.COMMUmCATIOSS 
 
 ON 
 
 AND OTHER CONNECTED 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SUBJECTS, 
 
 FROM THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE 
 
 VIRGINIA STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, FOR 1857. 
 
 THE DRAINAGE OF MARLBOURNE FARM. 
 
 BY EDMUND 'RUFFIN 
 
 D l(UF 
 
 The low-grounds of Marlbourne farm, on the 
 Pamunkey River, have remarkable and important 
 conditions in regard to the supply of injurious 
 water, and its being diverted by proper drainage. 
 These conditions, when first noticed by me, and 
 also far years afterwards, while they demanded 
 my investigation, and more and more directed my 
 draining labors, were also supposed to be peculiar 
 features of this farm, or of its neighborhood, as 
 nonesuch had been then observed elsewhere. But 
 it is more probable that the like remarkable cha- 
 racters of land and water, and the like require- 
 ments and difficulties of drainage, belong also to 
 many other and remote localities of bottom-lands 
 bordering on this and other rivers. Further — from 
 recent and extended personal observations, made 
 long after the writing of this report was begun, I 
 have learned that the like remarkable and impor- 
 tant character of land, and conditions of injuri- 
 ous water, extend generally throughout the low 
 and level lands of south-eastern Virginia, and the 
 much broader surfaces of similar lands in North and 
 South Carolina. And I now infer, that through- 
 out all this great region, the natural conditions of 
 the supply of excessive and injurious water, and 
 the great and general difficulty of draining, are 
 similar to those which I have had to contend 
 with — and which conditions have scarcely any 
 v/here been understood, or the difficulties properly 
 treated in practical operations. Yel, these very 
 conditions which, while neglected or unknown, 
 have heretofore operated as insuperable difficulties 
 to the effective drainage of such lands, when un- 
 derstood, and made to direct the plan and labors of 
 draining, will be the best means for both reducing 
 their cost, and greatly increasing their efficiency. 
 
 When first occupying this farm, all my previous 
 labors and experience in draining had been on 
 lands of entirely different character. The general 
 principles and laws of draining are indeed uni- 
 form. But my former practice, and errors, and 
 failures, and also the successful operations on the 
 small spaces of narrow and sandy alluvial low- 
 grounds of the high and hilly lands of Prince 
 George county — bordering on small and rapid 
 streams, sometimes hastily and enormously swollen 
 by heavy rain-floods pouring down from the hills — 
 afforded no precedents, or instruction, for my later 
 occupied farm, where almost all the conditions 
 were reversed. In some cases, my previous experi- 
 ence served to mislead the later efforts, made 
 under circumstances so different. A total stran- 
 ger to my new locality, and to all that was re- 
 quired for its proper drainage, I found no existing 
 practices, or even opinions, of other persons, from 
 which I could gain any useful lessons for my in- 
 struction. Few, if any, of the numerous farms 
 bordering on the Pamunkey needed draining labors 
 of such difficulty and magnitude as did mine. But 
 every such farm needed more or less of additional 
 draining; and everywhere, within my limited range 
 of observation, there was great deficiency of pro- 
 per views to direct such labors, and consequently 
 of profitable results from the actual and also very 
 laborious operations. 
 
