering, when the emperor Alexius, by a secret ar- rangement w^ith them, was admitted with his troops within the walls. The city surrendered to him instead of the crusaders, who were thus cheated of their spoils. Siege of Antioch. — Another important siege was that of Antioch. This city was the key to all Syria, and its capture was a work of great difficulty. It finally fell into the hands of THE CRUSADES 2(35 the crusaders through the treachery of one of the garrison, but now it was harder to keep it than it liad been to take it ; for fresh Turkish forces arrived and the Christians were in turn besieged. They were outnumbered, and as fast as tlieir assail- ants were killed off, reinforcements came to take their places. At last the besieged put forth all their strength in a desper- ate sally. They were nerved to it by a supposed miracle — the finding of the lance which had pierced the side of the Saviour, which, it was said, would insure their victory. It was a pious fraud to rouse them to enthusiasm, but it succeeded. The Turks were scattered, and Antioch came into the possession of the Christians. This time they determined to keep it in their own right. They did not permit the emperor to gain it. Capture of Jerusalem. — The crusaders now advanced on Jerusalem, which they found was defended by a strong force. Its capture was an easier matter than the taking of Antioch. The defenders were unable to hold out against the fierce at- tacks of the besiegers, and the city was soon in the hands of the Christians. The conquerors showed little of the spirit of Christianity in their moment of triumph. The Mohammedans were butchered without mercy. The capture of Jerusalem was the crowning success of the first crusade. The object for which the movement was undertaken was now gained. The Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099) . — The conquered lands were now formed into a little feudal kingdom, the head of which at first was God- frey de Bouillon. He would not, however, accept the title of king, preferring to be called Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. Battle of Ascalon. — But another great battle had to be fought before the crusaders were securely established in possession. The Mohammedans of Egypt, who were hostile to iiiiiiii|iwiiiiiiiiii^iiiiiiiw|iiii£ii|ij_ Tomb of Godfrey de Bouillon 266 GENERAL HISTORY Christians and Turks alike, had conquered part of Syria. In fact, it was they and no longer the Turks who held Jerusalem at the time of its capture. These new enemies, in numbers far stronger than the Christians, attacked the latter at As'calon, but the Christians put them to rout, capturing and plundering their camp. After this success many of the crusaders returned home. Results of the First Crusade. — Of all the crusades this one was the most successful. The Holy Land had been rescued from the unbelievers and turned into a Christian state. In the AVest, the news was received with the utmost enthusiasm and people did not consider the sacrifice which the success had cost. It is impossible to estimate the loss of life among the crusaders. It is said that 300,000 perished in the ill-fated expeditions of Walter the Penniless, Peter the Hermit, and the other leaders of the vanguard ; and of the main body only a small portion ever returned. The success purchased at such a price was not destined to be lasting. The so-called Kingdom of Jerusalem had all the defects of the feudal states of Europe. It was without unity, and therefore without strength. The Second Crusade (1147-49). — The cause of the second crusade was the loss of the Christian stronghold of Edessa — a loss which seemed to threaten the destruction of the King- dom of Jerusalem itself. For some years after the first crusade the newly established kingdom had seemed to thrive. New colonies were planted, and it gained in extent and popula- tion. But the complicated and cumbersome feudal government was ill adapted to its surroundings. A strong centralized system, with one vigorous ruler at the head, was what was needed in the midst of a hostile country. When Europe heard of the fall of Edessa, the alarm was great; for it seemed as if what had been gained with such enormous sacrifice would all be lost. The preacher of the second crusade was St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who, like Peter the Hermit, was a man of intense earnestness and THE CRUSADES 26' wonderful eloquence. Unlike Peter, however, he succeeded in winning over kings as well as common people. Louis VII., king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, were the leaders of the second crusade. Military and Religious Orders. — ^l^etween the first and second crusades two peculiar military and religious orders were established. These were the Knights Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, and the Knights Templars. The Knights of St. John were organized originally to care for the sick and wounded among the crusaders and pilgrims to Jerusalem. They took the usual vows of monks, but to these were added vows of military ser- vice. They had thus a combined religious and military character, being fighting men as well as monks. The Knights Templars were or- ganized on a similar plan, but their original purpose had been to pro- tect the pilgrims to the Holy Land. At a later date there was another of these orders established under the name of the Teutonic Knights. All three played an important part in the crusades, and they continued to exist long after the crusades were over. Failure of the Second Crusade. — Both the French king and the German emperor had large and well-equipped armies, but each worked independently of the other. The Germans reached Constantinople first, and tried to obtain aid from the Eastern emperor Manuel. But he was anxious to be rid of them as soon as possible. He promised them aid and hurried them on ; then he did all he could to put obstacles in their way. The whole German army was cut to pieces in Asia Minor, and only the emperor with a few followers escaped. A Knight Temflak 268 GENERAL HISTORY Louis' army caine soon afterwards and had the same experi- ence of Manuel's treachery. They succeeded in capturing some towns and penetrated further into the interior than the German army, but in the end they, too, were destroyed by the Turks. The king escaped and returned to France. The cru- sade had accomplished absolutely nothing. Fall of Jerusalem. — -Forty years followed before the Chris- tians made another attempt to restore the failing power of the little kingdom. In tliis interval a new and powerful foe arose in the south. This was Sal'adiu, the Mohammedan governor of Egypt, a man of unusual talent both in military affairs and diplomacy, who succeeded in extending his rule over the Mo- hammedan population of Syria. This brought him into contact with the Christians, and war soon followed. Saladin was suc- cessful, routing the Christian forces at Tiberias. Jerusalem now fell into his hands. The Leaders. — There was no need of an eloquent monk to preach the duty of the third crusade. All Europe was bent on repairing the loss of Jerusalem ; and it so happened that on the thrones of the principal kingdoms were men of energy and warlike tastes. The leaders of the third crusade were the three most powerful sovereigns in Europe ; namely, Frederick Bar- barossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Eichard I. (the Lion-Hearted) of England. Events of the Third Crusade (1189-92). — Here, again, the fatal weakness of the movement was the lack of coopera- tion among its leaders. The German force had almost the same experience as the army of Conrad in the previous expe- dition. It was deceived by the Greeks, lost its way in Asia Minor, and was cut down before reaching Syria. Frederick Barbarossa was drowned while trying to cross a swollen stream. Siege of Acre. — The French and English forces, under their respective kings, reached the Holy Land and laid siege to the city of Acre. The city finally surrendered, but in the mean- while the crusaders were divided by jealousies. Philip Angus- THE CRUSADES 269 tus and Richard were constantly quarreling, and finally Philip gave up the war in disgust and returned to France. Close of the Third Crusade. — Richard and Saladin were now the chief contestants, and the war continued with varying success. Great valor was shown on both sides, and Richard especially won fame by his brave exploits. His deeds made him a hero of medi- aeval romance ; but though brave, he was selfish, cruel, and un- wise, and far inferior to Saladin in generosity. At last a truce was made, leaving Jerusalem in the hands of Saladin, who, how- ever, granted to Christian pilgrims admittance to the holy places. On his return home, Richard had to pass through Austria, whose duke he had offended by his rash and arrogant conduct during the crusade. He had also angered the German emperor Henry VI. His enemies took vengeance on him by throwing him into prison and refusing to deliver him except on pay- ment of a ransom. The money was finally raised from Rich- ard's English subjects, and he returned to England. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). — The peculiar feature of the fourth crusade is that it was diverted wholly from its origi- nal purpose and became an expedition against a Christian power. By this time it had become clear that the safest way to reach Palestine was by sea. Accordingly, when a new cru- sading movement was set on foot in France, it was decided to hire the great maritime city of Venice to carry the army to its destination. Only the minor princes took part in this cru- sade, and the most famous of these were Bon'iface II., Marquis of Montferrat, and Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders. When the Venetians were asked to transport the crusaders, they demanded an enormous price for the service. Not hav- ing the requisite money, the crusaders agreed to pay the Venetians by helping them against their enemies. The first service that the Venetians demanded was the capture of Zara, a city on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and the headquarters of pirates. The crusaders now began to think that they would do the cause of Christ more service if, instead of going to the Holy Land, they attacked Constantinople. The 270 GENERAL HISTORY conduct of the Eastern emperors during the previous crusades seemed to call for vengeance, and there was tempting prospect of unlimited plunder if the expedition should succeed. Capture of Constantinople. — The crusaders listened to the advice of the Venetians, and set sail for Constantinople. One of the things that had influenced them was the fact that there was a contest for the throne in the East or Greek empire at this time, and the unsuccessful claimant promised a rich re- ward to the crusaders if they would aid him in recovering his throne. The city was easily captured by the crusaders, but Crusaders the price that had been promised was not paid, and the war was renewed, with the result that Constantinople fell into the hands of the Western Christians. Latin Empire. — The conquerors divided the spoils among them, and a new Latin kingdom was set up with Baldwin of Flanders at the head. Venice received a large part of what had been the Eastern Empire, her ruler taking as his offi- cial title Doge of Venice and Euler of Three Eighths of the Eoman Empire. Venice did not actually hold as large a share of the empire as this, but she profited from the conquest to a greater extent than the crusaders themselves ; for it opened up THE CRUSADES 271 trade to her and gave lier the control of the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. The new kingdom established on the ruins of the Eastern Empire was not destined to last long; for it was weakened by disunion and lacked sufficient money and means to establish itself firmly. It lasted until 1261, when the Greeks regained control. The Children's Crusade. — One of the most singular instances of the blind faith which ruled men in the Middle Ages was the attempt to regain the Holy Land by armies of children. In 1212 a lad named Stephen of Cloyes preached a new crusade. In it only children were to take part, and thousands of boys and girls started for the Holy Land. One band reached Marseilles, whence they set sail in vessels provided by mer- chants, but were either lost by shipwreck or sold as slaves to the Mohammedans. Another party started from Gerniany, it is said, and after many hardships reached the Italian port of Erin'disi, but they were not allowed to take ship for the Holy Land and were sent back home. Some went to Rome, but the pope ordered them back to their homes. Crusade of Frederick II. — Between 1217 and 1230 several attempts were made to recover the Holy Land, and on one occasion when the fortress of Damiet'ta ? was captured in Egypt, there seemed to be a chance of bargaining with the ,.:L ,^'—:";'^;1'^^^^^^^^~^£^ infidels for the holy ^^^^|fPf5^fl'nr;ufl^^^ places. But the fa- ^^Jj^ffEOT^^ 4 1 naticism of the times ~'^^''^'"~'^~--V""^-'^§^s?^, prevented this ra- ^^ -^" SS^^^ tional course, and the '^ "' ' war was continued mosque of Omab with results unfavor- able to the Christians. More important was the crusade of Erederiek II., the German emperor, who, after putting 272 GENERAL HISTORY off his journey for various reasons, set out for tlie Holy Land in 1228. Frederick was the first crusader to show common sense and foresight in dealing with the Turks. He thought it good policy to take advantage of divisions among the Moham- medans and gain his ends without fighting ; and in this he succeeded, for in 1229 Jerusalem was surrendered to the Chris- tians, the only reservation being that the Mosque of Omar should be kept by the Mohammedans. Frederick crowned himself king of Jerusalem and returned to Europe, having regained for the Christians not only Jerusalem and the holy places, but a considerable extent of territory. Crusades of Louis IX. — In 1244 Jerusalem was again taken by the infidels, but four years later Christendom found a cham- pion in Louis IX. of France, a man of great ability and intense religious feeling. The first of his crusades was directed against Egypt, where he captured the city of Damietta and made an expedition into the interior ; but in the course of his retreat he and his entire army fell into the hands of the enemy, and he was set free only on the payment of an excessive ran- som and the surrender of Damietta. He then went to Syria, and spent several years in an attempt to restore the power of the Christians, biit failed in the end and returned to France in 1254. He made another effort to conquer the Holy Land in 1270. In this year he again tried to break the power of the Mohammedans by an attack on Egypt. Accordingly the city of Tunis was besieged, but the attempt failed and Louis died of the plague in the summer of 1270. An English prince, who afterwards came to the throne of England under the title of Edward I., went on and invaded Syria, but accomplished little. The Christian power in the Holy Land was now failing, and after the capture of Acre in 1291, the Christians were driven out, and Syria passed permanently under the control of the Mohammedans. Thus all these great expeditions, with their enormous sacrifice of life and money, had failed in the object for which they were intended. Almost the only lands retained by the Christians in the East were the islands of Rhodes and THE CRUSADES 273 Cyprus, which were hekl for many years by the Knights of St. John. The Effects of the Crusades. — The crusades came to an end partly on account of the exhaustion of Europe and partly on account of a change in the spirit of the times. The effects of the crusades were both good and evil. Among the evil effects may be mentioned the fact that they stimulated the persecuting spirit; for if it was right to use force against infidels, it was natural to suppose that heretics also should be compelled by violence to accept the true faith. Another effect of the crusades was the weakening of the feudal system ; for they diminished the number of the nobles, who in many instances sold their lands and their rights in order to obtain money for the expedition. By weakening the nobility, they increased to some extent the power of the king and of the common people. The crusades did much to increase the power of the Church and the papacy ; for a crusader on starting out often intrusted his property to the Church, which, if he did not return, became so much the richer. Commerce and Learning. — Among the most important of their good effects were the stimulation of commerce and the spread of learning. They opened the East to trade and the products of Asia were introduced into Europe. The knowl- edge of geography was of course increased by these expedi- tions, and, as the Arabs were in advance of the Christians in scientific learning, Europe profited from contact with them. In fact, the crusades did much to bring about the revival of learning in the West. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Crusades. —Nature and Causes of the Crusades : The Period of the Crusades, 1096-1270. The Seljuks in the Holy Land. —Treatment of Pilgrims : Cruelty toward the Christian Pilgrims to the Holy Land. — The Religious Sentiment : Great Influence of the Church. Deep lleligious Feeling. —The Beginning of the First Crusade : Appeals of the Eastern Emperor. Pope PTrban II. — Council of Clermont: Ap- peal of Pope Urban 11. The Name Crusade. — Peter the Hermit : 274 GENERAL HISTORY Effect of his Preaching. — The Crusaders : Fanaticism of the People. The Followers of Peter the Hermit. The Band under Walter the Penniless. The Armies of the Feudal Lords. — The Fate of the Van- guard : Losses on the way to the Holy Land. Their Destruction near Mcaea.— The Crusaders deceived by the Emperor. — Siege of Anti- och : The Capture of Antioch. Difficulty of holding it. — Capture of Jerusalem: The Cruelty of the Crusaders. —The Kingdom of Jerusalem : Godfrey de Bouillon. Defender of the Holy Sepulcher. — Battle of Ascalon : The Victory of the Christians over Superior Numbers. — Results of the First Crusade: Influences throughout Christendom. Great Loss of Life. Defects of the Little Kingdom. — The Second Crusade (1147-11-40 i : The Loss of Edessa a Danger to Jerusalem. St. Bernard of Clairvaux. The Leaders. — Military and Religious Orders : The Knights of St. John. The Knights Tem- plars. The Teutonic Knights. — Failure of the Second Crusade : The German xVrmy. Its Fate. The French. The French King's Failure. — Fall of Jerusalem: Saladin. His Victory at Tiberias. — The Leaders. -^Events of the Third Crusade (1189-1192) : Lack of Cooperation. The Disaster that befell the German Forces. — Siege of Acre : Philip Augustus and Richard. — Close of the Third Cru- sade : Concessions to the Christians. Richard's Return Home. — The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) : Peculiarity of the Fourth Crusade. Its Leaders. The Capture of Zara. The Attack on Constantinople. — Capture of Constantinople. — Latin Empire : The Division of the Spoils. The Share of Venice. Duration of the New Kingdom. — The Children's Crusade: French Expedition under Stephen of Cloyes. — Crusade of Frederick II. : Other Crusading Movements. Frederick's Capture of Jerusalem. — Crusades of Louis IX. : Jerusa- lem captured by the Infidels. Louis IX. 's Attempt to regain it. His Capture of Damietta and its Subsequent Surrender. Louis's Second Attempt to conquer the Holy Land. Its Failure. Expulsion of the Christians from the Holy Land. — The Effects of the Crusades : The Persecuting Spirit. The Power of the Church and the Papacy. The Weakening of the Feudal System. — Commerce and Learning. CHAPTER XXXVI SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES I. Feudalism I Definition of Feudalism. — Feudalism is a social system in which the ownership of land is the basis of authority. At the present time in the most civilized countries the tenant on any man's estate owes him no duties save the payment of a money rent. He is free to go and come as he likes, and can give up his holding as soon as the lease expires. In the Middle Ages the right to hold land and cultivate it was accompanied by certain duties on the x:>art of the holder to the person from whom the land was held. The latter had to some extent a political control over his tenant. He was called the suzerain, liege, or lord, and the person who Avas allowed to occupy the estate was called the vassal, liegeman, or re- tainer. The estate itself was known as a fief. The Origin of Feudalism. — It is very difficult to trace the origin of this social system, and among historical scholars almost every point in its early development has been a subject of dispute. It is certain, however, that it resulted from the fusion of the German invaders with the native Roman popu- lation. When the German tribes crossed the frontiers and settled on Roman land, the conquered country was divided as plunder among the invaders. Every free German acquired a small parcel of land in his own right, and this was known as an allod. The only duty which the owner of this land owed to the state was military service. Besides these allodial lands, or freeholds, however, there were other tracts which were held on a different principle. 275 A Court Jester 276 GENERAL HISTORY The early Middle Ages were a period of constant warfare, and almost the only way in which a king could attach a lighting man to himself was by bestowing on him a piece of land as the price of his service. In conquering a coimtry, the king of course acquired the largest share, and from this share he often granted to his personal followers and faithful courtiers certain tracts, on condition that they should continue to stand by him. Such a gift of land was termed a feudal grant, the land itself being Si fend OYjief. In the first place, the gift was merely for life, but in the course of time it became hereditary. If the son inherited the fief, however, it was understood that he was to continue rendering his lord the services which his father had been obliged to render. In many cases the land was obtained not by grant from the lord, but by usurpation. A man who had been set over a certain district as its governor often succeeded in gaining a sort of ownership and in making the land hereditary in his family. Thus from being a mere agent of the king, he became the king's vassal and the feudal lord over this district. Another way in which the fiefs arose was by the voluntary surrender of freeholds or allodial estates in order that they might be received back as fiefs. This was to secure the protection which, in a period of violence, some more powerfid person could render. The free man thus became a vassal for the sake of his own security. Subinfeudation. — Just as the king granted out parcels of land to his followers in return for feudal service, so the king's vassals granted out portions of land which they held from him. This process was called subinfeudation, and resulted in making successive grades of landholders, each the vassal of the man from whom he held the land, and the suzerain of the man who held from him. A man's allegiance, therefore, was not due directly to the king, but to his feudal lord, and this, of course, tended to weaken the royal authority. Relations between Lords and Vassals. — The vassal was re- quired to take an oath of fidelity to his lord, declaring himself I SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES 277 to be the latter's man. This ceremony, by which the fief was secured, was known as homage. The chief duty of the vassal in the warlike times of the Middle Ages was military service. He was obliged to serve his suzerain in war, and, if necessary, to lay down his life for him. Tlie lord had certain judicial rights over the fiefs which he had granted, and certain financial claims which were known as feudal aids. Tliese included a requirement to pay money for the ransom of the lord, and on the occasion of the knighting of his eldest son and the marriage of his eldest daughter. Tliese were the main legal aids, but other contributions were occasionally required. On the other hand, the lord owed the duty of protection to his vassal. So we may sum up the relations of lord and vassal by saying that on the one side there was the duty of protection, and on the other the duty of service. In fact, the relation be- tween them was very similar to that between the king and his subject. In several important respects the lord enjoyed sover- eign rights over the lands of his vassals. He levied troops and administered justice and raised money. When the king bestowed a fief upon a vassal, the grant carried with it these sovereign rights, or 'immunities.' If it is asked why the king should be willing to part with these rights, it can only be said that there was no other means by which he could purchase the loyalty of his followers. The Extent of Feudalism. — The period of the most rapid development of feudalism was under the later Carolingians in the ninth century, and it reached its highest point in the twelfth century. At that time it was the universal system of government in Europe ; but while in its mtiin principles it was the same, it differed in many important details, in different countries and even in different parts of the same country. At the time of its highest development, Europe was composed of a vast number of almost independent fiefs, and the royal authority was hardly greater than that of the principal vassals. Colby's gen. hist. — 18 278 GENERAL HISTORY The Theory of Feudalism. — The central idea of feudalism was that the ownership of land carried with it the right of sovereignty over the people dwelling on the land. The king, according to the mediaeval notion, was the vassal of God, hold- ing his kingdom as a fief bestowed by God. He granted cer- tain portions of his kingdom to his followers in return for feudal service. They exercised a part of his authority over these estates and enjoyed his protection. They, in turn, granted portions of their land to others, who became their vassals, and these regranted it to still others. There was thus a regular descending scale from the king to the lowest vassal, each man rendering homage to the man above and protection to the man below. In the event of a war, the king called upon his immediate vassals, and they, in turn, upon their vassals, and so the army came into exist- ence upon demand, each soldier obeying the command of his liege. The Defects of Feudalism. — The main body of the population under the feudal system consisted of serfs and villains. The serfs were laborers or servants, and completely at the mercy of their lords, but could not be bought or sold. The villains belonged to a little higher class, but were, like the serfs, com- pletely subject to the will of their masters. The chief defect of feudalism lay in the weakening of the royal power. Each feudal lord was virtually a sovereign on his own domain and his power was often used tyrannically. Moreover, the vassals were constantly engaged in private war and society was in a condition of disorder. The people had no redress against the oppression of the barons, for the magistrates to whom alone an injured party could appeal belonged them- selves to the nobility. The Decay of Feudalism. — Both the king and the common people were opposed to the system, and it was therefore attacked from above and below. The king naturally sought to curtail the power of his vassals, and the common people often fled from their lords to take refuge in a city. The cities grew in SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE AGES 279 strength, and partly by purchase and partly by force secured independence from their lords. Among the causes which contributed to the downfall of feu- dalism were, first, the crnsades, in which many of the nobility lost their lives or became impoverished, and second, the change Okkman Walled Tuwn in the art of war, owing to the introduction of gunpowder. This rendered the peasant as formidable as the armed knight. By the middle of the fifteenth century, feudalism was already far on the decline, and before the close of that century absolute monarchies made their appearance in Spain, France, and Eng- land. II. Chivalry Feudal Society. — In the Middle Ages society was divided into three classes : the nobility, the citizens or inhabitants of the towns, and the peasants or tillers of the soil. The Nobles. — The main office and aim of the nobility was to fight. Their castles were really fortresses, surrounded with thi-ck walls and a ditch. A strong gateway guarded the en- trance to the castle, and a passage through the gateway could be closed by shutting down from above a portcullis, or iron grating. The ruins of many of these castles survive to-day and 280 GENERAL HISTORY bear witness to the strength and formidable character of the dwellings. At first nobility was not a matter of birth alone, for wealth could purchase entry into its ranks. In the thir- teenth century, however, nobility became hereditary, and from that time intermarriage between the higher and lower classes was less frequent. The Citizens and Peasants. — The inhabitants of the cities came in the course of time to enjoy the right of self-government ; for, as the cities increased in wealth, they were able to resist the claims of their feudal lords and became feudal persons themselves with vassals of their own. The condition of the peasant was wretched. Whether he was a villain or a serf, the peasant's life was precarious and his well-being depended upon the caprice of his lord. The Knights. — The strength of the feudal army consisted mainly in its cavalry. The common people fought on foot, but any one who had the means of equipping himself with armor and a horse became a member of the cavalry. His rank was that of a gentleman, and he was called a cavalier or ,'jkf^Vyf^\' -—-^fZ:^^^ knight. The word 'chivalry ' IP ;^^^ ^s ^y tlerivation associated with chevalier (cavalier) or knight. In the broad sense, however, it applies to matters of military exercise and feudal etiquette. The Origin of Chivalry. — The customs and ideas which char- acterized chivalry arose from the fondness of the Teutonic races for a warlike life and their gallantry toward the female sex. It was required of every young nobleman that he should follow the profession of arms. First he had to serve an ap- prenticeship of several years as the companion or squire of a knight. In this office he was engaged in personal service about the castle in times of peace, and in war or on the occasion of a V^'^-: Medtaevat. IItnting Horn SOCIETY IN thp: middle ages 281 tournament lie followed his lord and led the war horse. In battle he clothed his master in armor and attended him in the light, it being the squire's duty to come to his aid if at any time he saw him hard pressed. After this apprenticeship the young man was eligible to knight- hood. He was raised to the rank of knight by a peculiar cere- monial. Having fasted, spent a night in prayer, and attended A. Tournament mass, he was required to pass an examination to ascertain if he was worthy of admission to the order of knighthood. He then took certain vows, promising among other things to be a loyal, just, and gentle knight, to redress the wrongs of widows and orphans, to protect ladies, and to champion the Church. He was then equipped with the proper dress and armor of the order, and the ceremony was completed by the 282 GENERAL HISTORY lord's striking him a blow on the neck Avith the flat side of his sword. Amusements of Chivalry. — The most famous amusement of the chivalrous age was the tournament, which took place in an open space surrounded by a balustrade or a rope, called the lists. It was a mimic combat between knights, who each tried to unhorse the other with his lance. The successful knight was hailed with shouts of applause from tlie spectators and received a prize from his mistress or the queen. Other amuse- ments of a less dangerous nature were hawking and hunting. The Character of Chivalry. — In some respects the effect of chivalry was ennobling. It j^romoted the virtues of bravery, loyalty, courtesy, and generosity. It was regarded as an order of merit, and a man was not entitled to knighthood by birth alone, but had first to prove that he was worthy of the honor. The spirit of the institution was religious as well as mili- tary. The knight was supposed to serve Christ by the purity of his life as well as by fighting for the cross. Moreover, it developed a fine sense of devotion and tended to elevate the position of women. In a barbarous time its influence was to soften the rough manners and enhance the humanity of men. The enthusiasm which chivalrous ideas aroused took shape in a great body of literature, and this literature was written no longer in the old Latin tongue, but in the native languages of the French, Italians, English, and Germans. On the other hand, chivalry too often degenerated into a mere matter of form and etiquette. It gave impulse to law- less adventures, and undue eagerness for military fame. It outlived its usefulness and became ridiculous. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Society in the Middle Ages. — Definition of Feudahsm : The Basis of Authority. The Lord, the Vassal, the Fief. —The Origin of Feudal- ism : The Fusion of the German Invaders with the Native Roman Population. The Allodial Lands. Lands granted on Condition of Service. Lands sometimes usurped. Lands sometimes voluntarily THE PAPAL POWER 283 surrendered and received back as Fiefs. — Subinfeudation: Effect of tlie System on the Royal Authority. — Relations between Lords and Vassals: Homage. Military Service. Judicial Rights of the Lord. Financial Claims. Duties of the Lord. Immunities. — The Extent of Feudalism : Rapid Development under the later Carolingi- ans. The highest point reached for Feudalism. — The Theory of Feudalism : Its Central Idea. The Kingship. The Regular Scale of Authorities. The Feudal Army. — The Defects of Feudalism : Con- dition of the Lower Classes. Abuse of Power by the Feudal Lords. — The Decay of Feudalism : Opposition of the King and of the Com- mon People. Effect of the Crusades. The Discovery of Gunpowder. — Feudal Society : The Three Classes. — The Nobles : Their Castles. Nobility becomes Hereditary, — The Citizens and Peasants : Increase in the Power of the Citizens. Condition of the Peasantry. — The Knight: His Rank. — The Origin of Chivalry: Some Features of Chivalry. Knighthood. — Amusements of Chivalry: The Tourna- ment. — The Character of Chivalry. Its Encouragement of Certain Virtues. Religious Aspect of Chivalry. Effect on Literature. Bad Effects. CHAPTER XXXVII THE PAPAL POWER Introduction. — Some of the influences that led to the supremacy of the Eoman bishop in Europe have already been described. We have seen that the pope in the course of time became not only a spiritual ruler, but a secular prince, and that he claimed supremacy over kings and emperors. His supremacy in religious matters was early admitted in western Europe. It now remains to see how far he succeeded in gain- ing temporal power. Italy, it will be remembered, was, in theory at least, a part of the Holy Eoman Empire of the German Nation. The relations of the pope to the emperor became a matter of great importance, and during a large por- tion of the Middle Ages there was a struggle for supremacy between the two. Tlie imperial party held that the emperor, as representing the highest civil authority in the world, was 284 GENERAL HISTORY superior to the pope, while the pajial party held that the pope, as the vicar of God on earth, was above all earthly rulers. The Choice of Popes. — Down to nearly the middle of the twelfth century there had been much confusion in regard to the system of papal elections. Kings and nobles had often interfered in the choice of popes and caused men to be chosen merely because they were likely to favor their interests. On many occasions the German emperors had acted as if the Holy See were an office at their own disj)osal, and the result had been the degradation of the papacy and its subjection to the emperor. Reform of Church Discipline. — A young monk named Hil 'de- brand (afterward Gregory VII.), who had been educated at the Abbey of Clu'ny in France, came to Rome on the occasion of a papal election in 1044, and saw the abuses of the system. He thought that the only way to secure peace and honesty in papal elections was to transfer the choice of the pope to the clergy. In 1048 he came to Eome and soon rose to the rank of (Cardi- nal. For many years, although he was not ^ '"f'y pope himself, he really controlled the policy - '- ~- of the papacy, and worked steadily to make the Church pure within and independent of all earthly power. To accomplish these things, he thought it necessary to change the method of electing popes, to take action against the vices of the clergy, and to make ecclesias- tics more completely subject to the Holy See. He did his best to uproot the evil known as simony, which consists in the buying and sell- ing of appointments to office in the Church ; for this practice tends to make the clergy the mere tools of the civil ruler. Another matter on which he insisted was the celi- bacy of priests, for he held their marriage to be in violation of the laws of the Church. He succeeded in advancing these re- BiSHOP's Crosier THE PAPAL POWER 285 forms, and the effect of his efforts was greatly to increase the power of the Church. Reform of Papal Elections. — In the matter of the election of popes he was e(iually successful. On the death of Pope Vic- tor II. Hildebrand saw a chance for introducing his proposed reform; for the emperor on the German throne, Henry IV., was then a mere child. The new pope was chosen by the Iloman clergy and people, and quite independently of the choice of the emperor. In 1059 the new method of papal elections was formally decreed, and thenceforth the choice of the popes was made by a small assembly of the high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic Church ; in other words, the Sacred College of Cardinals. Gregory VII. — Hildebrand was elected pope in 1073 nnder the title of Gregory VII., and though chosen unanimously, accepted the office unwillingly, for he knew what difficulties awaited him. In the first year of his pontiticate he issued decrees against the marriage of priests and the purchase of tl>e Church offices. This caused a great storm among the clergy, but in the end the law of celibacy prevailed. He tried also to carry out the other reform which he had at heart ; namely, the removal of the clergy from subjection to the state. To do this it was necessary to wrest from the emperor powers which both he and his predecessors had constantly exercised. Investiture. — The question was whether the civil ruler could grant Church offices at will. The bestowal upon a candidate of the symbols of office was called investiture, and the struggle between the emperor and the pope is sometimes known as the War of Investiture. It had become the custom for the feudal lords to bestow on the bishops and abbots the symbols of their office without distinguishing between their secular and their ecclesiastical rights. Thus the feudal lord appeared to be the source of spiritual power. The emperor claimed this as a right and had frequently practiced it. Contest between Gregory and Henry IV. — In 1075 Gregory issued a decree forbidding any one to receive a Church office 286 GENERAL HISTORY from a lay power. To this the emperor refused to submit, and, after bringing to a close a war which he was waging with the Saxons, he went on selling Church offices as usual. Gregory summoned him to Rome, but the papal ambassadors were driven from the emperor's courts with insults. At Rome a plot was formed against the pope, and he was seized and im- prisoned by one of the Roman nobles, but an uprising of the people caused his release. Henry called a council which de- clared the pope deposed, but the pope retorted by excommuni- cating Henry. The latter was hampered by troubles with his German subjects, many of whom were glad to take sides with the enemy. Canossa (1077). — Henry was soon deserted by his followers, and arrangements were made for summoning a diet to consider the question of his deposition. The pope was invited to pre- side at the diet, which was to meet in Germany. Henry was now afraid of losing his throne, and he tried to obtain an inter- view with the pope before the latter started for Germany. The pope did not wish this, but Henry went into Italy and inter- cepted him at Canossa (1077), where he implored forgiveness and promised to yield to all the pope's demands. Before Gregory granted this request, he required the emperor to undergo a painful and humiliating penance, standing for three days, it is said, barefoot in the snow. At last he was ad- mitted to the castle at which the pope was staying and forgive- ness was granted on condition that he present himself for trial at a later time and that he respect the rights of the Church. Henry had now gained what he wished, and proceeded to break all his promises. He was successful in his war with the nobles of Germany and defeated the forces of the pope. Finally, invading Italy, he gained access to Rome, and Gregory was driven into exile. Death and Character of Gregory VII. — Gregory died at Salerno in 1085, saying, as he approached his end, the often-quoted words: "I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore I THE PAPAL POWER 287 die in exile." Apparently he had failed to realize his great aims, bnt in reality he had done more to increase the power of the papacy than any pope that had preceded him ; for he had mapped out the policy which his successors on the papal throne carried to success, and this policy raised the papal power for a time above all the civil rulers of Europe. It was his theory that the papal power in spiritual matters was the highest in the world, and that emperors and kings could be compelled to obedience by spiritual weapons. He thought that the great evil of his time was the dependence of the clergy upon the civil ruler, which obedience was maintained by the emperor's exercise of the right of investiture ; for the emperor gave not only the symbols of secular power, but of spiritual. The clergy under this system were vassals of the crown ; Gregory wished them to be under the sole power of the Church. As to his personal character, no one, not even his enemies, denied his sincerity and unselfishness. He was, more- over, the greatest man of his time, and his work left its stamp upon the Church for centuries. Henry V. — Gregory's great rival, Henry IV., outlived him twenty-one years. The latter part of his life was full of mis- fortunes and embittered by the revolt of his son. The new emperor, Henry V., was a more dangerous enemy of the papacy even than his father. He claimed all the rights that the latter had exercised, and, entering Rome, obliged the pope to crown him emperor and acknowledge the imperial right of investiture. As soon as Henry left Italy, however, the pope renounced his promise, and the struggle continued ten years longer. Finally, after nearly half a century had passed since the quarrel be- tween Henry TV and Gregory, a settlement was reached by the Concordat of Worms in 1122. This was of the nature of a compromise ; for while it was seen that the empire was too weak to enforce its claims to supremacy, it appeared still too strong to be made completely subordinate to the popes. Concordat of Worms. — The Concordat of Worms was an atteuipt to settle the matter without humbling either party. 288 GENERAL HISTORY By it the emperor agreed to give up the right of bestowing the symbols of Church authority and to acknowledge the free election of the clergy by the clergy. The pope, on the other hand, agreed that the emperor or his representative should be present at the elections of clergy, provided that bribery or intimidation was not employed. The emperor also "was to bestow crown properties as before. Thus neither party gained all that it had been striving for, and neither had the right to bestow both spiritual and secular authority. These rights were divided between the two, the pope bestowing the signs of spiritual authority and the king bestowing the signs of temporal. Nevertheless the Concordat of Worms was really a triumph for the Church. The long struggle had shown clearly the great power of the i)opes, especially in its effect of weakening the loyalty of the feudal vassals of the king. As the great crown vassals became stronger, the power of the emperors was lessened. Moreover, the popes, being the natural allies of all enemies of the emperors, took sides Avith the cities which, although legally the vassals of the emperor, were fast increas- ing in power and asserting the right to govern themselves. Another effect of the weakness of the emperor and his hostility to the papacy was to make the popes and not the emperors the promoters of the crusades, an office which would naturally have fallen to the lot of the emperor in his capacity of defender of the faith. The popes received the credit for the crusades, and acquired as a result of them a far greater influence in Europe. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) and the Papacy. — Frederick Bar- baros'sa, one of the ablest of all the German emperors, was a far more powerful enemy than the popes had yet encountered. He came to the throne with a fixed resolve to extend the powers of his empire, and one of the first difficulties that he attacked was the growing independence of the Italian cities. They had united with the Church vassals and had gained such a measure of local self-government as to threaten the imperial THE PAPAL POWER 289 power over them. He treated them as his fiefs and demanded the usual feudal services. The cities refused these demands and Milan, being the chief offender, was the first to suffer punish- ment. A large part of the city was destroyed ; a portion of the walls were pulled down and the inhabitants were forced to a humiliating surrender. This, however, did not break the spirit of these cities, and the so-called Lombard League was formed under the leader- ship of Milan. Then followed a sharp conflict between the emperor and the league. But in spite of his energy and ability he made no headway against it, and finally in the bat- tle of Legna'no (1176) was completely defeated. One of the chief reasons for his failure was the disloyalty of the German princes. Treaty of Venice — In 1177, he made with the pope the famous Treaty of Venice, whose terms were greatly to the dis- advantage of the emperor ; for the pope no less than the cities had profited by the victory at Legnano. In the Treaty of Venice, Frederick -virtually acknowledged that the imperial power was secondary to the papal. The terms made with the cities were very important. Ac- cording to the feudal laws, the allegiance of the latter was due to the emperor as their overlord. But he was obliged to yield his lawful claim and grant the cities the right of self-govern- ment. These concessions were made by the Treaty of Con- stance in 1183. Decay of the Imperial Power. — These events mark another stage in the great papal and imperial conflict. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 was, as we have seen, a compromise in which the advantage was on the side of the Church. The renewal of the conflict by the emperors in the hope of regaining what had been lost resulted in a still greater triumph for the Holy See in the treaties of Venice and Constance. A great blow was dealt to the power of the empire. The cities were independent, the Church was hostile, and the nobles were defiant; and although Frederick and his successors struggled bravely to 290 GENERAL HISTORY maintain the power of their house, the foundation of the em- pire was shattered, and after the death of Frederick II., in 1250, the imperial throne became the prize of any one who was strong enough to seize it. Innocent III. (1198-1216). — The reign of Innocent III. marks the highest point which the papal power ever attained. He followed in the footsteps of Gregory VII., aiming constantly at the supremacy of the Church over the State. The success with which he carried out this policy is illustrated by his contests with Philip Augustus of France and John of England. Before Innocent came to the throne, Philip Augustus had divorced his wife and illegally married Agnes of Meran. The divorce had been approved by the highest ecclesiastical authorities in France, but the ex-queen appealed to Innocent III., who saw an opportunity to test the question of papal supremacy and determined to force Philip Augustus to put away his new wife. The king paid no attention to the pope's demand, for he trusted to the loyalty of his people and felt himself strong enough to resist. The pope thereupon inflicted the severest punishment that the Church had in its power. He laid the kingdom under an interdict. This meant that all the offices of the Church were suspended, Avith the exception of the most necessary sacra- ments. The Church doors were closed, the dead were buried in unconsecrated ground, and the i)eople were deprived of the consolation of religion. To a pious people this was un- endurable, and the pressure on the king to comply with the pope's demand became too strong to be resisted. Philip Augustus finally yielded and sent away Agnes of Meran, who died soon afterwards. Since Philip Augustus was one of the strongest as well as the most headstrong monarch in Europe, this triumph was a remarkable proof of the pope's power. Contest with King John. — In the quarrel with John of Eng- land the issue was not a matter of personal morality, but of Church authority. There was a dispute about the election to THE PAPAL POWER 291 the Archbishopric of Canterbury, tlie most important Church office in England. The monks of Canterbury chose one candi- date and the king another, and then both parties appealed to the pope. Innocent rejected both candidates and proposed one of his own, Stephen Langton, a man in every way suitable for the office. John refused to submit, and the pope used against him the same means that had been employed to coerce Philip Augustus. He laid England under an interdict, and, though its effect was not so immediate as in Erance, it finally brought John to terms. Not only was John obliged to accept the pope's candidate, but he went so far as to surrender the king- dom of England* to the pope and receive it back as the pope's vassal, paying in token of vassalage a sum of money each year. Suppression of Heresy. — Innocent was equally vigorous in 292 GENERAL HISTORY suppressing keresy, and in doing so he employed the same means as were used against the infidels. A crusade against the Albigen'ses, an heretical sect in southern France, was undertaken and carried out with success, but was marked by revolting cruelties. Decline of the Papal Power — The popes continued to wield a vast power for many years after the death of Innocent III. They were strengthened by two new orders of monks which were founded early in the thirteenth century and named after their founders, St. Dom'inic and St. Francis. These Dominican and Franciscan monks returned to a more rigid discipline and a more complete exclusion from worldly things, and having no ambitions or hopes outside of the Church, they directed all their efforts to advancing its interests, and were stanch sup- porters of the pope. But toward the close of the thirteenth century, the papal authority began to show signs of weakness, and as the reign of Innocent III. illustrates the power of the popes, their wan- ing influence can also be illustrated by an example. Boniface VIII. , who ruled from 1294 to 1303, became involved in a quarrel with Philip IV. of France over the question of taxing the clergy. Philip claimed that right, and when Boniface ordered him to desist, saying that he was subject in spiritual things to the Holy See, Philip returned a defiant answer. Although Boniface issued decree after decree against him, placed him under the ban and declared him deposed from the throne, the king gained his point; for the people were on his side. In the Assembly of the States-General, it was de- clared that France was not subject to the pope in temporal matters. For many years after this the papacy was wholly subject to French influence, and in 1309 the Holy See was removed from Kome to Av'ignon, in France, where it remained for nearly seventy years (1309-1378), a period known in Church history as the Babylonian Captivity of the Church. As a natural result of this, the respect for the papacy declined. The Great Schism (1378-1417). — The removal of the papal THE PAPAL POWER 293 seat to Avignon gave offense to the Italian members of the Sacred College, and they chose a pope who promised to take up his residence at Rome. The French cardinals, preferring Avignon as the seat of the pope, chose an antipope of their own. There was thus a division or schism in the Church, and there were for many years two lines of popes. This of course weakened the influence of the papacy, for people did not know who was the rightful pope. Council of Pisa. — These years were a dark period in the his- tory of the (Jliurch, and the evils of the time led to efforts for reform, notably the movements of John Wyclif and John Huss. Finally, as the only way of settling the matter, a council of the Church was called to decide who was the just claimant to the papal throne. This council, which assembled at Pisa in 1409, recognized neither of the popes, and set up a third one ; but as both the deposed popes insisted on maintaining their rule, the decision of the council only made matters worse, for there were now three popes instead of two. Council of Constance. — But the Council of Constance was more successful. After deposing the three popes, it chose Martin V., in 1417, and he was generally acknowledged. This brought the Great Schism to an end, but the effect of it was none the less important. The papacy thenceforth had no chance of gaining that supremacy over the civil power which was aimed at by Gregory VII. and his immediate successors. Conclusion. — As a result of the long struggle between the papacy and the civil powers, it may be said that the attempt to make the Church supreme in temporal matters had failed. As the Middle Ages drew toward their close, the feeling^ of nationality became stronger and the power of the kings in- creased. Both these facts tended to lessen the authority of the popes Avhen they interfered in secular affairs. On the other hand, their spiritual supremacy remained. Here and there it was questioned, and reform movements were started ; but throughout the fifteenth century the Holy See continued to be the highest authority in spiritual matters. It was not Colby's gen. hist. — 19 294 GENERAL HISTORY till the following century, that any of the states of Europe ventured to separate from the Roman Catholic Church. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Papal Power. — Introduction: The Pope a Secular as well as a Spiritual Ruler. The Points at Issue between the Imperial and the Papal Parties. — The Choice of Popes : Interference of the Secular Power. — Reform of Church Discipline : llildebrand\s Influence at Rome. His Proposed Reforms. Simony, Celibacy. — Reform of Papal Elections : The New Principle of Papal Elections established by the Decree of 1059. — Gregory VII. : His Election as Pope. His Vig- orous Policy. — Investiture : Definition of Investiture. The War of Investiture. — Contest between Gregory and Henry IV. : Gregory's Decree against Lay Investiture. The Emperor's Opposition. His Phnbarrassment in Germany. — Canossa (1077) : Humiliation of Henry. His Faithlessness. The Exile of Gregory. — Death and Character of Gregory VII. : Effect of his Reign on the Papal Power. His Theory of Church Government. His Greatness. — Henry V. : Renewed Struggle with the Pope. A Compromise Formed. — Con- cordat of Worms (1122) : Concessions on Both Sides. The Concordat really a Triumph for the Church. — Frederick I. and the Papacy : The Growing Independence of the Italian Cities. The Punishment of Milan. The Lombard League. Frederick's Defeat at Legnano. — Treaty of Venice : Triumph of the Pope. Concessions to the Cities in the Treaty of Constance (1183). — Decay of the Imperial Power. — Innocent III. (1198-1216) : An Instance of his Great Power. Quar- rel with Philip Augustus. The Victory of the Pope. — Contest with King John : The Election of an Archbishop of Canterbury. Stephen Langton. John's Humiliation. — Suppression of Heresy : The Albi- genses. — Decline of the Papal Power : The Dominican and Francis- can Orders. Boniface VIII. An Instance of the Declining Power of the Pope. Boniface VIII. and Philip IV. Papal See at Avignon. . The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1309-1378). —The Great Schism (1378-1417).— The Council of Pisa.— The Council of Con- stance : The End of the Great Schism. — Conclusion : Failure of the Church to secure Temporal Supremacy. Its Spiritual Supremacy. CHAPTER XXXVIII ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES The Norman Conquest. — It is said that the Anglo-Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, promised the succession to William, Duke of Xormandy, and tliat the promise was renewed by Harold, the heir to the throne. These alleged promises were the grounds of William's claim, and when Harold became king on Edward's death, the Norman duke, accusing him of perfidy, prepared to invade England. Harold was brave and determined, but his enemies were more numerous and better disciplined, and in the battle of Senlac or Hastings (1066) his forces were routed and he himself was killed. Thus the old Anglo-Saxon dynasty came to an end, and the chief power in the state passed into the hands of the Xormans. During the next hundred years the two races gradually mingled, and the result was a civilization that was neither Anglo-Saxon nor Norman, but a fusion of the two. This complete fusion of the races was chiefly due to the fact that both traced their origin to a pure Teutonic ancestry. I. The Norman Kings ^ William the Conqueror (1066-1087) • — Although William really ruled "as king by the edge of the sword," he preferred to base his title on the promise of Edward the Confessor rather than on force of arms ; and he adhered so far as possible to Anglo-Saxon usages, causing himself to be crowned at West- minster and binding himself to frame good laws and observe justice, as his predecessors had done. In fact he professed to 1 William I. (the Conqueror), 1066-1087. William II. (Rufus), 1087-1100. Henry L, 1100-1135. Stephen, 1135-1164. 295 296 genp:ral history regard himself as the lawful successor of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and not merely as a feudal conqueror. He had great difficulty in making the people recognize him as such, but when this was once done, he was a far more powerful ruler as king of England than he was as Norman duke. The Anglo-Saxons were a sturdy race, and William's power was not fully established till 1071, when the brave native chieftain Hereward was driven from his stronghold in the marshes of Ely. The revolts of the natives left them in a worse position than before, for more of their land was confis- cated and granted by the king to his Norman vassals. All the higher offices were filled witli Normans, who became the rul- ing class, and the Norman sys- tem of government, in which feudalism was further developed than in England, was introduced. Yet William retained many of the Anglo-Saxon institutions, especially in the lower branches of the administration. He showed good statesmanship in the way he parcelled out the land among his followers. To avoid the danger of placing too much power in the hands of his vassals, he did not grant large continuous tracts of land to single persons, but gave each separate estates, often in different counties. Doomsday Book. — A survey of the land was carried out in the winter of 1085-1086, and its results were embodied in the Doomsday Book, which contains a careful and minute descrip- tion of the lands of the kingdom, an estimate of their value, and an enumeration of the various classes of landholders. It is a remarkable work, and one of the chief sources for the his- tory of the political and social conditions of the time. William the Conqueror, as repre- sented ON HIS Seal ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 297 Character of William's Government. — One of the chief defects of the feudal system was that the king was cut off from the common people through the intermediate vassals, to whom service was due rather than to the king. To remedy this Wil- liam required all land- ^^„ owners to take the oath of fealty to himself. He preferred to rule as the king of a nation rather than as a feudal lord, and the people came to see that their interests were better served by him than by the nobles, or barons. The troubles of his reign were between the king and the nobles, not between the Norman Gateway, Windsor Castle king and the common people. He was harsh, but impartial, and he maintained the public peace and repressed tlie lawlessness of the barons. William II. (Rufus, 1087-1100). — William the Conqueror was succeeded by his second son, W^illiam Eufus, who, though cruel and passionate, inherited some of his father's ability. He, too, saw that it was good policy to win the favor of his English subjects. Two insurrections broke out in his reign, and both were put down largely through the aid rendered by the English. He was murdered in the New Eorest in 1100. Henry I. (iioo-i 135). —Henry I., the younger brother of W^illiam Eufus, came to the throne in spite of the opposition of his brother Eobert, who as the eldest son of the Conqueror had inherited Normandy. Henry succeeded in gaining the support of the people by issuing a charter of liberties and by his marriage with Matilda, a descendant of the old Anglo- Saxon line. He was, moreover, the first of the Norman kings who was born in Engla.nd. When he found liimself secure on the English throne, he took advantage of Eobert's weakness 298 GENERAL HISTORY and invaded Normandy. The result was the defeat and im- prisonment of Robert. Henry was now Duke of Normandy as well as king of England, and both titles were transmitted to his successors. The fines imposed upon his enemies and the confiscation of their lands greatly added to the royal power and correspondingly weakened that of the barons, but Henry used this power wisely. To the nation at large he promised, in the charter of liberties, to restore the Anglo-Saxon laws, and the general object of his policy was to strengthen the lower orders of society and make them his friends, as an offset to the power of the nobility. A selfish but politic ruler, he saw the identity of his own interests with those of the people, and in helping them he helped himself. He was peace-lov- ing and administered even-handed justice. "No man durst misdo against another in his time," says the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Stephen (1135-1154). — Disregarding the claims of Henry I.'s daughter Matilda, Stephen usurped the throne and by his energy and boldness succeeded in holding it. He fol- lowed the example of his predecessors in trying to win over the English by promising to administer justice and abolish unfair taxation, but in the troubles of the reign these pledges were little regarded. His reign, in fact, was one of the worst in English history. He was constantly at odds with the nobles, and the country was distracted by civil wars. The Scots, Matilda's allies, invaded the north of England, and though they were routed in the Battle of the Standard, Stephen did not know how to profit from his victory. He had been foolish enough to allow the barons to build strong castles, and when his misgovernment provoked them to revolt, he found the country dotted with hostile fortresses. Nor did peace bring much benefit to the people, for these castles became the shelter of tyranny and robbery. " There are as many tyrants as there are lords of castles," complains a historian of the time. The anarchy and violence of the time have caused it to be regarded by some as the darkest period of English history. ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 299 At last, however, Stephen came to an agreement with Matilda's son Henry, acknowledging him as his successor and promising to restore good order in his kingdom.^ II. The Plaxtagenets to 1399^ Henry II. (1154-1189). — Henry II. was the son of Geoffrey Flantag'enet and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I., and the first of the Plantagenet dynasty, which ruled England in the direct line till 1399. Inheriting wide domains in France, he ruled over a greater extent of territory than any previous English king. His aim as a ruler was to systematize and centralize the government and to weaken the power of the barons. He destroyed many castles of the nobles, and by 1 The Norman Line : William I. (1066-1087), m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V. of Flanders. I William IL (lliifus) Henry I. (1100-1135), Adela, m. Stephen, (1087-1100). ni. Matilda, daughter of Count of Blois. Malcolm, King of Scotland. | I Stephen (1135-1154). Matilda (d. 1167), m, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou. I Henry II., first Plantagenet King (1151-1189). 2 Plantagenets in the Direct Line, i.e., to 1399 . Henry IL (1154-1189). I I 1 Richard L (1189-1199). John (1199-1216). I Henry III. (1216-1272). I Edward I. (1272-1307). I Edward II. (1307-1327). Edward III. (1327-1377). The Black Prince (d. 1377). Richard II. (1377-1399) 300 GENERAL HISTORY accepting money in place of military service secured the means of supporting a military force of his own. Thomas a Becket. — During the early years of the reign Thomas a Becket, as the king's chancellor, liad shown great zeal in his cause, but, being appointed archbishop of Canter- bury in 1162, he devoted himself wholly to the interests of the church and the exaltation of his office, and became the most dangerous of the king's foes. The main point at issue between them was the trial of members of the clergy who had been guilty of crime. The civil courts had lost all authority JJeatii of Eecket over clerical offenders, who were tried by the church tribunals. But the latter bodies could inflict only spiritual penalties, and serious offenses often went without adequate punishment. In the Constitutions of Clarendon (1104) it was decided that ecclesiastics accused of crime must first be summoned before the king's justices, who were to determine whether the offense came within tlie jurisdiction of a secular or a spiritual court. ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 301 Becket reluctantly agreed to this, as well as to other provisions seriously affecting tlie authority of the church, but soon after- wards sent to the pope and asked forgiveness for wliat he had done. The king's party was powerful, and Becket took refuge in France, but a few years later, through the aid of the pope and the French king, was reinstated. On his return to Eng- land he angered the king by excommunicating the bishops who liad taken sides against him. Henry, in a moment of rage, spoke some hasty words, which were construed by his attend- ants as a wish for the murder of Becket. They broke into tlie cathedral where the latter had taken refuge and killed him at the altar (December, 1170). Becket was now regarded as a martyr and a patron saint, and the king was finally obliged to make his submission to the papal representative and declare on oath his innocence of all complicity in the murder. Thus the apparent outcome of the struggle was unfavorable to the king, but in reality Henry gained the main object for which he had been working. The church courts no longer enjoyed sucli complete authority over criminal members of the clergy. General Results of Henry's Reign. —Henry greatly strength- ened the monarchy. He improved the administration of jus- tice and lessened the power of the nobles. In his struggle with Becket he tried to maintain the supremacy of the state over the church, and in this he was in large jiart successful. The Invasion of Ireland. — At this period Ireland had made little progress in civilization. To conquer it and make it an English dependency was long a favorite scheme of Henry's. In 1155 Hadrian IV., the only Englishman that ever occupied the papal throne, issued a bull approving the plan and declar- ing it to be his will that the Irish should recognize Henry as their lord. JN'othing was done for several years, but in 1169 a quarrel between two Irish chiefs gave the English a chance to interfere, and a number of barons, headed by Ki chard of Clare, surnamed Strongbow, established themselves in Ireland. They ackpowledged Henry as the feudal lord over the lands which they had seized, and a large part of the country which 302 GENERAL HISTORY was still ruled by native chiefs also submitted to him. Fi- nally, by the Treaty of Windsor (1175), Roderick of Con- naught recognized Henry as his feudal sovereign and in turn was acknowledged by the latter as king over all tho6e parts of Ireland which were not held by the English. But Ireland was by no means conquered. Irish laws and customs still pre- vailed, except in the parts colonized by the English, and the subsequent history of the country is concerned with the spread of English laws and the extension of English authority from the little strip of territory in the east known as the Pale. Richard I. (1189-1199). — Richard's reign was that of an absentee king, for he passed but a few months in his own country. Military glory was the passion of his life, and Eng- land was to hiui merely the source of supplies for his continual and profitless wars. The part which he played in the Third Crusade has already been described. On his return he was soon engaged in war with Philip Augustus of France. To meet the enormous expenses of this lavish and imprudent prince, exces- sive taxes were imposed upon the people. But the results were not altogether bad, for the justiciar was a wise admin- istrator, and in order to get the most out of the people with the least oppression systematized the methods of taxation and even provided for a sort of representation. Thus a better and more equitable system of taxation was established. John (1199-1216). — John is regarded as the worst king that England ever had, but his reign lias had more important con- sequences than that of any other English sovereign. The events of the reign may be grouped under the following heads: (1) Foreign Affairs; (2) Relations with the Church; (3) Strug- gle with the Barons. John's Foreign Possessions. — In France John held Normandy and Aquitaine, but his claim to Anjou, Maine, and Touraine was disputed by his nephew Arthur. Wliile as king of Eng- land he had no superior, he was, according to feudal law, the vassal of the French king Philip for his possessions on the Continent. Having offended a powerful family in France by ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 303 a foolish and unworthy act, he was summoned by Philip to trial as his vassal. John refused to obey, and Philip there- upon declared him to have forfeited his tiefs. Even after this John took Arthur prisoner and murdered him. Philip sum- moned him a second time, and upon John's refusal invaded the latter's French dominions. By the summer of 1204, Philip was supreme in Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine. Thus the English power on the Continent was swejjt away. John's Relations with the Church. — John suffered an equally severe humiliation as a result of his resistance to the papal authority. His attempt to appoint a candidate of his own to the archbishopric of Canterbury brought ou that quarrel with Innocent III., the outcome of which has already been cited as an instance of the great power wielded by the popes at that time. Innocent laid the kingdom under a,n interdict (1208) and the next year excommunicated the king. John seized the estates of the clergy and forced many to leave the kingdom. But the pope issued a bull deposing him and commissioned Philip of France to drive him from the throne. John was as abject in surrender as he had been arrogant in resistance. He not only accepted the pope's candidate, Stephen Langton, but surrendered the kingdom to the pope and received it back as a fief subject to tribute. John's Struggle with the Barons. — One of the many griev- ances of which John's subjects complained was the excessive taxation. He levied exorbitant taxes on the pretense of carry- ing on a military campaign, and then disbanded the army without attempting to fight. For instance, in 1205, when an invasion was feared, he assembled a great force and began preparations for carrying the war into France. He himself started out as if to lead the expedition ; but he went only a short distance and then returned, disbanded his troops, and accepted money. When he led an array into France he had some success ; but his allies suffered a disastrous defeat at Bou- vines (1214). He was despised for his cowardice and hated for his extortions. At last the barons drew up a scheme of reforms ; 304 GENERAL HISTORY 9 i and though the king held out for a while, his friends soon fell away, and at Runnymede, on June 15, 1215, he was compelled to sign the famous Magna Charta (Great Charter). Magna Charta. — The Great Charter is one of the most famous documents in history. It is regarded as the foundation of the civil liberty of Englishmen. Yet many of its principles had been long recognized. Men could point from Magna Charta back to the charter of liberties in Henry I.'s reign, and from that to the laws of Edward the Confessor, and from these to the laws of Alfred. This constant regard for precedent and refusal to break with the past is the characteristic of Anglo- Saxon political history. Nevertheless many privileges which were formerly a mere matter of usage were now expressly guaranteed, and it was a great gain to have the rights of subjects acknowledged in a written instrument. The important princi]3les declared by Magna Charta are, (1) No taxes shall be ¥-^'?j^ i levied without the consent of the great ^mf'f^ I council of the realm. (2) No free man shall be seized or imprisoned except through the loyal judgment of his peers. (3) Justice shall not be denied to any man; nor shall it be bought and sold. John agreed to this charter, but very soon broke his promises. War with the barons resulted, and the king was success- ful. The barons now called in the aid of the French prince Louis, the son of Philip Augustus, but be- fore a decisive battle could be fought, John died (1216). Henry III. (1216-1272). — In return for Louis' aid the bar- ons had agreed to acknowledge him as their ruler, but now that John was out of the way they turned against him and drove him out of England. Henry III. was but nine years old when he was crowned. As he grew older, it became evident that he was totally unfit to rule; for while he was Knight of the Thir- teenth Century ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 305 gentle and kindly, he was capricious, vain, and weak. His foreign ventures ended in failure and created an enormous debt. His misgovernment finally led to the assembling of the so-called 'Mad Parliament,' which set up committees of barons to control the king. This arrangement soon broke down, and for a time there was civil war. Simon of Montfort, Earl of Leicester, was the leader in the opposition to the king, and in 1265 he took the important step of summoning representatives of the cities to meet in Parliament, and many of the common people who had shown themselves faithful to the cause of liberty were also bidden. This was the beginning of the Eng- lish House of Commons. In the same year Simon of Montfort was defeated and killed, but not before he and his party had secured all that they had fought for; and during the rest of Henry's reign the kingdom enjoyed constitutional govern- ment. Edward I. (1272-1307). — ^ Edward I. was a great contrast to his father. He was a brave and skillful soldier, a trained lawyer, an able organizer, and a patriotic king. He conquered Wales and incorporated it in his dominions (1283). He caused himself to be acknowledged as king of Scotland, and when the Scots revolted under their brave leader William Wallace, he invaded Scotland and overthrew them in the battle of Falkirk. He continued the representation of the Commons in Parlia- ment, and when he issued writs for the assembling of that body in 1295 he declared, "It is a most equitable rule that what concerns all should be approved by all, and common danger be repelled by united efforts." Edward II. (1307-1327). — All that Edward I. had gained in Scotland was lost through the incapacity of his son Edward II. The decisive Scottish victory of Bannockburn (1314) secured the independence of the northern kingdom, leaving the brave native prince Kobert Bruce in possession of the throne. Edward's misgovernment at home involved him in a con- tinuous struggle with his vassals. He disregarded the rights of the barons and offended them by the choice of unworthy 306 GENERAL HISTORY favorites. In 1327 he was deposed by Parliament and soon afterwards murdered at Berkeley Castle. Edward III. (1327-1377). — Edward III. was one of the ablest of England's kings. The first part of the reign was taken up with an attempt to recover Scotland, but the out- break of the war with France caused a division of the English forces, and Scotland remained free. The war with France, known as the Hundred Years' War, arose from Edward's claim to the French throne. In the early part of the conflict the English were successful, winning the two famous battles of Crecy (1346) and Poi'tiers (1356), and capturing the city of Calais, which remained in English hands for two hundred years. By the treaty of Bret'igny (1360) Edward acquired full sovereignty over his duchy of Aquitaine but renounced his claim to the French throne. Edward's son, the famous Black Prince, was the foremost warrior of the time, but lacked good judgment and prudence as a general. Upon the renewal of the war the English lost most of their conquests. As a civil ruler Edward had many faults. He was unscru- pulous, and not only levied unjust taxes, but allowed them to be collected by dishonest men, so that the royal treasury received only a fraction of the proceeds. Yet he was loved by the common people, especially during the early part of the reign, for he was a patriotic and thoroughly English king. Great credit is due to him for his efforts to promote native industries. Richard II. (1377-1399)- — The two chief events of Richard II. 's reign were the revolt of the peasants and that dissension in the royal party which led in a later reign to the ruinous War of the Roses. In the reign of Edward III. the terrible pestilence known as the Black Death had swept over Europe, causing a loss of life which can not be calculated, but which is estimated by some at one third of the population. The effect of this was to cause a scarcity of labor and to raise the price of all the necessaries of life. At this time many laborers had purchased their freedom from enforced labor on the estates of ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES SOT their lords and were working for pay in the manner of our modern wage-earners. The high price of labor due to the hard times was attributed by the nobles to the greed of the work- ingmen, and laws were passed fixing the rate of wages. The landlords tried also to force the laborers back into the position of serfs, for by this means they would secure the labor requi- site for the cultivation of their estates. Another grievance of the laborers was the excessive taxation, and especially the im- position of a poll tax, which fell upon a class hitherto exempt. These and other oppressions finally provoked the peasants to revolt. Stirred up by the preaching of the fanatical John Ball, and headed by Wat Tyler, they began a campaign of pillage and murder. A force one hundred thousand strong entered London, but the king's presence of mind saved the city. He made them fair promises, and they dispersed to their homes, but Parliament refused to redress their grievances. So far as immediate benefits were ,1 ^^^ , ^x concerned, the revolt amounted „ r, r. ' _ Hand Cannon, Fourteenth CKNTtrRY to nothing, but it had a whole- some effect on the upper classes, who were thenceforth less tyrannical in their treatment of the peasantry. As time passed, the king tried to rid himself of all restraint in his government, and for a time succeeded; but his quarrel with Henry, Duke of Lancaster, whom he feared as a possible rival, brought about his ruin. He had banished the duke from England, but while Eichard was absent in Ireland, Henry returned, gathered the nobles around him, and obliged the king to abdicate. Thus the direct line of the Plantagenets came to an end. 308 GENERAL HISTORY III. The Houses of Lancaster axd York^ Dynasties. — When Eichard II, abdicated, Henry of Lancas- ter secured the crown, although he was not the next heir to it. The next two kings also were of the house of Lancaster ; but in 1461, as we shall see, the crown passed to the house of York. Henry IV. (1399-1413). — This king's title had as its basis the consent of Parliament. If it had not been for the support he received from Parliament, the barons, and the clergy, he could never have gained the throne. He had therefore to be careful not to offend those on whose good will his ^^ower de- pended. He tried to make up for a bad title by good govern- ment, and he showed himself a skillful and prudent man. He crushed a conspiracy on behalf of Kichard, and in the battle of Shrewsbury (1403), where his son, the young prince Hal, distinguished himself, overthrew the insurgent barons. Later he put down a revolt of the Welsh. Henry V. (1413-1422). — This reign is remarkable for the renewal of the Hundred Years' War. Henry invaded France, and in the battle of Ag'incourt (1415) won the third great vic- 1 Descent of the houses of Lancaster and York. Edward III. (1327-1377). 1 Edward, the Black Prince. Richard II. (1377-1399). Will 1 Lionel, Duke of Clarence. iam John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. 1 Henry IV. (1399-1413). Henry V. (1413-1422). Henry VI. (1422-14G1). Edmund, Duke of York. Richard, Earl of Cambridge, m. Anne Mortimer, a descendant of Lionel, Duke of Clarence. 1 Richard, Duke of York. 1 Edward IV. (14G1-148.3) Edward V. (1483). Richard III (1483-1485) FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 309 tory of the war. The greater part of France was now in Eng- lish hands, and by the Treaty of Troyes Henry secured the regency and the promise of the crown for himself and his heir on the death of the French king. But Henry died too soon to gain this object of his ambition, and the next events belong to a later chapter. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW England in the Middle Ages. — The Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings. The Norman Kings. — William the Conqueror : His Re- gard for Anglo-Saxon Usages. Revolts of the Natives. William's Policy. — Doomsday Book. — Character of William's Government. — William II. — Henry I. : Conflict with Robert. Henry's Govern- ment. — Stephen : Civil War. Settlement of Succession. — The Plantagenets. — Henry II. : Extent of his Power. — Thomas a Becket : Constitutions of Clarendon. Murder of Becket. Result of the Con- flict. — General Results of the Reign. — The Invasion and Settle- ment of Ireland. — Richard I. : Character of Richard's Rule. — John. — John's Foreign Possessions : Loss of English Territory in France. — John's Relations with the Church: His Humiliation. — John's Struggle with the Barons. — Magna Charta. — Henry III. : The ' Mad Parliament.' — Edward I. — Edward II. — Edward III. — The Hun- dred Years' War. Edward III.'s Character as a Ruler. — Richard II. : The Peasants' Revolt. Richard's Deposition and Death. — The Houses of Lancaster and York. — Dynasties. — Henry IV. — Henry V. : Battle of Agincourt. Treaty of Troyes. CHAPTER XXXIX FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES The Capetian Dynasty.^ — On the extinction of the Carolin- gian line Hugh Capet was chosen king by the great nobles, 1 Hugh Capet, 987. Louis VII., 1137. Philip IV., 1285. Robert, 996. Philip II., 1180. Louis X., 1314. Henry I., 1031. Louis VIII., 1223. John L, 1316. Philip I., 1060. Louis IX., 1226. Philip V., 1316. Louis VI., 1108. Philip III., 1270. Charles IV., 1322. Colby's gen. hist. — 20 310 GENERAL HISTORY He was the founder of the Capetian line, which ruled France from 987 to 1328. The feudal system was now at its height, and the king had hardly more power than his great vassals. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066 tlie ISTorman duke became a still more powerful rival of the French king, and we have seen in the previous chapter how sharp was the conflict between the French and English monarchs over the latter's possessions in France. The internal condition of France under the Capetian dynasty was generally marked by disorder and lawlessness, but some of the kings were fairly successful in maintaining the royal authority. One of the most vigorous rulers was Philip II., surnamed Augustus. Philip Augustus of France (i 180-1223). — We have seen how Philip II. (Augustus) took part in the Third Crusade, but having quarreled with Richard the Lion-Hearted returned in disgust to France. His reign is more important in the matter of domestic affairs. He was unscrupulous and shrewd, neg- lecting no means by which his power could be enhanced. He added greatly to the royal demesnes and acquired considerable treasure by confiscating the property of the Jews. On Rich- ard's return from the Third Crusade a war arose between the two kings, but Richard was killed in 1199, and Philip's rival was now the weak and unpatriotic king John, who allowed the English possessions in France to fall, one by one, into the hands of the French monarch. At one time it even seemed as if the crown of England would fall to a French king; for when John broke his oath to the barons, after signing the Great Charter, they offered the crown to Philip's son, Louis, in return for his aid in deposing John. But the death of the latter ruined the cause of the French king. The barons joined against Louis and chose as their king John's son, Henry III. In the reign of Philip Augustus the war against the Albi- genses began. These people, deriving their name from the city of Albi in southern France, held views at variance with the teachings of the church, and in 1208 Innocent III. preached FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 311 a crusade against them. The crusade was carried on with cruelty by Philip's nobles, especially by the French count, Simon of Montfort, and a few years after Philip's death the territories of these heretics were incorporated in the kingdom of Prance. An inquisition to seek out and punish all who had not embraced the orthodox faith completed the destruction of the sect. Louis IX. of France (1226-1270). — The personal character of Louis IX., who was known as Saint Louis, strengthened the throne by inspiring the veneration of the people. He was a man of great piety and of pure motives. He showed the intolerance of his times in dealing with Jews and heretics, but in general his policy was characterized by mildness. The power of the throne was increased in his reign at the expense of the feudal lords. Reforms were introduced into the judi- cial system, and the king's courts acquired a higher authority. In relations with foreign nations France gained a position of great importance. Louis's crusading ventures were, as we have seen, unsuccessful, but they bore witness to the piety and bravery of the king. From his time the power of the French monarchy increased until the beginning of the long and disastrous war with England (1337). Philip IV. of France (1285-1314).— I'liilip I^., surnamed the Fair, was another able prince of the Capetian line. The means by which he exalted the royal authority were unscrupu- lous but very effective. To meet the expenses of his army, he resorted to the imposition of burdensome taxes and to extor- tions from the Jcavs. His attempt to compel the church to contribute its share to the revenues of the crown involved him in that struggle with Pope Boniface VIIL which, as we have seen, resulted in the humiliation of the latter. This struggle is important as the occasion of the summoning at Paris of the barons, clergy, and representatives of the cities, to sustain the king in his resistance to the papal demands. This was the first meeting of the States-General, a body famous in French history. Philip was sustained by the States -General 312 GENERAL HISTORY in his opposition to the pope, and the papacy now entered on that period of subordination to the Erench throne wliich is known as the period of Babylonian captivity. In 1309 the j)apal see was removed to Avignon on the borders of France. Another important event of the reign was the suppression of the Knights Templars, who were arrested on charges of immorality and impiety and put to death in large numbers. This was an act of gross injustice on Philip's part, but it greatly strengthened the royal joower. The Disputed Succession. — Two years after the death of Philip the Fair a law was passed decreeing that no females should succeed to the throne. In 1328 the direct male line of the Capets became extinct, and the throne was claimed by Philix^ VI., the cousin of the last king. Edward III. of Eng- land, however, disputed this claim on the ground of a more direct descent, his mother being a sister of the last king.^ The French took their stand on the so-called Salic law, by which the title could not be transmitted through a female. Such was the origin of the Hundred Years' War, which, beginning in 1337, lasted, with several long intervals of peace, down to the year 1453. ' The House of Valois. — Philip VI. ascended the throne in 1328. He was the first of the Valois dynasty,^ which ruled 1 Descent of Edward III. and Philip VI. Philip III. (1270-1285). I Philip IV. (1285-1314). Charles, Count of I Valois (d. 1325), 1 i 1 m. (1) Margaret Isabel, m. Edward II. Philip V. Charles IV. of Naples. of England. (1316-1322). (1322-1328). ,.,.'.. I Philip VI. Edward III. of England. (1328-1350). 2 Philip VI., 1328. Louis XI., 1461. Francis II., 1559. John 11. , 1350. Charles VIII., 1483. Charles IX., 1560. Charles V., 1364. Louis XII., 1498. Henry IIL, 1574. Charles VL, 1380. Francis I., 1515. Charles VII., 1422. Henry II., 1547. FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 313 France for more than two centuries and a half, that is, from 1328 to the assassination of Henry III. in 1589. The Hundred Years' War. — We have seen that in the first period of the war, in the reign of Edward III. of England, success was wholly on the English side, that two great vic- tories were won, at Crecy and Poitiers, that Calais was cap- tured by the English, and that in the Treaty of Bretigny (1360), while Edward renounced his claim to the French crown, he retained full sovereignty over the province of Aqui- taine. Upon the renewal of the war, however, in the reign of Charles V. (1364-1380), the French were successful. A large part of Aquitaine was reconquered, and the English were driven out of Brittany. At the time of Edward III.'s death in 1377 tlie French had regained most of the English conquests. Joan of Arc. — The next period of the war was that in which the brave and skillful English king, Henry V., won the battle of Agincourt (1415), and by the Treaty of Troyes (1420) secured the succession to the French throne on the death of Charles VI. Henry and Cha.rles, however, died in the same year (1422), and Charles VII. was proclaimed king of France, while the son of Henry V., Henry VL, succeeded him on the throne of England. The condition of France seemed hopeless at this time. Almost the entire country was in the hands of the Eng- lish and their allies. At this crisis France was rescued by Joan of Arc, who, fancying that she was divinely chosen for the mission of freeing her country, secured a commission from the king, joined the French army, and, inspiring the troops with courage, won victory after victory over the English. She had delivered France, but was ill supported by her country- men, who allowed her to be taken prisoner by the Burgundians. The latter gave her up to the English, by whom, after suffering many insults, she was condemned as a witch and burned at the stake at Eouen, 1431. The Expulsion of the English. —One thing which had con- tributed greatly to the English cause was the alliance with the 314 GENERAL HISTORY Duke of Burgundy, the most powerful vassal of the French king, but in 1435 the Burgundians returned to the side of the French monarchy. In the closing period of the war the pre- ponderance of military skill lay with the French, whose general, Dunois, is regarded as one of the greatest military leaders of the age. Charles VII. regained his lost provinces one by one, and by the year 1453 the only important place retained by the English was Calais. Thus the long conflict arising over the English claims on French territory came to an end. Its effect was to render France almost a desert. But though left in a condition of great poverty and distress, she had won her freedom. In the period that followed, feudalism disappeared, the absolute monarchy was established, and France 'became a strong national state. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW FpwVXce in the Middle Ages. — The Capetian Dynasty : Hugh Capet. — Philip Augustus of France : The Albigenses. — Louis IX. of France. — Philip IV. of France: His Government. Summoning of the States-General. Suppression of the Knights Templars. The Occa- sion of the Hundred Years' War. — The House of Valois. — The Hundred Years' War. —Joan of Arc. — The Expulsion of the English. CHAPTER XL GERMANY AND ITALY The Saxon Line of Emperors. —We have seen that the Caro- lingian line became extinct in Germany on the death of Louis the Child in 911. The great dukes now chose as king Conrad of Franconia, who reigned till 919. He was succeeded by Henry L, surnamed the Fowler, who was the first of the Saxon line of emperors which ruled Germany for over a hun- dred years (919-1024). GERMANY AND ITALY 315 Henry I. (919-936). — This prince was one of the ablest of the German kings. He re-annexed Lorraine to his king- dom, and strengthened his frontiers against outside foes. Of these foes the most dangerous were the Hungarians, whose incursions were a constant menace to his people. In order to withstand their attacks Henry built fortresses throughout the kingdom and placed within them provisions for the support of his troops. Many of the oldest and most famous German towns sprang up around these fortresses. At last the Hun- garians came in great numbers, but after a hard struggle Henry put them to rout in the battle of Merseburg in 933. He also conquered the troublesome Slavs on his frontier and held back the still uncivilized Danes. The Restoration of the Roman Empire (962). — Otto I. (936- 973) used with good results the authority which he inherited from his father. He enforced the submission of the great dukes and made himself supreme in Germany. He, too, won victories over the Hungarians and Slavs, and soon caused him- self to be regarded as the greatest monarch in Europe. It was his aim to make himself a second Charlemagne and become in reality the emperor of the western world. He interfered in Italy, which had long been in a con- dition of anarchy, and caused himself to be proclaimed king of the Lombards. In 962 he was crowned emperor by the pope. This event is known as the resto- ration of the Holy Roman Emj)ire of the German Nation, — an em- pire which existed in theory rather than in fact, for it comprised hardly more than Germany and Italy; yet it was a deep-rooted belief in the Middle Ages that the old Roman Empire was still standing, g,nd that its rulers were the highest secular repre- sentatives of divine power in the world. The effect was bad The German Imperial Crown (Now in the Treasury at Vienna) 316 GENERAL HISTORY for Italy and for Germany, since it bound them in an un- natural union, which drew the attention of German rulers away from their domestic affairs and retarded the development of their own country, while it made Italy the scene of frequent wars. Later Saxon Emperors. — Otto II. 's reign (973-983) was a good illustration of the effects of this new German policy. He neglected German affairs and devoted himself to a vain attempt to make good his claims to all of Italy. Otto III. (983-1002) was consumed by the ambition of buihling up a great world empire, and throughout his reign he, too, gave most of his attention to Italy. In the reign of Henry II. (1002-1024) the power of the great dukes increased, and Germany was ravaged by internal wars. The Franconian Line. — With the election of Conrad II. of Franconia in 1024, the Franconian house began to rule Ger- many. This also lasted for over one hundred years, that is, to 1125. Conrad II. did his best to restore order to his king- dom and repress the power of the nobles. The cities sided with him, but his reign did not last long enough to produce permanent results, and the lawlessness incident to the feudal constitution of Germany still continued. In the reign of Henry III (1039-1056) an attempt was made to check private warfare by the so-called Truce of God. This forbade the carry- ing on of private war between sunset on Wednesday and sun- rise on Monday, and it did something toward checking the violence of the times. The main events of the reign of Henry IV. (1056-1106) have been outlined in the account of his quarrel with Gregory VII. (Ilildebrand), — the so-called War of Investitures. The main interest of the reign of Henry V. (1106-1125) centers in the continuance of this strug- gle, which came to a pause in the Concordat of Worms (1122), already described. After the short reign of Lothair of Saxony (1125-1137), the German throne was occupied by the Hohen- staufens, one of the strongest dynasties in the history of the empire. GERMANY AND ITALY 317 The Hohenstaufen House. — On the death of Lothair, Con- rad III. (1137-1152) was chosen. His election angered Henry the Proud, of the house of Welf or Guelph, the strongest of the German princes. The latter's son, Henry the Lion, con- tinued the quarrel, and thus originated the long strife between the Guelphs and Ghib'ellines, the latter term being an Italian corruption of tlie name of the native city of the Hohenstaufens. The Guelph faction became in after years the supporters of the popes, so that in the course of time the names Guelphs and Ghibellin.es lost their old significance and indicated re- spectivel}' those who stood by the popes and those who upheld the emperors. Frederick I. (Barbarossa), who ruled from 1152 to 1190, was one of the greatest princes of the Hohenstaufen line. His aim was to restore the empire to its former strength and dignity. He was stern in the repression of private war and made himself a real king in Germany. His quarrels with the pope and with the Italian cities ended, as we have seen, in failure, but this was no fault of his, for he was attempting the impossible. It was too late in the history of the world to bring back the absolute x^ower of the Roman emperors. The German dukes were jealous of his power, and among his ene- mies at home was Henry the Lion, the most powerful of his vassals. Frederick was obliged in the end to submit to the pope, and to grant virtual independence to the Italian cities. His failure in the Third Crusade, and his accidental death, by drowning while attempting to cross a stream in Asia Minor (1190), have already been described. Henry VI. (1190-1197), though a man of vigorous mind, was equally un- successful in his attempt to enforce the imperial authority over Italy; and Otto IV. (1198-1214), when he ventured to break certain pledges which he had made to the pope, and to assert the old imperial power, was deposed by Innocent IIL Frederick II. (1214-1250). — This prince is the most brilliant figure in the history of the later Middle Ages. In many points 318 GENERAL HISTORY his ideas were far in advance of his time. He was well versed in languages and in science, was a skillful diplomat, an able general, and a patron of scholars. Somewhat skeptical in spirit, he cared little for ecclesiastical authority, and his atti- tude toward heresy and unbelief showed little of the intoler- ance which characterized the age. Enough has already been said in regard to his expedition to the Holy Land. His suc- cess there did not win him the favor of the pope, and on his return the papal and imperial parties engaged in war. During his reign there was the most violent strife between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. Frederick was unable to enforce the imperial authority over the Lombard cities, who were supported by the pope. Affairs in Germany were badly managed, and the coun- try was disturbed by civil war. Frederick made his residence at Palermo in Sicily, which became a center of learning and art. There he gathered about him literary men and scholars from all parts of the world, and so brilliant was the intel- lectual life of his court, that some would date from his reign the beginning of the great movement known as the Renaissance, or Revival of Learning. The Interregnum. — Frederick's death in 1250 was followed by a period of confusion known as the interregnum, during which the great vassals of the empire set the imperial author- ity at defiance and governed or misgoverned about as they pleased. In 1273, however, Rudolph I. was chosen king of Germany. He was a member of the house of Hapsburg, or Austrian line, which is ruling to this day on the Aus- trian throne. After him came a period during which the emperors were chosen from different houses. Their power was greatly reduced, and Germany was in a condition of anarchy. The Golden Bull (1356). — One of the most important events of this period was the grant of a charter called the Golden Bull, in the reign of Charles IV. (1347-1378). This fixed definitely the persons who should have the right of electing the emperor. This right was vested in seven electors, namely. GERMANY AND ITALY 319 the Arclibisliops of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, the Duke of Saxony, the King of Bohemia, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the Count Pahxtine of the Bhine. Switzerland. — Another important event was the movement for Swiss independence. Switzerland had nominally been a part of the German Empire since 1033. The Hapsburg or Austrian counts claimed jurisdiction over it, but the Swiss were too unruly and liberty-loving to tolerate interference with what they regarded as their rights. Their cities grew in wealth and gained the right of self-government. The mountain cantons, or districts, being remote and inaccessible, were especially independent in spirit. After Budolph of Hapsburg died, these cantons formed a league to resist the oppression of the Austrians. In their war of independence the Swiss showed great heroism. In 1315, in the battle of Morgarten, they routed a superior force of Austrians, and about seventy years later gained another great victory over the Austrians at Sempach (1386). These battles, followed in 1388 by another victory at Nafels, gained for them their vir- tual independence. The Hapsburgs. — From the time of Albert 11. (1438) the Hapsburg or Austrian house occupied the imperial throne ; for, although the monarchy was elective, the electors always chose a member of this family. The long reign of Frederick III. (1440-1493), the successor of Albert II., marks the transition from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the modern period. The Normans in Italy. — Early in the eleventh century bands of i^orman adventurers began to try their fortunes in south- ern Italy. There they fought against the Saracens and the Greeks and succeeded in making themselves masters of the province of Apulia. Their most noted chieftains were Eobert Guiscard and his brother Koger. In 1059 Robert Guiscard was acknowledged by the pope as duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. Sicily and a part of Calabria were not yet con- quered, but before the close of the eleventh century the ISTor- man power was established in Sicily and southern Italy, 320 GENERAL HISTORY which were united in a single cluchy and formed the basis of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Italian Cities. — That the Italian cities should be able successfully to oppose Frederick Barbarossa, the most powerful prince in Christendom, and force him to acknowledge their liberties in the treaty of Constance (1183), is proof that already in the twelfth century they had reached a posi- tion of wealth and power. The most famous of the Italian repub- lics were Venice and Florence. The early importance of Venice arose from her favorable position for commerce. She was already an active trading city at the time of the crusades, and these move- ments aided her by calling into use her ships for the purpose of transporting the crusaders. Be- sides the money which she derived from this transport service, she turned the voyages to good account by bringing back the products of the East. A great Eastern trade developed, especially after the establish- ment of the Latin empire at Constantinople (1204), of which Venice possessed a large share. She owned land on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and in the Italian peninsula she extended her sway over a considerable part of Lombardy. Her govern- ment was in the hands of a doge or chief magistrate, who with other executive officers was appointed by a great council; but her constitution underwent many changes, and finally she fell under the control of an oligarchy. At the period of her great- est power she took rank as an important European state, with whom the other governments of Europe had to reckon. In the sixteenth century, however, her power began to decline. Costume of a JJouk GERMANY AND ITALY 321 Florence was especially distinguished for her manufactures. She became the most important industrial city in Europe. The most brilliant period of her history was the time of the Med'ici family, of whom the most noted members were Cosmo and Lorenzo. The government was republican in form, and both these men were nominally ruling under the constitutional restrictions, but all real power in the state was in their hands. Lorenzo is specially noted for his patronage of art and litera- ture, and many of the masterpieces of Italian art belong to this period. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Germany and Italy. — The Saxon Line of Emperors. — Henry I. — The Restoration of the Roman Empire: Otto I. — Later Saxon Emperors : Otto II. Otto III. Henry II. — The Franconian Line : Conrad II. Henry III. Henry IV. Henry V. Lothair of Saxony. — The Hohenstaufen House : Conrad III. Guelphs and Ghibellines. Frederick I. — Frederick II. — The Interregnum. — The Golden Bull. — Switzerland: Her War of Independence. — The Hapsburgs. — The Italian Cities : Venice. Florence. 322 MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER XLI INTRODUCTION Beginning of the Modern Period. — Some writers take the year 1453 as the dividing line between the Middle Ages and modern times ; others take 1492. The truth is, it is a mistake to assign an exact date for the beginning of modern history, because the transition from the old era to the new was not sudden, but gradual. The date 1453, marking the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, and the overthrow of the empire in the East, is convenient because it is also associated with the emancipation of France from English control, and the revival of learning. The second date, 1492, is associated with that great movement of western discovery which was started successfully by Columbus in that year. As an aid to memory, we may reckon the new era from either of these dates, yet we must not forget that the more correct dividing line between mediaeval and modern times is to be found in the appearance of several features or character- istics in the fifteenth century which were entirely different from anything that existed during the thousand years imme- diately preceding. Characteristics of the Transition. — These are, first, the Ee- vival of Learning, or Renaissance, which not only gave a great impulse to the study of literature, art, and science, but, by awakening the activity of men's minds, led to religious doubt, and brought on the great movement called the Protestant Reformation. Second, closely connected with this revival of 323 324 GENERAL HISTORY learning, was a spirit of enterprise, which showed itself in the most heroic and persistent efforts to discover and colonize new lands. Third, in political matters there was as great a revolu- tion as in matters of learning and commercial enterprise, for on the ruins of feudalism, which was characterized by disorganization and the tyranny of petty chiefs, there rose great monarchies, whose rulers were supreme over no- bles and peasants alike. This difference is, in fact, so marked that many re- gard the rise of the ab- solute monarchy as the peculiar feature of the early modern age. Rise of Modern Nations. — It seems strange to us, at first thought, that the liberty of the people should have been ad- vanced by the building- up of despotisms, but in reality it was sup- planting the despotism of many petty tyrants by the despotism of one man; and the advantage is summed up in the say- ing of an old writer, " Better the rule of one lion than that of a hundred rats." Moreover, along with the growth of the absolute kingship went the development of the national state. The people of one race became conscious of their com- mon kindred and common aims. A broader patriotism than the love of a city or a little principality arose in their minds, and the way was paved for the formation of the great nations which we see in Eurox:)e to-day. An Eaklv Printing Press THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 325 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Introduction, — Beginning of the Modern Period : Date of the Begin- ning of Modern Period. — Characteristics of the Transition: Revival of Learning. Protestant Reformation. Discovery and Colonization. Dow^nfall of Feudalism. — Rise of Modern Nations. CHAPTER XLII THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY Mediaeval Knowledge of Geography. — During the Middle Ages it was the popular belief that the earth was flat. Scholars knew better, for the theory that the earth is round was held by the ancients and had never been wholly forgotten. Yet educated men even toward the close of the fifteenth century believed it impossible to make any practical use of the fact. There is a familiar story that the learned men of Spain on hearing of Columbus's plan to sail around the world asked contemptuously how people could walk head downwards on the other side of the earth, and how it would be possible for him to climb again the convex surface of the globe. Before the fifteenth century, however, travelers had visited the remote countries of the East. The crusades had greatly stimulated the spirit of discovery, and toward the close of the thirteenth and during the four- teenth centuries extensive explorations were undertaken. Marco Polo, who died in 1324, visited the court of the Em- peror of China, and Sir John Mandeville (born about 1300) published a marvelous account of Eastern travel. Another result of the crusades was the opening up of commerce between the Italian cities and the East, and this, too, had added greatly to European knowledge of the geography of the Orient. Goods from India were brought by various overland routes to the Mohammedan countries on the eastern and southern shores Colby's GEN. HIST. — 21 326 GENERAL HISTORY of the Mediterranean, where they Avere exchanged with the Italian merchants for the products of the West. But the Mohammedans were not always friendly, and toward the end of the fifteenth century almost the only secure route open to the Indian trade lay through Egypt. Early Portuguese Discoveries. — Surrounded on three sides by the powerful kingdom of Spain, the Portuguese saw the only chance of extending their territory in the establishment of a colonial empire beyond seas. They accordingly began to send out expeditions early in the fifteenth century. In 1410 they discovered the island of Madeira. A few years later the direction of these enterprises was undertaken by the great Don Henry, famous in history as Henry the Navigator, who devoted his whole life to the work. The pope granted him (1432) the right of conquest over all the lands that he should discover. Don Henry died in 1463, but he had seen his Portuguese sailors work their way gradually down the western coast of Africa, each expedition penetrating a little farther than the one before. Cape Verde was passed in 1445, and Sierra Leone was reached in 1462. The impulse that Don Henry had given to discovery continued for many years after his death. The equator was passed in 1471, and in 1486 Bartholomew Dias sailed around the southern point of Africa, and on his return saw the cape which is called the Cape of Good Hope. Thus while other European countries had done little or nothing toward discovery, Portugal had traversed the whole length of the west African coast, reaching a point from which the way was clear to India. The Discovery of America (1492). — The great motive that actuated the navigators of the fifteenth century was the dis- covery of an ocean route to India. That done, commerce might take that course instead of passing overland through the countries of hostile infidels bordering the Mediterranean. The Portuguese had sought this route by the east around Africa. Christopher Columbus was the first to seek it by the west. Columbus. — Columbus was a native of Gen'oa, a city famous THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 327 for maritime enterprise. He had pondered the plan of an ocean voyage to India for many years. The Italian Toscanelli, a famous astronomer, had written to him as early as 1474, point- ing out the possibility of reaching India by sailing directly westward, and Columbus finally determined on this course. He proposed his plan successively to John II. of Portugal, to the government of Genoa, and to Henry VII. of England, but in each case met with a refusal. He also approached Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and at first fared no better, for these rulers were then too busy with the war against Grana'da to pay attention to anything else. But when this city had fallen (1492), they were free to listen to him. At last Isabella was won over, she furnished him with three small vessels, the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria, and appointed him viceroy over all the lands that he should discover. He set sail on August 3, 1492, and sighted land on Octo- ber 12. It was one of the Bahama islands, and Columbus gave it the name of San Sal'vador. Soon after he discovered the islands of Cuba and Haiti, but did not in this expedition reach the mainland. In a second voyage (1493) he discovered Ja- maica and the Lesser Antilles ; in a third (1498) he reached the mainland of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco ; and in a fourth (1502) he explored the coast of Central Amer- ica. He was received with the highest honors on his return from the first voyage. After the second he was welcomed with less enthusiasm, for it was expected that he would return with the riches of the East, and he came back empty-handed. The third and fourth voyages brought only disappointment. Columbus died in 1506, neglected by the court, and with none The Santa Maria 328 GENERAL HISTORY of his hopes realized. To the end of his life he believed that he had found the eastern coast of India, never dreaming of the existence of an intermediate continent. It was this belief that led him to give the name Indies to the islands that he discovered, and Indians to the inhabitants — names which are still employed. Thus he did not have the honor of giving his name to the New World. The name America was bestowed in honor of Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius), who voyaged to the coast of South America in 1497 or 1499, find- ing what was first recognized as a New Continent. North America. — Three races lay claim to the discovery of North America at a date much earlier than the period of which we are writing. These are the Chinese, the Welsh, and the Norsemen, of whom only the last seem now to be generally regarded as having a legitimate title to the honor. At the beginning of the eleventh century Leif Ericson, a Norse sailor, reached the coast of what is now New England, and the Norse gave the name Vinland to the newly discovered land, but fur- ther than this Ave have no positive knowledge of European discovery in America before the fifteenth century. The Norse- men's visit to the New World left no permanent trace, except a vague tradition that somewhere in the western ocean there was a strange, new country — a tradition that possibly influ- enced later navigators. The first of the fifteenth century voy- agers to reach the northern continent of America was John Cabot, a Venetian sailor in the service of England, who dis- covered the coast near Newfoundland in 1497, while attempt- ing to find his way to China. Between this date and 1501, John Cabot and his son Sebastian, and the Portuguese Corte- real', explored the eastern coast from Salvador to Labrador. The First Circumnavigation of the Earth. — In 1513, Balboa, a Spaniard, having crossed the Isthmus of Panama, was the first European to catch sight of the Pacific Ocean. It was clear enough now that the continent of America once passed, a water route toward India by the west lay open to the voyager. Magellan, in 1519, undertook the daring enterprise of sailing THE PERIOD OP DISCOVERY 329 around the entire world. Setting out from Spain in that year, he sailed southward along South America, passed through the straits that bear his name (1520), and in March, 1521, reached the Philippines, on the other side of the Pacific. He was killed by the natives, but his followers continued the journey to the Moluccas, and thence by the way of the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, completing the circuit of the globe in a little more than three years. This is justly regarded as one of the greatest feats in the history of maritime enterprise. Conquest of Mexico. — In the meanwhile Spain had begun to conquer and colonize the New World. In 1519, Hernando Cortez, with some 700 followers, landed in Mexico, and sink- ing his ships to cut off all hope of retreat, marched into the interior and established himself in the capital city of Mexico. The land was under the rule of the powerful and partially civilized Aztecs, whom Cortez at first overawed, but who soon rebelled, and compelled him to retreat. Cortez was skillful and brave, but unscrupulous and cruel. He forced the natives into an alliance with him, captured Mexico, and assumed the rule of the whole country in the name of the king of Spain. In two years he had added a vast empire to the dominions of Charles v., but that prince was too much taken up with other matters to appreciate- what had been done. Cortez was treated coldly after his return to Spain, and died neglected by the court. Conquest of Peru. — Two other Spanish adventurers, Pi- zarro and Almagro, conquered Peru (1529-35). Success was easier than in Mexico, for the Incas, the Peruvian rulers, were less vigorous and warlike than the Aztecs. In fact, the Span- iards had less to fear from war with the natives than from their own quarrels over the division of the spoils, of which there was plenty. Almagro was beheaded, and Pizarro assas- sinated. Fraud and cruelty had marked their conquest, but it was none the less complete. By 1546, the Spanish power was firmly fixed in Peru and in Chile. Portuguese Colonies. — Spain looking for a western route to India had unexpectedly stumbled on a new continent, which 330 GENERAL HISTORY she soon saw offered better prospects for colonization and trade than the more distant goal she Av^as seeking. Portugal in the meanwhile was still pushing eastward on the route around the Cape of Good Hope, In 1497, eleven years after Bartholomew Dias sighted this cape, Vasco da Gama rounded it with four small ships, passed along the eastern coast of Africa, crossed the Indian Ocean, and landed at Calicut. Discovery was followed by colonization, and a succession of daring and skill- ful adventurers founded the Portuguese empire in India. Alvares Cabral, who while trying to reach India was blown across the seas to the shores of Brazil, afterwards established in Calicut the first European fort in India. Almeida was the first Portuguese viceroy, but the greatest name of all is that of Albuquer'que, who closed up the old routes of the Mohammedans and the Venetians, and gained for his country a monopoly of the Indian trade. He was the real founder of the Portuguese colonial empire in India. By the year 1550 Portugal held all the important points on the Atlantic coast from Lisbon to the Cape of Good Hope, thence along the eastern coast of Africa and the shores of the Indian Ocean to Hindustan — and from there on to the Moluccas. The Colonies. — Spain and Portugal adopted different methods in dealing with their colonists. Portugal gave the governors absolute power over the colonies, but allowed them only a short term of office. The result of this was misrule and corruption ; for each governor, knowing that he had but a short time in which to enrich himself, made use of it by plundering the natives as much as possible. Another characteristic of the Portuguese colonies was that they were merely stations or factories for trade with the natives. There was no attempt to develop the agricultural or mining resources of the country. It naturally resulted that the colonies soon declined, and Portugal, who was the first in the field of discovery and settle- ment, fell behind the other great colonizing nations. Spain, on the other hand, did not invest the governors with absolute power, but created different grades of authorities, all THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY 331 under the Council of the Indies, which was established by Fer- dinand ill 1511. Moreover, Spain did not confine her colonies to the office of mere markets for the exchange of native goods, but encouraged them to work mines. Sixain's colonies 'accord- ingly were as a rule more prosperous. Both Spain and Portugal, however, pursued a narrow policy. The colonists were forbid- den to cultivate European products on native soil. They were to trade only in what the home country needed, and their trade was monopolized by the home merchants. A few houses in Seville controlled almost the entire trade with the Spanish- American colonies. Treatment of the Natives. — Along with conquest went missionary work, but it was not an easy task to convert the natives, who naturally were little attracted to the creed of those who conquered and oppressed them. It is told of them that on learning that there were to be Spaniards in heaven they declared they did not wish to go there. The extraordinary zeal and activity of the Jesuits at length made Christianity prevail both in the Spanish and the Portuguese colonies. St. Francis Xavier alone is said to have made 3000 converts. By the middle of the sixteenth century these Jesuit missionaries had penetrated most of the new lands. They taught as well as preached, founding universities at Lima and Mexico, and establishing schools in all parts of the country. All these lands were gained for the Roman Catholic faith, but religion was disgraced by intolerance and persecution. The Inquisition was more active here than in the Old World. The Spaniards made slaves of the Indians at first. The island of Haiti, then known as Hispaniola, is said to- have decreased in population from 1,000,000 in 1492 to 14,000, about twenty years later. This is doubtless an exaggeration, but the evil was so great that the better class of Spaniards finally opposed it. The good Las Casas, a bishop in Mexico, worked steadily for many years to suppress this slave traffic. It was suppressed, but only to give place to another form still worse. What the Indians escaped the Africans were called upon to 332 GENERAL HISTORY suffer. Charles V. gave the monopoly of the African slave trade to one of his favorites, who sold it to the Genoese. Thus began that traffic in negroes which continued almost to our own time. Effects of the Discoveries. — A very early result of the dis- coveries was a complete change in the course of European commerce. Instead of being conducted chiefly by land it now took a sea route. As a consequence of this, cities formerly important from their situation on lines of trade now ceased to be so. New trading centers arose, chiefly on the coast. Not only was the course of commerce changed, but new commercial races took the place of the old. The peoples on the Atlantic usurped the position formerly held by the cities on the Medi- terranean. The Italians were supplanted by the Portuguese and the Spaniards, and later by the Dutch and the English. There was a vast increase of wealth. A great mass of gold and silver came to Europe from the mines of Peru and Mexico. Money became more plentiful, making it easier for men to carry on trade. A period of great commercial activity now began. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Period of Discovert. — Mediaeval Knowledge of Geography : Early Voyages, Effect of the Crusades. Trade with the East. — Early Portuguese Discoveries : Discovery of Madeira. Henry the Navigator. African Discoveries. — The Discovery of America. — Columbus: His Four Voyages. — North America: Early Discover- ies. The Norsemen. John and Sebastian Cabot. — The First Cir- cumnavigation of the Earth : Magellan. — Conquest of Mexico : Cor- tez. — Conquest of Peru : Pizarro. — Portuguese Colonies : India. Brazil. Extent of Portuguese Settlements in 1550. — The Colonies : Contrast between Spain's and Portugal's Policy toward their Colo- nists. — Treatment of the Natives: Missionary Work. Slavery. — Effects of the Discoveries. CHAPTER XLIII THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES I. England England in the Fifteenth Century. — After the death of Henry v., whose reign had been marked by good government at home and by such success in France that the French king was reduced to the position of a petty prince in his own domin- ions, Henry VI., a child only nine months old, succeeded to the throne in 1422. War of the Roses. — His reign was the very reverse of his predecessor's. France, under the leadership of Joan of Arc, freed herself from the English rule. Jack Cade led a revolt of the peasants, which, though soon put down, caused much bloodshed and loss of property. Worse than this, the country was torn by civil war ; for the weakness of the king incited the attacks of the nobles, who found a good occasion in the claims of Richard, duke of York, to the throne. His claim rested on the ground that he was the descendant of Lionel, the third son of Edward III., while Henry VI. descended from John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward. In the first battle of St. Albans (1455) the Duke of York was victorious, and, the king being seized with a fit of insanity, York became Protector. He did not long retain his power, however; for Queen Margaret refused to submit, and won the battle of Wakefield (1460), in which York Avas killed. The latter's claim descended to his son Edward, who won the battle of Mortimer's Cross, and though the Yorkists were afterwards defeated at St. Albans, he routed the Queen's forces at Tow- ton, and was crowned king. Tn these changes of fortune the Earl of Warwick, called the 'king maker,' had played an important part. He was by far the most powerful of the barons, having, it is said, over 30,000 retainers. It was through his aid that Edward came 333 334 GENERAL HISTORY to the throne; and, thinking that he woukl succeed as well in pulling down as in setting up a king, Warwick, who was dissatisfied with Edward's government, rose against him in 1470. At first he was successful. Edward IV. was driven out, and Henry VI. restored. But Edward returned in tlie following spring, defeated and killed Warwick at Barnet, won another battle at Tewkesbury, and threw Henry VI. into the Tower, where he was soon afterwards murdered. TiiK TowKR UK London Such was the War of the Roses, so called from the badges worn by the opposing parties, — that of the Lancastrians, or King Henry's party, being a red rose, and that of the Vorkists a white one. Effect of the War. — Strange to say, this civil war did com- paratively little damage to the general population. Trade and industry went on as usual. The chief sufferers were the nobles and their retainers. The result was that, while the peasantry and the artisan class were left to prosper in peace, the nobles were greatly diminished in numbers, and broken in fortune. Thus there was a chance for a strong ruler to govern in a more despotic way than ever before, for hitherto the main THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 335 restraint upon the king's power had been exerted by his great vassals. So it happened that the foundation of an absolute monarchy in England was laid in the years immediately fol- lowing the War of the Eoses. Edward IV. (1461-1483). —Edward IV. found little op- position from his Parliament, and ruled as an absolute king. His reign almost exactly coincides with that of Louis XL, who in the same way was laying the foundation of an absolute monarchy in Erance. Edward was not a wise or far-seeing ruler. He was self-indulgent and a spendthrift. His project for seizing part of the Erench king's territory, through an alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, was a failure, and in his home government he did nothing to gain for himself the favor of his subjects. He died in 1483, leaving the throne to his son Edward V., a boy of twelve years ; but the young king soon fell into the hands of his uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, who put him with his brother into the Tower, and became Protector. The murder of the young princes in the Tower — a crime of which Richard was suspected, and which has since been fastened upon him — removed all obstacles to his becoming king. In 1483 he was crowned as Richard III. Richard III. (1483-1485). — This king is described as a monster of cruelty, as hideous in appearance as he was base in character; but these accounts are probably the exaggera- tions of his enemies. He was a man of marked ability, and, for the day, of unusual cultivation. Before he came to the throne he had shown himself a patron of learning. But the unscrupulous means he used to. make himself king raised up many enemies, who stood in the way of his establishment of a strong government. The Duke of Richmond saw a chance in the unpopularity of the reigning king for the success of his own claims to the throne. He, too, was a descendant of John of Gaunt through the female line, which had married into the family of Tudor. He landed in England in 1485, and in the same year defeated and killed Richard III. in the battle of Bos worth. 336 GENERAL HISTORY Henry VII. (1485-1509). — Henry Tudor, who ascended the throne under the title of Henry VII., was of the house of Lancas- ter, but his marriage with Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter of Edward IV., united the two rival families and closed the long period of dynastic strife. The date of his accession is taken as the beginning of the modern period of English history. It also marks the beginning of the period of the absolute monarchy. Parliament met but once in the last thirteen years of Henry's reign, and the Tudor monarchs generally found little restraint on their power. Henry's method of building up the power of the throne was by the accumulation of wealth through fines, forced loans, and other unjust means, until he was able to rule inde- pendently of Parliament and to bequeath to his successor a greater treasure than any English king had before possessed. He seems to have been completely ruled by the passion of avarice. With him ambition took this form, and he cared little for national aggrandizement unless it could be made the means of get- ting money for himself. When insulted or aggrieved, he con- tinued to make a profit from his wrongs by exacting a money pay- ment. When Charles VIII. of France wished to annex Brittany to France, Henry allowed him to do so in return for a substantial indemnity, bat not before he had made Parliament vote him sup- plies on the pretense of war. Thus he made his enemies pay for peace and his friends for war. At home, Empson, Dudley, and Morton, the notorious instru- ments of the king's greed, devised all manner of schemes for enrichino- their master. Obsolete laws with excessive Crossbowman (Fifteenth Century) THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 337 penalties were revived and enforced against those who had the means to pay the enormous fines. If a man lived on an expensive scale, he was taxed heavily on account of his evident wealth. If he lived meanly, he was taxed heavily on the ground that he was hoarding his treasure. The nobles, whose numbers had been greatly reduced by the War of the Roses, were re- pressed by various means, such as the law forbidding them to keep armed retainers, and the king's will was enforced by the arbitrary rulings of the court of Star Chamber, which became a most effective instrument of tyranny. By such unscrupulous but well-devised means the king made his will absolute. In many respects, however, he was a wise and discerning ruler, a thorough master of kingcraft, and his many vices left the kingdom at peace. The nobles, not the people, were the chief sufferers from his tyranny. II. France Charles VII. — The successful issue of the Hundred Years' War was not due to the king, but to the heroism of Joan of Arc, the military genius of Dunois, and above all to the people of France, who, feeling conscious of their nationality, had risen with one accord to drive out the foreigner. Charles was indo- lent and suspicious, and showed no ability as a ruler. The old nobility had almost disappeared at the close of the war, but the authority of the king was endangered by the rising power of several great houses related to the royal family. Of these the Burgundian dukes were the most important. The duchy of Burgundy on the east, whose ambitious rulers were constantly trying to extend its boundaries, threatened to be- come a rival of France as a European power. Louis XI. (1461-1483). — On the death of Charles VII. in 1461, the task of unifying France and making royalty supreme fell to the lot of one of the ablest but most unprincipled kings that ever occupied the throne. Louis XI. was a cunning, far- sighted statesman, ready for any means, however foul, that 338 GENERAL HISTORY would serve his purpose of exalting the royal power. He pre- ferred to outwit his enemies rather than to tight them, but when fighting had to be done, he showed no lack of bravery or capacity. He held no promise binding, and gained his ends, wherever possible, by stealth, treachery, and deceit. On the other hand, many of his foes showed the same quali- ties, coupled Avith less ability, and the ends for which they were working were far worse for France, which, if they had had their way, would have remained weak and disunited. Louis XL and the Nobles. — His efforts to subdue the great lords led to the combination against him known as the League of the Common Weal. Louis was at first unsuccessful, but when peace returned he stirred up strife among his enemies, and by buying off one, while he plundered another, added greatly to the royal de- i-jamrsMMt.' >.r^ ^"^^^snes. I^^Wli.lpf Charles the Bold of Burgundy. — This \ ^T^ »^lh ^iiihitious but hot-headed prince soon ^ ! •'! came into conflict with Louis, at whose expense he was trying to extend the boun- daries of his duchy. At one time it seemed as if Louis' cause were lost ; for, falling into the power of Charles, he was kept a prisoner until he had agreed to everything that the latter wished. But he afterwards repudiated the treaty, and finally forced the duke to accept more favorable terms. Charles now tried to extend his frontier eastward, with the design of building up a great European state with its capital at Nancy, but in this he had to reckon with the valor and independent spirit of the Swiss. In the battles of Granson (1476) and Morat (1477) the duke's forces were repulsed, and in another battle near Nancy, he was defeated and killed. By his death the most serious danger to the power of the French monarchy was removed. /'J m A French JSToble of the Fifteenth Century THE RISE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHIES 339 Louis' Successes. — After the death of Charles the Bold a large part of his dominions were seized by Louis and incor- porated with France. Louis also gained Roussillon, Anjou, Maine, and Provence, and the territory of France was rounded out to the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. Besides adding to his territories he strengthened his kingdom by centralizing the administration and improving the internal government. Despite the vices of his character, he did a good work for France, giving her a more stable and a better government. Feudalism was overthrown, and the period of the absolute monarchy began. III. Spain Spain under the Moors. — Throughout the Middle Ages the Moors, who, as we have seen, destroyed the Visigothic king- dom in 711 A.D., were the dominant power in Spain. The Cliristians, however, retained a part of north- ern Spain, and in that region arose several little kingdoms, which kept up a steady resistance against the Moors, and finally be- gan to make head against them. Of these little Christian states the chief were Castile, Leon, Ara- gon, and Navarre. Castile and Aragon were the most powerful of the four states, and they constantly extended their boundaries at the expense of their neighbors and of the Moors. As the latter declined, the Chris- tian states gained in power, but all the defects of feudalism F i B i eP bi fl 1 Interior of thk Alcazai; 340 GENERAL HISTORY existed in their constitution. During tlie Middle Ages Spain was not only under a divided rule, but each of the Christian kingdoms was weakened by the lack of a central authority, the kingly name being held in small respect. Ferdinand and Isabella. — The beginning of the modern king- dom of Spain dates from the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile and Leon in 1469; but they ruled their respective kingdoms independently, and the formal union of the two states was not effected till later. It was the object of both sovereigns to reduce the power of the nobles and render themselves absolute. In carrying out this purpose Ferdinand was especially skillful. He allied himself with the cities and strengthened the Holy Brotherhood, a military force main- tained by them, thus gaining a powerful weapon to be used against the nobles. The latter were stripped of many of tlieir privileges. Allying himself with the Holy See he used all the power of church and state to maintain the royal authority. In his reign the Inquisition was introduced in Spain. It was an extraordinary tribunal, established for the purpose of crush- ing out heresy. and infidelity, and was employed against the Jews and the Mohammedans with deadly effect. Thousands of unbelievers were put to death. But the Inquisition served another purpose as well. It was used by Ferdinand to bring both the clergy and nobles into complete submission to his will. The most famous event in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was the discovery of America, described in another chapter. In the same year that Columbus started on his first voyage (1492), Granada, the last stronghold of the Moors in the peninsula, was captured by the Spanish sovereigns, and from that time a cruel persecution of the conquered race continued, until no Mohammedans were left in Spain. Ferdinand died in 1516, having fully accomplished his purpose of building up an absolute monarchy in Spain. In the period that followed Spain was the leading nation in Europe. THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 341 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Rise of Absolute Moxarciiies. — England in the Fifteenth Cen- tury. — War of the Rost'S : lieign of Henry VI. Peasants' Revolt under Jack Cade. Civil War. Edward's Victories. The Earl of Warwick. — Effects of the War. — Edward IV. (1461-1483): His Absolute Power. The Murder of Edward V, and his Brother. — Richard HI. (1483-1485) : His Defeat by Henry Tudor on Bosworth Field. — Henry VH. (1485-1509) : His Character and Policy. Means of Raising Money. The Absolute Monarchy. — Charles VII. — Louis XI. (1461-1483) : His Character. —Louis XI. and the Nobles. Charles the Bold of Burgundy: His Defeat and Death. — Louis' Successes. — Spain under the Moors. — Ferdinand and Isabella : Their Policy. The Absolute Monarchy. Capture of Granada. CHAPTER XLIV THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. (1519-1556) The Dominions of Charles V. — Charles V. ruled over wider dominions than any European sovereign since Charlemagne. He belonged to the famous house of Hapsburg, from which he inherited Austria. It is said of Austria that, while other na- tions extended their power by conquest, it was her good fortune to gain territory by politic marriages. This is well illustrated by the inheritances of Charles V. On his father's side his grandmother was the heiress of Burgundy and the Nether- lands, and his grandfather was the emperor Maximilian ; the mother of Charles V. was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isa- bella of Spain. Besides Austria, Charles possessed Spain, the kingdom of Naples, the Netherlands, and their dependencies, together with the vast regions newly discovered in America. All these lands he held by right of inheritance. To these Germany was added by his election to the imperial throne. The Imperial Crown of Germany. — This honor of wearing the crow^n of Charlemagne was coveted by other sovereigns. Colby's gen. hist. — 22 342 GENERAL HISTORY Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France were rival candidates ; and the choice of Charles never ceased to be a cause of envy and hatred to the latter of these kings. It was one cause of the long and disastrous wars between Francis and Charles. Nor did it add as much to the emperor's power as might be supposed, for the German princes were a jealous and unruly set of vassals; and, worse than that, Germany was soon to be conviilsed by religious strife ; for in the same year that Charles V. was crowned emperor, Martin Luther pub- licly burned a papal bull at AVittenberg, and defied the Eoman Catholic Church. First War with Francis I. (1521-1525). — Francis had other reasons for wishing to humble the emperor than disappoint- ment over his failure to obtain the imperial crown. In the first place, he had a good political reason, for he feared that Charles aimed to become a second Charlemagne, and extend his power over all Europe. In the second place, the French king wished to retain Milan, which the emperor claimed ; and at the same time the latter also claimed Burgundy, which had been seized by Louis XL, and was still kept by Francis. Francis was unfortunate from the first. He offended Henry VIII. , who accordingly joined the emperor against him. His agents in Italy governed so badly that the Italians also turned against him. Milan was lost to France. Finally, the strongest of his vassals, the constable of Bourbon, betrayed him and went over to Charles. Invasion of Italy. — Francis, thinking that if he commanded in person all might be regained, invaded Italy, recaptured Milan, and laid siege to the city of Pavia. Before reaching the walls of that city, he detached a considerable force from his army to march against Naples. With his reduced num- bers, he was no match for the Spaniards, who made a rush from the town, scattered his troops, and took him prisoner, after he had killed seven of his enemies with his own hand. The battle of Pavia (1525) decided the war. Francis wrote back to his mother, it is said, that all was lost save honor. THE EMPEKOR CHARLES V. 343 Treaty of Madrid. — He lost that, too, a little later ; for, hav- ing signed a treaty granting advantageous terms to Charles, he broke it as soon as he regained his liberty. This was the Treaty of Madrid, by which Francis gave up his claim to Bur- gundy and Xaples, and made other important concessions to Charles. He signed it when the latter's prisoner, — a fact which in part excuses his refusal to abide by it. Second War with Francis (1526-1529). — Francis had no in- tention of observing the Treaty of Madrid. The deputies of DOUBLE-BAURELED ' DRAGONNEAU ' (Cast in 1503 in Madrid) Burgundy, moreover, reminded him on his return to France that he had sworn to protect that province, and, therefore, that he had no right to give it np to Charles. Sack of Rome. — Italy found her new rulers harsher even than the French, and accordingly prepared to fight on the side of Francis, who was also aided by the pope, Henry YIIL, and the Swiss; so the advantage seemed at first to be with him. Early in the war, the traitor Bourbon allied himself with the Lutherans, and captured Kome. He was killed in the assault ; but his troops pillaged the city, showing all the 344 GENERAL HISTORY cruelty and ruthlessness that had marked the sack of Kome by the Vandals and the Goths, A powerful French army then invaded Italy, but accomplished nothing permanent. Genoa went over to the side of the emperor, who came to Italy in person, and reasserted his authority in the peninsula. Treaty of Cambrai. — The war was closed by the Treaty of Cambrai, by which France retained Burgundy, but gave up all claims to Italian lands. Thenceforth a great part of Italy remained under the power of the house of Austria (except for the period of Napoleon's supremacy) till 1859, when the war of Italian independence resulted in the expulsion of the for- eigners. Alliance with the Turks. — At the close of his second war with Charles, Francis began to seek new allies, in the hope of regaining what he had lost by the Treaty of Cambrai. From Henry VIII. he could obtain no aid; for that prince pre- ferred to play the part of a neutral, and desired the complete success of neither of the two rivals. So Francis was driven, as a last resort, to an alliance with the celebrated Soliman L, Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, thus horrifying all Europe by joining with the infidels. Soliman the Magnificent. — Soliman I. was the greatest ruler of the Turks since the days of Mohammed II,, who had planted the crescent in Europe by the capture of Constantinople, in 1453, His reign has been called the Golden Age of the Turk- ish race, for up to his time they were merely barbarians, with whom the Christians had nothing to do. Under Soliman they took a place among European peoples. For many years before Francis concluded his treaty with Soliman (1534), the latter had kept eastern Europe in constant terror from his attacks. In 1522, at the head of 150,000 men, he had taken Ehodes, and four years later he had won the great victory of Mohacs in Hungary. All Hungary was in his power, and he was marching on Vienna, the Austrian capital, at the very moment when the Treaty of Cambrai was being signed. It was Charles' dread THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 345 of this new enemy that saved Francis from a still greater humiliation than that which he suffered in the terms of this treaty. It Avas this same fear that influenced the emperor to forgive the Protestants and consent to the religious peace of Nuremberg, in wiiich the Lutherans and Catholics forgot their differences for the moment, in order to repel the common foe of Christianity. Charles V. and the Turks. — With all Germany united against him, Soliman dared not continue his invasion, and re- turned to Constantinople immediately. Charles then turned his attention to the sultan's piratical subjects, whose head- quarters were at Tunis. These marauders had long been the pest of the Mediterranean. The coasts of Italy and Spain were never for a minute safe from their at- tacks, which always resulted in plunder and murder, and gener- ally in the capture of Christian prisoners, who were taken to the Barbary coast to be held as slaves by the Moslems. In 1535 Charles sent an expedition against Tunis. His success was complete, and he is said to have set free 20,000 Christian captives. Alliance with the Lutherans. — Francis not only allied him- self with the Turks, but committed another crime in the eyes of orthodox Europe by aiding the Lutherans in Germany. Thus while Charles V. could pose as the defender of the cross, Francis appeared as the friend of heretics and infidels. He tried to justify himself by saying that- "when the wolves rushed upon his flock, it was surely his right to set the dogs upon them." Third War between Francis and Charles (i536-i538)» — War broke out in 1536. Francis at the first blow gained Savoy and Charles V. 346 GENERAL HISTORY Piedmont, and was thus master of the approach to Italy ; but he let himself be duped by the false promises of Charles, and by entering upon negotiations allowed his enemy to gain time. Charles unexpectedly attacked Piedmont, captured its strong- holds, and appeared in southern France at the head of 60,000 men. It seemed for the moment as if all France would be conquered in one campaign ; but by the French king's orders the country through which the Spaniards passed was made a desert. The imperialists suffered from want and from the constant attacks of the peasantry, and were at last forced to withdraw. In the next campaign France had somewhat better success ; but the war closed with the truce of Nice (1538), with- out a decisive gain for either party. Each prince kept what he had conquered. Revolt of Ghent. — For a short time after the war, Francis and Charles were on very amicable terms. The great city of Ghent in the Netherlands had revolted against its Spanish rulers, and offered to acknowledge Francis as its sovereign. Charles thought it politic to make friends with the French king in this emergency ; so he held out hopes that Milan would be given to Francis, who coveted Italian territory more than anything else. Francis not only refused to listen to the citizens of Ghent, but granted the emperor the privilege of passing through France for the express purpose of punishing the rebellious city. Charles soon had Ghent at his mercy. He made its proud burghers bow before him with halters around their necks, and fastened his tyrannical rule on the city more firmly than ever. This object gained, he had no scruples about refusing Milan to Francis. Fourth War between Francis and Charles (1542-1544). — The fourth war between these two quarrelsome monarchs was marked by one brilliant victory for the French, but was inde- cisive in its results. At Cerisoles the young Duke d'Enghien, who was under orders not to risk a battle, was keeping watch of the Spaniards. Tired of acting on the defensive, he begged the king to let him fight. The king finally consented, and the THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. Ml young commander won the most brilliant victory which France had gained for many years. The Spaniards are said to have lost 12,000 men; the French, only 200. But Francis did not follow up this advantage. In another quarter, France was attacked by Henry VIII. ; in still another by the emperor himself. Charles, however, was in danger from the Protestants at home. This fact, and the failure of the English to cooperate with him, made him willing to come to terms ; and the war ended with the Treaty of Crespy (1544), which left matters about as they were at the outbreak of the first war. Charles V. and the Protestants. — Three years after the Treaty of Crespy, Francis I. died, and Charles, free from the rivalry of the French king, was able to give his attention to the Protestants. In 1547 he began the first of his wars with the Smalkaldic League. The general results of these wars will be given in the succeeding chapter ; but it is necessary here to speak more particularly of their causes and their chief events. The Council of Trent met in 1545 to decide upon the merits of the Protestant movement ; but the Protestants of Germany refused to recognize its authority, because it was held in a foreign country and x^resided over by the pope. Luther, who had often worked in the interest of peace, died in 1546, and there was nothing to prevent the x^assions of the two parties from finding an outlet in war. The leaders of the league were Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, and John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, — men of totally op- posite characters. Philip was inclined to aggressive measures ; while John Frederick, though sincere and upright, trusted too much to an overruling Providence which should defend the right. He lacked energy in his own defense. So the league was weakened by dissension among its leaders. Duke Maurice of Saxony deserted to the emperor ; for, though a Protestant, he is said to have coveted the estates of John Frederick, and to have received from the emperor the promise of the electorate as the price of his services. The general of the league, though an able man, was ham- 348 GENERAL HISTORY pered in every way by conflicting orders. After some slight success, he was recalled ; and Charles, who had found time to reinforce his army with troops from Italy and from the Nether- lands, reduced the cities of the league, and Anally defeated and captured the elector in the battle of Mlihlberg (1547). This success seems to have turned the emperor's head. He treated the captive John Frederick so harshly that he provoked a reaction. He also banished many Protestants, and caused much discontent by keeping his Spanish troops in Germany. Moreover, he offended his ally, Maurice of Saxony, who found himself ill rewarded for his treason. The Last Years of Charles V.'s Reign. — For a short time after the first war with the Protestant princes, Charles seemed to be at the height of his power ; but the French king, Henry II., saw a danger to France in the growing strength of the emperor. Maurice of Saxony and other Protestant princes secretly allied themselves with Henry. The second Smalkaldic war followed, and resulted almost instantly in the humiliation of Charles, who barely escaped capture by fleeing through the mountains to Switzerland. He soon afterwards attacked France, but with slight success. In 1555 he was obliged to agree to the re- ligious peace of Augsburg, recognizing under certain limita- tions the rights of Protestantism. Thus every one of his plans had failed of fulfillment. He had not crushed France, or made himself absolute in Germany, or uprooted Protestantism. Thor- oughly discouraged, he abdicated his throne in 1556, and retired to the monastery of San Yuste. There he is said to have passed his time in making clocks and mechanical toys, and, as his death grew near, to have indulged in the gloomy pastime of rehearsing his own funeral. He died iu 1558. Character of Charles V. — At the outset of his reign no prince ever had better prospects. With the resources of half of Europe at his command, it seemed inevitable that he would make him- self the ruler of the Western world. His failure was due in part to defects of character. He did not lack ability either in mili- tary matters or in the direction of state policy ; but he was ut- THE EMPEROR CHARLES V. 349 terly unable to understand the real nature of the time in which he lived. He underestimated the strength of the Protestant movement. He himself was a bigot, and he believed that the exertion of a little force would bind men's consciences to the old faith. In his political schemes he was thoroughly selfish. He had no regard for the spirit of nationality, and seized what lands he could, without consideration for the wishes of the inhabitants. It was too late for a universal monarchy, and any attempt to unite all Europe under the ,rule of one man was doomed to failure. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Emperor Charles V. (1519-1556). — Dominions of Charles V. : His Inheritance. — The Imperial Crown of Germany. Rival Claim- ants. — First War with Francis I. : Causes of the War. Reverses of Francis. — Invasion of Italy : Defeat of Francis at Pavia. — Treaty of Madrid. — Second War with Francis. — Sack of Rome. — Treaty of Cambrai. — Alliance with the Turks. — Soliman the Magnificent : Alliance of the French and the Turks, Successes of Soliman in Eastern Europe. — Charles V. and the Turks : The Expedition against Tunis. — Alliance with the Lutherans. — Third War between Francis and Charles : Invasion of France by the Spaniards. Truce of Nice. — Revolt of Ghent: Its Suppression by Charles. — Fourth War between Francis and Charles : Battle of Cerisoles. Treaty of Crespy. — Charles V. and the Protestants : The Smalkaldic League. The Leaders. Desertion of Maurice of Saxony. Charles' Victory at Miihlberg. — The Last Years of Charles V.'s Reign: His Reverses in the War with the Protestants. His Abdication and Death, — Character of Charles V, : His Blunders. CHAPTER XLV THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION Summary of Periods. — It has already been said that the early part of modern history, that is, from the year 1492 to the year 1648, was a period of religious revolt., Before the sixteenth century had advanced many years, the movement known as the Reformation arose in Germany, and from that time down to the middle of the seventeenth century the main interest of European peoples was in religious questions. We may therefore term this entire period the period of the Prot- estant revolution, or the Period of the Reformation. First came the origin of the new movement and its struggle against great odds; then came many years of warfare involving the great powers of Europe. In 1648, by the Treaty of West- phalia, all the nations of Europe reached a compromise in these religious disputes, and the succeeding period takes on a new character. The years following 1648 were marked less by religious quarrels than by political rivalries. European states fell to disputing about territories and political claims, and within the states themselves the different social classes were carry- ing on a struggle over political privileges. We can therefore conveniently term this later period of modern history, — from the middle of the seventeenth century to the present time, — the Period of the Growth of Nations. Character of the Reformation. — The Reformation was a revolt against the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Men felt that the exercise of that power was an interference with their national and local rights. Along with hostility to the outward power of the Roman Church there grew up a feeling of distrust in the spiritual teachings of the Church in many important points. The reformers, therefore, aimed not only to rid them- selves of government from Rome, but to establish a faith 350 THE PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION 851 which should be purer and more orthodox than that which was then accepted. Causes of the Reformation. — The revival of learning in Eu- rope set men to thinking along many unaccustomed lines. It had opened new sources of information, as well as stimulated in- quiry. In many departments of human thought men had dis- carded authorities and revised their own opinions. They came to trust in their private judgment, and to investigate for them- selves many matters which had hitherto been unquestioningly accepted. It was natural that they should apply the same methods to religious matters and come to opinions at variance with those hitherto held and still maintained by conservative minds. The Church at this time was thought by many to be cor- rupt in its administration of affairs. There were loud com- plaints against extortions by church officers, and other abuses. There had been such complaints before, but anything like a revolt against the authority of the Church had been quickly put down, and in many instances abuses had been removed by reformation within the Church itself. The new movement, however, was destined to become too powerful to be put down, and its leaders soon passed beyond the point at which they were willing to reform the Church from within. Finding that the Church would not respond as quickly and as fully to their demands as they wished, they left the Church and attacked it from without. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Period of the Reformation. — Summary of Periods: Period of the Reformation. Period of the Growth of Nations. — Character of the Reformation. — Causes of the Reformation : The Revival of Learn- ini?. Abuses in Church Government. CHAPTER XLVI THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY Immediate Causes of the Movement. — When the Reformation first appeared in Germany, there had long been discontent with the administration of Church affairs. The immediate occa- sion of the movement was the sale of indulgences by a Domini- can monk named Tetzel. In the early Church indulgences were remissions of penances imposed on people who were guilty of mortal sins. It was always under- stood that a man must first have shown true penitence, but this being so, the Church exercised the power of remitting the temporal punish- ment for his sins. The custom arose of accepting the payment of money instead of subjecting the penitent to some other form of penance. Tetzel and his agents are said to have dispensed these indulgences in Germany in such a manner as to cause scandal among the better classes. The conduct of Tetzel and his associates gave great offense to the friends, as well as the foes, of the Church, and the general discon- tent soon found a vigorous spokes- man in an Augustinian monk named Martin Luther. Martin Luther. — Martin Luther was born at Eis'leben in 1483. He was the son of a poor miner, had entered the Augustinian order, and had become professor of theology at Wittenberg. In the course of his studies he had come to question the practice of the Church in regard to the whole system of penance. Up to this time, however, he had made no open 352 THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 353 protest, but Tetzel's course in Germany impelled him to public opposition. In 1517 he nailed to the church door at Witten- berg ninety-tive theses or propositions, appealing to men's consciences against the practice of " selling forgiveness." The widespread discontent in Germany gave to these theses an instant publicity. They were printed and scattered broad- cast throughout the country. In them Luther showed no in- tention to break with the authority of the Eoman Catholic Church. They were merely propositions for dispute, and he nailed them on the church door as a challenge to any dispu- tant who might be willing to argue against them. Disputants soon appeared, and the first thing they did was to appeal to the authority of the Church. This led Luther, at first, to ques- tion and finally to deny the authority of the Church, as resting not on a divine but on a human basis. He said that the Church was not the source of divine truth, and that the Bible was the sole source. The Reformation now entered on its first phase. Luther and the Pope. — Pope Leo X. tried at first to bring Luther to terms by peaceful measures. He sent his legate, an Italian scholar named Caj'etan, to demand his obedience, but failed to win him over. Luther had a firm friend in Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, who, though he often opposed Luther's imprudence, did not fail to protect him in the hour of need. Another friend of Luther's, and a very keen and learned ally in his religious warfare, was Philip Melanch'thon, who was a professor of Greek at Wittenberg. After the failure of a second attempt to make Luther retract, a public disputation was held at Leipzig. Here the Cath- olic champion was Dr. Eck, a very able and keen-witted de- fender of the papacy. Luther found himself forced to take a more decided stand in regard to the primacy of the Koman bishop. In the course of the debate he came out openly as a disbeliever in the divine authority of the pope, and he declared that some of the views of John Huss, who had been burned at the stake as a heretic, were orthodox. Luther soon issued an appeal to the nobles of Germany against the Roman clergy and 354 GENERAL HISTORY against the interference of the Church in temporal affairs. In 1520 the pope issued a bull condemning Luther's writings and ordering him to recant in sixty days on pain of excom- munication. Luther's only answer to this was the xmblic burning of the bull in the presence of a throng of students at the gates of Wittenberg. By this act he virtually declared open war on the Church. The Diet of Worms (1521). — Charles V. had now come to the imperial throne, attaining thereby the position of the most powerful sovereign in Europe. The first great step that he had to take was to decide between the pope and Luther. Accordingly, on his arrival in Germany in 1521, he met the imperial diet at Worms and summoned there Luther under a safe-conduct. Luther was called upon to recant, but refused to do so unless he could be shown that his opinions were con- trary to the teachings of the Bible. His attitude was coura- geous and his refusal to retract caused great indignation on the part of the emperor and the friends of the Church ; but he Avas allowed to return in safety. Luther at the Wartburg. — After he had left the diet, an edict of outlawry was passed against him. This classed him as a heretic, thereby forbidding anybody to shelter him. On Luther's journey home the Elector of Saxony, fearing for his safety, had him conveyed to the castle of Wartburg near Munich. While there Luther busied himself with the trans- lation of the Bible into German, giving to his version a vigor and pithiness of style which has made it a classic of German literature. W'ars. — Luther left the castle of Wartburg to quiet a dis- turbance in Wittenberg, where a friend of Luther named Carl- stadt was trying to give to the reform movement a radical and violent character. He and his followers aimed at sweep- ing away the entire ecclesiastical system. Luther's persua- sions were effective and the movement was checked, but other radical and zealous leaders had been busy in stirring up the peasantry, and in 1524 the great Peasants' Revolt broke out. THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 355 The rebellion failed completely and its authors were punished with great cruelty. Luther, though sympathizing with the wrongs of the peasants, was wholly opposed to the revolt and took the side of the authorities. This was not the only war in the ten years that followed the Diet of Worms. The first and second wars between Francis and Charles V. took place during this interval. This fact is important as showing why the emperor was not free to give his full attention to the crushing out of the reform movement in Germany. Progress of the Reformation. — During this time the reformers made considerable progress. Under Adrian VI., who succeeded Pope Leo X., there seemed for a moment the chance of a recon- ciliation, for he was disposed to pay some regard to the com- plaints against ecclesiastical abuses in Germany. Clement VII., however, who came to the papal throne in 1523, was less inclined to yield to these demands. 356 GENERAL HISTORY Protestants. — The lack of a strong central rule in Germany- was most favorable to the new cause. Had the emperor been able to carry everything as he wished, there is no doubt that he would have destroyed the reform party in its infancy, but the princes of Germany were jealous of him and of each other, and some of them were friends of Luther more from policy than from religious conviction. These powerful friends of his were so numerous that for several years a majority could not be found against him in the imperial diets. At the second Diet of Spires, however, in 1529, an edict was passed which forbade the progress of the reform in all the states that had not yet accepted it. To the reformers this seemed most unjust ; for the old faith was free to go anywhere. Accordingly the Elector of Saxony and several other German princes, as well as fourteen of the cities, signed a protest, and from this fact the reformers were called Protestants. At another diet which was called at Augsburg in the following year the Protestant confession of faith was read. This is known as the Augsburg Confession, and contained all the essential doctrines of Protestantism. Luther and the Swiss Reformers. — At the very time when it seemed most necessary that Protestants should be everywhere united against their common foes, there occurred a serious breach between two important branches of the Protestant Church. The new movement had already made considerable progress in Switzerland, but it there took on a somewhat different character from that which it bore in Germany. The leader of the Swiss Eeformation, Zwingli, took a different view from Luther on the subject of the Lord's Supper and some other points in doctrine, but he himself was not intolerant, and it seemed probable that the two bodies might be united. For this purpose a meeting was arranged at Marburg in 1529. There efforts were made by the friends of peace in both parties to reach a compromise. Luther, however, refused to recognize the Swiss reformers as in the same communion, and, though they signed a number of articles on which they could agree THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 357 and promised to be mutually forbearing, there was still much bitterness of feeling between the more extreme members of each party, and union was for the time impossible. To the Peace of Nuremberg. — Matters looked so threatening for the Protestants that they formed a league known as the League of Smalkald for mutual defense. This was opposed by Luther because it looked toward war, and he did not believe in pushing his cause by force of arms, holding steadily to the doctrine of passive obedience, that is, the submission of the subject to the civil ruler. The danger to the Protestants was averted for the time by another war which the emperor found on his hands. This was the war against the Turks. It was essential to Charles V. to have a united Germany to drive back the invading Turks, and, to secure this, some concessions were made to the Protestants in the Religious Peace of Nurem- berg, 1532. By this peace matters were to be left as they were, and the Protestants were to retain such privileges as they had until a general council could be called to decide on the ques- tion of reform. To Luther's Death. — During the next ten years Protestant- ism made rapid progress. Charles was involved in a war with France in 1536. In 1538 the Catholics formed the Holy League at Nuremberg, so the two parties were arrayed against each other ; but Luther's influence was constantly exercised on the side of peace, and peace was maintained down to the year of his death in 1546. Though he strove for peace, he would not hear of a compromise on religious matters. A few years before his death the papal legate had shown a willingness to grant several important points to the Protestants ; but Luther refusing to abandon anything in return, the compromise was not brought about. The Character of Luther. — Even now after 350 years have passed it is hard to form an impartial opinion of Luther's character. His friends are so devoted and his enemies so bitter that the facts of his life are colored by fancy or distorted by prejudice. That he was a sincere and earnest Colby's gkn. hist. — 23 358 GENERAL HISTORY man can not be doubted. He was a singularly bold and vigorous champion of a new cause. In pressing his points, however, he often used means that were not judicious. His language was often violent and his attitude, both to his enemies and to some of his would-be friends, was not conciliat- ing. There was an excuse for this in the intensity of his con- victions and in the fierceness of the disputes in which he found himself involved. He has been blamed for the language of his controversial writings. It has been said of him that " he bellowed in bad Latin " ; that his language was unnecessarily abusive. Still we must remember that the language used by others toward him was not of a kind always to call for a gentle retort. Henry VIII. called him " the hound who brought up heresies anew out of hell." Luther retorted in an equally abusive strain, and when he afterwards apologized for writing in that style, Henry treated his apology as if it were an ac- knowledgment of defeat. If there is some excuse for the violence of Luther's lan- guage, there is still more for his intolerance. Intolerance was the spirit of the age. To believe oneself right in religious matters then meant that the other party was of necessity wrong and must be made to abandon his error. Uniformity in religious belief was regarded as necessary, and neither Protestants nor Catholics would tolerate heresy if they could help it. The Religious Peace of Augsburg. — An account of the first and second Smalkaldic wars has already been given. We have seen that the emperor was successful in the first, but that he made such bad use of his victory as to provoke the Protestants to a second revolt ; and, in the attempt to suppress this, he failed completely. The treaty closing the second Smalkaldic war is known as the Eeligious Peace of Augsburg (1555). This gave to the princes of Germany right of choice between the Protestant faith as embodied in the Augsburg Confession, and the Catholic religion. Having once chosen between these two faiths, the prince could expel from his THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY 359 country any person who professed a different creed. Thus the religion of the prince was to be the religion of the land over which he reigned. An important clause in the treaty was that known as the Ecclesiastical Reservation. This provided that if an ecclesias- tical prince, that is, a bishop or abbot, should turn Protestant, he must give up his office and his revenues. This article was in the interest of the Catholics, and could not fail to be dis- pleasing to the Protestants. It was destined to be the cause of a renewal of the religious strife. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Reformation in Germany. — Immediate Causes of the Movement : The Sale of Indulgences. — Martin Luther : The Ninety-five Theses. — Luther and the Pope: Luther's Friends. The Disputation with Dr. Eck. The Pope's Condemnation. Luther's Writings. The Burning of the Papal Bull. — The Diet of Worms: Luther's Appear- ance at the Diet. — Luther at the Wartburg : His Translation of the Bible. — Wars : The More Radical Reformers. The Peasants' Revolt. The Wars Continued. Charles V. and Francis. — Progress of the Reformation. — The Protestants : The Adoption of the Name Prot- estant. The Augsburg Confession. — Luther and the Swiss Reform- ers : Disagreement between the German and Swiss Protestants. — To the Peace of Nuremberg : The League of Smalkald. The War with the Turks. — To Luther's Death: Formation of the Holy League by Catholics. — The Character of Luther: His Simplicity, Boldness, and Intolerance. — The Religious Peace of Augsburg: Limited Tolerance of the Protestants. The Ecclesiastical Reserva- tion. CHAPTER XLVII THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND Henry VIII. (1509-1547). — Henry VIII. came to the throne in 1509, inheriting a vast treasure which- he owed to the ava- rice of his father. A young and active man, he was ambitious in the early part of his reign for military distinction, and sev- 360 GENERAL HISTORY IlENUV VIII. eral times he took part in the wars on the continent. These wars gave England small glory and no practical advantage. The only brilliant military achievement of the reign was gained when Henry was abroad ; this was the battle of Flodden Field in 1513, where the English defeated the Scotch army which was sent across the border to plunder the northern coun- ties. Cardinal Wolsey. — In the early part of Henry's reign the most conspicuous figure in his court was Cardinal Wolsey, whom he made his counselor and who soon gained great influence over the mind of the king. Both the king and his counselor were friends of the new learning, and gave liberal encouragement to men of letters. Wolsey was ambitious to become pope, and succeeded in gaining the favor of Rome and the appointment as cardinal and papal legate. But, while the minister's ambition bound him to the side of the pope, the king, his master, was finding a motive for a breach with Eome. This came about through Henry's desire for a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, who had been the wife of Henry's elder brother. The Divorce. — Down to the time of the difficulty over the divorce question, Henry had been one of the stanchest sup- porters of the Roman Catholic Church. In the eighth year of his reign he had written a book against Luther, and for his zeal on behalf of the Church had received from the pope the title of Defender of the Faith. As to the divorce, Henry claimed that he desired it on account of religious scruples. To marry a deceased brother's widow was wrong in the eyes of the Church, but this matter had come up when the mar- THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 361 riage was proposed and the jjope then ruling had granted a dispensation, making the union legal. Henry professed to believe that this act of the pope was contrary to Church laws, and that it was the duty of the present pope to declare that the marriage was illegal and therefore of no effect. In the meanwhile, however, he had fallen in love with a maid of honor named Anne Bo'leyn, and it is a question how far this attachment influenced his course. The question was further complicated by the fact that Queen Catherine was the aunt of Charles V., whom the pope was afraid to offend. When the matter was referred to Eome, Clement VII. pursued a policy of delay, appointing a papal legate from Italy and Cardinal Wolsey as commissioners to decide on the validity of the marriage. The Fall of Wolsey. — It is probable that Wolsey did not show himself especially active on his master's behalf. At all events, Henry took it into his head that his minister was pur- posely dilatory and he suddenly deposed him from his offices and charged him with treason. Wolsey, broken-hearted at this change in his fortune, died on the way to answer to the charge. The Breach with Rome. — Henry now took matters into his own hands. He appointed as his chief minister Thomas Crom- well, a man who opposed the temporal power of the pope. Henry's interest was furthered also by securing Parliaments that were hostile to Rome. Acting on the advice of Cromwell, he secretly married Anne Boleyn. His new archbishop, Thomas Cranmer, then annulled Henry's marriage with Cath- erine. The pope now excommunicated Henry ; but there was a powerful party in England on the latter's side and the ex- communication did no damage. Parliament passed what was known as the Statute of Appeals, making it criminal for an Englishman to appeal to Rome from the decision of an English court. This was the first step in the separation from Rome. The final measure was the Act of Supremacy (1534), by which Henry was made the supreme head of the Church of England, with complete control over all ecclesiastical offices and revenues. 362 GENERAL HISTORY The New Church. — The new Church was neither Koman Catholic nor Protestant. It retained the doctrines of the former, but, in place of the pope, the head of the Church was the king. To deny the supremacy of Henry was high treason, punishable by death. At first Henry seemed inclined to in- troduce changes favored by the Protestants, but in the latter part of his reign he enforced strictly the Eoman Catholic doc- trine. Thus there were two parties who were each liable to severe persecution, — the Protestants, since they could not accept the doctrines of the Anglican Church, and the Eoman Catholics, since they could not admit the suprem- acy of the king in religious matters. It has been said that men were hanged for opposing the king, and burned for siding with him. Suppression of the Monasteries. — In the latter part of Henry's reign his government was exceedingly harsh. One of the severest measures of this period was the suppression of the monasteries, which was carried out by Thomas Cromwell with merciless thoroughness. First a commission was appointed to investigate the moral life of the monasteries, in order that by proving them to be corrupt there might be an ostensible reason for their suppression. The charge of immorality was probably substantiated in the case of some of the smaller monasteries, but the larger ones do not appear to have had a bad character. All, however, were destroyed, and their prop- erty and revenues were confiscated to the crown. The wealth thus gained was in part bestowed by Henry upon courtiers whom he wished to attach to his interests. This policy was successful; for those who received the lands were naturally opposed to the return of the old Church, lest their property should be taken from them. Changes in the House of Lords. — Another important result of this act was the change in the character of the House of Lords. The abbots had formerly made up a considerable part of that body, the abbots and bishops together outnumbering the secular members. Now that the abbots were deprived of THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES ^(53 all their offices and dignities, the lay element in the House of Lords became the most numerous. In spite of Henry's severity and even cruelty, he somehow contrived to retain his hold on the good will of his subjects. He was a popular ruler. In his private life he was immoral. He was married six times, and of his wives two were divorced, two were beheaded at the king's order, one died a short time after marriage, and the last, Catherine Parr, outlived him. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Reformation in England. — Hemy VIII. : His Ambition for Mili- tary Glory. The Battle of Flodden Field. — Cardinal Wolsey : Wolsey's Ambition for Church Preferment. — The Divorce : Grounds for the Divorce. Henry and Anne Boleyn. — The Fall of Wolsey. — The Breach with Rome : Henry's Secret Marriage with Anne Bo- leyn. The Excommunication of Henry. The Statute of Appeals. The Act of Supremacy. — The New Church: Persecutions. — Sup- pression of the Monasteries : The Charges Against the Monasteries. Results of the Suppression. — Changes in the House of Lords: Henry's Character. CHAPTER XLVIII THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES The Swiss Reformers. — The leader of the Reformation in Switzerland was Zwingli, who was born in 1484 and educated at the University of Vienna, where he acquired a taste for the new learning. Like Luther, he came to believe that the Church doctrines on the subject of penance were wrong. He opposed the purchase of indulgences. He also questioned the authority of the pope and predicted the fall of the papacy. When an agent of the Church, named Samson, began the same practices in Switzerland that Tetzel had employed in Germany, Zwingli preached against him. Acquiring a great reputation for his eloquence, he drew crowds to hear his sermons. In 364 GENERAL HISTORY many of his views lie approached Luther, but was inclined to go somewhat farther than Luther and differed radically from him, as we have seen, on the subject of the Lord's Supper. In 1524 the canton of Zurich declared its independence of its Catholic bishop and became Protestant. Its example was followed by other cantons, and soon the Roman Catholics and the Protestants were arrayed against each other. The Prot- estants were in the majority, but were divided by jealousy. It was Zwingli's idea to form the cantons that had joined the new faith into a republic, but each city wished to be the capi- tal of the new republic, and when the war broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants, the latter did not act in harmony. The Protestant army was defeated at Cappel in 1531 and Zwingli was killed. Disunion among the Protestants still continued and an unfavorable peace was formed with the Catholics, who regained much of what they had lost. Thus in Switzerland, as in Germany, the country was divided against itself on religious matters. Calvin in Geneva. — John Chauvin, or Calvin, was one of the greatest leaders of the Reformation. He was born in 1509, in France, and received a careful education, in the course of which he showed unusual gifts as a scholar. While still very young, he became an ardent Protestant and was obliged to flee from Paris. He published in his Institutes of the Christian Religion a remarkable exposition of the Protestant faith. His system of theology was logical and systematic. His views differed from Luther's in regard to the Lord's Supper and in certain stern doctrines on the subject of God's sovereignty. In 1536 he took up his residence in Geneva in Switzerland, which had become a Protestant city. His influence raised him to the position of the virtual ruler of the city, which he turned into a sort of religious republic, administered in the strictest manner. Purity of life and orthodoxy of faith were enforced by rigorous laws, but, in spite of the somewhat gloomy character of his rule, Geneva became a resort for earnest Protestants of all lands. The influence of Calvinism THE REFORMATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES 365 spread into France, England, Scotland, and Germany, and since it differed in several respects from the Protestantism of Luther and the Protestantism of Zwingli, there was now a threefold division of the Protestant world. Denmark and Sweden. — In Denmark and Sweden the reli- gious question was mixed up with political issues. Christian II., the king of Denmark, was bent on crushing the power of the nobility, and to accomplish this he made an attack on Sweden in order to force the Swedes to aid him against his own subjects. In this campaign he seized the Swedish city of Stockholm and massacred many of the Swedes. This caused him to be detested by both the Swedes and his own countrymen, and an uprising in Denmark drove him from the throne. His successor, Frederick, who became king in 1523, was a Lutheran, but had promised not to introduce the new faith. Nevertheless Protestantism had been preached in Denmark with success. The nobles favored it and, in 1527, it received toleration. Nine years later it became the estab- lished faith in Sweden. There the young king, Gustavus Vasa, was favorable to Lutheranism and, although the peasantry were deeply attached to the old faith. Protestantism made rapid progress. It was helped by the king's attacks on the Church, for it was his policy to weaken the aristocracy, both lay and clerical. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Reformation in Othek European Countries. — The Swiss Re- formers : Zwingli. His Opposition to the Teachings of the Church. The Swiss Protestants. Their Defeat at Cappel. — Calvin in Geneva : Calvin's Theological System. The Nature of his Government in Geneva. The Spread of Calvinism. — Denmark and Sweden : Prot- estantism tolerated in Denmark. Gustavus Vasa, King of Sweden. Sweden becomes Protestant. CHAPTER XLIX ARREST OF THE REFORMATION The Division of Protestantism. — One of the most serious checks to Protestantism was the lack of union among the Protestants themselves. The Catholics had said that when once the spirit of dissent had arisen it would go to all lengths and lead to endless divisions. If a body of reformers, exercis- ing their private judgment, could withdraw from the Church, it was probable that others would follow the same plan and withdraw from the new organization. The Protestants were, as we have seen, divided into the three main branches of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Zwinglians. This was very early in their history and, as time passed, the divisions and subdivisions multiplied. It was evident that this disunion must cause weakness. Moreover, there was not merely a lack of agreement, but positive bitterness between the Protestant sects. Order of the Jesuits. — The Order of the Jesuits was founded in 1540, through the influence of Ignatius Loy'ola, who was chosen as its head. Its object was to fight the battles of the Church in this time of religious strife, to prevent the spread of heresy, and to reconvert those who had fallen away from the orthodox faith. Its distinctive feature was the fact that its members were exempt from the ordinary monastic duties, and could devote themselves more extensively to preaching, hear- ing confessions, and educating the young. The Jesuit could mingle in society, and take part in any affairs of active life. But absolute and unquestioning obedience, in all things not sinful, even to the sacrifice of their lives, was required of all the members of the order. The education of the young, espe- cially of those in the higher walks of life, fell into their hands. Prom southern Europe they spread through all of what was called the '- debatable land " ; that is, those countries in which 366 ARREST OF THE REFORMATION 367 there was uncertainty as to the issue of the struggle between Protestantism and the Roman Catholic faith. Their work was exceedingly successful. In France, Belgium, southern Ger- many, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, and Hungary, they did much to prevent the spread of Protestantism, and to win back those who had abjured the old faith. The Inquisition. — The Inquisition was an extraordinary court, which appeared first in the time of the Albigensian heresy in France. It was revived in Spain in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella for the purpose of seeking out "re- lapsed Jews " ; that is, Jews who, after being forcibly converted to Christianity, had fallen back to their old faith. Its methods were high-handed, and its authority was superior to that of the other courts. In Spain it was closely connected with the civil power, and was often used by the sovereign to carry out his own plans. The methods applied by the Inquisition against Protestantism were very severe. Its proceedings were arbitrary, and those who were brought before it had not a fair chance of justice. As to the numbers burned at the stake, or otherwise punished as a result of sentences, there is great diversity of opinion. It is probable that in the time of Torquema'da (1560), the number was very large. One of the duties of the court was the sup- pression of heretical books, and it fulfilled this duty with much fidelity, in some cases destroying all copies of a published work. The Counter Reformation. — By this is meant the effort of the Church to reform itself from within. We have seen already that the Church, at times, showed itself willing to make some advances toward the Protestants and remove some of the alleged abuses. The attacks on the Church had the effect of impelling its members to adopt some important reforms. Council of Trent. — In 1545 the Council of Trent was assem- bled by the pope, Paul III. The Protestants had hoped much from it, but soon found that reconciliation was impossible. Early in its session, the council declared against the chief 368 GENERAL HISTORY Protestant doctrines, and after Charles Y. had gained his firsi victory over the Smalkaldic League, the council reasserted al the old doctrines of the Church. Yet it declared definitely against some of the abuses of which the Protestants com plained. For instance, it issued a decree against those " whc availed themselves of the word of God in order to fill theii own pockets with lucre." What the Church gained by th( Council of Trent was a clear statement of its doctrines and ar improvement in its organization. General Results. — -During the first period of the Eeforma tion Protestantism made a very rapid advance. Its advanct was checked by the four causes mentioned ; namely, the dis sension among the Protestants, the founding of the Order oJ the Jesuits, the vigorous measures taken to repress heresy, anc the purification and improvement of the Church itself. As £ result, the Catholics regained much of what had been taker from them, and prevented many threatened losses. In general, the Teutonic countries of Europe were favorable to the new faith, while the Latin nations adhered to the old In Spain and Italy the movement made no progress. Ir France it made some advance at first, but did not retain iU strength. Germany was divided into Protestant and Eomar Catholic states, southern Germany generally being Eomar Catholic. England, Scotland, and the Scandinavian countries became Protestant, and Switzerland partly so. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Arrest of the Reformation. — The Division of Protestantism : Lu- tlierans, Calvinists, and Zwinglians. — Order of the Jesuits : Objed of the Society. Distinctive Features. The Success of the Jesuits.— The Inquisition : The Inquisition in Spain. Its Methods. — Th( Counter Reformation. — Council of Trent: Beneficial Effect upor the Church. — General Results: Rapid Advance of Protestantism al First. Causes which Checked its Progress. The Outcome of the Struggle. CHAPTER L ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The Period The period treated in this chapter extends from the death of Henry VIII. in 1547, to the end of the Tudor dynasty, with the death of Elizabeth, in 1603. This was the closing period of the Reformation in England, and was also a time of commercial development and intellectual advancement. Edward VI. (1547-1553). — Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII. and Jane Seymour, was but ten years old when he came to the throne, but he showed a knowledge and power of understanding far beyond his years. The main interest of the reign is on its religious side. The Protestants gained the upper hand. The Roman Catholic doctrines retained in the Church of Henry VIII. were abolished, a new creed was formed, and the Book of Common Prayer was issued. The change was too sudden and complete to please the major- ity of the people. Moreover, the Protestants Avent to extremes in the destruction of images, in the removal of crosses and decorations from the churches, and in other departures from the customs and ceremonies of the old organization. Those who would not accept the changes in doctrine and worship were persecuted. Edward VI., under the advice of one of his ministers, declared his second cousin Lady Jane Grey his heir to the throne in defiance of the claims of the rightful heir, Mary Tudor, the daughter of Henry by Catherine of Aragon. Mary Tudor. — Lady Jane Grey fell a victim to the schemes of her advisers. On the death of Edward VI., the plot to place her on the throne failed, and she was later put to death. Mary became queen. She had been trained in the Roman Catholic faith and was determined to restore the old Church. There was some opposition to this from her Parliament and from that class which had benefited b}^ the suppression of the monasteries. The work of Edward VI. 's reign, however, was 369 870 GENERAL HISTORY swept away, and severe measures were adopted against th( Protestants. In tlie course of lier reign it has been estimatec that over 200 Protestants were put to death for religion's sake. Among them were men of distinction, like the bishops Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, as well as many obscure per- sons. Her course was unwise as well as unpopular, for she raised up foes against the restored religion. She won for her self the name of Bloody Mary. Loss of Calais. — Another thing which caused the ill-will o; her subjects was her Spanish marriage. She became the wif( of Philip II. of Spain, and the English people were not pleasec with the Spanish alliance. As a result of it, England was or the side of Spain against France, and in the war which fol lowed, the last stronghold of the English in France, Calais was taken by the French. Soon after this reverse the queer died. Elizabeth. — Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry YIII. b} Anne Boleyn. Her reign is one of the most remarkable ir English history. It lasted fron: 1558 to 1603, and in those years England's glory was brightei than it had ever been before Elizabeth was not extreme ii: her religious views. She was probably lacking in religious feeling, but, on the whole, in- clined toward the Protestani system, though not bitter against the Roman Catholic C h u r c h . Accordingly, the :_y^ Church of Elizabeth was less Protestant than that of Edward Kl.lZAiNKlII VI., but did not retain the Roman Catholic doctrines of the Church of Mary and Henry VIII. It was a Protestant Church, but kept the old forms of worship. ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 371 Mary Queen of Scots. — When Elizabeth came to the throne of England, the x^eople of Scotland were fast becoming Protes- tants under the influence of the stern old preacher John Knox, who had become a thoroughgoing Calvinist. In a few years the Presbyterian faith Avas established as the religion of Scot- land. Mary Stuart, the Scottish queen, however, was Roman Catholic. She had married the French king Erancis 11. and on his death returned to Scotland to rule. She wished to restore there the Koman Catholic religion, but the influence of Knox was too strong to permit this. She was the great-grand- daughter of Henry VII., and thus a dangerous rival of Eliza- beth ; for she had unusual beauty and charm of manner, and her views and purposes made her the natural rallying point for the Catholics of both kingdoms. In her conduct she was not discreet. Having married a Scottish noble named Darnley, a worthless character, she grew to despise him, and, after his murder under suspicious circumstances, she became the wife of Bothwell, who had been the chief person concerned in the plot for the murder of her husband. Her subjects rebelled against her and she was obliged to abdicate. She fled to Eng- land for protection, but Elizabeth took the side of the Scottish people and Mary was shut up in prison. Even in prison Mary was a very dangerous rival of the queen ; for she was a Catholic and the heir to the throne, and as such she became the center of Catholic plots. There were many people in England who would have been glad to see Elizabeth put out of the way and Mary installed in her place. For these reasons it was a matter of policy on the part of Elizabeth to keep a close watch on her rival. To the Protestants of England every Catholic appeared as a possible conspirator, and there was some reason for this, be- cause, in 1570, the pope excommunicated the queen and ab- solved all her subjects from their oath of allegiance. Many plots were formed among the Catholics, but they were all dis- covered and numerous persons were put to death. Execution of Mary. — Finally a young Englishman named 872 GENERAL HISTORY Babington planned to assassinate Elizabeth and release Mary from prison. The plot was detected, and its author and his accomplices were executed. Here was a chance to bring Mary to trial on the ground of conspiracy. Historians do not agree as to the degree of her guilt, but the commissioners by whom she was tried condemned her to death, and she was executed February 8, 1587, displaying marked heroism on the scaffold. The Spanish Armada. — Philip II. of Spain at once determined to avenge the execution of Mary Stuart. Moreover, he was angry with Elizabeth for the aid which she had rendered to his rebellious subjects in the Netherlands and was bent on overthrowing the Reformation in England. In 1588, after extensive preparations, one of the largest fleets that a Christian nation had ever sent to sea sailed from the mouth of the Tagus against England. Its command was in the hands of the Duke of Medina Sidonia. There was great excitement and alarm in England, for the country was ill-prepared to meet so formidable an attack. In the presence of this danger all classes united, even the Cath- olics flocking to the royal standard in defense of the nation. With a fleet very inferior in point of numbers to the Armada, but commanded by some of the ablest seamen of the age, namely, Admiral Howard as commander in chief, and Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher as his lieutenants, the English set sail to meet the Spanish. Destruction of the Armada. — The Armada appeared off the coast of England in July, 1588. The English vessels, being of smaller size and fewer in number, did not venture on an open combat, but contented themselves with harassing the Span- iards as they advanced. Their light build and rapidity in action gave the English ships an advantage and by means of fire ships many of the Spanish vessels were destroyed. After some desultory fighting an attack was made on the Spanish fleet, inflicting severe loss. The Armada then sailed north- ward, hoping to escape by passing around to the north of the British Isles, but ill luck had followed it from the first. When ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 373 tlie Spaniards reached the northern waters, they were dashed by storms on the Scottish and Irish shores. In all, nearly two thirds of their vessels, with almost one half of their men, were lost or captnred. Decline of Spain. — This great victory raised England to a high place among maritime nations and dealt a blow to Spain from which she did not recover for many years. From this time, in fact, the prestige of Spain began to decline. Philip had worked at this project for five years and it had proved an utter failure, and the remaining years of Elizabeth's reign were, so far as her foreign policy was concerned, years of uninterrupted success. An English fleet dared to sail up the river Tagus, and another attacked and pillaged the Spanish city of Cadiz. The Religious Policy of Elizabeth. — Although Elizabeth her- self never showed any especial religious zeal, her reign was marked by considerable religious persecution ; for the policy of the time was to enforce absolute uniformity in religious belief. Persecutions were directed first against the Catholics because they could not accept the doctrines of the Anglican Church, or the supremacy of the queen in religious matters. They found themselves in the position of traitors to the State, and their persecution was on political more than on religious grounds; for they could not consistently, with their religious belief, admit the right of Elizabeth to the throne. Hundreds of them were put to death on account of plots or insurrections. The Puritans. — Another party of Christians who came in for a share of persecution was the Puritans. They were so called because they wished to purify the Church and carry the Refor- mation further in England. They wanted to make the Church of England simpler and more republican in form, and they hated the ceremonials and liturgy as '' badges of popery." They did not at first leave the Church, but used their influence to reform it from within. Their attempts, which were charac- terized by courage and persistency, brought down upon them the vengeance of the State. Colby's GEN. lusr. — 24 374 GENERAL HISTORY The Independents. — There was a third class of nonconform- ists, that is, of those who woukl not accept the established re- ligion, and these separated altogether from the Church. They were called Independents, and they set u^) little religious socie- ties of their own. They were more radical than the Puritans, and naturally they suffered heavily at the hands of the authorities. Commerce and Discoveries. — Elizabeth's reign was a period of great commercial enterprise and maritime activity. Among the daring adventurers and navigators of the time were Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, and Raleigh. Sir Francis Drake was a brilliant adventurer. He sailed to the Ameri- can colonies of Spain in 1577, forced them to pay large sums of money, and then, continuing on his voyage, captured many Spanish vessels and re- turned to England with a rich booty, after having completed the circuit ol the globe. On another occasion, just before the Armada left Spain, he went on a plundering expedition to the Spanish coast and destroyed vast supplies of stores which Philip had gathered for the purpose of fitting out his fleet. In the hostility be- tween England and Spain, many bold seamen like Drake led privateering expeditions and did infinite damage to Spanisl: commerce, waylaying Spanish vessels on the high seas and pillaging Spanish ports in all parts of the world. Of more prominent and lasting benefit Avas the work of mei A P.ARBER Shop in the Sixteenth Century ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 375 like Frobisher and Davis, renowned for their discoveries in the Arctic seas. Sir Walter Kaleigh iitted out a number of colonial enterprises, one of which explored the coast of North America, and returned to England with an account of a fair and fertile land which was called Virginia, in honor of the virgin queen. Intellectual Activity. — ^The vigor and originality which are marks of this period in English history appear conspicuously in the literature of the time. The Elizabethan era surpassed all previous periods in the bril- liancy of its literature, and many works which are still regarded as the greatest works of their kind were produced in that time. It would be impossible here to mention the names of all the great Elizabethan writers. It is sufficient to state that this was the time of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Francis Bacon, and Hichard Hooker. The Character of Elizabeth. — Elizabeth died in 1603. She was a woman of great power of mind and imperious character. She remained single through life, fearing that if she married she would find a master. Her will was impatient of all con- trol, and her pride was intense. Being inclined toward the Protestant faith, she was obliged to conceal her feelings during the reign of her sister Mary. Long practice in deceit may have developed the lack of truthfulness which was a marked trait in her character. Another fault which was evident in her life was her vanity. She would listen to the grossest flattery with keen pleasure, and her favor was often won by the unworthy by playing on this weakness in her character. She >vas^ moreover, a person o* violent passion and impetuous temper. ^^AKESPEARE 376 GENERAL HISTORY Nevertheless she had many fine qualities. Few kings have shown a higher courage than hers, or a more skillful statecraft. In spite of her headstrong will, she knew how to yield when occasion demanded it. For instance, when people complained of her abuse of power in granting monopolies to her favorites, she gave up the practice. When she yielded, she did so gra- ciously and fully, not grudgingly as if by compulsion, and her concessions won her many friends. She chose for her ministers the ablest men of the times, but her own wisdom sometimes surpassed that of her counselors. Whatever her faults, she won and retained the affection of her subjects to a remarkable degree, even among those who had the best reason for hating her. A curious illustration of this ai3pears in the story of a Puritan Nonconformist who was condemned to mutilation for his religious views. When one hand was cut off, he waved the stump in the air, shouting " Long live the queen." SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW England in the Sixteenth Centurv. — The Period. — p]dward VI.: The Triumph of Protestantism. Lady Jane Grey. — Mary Tudor : The Restoration of Catholicism. Persecutions. — Loss of Calais. — Elizabeth: Her Attitude toward the Religious Question. — Mary Queen of Scots : Her Character. Her Marriage with Darnley. Her Flight to England and Imprisonment. Catholic Plots against Eliza- beth. The Trial and Conviction of Mary. Execution of Mary. — The Spanish Armada. — Destruction of the Armada. — Decline of Spain. — The Religious Policy of Elizabeth: The Attempt to enforce Absolute Uniformity, — The Puritans. — The Independents. — Com- merce and Discoveries: Drake, Frobisher, Hawkins, and Raleigh. — Intellectual Activity: Elizabeth and Literature. — The Character of Elizabeth : Her Faults. Her Good Qualities and Ability. CHAPTER LI THE UEV^OLT OF THE NETHERLANDS The Netherlands. — The ISTetherlancls, comprising the strip of low country along the coast of western Europe, now divided into the two states of Belgium and the Netherlands (Holland), consisted of a number of little provinces all united under the government of Spain. This region was for its size the richest country in Europe during the sixteenth century. In their early history the provinces had been subject to Germany or France. Later they passed under the control of the house of Burgundy, and finally by marriage passed to the house of Hapsburg, be- coming the inheritance of Charles V. On the death of Charles v., his son Philip IL, as king of Spain, became the sovereign of the Ketherlands. There was a marked difference between the northern and southern provinces. The northern part, corresponding to the kingdom of Holland to-day, was chiefly Teutonic. In the south the old tribe called the Belgae had lived in Roman times, and in this region the Celtic element was predominant. Charles V. and the Netherlands. — Charles V. had used great severity in crushing out heresy in the provinces, where the Reformation had taken root, but being a Fleming by birth, he had sympathy with the natives, and in all respects, save in matters of religion, he governed them with a fair degree of justice. Moreover, he seemed to look upon them as his coun- trymen, and filled many of the highest offices in his gift with Flemings. He had the commercial interests of the country at heart also, and did much to open up new fields to trade. Philip II. and the Netherlands. — Philip II,, the bigoted and morose successor of Charles, departed in some important re- spects from the policy of his father. He offended the pride of the nobles in the provinces, by refusing to take them into his counsel. In dealing with the Netherlands, he seemed to have 377 378 GENERAL HISTORY but one purpose, and that was to uproot heresy, at whatever cost. His whole policy was of a kind to arouse the hatred of his subjects, and it comprised no features that could compen- sate for the wrongs which they were obliged to endure. He established new bishoprics in the country, stationed Spaniards in the chief cities, and gave the important offices to foreigners. The 'Beggars.* — After ruling personally in the Netherlands for a while, Philip placed the government in the hands of his half-sister, Margaret of Parma. During her rule, which lasted from 1559 to 1567, the grievances of the natives became intol- erable. Her adviser was Granvelle, a man devoted to Philip and bitterly hostile to the Protestants. Tlie measures against the Protestants finally aroused such intense opposition among the nobles that Granvelle was recalled, and Margaret showed a willingness to compromise. Before any agreement was reached, how^ever, the people, wdio were impatient of delay, broke out in revolt. The nobles could not restrain them. They attacked the churches, destroyed the images, and overthrew the altars. These excesses merely angered Philip, and drove him to harsher measures. In the meantime, a body of deputies had come to Margaret with a petition, setting forth the wrongs of the country and begging for their redress. To reassure the frightened regent, one of the counselors remarked that the petitioners were only " beg- gars." The word was taken up by the party of reform, and thenceforth its members were styled Beggars. Alva's Government. — On Margaret's failure, Philip made up his mind that he would send to the Netherlands a governor w4io would bring the people to their senses. He declared that he would maintain the Catholic faith in the provinces at any cost. Alva w^as an able general, and a man without scruple and without mercy. He brought with him to the Netherlands a large body of the best troops of Spain. His appearance w^as the signal for many of the more prudent leaders of the Protes- tants to withdraw. Counts Egmont and Horn ventured to re- main, but they paid the penalty of their daring with their lives. THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 379 Alva set up in the Netherlands a special tribunal, whose re- markable effectiveness in carrying out the policy of the govern- ment earned for it the title of the Council of Blood. Thousands of persons were executed, still more were robbed of their prop- erty, and an even larger number left the country. Besides this, an enormous tax was levied on merchandise, resulting in the almost complete destruction of the Flemish trade. Meanwhile, the party of the Beggars had planned forcible resistance to the Spanish ruler, and the cruelty of Alva drove many to their side. At first their activity was confined to naval warfare. They captured the city of Briel, and in so doing saved the lives of the burgesses of Brussels, who, having started an unsuccessful revolt, were captured and about to be hanged. Immediately after the seizure of Briel, the provinces of Holland and Zealand took up arms (1572). Thus began the long struggle between the provinces and Spain, known in his- tory as the Revolt of the Netherlands. William of Orange. — William, Prince of William the Silent,' was the natural leader Orange, called of the Nether- lands at this crisis, and he was chosen by Holland and Zealand as their governor. He was the determined foe of Spanish tyranny, and his strength of mind and far- sighted statesmanship gave promise of success. Yet, for the little country of the Neth- erlands to stand out against the mighty power of Spain would have seemed fool- hardy, had it not been for the fact that the Protestants of Germany, England, and France could be relied upon for aid. In military strength and in the brilliancy of generals, Spain had greatly the advantage. Her armies ' were commanded successively by the greatest William the 380 GENERAL HISTORY soldiers of the time, — Don John of Austria (1576-1578) and after him Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma. Against their skill was pitted the high courage and inflexible will of William, who, like our Washington, was greatest in the time of difficulty and defeat. Siege of Leyden. — Alva's unscrupulous and cruel govern- ment had failed completely. He was recalled and replaced by a new governor named Requesens (1573). The latter was more conciliatory than Alva, and tried to win friends by favor as well as by force. In 1574 took place the famous siege of Leyden, which is interesting as showing the means which the Netherlanders employed in defense. The siege had been began by Alva's army and was continued by the troops of liequesens. The Spanish troops closed their lines around the city, soon shut- ting off all means of obtaining provisions, and the Prince of Oran*ge tried in vain to throw troops within the walls to aid the garrison. At last the plan of cutting the dikes and flood- ing the land around the city was proposed. This was done, and the level country in the vicinity was flooded for miles around. This made it possible to float ships carrying provi- sions. The water, however, became too shallow as the ships approached the city, and it seemed as if it would l)e impossible to reach the inhabitants ; but, a heavy wind arising from the north and carrying high waves across the broken dikes, the vessels were carried nearer to the walls. They Avere again stranded and many of the citizens in despair were urging sur- render, but again the waters poured in, driven by the wind, and the ships were carried into the canals of the city. Pacification of Ghent. — In the southern provinces Requesens was more successful, but he died in 1576, and when his power- ful hand was withdrawn his troops committed a terrible mas- sacre known as the ' Spanish Fury.' In this it is said mere people perished than were killed in the massacre of St. Barthol- omew in Paris (page 389). The terror and hatred aroused by this act led to the formation of a union between all the seventeen THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 381 provinces. This was called the Pacification of Ghent (1576). At the head of the union was William of Orange. Union of Utrecht. — The Pacification of Ghent did not last long. The provinces differed in religion, the northern ones being in favor of the reformed faith and the southern being generally Catholic. Don John of Austria was in favor of peace and tried to win over the Protestants to a compromise, but the distrust of the latter prevented this. The interests of the south and the north were opposed not only in matters of religion, but in matters of trade ; for the southern provinces were largely manufacturing states, and the seven northern provinces Avere commercial. The southern provinces broke away from the union and acknowledged Philip II. as king. The seven northern prov- inces, consisting of Holland, Guelderland, Utrecht, Zealand, Friesland, Overyssel, and Groningen, formed the so-called Union of Utrecht in 1579, making themselves into a federal republic, in which each governed its local affairs and was represented in the general Federal Assembly. The governor general, or stadth older, was William of Orange. This was the beginning of the Dutch Republic. Two years after the forma- tion of the union, the States-General, or Federal Assembly of the united provinces, solemnly renounced the authority of Spain. Death of "William of Orange. — Spain was as far as ever from subduing the northern provinces. The credit for their long and successful resistance belongs almost wholly to William of Orange, and naturally the Spanish monarch made him the object of his bitterest hatred. William had proved himself above all selfish motives by refusing to accept, from the Spanish court, offers of dignities and wealth, if he would abandon the cause. After the failure of these attempts at bribery, Philip devised a plan of assassination. He published a ban, declaring the prince an outlaw and promising money and noble rank to any one who would kill him. Six attempts were made on the life of the prince, and finally he was shot in his own house. 382 GENERAL HISTORY Character of William. — William of Orange is. one of the heroic characters of history. He was not a brilliant general, but he knew how to wait and turn his reverses to account. His prudence and foresight were of a high order and his personal courage was remarkable. After the shameful edict in which a price was put upon his head, he published an < apology,' in which he attacked the king in the most scathing manner and made fun of his attempts to frighten him; and although he knew that his life was in danger, he showed neither fear nor irresolution. His habit of keeping his own counsel, which at times amounted to a fault and led him into a course bordering on deceit, gained for him the surname of the 'Silent' Progress of the War. — In the early part of the war the Netherlanders were disappointed in their hope of aid from the Protestants of the neighboring countries. Later, however, aid came from England. After the murder of the Prince of Orange Elizabeth became an open ally of the Dutch and sent to their relief, among others, her famous captain, the chivalrous Sir Philip Sidney, who fell at the siege of Zutphen, in 1586. France also entered the lists against Philip and the Spaniard was hard pressed both on land and sea. The havoc which the English wrought in the commerce of Spain has already been mentioned. The Dutch fleet seized many of the East Indian possessions of Spain, and the English and Dutch together destroyed the Spanish fleet in the bay of Cadiz. The Independence of the Netherlands. — The struggle dragged on for several years, and came to an end from the exhaustion of the parties to it. In 1609 a treaty w^as formed, acknowledg- ing the independence of the united provinces of the Nether- lands — that is, the Dutch provinces, or Holland. This it did in effect, but nominally it was regarded by Spain as a truce for twelve years. Spain, however, never regained her authority over the provinces, and, by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), the freedom of Holland was formally acknowledged. Growth of Dutch Commerce. — The downfall of Spain's THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS 383 tyranny over the Netherlands was followed by a period of remarkable improvement in the provinces. This was far more marked in the northern provinces, which had regained their independence, than in the southern provinces, Avhich had given up the fight for liberty. The Dutch became the foremost commercial people in the world and were the equals, if not the superiors, of all other races in regard to their progress in arts, in literature, and in the spread of education. The work of building up a great colonial empire was begun and colonies were planted in the most remote parts of the world. The West India Company planted a colony on Manhattan Island (afterwards New York), and the Dutch had settlements in the East Indies and the distant islands of the Pacific. This maritime activity, which had always been characteristic of the Dutch, continued throughout the sixteenth century and has not been relaxed to the present day ; for now Holland, though among the smallest of European powers, is one of the greatest in respect to the extent of her colonial possessions. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Revolt of the Netherlands. — The Netherlands : Contrast between the Northern and Southern Provinces. — Charles V. and the Netherlands. —Philip IF. and the Netherlands: Abuses of his Government. — The ' Req:2,ars' : Margaret of Parma and Granvelle. Popular Outbreaks. — Alva's Government : His Cruelty. The Coun- cil of Blood. The Revolt of the Netherlands. — William of Orange. — Siege of Leyden: The Recall of Alva. The Administration of Requesens. The Narrow Escape of Leyden. — Pacification of Ghent. — Union of Utrecht: Suppression of Southern Provinces. — The Union of tlie Northern Provinces. — Death of William of Orange. — Character of William : The 'Apology.' — Progress of the War. —The Independence of the Netherlands: The Truce of 1009. Formal Acknowledgment of Dutch Independence in 1048. — Growth of Dutch Commerce. CHAPTER LII FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY French Protestantism. — The reformers in France were termed Huguenots. They were not followers of Luther, but adopted the sterner faith preached by John Calvin of Geneva. The new movement had made some headway during the reign of Francis L, but its progress was more rapid under that king's successor, Henry II. Between 1555 and 1559, about two thou- sand Huguenot churches were founded in France, and in the southern and western part of the country the new faith was especially strong. The Eeformation w^as not so popular in France as in Germany ; partly because the lack of central power in Germany gave the movement a better chance than in France, where the king was more absolute, and partly because France had not suffered so much from the ecclesiastical grievances of which the Germans complained. Calvinism in France seemed to appeal more to the nobility or the well-to-do classes than to the lower orders of the people, who remained devoted to the old faith. It was not a great popular movement in France and w^as there identified to some extent with a political aim : namely, the purpose of securing greater independence for the nobles. Persecution of the Huguenots. — The Huguenots suffered the usual fate of heretics. They were put to death in large numbers and the spread of their doctrines was prohibited. These persecutions went on during the reign of Francis I. (1515-1547) and of Henry II. (1547-1559). The time and energy which each of these monarchs had to devote to foreign wars gave the Protestants an occasional respite. Francis, as we have seen, w\as largely occupied in the wars with Charles V. and Henry II. had a Spanish war on his hands which came tc an end in 1559, but in the intervals of peace the Protestants suffered very severely. Soon after the conclusion of the wai ;]84 FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 385 with Spain, Henry II. was killed in a tournament at Paris (1559). Catherine de* Medici. — Henry II. was succeeded by Francis II., then only sixteen years of age. During his brief reign (1559- 15G0) and the reigns of his two successors, Charles IX. (1560- 1574) and Henry III. (1574-1589), the most important figure at the French court was Catherine de' Medici, the widow of Henry II. She was an Italian woman of remarkable ability, but absolutely without principle. She was consumed by ambi- tion, and although her policy was in the main favorable to the Catholics, it is probable that selfish motives rather than religious zeal dictated her course. The three kings just named were among the most incompetent of French sovereigns, and (Catherine's life was spent in plots and intrigues for the pur- pose of getting all power into the hands of herself and her friends. To accomplish this, she was ready to use any means, however base or cruel. Opposing Parties. — The leaders of the strict Catholic party were the heads of the Guise family; namely, Francis, Duke of Guise, a soldier of some renown, and Charles, Cardinal of Lor- raine, his younger brother. They were the uncles of Mary Stuart, who was the wife of the young king Francis II., and through her they hoped to rule France. The chiefs of the Protestant party were the two Bourbon princes, Antony, King of Navarre, and Louis, Prince of Conde. They belonged to the royal family and were heirs to the throne after the broth- ers of Francis 11. An abler and more sincere leader of the Protestants was Admiral Coligny, who for many years had been an earnest Protestant. The plots and counterplots of the two parties were very complicated, and there were many who shifted their allegiance from one to the other from motives of self-interest. The strict Catholic party looked finally to Spain for aid. Catherine hated the Huguenots, but she feared the Guises, and so her policy was wavering. The Pplitiques. — There was a third party in France, not so 386 GENERAL HISTORY strong as either of the others, but holding opinions which tri umphed in the end. The representative of this party wa L'Hopital, the greatest lawyer in France. He favored tolers tion and a regard for the true national interests of France He wished religious disputes compromised and the people o all classes united to make France a great nation. So the aiii of this party was chiefly political and not religious, and fron this fact it was termed the party of the Politiques. It wa largely composed of moderate Catholics. L'Hopital was on of the most enlightened men of his time. He advocated tolei ance in an age when people scarcely knew the meaning of th word, and he did France a great service in saving her from th terrors of the Inquisition. The Conspiracy of Amboise. — This was an attempt of som Protestants to overthrow the power of the Guises and plac the young king in the charge of the Protestant chief, th Prince of Conde. The Guises discovered the 'plot in time am seized a great number of conspirators, as well as many innc cent persons. Innocent and guilty alike were put to deatli and Conde and the king of Navarre were arrested on th charge of taking part in the conspiracy. Before their tria took place, however. King Francis died, and this destroyed th power of the Guises ; for since Charles TX., the brother o Francis who succeeded, was only ten years of age, the queei mother acted as regent. She was glad of a chance to weakei the power of the Guises, and Conde and the king of Navarr were released. The Outbreak of Civil War. — Early in the reign of Charles IX (January, 1562), the Edict of St. Germain was issued, grantin; freedom of worship under certain restrictions to the Protes tants. This concession was largely due to the policy of thi queen regent, for Catherine wished to preserve a balance o parties in order to keep the power in her own hands. For th( first time the Huguenots gained an official recognition of thei creed, but they made a bad use of their success. The;; attacked the Catholic churches, broke into the convents FRANCE IN THE SIX FEENTII CENTURY 387 destroyed the images, and in every way insulted Catholic sen- timents. Moreover, the Catholics were opposed to the spirit of the Edict of St. Germain, and determined to prevent its liberal provisions from being carried out. In 1562 the Duke of Guise, traveling. Jthrough the country at the head of a band of armed followers, came upon a body of Protestants worshiping in a barn in the village of Vassy. They fell upon this little congregation and killed forty of them. The massacre of Vassy brought on the civil war. The Period of Civil War. — Civil Avar in France lasted from 1562 to 1598 ; that is, from the massacre of Vassy to the Treaty of Vervins. During this time fighting was not continuous, but was interrupted by short intervals of peace. Between the dates mentioned eight wars occurred. These years of strife naturally fall into three periods : first, the period of warfare before the formation of the Catholic League, including three short wars; second, the transition period in which occurred the massacre of St. Bartholomew; and third, the period of the league, comprising the wars between the organized Catholic party and the party of the Politiques, the Huguenots being comparatively unimportant in this last period. The First Period of Civil Strife (1562-1570). — King Antony of Navarre, who, though somewhat faltering in his attitude, had been counted with the Protestants, went over to the Catholics. He was killed in battle and was succeeded by his son, Henry of Navarre, then a child nine years of age. This young prince was a possible claimant to the French throne, and the firm Protestant faith of his mother made it probable that he would become the natural leader of the Huguenots. The chief generals on their side, however, were at this time the Prince of Conde and Admiral Coligny. It is not necessary here to give the details of all the battles of these wars. At the battle of Dreux (1562) Conde was cap- tured by the Catholics ; but while besieging Orleans, soon after- wards, the Duke of Guise was assassinated in his camp. At the battle of Jarnac (1569), in the last of the three wars, 388 GENERAL HISTORY Conde was defeated and killed. The intervals of peace wer filled with intrigues and murders, and most of the great leader on each side fell in battle or at the hands of assassins. 0] the Protestant side Coligny, under the nominal command o the young Henry of Navarre, continued the war. There wer no decisive results, but the Peace of St. Germain was favorabl to the Huguenots. It gave them a limited toleration, restore( forfeited property, and placed in their hands four fortifiec cities as places of refuge. The Transition Period. — There was an interval of two year between the close of these three wars and the massacre of St Bartholomew, which caused a renewal of hostilities. In th< first part of this period the young king, Charles IX., was in clined to the side of the Huguenots on account of his alarm a the schemes of Philip II. of Spain, who, aided by the pope was planning to place Mary Stuart on the throne of Englani and Scotland, and to put down the revolt in the Netherlands If he succeeded, he Avould gain so great an influence in Europ< that France would be brought wholly under his control. To offset this, Charles planned to unite with the Huguenot: and with all the enemies of Philip in Europe. To this em a double marriage was planned; first, the marriage of hii younger brother to Elizabeth of England, and second, tin marriage of his sister, Margaret of Valois, to Henry of Na varre. He would thus have a great Protestant state in allianc( with him abroad, and the Protestant party won over to hi? side in France, and this, it was thought, Avould so strengtliei him that he would be able to thwart the designs of Philip Admiral Coligny favored both these plans, but Catherine, tli( queen mother, opposed them. Her idea was to crush ou' religious dissent in France by any means, however foul. Tin alliance with Elizabeth was not made, but the marriage l)e tween Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois took place A large body of the Protestants followed Coligny to Paris and, feeling that their cause had triumphed, they did noi conceal their satisfaction. Coligny's influence over the kin^ FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 389 increased, and tlie strict Catholic party, as represented by Catherine de' Medici, the Duke of Anjou, and tlie Guise family, were enraged. Catherine and Anjou planned to assassinate the admiral, but his assailant succeeded only in wounding him. Then Catherine went to the king, told him that she and Anjou had planned the deed, and explained that the only safety for himself and the fi'iends of the Catholic faith lay in striking a deadly blow at the Huguenots; for she told him that they were already armed to avenge their leader. The weak-minded king listened to this advice, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew was planned. Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — None of the Protestants seemed to have the slightest suspicion of the plot, which had been developed with absolute secrecy. The massacre was ar- ranged for August 24, 1572, and at a given signal the work began. It is probable that the conspirators had intended to kill only the leaders of the Protestant party, but they had not taken into account the bloodthirstiness of the mob. The Huguenots, taken by surprise, were murdered in their beds, and all those on the northern side of the river Seine were killed. Many of those in the southern part of the city man- aged to escape, but when the news of the massacre in Paris was spread throughout France, the work was taken up in the provinces, and thousands of the Huguenots all over the country were put to death. The numbers killed are differ- ently estimated. In Paris alone some estimates place the number as high as 10,000 ; others as low as 2000. Through- out France it is said that from 70,000 to 100,000 Huguenots were killed, but these figures are probably too high ; and according to some writers only 22,000 were massacred. The Guilty Parties. — It must not be thought that the Catho- lic population of France was wholly in sympathy with this atrocious crime. There were many instances of individual self-sacrifice and humanity. Catholic prelates often inter- vened on behalf of the Protestants and saved their lives. In several Catholic provinces the Huguenots were unharmed. COLB\'s GKN. HIST. 26 390 GENERAL HISTORY Nevertheless, the general attitude of the stricter Catholic part; was that in nnirdering the Huguenots they were performing a holy duty. In Paris religious hatred was in many case affected by motives of private revenge and of greed, and whei the passions of the mob were let loose, many who were no Huguenots were murdered by their private enemies. Debtor in some cases obtained a release from debt by killing thei creditors. Attitude of the King. — Of all those who took part in thi crime, the weak-minded and passionate Charles IX. seems t< have been the least responsible for his act. Under good coun sel he might have developed a better character, but all his lif he had been under the unwholesome influence of his mothei After the deed was done many praised him as a public bene factor, and when he found how favorably the public lookei upon the act, he declared himself the author of the massacr and went in state to view the corpses of the victims, whic] were kept for a time on exhibition. Nevertheless, his remors was sudden and acute. Some say that it hastened his deatli and there is evidence that he was a prey to superstition terrors. Responsibility for the Massacre. — On the other hand, th Guises were fully responsible for the act. Their family hatei Coligny, who, they thought, was responsible for the assassinatioi of the Duke of Guise early in tlie war. Moreover, their whol course had shown that they regarded assassination as a perfectl; proper means for the attainment of personal and party end and for years before the massacre they had dealt in murdei The Parisian populace seemed in hearty sympathy with thi policy of the Guises. But the guiltiest of all was Catherine. She prompted th massacre, won over the king, and intrigued steadily until sh had brought it about. There was nothing in her previou record at all inconsistent with this act. Philip II., on hearing of the massacre, wrote Charles a con gratulatory letter, which shows almost a feeling of envy tha FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 391 he himself had not performed the deed. Finally, the Hugue- nots themselves were not free from responsibility in re- gard to the massacre. They had often shown themselves intolerant, contemptuous, and arrogant, and had threatened the king with war at home if he did not follow out their policy. Renewal of the Wars. — The massacre of St. Bartholomew diminished the numbers of the Huguenots, but strengthened their faith. It drew to their side also the moderates, as repre- sented by the party of the Politiques, and this party now be- came prominent. AVith these new allies the Protestants renewed the war. Thus the object of the massacre was not realized. In fact, after a short time, the Huguenots obtained better terms from the government than ever before. The Holy League. — In 1574 Charles IX. died and was suc- ceeded by his brother Henry III., who acted generally with the strict Catholic party. Soon afterwards the Holy League was formed by the Catholics, who swore to maintain the Catholic faith, relying for this purpose on outside aid from Spain and the pope. The fight now went on between the Holy League on the one side and the Politiques, aided by the Huguenots, on the other. Some consider the ten years that followed the death of Charles IX. as the lowest period in the history of the French monarchy. The weak and vicious Henry III. was a mere tool in the hands of the unpatriotic league. It was a time of intrigue, treachery, and partisan warfare. Even the Huguenots seemed to be animated less by religious zeal than by the thirst for plunder and adventure. Religious Attitude of Henry of Navarre. — Down to 1584 Henry of Navarre showed little of the spirit that afterwards distinguished him. It was doubtful whether he would throw in his lot with the Catholics or the Protestants. It will be remembered that he had married the Catholic Margaret of Valois. On the death of the Duke of Anjou, the younger brother of Henry III., in 1584, Henry of Navarre became heir to the throne. He was now fired by the ambition to 392 GENERAL HISTORY put an end to the disordered state of affairs and become the true king of France. As to religion, lie had little sincere faith, but would not become a Catholic, because it would drive away his friends, and because his hrst principle was toleration in religious matters, while the strict Catholic party were bent on crushing out heresy completely. His object was to become the head of a national party. His Catholic enemies were bound thai he should never come to the throne. Many political pamphlets were circulated discussing the question of royal succession. These put forth the theory that a heretic should never rule, in spite of hereditary claims, and the Jesuits were especiall}? active in pressiug this view. Henry III. and the League. — King Henry III. was in au unfortuuate position. He had to choose between joiuing the Huguenots, whom he hated, and submitting to the league, oi which he was jealous ; but finally he chose the league, forming a treaty with them in 1585, in which he agreed to repeal the acts of toleration to the Huguenots. Thus he became the head oi a faction rather than king of France. The pope excommuni- cated Henry of Navarre, declaring that he was not a lawful successor of the throne of France and that he was deposed from his throne of Navarre. War of the Three Henrys. — Thus arose the War of the Three Henrys, as it is called, from the fact that the leader? were Henry of Navarre, Henry III., King of France, and Henry, Duke of Guise. Henry of Navarre soon showed him.self a brave and skillful commander by his victory at Coutras, where he defeated an army twice the size of his own, The Duke of Guise, also an able general, won as great a success as this over the Germans, who had sent a force tc aid the Huguenots. Guise became an idol of the Catholics, The king was a nobody and was distrusted by the strict Catholic party. Assassination of Guise. — The Parisians invited Guise to come to the city, and the king, much against his will, was made tc FRANCE IN' THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 393 appoint his rival lieutenant general of the kingdom. But in revenge he soon afterwards caused the assassination of Henry of Guise and his brother, the cardinal. This involved the king in a war with the league and so drove him to the side of Henry of Navarre. The king promised to grant toleration to the reformed faith, and Henry of Navarre in return declared himself loyal to the crown. The Huguenots and the Poli- tiques now rallied around the throne, and things looked promising for the return of perinanent peace. Murder of Henry III. — But the Leaguers were desperate, and set on foot plots for the assassination of the renegade king. One Jacques Clement, a half-crazy fanatic who had brooded over the downfall of the league, planned to murder the king, having first been told that such an act, while irregular, was not a mortal sin. Securing an interview with the king at St. Cloud, he suddenly stabbed him (1589). On his deathbed Henry III. enjoined his nobles to do their duty toward Henry of Navarre as their rightful king. Battle of Ivry. — Henry was perfectly willing to guarantee the security of the Catholic faith, but this was not enough for the league, which declared the Cardinal of Bourbon king of France. Philip II. of Spain, who was trying to secure influence over the Catholic countries of Europe, sent aid to the Leaguers, and on the other hand Henry received some auxiliaries from Elizabeth of England. The great battle of the war was the battle of Ivry, in 1590, where the Leaguers and their Spanish allies were completely routed, large numbers being slain and the rest scattered in all directions, leaving their cannon and standards in the hands -of the victors. Henry's success was now only a matter of time. Henry's Conversion. — In 1593 Henry turned Catholic. He was moved to do this by considerations of policy, for a Protes- tant on the throne of Prance would never have received the loyalty of his subjects. He could not hope to be a truly national king if he remained identified with the Protestant cause. Moreover, his conscience in religious matters had al- 394 GENERAL HISTORY ways been somewhat lax. His faith was never strong, and h is said, when the subject of liis conversion arose, to have rt marked that a kingdom was w^ell worth the price of a masf His abjuration of the Protestant faith has always been blamec but though it reflects no credit on his character, it prepared th way for the return of peace and good order in France. Close of the War. — The war continued several years afte the battle of Ivry, but now that the king had joined the E-oma Catholic Church there was a large party in France which f avore loyalty and longed for the return of peace. The league bega to lose ground, but the war with Spain went on. In 1591 however, Henry made a vigorous campaign, as a result c which Philip II. offered terms of peace. By these he recof nized Henry IV. as the rightful king of France, and there w^a a mutual restoration of the places taken during the w^ar. Thi was the Treaty of Vervins (1598). The long period of rel gious wars in France was now at an end. The Edict of Nantes. — Though Henry had withdrawn fror the Huguenot party, he had no intention of allowing the retur: of the old persecutions. As soon as he had secured himself o: the throne and brought his wars to an end, he issued the famou Edict of Nantes (1598). By this decree the Huguenots receivei practical liberty of worship. They were admitted to offices oi an equal footing with Catholics, and they were allow^ed to retail the cities which they had garrisoned. They did not gain b; this complete religious liberty, because they were not free t^ worship in all x)arts of the country. They became a distinc party having ample means of self-defense, but without mucl prospect of progress. The Edict of Xantes was a wise an( humane measure, and it remained in force for nearl}^ om hundred years. Henry's Government. — Henry's pi'ivate morals were lax. H( was self-indulgent and dissipated, ])ut as a ruler he was one o: the best that ever occupied the throne of France. No princt ever had the interest of his subjects more at heart. He founc the country in a wretched condition, the lands desolated, anc FRANCE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 395 the people impoverished by the long wars. The finaiic-es were in confusion, and the revenues were collected by untrustworthy agents who had absorbed a large i)art of what should have been given to the treasury. He placed the management of internal Fkeding the V iSixtcriitli C'entury) affairs in the hands of a singularly able minister named Sully, whose economy and skill soon brought a revival of trade and industries, and an increase of the revenues. Roads and canals were completed, commerce was promoted, colonies were sent out, a postal system was established, and everywhere there was evidence of prosperity. But before Henry had time to carry out all his plans for the improvement of France, he was cut down by an assassin. A fanatic named Ravaillac, feeling that he was ridding the Church of its worst enemy, stabbed the king in 1610. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW France in the Sixteenth Century. — French Protestantism : Contrast between the Reformation in France and in Germany. — Persecution 396 GENERAL HISTORY of the Huguenots. — Catherine de' Medici : Her Character and Policy, — Opposing Parties: The Protestants. The Catholics. — The Poli- tiques. — The Conspiracy of Amboise. — The Outbreak of Civil War ; The Edict of St. Germain. Massacre of Vassy.— The Period ol Civil War. —The First Period of Civil Strife: The Death of An- thony of Navarre. King Henry of Navarre. The Battles of Dreu> and Jarnac. Peace of St. Germain. — The Transition Period : Th( Schemes of Philip II. The Plans of the French Court. The Mar- riage of Margaret Valois to Henry of Navarre. The Attempt tc assassinate Coligny. — Massacre of St. Bartholomew: The Numbei killed. — The Guilty Parties. — Attitude of the King. — Responsi- bility for the Massacre : The Guises. The Parisian Populace, Philip II. of Spain. — Renewal of the Wars. — The Holy League Henry IIL — Religious Attitude of Henry of Navarre : Tlie Ambitior of Henry of Navarre. — Henry 111. .and the League: Difficulty oj Henry the Third's Position. — War of the three Henrys. — Assassi- nation of Guise : Alliance between Henry of Navarre and Henr;y III. — Murder of Henry IIL — Battle of Ivry. — Henry's Con- version. — Close of the War. — The Edict of Nantes: Henry IV grants the Huguenots Freedom of Worship. — Henry's Government His Moral Character. His Policy. The Administration of Sully The Assassination of Henry IV. CHAPTER LIII THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR The Thirty Years' War. — The Thirty Years' War began ii 1018 and was closed by the Peace of Westphalia in 1048 During this time the states of Germany, where the war waj for the most part carried on, were the scene of sieges, battles and all the horrors of war. The war took on in its later yearj a European character and all the great powers were engaged It was the last great struggle for power between the religioui sects. Causes. — Besides the natural antagonism between the Catho lies and the Protestants, there was a special aggravation oi THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 397 religious hatred in the clause of the Peace of Augsburg called the Ecclesiastical Reservation. In this, as we have seen, it was provided that any ecclesiastical prince on turning Protes- tant must give up the lands and authority pertaining to the othce. The treaty as a whole was not satisfactory to either Protestants or Catholics, and this clause seemed especially unjust to the Protestants, who in many cases disregarded it and retained the ecclesiastical property which by the terms of the law should have been given over to the Catholics. Many of the Catholic bishoprics in the northern part of Ger- many were retained by Protestants. The Evangelical Union. — The emperors Ferdinand I. (1555- 1564) and Maximilian II. (1564-1570) Avere tolerant rulers and did not persecute the Protestants. During their reigns, therefore, the Protestant faith made rapid progress. But on the accession of Kudolph II. (1576-1612) the imperial policy was changed, as he was an intolerant devotee to Catholic inter- ests. In Austria he used harsh measures against the Prot- estants, and in 1607 the Catholic Duke of Bavaria seized the free Protestant city of Don au worth and brought it directly under his own rale. The Protestants throughout Germany were alarmed, and in 1608 they formed the Evangelical Union, a league of defense like the older League of Smalkald. The Union, however, did not comprise all the Protestant states. Periods of the War. — There were three periods or stages in the Thirty Years' War. The first was the period of the Bohemian struggle, from 1618 to 1629. The second stage of the war, from 1629 to 1632, was marked by the interference of Sweden, under the leadership of the brave king, Gustavus Adolphus. The third and closing period was from 1632 to 1648. At this stage France, as well as Sweden, took part in the struggle, which now was waged for political objects and territorial gains as much as for religious ends. The Bohemian Period. — The oppressions of Ferdinand of Bohemia led the Protestants of that state to revolt. They appealed to the emperor in vain, and in their anger at his 398 GENERAL HISTORY neglect of their demands they went to Prague, entered the royal castle there, and threw two of the imperial advisers out of the window. The war began in 1618. The Bohemian king, Ferdinand, soon after the opening ( f the war, was chosen emperor of Germany. Backed by the Catholic or Holy League, which was formed in 1609 as an offset to the Evangelical Union, and receiving aid from other sources as well, he was by far the stronger party. The Protestants hoped to obtain aid from James 1. of England and his son-in-law Frederick V., who was chosen by the Bohemians as their king; but in this they were disappointed, and Ferdinand, invading Bohemia, quickly crushed out the Protestant revolt. The Bohemian king, Frederick V., now became a fugitive, and Denmark, England, and Holland took his part. Tilly and Wallenstein. — The chief leaders of the Protes- tants were Christian IV., king of Denmark, Conut Mansfeld, and Christian of Aidiult. Of the Catholics tlie two great generals were Tilly, who commanded the force of the Holy League, and Wallenstein, who led the imperial army. Wal- lenstein was by far the most successful general in the early period of the war. He was a Bohemian noble of great ambition and energy, but as unscrupulous as he was brilliant. He collected an army at his own cost and his plan was that the army should support itself by plunder. This plan of a self-supporting army relieved the imperial treasury, but re- sulted in a ruthless destruction of property; for the troops devastated the country they passed through and on conquer- ing a city gave themselves up to every kind of violence and excess. The Protestants were worsted in almost every encounter; for they had no one to compare in ability with the Catholic generals. Wallenstein overthrew the Protestants under Mans- feld at Dessau, and Tilly defeated Christian of Denmark at Lutter. The Protestant states were overrun by imperial armies ; their cities were seized, and several of the members of their league were- forced to join the Catholics. ^HE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 399 Edict of Restitution. — Peace was finally formed at Ltibeck (1629), and the emperor tried to settle the status of the two parties by the Edict of Restitution, issued in the same year. This gave back to the Catholics the lands which they claimed were theirs in accordance with the Peace of Augsburg. As a consequence, it dispossessed many of the Protestant ecclesi- astics, and its harshness was such that the Protestants were bound to oppose it and renew the war. Second Period of the War (1629-1632). — The central figure of this second period of the Thirty Years' War was Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, a man of great strength and sincerity of character and remarkable military skill. Just at the time when this new^ foe was preparing to attack them, the Catholics lost the service of their ablest leader. Wallenstein, having incurred the jealousy of Ferdinand, as w^ell as the hatred of the people, on account of the outrages committed by his troops, was forced to leave the service of the emperor. Many of his troops and officers retired with him ; the rest joined the impe- rial army, under the command of Tilly. Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. — Gustavus Adolphus entered Germany at the head of 16,000 men. Among some of the Protestants there Avas a reluc- tance to cooperate with this new ally; for they distrusted his motives, especially in re- gard to northern Germany, where it was known that he had dreams of making him- self the master of the Baltic Sea. Nevertheless, many of the hesitating Protestants ral- lied to his side after the siege and sack of Magdeburg, in 1631. The taking of this city by the troops of Tilly was marked by the most brutal massacre and pillage. Women and children were murdered. Gustavus Auuli'iius 400 GENERAL HISTORY and the town was burned to the ground. It is said that some 30,000 people perished at this time. Saxony now joined the side of the Swedish king, who, in 1631, encountered Tilly on the battlefield of Leipzig. Here Gustavus completely overthrew his enemy, and when Tilly again tried to check his advance into southern Germany, Gus- tavus won another battle, in which Tilly was slain. The suc- cesses of Gustavus led the emperor to restore Wallenstein to the command (1632), and Wallenstein accepted the leadership on condition that he was to have absolute control of the army. Battle of Liitzen. — The next great event of the war was the battle of Liitzen (1632). Wallenstein, having quickly gathered a large army, drove the Saxon invaders from Bohemia and himself invaded Saxony, where on the field of Liitzen he joined battle with the Swedes. Again Gustavus Adolphus won the fight, but fell at the moment of victory. His death was the severest loss that the Protestants sustained during the war, for he was by far the most skillful of their leaders. As a result of this second period of the war, the advantage was mainly on the side of the Protestants. Third Stage of the War (i 632-1648). — Wallenstein, though he had been reinstated, was still an object of suspicion to the emperor. He was thought to be aiming at the crown of Bohe- mia, and to be in secret communication with the Protestants. Ferdinand ordered him to be arrested as a traitor. His agents dared not do this openly, but treacherously attacked him and put him to death (1634). In this third period of the war France played a part. Eiclie- lieu was now directing the policy of the French throne, and his policy had for its main aim in foreign affairs the increase of the power of France, and the humbling of the house of Aus- tria. Sweden continued to take the part of the Protestants, and the war became a conflict between the German Empire on the one hand and France and Sweden on the other, rather than a mere contest between the states of Germany for reli- gious mastery. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 401 Treaty of Westphalia (1648). — When all parties to the strug- gle were exhausted, overtures were made for peace, which was formed by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty had a twofold character. In the first place it pronounced upon the religious question, and in the second place it settled territorial boundaries and political control. Religious Provisions. — As to the religious provisions of the treaty, they recognized three forms of religious belief; namely, the Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinistic. These were placed upon the same footing. The religion of a state was still to be the religion of its prince, and he had the right of banishing those of another faith, but it was required that he should first give them three years' notice before expelling them from the country. Substautially it gave the three religious parties civil equality and religious freedom. In respect to the point of dispute in the Treaty of Augsburg, it was agreed that the Protestants should keep all the church property which they had possessed in the year 1624. Territorial Provisions. — The provisions of the treaty which related to territorial boundaries were perhaps even more im- portant. France gained the greater part of Alsace and three cities in Lorraine. The independence of Switzerland and also of Holland was formally acknowledged. Sweden acquired a long strip along the Baltic coast of northern Germany. The German states themselves underwent many important changes in territorial lines, and their relations to the imperial author- ity were materially changed. They could enter into alliances with one another and wdtli foreign powers, and the Diet had the right to decide upon all important measures. Thus Ger- many became a bundle of virtually independent states, and no real power was left to the emperor. Importance of the Treaty of Westphalia. — The Treaty of Westphalia was one of the chief international compacts in the history of Europe, and its effect has been felt in European affairs almost down to our own times. As a result of it, France gained some of the objects of her ambition. She was 402 GENERAL HISTORY now started on a path of aggrandizement, which soon gained for her the foremost place in Europe. Her possession of Al- sace and Lorraine, a region occupied by people of Germar blood, continued down to 1871, when Germany regained these territories as a result of the Franco-German War. In northerr Europe, Sweden became the leading state. Sweden, by acquir- ing German territories, had the right of representation in the German Diet, and France also could interfere in German affairs as the guarantor of the treaty. On its religious side the Treaty of Westphalia, being oi the nature of a compromise, did not go far enough to satisfy either party. It did not definitely declare the principle oJ perfect toleration, yet it prepared the way for the triumph oJ that principle by recognizing Calvinism as a legitimate form of belief and by protecting the subject against the religious persecution of his prince. To sum up, France and Sweden came forward in European politics, while Germany and Spain fell far behind ; German ;y found her central government weakened and her internal af fairs in confusion ; Protestantism had gained recognition, and the period of warfare between nations for religion's sake came to an end. These were the main results of the Treaty oi Westphalia. Effects of the War. — As a result of the Avar, Germany was left in a condition of indescribable wretchedness. The people had been at the mercy of plundering armies for many years their lands were turned into deserts and their cities were re eluceel to ashes. It is saiel that the population of the whole country fell off more than one half during the war; that ir the city of Augsburg the population decreased from 80,000 tc 18,000; and that the duchy of Wlirtemberg fell off in popu- lation from about 400,000 to 50,000. Learning was checked and vice and crime increased. In fact, the civilization of Ger- many was set back many years and it required the lapse ol a long period before she regained what she had lost. THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 403 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Thirty Years' War. — Causes: The Ecclesiastical Reservation. — The Evangelical Union : Trouble in Bohemia. — Teriods of the War. — The Bohemian Period: Reverses of the Bohemian King. The Leaders of the Protestants. — Tilly and Wallenstein : Wallenstein's System. The Catholic Generals. The Battles of Dessau and Lut- ter. Defeat of the Protestants. — Edict of Restitution. — Second Period of the War. — Giistavus Adolphus in Germany: The Siege and Sack of Magdeburg. Gustavus's Victory at Leipzig. — Battle of Liitzen : The Victory and Death of Gustavus Adolphus.— Third Stage of the War: The Murder of Wallenstein. The Interference of France. — Treaty of Westphalia. — Religious Provisions: Catho- lics, Lutherans, and Calvinists recognized. — Territorial Provisions : The Gains of France and Sweden. The Independence of Switzer- land and the Netherlands recognized. The Condition of Germany. — Importance of the Treaty of Westphalia. — Effects of the War .- Damage suffered by Germany. Her Loss of Population. CHAPTER LIV THE GROWTH OF NATIONS — THE ASCENDENCY OF FRANCE Louis XIII. — The death of Henry IV. left his son Louis XIII., a child of nine years, on the throne, and the govern- ment was carried on by the queen mother, Mary de' Medici. Louis XIII. 's reign lasted from 1610 to 1643. During the early part of his reign affairs were ill managed, for the queen had little ability as a ruler ; but after the year 1624 the policy of Trance was directed by one of the ablest statesmen of the cen- tury. Cardinal Richelieu. The king himself had neither the taste nor the ability for goverinnent, and left affairs in the hands of his minister. Richelieu. — The object of Richelieu's policy in domestic affairs was to make the French king absolute, and in foreign affairs to niuke France the most powerful state in Europe. 404 GENERAL lilSTURY To attain the first of these objects, he resorted to every means to break the power of the aristocracy and to crush the Hugue- nots. In both these points he was successfuL The authority was gained for the king at the expense of the nobles, and the Huguenots as a political party were destroyed. They had formed a sort of state within a state, having totally different objects and ambitions from the people of the rest of France. They would have liked to form in France an independent Prot- estant commonwealth — a project wholly inconsistent with national unity and greatness. Siege of La Rochelle. — In 1627 an English fleet appeared off the coast of France to give aid to the Huguenots, an al- liance having been formed between the Protestant nobles and the English crown. The chief city of the Huguenots, and the one which they designed for the capital of their proposed republic, was La liochelle. Richelieu took vigorous measures against the Huguenots, and commanded in person at the siege of La Rochelle. After a long and courageous resistance, in the course of which the population fell to a small fraction of what it had been, the city yielded and its fortifications were destroyed. In a short time the Huguenots were deprived of all political power, although they were allowed to retain the measure of religious liberty which they had previously pos- sessed. How Richelieu carried out his foreign policy of making France the greatest state of Europe, we have seen in describing the closing period of the Thirty Years' War. Richelieu died before the war ended, but France reaped the ' benefit of his policy. The Age of Louis XIV. — During the reign of Louis XIV., the son and successor of Louis XIII. (1643-1715), which lasted over seventy years, France was the leading nation of Europe. In some respects it was a brilliant period. The magnificence of the French court, the splendor of Paris, and the proud position of France in Europe were characteristics of the time. Literature flourished under the patronage of the court, and THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 405 i^i& LuLi'5 Xl\ some of the greatest of the French writers lived in this reign. A striking characteristic of the time was the absolute belief of the subjects in the divine power of the king. Louis XIV. was the most conspicu- ous type of an absolute mon- arch. He was the source of all power and glory. Cardinal Mazarin. — The king was a child five years of age when he came to tlie throne, and during his minority the gov- ernment was carried on by Maz- arin. What liichelieu had undertaken, Mazarin carried out. The great advantages which France won by the Treaty of Westphalia were due to him. Richelieu did not live to see Spain and the German empire humiliated, but in Mazarin's time they were no longer the lead- ing powers. The eighteen years of his premiership were one of the most brilliant periods in French history, and much of what was gained after him must be set down to his credit; for some of Louis's greatest ministers were trained in politics by Mazarin. He died in 1661, leaving Louis a singularly able adviser in the minister Colbert. Colbert. — On the death of Mazarin, Louis, declaring that he would be his own prime minister, assumed the control of the government. He did, in fact, keep a sharp watch on every de- partment of affairs. Some regarded the king's declaration as a joke, thinking that he would soon tire of busying himself with affairs of state. Among those who did not appreciate the king's earnestness in this matter was the minister of finance, Fouquet, but he soon had cause to regret his blunder. Fouquet had managed the finances in such a way that at the end of his term of office he was enormously rich and the finances were in a worse con- COLBV'S CEN. HIST. 26 406 GENERAL HISTORY dition than they had been before. His display aroused the jealousy of Louis, who, in the first place, disliked to see one of his subjects living in a state more luxurious than his own, and, in the second place, viewed with distrust wealth which was ac- quired from any other source than the king's liberality. In a financial report, Fouquet falsified some of his accounts, think- ing it would probably escape the king's notice, but the matter was brought by Colbert to Louis's attention and Fouquet was promptly degraded and condemned to imprisonment for life. Colbert was one of the ablest finance ministers in French history. From 1661 to 1683 he was at the head of the French finances, and during this period he managed to remove abuses and increase the revenue to an enormous extent. His policy, too, was one of encouragement to internal trade and agriculture. Wars of Louis XIV. — There were four principal wars dur- ing the reign of Louis XIV. They were, first, the War witli Spain, which arose over the question of the Spanish Neth- erlands (1667-1668) ; second, the War with Holland (1672- 1678); third, the War of the Palatinate (1689-1697), and fourth, the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). In all of these wars France was the aggressor, and the object was conquest and the acquisition of new territory. The War with Spain (1667-1668). — This arose from the al- leged claims of Louis's queen, Mari'a Theres'a, to the sover- eignty over certain territories in Flanders and Brabant. She had renounced this claim on condition that a certain sum of money should be paid for her dowry. Spain had not paid the dowry, and this was taken by Louis as a justification for the renewal of his Avife's claim. Louis's argument was not the most reasonable or moral one, but it was backed by superior force. Spain was weak in many respects, and he was ready to take the field with a strong force under Turenne, the ablest general of the time. He invaded the low countries and took several important cities. The pompous vanity of the king is illustrated by what has been called "his tranquil siege of cities." Without incurring any THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 407 danger, he would be present with his court at the siege and on capturing the town he would be straightway hailed as a hero surpassing the great generals of antiquity. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668). — Holland, taking alarm at the invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, brought about a triple alliance between Sweden, England, and herself, which demanded that peace should be restored. Louis very reluc- tantly gave way and consented to the Treaty of Aix-la-Cha- pelle, by Avhich he retained a small part of the low countries. The War with Holland (1672-1678). — This Avar was one of revenge ; for Louis could not forgive the Dutch for their inter- ference with his schemes in the Netherlands, and still less for the ridicule which some of their writers had heaped on him. Before entering on this war, he tried to isolate Holland and make sure that no ally among the European powers should come to her aid. For this purpose he bought up the Swedish king, and induced Charles II. of England by bribery, to form a secret treaty with him. This Treaty of Dover (1670) was a disgrace- ful compromise on the part of the English king ; for it granted the payment of a large sum of money for a juirpose which the people and Parliament of the realm held in the utmost detesta- tion. Moreover, by it the king of England agreed to become a Catholic. The military arrangements were made with equal care, under the skillful direction of Louvois and the famous engineer Vauban. Louis's success was prompt and complete. The States-Gen- eral of Holland offered him nearly a third of their territory and the payment of a large indemnity : but the French, foolishly rejecting these terms, demanded more concessions. They re- quired double the indemnity, a larger cession of territory, free- dom of worship for Catholics in the Dutch dominions, and the sending of a solemn deputation from Holland each year, to thank the French king for having restored peace to their country. This was too much even for a defeated and dispirited nation to bear, and it drove the Dutch to a last desperate measure. 408 GENERAL HISTORY They cut the dikes and flooded the country. The French had to give up tlie siege of Amsterdam. Elsewhere, however, they avenged themselves by acts of cruelty. " The soldiers roasted all the Dutch in the village of Swammerdam," wrote one of the French generals; ''they did not let one escape." But finally the Germans sent aid to the Dutch, and England made peace with them. Spain, fearing Louis' ambition, also took sides with Holland; so Louis now had to face a powerful alli- ance of three countries, Spain, Germany, and Holland. William of Orange. — The leader of the Dutch was William, Prince of Orange, a descendant of William the Silent. All thought of compromise with France was now at an end, for William was a bitter and implacable hater of the French. He had all the energy and steadiness of purpose that had distin- guished his great ancestor, and like him he gained more by patience and ^persistency than by success in the field. In fact it is said of him that he lost more battles than any other gen- eral of history, within an equal period of time. But he would not yield. Treaty of Nimwegen. — The war closed with the Treaty of Nimwegen (1678), by which the Dutch gave up some unim- portant foreign possessions, and Spain the large tract kno'wn as Franche-Comte, together with many important cities in Flanders. Holland was saved. The treaty gave her very dif- ferent terms from what she would have had to concede if the greed of the French in her moment of defeat had not forced her to renew the war. Yet, on the whole, France came out well. Her boundaries in the north became what they are to-day, and her gains at the expense of Spain were permanent and valuable. This date, 1678, marks the highest point which Louis' power attained. The Interval of Peace. — In defiance of right and in the face of a powerful alliance against her, France had profited from the war, and the credit of it all was given to the king, who now received from his subjects the title of the Great. The Grand Monarch, as he was called, improved the interval of peace by THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 409 seizing the territories of his neighbors and destroying the reli- gious liberty of his Huguenot subjects. Success made him arro- gant and contemptuous of the' rights of others. He seized the important city of Strassburg, humbled Genoa for failing to render prompt obedience to his will, and sent an army to plunder the territories of the Duke of Savoy, because he would not expel heretics from his dominions. In short, he acted as the tyrant of Europe, and before long the other sovereigns formed a league against him. At home, in dealing with the Huguenots, he could act with impunity. They were weak, and the majority of the people Avere abject in their loyalty. Measures against the Huguenots. — After the war with Hol- land the activity of the government against the Protestants increased. Louis had always been anxious to uproot heresy, and the older he grew the more bigoted he became. All sorts of devices were employed to convert the Hugue- nots to the Catholic faith. The nobility were tempted to renounce Protestantism as the price of the king's favor, and many of them turned Catholics. A large sum of money was set apart for religious bribery; and while inducements Avere offered for conversion, penal- ties were multiplied for the obsti- nate. Every kind of restriction and annoyance was imposed on the Huguenots, and when these failed stronger measures were employed. The Dragonnades. — One of the harshest features of this co- ercive policy was the practice of billeting troops in Protestant families. This kind of persecution was known as the Dragon- nades. In the families of unconverted Huguenots bands of brutal soldiers were quartered, and the violence and excesses Costume of the Time of Loiis Xi V. 410 GENERAL HISTORY of these unwelcome boarders were encouraged by the local authorities as likely to drive the unbelievers into the orthodox faith. This, in fact, was their effect. Conversions were quick, if not lasting. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. — Finally came the Eevo- cation of the Edict of Xantes (1685), the decree which, it will be remembered, was issued by Henry IV. in 1598, and guaran- teed to the Protestants a fair degree of toleration. Its repeal left them no religious liberty whatever. As a matter of fact, great numbers of the Protestants had left the country already. Others followed, till the number of Huguenot refugees reached nearly 250,000. They went to Germany, Holland, Switzerland, England, and the American colonies. As they were among the best and most industrious citizens of France, she suffered by their loss, and the lands to which they went profited to an equal degree. By revoking the Edict of Nantes Louis made all the Protes- tant states of Europe his enemies, and by seizing the lands of his neighbors he angered the Catholic powers. As a result, the League of Augsburg was formed in 1686, comprising Ger- many, Spain, Holland, and Sweden, and later Savoy and England also. In 1688 James 11. , a Catholic and an ally of Louis, w^as driven from the English throne, and the Protestant William of Orange was accepted by the English as their king. This was a severe blow to Louis ; for he was now liable to attack from the sea, and was obliged to maintain armies and fleets to defend his rear, while directing campaigns on the continent. War of the Palatinate (1689-1697). — The causes of the war were (1) a disputed claim to the Palatinate, (2) the refusal of the pope to regard Louis' wishes in appointing a new elector of Cologne. The lands of the elector adjoined Alsace, which was endangered by the presence of a hostile neighbor. Hostili- ties began in 1689. Louis at once threw an army into the Palatinate, and the campaign that followed became a mere raid of murder and pillage. Dwellings were fired, the country was turned into a desert, and 100,000 of the inhabitants are said to THE GROWTH OF NATIONS 411 have been driven from their homes. The blame for this brn- tality attaches mainly to Lonis' able war minister, Louvois, the organizer of the Dragonnades. France lost more than she gained by it, for all Europe was indignant at the outrage. In the war the French forces fought brilliantly on land and sea, winning many victories, especially through the skill of their great leader, Luxembourg. Treaty of Ryswick. — Nevertheless, the alliance of the for- eign powers was too strong for them, and the Treaty of Kys- wick, which concluded the war in 1697, left France but little better off than she had been just after the Peace of Nimwegen. With the important exception of Strassburg, she gave up almost all the lands which she had seized during the years that fol- lowed the war with Holland. Louis recognized William III. as the rightful king of England. The Duke of Savoy, whose family for years had been bullied b}^ the French court, gained a position of independence and became one of the important sovereigns of Europe. From his family descended the kings of Sardinia, who in the nineteenth century united all Italy under their rule. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). — One reason which led Louis to consent to the Peace of Ryswick was his interest in the question of the Spanish succession. Charles II. of Spain was childless, and Europe was anxiously debating the question of his successor. There were three claimants in the held : first, Philip of Anjou, the second grandson of Louis XIV. ; second, the young prince elector of Bavaria; and third, the archduke Charles, son of the emperor Leopold of Germany. There was much intriguing and wrangling among the courts on this subject of succession, and several proposals for a fair division of the spoils were discussed. Charles IL, finally, resenting the proposed schemes of the great powers for dividing up his inheritance after his death, bequeathed the throne to the weakest of the three claimants, the young prince of Ba- varia. This claimant died, however, and France and Austria were the only surviving rivals. Europe was divided on the 412 , GENERAL HISTORY question ; for it was feared that if either of these great powers gained its end it woiikl create a state so strong that the inhabitants of the others would be threatened. Charles II., a weak-minded and miserable king, finally fell wholly under the influence of France, and in his will named Philip of Anjou as his heir, to the disgust and wrath of Europe. Louis accepted this offer for his grandson. For some time it was doubtful what the course of England would be ; but Louis declared the young son of the exiled James 11. to be the rightful king of England, in open violation of the Treaty of Ryswick. Eng- land was now ready and enthusiastic for war. Alliance against France. — A grand alliance against France was formed between England, Prussia, Holland, Portugal, the German Empire, and Savoy. Besides the greater strength which their combined wealth and numbers gave, the allies had on their side the military genius of the two great leaders, the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. On the other hand, most of the distinguished French generals had died, and Louis filled their places with men of inferior ability. Early Battles of the War. — In the first part of the war, the allies were on the whole successful. Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and Bavarians at Blenheim (1704) on the left bank of the Danube, capturing their genei-al and some 15,000 of their troops. England captured the fortress of Gibraltar in Spain. Marlborough overwhelmed the French again at Ramillies in the Netherlands, and Eugene won equal fame soon afterwards by a victory at Turin. At (3udenarde in the Netherlands the combined forces of Marlborough and Eugene won another victory. Louis was now (1708) almost without hope. He showed himself ready to make a treaty on terms most favorable to the allies, including even the withdrawal from Spain and the giv- ing up of Strassburg. The allies made the same mistake that Louis had often made in his times of prosperity. They asked too much, and drove the French to renew the war. Another thp: growth of nations 418 victory was won by Marlborough and Eugene at Malplaquet, but the situation was now more favorable to France. The arch- duke Charles, the Austrian claimant, became, by the death of his father and brother, emperor of Germany, and his accession to the Spanish throne was now as objectionable as had been the accession of the French claimant; for it would unite the two great powers, Spain and the German Empire, in the hands of one ruler. There were, moreover, dissensions among the allies, and their cause was weakened by the distrust aroused by the suspicious conduct of their gi-eatest general, Marlborough, who had entered into negotiations with the enemy. Treaty of Utrecht. — In 1713 England concluded with France the Treaty of Utrecht. Four other states soon entered into this treaty, and it was followed (1714) by a peace at Rastadt with the German emperor. The terms of the Treaty of Utrecht were by no means so hard for France as would have 414 GENERAL HISTORY been a treaty formed in her hour of distress. The peace left the Bourbon king, Philip of Anjou, on the throne of Spain, but the French court solemnly promised that the two king- doms should never be united. England gained Gibraltar and the island of Minorca from Spain, and Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Hudson Bay Territory from France. Moreover, Louis promised that he would not harbor the Pretender to the English throne (the son of James II.) any longer in his domin- ions. To Savoy was given the island of Sicily, but this was exchanged a few years later for the island of Sardinia. The Spanish Netherlands, and Naples, Sardinia and Milan were taken from Spain and became vassal states of Austria. The great gain- ers by the war were England, who in the Treaty of Utrecht gained Gibraltar and some additions to her colonial empire, and Austria, who acquired rich possessions in Italy and the Netherlands. Close of Louis' Reign. — The last years of Louis' reign were very different from the first. In the most important of his projects he had failed, and even where he succeeded the results did not pay for what it had cost to bring them about. The constant drain on the treasury caused by the continual wars and the absurd extravagance of the French court had almost bankrupted the state. France was in a wretched con- dition and was beginning to decline from her position as the leading state in Europe. What Louis had gained, he had gained by the devotion of his subjects more than by his own abilities, and the price which France paid for it in the lives and money of her people was too great to be estimated. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Growth of Nations. — Louis XIII. — RicheHeu : The Aims of His Domestic Policy. His Schemes for National Aggrandizement. His Success. Siege of La Rochelle. — Tlie Age of Louis XIV. — Cardinal Mazarin : The Success of His Policy. — Colbert: His Financial Pe- forms. — Wars of Louis XIV. : The War of the Spanish Netherlands. Louis' Success. — The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — The War with Holland : The Treaty of Dover. French Successes. The Alliance against France. — William of Orange. — Treaty of Nimwegen. — The ENGLAND IN THE SKVENTEENTH CENTURY 415 Interval of Peace: Louis' Aggressions. — Measures Against the Huguenots. — The Dragonnades. — Revocation of Edict of Nantes: Its Effect. — War of the Palatinate : Its Causes. The Cruelty of the Erench. — The Treaty of Ryswick. — The War of the Spanish Succession : The Claimants to the Spanish Throne. Louis' Conduct. — Alliance against Erance. — Early Battles of the War : Blenheim. Ramillies. Turin. Oudenarde. Louis' Critical Position. Excessive Demands of the Allies. The Renewal of the War. The Battle of Malplaquet. Dissensions among the Allies. — Treaty of Utrecht : England's and Austria's Gains. The Terms Imposed on France. — Close of Louis' Reign : The P'ailure of Most of His Projects. The Condition of France. CHAPTER LV ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY - BREAK OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE OUT- Introduction. — The seventeenth century was a period of great importance in English history. Before its close, a long struggle between the king and Parliament was brought to an end, and a wholly new principle of gov- ernment was recognized. The tyr- anny of the Stuart kings provoked a civil war, and led to the over- throw and execution of Charles L, the second of the dynasty. Then followed a government unlike any- thing that England had ever before experienced. This was the so-called Commonwealth, which soon fell wholly under the control of the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. In 1660 the Stuarts were restored to the throne, but they had learned nothing from experience. In 1088 the foll}^ and bigotry of the Coronation Chair (Westminster Abbey) 416 GENERAL HISTORY Stuart kingj James II., caused a revolution. He was driven from the throne and at the will of his people a foreigner was called in to take his ]3lace. The Revolution of 1688 changed entirely the system of government, destroying forever the chances of an absolute monarchy in England. James I. (1603-1625). — The iirst Stuart to come to the throne of England was James I. He was the son of Mary Queen of Scots, and had inherited the throne of Scotland under the title of James VI. By his accession to the English throne on the death of Queen Elizabeth, in 1603, the two king- doms Avere united in the person of their sovereign. In Scot- land James had been under Presbyterian influence and the dissenting element in England hoped that he would favor them, but his early contact with Presbyterianism had just the opposite effect. He was a strong believer in the Episcopal form of government, and his motto was "No Bishop, No King"; for he believed that the priesthood of the Anglican Church was the strongest defense of the throne. Accordingly he showed him- self indifferent to the Presbyterians from the first. Soon after his arrival in London a number of the Presbyterian clergy presented a petition for a reform, in the Church service. James summoned a conference, which decided against them ; and ten of the petitioners were thrown into prison. Besides being intolerant in religious matters, he held to a view in political affairs which was certain to bring him into conflict with Parliament. He believed hrmly in the divine right of the monarch, and that all the privileges and liberties of Parliament existed solely by permission of the crown. Had he been a man of marked ability or imposing address, these high notions would not have seemed so absurd; but he was childish, pedantic, and cowardly, with nothing kingly about him, and his claims contrasted strongly with the contempt which his character inspired. He showed at first a tendency to deal gently with the Catholics, but this caused such discon- tent among his Protestant subjects that his policy changed to one of severity. This led to the formation of the Gunpowder ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 417 Plot to blow up the king and the houses of Parliament (1605). But the design was discovered in time, and the conspirators, including Guy Fawkes, who was to have touched a match to the powder which had been placed under the building, were put to death. Still harsher measures were enforced against the Catho- lics after this. James and the Parliament. — The king's attempt to rule as an absolute monarch soon brought him into conflict with Parlia- ment. Not content with the usual revenues which were voted him by the Parliament, he imposed certain taxes on his own account, and when Parliament began to debate his right to do this he ordered them to drop the subject. This they refused to do, and the king promptly dissolved the Parliament. The next Parliament met with the same fate, and four of its leaders were thrown into prison. The third Parliament in his reign ventured to protest against his invasion of their rights, but the king dissolved it, and tore the protest from the statute book with his own hand. Thus tlie first of the Stuarts showed the same disregard of law which later characterized other members of his family. Other Events of the Reign. — An important event of James' reign was the planting of Scotch and English colonies in the Irish county of Ulster on lands taken from the native chiefs. Many of the Irish were driven from their homes. The Ulster colonies were prosperous, but the natives could not forgive the wrong, and another grievance was added to the long list of injuries which embittered the Irish against their Anglo-Saxon rulers. In his foreign policy James was wholly unsuccessful. He gave no effectual aid to his son-in-law, Frederick V., who was driven from his Bohemian kingdom, and he planned an alliance with Spain which brought nothing but disaster. Sir Walter Raleigh, who 'had been kept many years in prison on a charge of treason, was set free that he might go on a voyage in search of gold in America. He found no gold, and on his return planned to sfeize some Spanish ships. He did not carry out 418 GENERAL HISTORY Charles I. this project, but the authorities were told of it upon his return, and Ealeigh was executed as a traitor. Charles I. (1625-1649). — Charles I. was a far abler ruler than his father. He was a man of greater courage and more dignity of character, but he had been trained from infancy in the belief of his divine right to rule, and he chose ministers who encouraged him in this view and tried to apply it prac- tically. Parliament was not disposed to be amiable after the wrongs it had suffered at the hands of James. In the first fifteen months of his reign two Parliaments were summoned and angrily dissolved ; the first because it demanded that its grievances should be redressed before it granted the king the requisite supplies ; the second because it impeached the king's miuister, Buckingham. In the interval between the second and third Parliaments the king raised money by forced loans and benevolences, throwing into prison those who refused to comply with the illegal demands. Under the influence of Buckingham the king tried to divert the attention of his sub- jects from bad government at home by entering into a war with France; but the result was humiliating, and the king's minister was more hated than ever. The Petition of Right. — Need of money obliged Charles to call his third Parliament, which, before it would grant him supplies, passed the famous Petition of Right, setting forth their grievances. The abuses complained of were illegal ex- actions of money, arbitrary imprisonment, punishment by martial law, and the quartering of troops in private houses. The petition was drawn up in December, 1628, and the king was obliged to consent to it. It was based on the principles ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 419 of the Great Charter, and, like that iiistruinent, became one of the most important elements in the Elngiish constitution. Unfortunately, Charles did not keep his word. He continued to obtain money by illegal means, and to throw into prison those who refused to grant it. When Parliament objected, the king dismissed it. Soon afterwards Buckingham was as- sassinated, but although this removed one cause of discontent, the Parliament in its next session (1629) was soon at odds with the king again, and came to a speedy end. Charles rules without a Parliament. — For eleven years, that is, from 1629 to 1640, the king called no Parliament, and ruled as absolute monarch. He threw into prison those members of the House of Commons who had opposed him, and enforced his Avill througlT the Court of Star Chamber, which became a very serviceable tool of despotism in his hands. His old illegal methods of getting money were revived, and later a new one was put into practice. This was the collection of 'ship money,' which was originally a contribution from the counties on the seacoast to provide ships for the use of the king. The king, how- ever, had no intention of building a fleet at this time. What he wanted was to raise money on that pretense, and the im- position was levied even on the inland counties. The king was forbidden by law to tax his subjects without the consent of Parliament, but he and his ministers claimed that the levy- ing of ship money was not the imposition of a new tax, but merely the enforcement of an existing law. In the inland counties there was some resistance. The patriot John Hamp- den ventured to refuse to pay the sum of twenty shillings assessed upon a portion of his estate. This became a test case, and all over England people anxiously awaited the verdict. Hampden lost the case, but the result was to make liim the idol of the Parliamentary party, and to add to the unpopularity of the tax. The King's Policy toward Scotland. — In Elizabeth's reign the Presbyterian form of worship had been established in Scotland. James, knowing something of the temper of his Scotch sub- 420 GENERAL HISTORY jects, had not dared to force the Scottish Church into conformity with tlie English, although he caused the royal supremacy to be acknowledged in Church matters throughout Scotland, and the free exercise of the Anglican worship to be permitted. Further than this he did not venture, but Charles was not equally cautious. The archbishop of Canterbury was now the energetic but narrow-minded Laud, whose one idea in regard to Scotland was to uproot all dissent from the Anglican Church, and to make the bishops supreme. With his aid, and at Charles' command, a new prayer book was prepared for the Scotch, to their indignation. So, while England was in an uproar over the king's tyranny in political matters, Scotland was on the verge of revolt on account of religious oppression. The National Covenant. — At last, in 1638, the Scotch people signed the National Coveiunit, promising to adhere to their old religion, and resist all attempts at change. The king was in a dangerous position, for in spite of his illegal exactions he was short of money. He tried to compromise with the Scots, but his offers came too late. His minister, Strafford, led an army north, but his troops were ill disciplined and he dared not risk a battle. A treaty favorable to the Scots was made in 1639. The Short Parliament. — The king now finding that he could take no step toward vengeance without a grant of supplies, called his fourth Parliament (1610). This is known as the Short Parliament; for, refusing to come to an agreement with the king, it was dissolved after three weeks. For a little while Charles tried to gain his ends Avithout summoning another Parliament, but again failed. His plans against the Scots ended in failure, and as a last resort he summoned Parliament. This was the famous Long Parliament, which for a period of nearly twenty years acted as the national council. The Long Parliament. — The discontent of the people at the conduct of the king showed itself in the character of the men whom they chose to represent them in this body. The ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENril CENTURY 421 majority of the members were radicals, who soon passed beyond the point of legal reform and started on a course of revolution. The king had broken the law by invading the rights of Parliament; Parliament now broke the law by invading the rights of the king. Yet at first it contented itself with merely restoring the constitution to its proper place. Some of its good measures were the sweeping away of the arbitrary courts and the prohibition of ship money. It also provided that Parliament should be summoned every third year. Fall of Strafford. — But in the proceedings against Strafford, the king's minister, its course was illegal. Strafford had been one of the harshest upholders of the principle of divine right. So far as it lay in his power, he had crushed out, even by un- scrupulous means, the least show of opposition to the king's arbitrary government. But the charge against him was treason, and his offense did not technically fall under that head. Par- liament, however, condemned him to death under a Bill of Attainder, and Charles, although he had sworn never to desert Strafford, signed the death warrant. The Grand Remonstrance. — The hostility of Parliament increased from day to day. In the first place, its members had no faith in the king's promises, for they had learned that he made them only to deceive. In the second place, the Puritan party, which was bent on the destruction of the Episcopal form of Church government, was constantly growing in strength. At last the majority passed a resolution known as the Grand Remonstrance, appealing to the people for protection and complaining of the policy of the king's friends. The king had tried to prevent the passage of this measure and, failing in this, determined to seize the leaders in the House. On January 4, 1642, he entered the House of Commons at the head of a band of soldiers and demanded the surrender of five of its members, including John Hampden and John Pym, who were among the foremost of the popular leaders. The members were not present and the king retired in anger. Colby's gen. iiisr. — 27 422 GENERAL HltSTOKY As he left cries of "Privilege!'' followed liim. This really marks the beginning of the civil war ; for although lighting did not actually take place for several months, all hope of a peaceful settlement was from this time at an end. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW England in tiik Seventeenth Century. — Introduction : General Char- acter of the I'eriod. — James I. : The Union of England and Scotland. James' Religious Policy. His Intolerance. The Gunpowder Plot. — James and the Tarliament: His Arbitrary Conduct. Frequent Dissolutions of Parliament. — Other Events of the Reign : The Colo- nization of Ulster. Foreign Policy. The Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh. — Charles I. : His Attitude toward Parliament. Bucking- ham. — The Petition of Right : Mismanagement of Charles. — Charh s rules without a Parliament : His Methods of Raising Money. Ship Money. John Hampden. — The King's Policy toward Scotland: Archbishop Laud's Attempt to force Episcopacy on the Scots. — The National Covenant. — The Short Parliament. — The Long Parlia- ment. — Fall of Strafford. — The Grand Remonstrance: The King'.s Attempt to arrest the Five Members. CHAPTEPx LVI THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE The Opposing Parties. — The essential points on which the opposing parties differed were the extent of the royal authority and the rights of Parliament. Among the Royalists, or Cava- liers, as they were called, there was an unquestioning faith in the absolute kingship. Among the Parliamentarians or Round- heads (so called because some had close-cropped hair), there was an equally firm belief in the rights of Parliament. Now the first party stood for the doctrine of the divine right of kings and the passive obedience of subjects. This meant that the king's power could not be restricted by any human author- ity ; that he was therefore above all law, and that the duty of THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE 423 the subject in all conceivable circumstances was to obey him. He might take the property of a subject and imprison him at will, and the king's servants were answerable to no one but himself. Parliament was merely to assist, not to direct him. On the other hand, the Parliamentary party looked upon the king as having certain defined powers, but limited by the rights of his subjects. They held that law was made by the joint action of Parliament and king, and that the latter had no right to override the law. Parliament alone had the right to grant taxes. It might punish the king's servants. The king had not the right of punishing his subjects, except by due process of law. These views represent in general the views of each party. But there were many on the side of the king who did not fully approve of his conduct. They had joined him from chivalrous motives, feeling that he was the weaker party and that Parlia- ment had overstepped its authority. On the other hand, among the Parliamentarians there were men of all grades of political views, from those who favored the setting up of a Kepublic and the destruction of the English Church, to those who merely wished a limited monarchy. The Parliamentarians were also divided in their religious views. The most numerous element among them was the Presbyterian, but the Independ- ents, who wished for complete self-government for each con- gregation, were growing rapidly in power. The Beginning of the War. — On August 22, 1642, the royal standard was set up at Nottingham, and all loyal subjects were summoned to the king's support. There had been some at- tempts at compromise, but the demands of Parliament were excessive. It required the control of the militia and of the Church, and many other rights, which it had not previously possessed. In the earlier battles, the king's party gained sev- eral successes, especially where its cavalry came into play. This cavalry was led by the brilliant but imprudent captain Prince Eupert, grandson of James I. At the end of 1643, however, the Scots made common cause with the Houndheads. 424 GENERAL HISTOKY Oliver Cromwell; Marston Moor. — The most remarkable man in either of the two armies was Oliver Cromwell, who took part in the early campaigns as a colonel of cavalry, having raised a regiment of Puritan troops, which came to be known as 'Cromwell's Ironsides.' The regiment Avas composed of serious and determined men, who were mighty in prayer as well as in battle. None of the vices of the camp were found among them, and they went in to fight singing psalms. They were regarded as invincible and their record during the war seemed to bear out this opinion. In the great battle of Marston Moor, 1644, the Eoyalists were beaten by the Parliamentarians and the Scots, through the help of this regiment. Naseby. — The success of Cromwell's discipline and organi- zation now determined the Parliamentarians to model the army anew. This work fell to the lot of the Independents, and Crom- well became the real head of the army. The decisive battle of the war was fought at Naseby in June, 1615, where the Royalists were routed. Pride's Purge. — The king in 1646 surrendered himself to the Scots, who later gave him up to the English. Now that he was in the hands of the enemy, there was nothing for him to do but submit. If he could have done this gracefully, it might have averted further war and saved his life. But the same old habit of deceit followed him now as it had in the past, and he tried by crooked means to phiy off one party against the other. There was a long period marked by intrigues and double dealing, and finally there seemed a chance of an agreement between the king and the victorious party, but here again the king's duplicity injured his cause. It was understood that he should be restored on terms favorable to the Independents. But he entered into a secret treaty with the Scotch Presbyte- rians, who hated the Independents, and the war broke out again. Cromwell, however, soon succeeded in suppressing the revolt. After this the more moderate leaders could not hold the radicals in check and control passed into the hands of the army, who demanded the death of the king. To prevent any opposition THE CIVIL WAR AND THE PROTECTORATE 425 from Parliament, an officer named Pride entered the House of Commons and arrested all the members who were opposed to the designs of the army. Trial and Execution of the King. — Injustice and wrong stained the triumph of the king's foes just as they had disgraced his own rule in the time of his prosperity. His trial and condem- nation were absolutely without show of legality. After Pride's Purge the House became a willing servant of the army. It went on and instituted a high court of justice, before which the king was summoned. Charles behaved with dignity at the trial, refusing to recognize the right of such a tribunal to pro- nounce judgment. But the sentence was death and it was carried oat in a few days, the king showing courage and composure to the end (1649). The Commonwealth. — A few days after the death of the king the House of Lords was abolished and a new form of gov- ernment was established, which is known in history as the Commonwealth. What was left of the House of Commons continued in session and a council of state composed of forty- one members carried on the government. But the only man in England fit to rule at this time was Cromwell, and at the end of the year 1653 he was made Lord Protector of the Realm. Before this he had put down the Royalists and Catholics in Ireland with savage cruelty, and had twice defeated the Scotch forces of the young heir to the throne (after- wards Charles II.) in the battles of Dunbar and Worcester. For five years (till his death in 1658) Cromwell ruled with all the despotism that had marked the previous reigns. Yet it was a despotism of a different char- acter, for the ruler was a wise and able man. Ckomvvkll 426 GENERAL HISTORY The Protectorate. — Cromwell's rule was severe, but so long as people obeyed him lie was tolerant of diiferences in faith. Any form of opposition was crushed by him with vigor and he secured at last the complete submission of English, Scotch, and Irish. His foreign policy was brilliantly successful. Among the nations of Europe England gained a proud position. Holland had already been forced by him to accept terms favorable to the English ; for in spite of the early victories of the great Dutch commanders, Van Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Witt, the English fleet, under Admiral Blake, was in the end successful. From Spain he took Jamaica. He interfered on behalf of the Protestants in Piedmont and forced the Duke of Savoy to cease persecuting them. All over Europe England's name was respected, and she regained the place she had held in the time of Elizabeth. In spite of these successes, his rule was a failure ; for he left nothing permanent, and did not succeed in founding a dynasty. Englishmen could not forget that his strength depended on the army, and his foreign victories did not lessen the tradi- tional dislike of military control. ^loreover, the Puritan faith was not acceptable to the majority of the people. Neverthe- less, Cromwell was one of the great men of history. An his- torical scholar of to-day has called him "the most typical Englishman of his time." SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Civil War and the Protectorate. — The Opposing Parties : The Royalists. The Parliamentarians. Their Respective Views. — The Beginning of the War. — Oliver Cromwell ; Marston Moor. — Naseby. — Pride's Purge : The Deceitf illness of the King. The Tri- umph of his Enemies. — Trial and Execution of the King. — The Commonwealth : The Subjugation of Ireland. The Battles of Dun- bar and Worcester. Cromwell is made Lord Protector. — The Pro- tectorate : Success of Cromwell's Foreign Policy. CHAPTER LVII THE RESTORATION Richard Cromwell. — Cromwell's son, Richard, succeeded as Protector, but lie was a weak man, neither qualified nor dis- posed to overcome difficulties. It was soon clear that the great mass of the English people wished for the restoration of the Stuart family in the person of Cliarles Stuart, the son of Charles I. General Monk, who was in command of the troops in Scotland, marched to London and brought about the meet- ing of a Parliament which declared in favor of Charles. The prince came to England amid general rejoicing. His march to London was like a triumphal procession, for many who had supported the Parliament at first were weary of Puritan rule. There was hardly any sign of opposition to his restoration, and in 1660 he ascended the throne. Charles II. (1660-1685). — His reign has been described as a period of good laws and bad government; but the good laws came only at intervals, and the bad government was continu- ous. It was the reign of the man of whom one of his minis- ters said that " he never said a foolish thing and never did a wise one." Charles replied, according to the story, that his acts were the acts of his ministers, but his words were his own. The ' Merry Monarch,' as he was called, was good-natured and affable, witty and shrewd, but wholly without principle or wisdom. On his return the Episcopal system was restored and uniformity of worship was enforced. Yet the measures of the. early part of the reign were generally mild. Those who had taken part in the rebellion were pardoned, with the excep- tion of certain of the judges and otliers who had taken an active part in the condemnation of Charles I. Thirteen of these were put to death, and others were imprisoned for life. Severity towards Dissenters. — The Church was restored and no other was' to be tolerated. This was most unjust, for the 427 428 GENERAL HISTORY Presbyterians had done much to bring about the restoration of the king and certainly deserved something in return. The king favored toleration, but Parliament refused it. It passed laws to enforce uniformity of worship, with the result that about 2000 clergymen were driven from the Established Church. The so-called Conventicle Act made it a criminal offense for XDCople to worship according to any other services than that of the Established Church. The Five-Mile Act forbade every dissenting minister to come within five miles of any locality which sent members to Parliament. Other harsh measures were taken against both Protestants and Catholics, and thou- sands were thrown into prison. But Charles is not to be blamed for this policy, for he was secretly inclined to the Roman Catholic faith, and it is probable that he would rather have foregone the pleasure of persecuting the Protestants than have imposed similar punishments upon the Eoman Catholics. ' Foreign Policy of Charles. — The early years of Charles' reign were a period of disaster and disgrace. In i6(JD occurred the great plague in London, destroying the lives of nearly 100,000 people. In the next year took place the great fire which reduced the city of London to ashes. In 1667 the Dutch, who were at war with the English, were so contemptuous of the English power that they tried to sail up the Thames and threaten London. The people disliked the Dutch war and wel- comed the triple alliance in which England, Holland, and Swe- den joined against Louis XIV. But Charles was faithless to his subjects and by the secret treaty of Dover in 1670 became the ally of Louis. By this disgraceful treaty he agreed to aid Louis in his attack on Holland, in return for which Charles was to receive a large sum of money and the aid of French troops in case there was any resistance to the restoration of the Roman Catholic faith in England. The 'Popish Plot' (1678). — The English people were loyal to the king, but equally loyal to their Church. They began to suspect that Charles was plotting against the established faith, and when Parliament came together it adopted harsh measures THK KESTORATION 429 against the Catholics. The Test Act, passed in 1673, shut out all Nonconformists from office. This was aimed especially against the Roman Catholics, and the hatred of them was increased by the rumor of the 'Popish Plot.' It was reported that the Roman Catholics had planned to assassinate the king and place his brother, the Duke of York (an avowed member of that Church), on the throne. It was further said that a gen- eral massacre of Protestants was planned. One of the chief authors of these false accusations was a man named Titus Gates, a scoundrel who aimed merely at enriching himself at the expense of the government. As a result of fraud and popular delusion, Roman Catholics were put to death, and the Parliament tried to pass an act excluding the Duke of York from the throne. To prevent this, the king dissolved the Parliament. Whigs and Tories. — Petitions now poured in from all parts of the country begging for the summoning of a new Parlia- ment. On the other hand, those who stood by the king declared their abhorrence of this attempt to force the king's hand. From these circumstances the two parties were termed respectively Petitioners and Abhorrers, names which soon after- wards were changed to Whigs and Tories. These party names lasted in England for many years. Their origin is doubtful, but it is said that the term ' Whigs ' had formerly been applied to the Presbyterians of Scotland, who opposed the government, and that 'Tories' was originally the name of the Roman Catho- lic dissenters who had sought refuge in the Irish bogs. Neither party wished the overthrow of the monarchy. The difference between them was that the Tories thought that the best thing for the country was to strengthen the crown, while the Whigs had their eyes on the welfare of the people. Tories seemed to have a natural prejudice against any change. The Whigs favored change where they thought it meant improvement. The Habeas Corpus Act — In 1679 Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act, which provided against illegal imprison- ment. Any person arrested gained by this act the right to be 430 GENERAL HISTORY brought to trial, or to have it proved that he was legally con- fined. This was to prevent the exercise of despotic power against the individual citizen. The Closing Years of the Reign. — The Whigs had gone too far in their attacks on the Catholics, and finally the tide of public opinion turned against them. The charge of plotting against the king was fastened on them, and two eminent Whigs, Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney, were put to death, though prob- ably innocent of any complicity in the plot. The last year of the king's reign marked the triumph of his party and a return almost to an absolute monarchy. He died in 1685, professing the Homan Catholic faith on his deathbed. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Restoration. — Richard Cromwell: Parliament declares in Favor of Charles II. — Charles II.: His Character and Government. — Severity toward Dissenters : The Conventicle Act. Five-Mile Act. Persecutions of Protestants and Roman Catholics. — Foreign Policy of Charles : Disgraceful Treaty with France. — The ' Popish Plot ' : Titus Gates. — Whigs and Tories. — Tlie Habeas Corpus Act. — The Closing Years of the Reign. CHAPTER LVIII THE REVGLUTIGN GF 1688 James II. (1685-1688). — James was a true Stuart. He was determined from the first to rule absolutely and break down the power of Parliament. Besides this, he was a Roman Catholic and bent on the overthrow of the Protestant Church in England. Soon after he came to the throne, the Protestant peasantry in the west of England revolted against him, favor- ing the claims of the Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles II. This revolt, however, was soon put down, and the triumph of rule there was marked by the severest pnnishment. The brutal Chief Justice, Jeffreys, was sent into the counties THE REVOLUTION OF 1688 431 which had taken part in the revolt to try those accused of treason. The wanton cruelty of Jeffreys and his disregard of all justice and law have given to his circuit the name of the Bloody Assizes. Nevertheless, the people at large had no sympathy with the insurgents, for James had not yet had time to forfeit the loyalty of his subjects. Arbitrary Conduct of James. — The first Parliament of James' was very docile; in fact, its loyalty almost reached the point of slavishness. But loyalty to the Church was as strong as devotion to the king, who soon entered on a course which turned warm friends into bitter enemies. In the first place, he tried to remove the restraints from the Catholics, and, in violation to the Test Act, to appoint them to public office. The army was officered mainly by Roman Catholics. He now tried to gain power to disregard any law of which he did not approve, and at first was successful. Roman Catholics were appointed to some of the most important offices in the city, and the attempt was made to put the Church equally under their control. The Declaration of Indulgence By the Declaration of In- dulgence (1687) the king declared that all the penalties against nonconformists should be at once suspended. The nonconform- ists included Protestant dissenters from the Anglican Church, as well as Roman Catholics, and the king hoped that the former would come to his support. But the Protestants saw the danger of such a course ; for, if the king could sweep away the law in regard to religious matters, why could he not also do so in regard to political matters ? What, in fact, was to prevent his being absolute ? The king ordered the Declara- tion of Indulgence to be read from the pulpit of every church. Seven bishops sent in a petition against this command ; the king chose to regard this as an insult to the crown, and the seven bishops were imprisoned and afterwards brought to trial. By this time the king's conduct had angered the people and their sympathy was fully with the bishops. The news of their acquittal was received with great rejoicing. 