 The extent of land of this farm when first 
 boughtand occupied (Jan. 1844,) and thenorsince 
 made arable, (exclusive of some 22 acres of high 
 table land around the mansion, now included in 
 the permanent pasture,) was 73U acres. All this 
 is of low-lying land, except some 10 acres of 
 Winter Hill, which is a high and narrow spur 
 stretching out from the main body of table land. 
 (See Map, Figure I.) The later purchase, in 1850, 
 of the adjoining Talley tract, of 300 acres in all, 
 gave the additional surface for tillage , after all 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 the forest part had been subsequently cleared and 
 drained, of about 49 acres of low land, besides 
 some 52 acres of the higher terrace, or "third 
 low-ground," principally. Thus the two tracts 
 which now make Marlbourne farm, together con- 
 tain (730—10 = 720-1-49=:) 769 acres of "second 
 low-ground" or of the middle terrace. Of "first 
 lowground " or the lowest terrace, subject to inunda- 
 tion by even the highest freshes of the river, there 
 is not an acre of the farm — nor any other ground ex- 
 cept along the face of the steep bank of the river. 
 Neither is any part of the soil of the farm formed 
 by river alluvium, or the deposition of sediment from 
 the river floods. In the present condition of the ri- 
 ver, and of its highest floods for thousands of past 
 years, it may be safely asserted that the river has 
 not covered, and could not have affected, any other 
 than lands of the lowest terrace, or " first low- 
 grounds," which constitute considerable propor- 
 tions of many other Pamunkey farms. But even 
 these- lowest lands (of other properties,) whether 
 rarely or often submerged, have gained but little 
 either of accretion or of fertility of soil, from the 
 scant and poor sediment of the river floods — and 
 in some cases, these lands have lost much soil, 
 and even sub-soil, by the recent washing and de- 
 nuding action of the strong currents of the high 
 freshes. These facts are mentioned to prevent the 
 common and entirely erroneous inference of stran- 
 gers, that the low-grounds of this river, below the 
 head of tide, are of alluvial formation — except, 
 (and this but partially,) the lowest lands, still sub- 
 ject to inundation, and in some cases also to denu- 
 dation. The highest and the middle (or third and 
 second) low-grounds entirely, and also the lowest 
 for its sub-soil, have been formed mainly by the 
 reverse or denuding operation of the great flood, 
 which at a very remote (but the latest) geological 
 epoch, rushed, from the north-west, over this 
 whole region, and washed and scooped out and' 
 shaped the now valleys and bottom lands, and the 
 present channels of the tide rivers — after the same 
 flood had previously deposited its drifted and sus- 
 pended materials over the whole surface, and of 
 which entire deposit the present high table-lands 
 and all their lower beds are formed, as the present 
 bottoms were by the earlier deposited earth. The 
 great deposition of drift, or suspended materials, 
 and that mostly of barren earth, which is general 
 over the higher surfaces in our tide-water region, 
 also served to add something in material and more 
 in fertility and value, to the bottom-lands of this 
 farm, as of all other bottom-lands, or high flats, 
 bordering on rivers. For though one part of the 
 great action of the deep and violent and long- 
 passing flood was to wash off" and remove the pre- 
 viously accumulated deposits — first down to the 
 surface of the now highest terrace, next, by the 
 more contracted current, to the middle terrace, 
 and still later to the lowest, and finally to the 
 present narrow channel or bed of the river — still, 
 in the diminution of volume, and fluctuations of 
 velocity of the current, there were also some new 
 and superficial and partial deposits of sediment 
 left on the before denuded terraces. These de- 
 posits occurred successively on each terrace, when 
 the still covering but then subsiding waters were 
 comparatively tranquil, and so the finer and richer 
 suspended earths were then let fall, to form the 
 surface soils of the bottom lands. This manner 
 of action has served to vary the form of the sur- 
 face and the composition of the soils, as may be 
 seen by any careful observer on the ground, and 
 in facts which will be adverted to in the following | 
 
 account. The course of the great flood was in 
 the direction of the general course and descent of 
 the broad bottom through which the very crooked 
 and narrow Pamunkey river now meanders, form- 
 ing the low-grounds mostly in different peninsu- 
 las or "necks," usually of several miles width. 
 Hereabout, the whole bottom varies from 4 to 5 
 miles across, from one foot to the other of the high 
 table land on both sides. The latest action of the 
 ancient flood has left the surface of this farm in 
 many long, low, and irregular flat ridges, stretch- 
 iiig in the general direction of the great flood, but 
 also in some cases varying, as might be inferred 
 from the different modes of action, and the diff'e- 
 rent courses of particular smaller currents. And 
 the ridges also show soils and sub-soils of all tex- 
 tures, from the closest and most intractible clay to 
 the lightest and loosest sand — and of which soils 
 there were, in their original state, all grades of 
 quality between poverty and great richness. The 
 irregular depressions, or basins, left between the 
 different low ridges, or knolls, for the greater part, 
 had no sufficient fall, or lower outlets, and there- 
 fore they had mostly remained under ponds of 
 shallow water, when the land elsewhere had been 
 left dry, or bare of water. Into and through these 
 former ponds, ffowed the small streams from springs 
 in the ravines of the high table land. And in the 
 course of ages, the sediment brought down and 
 deposited by the turbid rain-ffoods which swelled 
 these streams, had served to raise the bottoms of 
 these ponds from 2 to 6 feet, with a very close clay, 
 and also in most cases had added, latest, a deep, 
 black, and extremely rich clay soil. Such, it 
 seems to me, were the producing causes of the re- 
 markable variety and frequent changes of both 
 the different levels of the surface, and of the dif- 
 ferent textures and degrees of fertility, of the 
 soils of this farm. Reference to the Map, Fig. I. 
 and the explanations thereof, will serve best to 
 show the variations of the levels of the surface — 
 and also the many and great difficulties thereby 
 opposed to the drainage of the farsn by even the 
 best system of surface and open ditches — and which 
 difficulties v.'ould be still more obvious to an ob- 
 server of the land itself. This Map (Fig. I.) also 
 presents the numerous ditches, all of them open 
 and impassable by teams, as they were before my 
 own better system was begun. And besides all the 
 ditches that I found, there v/ill appear there some 
 others which I, at first, deemed necessary and 
 therefore dug, while 1 still trusted to, and aimed 
 to make more perfect, the former plan of mere 
 surface-draining. For the greater convenience of 
 reference, and for comparison with the present 
 condition of things, in this map (for 1844) there is 
 also included the low-ground of the Talley tract, 
 which was not occupied until in 1859. Also there 
 are there designated the divisions of the farm ac- 
 cording to my subsequent six-field rotation, which 
 was not established, or devised, until in 1848, and 
 which had not been extended regularly to the later 
 purchased Talley tract, when (in 1856,) I transfer- 
 red the whole property to my children, and when 
 the rotation, and its division of fields, were changed 
 for a different scheme. 
 
 The whole body of low-land, of both proper- 
 ties, had long been cleared and cultivated, except 
 about 26 acres of both tracts, and which space is 
 within the letters R, I, c, b, H. in Fig. I. This 
 land, mostly of rich, low and wet swamp, which 
 I found under its original heavy forest growth, was 
 cleared and brought under tillage at different times 
 from 1845 to 1855. 
 
 ^:^' 
 

53 
 
 P^ I '^ 
 ^ '^ § 
 
 ft ^ ^ -3 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 The map (I.) shows the numerous open ditches 
 which had been dug, and were designed to be kept 
 open to their first depth, and r.ll of which were then 
 deemed indispensable. Yet not one of tliem ope- 
 rated properly, or sufficiently for its designed 
 purpose. When properly located, and if deep- 
 ened and well-shaped, the larger ditches might 
 have been made to serve well as stream-carriers, 
 and to receive the surface-water only. But of all 
 the ditches designed to tap and collect spring or 
 under-water, none of them could have been made 
 effective, by any care or labor, because it was impos- 
 sible for any ditches to be kept open deep enough 
 for that purpose, even if any had been dug deep 
 enough at first. Therefore, while all of these nu- 
 merous ditches, as here marked, were impassable 
 by teams, and therefore all constituted great im- 
 pediments to tillage — and every one, as serving to 
 remove some water, was necessary to be.kept open, 
 not one of them served its purpose fully or effec- 
 tually; and all the land that had required draining 
 at first, was still suffering, more or less, by excess 
 of water — and would have so suffered even if 
 every ditch had been kept as deep, and in as good 
 order, as had been designed at first.* 
 
 The positions of streams and of the larger wet 
 ditches, as shbwn on Fig. I, generally indicate, 
 with sufficient distinctness, the lower levels of sur- 
 face compared with stretches of other ground on 
 one or both sides. But there are sundry excep- 
 tions to this rule, especially on the higher grounds; 
 and some others may be seen on the maps, in cases 
 where djtches, to connect detached basins, or to 
 drain basins, have to discharge through rims, or 
 ridges, of higher surface. Besides the indica- 
 tions of lower levels presented in the positions of 
 ditches, and the courses of the streams, the grounds 
 of the lower and lowest levels are distinguished 
 by suitable markings, and by different colors on 
 Fig. I. and further, by the marked levelling of dif- 
 ferent lines and points, stated in numeral figures, 
 on Fig. II. But it should be observed that the 
 three different levels indicated by different colors, 
 are only relative to adjacent surfaces, or border- 
 ing grounds. Absolute differences, or grades of 
 elevation, will be indicated according to the actual 
 measurements, and all in reference to the lowest 
 original surface of the low-ground of the earlier 
 purchase, which is the point designed by the nu- 
 meral 0, near Jl, the eastern outlet of the present 
 main ditch, (Fig. II.) It may be stated, gene- 
 rally, that the differences of elevation of adjoin- 
 
 * The engraver of the maps has not correctly copied the 
 drawing in the dotted or broken lines, and which defect, to 
 prevent njjst.-ilves of tlie reader, will require this additional ex- 
 planation. The dotted and bro1<en lines in Fig. I. do not in 
 any case represent (/rains or cfitcli e-'i—hnt only imaginary 
 hounilary and dividing lines of different fields or properties. 
 Therefore wlien these same lines appear in Fig. II. of course 
 thej' represent the same imaginary demarkations — and tliere- 
 fore need not be mistaken for (even when too mucli resem- 
 bling,) the other dotted or broken lines introduced in Fig. II., 
 
 one of which ( ) represents rain-ditches, and the other 
 
 ( ) represents covered drains. 
 
 The marks of levelled stations, stretching across from the foot 
 of the hill in South Field 1 1, Fig. II., to a a, at the river, should 
 have been arranged in a straight line — but which is made 
 crooked by incorrect drawing. The numerals at these (and 
 also sundry other stations,) show the elevation of the surface, 
 (in feet an<l tenths,) counting from the station 0, near A (Fig. 
 II.) the lowest arable surface of the orignal tract. All the nu- 
 merals indicate heights above the station 0, except the three 
 most northern marks along the main ditch (near Q) and two 
 others next to and at the river. These are minus quantities— 
 or so much lielow 0. The height of the surface of the water- 
 bearing stratum (gypseous earth) out-cropping on the river 
 bank, is 15 feet below the level of 0, and the river, at low wa- 
 ter, is about 35 feet below 0. 
 
 ing surfaces are mostly slight, and the changes 
 very gradual. The few exceptions to this rule oc- 
 cur where the lowest of the three marked grades 
 of surface adjoins the highest, and when the latter 
 is also of the sandy dry knolls or ridges. These 
 only, where highest, rise to heights from 8 to 12 
 feet above the lowest grade, and M'hich extreme 
 elevations are in some cases near together. Omit- 
 ting a small extent of such highest knolls of the 
 second terrace, and the whole of the higher third 
 terrace, the whole low-land of the farm would 
 seem to the first glance of an observer as very 
 nearly level. And when viewed from the edge of 
 the nearest high table land, not only this, but the 
 like low-grounds of several adjacent farms in sight, 
 for miles both in length and breadth, would seem, 
 to the eye of a stranger, to be of one uniform 
 level surface. 
 