432 GENERAL HISTORY The Revolution of 1688. — James was no longer young, and if the people could have been assured that at his death a Protes- tant would come to the throne, they might have been willing to endure his tyranny. But a child was born to James by his second wife, Mary of Modena, and this seemed to promise a continuance of Catholic rule. It was finally decided to invite William of Orange (who was a nephew of James) to come to England to take possession of the throne. Only the blindest folly on the part of the king could have driven his subjects to take this step; for many men who had previously been intensely loyal and believed that "the king can do no wrong " were now his enemies. James seemed to have no idea of the condition of affairs, and he disregarded all warnings. The landing of William of Orange in November, 1688, reduced the king to helplessness. The whole nation was against him, and he fled in despair. These were the main points of the revolution of 1088, — one of the least violent and most beneficial of all revolutions. The long struggle between the Stuart kings and their subjects came to an end with the triumph of Parliament. This does not mean, however, that the people of England really gained the control of the government. England as a result of the revolu- tion of 1688 was, in fact, under an aristocratic parliamentary government. Only special and privileged classes were repre- sented in the Parliament and the constitution of England did not become in any sense democratic, until the Eeform Bill in 1832. The real control of affairs after 1688 was in the hands of Parliament, whose members were chosen by a comparatively small number of electors. The New Government. — William's title to the throne rested on the Declaration of Kights, which, like the Great Charter and the Petition of Rights, marks an important stage in the development of the English constitution. This settled the crown on William and his wife, Mary, so long as they should live, and declared that after their death no person who should profess the Roman Catholic faith should ever be king or queen THE EEVOLUTION OF 1688 433 of England. If such person should assume the throne, the people were straightway released from their allegiance. Scotland loyally accepted the new government, but in Ire- land, where the Catholic party was strong, there was opposi- tion. The supporters of the fugitive king controlled the Irish army, and James determined to gather them in an attempt to regain the throne. The English and Scotch colonists of Ireland offered a brief resistance to the Catholics, and Wil- liam soon entered the country at the head of a consider- able force. The war was decided by the battle of the Boyne in 1G90, at which AVilliam commanded in person. James was here completely routed and he soon afterwards went back to France. William and Mary. — William was now secure on the throne, but he found the task of government difficult. This was, in the first place, because he was a foreigner and naturally fav- ored his kinsmen in appoint- ments to office, and, in the second place, because he lacked tact in dealing with his new subjects. Moreover, as time . passed, the people forgot the faults of the deposed king and many of them desired the res- toration of the Stuarts. Queen Mary, who was by birth a Stuart, being the daughter of James, died in 1694, and the last bond of affection between the Tories and the throne was broken. The part which England took in the War of the Pa- latinate has been told in the account of Louis XIV. 's reign. William, it will be remembered, was bent on the humiliation of the French, and he sacrificed everything to success in the war with Louis. Wlien the next great war (the War of the >Spanish Succession) was impending, William again prepared WiLT.rAM OF Orange 434 GENERAL HISTORY to fight his old enemy, but died before any decisive result was obtained (1702). The Act of Settlement (1701). — The purpose of this act was to settle the succession to the English throne. After William, the natural successor was Princess Anne of the Stuart family, daughter of James II., but in default of heirs to her nothing had been provided. The nearest Protestant relative was Sophia, wife of the Elector of Hanover ; and on her and her heirs the throne was settled. A still more important point in the Act of ^Settlement was the assertion of the principle that the king's ministers were responsible to the Parliament ; and there were other important provisions guarding the liberties of that body. Queen Anne ; Union of England and Scotland. — The reign of Queen Anne is one of the most glorious in English history, but this luster was due to circumstances rather than to the qualities of the queen. She was not an especially wise woman, but some- how she enjoyed to an unusual degree the devotion of her sub- jects. This was the time of Marlborough's great victories in the War of the Spanish Succession. In this reign also took place the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. Up to this time the two countries had been united merely in the per- son of the sovereign. Now in 1707 the union was completed, and both countries were represented in one and the same Parliament. At the beginning of the reign the Tories were in power ; but the Whigs soon gained control, and it was under a Wliig min- istry that most of the great successes in the war were gained. But the Whigs made some fatal mistakes. It was due to their folly that the allies did not accept the terms offered by Louis XIY. — terms wliich were far more advantageous than those gained after several years more of conflict. This and other blunders gave the power again to the Tories, who favored a policy of peace. The Treaty of Utrecht, concluding the War of the Spanish Succession, was formed in 1713. Literary Activity of the Reign. — Queen Anne's reign was remarkable, not only for great battles, but for the literary activity of the time. Among the leading authors who flour- THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 435 ished during this period were Addison, Swift, Pope, and Defoe. Never before had so much literary talent been employed in the service of politics. Periodicals and pamphlets on political subjects were published in great numbers and circulated ex- tensively. This reign saw the publication of the first daily newspaper in England. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Revolution of 1688. — James II. : The Suppression of Monmouth's Revolt. Chief Justice Jeffrey and the Bloody Assizes. — Arbitrary Conduct of James : His Violation of the Test Act. — Tlie Declaration of Indulgence : Popular Hatred of James. — The Revolution of 1688 : The King's Folly. The Landing of William of Orange. The Char- acter of the Revolution. — The New Government: The Battle of the Boyne. — William and Mary. — The Act of Settlement. — Queen Anne ; Union of England and Scotland. — Literary Activity of the Reign. CHAPTER LIX THE RISE OF PRUSSIA The Hohenzollerns. — The history of Prussia is bound up with that of the great Hohenzollern family, whose descend- ant to-day occupies the German throne. The first that we hear of this family is back in the times of Charlemagne, when a count belonging to that house was deposed in Bavaria. His descendants, however, were men of ability, and toward the end of the twelfth century the emperor conferred on one of them the government of Nuremberg. After this the family became noted for its wealth, and in the fifteenth century held a position not unlike that of the Hothschilds of to-day. They loaned the emperor Sigisnmnd (1410-1437) the sum of 400,000 gulden on the security of Brandenburg. The emperor was unable to repay the money, and the Hohenzollerns were thence- forth electors of Brandenburg. 436 GENERAL HISTORY Early History of Prussia. — In Eoman times the Borussi or Prussi inhabited tlie region now known as Prnssia. They were a Slavonic tribe and adhered to their pagan worship. It was the aim of the Germans in the eleventh century to Christian- ize them or drive them out of their land. This task fell to the Teutonic Knights, who, after hard fighting, conquered the territory from Poland (1226), to which it naturally belonged, both from its geographical position and by ties of race. Prom the latter part of the thirteenth century to the middle of the fifteenth the power of the Teutonic Knights declined, and by the Treaty of Thorn (1466) they were obliged to give up western Prussia to Poland, retaining eastern Prussia merely as a vassal state of the Polish kingdom. Poland was at that time at the height of her power, and the Teutonic Knights feared that eastern Prussia would also be taken from them. They therefore determined to elect as their Grand Master a prince of the house of Brandenburg-Anspach in 1511. This prince Avas not content with ruling merely as the chief of the Teutonic Knights. He made the succession hereditary in his family, and changed Prussia to a secular dukedom, rendering homage for it to the king of Poland. In 1618, the Branden- burg-Anspach line having become extinct, Prussia passed to the Elector of Brandenburg, who, according to the feudal law, was a vassal of the emperor for Brandenburg and of the king of Poland for Prussia. The Great Elector (1640-1688). — When the elector Frederick William came into power in 1640, he found a very weak and ill-joined state. It was a mere collection of provinces, differ- ing from one another in laws and separated by foreign terri- tories. Between Brandenburg and his Prussian duchy a strip of Polish Prussia intervened. The great question was how to weld these parts together and become a real ruler. His first object was to make himself an absolute monarch. To do this, he formed the nucleus of a standing army with a small body of mercenaries and, having force behind him, he gained all the authority in the state. He spent his whole life THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 437 either in battle or in preparation for battle. During the last period of the Thirty Years' War, he maintained an armed neu- trality, and at its end gained some territory. In a war between Sweden and Poland he allied himself now with one and now with the other, as best suited the interest of his house, and he gained much by this policy. He encouraged trade, couipleted roads, welcomed the Huguenots who fled from France, drove the Swedes from Brandenburg, and freed Prussia from the control of Poland. Under his vigorous rule feudalism began to go to pieces and the foundation of the Prussian monarchy was laid. Frederick III. — The successor of the great elector was Frederick III. (1688-1713), who inherited all the power but not the title of a king. The chief event of his reign was the obtaining of that title. The means by which he secured it was an offer of assistance to the German emperor in the War of the Spanish Succession, on condition that the duchy of Prussia should be raised to the rank of a kingdom. In the year 1701 Frederick was crowned and took his place among the kings of Europe. Frederick William I. — His successor, Frederick William L, was one of the ablest men of his time. He reigned from 1713 to 1740, and in this interval added vastly to the prosperity and power of the state. The king's methods were peculiar, for he had many oddities of character. A rigid economy was ]3racticed in every department of the government. At a time when the monarchs of Europe were ruining themselves and their people by their senseless extravagance, Frederick AVilliam made himself ridiculous by going to the other extreme. On the death of his father he at once dismissed the Avhole troop of glittering court flunkies, reduced the expenses of his stable, and discarded expensive forms of dress. He believed that the life of every one in the kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, should be governed by strict frugality and indus- try. He would tolerate no idlers, and went about the streets striking with his cane any one who he thought was not attend- colby's gen. hist. — 28 438 GENERAL HISTORY ing to his business. It is said of him that he even insisted that the apple women should knit at their stands. He waged war upon periwigs, and wig inspectors pulled off the headgear of the passers-by to see if the government stamp was upon it. No long periwigs were allowed, and the story is told of him that, desiring to rebuke a foreign ambassador who insisted on dressing in the Parisian style, he arrayed the regi- mental scullions during a grand review in an absurd exaggera- tion of the ambassador's costume, with periwigs reaching to the knees, and cocked hats three feet in diameter. After this the ambassador adopted a simple dress. The other monarchs laughed at the Prussian king's parsi- mony and his queer freaks, but they came to feel that he was worthy of their respect when they saw the result of that parsi- mony. His fiery temper, close attention to detail, and rugged despotism were accompanied by shrewdness, vigor of action, and a talent for administration. His economy enabled him to keep an army of 70,000 men, the best-drilled force in Europe, and to lay by every year a balance in the royal treas- ury. The administration Avas highly centralized. The king was in fact an autocrat, but he had at heart the welfare of the people. Under him and his suc- cessor, Frederick the Great, the absolute monarchy appears in its best and purest form, and Prussia was well on its way towards its position as one of the great modern states. Frederick II. (The Great, 1740- 1786). — The young Frederick had been brought up in a rough school. His father's strict train- Fkedekick the Great ing and brutal ways made gratify his taste for study. his life miserable. He could not nor enjoy any liberty of action. THE RISE OF PRUSSIA 439 Heavy tasks were imposed upon him and he was scolded and punished for the slightest disobedience. Once he tried to escape, but the attempt failed and his tutor who had aided him was hanged. He himself narrowly escaped execution by the decree of a court-martial. The king's death released him from this tyranny and he now found himself the inheritor of a strong- state and a splendid army. He was ambitious of military fame and wished to raise Prussia to the first place among European states. War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). — On the death of the Emperor, Charles VI., his daughter, Maria Theresa, suc- ceeded to the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria, the direct male line having become extinct (1740). The powers of Europe in the compact known as the Pragmatic Sanction had agreed that the Austrian possessions should descend to her. Nevertheless, no sooner had Maria Theresa come to the Austrian throne than there was a scramble for parts of her possessions. Frederick II. demanded Silesia, and the Elector of Bavaria (who was soon elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII.) declared himself the lawful heir to the Austrian dominions. France joined the Bavarians and Queen Maria Theresa was attacked on all sides. Seizure of Silesia. — Frederick, having defeated the Austrian s in 1741, seized the greater part of Silesia. The French and Bavarians invaded the queen's dominions and drove her from part of them. But in her distress she appealed to her Hun- garian subjects, and gathered an army which drove out the invaders and captured the Bavarian capital. Frederick, how- ever, retained what he had conquered; for in the Peace of Breslau (1742) she consented to this in order that her hands might be free to deal with her other enemies. She gained the alliance of the English and the Dutch, and in 1743 the allies defeated the French at Dettingen. The character of the war changed after this ; for England had reasons of her own for opposing the French, and now no longer fought as a mere ally of Austria, but headed the league 440 GENERAL HISTORY against France and Spain. Frederick became alarmed at the success of Austria, fearing that Silesia would be taken from him ; for he knew that Maria Theresa was bent on the recovery of the lost province. Accordingly he joined the enemies of Austria and renewed the war. In 1745 the emperor Charley Vll. died and the German princes raised Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, to the imperial throne under the title of Francis I. Having succeeded in this, the queen now deter- mined to regain Silesia, but the military skill of Frederick thwarted her purpose. By the Treaty of Dresden the cession of Silesia to Prussia was confirmed. The war dragged on several years longer, but without any very decisive gains on either side. It was concluded by the Treaty of Aix-la-Cha- pelle in 1748, which recognized the election of the emperor, and restored most of the conquests made during the war, but left Silesia still in the hands of Prussia. The Seven Years' War (1756-1763). — During eight years of peace Frederick devoted himself to improving the condition of his country. He perfected the organization of the army, encouraged industry, and added to the wealth of the state. War was bound to return, however ; for Maria Theresa could not forget the loss of Silesia, and was continually plotting to form an alliance against him. Russia, whose empress had long been a bitter enemy of Frederick, joined with Austria against him. There was a long period of intrigues between the different courts, but in the end Saxony and France joined the alliance against Frederick. The only power he could count as friendly was England, and England's grievance was against France, not Austria; for strife had arisen over the respective limits of the French and English colonies in America. Frederick's Successes. — Considering the number and strength of his enemies, Frederick's management of the war during its early phases entitles him to a place among the foremost gen- erals in history. He won his successes by the rapidity with which he struck his blows. He did not wait for an attack, THE RISE OP PRUSSIA 441 but took the aggressive, and at the very beginning of the war inarched into Saxony and captured its capital. In the next year he gained two great victories at Rossbach and Leuthen. England now sent him money and troops, and in the following year he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, Treaty of Paris. — But he could not hold out against such tremendous odds. Fortune turned against him and he was defeated in several battles. England now failed to support him, and it seemed for a time as if there was no way of avert- ing the ruin of his kingdom. In 1760 the Russians captured Berlin, but Frederick still managed to keep up a show of resistance, and in 1762 a lucky circumstance turned events in his favor. The Russian empress died and was succeeded by Peter III., who was heartily in sympathy with Prussia. Russia not only made peace with him, but sent him aid. Finally all the contestants were tired of war and glad to sign a peace. The Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Hubertsburg brought the war to a close. Prussia retained Silesia. As a result of the war, in spite of the odds against Frederick and the great drain on the resources of his kingdom, Prussia gained an un- disputed place among the great powers of Europe. General Character of the Reign. — Frederick the Great died in 1786. His reign marks the transition from the absolute monarchy to the modern constitutional state. Not that Fred- erick actually ruled as a constitutional king, for all authority centered in him. But he introduced a complete system of civil liberty, including liberty of the person, of property, and of the press, and he established on a firm basis the principle of liberty of worship. No king before him had ever done so much for the moral and intellectual welfare of the people. The effect of his reign was to raise Prussia to an equal rank with Austria among the G-erman states, and to give her such strength that ultimately, as we shall see, a unification of Ger- many was brought about under her leadership. The leading state in northern Europe was now no longer Sweden, but Prussia. 442 GENERAL HISTORY SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The Rise of Prussia. — The Hohenzollerns : Brandenburg. — Early His- tory of Prussia : The Teutonic Knights. The Treaty of Thorn. The Elector of Brandenburg acquires Prussia. — The Great Elector : His Vigorous Rule. His Policy During the Thirty Years' War. The Foundation of the Prussian Monarchy Laid. — Frederick III.: Ac- quires the Title of King. — Frederick AYilliam I. : His Economy. His Peculiar Traits. His Army. — Frederick 11. (the Great) : His Ill-treatment by His Father. — War of the Austrian Succession : Its Cause. — Seizure of Silesia : Frederick robs Austria of Silesia. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Silesia remains in Frederick's Hands. — The Seven Years' War : Its Causes. — Frederick's Successes. — Treaty of Paris. — General Character of the Reign. CHAPTER LX RUSSIA AND SWEDEN Early History of Russia ; the Mongolian Invasion. — Russia ranked far behind the other European powers in civilization, and was but little influenced by the revival of learning and by that spirit of enterprise in all departments of life which characterized the beginning of the modern age. A Mongolian invasion in the early part of the thirteenth century set Russia fully two hundred years behind the other states of Europe in point of civilization. The Mongols overran a great part of the country, but the little Russian state whose capital was Mos- cow later made headway against them. The main interest of Russian history during the latter part of the Middle Ages and the early modern period centers in the efforts of this little state to extend its boundaries and repel the Mongols. The energy of the invaders declined after a while, and the Rus- sians gradually won their freedom. After the middle of the fifteenth century the Muscovite kingdom became strong and united, largely owing to the efforts RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 443 of an able ruler, Ivan III. (1462-1505), snrnamed the Great, who regained a large part of Russian territory from the Mon- gols. Another reign of great importance in early Russian history was that of Ivan IV., snrnamed the Terrible. Under him the dominions of Russia were extended to the Caspian Sea, the kingdom of Astrakhan was annexed, and western Si- beria was conquered. The Romanoifs. — In 1613 a new dynasty came to the throne of Russia. This was the house of Ro'manoff, a member of which holds the throne to this day. Michael, the first of this line, was an able ruler and did much to improve the internal affairs of his kingdom. Under him and his successor the boundaries were enlarged and the condition of the people improved, but the relations of Russia to outside powers did not become important until the accession of Peter the Great (1682). Peter the Great. — This prince is one of the most extraordinary figures in history. As a boy he showed a great eagerness for knowledge in departments which were not generally attractive to the members of royal families. He cared nothing for books, but took a keen interest in mechanical de- vices, in carpentering, and espe- cially in the making and sailing of boats. He was impatient of dis- cipline and opposition and showed at an early age serious defects of temper. In fact, except for his restless and inquisitive spirit, there was little about him to suggest the qualities which afterwards made him famous. His half-sister, Sophia, plotted against him, and at one time, through a palace revolution, his life was actually endangered. He was obliged to share the throne with his feeble-minded half- Peter the Great 444 GENERAL HISTORY brother, and at first his position was insecure. In 1689, however, Peter, discovering the plots of Sophia, raised a party against her, took the power out of her hands, and shut her up in a convent. Ivan was wholly incompetent to rule, and from this time forth Peter, though now only seventeen years of age, ruled the state. Development of Naval Power. — Peter's early interest in naval affairs was destined to have an important influence on Russia. One of his strongest ambitions was to make Russia a great naval power, and to accomplish this it was, of course, necessary to extend her limits to the coast. A Swiss adventurer, Lefort, who had traveled much and was able to give Peter information about foreign countries, be- came the czar's chief favorite. He was a shrewd and able man, and rendered Peter important aid in laying the foun- dation of the Russian fleet. Capture of Azov. — At this time Russia was shut out from the Baltic Sea by Sweden and Poland, and from the Black Sea by Tilrkey, so that the only port which was available for Rus- sia's navy was in the extreme north, the port of Archangel on the White Sea. It was Peter's belief that Russia could not advance in wealth without a more accessible outlet for com- merce than this. He declared that water was what he wanted, not land, and he planned first to gain a port on the Black Sea. He sailed down the river Don, and after a long siege captured the city of Azov on the Black Sea. This success was due in part to the aid which Peter had received from Lefort and another of his advisers, a Scotchman named Gordon, In the reorganization of the army. Peter now gathered in from all parts of Europe skilled artisans, engineers, and architects ; and many of the young nobles were sent abroad to be educated^ with instructions to pay special attention to the study of naval and military arts. But Peter was not content with bringing foreigners to Rus- sia ; he determined to visit western Europe himself and gratify his curiosity. Accordingly he set out with a large compa.ny. Lefort was at the head of the embassy and Peter attended in RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 445 the guise of a subordinate official. He visited the Baltic prov- inces, Germany, and Holland. While in Holland he worked as a common laborer in the shipyards at Zaandam. His curi- osity was unbounded and his energy seemed almost superhuman. He acquired a vast amount of information on all practical sub- jects. Revolt of the Strelitz. — Peter returned to Russia, to put down the revolt of the imperial bodyguard, known as the Strelitz. For a long time they had shown an insolent spirit and had been too powerful to be disciplined. Revolts had broken out before, and their power was a constant menace to the government. The revolt was quelled without much difficulty, but Peter de- termined that nothing of the kind should happen again. The whole force was disbanded and the ringleaders were put to death with tortures. It is said that Peter himself cut off the heads of some of the conspirators with his own hand. Peter's Reforms. — Then followed the introduction of a large number of very important reforms, all for the purpose of mak- ing Russia a European state. The peculiarity of the Russian dress was abolished, and the people v/ere required to dress in the manner of the western Europeans. Schools were estab- lished, factories completed, a new coinage issued, and the country opened up by roads, canals, and a postal system. The next great event of his reign was the contest with Sweden known as the Great Northern War. Sweden. — From the time of Gustavus Adolphus, whose brilliant career during the Thirty Years' War has been narrated, Sweden advanced rapidly in power. The internal administration was improved and Swedish armies Avere suc- cessful abroad. At the close of the seventeenth century Sweden was the mistress of the Baltic Sea, and on the southern coast possessed a strip of territory called Pomerania, which from its position naturally belonged to the adjoining German states. She also ruled the eastern coast of the Baltic, cutting off Russia from the sea. Charles XII. — Sweden reached the height of her power dur- 446 GENERAL HISTORY ingthe reign of Charles XII. (1697-1718), a brilliant but eccen- tric character, who for many years was the most interesting figure in European politics. When he came to the throne, he found his country threatened by an alliance of three sovereigns, — the King of Denmark, Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and Peter the Great of Eussia. Their object was to appropriate the outlying portions of the Swedish territory, which had been gained by the king who had preceded Charles on the throne. Charles was hardly more than a boy when he was crowned king, but he soon gave proof of remarkable ability. The Danes began the war, but England took the side of Sweden, and William III. sent an English and Dutch fleet to her assist- ance. Charles, at the head of a small but well-disciplined body of veteran troops, now attacked the Danes and then suddenly turned against the Russian army, which he encountered at Narva in Livonia (1700). There he completely defeated Peter's troops, who were much superior in numbers to his own. Then he routed the Poles and Saxons, and forced his enemies to a peace containing advantageous terms for Sweden. He com- pelled Augustus the Strong to give up his claim to the Polish crown, which was then bestowed upon an ally of Charles. While Charles was busy in the south, Peter, having repaired his losses at Narva, began to encroach on the Swedish lands along the Baltic. In that region, on an island at the mouth of the river Neva, he laid the foundation of the present city of St. Petersburg. The Defeat of Charles XII.— In 1708 Charles invaded Eussia and planned to march directly to Moscow. He defeated the czar's troops, but instead of carrying out his project turned into the country of the Cossacks, who were on the point of a revolt against the czar. But little aid came from them, and the Swedes suffered severely from hardships and privations. In 1709 Charles attempted to take the town of Pul'towa, but Peter advanced to its relief and a great battle was fought under its walls, resulting in the complete victory of the Eussians. RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 447 Charles in Turkey. — This was the turning point in Charles' career. He now fled to Turkey, where he was allowed by the sultan to remain for several years. He spent his time in plot- ting to bring about a war between Turkey and Bussia, and in this he was successful at first. An expedition was sent against Peter, whose army was caught in a trap and seemed on the point of destruction, but was rescued through the diplomacy of Catherine, whom Peter afterwards made his wife. A treaty was concluded by which Peter lost the port of Azov. Being thus shut off from the Black Sea, it was all the more necessary that he should succeed in his schemes to secure the Baltic coast. The Turks were beginning to find Charles a very troublesome guest and his position was becoming dangerous. He was at- tacked by the sultan's bodyguard and narrowly escaped death. With a few comrades, he fled in disguise and returned to Sweden. The allies were on the point of renewing the war, but Charles entered into a treaty with Peter which postponed the conflict. His restless spirit, however, involved him in a war with Norway, where he was killed while besieging the fortress of Friedrichshall. Though a brave soldier, Charles was imprudent and foolish. He had not the art of improving an advantage when once gained, and in spite of his victories his reign brought disaster to his country. The Peace of Nystadt (1721). — The result of the Great North- ern War was to break the power of Sweden. Hanover received Bremen and Werden in return for a sum of money paid to Sweden. The Elector of Brandenburg obtained the larger part of Pomerania, thus securing the southern coast of the Baltic. More important were the gains of Russia. The Peace of Nystadt gave her Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and a small part of Finland. In fact, she controlled the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, thus realizing Peter's ambition to make her a naval power. This fact is of the greatest importance ; for not only did the possession of the seacoast give Russia an outlet for her trade, but it brought her into immediate relations with the civilized 448 GENERAL HISTORY states of Europe. It tended to advance her own civilization and at the same time to make her a powerful factor in Euro- pean politics. As a result of the Great Northern War, Sweden lost her place as the first of the northern powers. The leading state of the Protestant powers on the continent was now Prussia, while Eussia was well started on her way to a position in the front rank of European states. The Death and Character of Peter the Great. — Peter died in 1725. No king has ever left a deeper or more lasting impres- sion on his country than this remarkable man. He was a good type of the brutal and half-civilized Russian of his day. In his private life he was a mere savage, without human affections and without moral sense. In appearance he was not prepos- sessing. He was of great size and strength, but suffered from a nervous affection which caused his head to twitch and his features to contort. He cared nothing for cleanliness or pro- priety in dress and he usually smelt of brandy and vodka. He lost his temper at trifles and thrust about with his sword. He insulted women, beat his friends, and slapped the faces of foreign ambassadors. He murdered a servant with his own hand for some slight negligence, and when traveling in Ger- many complained because the authorities of a town that he was visiting refused to break some one on the wheel in order that the guest might see how the machine worked. He exclaimed, " What a fuss about the life of a man ! Why not take a mem- ber of his own suite ? " Among the many illustrations of the brutality of his private life is his treatment of his son Alexis, who had joined a party that was opposed to the czar's policy. Alexis was condemned on the charge of treason, and the cruelty with which he was treated, in order to make him confess, caused his death. Some even think that he was killed directly by the orders of his father. But with all this Peter had wonderful vigor of mind and a degree of energy which almost surpasses belief. He literally RUSSIA AND SWEDEN 449 whipped and browbeat his subjects into some degree of order and decency. By the power of his genius he dragged his countrymen along in the path of civilization. To him modern Russia owes its greatness. Catherine II. — Under Peter's successors the power of Russia steadily advanced. The most brilliant reign was that of Catherine II., known as Catherine the Great (1762-1796), a woman of many vices, but one of the ablest rulers in history. She enlarged her dominions and carried Russia farther along in the path of improvement. She conquered the Crimea in 1783, thus securing for Russia a footing on the coasts of the Black Sea. Another aim of her policy was the acquisition of Polish territory, and for many years she was concerned in plots and intrigues for this purpose. One of her lovers, named Poniatow'ski, was placed upon the throne of Poland, and the plots which led ultimately to the dismemberment of that unfortunate state were now begun. Poland. — The feudal system persisted in Poland long after it had disappeared in the neighboring European states. The period of her greatest power was in the thirteenth and four- teenth centuries. In 1386 the important duchy of Lithuania was united with Poland under a common sovereign, but as the feudal government in other states gave place to the stronger and more compact monarchy of the modern period, Poland fell behind. There was no unity in her system of government ; the king had but little power, for the Diet, or assembly of feudal lords, could make the laws and in some respects even act as executive. This Diet was a singularly cumbrous instru- ment. It prevented the king from governing, but could not insure good order itself. By the principle of the Liberum Veto a single member could prevent all action on the part of the Diet, and, as might naturally be supposed, this right was frequently exercised. The Partition of Poland. — When Catherine's lover Stanislas Poniatowski came to the throne, he was obliged to grant civil rights to the non-Catholics, but when he tried to do this, the 450 GENERAL HISTORY people opposed it on the ground that he intended to abolish the Catholic faith. About this time Russia, in a successful war with Turkey, seized the principality of Wallachia and that of Moldavia. Austria regarded this as a menace to her eastern frontier and opposed Russia's retaining them. To buy her off, territory had to be found in some other quarter, and the division of Poland offered a tempting means. The condi- tion of affairs in that kingdom offered an excuse for interfer- ence, for the people had risen agaiust the king. By secret treaties between the three eastern powers, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the first partition of Poland was carried out (1772). Of the three portions taken from Poland Catherine 11. gained the largest, Austria the most populous, and Prussia the small- est tract both in extent aud in population, but one of great value to the state, since it helped to round out the Prussian dominions. Second Partition. — There was now some attempt to settle the disordered affairs of Poland. A new constitution was introduced through the influence of Russia, but it worked badly. One party was for it and another against it, and when the latter attempted to overthrow it, the former appealed to Russia for aid. The Polish patriots, under Kosciusko, made a brief but fruitless resistance. They were defeated in the battle of Dubienka, and as a recompense for the trouble which the foreign powers had been put to by this revolt, another partition was made. In this Russia and Prussia took part, and again Russia received the lion's share. The Polish Diet was obliged to consent (June, 1793). Kosciusko ; the Third Partition. — The third partition resulted from renewed efforts on the part of the patriots to rescue their country. Kosciusko became commander in chief, and the peo- ple of Warsaw rose and murdered the Russians there. But the same thing now happened as before: the third and final partition divided what was left of Poland among her three great neighbors. Thus the failure of Poland to work out a suitable political system and make herself a strong and united ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 451 state resulted in her overthrow. For centuries she had given no j)roof of her ability to govern herself well or advance in civilization, and she paid the penalty of this failure by the loss of her national existence (1795). The French Revolution had now begun, and the partition of Poland had an important influ- ence on it ; for the absorption of the eastern powers in the scram- ble for Polish territory diverted their attention from affairs in France. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Russia and Sweden. — Early History of Russia ; the Mongolian Inva- sion. Ivan III. Ivan IV. — The Romanoffs. — Peter the Great : His Early Life. Peter's Seizure of the Throne. — Development of Naval Power. — Capture of Azov : His Visit to Western Europe. — Revolt of Strelitz : Its Suppression. — Peter's Reforms. — Sweden : Her Power at the Close of the Seventeenth Century. — Charles XII. : The Alliance Against Him. His Brilliant Campaigns. His Victory at Narva. — The Defeat of Charles XII. : The Battle of Pultowa. — Charles in Turkey : War Between Russia and Turkey. The Return and Death of Charles. — The Peace of Nystadt : The Gains of Bran- denburg. The Gains of Russia. — The Death and C'haracter of Peter the Great. — Catharine II. : Conquest of the Crimea: Her Designs on Poland. — Poland : Its Condition. — The Partition of Poland : The First Partition. — The Second Partition. — Kosciusko; the Third Partition. CHAPTER LXI ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Introduction. — The house of Brunswick, or the Hanoverian dynasty, as it is called, came to the throne of England in 1714 in accordance with the Act of Settlement, which provided that, in default of heirs to William and Mary and Queen Anne, the throne should go to the heirs of the electress, Sophia, of the German principality of Hanover. Thus it came about that England passed under the control of a German house, and down to Queen Victoria's accession to the throne in 1837 452 GENERAL HISTORY the English sovereigns still retained the royal anthority Hanover. Reign of George I. (1714-1727). — George I. was a narrow- minded and ignorant man, awkward, diffident in manner, and unable to speak the English language. He cared more for his little kingdom of Hanover than for England, and one of the bad results of the introduction of the new dynasty was soon apparent in the embroiling of England in foreign wars. At the beginning of George's reign the Whigs gained con- trol of the government. The ' Pretender ' James, the son of James II., made an attempt to regain the throne of his father, and in 1715 a serious rebellion broke out in Scotland and the north of England. But his party, called the Jacobites, were soon defeated. The Pretender was a man of no ability, and he blundered throughout the campaign. Moreover, the major- ity of the English people were too much attached to their religion to favor the return of a family which had been so closely identified with the Roman Catholic faith. The fact that the throne was disputed, however, together with the grow- ing dislike which George I.'s character inspired, caused a de- cline in the views of royal authority which had formerly characterized the Tories. During his reign the old idea of the divine right of the king was on the wane, and royal power became more limited in consequence. The South Sea Bubble. — During this reign occurred the fa- mous South Sea bubble. The South Sea Company had been formed in 1711 for the purpose of restoring the national credit. It was very successful, and important privileges were granted to the company. It was a time of rash speculation, as is illus- trated by the development of Law's Mississi^jpi scheme in France. The South Sea Company bore, in fact, a close resem- blance to Law's great venture. Rumors were circulated that Peru was about to cede gold mines of incalculable value to the country, and all sorts of devices were resorted to to raise the price of the stock ; thousands took shares in this and 1 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 453 Other companies, and the stock rose to a high figure but sud- denly the bubble burst, and the stock became nearly worth- less, bringing ruin on the nation (1720). Walpole —The people vented their wrath on the ministers, but they made an exception of Sir Kobert Walpole, who had contiimally opposed the South Sea scheme. He came to power with the fnll confidence of the people, and for the next twenty years was the most prominent figure in English politics He was not a man of commanding intellect or lofty morals, but he gave England twenty years of unbroken peace and prosperity He exalted the power of the House of Commons, and he left the Hanoverian dynasty in a condition of security. During the closing years of his reign George I. was completely under his influence. „ , ^ tt Reign of George II. (1727-1760). - Like his father, George II. was a man of immoral life, and, like him, too, he fell completely under the influence of Walpole; for although at first the king was prejudiced against liim, the minister succeeded m working his way adroitly into the royal favor/ The early part of the reign was a period of prosperity. , Walpole's Ministry. -The best feature of Walpole's ministry was its moderation. Large classes m England were hostile to the king, and the country was divided by political and religious strife, but Walpole's moderation and shrewd military policy tended to restore harmony. He tried to steer his course by public opinion, and to avoid stirring up class prejudices ; and his policy in general was characterized by sound common sense, especially in financial affairs. He was one of the fi-t ^ng ish statesmen to use efficient means for the reduction of the public debt, and his success in raising revenue led the king to exclaim " Walpole can make gold from nothing." On the other hand, he had serious vices. He was coarse and brutal in his talk and sensnal in his life. He was the most successful briber in England. He could say with reason that every man had his price, for his experience seeined to bear this out. He reduced corruption to a system and he kept nis COLBV'S UEN. HIST. —29 454 GENERAL HISTORY majority in Parliament by a judicious outlay of the money. It is said that one million and a half were expended as secret service money during his ministry, and for the greater portion of this he refused to give any account whatever. Fall of Walpole. — He fell from power on account of his opposition to war. Hostility sprang up between England and Spain over their colonies, and the English people were anxious for war. Walpole fought against this until the popular senti- ment became too strong for it and he was obliged to declare war in 1739, but he carried it on sluggishly and without suc- cess, and his ministry lost favor. At last the majority of Par- liament turned against him and he resigned in 1742. Closing Years of George II. 's Reign. — England gained very little by this war, nor did she fare any better when she entered the War of the Austrian Succession as the ally of Maria The- resa. The English people felt that their interests were being sacrificed for the sake of Hanover. Loyalty was at a low ebb. The Young Pretender. — At this time the ' Young Pretender,' grandson of James IL, landed in Scotland (1745) with the design of recovering the throne. The lukewarmness of the people on the king's behalf seemed to promise success to this venture. The Pretender made a bold march on London, evading the English armies, and the Londoners were thrown into a panic, but there was dissension in his camp and he had to retreat, and the Duke of Cumberland met him on the field of Culloden and defeated his army with great loss. This put an end forever to the hopes of a restoration of the Stuarts. Pitt; Capture of Quebec. — Toward the close of George II.'s reign, England's greatest statesman, Pitt the elder, became the chief minister and directed the war with Prance. This, it will be remembered, was the Seven Years' War in Europe, but the main issue between Prance and England had to do with the colonial affairs in America. The war was not completed until the next reign, but already England had dealt severe blows to the Prench power in America. The Erench were driven 'into Canada, and in 1759 General Wolfe won his great victory at ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 455 Quebec. Storming the heights behind the city, he took up his position on the Plains of Abraham, and on the following day defeated the French in a tierce battle. The English lost their brave general, but a few days later they were in possession of Quebec. By the treaty of Paris, which ended the war, France lost her American colonies. George III. (1760-1815). — The first two Hanoverian kings Avere ignorant of English poli- tics and obliged to rely on their ministers. Moreover, they cared more for Hanover than for Eng- land. But George III. had English ideas. He was born and educated in England, and he made up his mind that he would rule in the manner of the old kings. He tried to restore the power of the crown at the ex- pense of Parliament. In pri- vate morals and social relations he Avas better than his prede- cessors, and his character inspired respect. He had the lofti- est ideas of royal dignity, and the greater part of his reign was taken up with the struggles with Parliament. But though he had some good qualities, he was narrow-minded, ill-educated, and imprudent. During the first twenty-four years of his reign he managed to estrange his people, check the prosperity of the nation, and lose forever the American colonies. His reign therefore was disastrous. The details of the struggle with the American colonies and the rise of the United States to the foremost rank among nations do not properly fall within the scope of this work. It is sufficient here to state that by the treaty of 1783 England's control over the thirteen colo- nies was lost forever. During the latter part of the reign of George III. he was incapacitated for ruling. He was stricken with insanity, and George III. 456 GENERAL HISTORY the government passed into the hands of the prince regent, afterwards George lY. The most interesting side of the reign from the point of view of general history is the relations of England with foreign powers and the part she played in the wars that arose from the French Revolution. Some account of this will be given in the chapters on the French Eevolution. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW England in the Eighteenth Century. — Introduction: The House of Brunswick. — Reign of George I. : Suppression of the Jacobite Rising in Scotland. — The South Sea Bubble. — Walpole : His Peaceful Policy. Prosperity of the Country during His Ministry. — Reign of George II. — Walpole's Ministry : His Politic Administration. His Resort to Bribery. — Fall of Walpole. — Closing Years of George II. 's Reign. The Young Pretender: His Army Defeated at Culloden. — Pitt; Capture of Quebec. — George III.: His Character. His High Ideas of Royal Power. CHAPTER LXII THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Introduction. — In the period whose events have just been described the main interest was centered in the rivalry of the European nations. From the close of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 to the latter part of the eighteenth century the external relations of the great powers have been chiefly the subject of discussion. In regard to their internal politics not much has been said except in the case of England, which during the period of civil war and revolution (1640-1688) had undergone important political changes. In the closing years of the eight- eenth century France passed through a political convulsion which not only changed completely her form of government and the relation of her social classes, but influenced all the other THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 457 nations of Europe and drew them into one of the severest and most protracted struggles that they ever passed through. The Eevohitionary Epoch lasted from 1789 to 1815, and it divides itself naturally into two parts : first, the Period of the French Revolution, and second, the Period of the Napoleonic Wars. France after Louis XIV. — It had long been the policy of the French court to attract the nobility to Paris and to make them mere personal servants of the king. The object was to break down their feudal authority, and, while leaving them in pos- session of the revenues from their estates, to place the actual government of those estates wholly in the hands of the king's agents. The people did not benefit by this change, for from them was wrung not only the money which was due to their lords, but a sum sufficient to pay the expenses of their gov- ernment. Louis XIV. left a debt variously estimated at from 2,400,000,000 to 3,500,000,000 francs, and the payment of this enormous obligation was one of the duties devolving upon the government that succeeded him. France under the Regency. — As Louis XV. was a minor, the administration was placed in the hands of a regent, the Duke of Orleans. The regent showed no wisdom as a ruler, and France was decidedly the worse for his government. He was quite incompetent to deal with the financial question and he adopted schemes which left the country poorer than before. John Law. — The man who was responsible for the most dis- astrous experiment that the government of a civilized state ever made in financial affairs was John Law, a Scotch adven- turer and gambler. After a period of gay living and reckless gambling in London, he crowned his career by a duel in which he killed his antagonist and which landed him in prison. But he escaped to the continent and continued to frequent the gaming tables, with the result of soon making good his losses. Law's head was full of schemes for making money, and he believed that a very large amount of paper currency could be kept in circulation on the basis of a very small security. The regent of France showed him some favor 458 GENERAL HISTORY and listened to liis ingenious proposals looking to the rescue of the government from its financial troubles. In 1716 Law organized a bank, managed it well, and made it popular. The notes of this bank, in fact, stood at a premium over the old government notes. This won the confidence of the government, which in December, 1718, turned Law's bank into a state bank. Law's Monopolies. — Now Law wished to get possession of the gold and silver in the country and then issue paper money to any amount, but, lest people should come to doubt the value of this paper money, he thought it necessary to create some artificial means to keep the notes in circulation ; that is, to pre- vent their being presented for payment in gold and silver. This artificial means he found in the formation of the so-called Mis- sissippi Company for colonizing the Mississippi valley and de- veloping its resources, and he received from the government a monopoly for this purpose for twenty-five years. All commerce between France and her colony of Louisiana, as well as the abso- lute title to the territory of that colony, was vested in this company. The wealth of the region was of course large if it could once be developed ; for it must be remembered that the colony of Louisiana contained, besides the present state of that name, all of the Mississippi valley, including several of the largest states in our union. To this vast corporation were added the Company of the East Indies and the Company of China ; and Law further gained control of the coinage of the precious metals and the collection of the taxes. As the price of these great concessions, he assumed the pub- lic debt, loaning the government the entire amount. Thus the company became the great financial machine of the state. The next thing was to devise a plan for keeping the notes of the bank in circulation. This was done by providing that they should be accepted at a premium over all other forms of currency in the purchase of shares in the company. Thus if a man wished to take part in this great project for making unlimited wealth, he would naturally wish to obtain these notes in order to pur- chase shares in the company. So if Law could only keep up THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 459 the credit of the company, he could issue paper money to his heart's desire. The Mississippi Bubble. — This was a time of great credulity among all classes of people, and the laws governing money, credit, and trade were little understood. Through John Law's clever management a fever of speculation in Mississippi stock broke out among the people. In 1719 the shares began to go up with amazing rapidity. In the spring of that year the shares were at par ; that is to say, they could be purchased for the sum of 500 livres. In the fall their price went up to 5000 livres, and a little later it is said that as much as 20,000 livres was paid for a single share. All classes of society shared in the craze. A valet is said to have become Avorth 50,000,000 livres; a bootblack 40,000,000, and a restaurant waiter 30,000,000. The word ' millionaire ' came now for the first time into use. Many curious tales are told of the sudden gain of private fortunes ; of the transition from poverty to vast wealth in a single day ; of errand boys sent out by their masters to make a purchase, stopping to speculate in shares with the purchase money and gaining a fortune in a few hours. The government could now make all the money it needed and was relieved from the necessity of taxation. The Collapse of the Bubble. — But it soon became evident to some wise heads that the company did not really earn money from its plantations and its trade, but that it merely paid out its dividend from the money which was paid in for shares. In other words, it gave back a part of Avhat it received from its customers under the pretense that it was paying something additional from wealth which it had itself gained. These pru- dent people kept their own counsel and began to hoard gold and silver. The people, seeing the gold and silver disappear, be- came frightened. Soon the credit of the company began to top- ple and Law's desperate efforts to restore confidence failed. The collapse was as complete as the inflation. The notes sank in value, and the more they were issued the lower they fell. The government tried to stop their depreciation by a decree 460 GENERAL HISTORY forbidding the use of gold and silver. This only made mat- ters worse. The stock of the Mississippi Company fell in twelve months from forty times its par value to nine per cent. The notes became worthless and two thirds of the paper was suppressed. Results of the Financial Folly. — The government was deeper than ever in debt and the x^eople became more hostile to it. The property of the country had changed hands, passing, in many instances, from honest but imprudent farmers and ar- tisans to shrewder but less worthy people. The belief that money could be made without work demoralized society. The peasants had flocked to Paris to get rich b}" speculation, and were left destitute. The whole industrial and commercial life of France was corrupted. The importance of this as bearing on the causes of the French Revolution .is very great, for the main thing that drove the people of France to revolt was the government's foolish and injurious financial policy. Following this period of trouble and confusion came the reign of Louis XV., one of the most impotent and disreputable of French kings. France under Louis XV. (1723-1774). — No king ever came to the throne with a stronger hold on the loyalty of his subjects than Louis XV., and no king ever left it more generally hated or despised. Yet the period of Louis XV.'s reign was not wholly one of humiliation for France. She won some credit by her share in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), and in the War of the Austrian Succession, and by a tempo- rary conquest in India. The result of her long war with England, which came to an end by the Treaty of Paris (1763), was, as we have seen, unfortunate, for it put an end to her power in the Western Hemisphere. Xeither the blame nor the credit for her foreign policy, however, belongs to Louis XV., who lived merely for pleasure and had a marked distaste for rule. During the first and best part of his reign affairs were fairly well managed by his minister Fleury, but the later years were filled with failures and national disgrace. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 461 The wars cost France enormous sums and the bad manage- ment of her finances reduced her to bankruptcy. All the old- time devotion of the people to the throne disappeared, for no one could long admire a man of Louis' character. The absolute monarchy in France depended for success upon the personal character of the king, and when that character was of a kind to inspire contempt, the whole system was weakened. Louis had no sense of responsibility for this. His only care was that the state should last as long as he did. His successor must look out for himself. Causes of the Revolution : First, Condition of the People. — Probably the French peasants were no worse off, so far as oppressive government was concerned, than those of other countries, but they felt their burdens more. They were in- creasing in intelligence and able to appreciate the injustice of their lot. Moreover, the middle class was active and alert. Its members had increased in wealth, and yet were shut out from all political rights. The years just preceding the French Eevolution were years of scarcity in parts of France, and the suffering among the lower classes was intense. A fairer ad- justment of the burden of taxation would have prevented this, but, as matters stood, wealth was confined largely to the privileged classes, the nobility and clergy, who, while owning the largest share of the property, bore few of the burdens of taxation. Second, Intellectual Revolt. — The French literature of the last half of the eighteenth century was full of skepticism and speculation. It showed a tendency to break with authority in all departments of thought. Voltaire had attacked creeds and preached the doctrine of perfect freedom of belief. Rousseau wrote that all men were equal, and that the possession of power by a class or a ruler was the result of force and fraud. Montesquieu had reasoned about the functions and proper limitations of governments. On all sides there was a tendency to test everything by reason and to break with tradition. It was a time of free thought and radical sentiments on all sub- 462 GENERAL HISTORY^ jects, and politics was affected by it in common with the rest. There was great zeal for the improvement of the condition of the people, and much faith in the brotherhood of humanity and the rights of men. People dreamed of a return of a " golden age," in which all men should be equals and brothers. These views found their way even among the lower classes, and were there translated into plans for the immediate bringing about of this glorious state of things. Third, The American Revolution. — This was, no doubt, an ap- proximate cause for the revolution in France. Some French- men had returned from America, where they saw the success- ful operation of an economical democratic government which seemed to be a realization of the dreams of men like Rous- seau. They wished to see the same state of things in France. Their favorable accounts of American democracy exerted a wide influence, and everywhere men contrasted the govern- ment across the sea with that Avhich they knew at home. The result was discontent and a determination to bring about a better condition of affairs. Louis XVI. — Louis XVI. was a man of good impulses but weak will. He was called upon to face problems which would have puzzled a man of real genius, and he himself lacked even ordinary ability. He distrusted himself and inspired no con- fidence in others. The first great question he had to deal with was the matter of revenues. In spite of the treuiendous bur- den of taxation, the government was poor and in debt, and the debt was constantly increasing. The only possible remedy was the fair taxation of the classes that had the wealth, namely, the clergy and the nobility, instead of seizing the earnings of the wretched peasantry. In man}^ parts of France the peas- antry, after paying their taxes, were left in a condition of absolute destitution. Louis XVI. allowed his minister, Turgot, the ablest adviser of his time, to fall, because he proposed to tax the class hith- erto untaxed. Louis preferred to postpone difficulties rather than to meet them. His minister, Necker, and later his min- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 463 ister, Calonne, followed the plan of raising money without shifting the burden of taxation. For a while all went well, but Calonne's scheme consisted merely in the simple device of borrowing, and at the end of three years he showed an addition of 1,000,000,000 francs to the debt. Then he fell back on the plan proposed by Turgot, — the taxing of the nobility and the clergy. This, of course, was a confession of utter failure, but the king in desperation agreed to it. The States-General. — Before taxing the clergy and the nobil- ity, however, the king wished to gain the consent of an Assem- bly of the Notables, but this assembly was composed chiefly of the very classes whom it was designed to tax. Naturally they would not consent, but proceeded to inquire into the conduct of the minister who had dared to make such a proposal. Calonne had to resign his place. The Assembly of the Nota- bles proposed certain measures of relief which were then referred to the Parliament of Paris. The latter body promptly said that the only organ of government entitled to decide the matter was the States-General. The States-General, comprising the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate, the last named being the representatives of the middle class, had not met in France since the year 1614. It was an old established rule of the States-General that the three classes represented in it should each have one vote, voting by orders and not individually. This, of course, would prevent the Third Estate from controlling the action of the body ; for, the interests of the clergy and the nobility being the same, these two classes would combine against the former. The States-General met on May 5, 1789, and fell to fighting at once about this method of voting. If the new principle were admitted that each member should have a vote, it was sure to place the Assembly in the control of the party of reform ; for the Third Estate numbered about one half of the whole Assembly, and they had many friends among the higher nobil- ity and the lower clergy. There was a sharp debate for many days, but on June 26 the two upper classes gave way. This 464 aENERAL HISTORY turned the old States-General into a body governed by a wholly new principle. It was an action without precedent and in effect revolutionary. The new body was called the National Assembly ; when it ultimately assumed the power of making a new constitution for France, it was also called the Constituent (constitution-making) Assembly. The National Guard. — When the conflict was going on be- tween the classes in the States-General, the king, fearing a revolt, gathered his forces to suppress it. The National Assembly, which had now come into existence, looked upon this act as a threat and demanded that a force should be raised for its defense. A committee of the electors of Paris thereupon created such an organization. It was a militia force of 48,000 men, and received the name of the National Guard. Lafayette was placed in command. This body, be- ing composed of strong sympathizers with the revolution, was destined to play a very important part in the events which followed. The Years 1788 and 1789. — These were years of bad crops and industrial depression. All efforts to relieve the condi- tion were in vain. Thousands were without means of subsist- ence, and men roamed about the country in bands, robbing and intimidating citizens. In the provinces the laws were disre- garded and the attitude of the people was so threatening that many of the courts dared not punish the offenders. Lawless mobs destroyed the forests, or wandered about forcing people to give them food or money. In Paris the condition was especially bad. The ignorant, the vicious, and the criminal flocked there in thousands, led by the hope of plunder, public or private. National workshops were set up to keep these dangerous visitors quiet, but half- clad groups of ill-looking men prowled the streets, robbed the shops, and defied the police. When the philosophy of the equality of man reached the minds of the ignorant and the vicious, it was taken by them in a very literal spirit. It meant the right of interference with every act of government, a con- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 465 tempt for law, and the hanging up of suspected enemies at the nearest lamp-post.