 The textures and degrees of fertility of soil 
 vary greatly, and within very close distances. 
 The most clayey and the most sandy — richest and 
 poorest — the higher and lower levels of surface — 
 or the wettest ground (naturally,) and the dryest 
 of the farm — severally are, in many places, within 
 a few yards of other ground of the most opposite 
 conditions. These many and great variations of 
 character add greatly to the difficulties of drain- 
 age. The land of lowest surface (tinted blue on 
 Fig I.) is nearly all of stiff clay. Most of this 
 land is supposed to have been formerly covered 
 by ponds of greater or less depth. Those which 
 were deepest at first, and surrounded by higher 
 rims of enclosing ground, are still of lowest rela- 
 tive surface, and the sites have been covered by 
 rich sediment, forming a black stiff soil. And 
 most of such land continued to be rich, because 
 too lately or imperfectly drained to have been ex- 
 hausted b)' tillage. But some parts of such ground, 
 and also the lowest, as the parts near to both the 
 out-lets of the present main ditch (»i and Q, Fig. 
 II.,) were mostly as poor as any land could be 
 found under tillage. These impoverished portions, 
 though less formed of recent sedimentary deposit, 
 still must have been formerly very rich. But as 
 this land had never been half-drained, at best, and 
 probably had always been ploughed wet, and of- 
 ten tilled when wet, this treatment, much more 
 than the exhausting course of cropping, was the 
 cause of the remarkable condition of poverty pro- 
 duced — and probably brought about before a single 
 good crop had ever been raised on this formerly 
 rich land. 
 
 In and among, or bordering on, this lowest land, 
 there lie the next and but slightly higher grounds, 
 (colored green on Fig. I.) These portions are in 
 some cases sandy, but mostly are of very stiff yel- 
 lowish gray clay, with stiff deep and poor sub- 
 soil, of like texture. All these surfaces seem to 
 have been of but a moderate degree of fertility at 
 first — and generally had been reduced to extreme 
 poverty before I began to improve or cultivate 
 them. All this land, as well as the still lower 
 levels before mentioned, suffered much from the 
 effects of wetness, and all needed to be drained 
 much more effectually than ever had been done in 
 any case. 
 
 Most of the remainder of the land, (entirely 
 tinted yellow,) is of the different higher levels of 
 the "second low-grounds." In j;eneral, where 
 both high and sandy, as is usual, the ground of this ■ 
 class needed no draining. It has, generally, a per- 
 vious and dry sub-soil, and the like under-beds, and 
 thus the soil is naturally and effectually under- 
 drained. This land might have been ploughed 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 and tilled flush, (or without ridges and alleys, or 
 water-furrows,) except that the spaces were so 
 small, or so irregularly intermingled with those of 
 lower and wet ground, that ditferent modes of 
 tillage would have been inconvenient. The land 
 of this class, when of clay soil, or medium loam 
 on clay sub-soil, (as generally in East, Middle, 
 River, and North Fields,) needed to be cultivated 
 in beds, with good deep alleys, and cross-grips 
 through all lateral depressions. It will be shown 
 that these formerly indispensable surface-drains 
 for even high surfaces, are now much less needed. 
 In the other two fields, lying between the present 
 main ditch {A to Q, Fig. II.,) and the hill-sides 
 next to the table-land, there are many parts of this 
 higher land, and even far up the slopes of the 
 third terrace, (white with yellow out-line, Fig. I.) 
 and also on the higher slopes of the table-land it- 
 self, that were oozy, and entirely too wet for til- 
 lage — and if tilled, to yield any profitable pro- 
 duct. The old plan of drainage attempted for 
 such land, by shallow open ditches, had been en- 
 tirely insufficient, and generally of no useful effect. 
 It was some time after my earliest and also impro- 
 per labors for draining on this farm, that I first 
 learned the following remarkable fact: While there 
 were numerous small springs and oozes in the 
 higher grounds of the land south and west of the 
 main belt of lowest land, through which the pre- 
 sent main ditch extends, and spring water could 
 be readily reached by digging ditches in many 
 parts of the higher grounds of South and West 
 Fields, there was not a spring, nor had any vein 
 of water been reached by the deepest ditches, in 
 all the other four fields east and north of the line 
 of the present main ditch. Springs were found 
 only, (and these were numerous, and abundant in 
 water,) bursting out low down on the face of the 
 river bank, or on the sides of as low ravines, emp- 
 tying into tlie river. The cause of this strange 
 non-appearance of spring, or under-water, and 
 that too in land which, for the greater part suffered 
 greatly for want of drainage, will be shown here- 
 after. 
 