^ The Taking of the Bastile (July 14, 1789) The Parisian mob, not satisfied with the formation of the National Assembly, demanded to be armed in their own defense ; and when this was refused, rushed off to seize the store of arms kept in the Hotel des Invalides. Angered by the report that the guns of the old prison of the Bastile were to be trained on the Taking of the Bastile people, they suddenly gathered around its walls and began an attack. This ancient prison had been the scene of many op- pressions in the past. Its foul dungeons and the sufferings of those who were confined there had made it an object of popu- lar hatred. During Louis XVI. 's reign, however, it had fallen into disuse, and it can not be said that at that time it was 1 Taine, Historrj of the French Revolution. 466 GENERAL HISTORY worse than any other prison. Nevertheless, to the mob it still stood as the symbol of despotism. The governor of the prison surrendered, but the mob mur- dered him, together with some others, and carried the heads of their victims on pikes through the streets. The few prisoners that were within Avere set free. Although there was nothing especially heroic about the taking of the Bastile, the event was of great significance, for it seemed to say that a new age had begun. Throughout Europe it was looked upon as a triumph of the people over despotism, and by the liberals of all coun- tries it was hailed with joy. The Abolition of Privileges (August 4, 1789) . — In the meanwhile the work of reformation in the National Assembly was going on, but before building up the new system it was necessary to pull down the old. The date, August 4, 1789, is memorable in the history of the Eevolution. When the session of the As- sembly closed late that night, France had undergone a great change. All those privileges of special classes, which had been so detestable to the people, were swept away. Slavery was abolished in all the lands belonging to France. Serfdom and the feudal privileges and authority of the nobles were also done away with, and equality of taxation for all classes was decreed. An enthusiasm for popular rights seized the Assem- bly, and even nobles vied with each other in renouncing the privileges for which in the past they had fiercely contended. Some who had been carried away by the impulse of the moment repented when it was too late. What had been done endured. The changes, which in other countries were the work of a century, were brought about in France in a single night. 'The Joyous Entry.' — The king and court were still at Ver- sailles, but the friends of the Eevolution felt that it would be safer to have them where they could be more closely watched. It was a time of scarcity and people were crying for bread. A court banquet, held at Versailles, was the occasion of some foolish speeches which were taken by the mob as signs of hos- THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 467 tility toward the popular cause. It was said that the national emblems were insulted, and that it was planned to restore the king to his former rights. This enraged the mob, and a crowd of rough characters, including many women of the lower classes, went to Versailles and broke into the palace of the royal family, who were saved only by the aid of Lafayette and the National Guard. But the mob, with threats of violence, demanded that the king should go to Paris ; and on October 6, 1789, the royal family, in the midst of a swarm of ragged ruf- fians, proceeded to the city. Soon afterwards the National Assembly was transferred to Paris. The importance of this is that henceforth the king and Assembly were under the watch- ful eye of the people. Any faltering on the part of either was the signal for threats from without, and the government more and more came under the rule of the mob. Political Clubs. — The fiercer spirits of the Revolution bound themselves together in political clubs. Of these the chief was the Jacobin Club, which derived its name from its meeting place — a building formerly occupied by the Jacobin monks. Its object was constant agitation for the most radical changes in the government. It had branches all over France, and it became the greatest power in the state. At first it was com- paratively moderate, but it finally contained among its members the most violent leaders of the Ee volution. Among them was an insignificant little man at whom the other members laughed at first, but who was soon to become the most powerful force in the Revolution. This was Robespierre, the representative of the most radical element in Paris. Another club was the Cordeliers, which also, curiously enough, was named after an order of monks. The members of this club were thoroughgoing Republicans, content with nothing less than the overthrow of the monarchy. Among their leaders was the great orator, Danton, the brutal and half- crazy Marat, and the vicious and bloodthirst}^ Hebert, all of whom figured prominently in the events that followed. Emigration of the Nobles. — After the taking of the Bastile, 468 GENERAL HISTORY the nobles began to leave the country. Among the first to take flight was the king's brother, the Count of Artois, and he was followed by a host of others of lower rank. For this desertion of their country in a time of peril they have been greatly blamed. Their fear was natural in view of the ex- cesses of the revolutionists, but their flight was neither patri- otic nor politic. In the first place, it took away what might have been a check on the violence of the new movement, and the Revolution went farther than it might have gone had the nobles remained. This resulted not only from the fact that a conservative influence was withdrawn, but from the policy which the deserters followed in foreign countries. Their constant efforts were directed toward the stirring up of foreign powers against France for the purpose of restoring the king to his former position. Such a course naturally appeared to the pro- gressive party as treasonable. It stung the people to fury and endangered the king, who was constantly suspected of being in communication with the enemies of France. The King's Attempted Flight. — The king's position had be- come unendurable. He was a virtual prisoner in Paris, and his friends beyond the borders dared not take any step on his behalf lest it should bring down upon him the anger of the mob. He was exposed to insults and subjected to restraints, and every day the mob was becoming more unmanageable. At last a plan wa^ formed for the king's escape. Leaving Paris by night, the royal family fled in disguise toward the border, planning to join a body of regular troops that had been appointed to meet them. They had almost gained a place of safety when the ]30stmaster of a little village through which the royal coach was passing recognized the king and reported his discovery to the authorities. Louis was captured at the village of Varennes, June 21, 1791. This unsuccessful attempt at escape made his position worse than ever, for thence- forth he was more vigilantly guarded and his every act was viewed with suspicion. The New Constitution. — The National Assembly came to an THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 469 end on September 30, 1791. It is important to see what it had accomplished. In the early part of its session its work was, on the whole, good and found sympathy among liberal minds everywhere. But it went on in the path of the Kevolution until it had created a political system entirely different from anything that France had known before. Little was left to remind a Frenchman of the past either in civil or religious in- stitutions. It disregarded all the historical divisions of France, redistricting the entire country. It made all offices elective, even judges and juries in criminal cases, all citizens who paid a certain yearly tax having the right to vote. The change was altogether too violent. The good things of the past had been swept away along with the bad. The king was a mere figurehead and could not appoint the hum- blest officer in the smallest local division of the new state. Being completely cut off from the people, he had no means of knowing their wants. It was a weak, ill-joined form of gov- ernment. Each little locality was in effect a petty independ- ent state, loosely connected with the larger divisions and beyond the reach of the central authority. The principle of popular elections was carried even into the army, whose officers were chosen by the troops, the command in chief being vested in the Assembly. Organization of the Church. — Changes of a somewhat simi- lar character were made even in religious affairs. The Church was reorganized by the so-called Constitution of the Clergy. This limited the number of the clergy and set up the entirely new principle that the people were to choose the ecclesiastics. Such a principle was wholly opposed to the spirit of the Church, and no true Roman Catholic could conscientiously admit it. It sought to abolish by law one of the cardinal principles of the Church ; viz. the idea that authority came from above, not from the people. The king, as a good Catholic, loathed such a violation of the spirit of his religion, and the clergy, so far as they were true to the old faith, could not accept the change. Very few of the higher clergy signed the constitution, and of Colby's gkn. hist. — 30 470 ■ ■ GENERAL HISTORY the lower orders about 50,000 refused to sign. Thus a large and powerful class in the state were turned into enemies of the national constitution. They became a dangerous ele- ment, opposing, with good reason, the tyranny of the Assembly. Mirabeau. — In the early history of the Revolution there was one statesman whose ability far exceeded that of his fellows and whose genius at first controlled the movement. This was Mirabeau. He favored a limited monarchy and had no sympathy with the extremists. Unfortunately for France, Mirabeau died in the spring of 1791, and the one man who possibly could have restrained the madness of his countrymen was removed. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW The French Revolutiox. — France after Louis XIV. : The Bad Condi- tion of Finances. — France Under the Regency. — John Law: His Early Career. His Bank. — Law's Monopolies : The Mississippi Com- pany. The Company of the East Indies, and the Company of China. The Great Powers Intrusted to Law. — The Mississippi Bubble : Rapid Rise in the Price of Shares. The Fever of Speculation. The Company's Methods. — The Collapse of the Bubble: The Fall in Price. — Results of the Financial Folly. — France Under Louis XV.: Her Foreign Policy. The Character of Louis. — Causes of the Revo- lution : First, Condition of the People. — Second, Intellectual Revolt. — ^ Third, The American Revolution. — Louis XVI. : His Character. The Taxation of the Privileged Classes. Turgot. Necker. Calonne. — The States-General : The Occasion Summoning It. Transformed into the National Assembly. — The National Guard. — The Years 1788 and 1789 : The Prevalence of Lawlessness. — The Taking of the Bastile. — The Abolition of Privileges. — 'The Joyous Entry': The Royal Family Forced to Stay in Paris. — Political Clubs : The Jaco- bins. The Cordeliers. — Emigration of the Nobles : Its Effect. — The King's Attempted Flight : His Failure. — The New Constitution. — Organization of the Church. — Mirabeau. CHAPTER LXIII FRANCE UNDER THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY The Legislative Assembly. — The Legislature under the new constitution was called the Legislative Assembl}^, which came together on October 1, 1791, and remained in session for nearly one year, that is, to September 21, 1792. It was com- posed of far more radical members than the National Assembly ; for the latter body had passed a self-denying ordinance, exclud- ing all its members from sitting in the new Assembly. ThuS; the latter body was made up of men without political experi- ence. They were, moreover, as a rule young and without much property. The restraint which experience and age impose^ and the conservative influences which come from the possession of property, were thus withdrawn. Parties. — There were three parties in the Assembly : first, the Constitutionalists, who favored the constitutional mon- archy ; second, the Girondists, or moderate Kepublicans ; third, the Mountain, so called from their higher seats in the house, comprising Jacobins and Cordeliers, and sometimes called Eed Eepublicans. The last were the most extreme of all, favoring the leveling of all ranks of society and the intro- duction of a pure democracy. The government of France was really in the hands of this Assembly, for the power of the king amounted to nothing. But there was a powerful body whose influence on the law- makers was constantly increasing. This was the government of the city of Paris, the Commune, many of whose members were also members of the Assembly. Its influence was always on the side of the most extreme measures, and some of the worst features of the Revolution were due to it. The attitude of the Assembly toward the king was not only one of independence, but even of superiority. Its members showed him no reverence, and some were for stripping the throne of its outward dignities. 471 472 GENERAL HISTORY Austria and Prussia. — It is probable that other European powers would have interfered in France long before this if it had not been that their attention was taken up with the affairs of Poland and the designs of Eussia in the East. The three eastern states of Europe, Austria, Prussia, and Eussia, had their eyes on Poland with a view to getting their proper share of that country when the time for dividing it up among them had arrived. Eussia, too, was apparently plotting to seize a part of Turkey, and this offered another absorbing subject for the consideration of European courts. JSTevertheless, in 1791 the King of Prussia and the Em- peror issued the so-called Declaration of Pilnitz, summon- ing the other powers of Europe to join them in rescuing the French king from the foes of monarchy in France. The effect of this was to bring the Girondist party, who favored war, into power, and the following spring France declared war against the Emperor. The command of the French forces was given to Dumouriez, a general of exceptional talent, but the troops were ill-disciplined, while those of the allies were better trained and more numerous. The army of the allies under the Duke of Brunswick crossed the French border and advanced toward Paris. The duke, feeling that resist- ance Avas impossible, issued a manifesto (July 26, 1792), com- manding the French people to obey their king, and threatening Paris with destruction if its citizens harmed the royal family. Massacre of the Swiss Guards. — This insulting manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick threw the people into a frenzy of rage. In their first unreasoning excitement they determined to make the king their victim. A crowd of men from Marseilles entered Paris and demanded that the tyrant should be struck down. On August 10 a mob surrounded the Palace of the Tuileries, which was defended by a force of about 1000 Swiss Guards. The king and royal family took refuge in the hall of the Assembly, but the Swiss Guards stood their ground. Their resistance Avas brave but utterly hopeless, and they w^ere surrounded by the mob and butchered without mercy. Be- FRANCE UNDER THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY 473 sides the fine example of heroism and loyalty afforded by the victims, the massacre is significant as showing that the Revolu- tion was passing more and more into the hands of the Commune. September Massacres. — The brutality of this day was far surpassed by the September massacres ; for the murder of the Swiss Guards was committed under the blind excitement of the moment, while the massacres that followed were deliberately planned in advance. The news of several reverses in the war added to the fury of the people. Longwy was taken by the Prussians and the city of Verdun surrendered to them. At the same time there was a revolt of the peasants in the prov- ince of La Vendee, where loyalty to the king and nobles was still strong. The people of Paris suspected treachery on every side, and the mere fact that a man had been at one time loyal to the throne was enough to cost him his liberty and endanger his life. Hundreds were thrown into prison and there detained on mere suspicion, and bands of ruffians were hired to search the houses of Paris for suspected persons. The prisons were full. They were soon to be emptied by a very simple method. The revolutionary government of the city, that is, the Commune, hired bands of ruffians to purge the prisons. One after another the jails were visited and the inmates butchered, their bodies being thrown out to the blood- thirsty crowd. Such were the famous September massacres, or, as they are sometimes called, the 'Jail Delivery.' It is said that the number of victims was about a thousand. Everything shows that the deed was carefully planned. The leaders of the Com- mune were responsible, but the savage mob cheered on the work. Battle of Valmy. — As time went on, the French army gained in discipline and strength ; for whatever the faults of the revo- lutionists, they managed to choose the right men to command their armies, and to inspire in both officers and troops the greatest possible enthusiasm and loyalty to the new France. The allies, on the other hand, were not well officered, and they 474 GENERAL HISTORY were, besides, divided in their plans. They lost some time in debating whether they should push directly on toward Paris, and when they decided at last to do this, the skillful leader of the French, Dumouriez, had gathered his troops together on the Belgian border and placed a strong force on the hill of Valmy. The Duke of Brunswick attacked this, but the French fought well, their position was favorable, and after a short time the allies retreated. It was not in itself a great victory, but it had the effects of one. The Prussian troops were withdrawn on account of Russian intrigues over Poland, and the French were now free to invade the Austrian Nether- lands. They won a great battle near Jemapes, and the Austrian Netherlands were gained for France. Almost at the same time Nice and Savoy were overrun by the French. These victories greatly strengthened the cause of the Revolution, inspiring confidence at home and fear abroad. The Legislative Assembly came to an end immediately after the battle of Valmy, September 21, 1792. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW France Under the Legislative Assembly. — The Legislative Assem- bly : The Self-denying Ordinance. — Parties : The Constitutionalists. The Girondists. The Mountain. The Attitude Toward the King. — Austria and Prussia : The Declaration of Pihiitz. The Duke of Brunswick's Manifesto. — Massacre of the Swiss Guards. — Septem- ber Massacres : The Occasion of them. Responsibility for the Deed. — Battle of Valmy : The French Successes. CHAPTER LXIV FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION (1792-1795) Formation of the Republic. — There were no monarchists in the jSTational Convention. All were repnblicans ; but these were divided into the Girondists, who favored a moderate FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 475 policy, and the Jacobins, who represented the most extreme element of the revolutionists. The first work of the Convention was to abolish the king- ship and proclaim the E,epublic. After this -the Convention was the sole executive and legislative head of the nation. September 22, 1792, the day following the establishment of the Republic, Avas reckoned as the first day of a new era, being the first day of the Year One in the Republican Calendar, which was in force from 1793 to 1805. The Girondists were the most numerous party in the Conven- tion, but the ' Mountain,' chiefly Jacobins, was the strongest ; for behind the Jacobins was the Commune, and behind the Commune was the mob of Paris. The leaders of the Mountain or Jacobin party were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, but of these Robespierre soon became the chief, for he represented more fully and consistently the spirit of the radical element. Louis' Trial and Execution. — Having deposed Louis, the Convention brought him to trial for his offenses. He was charged with conspiring with foreign enemies against France, with responsibility for the massacre of the Swiss Guards, and with seeking to overthrow the liberties of the people. These charges were said to be established by documents found in his possession, including his correspondence with so-called traitors. In the condition of the public mind it was a danger- ous thing to undertake his defense ; but three men were found who were brave enough to do so. Although the more moderate Girondists were in the majority, they were overawed by the Parisian mob, and the Jacobins carried things in their own Avay. At last the day was set for the voting. Three questions were to be settled in order. First, is Louis Capet guilty of conspiring against liberty ? Second, should the sentence in the Convention be final, or should there be an appeal ? Third, if the king is guilty, what punishment should be inflicted ? There was a large majority in favor of the verdict of guilty, and tliere were two to one against any appeal to the people, because an appeal at that time meant civil war, but the vote 476 GENERAL HISTORY on the question of punishment was for a long time doubtfuL Some said banishment, others imprisonment till peace was restored, but those who wished his death were persistent and they terrified the others. Many of the Girondists were fright- ened into voting for the king's death, and this was decreed by a very small majority. Another vote declared that there should be no delay, and on January 21, 1793, the king was sent to the guillotine. He showed at the last moment a calmness and courage which did much to redeem his character in the eyes of the world. The First Coalition against France. — The death of Louis was the signal for the union of the chief powers in Europe against France. In the early years of the Revolution England was by no means disposed to take up arms on behalf of the French king, for the liberal party there was strongly in sympathy with the movement. But as France advanced stage by stage toward anarchy and violence, English opinion changed, and when the French went to the length of murdering their lawful sovereign, England was ready to take up arms against the Republic. During the next twenty years she was the strongest and most persistent foe of France. At the beginning of the war the Girondists were in control. Dumouriez belonged to their party, but he lost a battle at Neerwinden (March 18, 1793), and was driven out of Belgium, which quickly passed back again under Austrian control. Disgusted with the violence of the Revolution and with the growing strength of the Jacobins, he entered into a secret arrangement with the enemy, and tried to carry his army over to the side of the allies. The greater part of the army re- mained true to the Republic, but with a small force he deserted. Fall of the Girondists. — The treason of Dumouriez, since he was a Girondist, brought discredit upon that party. Its members were, moreover, disliked by the mob, while the Jacobins were constantly gaining strength ; for Paris was in no mood to submit to a moderate policy, and the Girondists were hated because of their opposition to some of the most FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 477 unwise and extreme measures proposed in the Convention. They were irresolute and inconsistent, and their course, both before and after the king's execution, was marked by timidity. The cry of " Down with the Girondists ! " was heard on all sides, and although they were in the majority in the Conven- tion, they soon became powerless, for the Convention was terrorized by the mob. In March, 1793, there was created the so-called Eevolution- ary Tribunal, an unregulated judicial process for the trial of all political offenses, and in the following month a still more important instrument of government was formed in the Com- mittee of Public Safety, to which were given over all the executive powers of the Convention. These two bodies soon gained the entire control of the government, and exercised the infamous tyranny which is characteristic of the worst stage of the Eevolution. The Jacobins controlled the Committee of Public Safety, which was supported in all its worst measures by the Commune of Paris. The law providing that the persons of members of the Convention should be inviolable was re- pealed, and the G-irondists were now in the power of the Jaco- bins. A great outbreak of the mob in the streets of Paris sealed the doom of the Girondists. Their leaders were seized and the entire party fell from power. Military Successes. — As soon as the control of the govern- ment passed into the hands of the Jacobins, there was a marked change in the character of the war. Carnot, the able war minister, showed himself a splendid organizer, and the armies were admirably officered and filled with enthusiasm. The allies, on the other hand, owing to mutual jealousies, were much weaker than they appeared to be. In the campaign that followed they proved their inefficiency. The French General Jourdan defeated the Austrians, and through the strategy of General Hoche, the allies were expelled from Alsace. The revolutionary government was equally successful in putting down internal strife. The city of Lyons, which was opposed to Jacobin control, was reduced, and the peasantry of 478 GENERAL HISTORY La A^endee, in spite of their bravery and early successes, ^ye^e defeated by Kleber. The city of Toulon, which had revolted and was relying on aid from the English and Spanish fleets, was captured by the troops of the Eepublic, their successes being chiefly due, it is said, to the military skill of a young artillery officer named Napoleon Bonaparte. It is certain that Bonaparte was present at the siege, but how far he contributed to the result is a matter of question with historians. ^F.SSION OF A KeVOLUTIONARY COMMITTEE The Reign of Terror. — Now that the power of the Girondists was broken, and military successes had strengthened the revo- lutionary party in control, France entered upon that part of the Revolution known as the Eeign of Terror. The character- istic feature of the next few months was the wholesale murder of all persons suspected of hostility toward the Jacobin govern- ment or lukewarmness on its behalf. To be sure, the victims enjoyed the show of a judicial trial, but sentence was rendered FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 479 -»— ,^---1 ^ ^'^>-,r— — '^ ^ "" ~i The Guillotine without regard to justice or tlie facts of the case and execution followed quickly. The guillotine, named after its inventor, Dr. Guillotin, was a serviceable instrument for disposing quickly of the condemned, and hardly a day passed without seeing a score or more of suspected persons beheaded in tlie city of Paris alone. Charlotte Corday. — This series of judicial murders began when the Girondist prisoners were exe- cuted. Their death was hastened by the rash act of a young woman who was devoted to their cause and tried to save them. This was the famous Charlotte Corday, who thought that by killing the bloodthirsty Marat, she might deprive the Jacobins of their leader and encourage the friends of the Girondists to rise in their defense. Obtaining an in- terview with Marat under false pretenses, she stabbed him to the heart. Marat is represented as a monster of cruelty, re- pulsive in appearance and filthy in dress, and as having a thirst for human blood that amounted to actual madness. But getting rid of him did no good to the cause that Char- lotte Corday had at heart, for there were too many in sym- pathy with the violent policy of the Jacobins. Marat was rep- resented as a martyr, and Charlotte Corday was sent to the guillotine. Her defense of the deed was that she saw civil war approaching and thought to avert it by killing the man whom she considered to be the cause of all the calamities from which her country suffered. The murder of Marat hastened the execution of the Giron- dists. Their leaders, including some of the most eminent men in France, were hurried to the guillotine. An early victim of the guillotine was the ex-queen, Marie Antoinette, who, after 480 GENERAL HISTORY being subjected to every kind of insult, was carried like an ordinary criminal in a common cart to the place of execution (Oct. 16, 1793). Thus the Reign of Terror had fairly begun. It spread throughout France and lasted for several months. Party Chiefs ; Robespierre. — Now that Marat was dead, the leaders of the Jacobin party were Robespierre, Danton, and Hebert. E/obespierre soon became the chief man in France ; for he was at the head of the Committee of Public Safety, and this was in control of the government. He was a man of one idea, and this was the establishment of the Republic on a basis of absolute equality. Having this one end in view, he never swerved from his purpose or showed the slightest hesitation. The means by which the object Avas to be attained was the wholesale execution of all who stood in his way. The very dullness and fanaticism of the man strengthened his hold on the people, for they could not doubt his sincerity of purpose. Danton. — Danton, on the other hand, was a man of real ability, an eloquent orator, and in some points a very shrewd politician. In the early stages of the Revolution he had shown himself as violent as the rest, but this was because he thought that harsh measures were necessary in a time of peril. As the Revolution advanced, he inclined to a more moderate policy and opposed the more radical and senseless measures. But for this very reason he was distrusted by the mob, who thought him lukewarm in the cause of the Revolution. Hebert. — The most detestable figure among the leaders of the Jacobins was Hebert. It was he who made foul charges against Marie Antoinette at her trial. He knew no mercy or reverence, and he was as indecent as he was cruel. Triumph of Robespierre. — These three leaders had each a considerable following. The Hebertists were at one extreme. They represented the worst element in the Commune, and were atheists and Communists. Danton and his followers were the most moderate of the three parties. Danton, it is said, would even have spared the lives of the Girondist prisoners. FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 481 Robespierre held a middle place. He distrusted Danton as hostile to the true spirit of the Republic, and on the other hand, being a believer in a Supreme Being, hated the atheism and immorality of the Hebertists. In these circumstances he formed with Danton a union for the overthrow of the party which both detested. Hebert and his followers were seized and hastily sent to the guillotine. The next to fall was Danton. His popularity was gone, but he did not seem to realize this, in spite of the warnings of his friends. Robes- pierre plotted against him and soon managed to secure his arrest and condemnation. Danton was executed April 5, 1794. Robespierre in Control. — Now that Robespierre was at the head of the government, the Reign of Terror became worse than ever. There were massacres throughout France, and in Paris every day saw cart loads of victims carried to the guillo- tine. So common was the scene that people looked on as calmly as at a play. It is estimated that between April 16, 1793, and July 28, 1794, 2625 persons were guillotined in Paris. And what was done in Paris was repeated all over France. Thou- sands were killed at Nantes, Lyons, and Toulon; and, ac- cording to the estimate of Taine, nearly half a million were killed in the eight western departments. Ingenious forms of butchery were devised, such as the fusillades of Toulon, where a crowd of victims was repeatedly fired into by the troops until all were killed. At Nantes drowning was the favorite method of execution, the methods being termed by the government's agent Republican Baptisms and Republican Marriages. The former consisted in crowding a boat full of prisoners and sink- ing it in the river Loire. In the Republican Marriages, a man and a woman, after being bound together, were thrown into the water and drowned. Robespierre, true to his belief in a Supreme Being, abol- ished the worship of Reason, which had been established by the Republic, and caused the Convention to resolve that France believed in a Supreme Being and in the immor- 482 GENERAL HISTORY tality of the soul, a singular and shadowy religious faith, by no means agreeable to the great body of the people. Execution of Robespierre. — The cause of the end of the E-eign of Terror and the execution of Kobespierre was twofold. In the first place, the success of the French armies made the whole- sale murders seem not only bloodthirsty, but needless ; and in the second place, it was feared that Robespierre was aiming at a dictatorshii:). Plots were made against him, and even his own colleagues began planning his overthrow. His death was brought about by the revolution, or counter revolution, of Ther- midor (July, 1794). He was at this time planning to arrest some of his enemies in the Convention, but a member ventured to arise and accuse him. The example once set was followed by others, and soon the tyrant was under arrest. The people rose and rescued him, but in vain. He was retaken and sent to the guillotine July 28, 1794. End of the Reign of Terror. — This marks the beginning of the reaction as^ainst the excesses of the Revolution. The radical clubs, such as the Jacobins, were now closed. The prison doors were thrown open, and those who had been confined merely on suspicion were released. The Girondists came back to their seats in the Convention, and the Jaco- bins were soon a despised and hunted class. France now proceeded, by gradual steps, away from the work of the Revolution until she reached a des- potism under the government of Na- poleon. The Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee of Public Safety were swept away; the Commune was kept under control and peace reigned in the capital. The reaction showed itself in the renewal of social entertainments and the display of wealth, which had largely changed hands. A kind of fever A Fhench Danj FRANCE UNDER THE NATIONAL CONVENTION 483 of frivolity seized the leisure classes, as if they wished to make up for lost tiuie. The so-called patriots, marking the return of luxury and display, complained that France had merely exchanged an aristocracy of birth for an aristocracy of wealth. The Victories of France. — Everywhere the armies of France were victorious. Holland was conquered and formed into the Batavian Republic, dependent upon France. The western provinces, where the revolt of La Vendee had broken out, were pacified, and the English, who, with the emigrants, had tried to effect a landing on the coast, were defeated. Finally the coalition against France was broken. Spain made peace with her, ceding the island of Santo Domingo. Repulse of the Mob. — The people of Paris did not let the moderate party triumph without a struggle. The popular discontent was increased by the scarcity of the times, and twice the mob rose against the Convention with the cry of " Bread and the Constitution of 1793 ! " Nevertheless, the Convention continued its attempts to give France a more stable government. It prepared a new constitution, show- ing a more conservative spirit, and submitted it to the peo- ple. In France generally it was well received, but in Paris the old revolutionary spirit broke out anew. In October, 1795, the mob, some 40,000 strong, attacked the Convention. Its defense had been intrusted to the young artillery officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself at Toulon. This was the last trial of strength between the party of order and the Parisian populace. Napoleon's promptness and vigor won the day. He raked the streets with a steady artillery fire, and the mob withdrew in confusion. Thus the Convention was saved and the party of order was firmly intrenched in power. Now, the danger to France was not so much from the rising of the people as it was from the parties plotting some form of despotism. In the brief interval between July 28, 1794, and October 5, 1795, the country had passed from the 484 GENERAL HISTORY government of most violent Jacobins to a condition in which it was actually in danger from a combination of royalists and men of anti-republican tendencies. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW France under the National Convention. — Formation of the Repub- lic : Louis Deposed. — His Trial and Execution. — The First Coali- tion against France : The Battle of Neerwinden. — Fall of the Girondists : The Revolutionary Tribunal. The Committee of Public Safety. — Military Successes : Carnot. Jourdan. Hoche. The Re- duction of La Vendue. — The Reign of Terror: The Guillotine. — Charlotte Corday : Her Assassination of Marat. Her Execution. The Execution of Marie Antoinette. — Party Chiefs; Robespierre. Danton. Hubert. — Triumph of Robespierre : The Overthrow of the H^bertists. The Overthrow of the Dantonists. — Robespierre in Control : The Activity of the Guillotine. Judicial Murders at Nantes, Lyons, and Toulon. — Execution of Robespierre. — End of the Reign of Terror. — The Victories of France. — Repulse of the Mob : Napo- leon Bonaparte. CHAPTER LXV FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY (October 27, 1795-Noveniber 9, 1799) The New Constitution. — This gave France a very different form of government from tliat set up in 1793. The executive power was intrusted to a party of five directors, and there were two branches of the Legislature, first, the lower house, or Council of 500 ; second, the Council of the Ancients, having a membership of 250 persons, all of whom were required to be at least fifty years of age. Each director acted in turn as President. The Italian Campaign ; Rise of Napoleon. — In the period that followed the establishment of the Directory, France took the aggressive in war and was brilliantly successful. The first FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY 485 great campaign was that against the Austrian power in Italy. In this war Napoleon won his reputation as the greatest mili- tary genius of the time. Driving the Austrians before him along different lines of retreat, he was soon in possession of the plains of Piedmont. He then entered Lombardy and defeated the enemy in the decisive battle of Lodi (May, 1796), where he gave a remarkable proof of his personal courage by charging at the head of his troops in the midst of a terrific artillery fire, across the stone bridge that spanned the Adda at tliat point. Then in a series of remarkable battles he defeated the old Austrian general, Wurmser, and finally destroyed an entire force of cavalry sent against him. In less than a year he had crushed three armies, each superior to his own, had crossed the Alps, invaded Austria, and dictated the terms of peace. While all this was going on, the other armies of France who were engaged in Germany failed to accomplish anything. This contrast served to make the fame of Napoleon all the greater. He was now started on the course which was to end in his being the emperor of France and the controller for a time of the destinies of Europe. Early Life of Napoleon. — Napoleon at this time Avas only twenty-seven years of age. He was born in the island of Corsica in 1769, of a poor but noble family. He was sent as a lad to the military school of Brienne and became afterwards an ensign in the French army. In his boyhood and youth he gave signs of genius, bat showed from the first a lack of scruple and a spirit of self-seeking, which became the marked traits of his mature years. Always plotting for the interest of himself and his family and cherishing an ambition for power, he made use of every chance that presented itself. His Military Ambition. — At first his ambition took no defi- nite form. He seemed to have but little attachment for mili- tary life and made one or two ventures in literature and history. His success in Italy, however, opened his eyes to what he called his destiny. At first he was a Jacobin, or at Colby's GEX. hist. — 31 486 GENERAL HISTORY least professed to be so, but even before the Italian campaign he was keen enough to see that the Jacobin misrule could not endure. He knew, too, that France was certain to encounter some vigorous attacks from without and that the royalists would do their best to bring the Bourbons back to power. To meet this danger, it was necessary to vest the whole military command in one man. Napoleon saw this, and determined to be that man. In Italy he had no idea of forcing republicanism upon the different states, and he surprised his troops by refus- ing to change Sardinia into a republic. Treaty of Campo Formio. — The Austrians had not come to terms until Napoleon marched his army across the Alps and approached within sight of Vienna. Preliminaries of peace were then agreed to, and later the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed October 17, 1797. By this the Austrian Nether- lands (the modern Belgium) were given to the French Eepub- lic. Important lands to the west of the Rhine also became French and the northern part of Italy was formed into a republic under the name of Cisalpine Republic. Venice was given up to Austria. Weakness of the Directory. — The government at home was daily growing weaker on account of the anti-republican and royalist opposition. For a time there was some show of vigor on the part of the Directory, but on the whole there was a desire among the people for a firmer authority at the head of affairs. The great successes of the years 1796 and 1797 had seemed to be in spite of the Directory rather than on account of it, and the people attributed everything to the genius of Napoleon alone. The directors observed this, and when Napo- leon returned to France amid the applause of the people, they felt that their security was endangered by his fame and power. The Campaign in Egypt (i 798-1 799). — In their uneasiness at the presence of the popular young general, the Directory planned a campaign which would take him out of the country. At first there was a design to attack England, but at Napo- leon's suggestion this plan was changed to the campaign into FRANCE UNDER THE DIRECTORY 487 Egypt. The object of this was not only to conquer Egypt, but to penetrate into the East, and to acquire an empire which should stand between England and her Indian possessions. In Napoleon's mind there was a vision of Oriental conquests and the possibility of winning for himself an empire like Alexander's. His army was conveyed in safety across the Mediterranean, managing to escape the English fleet. On his way over he captured the island of Malta. Landing in Egypt, he attacked Alexandria and advancing on Cairo fought the ' Battle of the Pyramids,' in which he overthrew the Mame- A Marriage under the Eepublic lukes, the Egyptian cavalry. This placed Cairo in his hands, but soon afterwards he suffered a reverse in the ^ Battle of the Nile ' in Aboukir Bay, where Nelson destroyed the French fleet. Nevertheless, Napoleon completed his conquest in Egypt and led an expedition into Syria. After some success he was checked at Acre by the valiant resistance offered by the Eng- lish commander. Sir Sidney Smith. This ended his attempt at Oriental conquest. While before Acre he had received 488 GENERAL HISTORY news of important happenings at home, and he hastened back to Egypt, whence, after placing General Kleber in command, he returned to France. The French and the Directory. — In 1798 the French armies had been successful. Three new republics were set up. The Roman or Tiberine Republic, the Swiss or Helvetic Republic, and the Parthenopaean Republic, established on the ruins of the kingdom of Naples. These successes did not serve, however, to prolong the life of the Directory ; for though it had the energy to gain territories, it did not have the power to retain them. A few sharp blows drove the French out of Italy, and the newly formed republics soon toppled over. The gov- ernment in France was unsatisfactory to every class of society. Some feared the renewal of the Reig.i of Terror, and others the restoration of the old monarchy. The Abbe Sieyes, one of the shrewdest politicians of the time, said, " We must have a chief." Overthrow of the Directory. — Napoleon returned just at the time when the feeling against the Directory was at its lieight. A plan was formed to overthrow the government and some of the directors themselves were concerned in the plot, though Napoleon and Sieyes were the chief conspirators. The Legis- lature was dissolved, and France, being left without a govern- ment, Avas obliged to form a new one. The country as a whole was on the side of Napoleon in this matter, for the Directory was regarded with distrust. This act of violence was there- fore no " assassination of liberty," but was the act of men who were shrewd enough to see what the people wanted. The overthrow of the Directory was accomplished without shedding a drop of blood, and was received with almost uni- versal approval. A new constitution was now adopted, but the government established in accordance with it left the real power in the hands of a single man, and this man was Napo- leon, who for many years controlled the policy of the state. Thus the Revolution liad in the course of ten years resulted in establishing in France a monarchy no less absolute than that which had been overthrown. FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON 489 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW France under the Directory. —The New Constitution. — The Italian Campaign ; Rise of Napoleon : The Battle of Lodi. The Defeat of Wurmser. — Early Life of Napoleon. — His Military Ambition. — Treaty of Campo Formio. — Weakness of the Directory : Napoleon's Return. —The Campaign in Egypt: The Battle of the Pyramids. The Battle of the Nile. Repulse at Acre. — The French and the Directory : The Formation of the Republics. Their Overthrow. — Overthrow of the Directory : Napoleon and Siey^s. CHAPTER LXVI .& FRANCE UNDER NAPOLEON The Consulate. — The form of government established after the overthrow of the Directory Avas peculiar. Eepublican forms w^ere re- tained, but all the power was in the hands of the Tirst Consul, and the man chosen to fill this office w^as Napoleon. He had two colleagues, each of whom was called Consul and enjoyed an ap- : pearance of authority, but from the first Napoleon as First Consul exercised all the powers of the state. He alone could promulgate the la^vs, and although there were a Tribunate, a Legislative Body, and a Senate, tJie men chosen as members of these bodies were Napo- leon's friends. This constitution was submitted to the people and apx^roved by a large majority. Soon after the new constitution went into operation, it was clear to everybody that, while nomi- nally the government was republican, it was in reality a mon- Napoleon 490 GENERAL HISTORY archy. The National Guard, so often a dangerous instrument during the Revolution, now became a mere appendage of the regular army. Napoleon, in fact, undid much of the work of the Revolution. For instance, he regained the good will of the Church by an agreement with the Holy See. The Roman Catholic Church was supported and favored by the state. This removed one great cause of discontent. Another change of importance introduced by Napoleon was the creation of a new aristocracy. Men who had gained distinction in any depart- ment of life were enrolled in the so-called Legion of Honor, which exists to this day. Besides this, Napoleon created a new nobility, restoring many ancient titles ; and, although this nobility was rather a poor affair, it had the effect of attaching the upper classes to him. Campaign of Marengo. — In the year 1ritish settlers fol- lowed the discoveries of Captain Cook (1769-1777), who gave the name of New South Wales to the colony wdiicli was first occupied. The earlier colonists were convicts, sent out from England to the penal colony known as Botany Bay, but as the resources of the country became known, free settlers followed, and the better lands were soon taken up by an enterprising and increasing population, immigration being especially stim- ulated by the discovery of gold in 1851. The main interest in the recent history of the colonies has centered in the efforts to secure some form of union. A constitution establishing a federal government for the Australians was submitted to the people of the separate colonies in 1898, but failed to secure the requisite number of votes. EUROPE SINCE 1871 559 Canada. — In 1791 Canada, which had been ceded to Great Britain in 1763, was formed into the two provinces of Upijer and Lower Canada. This condition continued till 1841, when the two provinces were united. In 1867 the Dominion of Can- ada was constituted, comprising at first Upper Canada or Ontario, Lower (Canada or Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, and later Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island. By this arrangement each province was left to manage its local affairs while the central authority was vested in the Dominion Parliament and in a governor general as a representative of the crown. Oriental Peoples. — As we have stated at the outset, the scope of the present work is for the most part limited to the history of European races, and little has been said of Oriental peoples except when they have come into direct relations with the peoples of the west. We have seen that on several occa- sions Europe was threatened by eastern races. The battle of Chalons in 451 a.d. checked the westward movement of the Huns. The battle of Tours in 732 a.d. turned back the tide of Arab conquest. Later, the Magyars or Hungarians, a Tura- nian people allied to the Huns, kept Europe in constant terror by their incursions, until finally they established themselves in the country which now bears their name. In the thirteenth century took place the great Mongolian invasion under Gen- ghis Khan, who established a vast empire in central Asia, conquered the region to the north of the Black Sea, and defeated an army of Germans who came to the defense of eastern Europe. The Mongols withdrew from Europe, but, as we have seen, dominated eastern Russia for a period of two centuries. This Mongol empire rapidly declined, but Tamer- lane, a descendant of Genghis, revived it and at the beginning of the fifteenth century wrested Asia Minor from the Ottoman Turks. But Tamerlane's empire soon fell to pieces, while the Ottomans, recovering from their defeat, continued the course of conquest which resulted in the fall of Constantinople (1453) and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in Asia Minor and 560 GENERAL HISTORY Europe. An account has been given of the relations between Turkey and the European powers, and of some aspects of the so-called Eastern Question. Before describing another and more recent aspect of that question, namely, that which per- tains to the activity of the European powers in the Far East, a few words in regard to China and Japan are necessary. Early in the thirteenth century Genghis Khan led his Mon- gols into China, and after a long period of warfare, a great Mongol empire was established there under Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis. This empire lasted for about a century, after which a line of native rulers, known as the Ming dy- nasty, held the throne for nearly three hundred years. The sovereign power was then seized by the Manchu Tartars, who have retained it ever since, in spite of serious opposition in parts of the empire. In 1850 this opposition took the form of a formidable revolt, known as the Taiping Rebellion, which had for one of its objects the restoration of the throne to native rulers. The rebels gained control of a large part of the coun- try, and the war dragged on for many years, but in the end the government succeeded in suppressing the revolt (1865). Dur- ing the nineteenth century the most important feature of Chinese history has been the opening of China to foreign trade. Treaties with Great Britain (1842) and with France and the United States (1844) prepared the way for commer- cial intercourse, and since that time the number of ports open to foreign trade has greatly increased. The Mikados or rulers of Japan claim an unbroken descent from the hero Jimmu Tenno, who is said to have founded the dynasty in the year 660 b.c. After the seventh century a.d. the Mikados appear to have lost much of their power, and the military leadership passed into the hands of, the Shoguns or generals, who finally gained control of (dvil affairs as well, the Mikado being sovereign merely in name. After centuries of internal confusion and civil war, Japan developed a sort of feudal system in which the local authority was in the hands of the daitnios or lords, who acknowledged EUROPE SINCE 1871 561 the Shogun as their feudal overlord. This system became firmly established in the seventeenth century and lasted till 1868, when as a result of a revolution the Mikados regained their lost power. In the sixteenth century, Portuguese sailors visited Japan, and in 1549 St. Francis Xavier introduced Christianity, but although the faith spread rapidly at first, it was checked by a course of violent persecutions. Commercial intercourse with the civilized nations of the west began in 1854, when Commodore Perry formed a treaty which opened certain ports to United States trade. Since then Japan has made commercial treaties with many nations and broken wholly with her old exclusive policy. In internal affairs also she has greatly -improved. Feudalism was abolished soon after the overthrow of the Shogunate, and new institutions, framed on western models, were established. In 1889 Japan became a constitutional monarchy. China and Japan. — War broke out between China and Japan in 1894 as a result of their conflicting interests in Korea. The hostilities began July 25, when a Japanese squadron defeated the Chinese fleet; and the war ended in May, 1895, when China was forced to make peace in order to avert the impend- ing capture of Pekin. The great inferiority of the Chinese fleet and army in all matters pertaining to discipline and organization was shown in a striking manner. Japan received a large war indemnity, and secured the recognition of the inde- pendence of Korea. She rose to the first rank among Oriental nations, and earned the respect of the Western powers as a strong and progressive state. China and the Powers. — One of the most important problems in European politics is the so-called "Far Eastern Question," involving the destiny of the vast empire of China. In Janu- ary, 1898, it was announced that Germany had gained posses- sion of the harbor Kiao-Chau, with a tract of land adjoining. It appeared from this that Germany was determined to share in the rivalry which had been going on among the European powers for many years in connection with the acquisition of 562 GENERAL HISTORY Chinese territory. France had gained a foothold in Tonquin ; Great Britain, in Hongkong ; and Russia, in Manchuria. This cession to Germany was followed on March 28 by the announce- ment that Eussia had secured from China a grant of the im- portant military point, Port Arthur, and the neighboring city Talienwan. Great Britain and France also secured important concessions, the foriner obtaining the island of Wei-Hai-Wei and a district in the neighborhood of Hongkong, and the latter a bay on the southern coast of China. It seemed as if the partition of China had begun; and many thought that Great Britain had shown weakness and vacillation in permitting these concessions to foreign powers, and in taking part in the scramble herself, since it had hitherto appeared to be her policy to maintain the integrity of China. But it was pointed out that in the lands newly acquired by Germany and Eussia, the policy of the '^ open door " was to be maintained, granting freedom of trade to the merchant vessels of otlier nations ; and this, it was said, was all that the British government had a right to expect. On the other hand, it was urged that the policy of other nations than Great Britain would not, in the long run, be that of the " open door " ; for, in the government of their colonies, the other powers had always shown a desire to confine the trade so far as possible to trade with the home country. These events gave rise to a very extended discus- sion involving the future of the Chinese empire and the undue extension of the power of Eussia. The rivalry of the different nations brought np many irritating questions, and led to the prediction that a great European war would some day take place in that quarter of the globe. The Czar's Peace Proposal. — In the midst of all this talk of European wars arising from the rivalry of the powers in China and in Africa, there appeared on August 24, 1898, the remark- able proclamation of Nicholas II., Czar of Eussia, favoring a gradual disarmament by the European powers. He said that the maintenance of the huge armies and navies of Europe was pressing with increasing weight upon the people ; and that EUROPE SINCE 1871 563 since the object of this policy was to maintain peace, it seemed as if the result could be obtained by simpler and less burdensome means. He therefore proposed to all the govern- ments, whose representatives were accredited to the imperial court, the assembling of a conference to discuss this matter, SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW Europe since 1871. — The Russo-Tarkish War : Turkey and the Balkan Provmces. England's Attitude. The Bulgarian Massacres. Rus- sian Successes. — The Congress of Berlin: The Balkan Provinces. The Eastern Question. — England and Egypt: The Dual Control. The Egyptian War. The English Occupation. — England and the Transvaal : The English Attempt to Annex the Transvaal. Its Fail- ure. Political Difficulties. The Jameson Raid. — The Partition of Africa : England and France. The Kitchener Expedition. The Italians in Africa. — The African Situation in 1898 : The Shares of the Powers. The Niger Question. General Kitchener's Successes. The Fashoda Question. — Turkey. — The Armenian Massacres : Turkish Atrocities. The Attitude of the Powers. — The Cretan Difficulty : The Grievances of the Cretans. The Attitude of the Powers. The Sympathy of the Greeks. — The Graeco-Turkish War : Military Operations. Defeat of the Greeks. The Terms of Peace. The Cretans. The Massacre at Candia. Prince George in Crete. — Spain and her Colonies : The Revolt in Cuba. The Revolt in the Philippines. — The Spanish-American War ; Causes : Sympathy with the Insurgents. Mediation Fruitless. The Destruction of the Maine. The Declaration of War. — Events of the War. The Battle of Manila. The Destruction of Cervera's Fleet. — The Peace of Paris : The Terms of Peace. — Austria- Hungary. Racial Antago- nisms. Dispute over the Ausgleich. The Language Dispute. — Latin America. — Australia. — Canada. — Oriental Peoples. — China and Japan: The War of 1894-95. Its Results. — China and the Powers : Acquisition of Chinese Territory by the Powers. Germany. Russia. Great Britain. France. The Far Eastern Question. — The Czar's Peace Proposal : His Reasons. A Peace Conference Pro- posed. INDEX. a as in ale. a as in hat. a as in care, a as in arm. a as in ask. a as in awe. e as in eve. 6 as in m6t. e as in her. e as in thgre. i as in light. I as in tin. o as in old. 5 as in n6t. o = German oe. ii = French and German ii. u = French eu. ■e, €h as in chaos. D = ttl, as in this. g as in gem. g as in get. G = German g. H = strongly aspirated h. K = German oh. n like ni in minion. N = the nasal sound in French. n = ng. S = z. PAGE Aah'mes (Ama'sis) I., King of Egypt . 