 It should be observed that the different nearest 
 levels and grades of land generally pass from one 
 to another so gradually as to be almost impercepti- 
 ble. It is only where the highest borders on the 
 lowest, (yellow touching blue, on Fig. I.,) that a 
 considerable diff"erence of level and appearance 
 may be inferred to exist. In the much greater 
 number of cases, where different elevations of 
 ground are indicated by blue and green tints in 
 contact, or yellow and green, it should be under- 
 stood tliat the actual dividing lines are uncertain, 
 and that the land is very far from showing the 
 distinct outlines of levels which are necessary, for 
 illustration, to be presented on the map. 
 
 When I first took possession of this farm, (Jan- 
 uary, 1844,) all proper care of the previous plan of 
 drainage, such as it was, had been so much and so 
 generally neglected, that I could not at first see or 
 understand the operation of the numerous existing 
 ditches — so much were they choked in many places, 
 and their former action prevented. Numerous as 
 were the ditches, and nearly all of them then 
 holding water, and passing it off" continually, to 
 some extent, over more or less of obstructions, all 
 the lower land was everywhere extremely wet — 
 and but little, if any except the highest and sandy 
 knolls, seemed then dry enough for tillage. The 
 obstructions, caused by the washing down of sand 
 in the upper parts of the stream-ditches, and of 
 naud in the lower parts, the caving in of the sides. 
 
 the rooting of hogs, and the long-trodden crossing- 
 ways of cattle, made almost every ditch, (where 
 not quite filled,) a miry pool of water; which, 
 whether derived partly from springs, (as I at first 
 erroneously inferred to be general,) or immediately 
 and only from rains, the supplies of water seemed 
 to have permanent or long-continuing sources. 
 Indeed, in winter and spring, water was always 
 passing off" slowly from every such obstructed 
 ditch. Having heard that the farm had formerly 
 been under the charge of some good managers and 
 drainers, I too hastily thence inferred that the ex- 
 isting ditches had been properly planned and placed 
 for the experienced wants of the land; and that, 
 if cleaned out, and still more, if enlarged and 
 deepened where obviously insufficient, they would 
 at least sei've to keep the fields dry. It was mid- 
 winter when my operations were begun; and the 
 ditches and the land were then in the'wettest con- 
 dition. It was essential to remove the injurious 
 water as soon as possible, from at least enough 
 land for the next corn crop. The then main 
 ditch, descending from P to Jl, Fig. I. and the re- 
 ceiver from nearly all the other ditches, though 
 the most needing deepening, could not then be 
 helped, because of the strong 'current, and the 
 margins, everywhere raised by banks, being too 
 high, and the sides too steep, to permit laborers, 
 standing on the banks, to clean out and open the 
 ditch, with hoes. But in this imperfect and tedi- 
 ous mode, (to prevent the laborers standing in 
 water,) most of the old and shallow ditches were 
 then cleaned out; and subsequently, in warmer wea- 
 ther, the main ditch, and also the long and (as 
 then supposed) important ditches of Noi'th and 
 Middle Fields were not only cleaned out to their 
 first depth, but still more deepened by the spade. 
 It was not until after much of such deepening had 
 been done, that I found that a large proportion of 
 it was worse than useless; and that narrow grips, 
 or, at most, shallow rain-ditches would sufliice, 
 wliere I had deepened old ditches, and dug some 
 new ones, to reach and draw off" under-v/ater 
 where none could be found. Much of this old 
 ditching, after this deepening, and also most of 
 my early new work in aid, had to be filled up, at 
 different later times, after being substituted, or 
 rendered entirely useless, by the making other and 
 effective drains in other places. 
 
 Deeming it proper and necessary- in a report of 
 this character that the soil and surface of the land 
 in question, and especially the relations to wet- 
 ness, should be described clearly, the foregoing 
 description has been made as full as seemed to be 
 required for the object. But for the remainder, 
 and in reference to all the actual proper subse- 
 quent operations, a much more concise method 
 will be adopted — omitting all details of practice, 
 and, for the greater part, stating only general 
 operations and results, and the general changes 
 already produced, and others deemed certainly in 
 progress, and which will occur hereafter, from 
 labors alreadycompleted, or others still in progress. 
 
 The great and all-important cause of the gene- 
 ral wetness of this land, (the confined under-water,) 
 was not even suspected, until after I had begun to 
 construct covered drains, deeper, indeed, but still 
 much too shallow at first, in substitution of the 
 previous general system of shallow open ditches. 
 And it was some years still later, before I knew 
 certainly that this cause of wetness was generally 
 existing beneath the low-grounds. And even then, 
 after learning that the pervading and general source 
 of wetness was under-lying and confined and up- 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 ward-pressing water — and thence correctly infer- 
 ring the proper remedy — stili I could not adopt the 
 proper and then obvious means for relief, because 
 not tlien able to command, for deepening, the pro- 
 per out-lets for the water. Omitting all details, 
 both of my wrong and proper procedure, I will 
 proceed to describe the natural conditions of the 
 under-beds of the land, and the under-water, and 
 to state, in general terms, the several different plans 
 of drainage successively attempted. 
 
 Under the whole body of low-ground, there lies 
 a bed of wet and generally pure sand, or other 
 permeable* earth, of unknown thickness. The up- 
 per surface of this sand bed approaches to being 
 horizontal, but has a slight general dip, in the 
 direction of its course from beneath the high table- 
 land towards the river, in the bank of which this 
 bed crops out. The dip is not uniform or regular, 
 and the height of the surface of the sand-bed has 
 many variations. Under all the lowest land, it is 
 rarely so near the surface as 4 feet, and is more 
 generally 6 or 7 feet below the surface of the soil. 
 Under the high sandy knolls or ridges, the sand^ 
 bed rises higher, and intermixes insensibly (as to 
 texture) with the higfler and dry sandy sub-soil. 
 Tlie annexed conjectural profile of the strata will 
 serve for better explanation. 
 
 In the entire profile or cross-section of the strata, 
 (embracing Fig. III. and IV.,) the perpendicular 
 distances, and also the dip of the strata, are much 
 exaggerated, so as to be made plain to the eye; but 
 the principle of the operation of the water, and of 
 the remedy, is not thereby affected. 
 
 Suppose the wet sand-bed, e. Fig. III., to extend, 
 from under the higher land, descending very gra- 
 dually and slightly towards the river, passing first 
 under the high sandy soil a, Fig. III., and next un- 
 der the black alluvial clay of the lowest level, 6, 
 c, k, Fig. III. and IV. (tinted blue in Fig. I.) — next 
 under the slightly higher clay soil k to t (tinted 
 green in Fig. I.) and its like impervious sub-soil 
 and under-bed of clay — to the river bank, where 
 the water of the sand-bed first found discharge in 
 a line of numerous and copious springs, which 
 burst out over the top of the impervious bed be- 
 low. This lower bed here is of gypseous earth — 
 which elsewhere is replaced by mari, or by clay. 
 Here formerly was the first continuous or consi- 
 derable out-flowing of the water, after its long 
 and slow passage, by lateral percolation, under the 
 low-grounds, for some two miles of distance from 
 under the table-land. 
 
 It may be inferred that the same sand-bed ex- 
 tends, in the opposite and ascending direction for 
 miles under the high table-land, and the covering 
 clay stratum, and gradually rising to "crop out," 
 and to form the expanded general soil at some re- 
 mote locality.* There the rain sinks through the 
 surface soil into the lower sand, and to the next 
 lower and impervious bed — and thence the water 
 percolates laterally along the dip of the beds, to 
 supply and to surcharge the continuation of the 
 sand-bed under the low-grounds, and thence to the 
 river. In the earlier portion of this long under- 
 ground passage of the water, and where it had the 
 highest elevation, it is probable that the sand-bed 
 was never quite filled by water — and therefore, 
 while oozing through, and glutting the lower sand, 
 for a long distance, the upper layer of the sand- 
 bed might still keep dry. But as the rate of the 
 
 • In this neighborhood this sand-bed probably reaches the 
 surface and forms the general soil and sub-soil of the level 
 aandy ridge between tUe Pamunkey and Cbickahominy rivers« 
 
 SOUTH 
 
 Co f^. 
 
 iMain 
 Ditch. 
 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 |5J 
 
 
 k) 
 
 I- 
 
 Si- 
 
 >■ 
 
 < 
 
 NORTH 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 lateral progress of the water, and of its final dis- 
 charge, was much slower than the average supply 
 to the upper sources (and elsewhere) by rain, the 
 obstructed water would necessarily fill the sand-bed 
 •'ijatsome lower place, (as under 6, Fig. III.) up to the 
 impervious clay above; and still farther on, and 
 lower, the water would press upward, in propor- 
 tion to the measure of the higher level of the dis- 
 tant water, and the pressure of its weight on the 
 water confined below. According to a well-known 
 law of hydrostatics, water, so confined between 
 two inclined and impervious beds, and pressed on 
 by the weight of all the remote water standing at 
 a higher level, would rise perpendicularly, if a ver- 
 tical passage were afforded by a well, or an auger- 
 hole, to a height equal to that of the distant and 
 higher standing water, pressing thereupon. 
 
 Therefore, if the sand-bed was surcharged, and 
 its water pressing upward with sufficient force un- 
 der 6, (Fig. III.) where the glutted bed approaches 
 nearest to the surface, a spring, or ooze, might 
 there be formed, either permanent, or otherwise 
 flowing or oozing out only when the sand-bed was 
 fullest of water. Or, even without showing any 
 separate water, the soil there might generally be 
 too damp and cold for healthy production. 
 