29 Abbas'sids, dynasty of ... . 258, 259 Abderrahman (abd-er-raH'man) . . 258 Abdurrahman Khan 544 Abhorrers, origin of 429 Aboukir (a-boo-ker'> Bay, Napoleon defeated at 487 Abraham, .Jews descended from . . 44 divine mission of 255 Abraham, Plains of, battle at . . . 455 Absulute monarchy, in Rome . . .178 rise of 324, 333-340 in England 335, 336 in France 339 in Spain 340 in Prussia 438 A'bu-bek'r, successor of Moha.nmed . 256 Abu-Sim'bel, shrine of 31 Aby'dos, temple at 30 Abyssin'ia, Italian protectorate over . 551 Aehae'a, Greece called . . . . 117, 160 Aehae'an League 116 revolt of 150 Aehae'ans, Greek tribe 73 Achaeans, geographical location of . 78 Aehae'ns, son of Helleii 73 A€hirie§, Greek hero 75 PAGE A' ere, captured 272 Napoleon at 487 Acrop'olis, buildings of 102 Act of Settlement 434, 451 Act of Supremacy 361 Ac'tium, battle of 168 Adda River 485 Addison, English poet 435 Ad'ela, wife of Stephen 299 A'do-wa, battle of 551 Adrian VI., Pope 355 Adriano'ple, battle of 185 treaty of .- 511 Russians capture 548 Adriatic Sea, Pompey tiees across . 163 Aegates (e-ga'tez) Islands, battle of . 144 Aegean (e-ge'an) Sea, Greek colonies in, conquered 65 islands of 72, 78 Aegina (egi'na), conflict with Athens 94 joins Achaean League 116 Ae-gospot'ami, battle uf 107 Aene'as, Tmjan hero 129 Aene'id, Vergil's .... 50, note ; 171 Aeo'lians, Greek tribe 73 colonies founded by .78 Ae'olus.son of Hellen 73 566 GENERAL HISTORY. PAGE Ae'quians, war with Rome. . . 135, 136 Aeschines (6s'k!-neez), Greek orator . 122 Aeschylus (6s'ki-lus), Greek drama- tist 103, 121 Aetius (a-e'shi-us), Roman general . 194 Aeto'lian League 116 Aetolians, driven southward ... 77 Afghan wars 543, 544 Afghanistan', boundary of .... 544 Africa, government of ancient na- tions in 22 Phoenician settlements in . . . . 51 Romans in ... . 143, 147, 148, 150 Caesar's victory in 164 Vandal kingdom in 193 Mohammedanism in 256 discoveries in 326 partition of 550, 551 Africa'nus, Scipio called 149 Agamem'non, King of Mycenae . . 75 Age, bronze 14, 15 iron 14, 15 stone 14, 15 of Pericles 102 Agesila'us, King of Sparta .... 109 Agincourt (S-zhaN-koor') battle of, 308, 313 Agnes of Meran 290 Agni (ag'nee), Indian god 57 Agrarian Law, passed 155 Agric'ola, Roman general 175 Agrigen'tum, captured 143 Agrippi'na, wife of Claudius .... 174 A'hab, King of Israel .39 Ah'riman, Persian god 67 Aistulf (Ts'toolf), King of Lombards . 215 punishment of 219 Aix-la-Chapelle (aks-la-sha-p61'), treaty of 407, 440 congress at 506 Ak'kad, region in Babylonia .... 38 Akkadians 48 Al'aric, Gothic chief .... 187, 188 sacks Rome 188 death of 190 Alba Longa, capital of ancient Italy . 129 chief community in Latium •. . . 132 Albert II., Emperor of Germany . . 319 Albi', French city 310 Albigen'ses, crusade against . . 292, 310 Inquisition against 367 Al'boin, Lombard chief 210 Albuquerque (al-boo-k6r'ka) .... 330 Alcaeus (al-se'us), Greek poet . . .121 Alcibi'ades, Athenian leader. . . . 106 deposed 107 Alcuin (al'kvvin), English scholar . . 227 PAGE Alemanni (a-la-man'ne) . . . 184, 186 Franks defeat 206 Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an) Islands ... 15 Al'e-iits, civilization of 15 Alexander the Great 42 conquests in India . . .61, 113, 114 military genius of 112 fouiiils Alexandria 113 victories in Persia 113 character of 115 death of 115 Alexander I., Czar of Russia . . . 494 claims Duchy of Warsaw . . 502, 514 death of 510 Alexander II 532 Alexandria, founded 113 capital of Egypt 115 Antony at 168 capital of Patriarchate 230 Napoleon attacks 487 English bombard 549 Alexandrine Library founded . . . 115 Alex'is, cruel treatment of .... 448 Alex'ius I., Emperor of East . 262, 264 Alfred the Great, King of England . 247 and the Danes ...... 247, 248 character, work of 248 Algiers (al-gerz'), campaign in . . . 512 A'li, Arabian caliph 256 Allah, god of Mohammedans . . . 255 Al'lia River, battle near 137 Alliance, Holy 305 Quadruple 520 Allod, defined 275 Alma River, Russian defeat at . . . 531 Al-ma'gro, conquests of 329 Almeida (al-ma'e-da) 330 Alphabet, Phoenician 52 Greek 74 Alps, Hannibal crosses 146 Napoleon crosses 485 Alsace (al-sas'), France acquires . . 401 Germany regains 402, 540 Allies expelled fioni 477 threatened by Napoleon .... 490 Alsace-Lorraine question 239 Al Si-rat', bridge of 255 Alva, Duke of 378-380 Amade'us, King of Spain 538 Amboise (6N-bwaz'), conspiracy of . 386 Ambra'cian Gulf 71, 168 Amenem'hat L, King of Egypt . . 28 Amenemhat III 28 Ameno'phis, King of Egypt .... 30 America, Northmen settle in . . . 251 discovery of 326, 327, 340 INDEX. 567 PAGE America, origin of name 32s Revolutionary war in 462 Spanish-American war in . . 555-557 America, Central, Columbus ex- plores 327 America, South, Columbus in . . . 327 American colonies, Spanish .... 329 strife over 440 George III. loses ....... 455 Ameiican Revolution, influence in France 462 Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-ree'go v6s- poot'chee) (Amer'icus Vespu'- cius), discoveries of 328 Amiens (a'myaN'), peace of . . . .491 Am'nionites, Hebrews conquer ... 45 Amphip'olis, battle of 105 Amsterdam, siege of 408 Anab' asis, Xenophon's. . . . 108,122 Anae're-on, Greek poet 121 An'chorites, life of 233 Ancient history 18-202 divisions of 21 Ancients, Council of 484 Ancus Marcius, Roman king . , . 131 Angles, Teutonic tribe 186 invade Britain ...... 193, 246 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 248 Anglo-Saxon dynasty, restored . . . 250 . end of 295 Anglo-Saxons, kingdom in Britain . . 193 converted 232 unite under one leader 247 Angouleme (6N-goo-lam'), Duke of . 507 An'halt, Christian of 398 Animal worship, in Egypt .... 32 Anjou (ON-zhoo'), claimed by English, 302 France acquires 303, 339 Anjou, Duke of 389 Anne Mortimer 308, note Anne, Princess, daughter of James II., 434 Anne, Queen of England . . . 434, 435 An-tirie§, Lesser, discovered . . .327 An'tioch, capital of Syria 116 capital of Patriarchate 230 siege of 264, 265 Anti'oehus III., King of Syria . . . 150 Antoni'nus Pius, Roman emperor . . 177 Anto'nius, Marcus. See Antony, Mark. Antony, King of Xavarre . . . 385, 387 Antony, Mark, Roman consul . . .166 appropriates Caesar's wealth . . .167 Octavius, and Lepidus, Second Triumvirate 167 governor of East PAGE Antony, Mark, defeated by Octavius . 168 victory at Philippi 168 death of les Aphrodi'te, Greek goddess . 119, note 1 A'pis, worship of 32 Apol'lo, Greek god 118, note oracle of, at Delphi 119 Apostles, govern church 229 Apulia (a-pU'le-a), Normans in . . .319 Apulians, join Samnites 140 Aquitaine (ak-we-tan'), English pos- session 302, 306 French reconquer 313 English sovereignty over .... 313 Arabi Pasha (a-ra'bee pa-sha') . . . 549 Arabia, home of Semitic race ... 17 boundaries of 22 conquest of 256 Arabian Nights 259 Arabian Sea, Indian boundary ... 56 Arabs, race . . . . , 16 threaten Christianity 17 country of ......... 252 civilization of ..... . 258, 259 defeated at Tours 558 Ar'agon, Christian state in Spain . . 339 Arbe'la, battle of 113 Arca'dins, Roman emper<.r .... 187 Ai'chaugel, Russian seaport .... 444 Archbishop, authority of 230 Ar«hiro€hus, Greek poet 121 Architecture, Egyptian 33 Babylonian 42' in Athens 103 during Justinian's reign .... 209 Ar'chon, head of Athenian state . . 85 Arctic Seas, discoveries in ... . 375 Ar-eGp'agus, national council ... 85 A're§, Greek god 118, note Ar'gives, aid Thebans 109 Argop, Din'a-us in 74 Argos, ascendancy of 79 Dorians found 79 Spartan war with 83 A'rianism, defined 20ii Ariovis'tus, German chief .... 184 Aristi'de§, ostiacized 94 returns to Athens 99 commander allied fleet 100 Aristocratic party, Pompey leader of, 162 Aristode'mus, xMessenian chief ... 83 Aristogi'ton, conspiracy of .... 88 Arist5m'ene§, Messenian revolt under, 83 Aristoph'ane§, Greek dramatist , 103, 122 Ar'istOtle, Greek philosopher . 122, 126 I Armenia, Assyrians in 39 568 GENERAL HISTORY. PAGE Armenia, massacre in 552 Aimin'ius (Hermann), Teutonic cl:ief, 172 Army, in Egypt 32 rule of, in Rome 178 of Twenty Nations 499 Arnulf of Bavaria 240 Art, in ancient Asia and Africa ... 22 in Egypt 28, 34 in India 61 in Persia 69 in Greece 104, 123 Artaxerxes (ar'taks-erks'eez), King of Persia 108 Ar'temis, Greel? goddess . . . 118, note Arteraisiura (ar-te-mish'ium), Cape, Persian and Greek fleets at . . 96 Arthur, nepliew of King John . 302, 303 Arthur, Port, Russia acquires . . . 562 Artois (ar-twa'), Count of .... 468 Aryan race, described 16 culture of 17 conquest of India 56, 57 home of original stock 181 migration to Europe 181 master of Europe 195 As'calon, battle of 266 As'culum, battle of 140 Asherah, Phoenician goddess ... 53 Ash'toreth, Babylonian goddess . . 43 Phoenician goddess 53 Asia, government of ancient nations in 21, 22 kingdoms in 22 Asia, Central, nomad tribes in . . . 22 Mohammedans in 256 Asia Minor, part added to Persian Empire 65 Greek settlements in .... 78, 90 Persian Empire established in . . 90 Greek cities in 109 Spartan victory in 109 submits to Alexander the Great . . 112 revolt in 164 Seljuks overrun 260 Mehemet Ali invades 520 Tamerlane conquers 558 Asia, Western, subject to Rome . . 159 Assembly, in Spartan government, 79, 80 National. See National Assembly. Popular, in Athenian government, 88 Popular, in Roman government . 130 of the Hundreds 131, 134 of Tribes 134 of the States-General 292 of the Notables 463 Assuan (as-swan'), Egyptian city . . 23 PAGE Ass'ur, Assyrian god 43 Assurban'i-pal, King of Assyria . . 40 Assyrian Empire, first 39 second 40 Cyaxares destroys 64 Assyrians, race 16 civilization 17 rising power of 31 home of 36, 37 capture Babylon 39 kingdom overthrown 41 religion 43 demand tribute from Tyre and Sidon, 49 Astar'te, Phoenician goddess, 50, note ; 53 Astrakhan', annexed to Russia . „ . 443 Astronomy of Babylonians .... 42 Asty'ages, Median ruler 64 defeated 65 Atba'ra River, battle of 551 Athe'ne, Greek goddess , 83, 119, note Athens, founded 74 Ionian population in 78 early history of 84, 85 Oligarchy 85 abuse of power by nobles .... 85 laws of Draco 86 constitution of Solon 86 tyranny in 87, 88 reforms of Clisthenes . . . . 88, 89 democracy in 88 ostracism 89 rise of power in 90 assists Ionian cities 91 Persian war against 91, 92 victory of Marathon 92, 93 conflict with Islands of Aegina . . 94 navy strengthened 94 Themistocles 94 Xerxes prepares to invade .... 94 burned by Persians 97 naval power of 99-102 height of power 99-104 Confederacy of Delos . . 99, 100, 104 Pericles 101 center of art and leaining . . 103, 1C8 architecture in 103 jealousy of power of 104 Peloponnesian war .... 104-107 aids Corcyra 105 democratic principles of . . 104, 105 truce with Sparta 105 plague in 105 joins alliance of Peloponnesian states 106 Sicilian expedition 106 surrender of 107 INDEX. 569 PAGB Athens, alliance with Persia . . . .109 alliance with Thebes Ill attempt to regain liberty . . . .116 joins Achaean League 116 Ath'os, Mt, Persian fleet at .... 91 Xerxes at 95 A'triura, defined 198 Attica, Ionian state 78 Dorians invade 85 citizenship in 88 At'tila, chief of Huns 194 in Italy 195 Auerstadt (ovv'er-stat), battle of . . 494 Augsburg (owGs'boorG), peace of, 348, 358, 399, 401 Diet at 356 decrease in population 402 League of 410 Augsburg Confession .... 356, 358 Augurs, Roman priests 200 Augustan line of emperors . , . .173 Augustine, converts Anglo-Saxons, 231, 232 converts Kent 246 Augustus, Octavius rectives title . . 169 title of Roman emperors .... 178 Augustus, Roman emperor . . 170-172 patron of literature 172 Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, 446 Aure'lian, Roman emperor . . 178, note Aure'lius, Marcus 177, 185 Ausgleich, in Austria-Hungary . . . 557 Auspices, taking 200 Austerlitz, battle of 493 Europe after 494 Australia, colonization of 558 Austria, claims jurisdiction over Swit- zerland 319 Morgarten and Sempach .... 319 Charles V 341-349 acquires possessions in Italy and Netherlands • • • 414 alliance with Russia 440 opposes Russia 450 Napoleon's victories . . . 485, 486, 497 acquires Venice 486 Napoleon attacks 490 aids England against France . . . 493 relinquishes Venetia 494 in Congress of Vienna 502 Holy Alliance 505 league with Russia and Prussia . . 508 power in Italy .... 508, 525, 527 suppression of liberalism in . . . 509 quells revolution in Italy .... 515 rivalry with Prussia . . . 524, 536, 537 i-evolt in Hungary 528 537, PAGE Austria, war of Italian Independence, 533, Schleswig-Holstein question . . , Austro-Prussian war . . . loses leadership in Germany Austria- Hungarian Empire Austria-Hungary, Huss in . empire formed different races in ... . Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), France gains 474, 486 united to Holland 503 Austrian Succession, war of . . 439, 454 Avars, home of 218 Charlemagne subdues 223 Av'entine Hill, Roman settlements on, 131 Aves'ta, Persian sacred book. ... 68 Avignon (a-ven-yoN'), Holy See at, 292, 312 Az5v', captured 444 Az'tecs, Cortez conquers 329 Ba'al, temple of Babylonian god Phoenician god Baal Melkarth, temple of . . . .48 god of Tyre Baal Samen, Phoenician god .... Baalim, Phoenician divinity .... Baaltis, Babylonian goddess .... Babington, plans to release Mary Queen of Scots Babylon, culture in 3fi Assyrians capture description of destruction of fall of Alexander plans to make capital . capital of Syria Babylonia, divisions of reconquered by Sargon Second Empire Cyrus the Great conquers .... Babylonian calendar Babylonian captivity of Church ....... 292, Babylonians, civilization of . . 17, 37. home of early history 37, architecture of religion of 42j Ba€'€hus, Greek god .... 19, Bacon, Sir Francis, English author . Bac'tria, Medcs and Persians from . Zend language in Ba'den, reforms in Badr (Bedr), battle of 41 42 65 115 116 38 40 41 47 42 47 312 ,42 36 38 42 43 124 375 64 68 523 254 570 GENERAL HISTORY. PAGE Bagdad, capital of Abbassid Caliphate, 258, 259 Bahama Islands, Columbus discovers, 327 Balakla'va, battle of .531 Balboa, discovers Pacific Ocean . . 328 Baldwin IV., Count of Flanders . . 269 head of Latin Empire 270 Baldwin V 299, note Bai-e-ar'ic Isles, Vandal colonies in . 192 Balkan Peninsula, Russians invade . 530 Turkish influence in 548 Ball, John, preaching of 307 Bannockburn, battle of 305 Barbarians, new kingdom of . . 203, 204 Barbary Coast, Christian captives at . 345 Barnet, battle of 334 Barons, revolt of 298 settle in Ireland 301 John's struggle with .... 303, 304 Bastile (bas-tel'), taken . . . 465, 466 Batavian Republic, Holland forms . 483 Baths, Roman 202 "Battle of the Nations" 500 Bavaria, Louis the Bald obtains . . 237 German duchy 2J0 claims to Spanish throne .... 411 Bavaria, Duke of, seizes Don au worth, 397 Bavaria, Elector of, claims Austrian dominions 4S9 Bavarians, threaten Franks .... 218 defeated at Blenheim 412 invade Austria 439 Baylen (bi-ien'), battle of .... 496 Becket, Thomas k. Archbishop . . . 300 murdered 301 Bedr, battle of 254 Beggars, reform party in Netherlands, 378 victories of 379 Bel (Baal), temple of 41 Bel'gae, home of 377 Belgium, Jesuits in 367 early history of 377 Dumouriez driven from .... 476 ceded to France 486 Napoleon defeats Prussians in . . 501 united to Holland 503, 513 revolution in .... 513, 514, 518 independence of 514 France helps 520 Belisa'rius 191, 208, 209 Belshaz'zar, Babylonian king ... 42 Beluchistan', Alexander the Great at, 114 Bena'res, Buddha at 60 Benedic'tines, agriculture of ... . 234 Beneven'tum, battle of 141 Bengal, Bay of, Indian bcmudary . . 56 PAGE Berkeley Castle, Edward II., mur- dered at 306 Berlin, Russians capture . . . „ . 441 Napoleon enters 494 revolt in 523, 524 Congress of 548 Berlin Decree - ... 495 Bernadotte (b6r-na-d5t'), Crown Prince of Sweden 497 Bero'sus, Babylonian priest .... 37 Bible, Moeso-Gothic version of . . . 186 translated into German 354 Bill of Attainder 421 Birds, The, Aristophanes' . . . .122 Bishop of Rome, power of . . 230, 231 Bismarck, policy of 537 favors war 539 Bithj n'ia, Hannibal in 149 Black Country, Egypt called ... 23 Black Death 306 Black Prince 306 Black Sea, Germans on 181 Blake, English admiral 426 Blanc, Louis, socialist 521 Blenheim (bleii'im), battle of . . . 412 Blois (blwa), Count of ... . 299, note Bloody Assizes 431 Bliicher (blii'ker), Prussian general . 501 Body of the Civil Law 208 Boemund of Otranto, leads crusaders 263 Boeotia (be-6'shi-a), founded ... 77 Boeo'tians, driven to Central Greece . 77 Boers, Dutch settlers in Africa . . . 550 Boe'thius 2C8 Bohemia, Slavs in 223 Jesuits in 367 Protestant revolt in ... . 397, 398 Saxon invaders driven from . . . 400 revolt of 528 Prussian force in 5£8 Czechish language in 558 Bohemia, King of, elector for emperor, 319 Boleyn (bool'in), Anne, Henry VIII. marries 361 Bolivar, Simon, liberator of Bolivia . 558 Bolivia, named after Bolivar . . . 558 Bombay, Presidency of 62 Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte, Joseph, King of Naples and Spain .... 494, 496, 497, 498 Louis, King of Holland 4^5 Jerome, King of Westphalia . . . 496 Louis Napoleon, President French Republic 523 See Louis Napoleon. INDEX. 571 PAGE Bon'iface II., joins fourth crusade . 269 Boniface VIII,, Pope 292 struggle with Philip IV 311 Book of Common Prayer 369 Book of Exodus 44 Book of Judges 49 Book of the Dead 28 Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of . , 499 Borussi (Frussi), history of . . . .436 BO§'nia, revolts in 547 incorporated in Austria-Hungarian monarchy 548 Bosporus, Roman capital on . . . . 180 Bosworth, battle of 835 Botany Bay, penal colony 562 Both well, Mary, Queen of Scots, mar- ries 371 Boule (boo'lay), in Athenian govern- ment 88 Bonrbon, Cardinal of 393 Bourbon, Constable of, joins Charles V. 342 Bonrbon kings, recalled 500 Bouvines (boo-ven'), battle of . . . 803 Boyne, battle of 433 Bra'bant, Maria Theresa's claims to . 406 Brah'ma, Indian god 59 Brahmanism, origin of 59 doctrines of 59 Brahmans, Indian priests 58 Brandenburg, electors of . . 319, 435, 486 Swedes driven from 437 receives Pomerania 447 Brazil, Portuguese in ..... . 380 independence of 558 Bremen, ceded to Hanover .... 447 Brennus, Gallic chief 137 Breslau (bres'lou), peace of ... . 439 Bretigny (bre-ten-ee'), treaty of, 306, 813 Briel (brel), captured 379 Brienne', Napoleon studies at . . . 485 Bright, Jolin 542 Brin'disi, Children's Crusade at . . 271 Britain, Caesar in 161 Roman province 175 Teutonic tribes settle in .... 186 invaded by Angles, Saxons', and Jutes 198, 246 ecclesiastical government .... 246 Britannia, England called .... 195 British Colombia, government of . . 559 British Isles, in a state of block- ade 495 British South African Company . . 550 Britons, home of 192 Germans aid 193 Brittany, English driven out of . .318 PAGE Brittany, annexed to France . . .336 Bronze age 14, 16 Bruce, Robert, King of Scotland . . 305 Brunswick, revolt in 516 Brunswick, Duke of. Manifesto of . . 472 Brunswick, House of 451 Brussels, Burgesses of, rescued . . . 379 provisional government in . . . .514 Brutus, Roman consul 133 kills Caesar 165 death of 168 Buckingham impeached 418 asssassinated 419 Buddha (bood'da) reforms of ... 59 life of 60 worship of 60 Buddhism, introduced into China . . 55 rise of 59, 60 spread of 60, 61 Buddhists, division among .... 61 Buenos Ayres, separates from Spain, 558 Bulgaria, massacres in 547 becomes self-governing 548 Burgun'dians, German tribe .... 187 invasions of 188 kingdom of 192, 193 Clovis conquers 207 capture Joan of Arc 313 side with France 314 Burgundy, kingdom in France . . .241 rival of France 337 Charles V. claims 342 France relinquishes 343 France retains 344 Burgundy, Duke of, alliance with England 314, 335 Burial, in Egypt 32 in Greece 125 among Romans 202 Burmah, Buddhism in 61 Busentius River, Alaric buried in . . 190 Bushmen, classification of .... 17 Butt, Isaac, Irish leader 546 Byron, Lord, aids Greeks 510 Byzantium (bl-zan'shl-Ou)), captured, 100 Roman capital 180 See Constantinople. Cabot, John, explorations of ... . 328 Sebastian, explorations of ... . 328 Cabral, Alvares, Portuguese explorer, 380 Cade, Jack, leads revolt 383 Cadiz, founded 51 pillaged 378 Spanish fleet destroyed at ... . 382 Cadmus, story about 52 572 GENEKAL HISTOEY. PAGE Cadmus, teachings of 74 Caesar, Julius, leader of popular party, 160 First Triumvirate 161 Gallic campaign 161 rivalry with Pompey 162 crosses Kubicon 163 ruler of Roman world 163 civil ruler 164 death of 165 greatness of 166 in Germany 184 Cairo, obelisk of Heliopolis near . . 28 capital Fatimite Caliphate . . * . 258 Napoleon conquers 487 Caj'etan, Italian scholar 353 Cala'bria, Normans in 319 Calais (ka-la'), English capture. . .306 English retain 314 English lose 370 Calendar, Ba1>ylonian 42 Greek 120 Roman. 129 Republican, in France 475 Cal'icut, Portuguese at 330 Calig'ula, Roman emperor .... 173 cruelty of 174 Caliphate, Abbassid 258, 259 Spanish 258 Fatimite 258 Golden Age of 259 Calonne', French minister .... 463 Calvin (Chauvin), John, leader of Ref- ormation 364 Calvinism, spread of .... 364, 365 in France 384 Cambrai {k5N-bra'), treaty of . . . 344 Cambunian Mts., Greek boundary . 71 Camby'ses, King of Persia . . 31, 64, 66 Camil'lus, Roman dictator . . . 137, 138 Campania, Scipio in 149 Cumpo Formio, treaty of 486 Canaan (ka'nan), Jews in 44 Canada, ceded to Great Britain . . . 559 Dominion of, constituted .... 559 Canals of Babylonians 37 Candia, Christians massacred in . . 554 Can'nae, battle of 147 Canning, English Foreign Secretary, 507, 518 Canos'sa, HenrylV. at 286 Canterbury, Archbishopric of . . . 291 Canute (Cnut), reign of 249 Cape Colony, England secures . . . 550 Cape of Good Hope, discovered . . 326 Cape Verde, Portuguese at ... . 326 Capet (ka-pa'), Hugh . . . .241,309 PAGE Cape'tian kings in France . 241, 245, 310 Capitoline Hill, Manlius at ... . 138 Cappel', battle of 364 Cap'ua, Hannibal at 147 captured by Romans 147 Caracal'la, Roman emperor . . 178, note Caravan route, between Egypt and East 252 Carbona'ri, secret society . . . 508, 515 Cari'nus, Roman emperor . . . 178, note Carloman, King of Franks . . . .218 Carlovin'gians. See Carolhijians. Carlsbad, congress at 509 Carlsbad Decrees 516, 517 Carlstadt, religious reformer . . .354 Carnot (kar-no'), French war minis- ter 477 Carolin'gians, Frankish rulers . . . 213 supplant Merovingians 215 emperors of . . 228 Europe under 235 in Germany 239, 240 in France 240 return to power 241 last of 241 feudalism under 277 Carthage, founded 50, note Phoenician colony 142 destroyed 142, 151 rivalry with Rome 143 peace with Rome 144 siege of 151 Cartha5;in'ians,attack Greeks in Sicily, 141 conflict wit Rome 142 allies of Syi acusans 143 driven from Spain 148 Cams, Roman emperor . . . 178, note Caspian Sea, Germans migrate to . . 181 Cassite dynasty, in Babylon .... 39 Cassins, death of 168 Caste system in India 58 Castile (kas-tel'), Christian state in Spain 339 Castlerea^h (kas-l-ra'). Lord . . . .541 Catherine de' Medici (ni6d'e-chee). . 385 prompts massacre of St. Bartholo- mew 389, 390 Catherine of Aragon, wife of Henry VIII 360, 361 Catherine II., the Great, of Russia, 447, 449 Catholic Emancipation Bill, . 517, 541, 544 Catholic League formed . . . 387, 398 Catbol'icism, Latin nations adhere to, 368 Catholics, form Holy League . 357, 391 persecution of 362 INDEX. 573 PAGE Catholics and Protestants in Switzer- land 364 Mary, Queen of Scots, favors . . .371 persecuted during Elizabeth's reign, 373 in Netherlands 378 Catherine de' Medici favors . 385, 889 attack Protestants 387 harsh measures against 417 in Ireland, defeated 425 durini,' Charles II. 's reign .... 428 Popish plot 429 Whigs attack 430 James II. favors 431 debarred English succession . 432, 433 Cat'iline, conspiracies of . . . 160, 171 Cato, Roman patriot 150 death of 164 Cat'ulus, Roman general 144 Caucasian race, divisions of .... 16 Caucasus Mountains 16 Cau'dine Pass, Romans surrender at . 139 Cavaignac (ka-van-yak'), French gen- eral 522, 523 Cavaliers (Royalists), principles of . 422 Cavour (ka-voor') • 532-534 Cawnpore, massacre at 543 Ceerop'idae, dynasty of 85 Ce'crops, founder of Athens . . .74, 84 Celibacy of priests 284, 285 Celtiber'ians, war with Rome . . .152 Celts, race 16 migrations , ... 181 Cenobites, life of 233 Centaurs, Greek divinities .... 119 Central America, Columbus explores, 327 Central Asia, nomad tribes in ... 22 Ce'res, Roman goddess . 119, note ; 199 Cerisoles (sa-re-zol'), Duke d'Enghien at 316 Cervera (th6r-va'ra), at Santiago . . 557 Ceylon', Buddhists in 61 Chaerone'a, battle of Ill ■Chalde'a, location of 38 Chaldeans, race of 16 Chalons (sha-loN') battle of . . 194, 559 ChampoUion (shON-pol-yoN'), French savant 26 Chandragup'ta, Indian prince ... 61 Charlemagne (shar'le-man) .... 210 war with Lombards 219 campaigns against Saxons . . 219-221 conquests of 222, 223 dominions of 223 crowned Roman emperor .... 225 government of 226 death of 226 PAGE Charlemagne, influence on literature . 227 character of 228 trouble with Northmen . . 243, 245 Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, 525, 527 Charles, Archduke, claims Spanish throne 411, 413 Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine . . .385 Charles, Count of Valois ..... 312 Cliarles Martel .... 213, 214, 257 Charles the Bald .... 237, 2£8, 245 Charles the Bold, of Burgundy . 338, 339 Charles the Fat 239, 240 deposed 241 Charles ths Simple 241, 245 Charles I., King of England . . 415, 418 rules without Parliament .... 419 policy toward Scotland 419 executed 425 Charles II. (Merry Monarcli), 407, 427, 428 Charles IV., King of Franco, 309, note ; 312, note Charles V 312, note 2 Hundred Years' War ., ... 313 Charles VI 312, note 2 ; 313 Charles VII 312, note 2 Joan of Arc 313 English expelled 314 power of Burgundian dukes ... 337 Charles VIII . 312, note 2 annexes Brittany 336 Charles IX 312, note 2 Civil War 386-391 Charles X. 506 policy of . o 511 Revolution of 1830 512 Charles IV., Emperor of Germany. . 318 Charles V., dominions of . . . 341, 342 wars with Francis I., 342-347, 355, 357 abdicates • 348 character 348, 349 and Luther 354 rules Netherlands 377 Charles VI 439 Charles VII -440 Charles II., King of Spain .... 411 Charles IV 496 Charles V 329,332 Charles XII., King of Sweden, cam- paigns of 446 in Turkey . . . 447 death of 447 Chartists, demands of 542 Cheops (Ke'ops), tomb of 33 Children's Crusade 271 China, legendary period in . . . . 54 dynasties in 54 574 GENEKAL HISTOKY. PAGE China, Great Wall 54 government in 54 civilization in 55, 56 inventions 56 Buddhism in 61 Marco Polo visits 325 Mongol Empire in 559 Genghis Khan, Manchn Tartars in. 560 opened to foreign trade .... 560 treaty with Great Britain, France, and United States 560 war with Japan 561 far Eastern question 561 partition of 562 Company of 458 Chinese, claim discovery of North America 328 Chivalry, origin of 280, 281 amusements of, character of, effect on literature 282 Chow dynasty, in China 54 Christian church, early . . . 229, 230 Christian II., King of Deimiark . . 365 Christian IV 398 Christianity, rise of, among Semites . 17 Arabs threaten 17 religion of Roman state .... 180 battle of Tours 214 Germany converted to 217 Lombards adopt 219 Saxons converted to 221 church government 230 Mohammedanism threatens . . . 257 Spain lost to :'59 crusades 260-273 Jerusalem regained 272 in Spanish and Portuguese colonies, 331 Turks threaten 345 introduced in Japan 561 Christians, Nero persecutes , . . .174 Domitian persecutes 177 Diocletian persecutes . . . 178, 179 Constantine the Great tolerates . .179 Clovis favors 205, 206 driven out of Holy Land .... 272 massacre of, in Candia 554 Church, Christian, rise of .... 230 crusades Ijenefit 273 discipline, reform of ... . 284, 285 Concordat of Worms a triumph for, 287, 288 Babylonian captivity of .... 292 Councils of Pisa and Constance , . 293 spiritual supremacy of 293 under Henry VIII 360-362 under Mary 370 PAGE Church, under Elizabeth 370 under Charles II 427, 428 in France 469 Church, Established, worship of, en- forced 428 Church government, theory of Pope Gregory 287 abuses in 351 Church of England, Henry VIII., head of 361, 362 Puritans attempt to purify . . . 373 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Roman orator, 160 killed 168 Cilicia (sMish'ya), Assyrians conquer, 39 Alexander the Great in .... 112 Cimbri, Romans defeat 156 Cimon, commander of allied fleet . . 100 policy of .101 Cincinna'tus, story of 136 Circus Maximus, laid out 131 Cisal'pine Gaul, Rome acquires . . 145 Cisalpine Republic, formed .... 486 Citizens, in feudal society .... 280 City, growth of 278, 280 power of 288 C/^yo/Goi, St. Augustine's . . . .228 Civil war, in England .... 422 426 in France 387-394 Civilization, Egyptian 26 Babylonian 38, 39 Chinese 55 early German 182, 183 setback to German 402 Clarendon, Constitutions of ... . 300 Clarkson, English reformer .... 542 Claudius, Roman emperor . 173, 174, 178 Clement (klii-moN'), Jacques, stabs Henry III 393 Clement VII., Pope 355, 361 Cleon, Athenian leader 105 Cleopatra, name on Rosetta Stone . 26 death of 116 Caesar takes up cause of . . . .164 Egyptian queen 168 Clermont, Council of 262 Climate, influences of 13 Clis'thenes, reforms of 88, 89 Clitus, Alexander kills 115 Clive, Lord, English statesman . . . 542 Cloa'ca Max'ima, built 131 Clotil'da, wife of Clovis 206 Clouds, The, Aristophanes' .... 122 Clovis, King of Franks .... 205, 212 conversion of 206 death of 207 i Clu'ny, Abbey of 284 INDEX. 575 PAGE Cnidus (ni'dfls), battle of 109 , Cnut. See Canute. Coalition, against France 476 broken 483 Cobden, llichard, English reformer . 542 Code Napoleon 492 Co'drus, King of Athens 85 Colbert, French finance minister, 405, 406 Coligny (ko-le-nee'), Admiral, 385, 387, 388 Collati'uus, Roman consul . . . .133 Cologne, elector of 319, 410 Colombia, independence of ... . 558 Colonies, Greeks founded 78 Spanish, in America . 329, 330, 550-558 Portuguese, in America . . 329, 330 Dutch 383 strife over American 440 England loses American .... 455 Columbus, Christopher, discoveries of ...... . 323, 326, 327, 340 Comi'tia, Curia'ta 131 Centuriata 133 Tril)uta 134 Commentaries on Gallic War, Caesar's, 161 Commerce, in Egypt 35 of Jews 46 of Phoenicians 49, 51, 52 in India 62 crusades stimulate 273 with East 320, 325 effect of discoveries on 332 during Elizabeth's reign . . . .374 of Dutch 383 in France 395 in Japan 561 Committee of Pu))lic Safety, formed, 477, 480 abolished 482 Com'modus, Roman emperor . . . 178 Common Weal, League of the . . . 338 Commons, House of 305, 516 Conmionwealth, established . . 415, 425 Commune, influence of . 471, 473, 477 under control 482 Communists, Hubert, leader of . . .480 uprising in Paris 540 Company, of China 458 of the East Indies 458 Compass, Chinese invent 56 Concordat of Worms . . 287, 289, 316 Cond6 (koN'de), Prince of . . S86-388 Confederacy of Delos . . .99, 103, 104 Confederation of Rhine . . . 494, 502 Confu'cianism, Chinese religion . . 55 Confucius, teachings of 55 Congress of Vienna, 501, 502, 508, 513, 514 PAGE Congress, of Verona . . 507, 510, 517 at Carlsbad 509 ofLaibach 517 of Troppau 517 of Berlin 548 Conrad II. of Franconia . . . 314, 316 Conrad III 267, 317 Conservative party, in France . . . 519 in England 542 Conspiracy of Amboise 386 Constance, treaty of 289, 320 Council of 293 Constant, Benjamin 512 Con'stantine the Great, Roman em- peror, tolerates Christianity . . 179 Christianity state religion .... 180 donation of 232 Constantine, Grand Duke 514 Constantinople (Byzantium), fall of, 18, 196, 559 Athenians capture 100 origin of name 180 Turks capture . . . 203, 259, 323, 344 capital of Patriarchate 230 Northmen settle in 250 Moslem attack on 257 crusaders at 263, 264 Western Cliristians acquire . . . 270 Latin Empire established at . . . 320 Meheniet Ali threatens 520 riot in 553 Constan'tiusChlorus, Roman emperor, 179 Constituent Assembly, in France . . 464 Constitution, of Sparta 79 of Solon 86 of the Clergy 469 of 1812, in Spain 507 Constitutional history 11 Constitutionalists, views of ... . 471 modern 519 Constitutions of Clarendon .... 300 Consulate, in France 483 Consuls, in Roman government . . 139 Continental system 495 Conventicle Act 428 Cook, Captain, discoveries of . . . 558 Copts, classification of 17 Corcy'ra, conflict with Corinth . . .105 Corday', Charlotte, kills Marat . . 479 Cordeliers (kor-de-ler'), object of . .467 in Legislative Assembly . . . .471 Cor'dova, capital Spanish Caliphate . 258 Corinth, conflict with Corcyra . . .105 aids Thebans 109 captured 150 Isthmus of o . . 72 576 GENEKAL HISTOEY. n PAGE Corinthian columns, in architecture . 123 Coriola'nus, story of 136 Corn laws, repealed 542 Cornelius Scipio, Roman general . . 146 Corsica, Phoenician colonies in . . . 51 Vandal colonies in 192 Napoleon born at 485 Cortereal', explorations of .... 328 Cortez, Hernanflo, discoveries of . . 329 Cosmo de' Medi<;i (m6d'e-chee) . . 821 Cossae'an dynasty, in Babylon ... 39 Covmcil, of Clermont 262 of Pisa 293 of Constance 293 of the Indies 331 of Trent 347, 367 of Blood 379 of Ancients 484 of Five Hundred 484 Counter Reformation 367 Coup d'dtat (koo-da-ta') of 1851 . . . 526 Court of Star Chamber 419 Coutras (koo-tra'), victory of . . . 392 Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop . 361, 370 Crassus, Marcus .... 158, 161, 162 Cr6cy (kres'si), battle of 306 Crespy (kra-pe'), treaty of .... 347 Crete, Phoenician settlements in . . 51 colonized 78 right of self-government gia: I ted . 553 dependency of Porte 554 Crime'a, Catherine II. conquers . . 449 Crimean war 530-532 Croes'us, King of Lydia 65 Cromwell, Oliver, head of army . . 424 Lord Protector 425 foreign policy of 426 Cromwell, Pachard, Protector . . . 427 Cromwell, Thomas, minister to Henry VIII 361, 362 Cromwell's Ironsides 424 Crusaders, classes of 263 Crusades 260-273 nature and cause 260-262 First, capture of Nicaea, siege of Antioch 264, 265 capture of Jerusalem 265 battle of Ascalon .... 265, 266 Second, St. Bernard preacbes . . . 266 fall of Edessa 266 failure of 267 Third, under Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, Richard I. of England . 268 Frederick Barbarossa drowned . 268 siege of Acre 268 PAGE Crusades, Philip returns to France . 268 Third, Saladin allows pilgrim- ages 269 Fourth, under Boniface II. and Baldwin IV 269 Venetians aid 269 Co)istantinople captured . 269, 270 Latin Empire established . . . 270 Children's 271 Fifth, under Frederick II. ... 271 Jerusalem surrenders .... 272 of Louis IX. of France .... 272 Damietta taken 272 effects of 273, 325 against Albigenses 292 Cuba, discovered 327 rebellion in f 55 declared independent 556 Spain gives up 557 Cunax'a, battle of 1C8 Cuneiform inscriptions 37 Curiatii (ku-ri-a'shi-i), combat with Horatii 130 Custozza (koos-tod'za), battle of . . 527 Cyax'ares, destroys Assyrian Empire, 64 Cynosceph'alae, battle of 149 Cyprus, colonized 78 Christians retain 273 Cyrus tlie Great, conquers Medes . . 42 conquers Babylonia 47 life of 64, 65 conquers Lydia 65, 91 death of 66 Cyrus the Younger, revolt of . . . 108 Cythe'ra, Phoenician settlements in . 51 Czechish (ch6k-) language . . . .558 Da'cia, seized 178 Goths acquire 185 Dag'obert, King of Franks .... 212 Dai'mios, in Japan 560 Damascus, capital of the Ommiads . 257 Damietta, fortress captured . . 271, 272 Dan, people of 49 Dan'aiis, Greek hero 74 Da'nelagh (Danelaw), location of . . 248 Danes, threaten kingdom of Franks . 218 ravages of 247 conquer England 249 Danish war 530 Danton(d5N-toN'), leader of Cordelier Club 467 Jacobin leader 475, 480 executed 481 Danube River, Germans driven across, 178 ! boundary of Roman Empire . . .181 INDEX. 577 PAGE Danube River, Germans settle on, 184, 186 Russians occupy 530 free passage of 532 Dari'us Hystas'pes, Persian Icing . . 66 government of 91 death of 93 Darius III., Persian king 112 defeated at Arbela 113 Darnley, marries Mary, Queen of Scots, 371 David, Hebrew king 45 Davis, discoveries of 375 Debt, in France 463 Deccan, in Cliina 56 Decern' virs, duties of 134 De'cius Mus, Roman general . . . 139 Decius, Roman emperor . . . 178, 184 Declaration, of Indulgence .... 431 of Pilnitz 472 of Rights 432 Defender, of Holy Sepulcher, Godfrey de Bouillon called 265 of the Faith, Henry VIII. called . 360 Defoe, English author 435 Delhi (dei'le), British murdered in . 543 Delos, Confederacy of, formed . . 99, 100 Athens head of 104 Del'phi, temple at Ill Deluge, Babylonian story of .... 38 Deme'ter, Greek goddess . . . 119, note Democi'acy, Athens becomes ... 88 Democratic constitution of Athens . 104 Democratic party, Caesar leader of . 162 Demos, Athenian people calked . . 87 Demos'theneg, Athenian general . . 106 orator Ill, 122 death of 116 Demotic text 25 D'Enghien (d6N-gaN'), Duke, defeats Spaniards 346 execution of 492 Denmark, home of Northmen . . . 244 Protestantism in 365 threatens Sw^eden 446 King of, in German Confederation . 503 Sclilesvvig, vassal state of ... . 536 De Ruyter (deh roi'ter) 426 Deside'rius, King of the Lombards . 219 Dessau (des'sou), battle of ... . 398 Det'tingen, battle of 439 Devi^ey, Commodore, victory at Manila, 556 De Witt, Dutch commander .... 426 Dhomokos, Greeks repulsed at . . . 553 Dia'na, Roman goddess . 118, note ; 199 Dias (de'as), Bartholomew, discoveries of 326, 330 Did'ius Julia' nus 178, note PAGE Dido, founds Carthage ... 50, note Diebitsch (de'bich), Russian general, 514 Diet, of Worms 354 at Augsburg 356 of Spires 356 in Poland 449 Diocle'tian, Roman emperor .... 178 Directory, France under . . . 484^89 weakness of 486 overthrow of 488 Discovery, period of .... 325-332 during Elizabeth's reign . . . .374 Divine right of kings . 416, 418, 421, 422 Dodo'na, oracle of Zeus at .... 119 Doge of Venice 270 Dom Pedro I., Emperor of Brazil . . 558 Dom Pedro II 558 Domin'ican monks 292 Domitian, Roman emperor .... 176 Do-Nothing Kings (Eois Faine'ants) . 203 Don Henry, travels of 326 Donation, of Pepin 215, 232 of Constantine 232 Donau worth (do'nou-vert), seized , . 397 Doomsday Book, contents of . . . 296 Dorians, Greek tribe 73 driven southward 77 colonies of 78 Doric style of architecture .... 123 Dorus, son of Hellen 73 Dover, treaty of 407, 428 Dra'co, laws of 86 Dragonnades' 409 Dx-ake, Sir Francis, fights Spanish Ar- mada 372 expedition of 374 Dresden, treaty of 440 battle of 500 Dreux (dre), battle of 387 Dubienka, battle of 450 Dukes, power of 314, 316 Dumouriez (dii-moo-re-a') . . 472, 474 treason of 476 Dunbar, battle of 425 Dunois (dii-nwji') 314, 337 Dupont (du-p6nt'), Frendi general . 496 Dutch, commerce of 383 resist French 407, 4C8 alliance with English and Aus- trians 431 Dutch Republic, beginning of . . . 381 Dyeing, among Phoenicians .... 51 Dynasty, defined 27 fourth, in Egypt 27 fifth, in Egypt 28 twelfth, in Egypt 28 578 GENEKAL HISTORY. PAGE East Indies, Dutch settlements in . 383 Company of the 458 Eastern question 549, 560 Eastern Roman Empire 180 Italy reannexed to 208 Vandal kingdom reannexed to . . 209 Turks threaten 262 division of 270 fall of 323 Ebro (a'bro) River, Saracens driven beyond 223 Eeele'sia, in Athenian government . 88 Ecclesiastical Reservation .... 359 Eek, Dr., Catholic champion, . . . 353 Eckmtihl, battle of 497 Ec'nomus, Carthaginian defeat at . . 143 Economic history 11 Eddas, value of 251 Edessa, fall of 266 Edgar, King of England 249 Edict, of Milan 179 of St. Germain 386 of Nantes 394, 410 of Restitution 399 Edinna, in Babylonia 38 Edmund, Duke of York . . . 308, note Edmnnd Ironsides, King of England, 249 Edom, David conquers 49 Education, in Egypt 31 Spartan . 80 Roman 202 Charlemagne encourages . . . .227 in England 248, 542 in Holland 383 Edward, Black Prince .... 308, note Edward the Confessor 250 Anglo-Saxon king 295 Edward I,, King of England, invades Syria 272 Wales and Scotland, conquered . . 305 Edward II 305 deposed 306 Edward III., Hundred Years' war, Crdcy, Poitiers, Calais . . 306, 313 Edward IV., war of Roses . . 333-335 Edward V 335 Edward VI 369 Egbert, King of Wessex 247 Ege'ria, nymph 130 Eginhard, Charlemagne's secretary . 227 Egmont, Count 378 Egypt, boundaries of ancient ... 23 source of information regarding . 24 antiquity of civilization .... 26 conquered by Persians 27 Middle Empire in 28 PAGE Egypt, art in 28 New Empire in 29 decline of power 31 society in .31 government in 32 religion in 32 art in 33, 34 agriculture in 35 commerce in 35 conquered by Esarhaddon .... 40 exodus of Jews from 45 Hebrew alliance with 46 invaded by Carabyses 66 invaded by Macedonians .... 113 under the Ptolemies 115 Roman province 116 Caesar in 164 Mohammedanism in 256 Louis IX. 's crusade against . . . 272 route to India through 326 Napoleon's campaign in . . 486, 487 under English control . . . 549, 551 Egyptians, historic records of ... 17 classification of 17 civilization of 21 origin 24 defeated by Nebuchadnezzar ... 41 Eis'leben, Luther born at 352 E'lath, Gulf of 46 Elba, Napoleon banished to ... . 500 E'lis, Olympic festivals in . . . . ]20 Elizabeth, Queen of England, last of Tudors 369 church of 370, 373 cliaracter 375, 376 ally of Dutch 382 death 416 Elizabeth of York, wife of Henry VII 336 Ell'ora, temples of 62 Ely, marshes of 296 England (Engla-land), origin of name, 193 Northmen settle in ... . 244, 247 under Alfred the Great . . . 247, 248 Danish conquest 247-249 Norman kings in 295-299 in Middle Ages 295-309 Norman conquest 295 William the Conqueror 295 Plantagenets 299-307 Ireland invaded 301, 302 loses possessions in France . 303, 310 struggle with Barons . . . 303-305 Magna Charta 304 Mad Parliament 305 civil war 305 INDEX. PAGE England, conquest of Wales and Scot- land 305 Hundred Years' war with France, 306, 308 revolt of peasants 306, 307 Black Death 306 houses of Lancaster and York . . 308 Edward III,, claims French throne, 312 war of the Roses 333-335 rise of absolute monarchy . . 335, 336 Reformation 359-363 Henry VIII 359 Calvinism 365 destroys Spanish Armada .... 372 joins League of Augsburg .... 410 war of Spanish Succession . . 412, 434 treaty of Utrecht 413 Petition of Right 418, 419 civil war 422-426 Cromwell 424-426 Commonwealth 425 Protectorate 426 Restoration 427-430 alliance with Holland and Sweden, 428 ' Revolution of 1688 . . . . 432, 516 Declaration of Rights 432 England and Scotland united . . 434 strife over American colonies . . 440 Seven Years' war 440, 441 aids Prussia 441 in eighteenth century 451 hostility with Spain 454 joins coalition against France . . 476 ports of, closed 495 Peninsular wars 496, 497 Reform Bill 516, 517 Crimean war 530-532 reforms in 541, 542 repeal of Corn Laws 542 British Indian Empire 542 Afghan wars 543, 544 Indian mutiny 543 Ireland 544-546 and Egypt 549 Transvaal 550 possessions in Africa 551 English, driven out of Brittany . . 313 expelled from France 314 alliance with Dutch and Austrians, 439 E-pam-i-n6n'das, Theban general, 109, 110 Ephors, in Sparta 80 Epi'rus, division of Greece .... 71 Er'icson, Leif, discovery of ... . 328 E'sar-had'don, Assyrian king ... 40 Estho'nia, ceded to Russia .... 447 Eth'elred the Redeless, English king . 249 PAGE Ethio'pians, race 16 Ethnology, defined .13 Etru'ria, inlialntants of 127 Etrus'cans, in Italy 127 war with Rome 135, 137 join Samnites 139, 140 Rome conquers 140 Eugene of Savoy, Prince . . . 412, 413 Eupat'ridae, Athenian nobles ... 85 Euphra'tes River, valley of . 22, 36, 37 boundary of Roman Empire . . .171 Eurip'ide§, Greek dramatist, 103, 121, 122 Evangelical Union, formed .... 397 Exodus, Book of 44 Eylau (i'lou), battle of 494 Falkirk, battle of 305 Far Eastern question 561 Farnese (far-na'se), Alexander, Span- ish general 380 Fasho'da, French at 551 Fa'tima, daughter of Mohammed . . 258 Fat'imites, in northern Africa . . . 258 Fauns, Greek divinities 119 Fawkes, Guy, Gunpowder Plot . . . 417 February Revolution 523 Federal Assembly in Union of Utrecht, 381 Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, abdi- cates 528 Ferdinand of Aragon, King of Spain, 259 Moorish power destroyed in Spain . 259 Council of the Indies 331 Inquisition 340 America discovered 340 Ferdinand VII., restored to throne, 506, 507 Ferdinand I. of Bohemia 397 Thirty Years' war 398, 400 Ferdinand, son of Charles IV. of Spain 496 Festivals of Greeks 120 Fetia'les, in Rome 200 Feud, defined 276 Feudal grant, defined 276 Feudal society, classes 279 Feudalism, begun 216, 227 in Europe 242 weakening of 273 origin of 275 extent 277 theory of 278 defects 278, 297 decay 278, 279 in Poland 449 in Japan 560, 561 Fief, defined 275, 276 580 GENEKAL HISTOEY. PAGE Field of Lies 237 Fiesclii(fe-6s'kee), French conspirator, 520 Financial troubles, in France . 457-463 Finland, ceded to Russia 447 Finns, classification 17 Fire, great, in Rome .... 174, 176 Fire worship, of Persians 68 Five Hundred, Council of 484 Five-Mile Act 428 Flamens, Roman priests 200 Flamini'nus, Roman general .... 149 Flanders, Maria Theresa claims . . 406 Spain relinquishes possessions in . 408 Flemings, Charles V. favors . . . .377 Fleury (fluh-re'), French minister . . 460 Flodden Field, battle of 360 Florence, industrial center . . 320, 321 Floria'nus, Roman emperor . . 178, note Fon'tenay, battle of 237 Forum, defined 198 Fouquet (foo-ka'), French finance minister 405 degraded 406 France. See Franks and Carolingians. in hands of Franks 207 Saracens invade 214 beginning of 288 Carolingians in 240 Northmen in 240, 243-245 lawlessness in 242, 464 England loses poss::;ssions in . . . 303 Hundred Years' war . 306, 308, 313, 337 Henry V. invades 308 in Middle Ages 309 English possessions in 309 Capetian line in 309 war against Albigenses . , . 310, 311 House of Valois 312 English claim throne 312 Joan of Arc 313 absolute monarchy established, 314, 339 freed from English rule . . . 323, 333 Brittany annexed to 336 Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 338, 339 relinquishes claims in Itnly . . .344 wars between Francis I. and Charles V f55, 357 Calvinism in 365 Jesuits in 367 Huguenots in 384-395 • Reformation in 384 civil war 387-394 massacre of St. Bartholomew . 389-391 Edict of Nantes 394 treaty of Westphalia 401 leading nation of Europe . . 402, 404 PAGE France, war with Spain 406 war with Holland 406-408 •var of the Palatinate . . 406, 410, 411 war of Spanish Succession 406, 411-414 alliance against 412 treaty of Utrecht 413 condition at close of Louis XIV. 's reign 414 war of Austrian Succession . . . 439 alliance with Austria 440 under Regency 457 French Revolution .... 457-470 financial troubles 457-460 foreign policy 460 under Legislative Assembly . 471-474 under National Convention . 474-484 Republic proclaimed 475 first coalition against 476 under Directory 484-489 under Napoleon 489-504 Peninsular wars 496 Holland joined to 497 Papal States joined to 497 Allies conquer .500, 501 Congress of Vienna 502 Revolution of 1830 . . . 512, 513, 518 under Louis Philippe 519 universal suff'rage demanded . 519-521 Revolution of 1848 521 Second Republic in ... . 522, 523 monarchy restored 527 Crimean war 530-532 leading state in Europe .... 532 war of Italian Independence . . . 533 Franco-German war .... 539, 540 Third Republic 540 possessions in Africa 551 concessions in China 562 Franche-Comt6 (fr6Nsh-koN-ta'), Spain relinquishes 408 Francis, Duke of Guise 385 Francis I., King of France . 312, note 2 wars with Charles V. . . 342-347, 355 alliance with Turks 344 death of 347 persecution of Huguenots .... 384 Francis II 312, note 2 marries Mary, Queen of Scots, 371,385,386 Francis I., German emperor .... 440 Francis II. (Francis I. of Aiistria), re- linquishes Holy Roman Empire . 494 policy of 508, 509 Francis Joseph, Austrian emperor . 528 Francis'can monks 292 Franco-German war . . . 239, 539, 540 Franco'nia, German duchy .... 240 INDEX. 581 PAGE Franconian line, in Germany . . . 316 Frankfort, National Assembly at, 524, 527 Frankfort Parliament . . . , 524, 525 Franks, Teutonic tribe 186 enter Northern Gaul 188 subdue Burgundians 192 aid Romans 194 early history 205 four kingdoms in Gaul 205 accept Christianity 206 ascendancy of 206, 207 kingdom of 212-217, 222 division of empire . . . 216, 228, 236 Frederick, King of Denmark . . . 365 Frederick I., Barbarossa, German em- peror, third crusade 268 and Papacy 288 Lombard League 289 treaty of Venice 289 policy of 317 Italian cities oppose 320 Frederick II., crusade of 271 King of Jerusalem 272 death of . 290 intellectual life 317 Frederick III 319 Frederick V., King of Bohemia . 398, 417 Frederick II., the Great, King of Prussia, early life of . . . 438, 439 war of Austrian Succession . 439, 440 demands Silesia ±39 Seven Years' war 4''.y, 441 character of reign ....<,.. 441 Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, protects Luther . . . 353, 354, 356 Frederick William, elector of Bran- denburg 436, 437 Frederick William I., King of Prussia, economy of 437, 438 Frederick III., humiliation of Prussia, 494, 495 Ficderick IV., liberal movement in Gern.any 523, 524, 527 French army 474 French Republic, first 475 second 522 third 540 French Revolution, influenced by par- tition of Poland 451 periods of 457 causes 461. 462 Bastile taken 465 Aliolition of Privileges 466 Jacobins and Cordeliers .... 467 Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Hubert, 467, 475, 480 PAGE French Revolution, new Constitution, 469 Mirabeau 470 Legislative Assen)l)ly . . . 471-474 Austria and Prussia 472 massacre of Swiss Guards .... 472 September Massacres 473 National Convention .... 474-484 Republic proclaimed 475 Girondists, Mountain, Jacobins . . 475 Louis XVI. executed .... 475, 477 coalition against France .... 476 Reign of Terror 478-482 Charlotte Corday 479 Committee of Public Safety . . .480 mob repulsed 483 Directory 484-488 rise of Napoleon 484, 485 treaty of Campo Formio .... 486 campaign in Egypt .... 486, 487 Consulate 489 Prussia humiliated .... 494, 495 peace of Tilsit 494 Continental System 495 Napoleon's height of power . . . 495 Berlin Decree, Orders in Council, Milan Decree 495 Peninsular wars 496 Wagram 497 siege of Saragossa 497, 498 extent of Napoleon's empire . . .497 loss of Spain 498 Wellington 498 Russian campaign .... 498, 499 war of Liberation 499, 500 "Battle of the Nations" , . . .500 Napoleon abdicates ...... 500 Napoleon returns 501 Waterloo 501 Congress of Vienna 502 Friedland, battle of 494 Friedrichshall, Charles XII. killed at, 447 Friesland, joins Union of Utrecht . 381 Frisia, Lothair governs 238 Frisians, slay St. Boniface . . . .217 Frobisher, Lieut., discoveries of 372-375 Frogs, The, Aristophanes' .... 122 Ga'des, founded 51 Gai'seric (Gen'seric), King of Vandals, 195 Gallic invasion 137 Games, in Greece 120 Ganges River, valley of 22 Hindus settle along 57 boundary of Syria 116 Garibaldi, Italian patiiot 535 Gastein Convention 537 582 GENERAL HISTORY. PAGE Gau-ga-me'la, Darias at 113 Gaul, Caesar conquers 161 Roman province 162 citizenship of inhabitants .... 164 Franks in 188, 205 Visigoths in 190 Roman power destroyed in . . . 205 Gauls, wars with Rome 135 invade Italy 137 leave Rome 138 join Samnites 140 Romans conquer 140 welcome Hannibal 146 conquered by Cimbri and Teutones, 156 Gaunt, John of 333, 335 Gautama (gow'tama), reforms of . . 59 Geismar, sacred oak at 217 Geneva, Calvin in 364 G6n'ghls Khan, Mongolian invasion under 559, 560 Gen'oa, Columbus born at .... 326 sides with Charles V 344 Louis XIV. humbles 409 incorporated with France .... 492 King of Sardinia acquires . . . .503 Gen'seric(Gai'seric), King of Vandals, 195 Geoffrey Plantag'enet 299 Geography, function of 12 political, physical 12 crusades increase knowledge of . . 273 mediaeval knowledge of .... 325 George I., King of England . . . .452 George II 453, 454 George III 455 George IV 456 George, Prince of Greece, High Com- missioner of Crete 554 German Diet, Sweden represented in, 402 German Empire, founded . . . 536-540 Germans, driven across Rhine . . .161 seize Dacia 178 origin, migrations 181 tribal organization .... 182, 183 civilization 182, 183 characteristics 183 join Romans 194 Christianity of 195 independence of 226 in Russia 250 defeated in second crusade . . .267 aid Huguenots 392 Germany, war with Romans . . . 172 Romans invade 184 convert to Christianity 217 Carolingian rulers 235-240 beginning of 238 PAGE Germany, origin of Alsace-Lorraine question 239 lavvnessness in 242 and Italy 314-321 Saxon en)perors 314-316 Lorraine reannexed to 315 Franconian emperors 316 internal wars 316 Hohenstaufens 316, 317 Interregnum 318 the Hapsburgs 319 wars between Francis I. and Charles V 343-347, 355 Reformation, Luther . . . 352-359 Calvinism in 365 Jesuits in 367 Thirty Years' war 396-403 Gustavus A dolphus enters. . . .399 treaty of Westphalia 401 alliance with Holland 408 League of Augsburg 410 war of Spanish Succession . . . .412 war of Austrian Succession . . . 439 Confederation of the Rhine . . .494 government reorganized . 502, r-03, 516 rivalry between Austria and Prussia, 504 suppression of liberalism .... 509 liberal movement in 516 Revolution of 1830 518 reform movement 523, 524 National Assembly of Frankfort 524, 527 German Empire founded . . 536-540 Schleswig-Holstein question . . . 536 Franco-German war .... 539, 540 possessions in Africa 551 Ge'ta, Roman emperor .... 178, note Ghent, revolt of 346 pacification of 381 Ghib'ellines, strife with Guelphs, 317, 318 Gibraltar, English capture . . 412, 414 Gideon, Hebrew leader 45 Girondists, in Legislative Assembly . 471 in control 472, 476 in National Convention . . . 474, 482 fall of 476,477 execution 479 Gizeh (gee'zeh), pyramid of .... 27 sphinx near 33 Gladiators, revolt of 158 Gladstone, English statesman . . .544 Home Rule 546 Godfrey de Bouillon (boo-yoN') . . .263 Godoy', agreement with Napoleon . 496 Golden Age, of Latin literature . . 171 of Turkish race ........ 344 Golden Bull 318 INDEX. 583 PAGE Good Hope, Cape of, discovered . . 326 Gordia'niis, K,u)uaii empeior . 178, note Gordon, Scotch adviser of Peter . . 444 Goshen, Joseph settles in 44 Goths, invade Riman Empire ... 13 language 13 defeat Romans 178 invade Moe'sia 184, 185 home 186 invade Greece 187 Government, despotic, in Asia and Africa 22 in Egypt 32 in China 54 of Persia 66 of ancient Greece 76 in Sparta . . j 79 in Athens 85-89 in Rome . . . 129-133, 141, 170, 178 of Franks 213 church 230, 351 of Spanish and Portuguese colonies, 330, 331 in France 468-504 of India 543 in Japan 560, 561 Gracchi, reforms of 155 Gracchus, Gains 155 Graces, Greek divinities 119 Graeco-Turkish war 553 Grana'da, fall of 327, 840 Grand Remonstrance 421 Grani'cus River, battle of .... 112 Granson, battle of 338 Granvelle, adviser of Margaret of Parma 378 Great Britain, Roman province . . 192 Anglo-Saxon kingdom in ... . 193 in Congress of Vienna 502 concessions in China 562 Sec England. Great Greece, Greeks in 127 Great Northern war 445, 447 Great Pyramid at Gizeh 33 "Great Wall" of China 54 Grecian Archipelago, Phoenician set- tlements in 51 Greece, physical features . . . . 13, 72 Phoenician alphabet introduced . 52 conquers India 61 Persian expedition against ... 66 divisions of, geographical situa- tion 71 local independence 72 Heroic Age in 73, 74, 76 Homeric poems 74-76 PAGE Greece, Phoenician influence in . . 74 government 76 life and manners 76, 77 flourishing era 90-98 Persian wars 90-98 Thermopylae 95, 96 Salaniis 97 defeat of Persians 98 Peloponnesian war 104-107 See Athens, Sparta. Spartan supremacy .... 108, 109 Theban supremacy 110 Macedonian supremacy. . . 110-117 Achaean League, Aetolian League . 116 Roman in-ovince .... 117, 142, 150 religion 118-120 festivals and games 120 art 121 literature 121-123 marriage customs 124, 125 burial 125 political life 126 Goths invade 187 regains control of Eastern Empire 271 province of Turkey 509 liberation of t>10, 511 Graeco-Turkish war 553 Greek calendar 120 Greek cities, in Asia Minor . . 91, 109 in Italy 140, 141, 150 Greek civilization, spread of . . 115, 118 influence on Rome .... 153, 154 Greek history, periods of 77 Greek Independence, war of . . 509, 510 Greek theater 123, 124 Greeks, seafaring tendencies of . . 72 migrations 77 in Asia Minor 90, 100 in Italy 127 join Samnites 140 war with Rome 142 regain control of Eastern Empire . 271 Normans attack 31P See Greece. Greenland, Northmen settle in . . . 251 Gregory the Great, Pope 231 Gregory VII., Alyxius I. appeals to . 262 reforms of 284,285 contest with Henry IV. . . 285, 286 character 286,287 Grey, Lady Jane 369 Groningen {Hr5n'ning-Hen), joins Union of Utrecht 381 Guam (gwiim), in theLadrones, ceded to United States 557 Guelderland, joins ITnion of Utrecht . 381 584 GENEKAL HISTOKY. PAGE Guelphs (Welfs), strife with Ghibel- lines 317, S18 Guillotin (ge-yo-taN'), Dr., invents guil- lotine 479 Guillotine, activity of ... . 479, 481 Guiscard (ges-kar), Robert .... 319 Guise (gez), Duke of, attacks Protes- tants 387 Guise family .... 385, 3i:6, 389, 390 Guizot (ge-zo'), French statesman, 512, 519, 521 Gunpow^der, Chinese invent .... 56 introduced 279 Gunpowder Plot 416, 417 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, Thirty Years' war, 397, 399, 400, 445 Habeas Corpus Act 429 Ha'des, Greek god 118, note Hadrian, Roman emperor . . . .177 Hadrian IV., Pope 301 Haiti, discovered 327 slave traffic in 331 Halys River, boundary of Media . . 64 Ham, son of Noah 17 Hamadry'ade§, Greek divinities . . 119 Hamil'car Barca 146 Hamit'ic race, divisions of .... 17 Hampden, John 419, 421 Han dynasty, in China 54 Hannibal, establishes Carthaginian Empire in Spain 146 in Italy 146 crosses Alps 146 policy of 147 recalled to Carthage 148 death of 149 Hanover, concessions to 516 Hanover, Elector of 434 Hanoverian dynasty 451 Hapsburg, house of ... . 318, 319, 341 Hardicanute, King of England . . . 250 Harmo'dius, conspiracy of .... 88 Harold, King of England. . . 250, 295 Haroun-al-Raschid (ha-roon'-al-rash'- id), Arabian caliph 259 Harus'pices (soothsayers) 200 Hastings, battle of 295 Havana, Maine blown up in harbor of, 556 Havelock, English general .... 543 Hawkins, Lieut., expeditions of, 372, 374 Hubert (a-bar), member of Cordeliers 467 policy of 480 executed 481 H^bertists, atheism of 481 Hebrews, Semitic race 16 PAGE Hebrews, mission 43, 47 history 43 origin 44 exodus 45 Era of the Judges 45 Era of Monarchy 45 divided kingdom 46 arts of 47 decline of power 47 Babylonian captivity 47 alliance with Tyre 49 See Jeivs. Heb'rides Islands, Northmen in . . 251 Heg'ira, Mohammedan time reckoned from 254 Helen, wife of Menelaus 75 Heliogab'alus, Roman emperor, 178, note Heliop'olis, obelisk of 28 He'lios, Greek god 119 Hellas, Greece 71 Hellen, ancestor of Greeks .... 73 Helle'ne§, Greeks called 71 origin of 73 Hellespont, Aeolians settle on coast of, 78 Xerxes at 95 He'Iots, treatment of 84 revolt of 101 Helvet'ic Republic, formed .... 488 Hengist, Jutish chieftain 193 Henry, Duke of Guise .... 392, 393 Henry, Duke of Lancaster 307 Henry the Lion 317 Henry the Navigator 326 Henry the Proud 317 Henry I., King of England, 295, note; 297 invades Normandy 298 Henry II., subdues Barons .... 299 Thomas a Becket 300, 301 Henry III., 304 Mad Parliament 305 Henry IV. of Lancaster 308 Heniy V., Hundi'ed Years' war, 308, 313, 333 Henry VI 313 war of Roses 333, 334 Henry VII., Colimibus appeals to . . 327 beginning of absolute monarcliy, 335, 336 Henry VIII., joins Charles V. . . . 342 aids Francis 1 343 attacks France 347 attitude toward Luther 358 divorce question. Defender of the Faith 360 breach with Rome 361 New Church established .... 362 INDEX. 585 PAGE Henry VIII., character 363 death 369 Henry I., the Fowler, German em- peror, first Saxon king . . , .314 Lorraine reannexed .... 315, 316 Henry III., Truce of God 316 Henry IV., contest Avith Pope Gregory, 285"^ 286, 316 Henry Vo, Concordat of "Worms . . 287 ',var of Investitures 816 Henry VI 269, 317 Henry I., King of France . . . 309, note Henry II 312, note 2 ; 348 Huguenots, persecuted 384 killed . .' 385 Henry III 312, note 2 ; 385 Holy League 391, 392 murdered 393 Hem-y IV., of Navarre 387 marriage 388 religious attitude 391, 392 excommunicated 392 turns Catholic 393 Edict of Nantes 394 improvements in reiun of ... . 395 Hephaes'tus, Greek god . . 118, note Heptarchy, period of 246 Hera, Greek goddess . . . 118, note Heracle'a, battle of 140 Herac'lius, Eastern Ron:an emperor, 209 Hercula'neum, buried 176 Her'cule§, of Phoenicia 49 of Greek mythology 53 Here ward, Anglo-Saxon chief . . . 296 Her'me§, Greek god 118, note Hermits, life of 233 Herod'otus, Greek historian, 23, 24, 37, 122 Heroic Age, in Greece 73, 74 Herzegovina (h6rt-se-go-ve'na), re- volts 547 incoiporated in Austria-Hungary . 548 He'siod, Greek poet . . . 118, note; 121 Hes'se, concessions granted to . . , 516 Hestia, Greek goddess . . 119, note; 125 Hieroglyphics, described 24 deciphered 25 Hil'debrand (Gregory VII.) . . 284, 285 Hinduism 61 Hindu-Kush Mountains 16 Hindus, language of 16, 54 oriental race . , 21 settle in India 56, 57 of India, mutiny of 543 HIppar'elms, Athenian ruler ... 88 Hip'pias, Athenian ruler 88 Hiram, King of Tyre 46, 49 PAGE Hispaniola, Haiti called 331 History, defined, kinds of .... 11 uses of 13, 14 periods of i8 ancient 21-202 sacred ..... 44 mediaeval 203-321 modern 323-563 Hittites, war with so conquered by Assyrians .... 40 Hoang-Ho River, valley of .... 22 Hoche, General 47 Hohenlin'den, Moreau's victory at . 491 Hohenstaufen, imperial house . 316, 317 Hohenzollern, imperial house . . . 435 Holland, early history of 377 revolt of Netherlands 379 joins Union of Utrecht ..... 381 freedom of 382 colonial possessions of 383 independence recognized .... 401 war with France . . . . . 406, 407 alliance with Sweden and England, 407, 428 alliance with Spain and Germany, 408 joins League of Augsburg .... 410 France conquers. . . " 483 Louis Bonaparte, King of ... . 495 united to France 497 Belgium united to 513 France aids Belgians against . . . 520 Holstein (hol'stin), Duke of ... . 503 Holstein-Schleswig (shlaz'vig) ques- tion 536,537 Holy Alliance, principles of . . 505, 506 Congress of Verona 507 influence of 508 Alexander I., founder of ... . 510 character of 517 Holy Brotherhood 340 Holy Land, crusades to 263 Seljuks occupy 260 privilege of worship in 530 See Crusades. Holy League, formed 357 fight with Politiques 391 loses ground 394 Tilly commands force o." . . . . 3£8 Holy Ptoman Empire . . . -25, 283, 315 dissolved 494 Holy See, removed to Avignon . . .292 Ferdinand of Spain allieil with . . 340 Napoleon's agreement with . . . 490 Holy Sepulcher, quarrels over posses- sion of key to 530 Homage, defined 277 586 GENEKAL HISTORY. PAGE Home Rule agitation, in Ireland, 545, 546 Homur, Greek poet 74, 121 Hi^ngkons, Great Britain gains foot- hold in 562 Hono'rius, Roman emperor . . 187, 188 Hooker, Richard, English writer . . 375 Horace, Roman poet 171 Hora'tii, combat with Curiatii . . .130 Horatius, legend about . . . 130, 131 Horeb, Mount, Moses on 45 Horn, Count 378 Horsa, Jntish chieftain 193 Hi uus, Egyptian god 32 Hotel des Invalides (6-tel'da z.iN-va- ] led') 465 I Hottentots, classification -17 House of Commons, beginning of . . 305 j power of, exalted 453 i members of 516 House of Lords, change in . . 362, 363 - abolished 425 Howard, English admiral . . . .372 lliibertstuirg, treaty of 441 Hudson Bay territory, English acquire, 414 Hiiiiuenots, persecution 384 toleration granted .... 388, 393 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 389, 391 Edict of JS antes 394 deprived of political power . . . 404