 The longer the lateral course and passage of the 
 confined water, and the lower its forced depression, 
 by the superincumbent impervious bed, the greater 
 "would be its tendency to rise, by filtration. Under 
 these circumstances, wherever the surcharged sand- 
 bed passed under clay, there would rise injurious 
 dampness by means of upward pressure and filtra- 
 tion, or still higher by the operation of capillary 
 attraction of the upper earth. And this injury 
 from wetness might occur even where no water 
 was ever found in the digging of ditches, or was 
 seen separate, except sucli as had fallen in rain on 
 the surface, and which could not sink and escape 
 by percolation, because the lower bed was already 
 full of moisture, and could receive nomore. 
 
 But in the case of a partial discharge of water 
 at 6 (Fig. III.) or not, either the greater portion, 
 or the whole, of the under-water, still surcharging 
 the sand-bed, would continue to press onward iu 
 the direction of the dip of the bed and its imper- 
 vious cover, to beneath g, and thence to berteath 
 k and I, the clay soil of higher elevation — and 
 thence, under the still higher and also dry sandy 
 land near the river, to s, the out-let in springs 
 bursting out on the surface of the lower impervious 
 bed. 
 
 Before any drainage had been attempted, and 
 also, and to great extent, after the former shallow 
 and insufficient ditching, the constant upward pres- 
 sure of the confined under-water served to keep 
 the lower parts of the incumbent beds always 
 damp, and very unfavorable to tillage, and to the 
 production of the soil above, even though no water 
 might be seen to rise, or to stand; and none was 
 so seen in the low-grounds, except in some very 
 few feeble and terajjorary springs, and none of 
 these north of the line of the present main ditch. 
 With these inconsiderable exceptions, the only 
 water seen was that of the several streams which 
 passed through the farm, and the rain-water which, 
 when in excess, stood for more or less time on 
 every low depression — and also wherever the land 
 generally suffered from moisture, without showing 
 any other than rain-water. Accordingly, the only 
 aim of the earlier attempts to drain, (i. e. on the 
 first plan,) was to collect the rain-water from the 
 surface, and to conduct it off with the streams and 
 their temporary rain-floods — which objects were 
 
 I but imperfectly attained. The general opinion 
 then was, (and perhaps is now,) that draining was 
 ' only required for land where water, either stand- 
 I ing or flowing, was visible on the surface, or 
 j could be readily reached by shallow ditches. 
 ! This first method of draining, in former use on 
 this farm, was to make open ditches to carry off 
 the permanent streams, to the lowest and then 
 only outlet on the farm, (which was at Ji., Fig. I.) 
 These ditches, being too narrow and shallow, 
 very slowly carried off the rain-floods also — which 
 then, from every heavy rain, rose above the mar- 
 gins of all the principal ditches, and overflowed 
 the bordering low-grounds, and sometimes the dis- 
 tant basins, filled by refluent water from the swol- 
 len main stream. Numerous smaller, and also 
 open ditches, were cut wherever there appeared 
 oozing water, or wherever rain-water collected in 
 basins. These operated very partially and imper- 
 fectly. The best possible operation of these small 
 ditches, and when in their best condition, could 
 only be to take off the surface rain, or other wa- 
 ter, which was too much in excess to be absorbed 
 by the earth, or retained on its surface. Such 
 shallow ditches nowhere reached the glutted sand- 
 bed — did not draw off any of its confined water — 
 and could not lessen the upward pressure, and the 
 great and general cause of wetness of the land. 
 Yet every such ditch, at some times, served to 
 gather and carry off a little of the injurious water, 
 which after being drawn up from below, by insen- 
 sible filtration, saturated the upper soil in many 
 places; and therefore every ditch, seeming to be 
 of some use, was supposed to be indispensable — 
 while all of them together produced but very little 
 benefit, and no complete drainage anywhere. Re- 
 ference to Fig. I. will show all these numerous 
 open ditches, which formerly were dug, and were 
 designed to be kept open. They were dug no 
 deeper than they were, because the need of deep 
 draining was not then even suspected. And if the 
 necessity had been then understood, it would have 
 been impossible to keep ditches open to the suffi- 
 cient draining depth. 
 
 Before the next, or the second method was begun, 
 (my first improvements by covered drains,) I was 
 aware of the importance, (as the very foundation 
 of any system of general drainage,) Of deepen- 
 ing the out-let, and deepening and widening the 
 stream-ditches leading to it. And this workwas^ 
 soon begun — including the substitution, by new 
 ditches, of some of the old courses that were obvi- 
 ously and entirely wrong in their position. But 
 it was not until in 1851, after the purchase of the 
 adjoining Talley tract, that I was enabled to make 
 the additional northern and lower out-let, (at Q, 
 Fig. II.,) and thereby was permitted to begin pro- 
 perly the third method, and the only proper plan 
 of drainage for this land, by deepening the princi- 
 pal ditches into the sand-bed, and thereby tapping 
 and discharging its before confined water. But 
 this reference is in advance of the actual proce- 
 dure. 
 
 The second method of draining attempted was by 
 means of covered drains. These, taken from the 
 then lowest places of discharge, at the bottoms of 
 the nearest open stream ditches, (as at g, Fig. 
 III.,) were extended to every wettest spot (as 6 
 and o) and along every oozing line and slope. 
 These drains, designed to be covered as soon as 
 completed, were dug as deep as their out-lets 
 permitted, so as for them to have a slight descent — 
 and they usually reached the glutted sand-bed, or 
 its water forcing a way upward, at the upper end 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 of the digging, where the sand-bed rose higher. 
 Thus every such ditch received some of the water 
 forced up by hydrostatic pressure, and of course 
 every one did some good in lessening the surcharge 
 of water, and reducing the general and pervading 
 evil of the confined water. While much of this 
 woric was in progress, and while finding many 
 evidences of particular cases of upward pressure 
 of under-water, still I had not recognized the 
 general existence of this pressure of water from 
 below. If knowing it in many places where no 
 water, or only a little by slow filtration, was found, 
 and which could not be reached by the spade, it 
 might have been tapped by an auger-hole, and 
 drawn up vertically into the ditcli and so con- 
 ducted away. It was much later that good use 
 was made of this aid. With all their defects of 
 both plan and construction, and especially that of 
 all the early diggings being too sliallow, the co- 
 vered drains generally served their designed pur- 
 poses, at least as long as they continued to operate. 
 But, for want of sufficient depth (that being pre- 
 vented by the then shallow out-lets, and prin- 
 cipal open ditches,) and for other errors of con- 
 struction, which experience enabled me to cor- 
 rect in later operations, many of these early-made 
 covered drains failed partially, and in some cases 
 entirely, and were repaired, or substituted by 
 deeper and effective drains. In Fig. II., where all 
 the covered drains are marked, wherever two 
 or more are very near to, or cross each other, it 
 indicates that the first had failed, and had been 
 substituted by another. 
 
 As the deepening of the old lower part of the 
 main ditch, and the deep digging of the new part, 
 were in gradual progress from 1844 to 1855, and 
 the principal tributary stream-ditches were deep- 
 ened in proportion, every covered drain, made in 
 later times, could have a deeper out-let, and there- 
 fore could be sunk deeper than the older ones, and 
 was so much the more operative, and will be so 
 much the more durable in its operation. 
 
 Reference to Fig. III. will better explain the early 
 use and operation of the covered drains. In wet 
 and oozy spots, as near 6, shallow open side 
 ditches, o, had formerly served merely to take off 
 such part of the surplus of under-water as there rose 
 to the surface in winter and spring, or when the 
 under-water stood higher than that level. These 
 ditches did not reach the surface of the summer 
 height of the water in the sand-bed, and therefore, 
 in summer they were useless for their designed 
 purpose. Afterwards, when a covered drain was 
 extended from the then bottom of the old main 
 ditch (??.) a.t g, along the dotted line from g to the 
 old side-ditch at o, and that side-ditch also deep- 
 ened and covered, then the new digging being sunk 
 below the summer height of the water in the sand,- 
 bed, operated to draw off water at all times—though 
 still to but small depth, and with no aid from up- 
 ward pressure of the water, as there was no con- 
 finement of the water there. 
 
 Later, when the main ditch, at h, was sunk, 
 (first by the auger and afterwards by the spade,) low 
 enough to tap the confined water in the sand-bed, 
 the water, under the hydrostatic pressure, would 
 rise with force into the ditch, and its level would 
 be lowered in proportion in the sand-bed, and by 
 this lower and more effectual draining of the sand- 
 bed, all the neighboi'ing covered drains, as shallow 
 as the one here represented, would be left dry, and 
 become useless for their designed object of drain- 
 ing the under-water of the sand-bed. 
 
 All the covered drains which reached water in 
 
 the sand-bed were dug on "the south side of the 
 present main ditch (Fig. II.) A few which were 
 made on the north side, (as SL, xy, and at R, Fig. 
 II.) though deep and well constructed, reached no 
 water, even with boring extended into the sand- 
 bed. The reason for this will be seen hereafter. 
 
 As soon as each field, or separate large portion of 
 land, was provided with covered drains, the older 
 open ditches were- mostly rendered superfluous and 
 useless, and were filled with earth. The three prin- 
 cipal streams only, (South, South-west, and West 
 Branches,) which brought in much surface-water 
 and rain-floods (and also mucli sand,) from high 
 land outside cf this farm, were left in open and 
 deepened ditches; and a few other smaller ditches 
 were left open for full trial, which are designed 
 to be soon converted to covered drains. These are 
 the ditches VU, x, and ah, (Fig. II.) in West Field, 
 and cd, or ef, or perhaps both, in South Field. 
 The covered-drains are invisible at the surface of 
 the earth, and of course no impediment to tillage. 
 The stream-ditches which will remain open will 
 be almost the only impediments, and even these 
 obstructions will be much lessened in importance, 
 by the sloping of their sides, and lowering of their 
 margins. A comparison of the number of ditches 
 formerly open, and all of which then obstructions 
 to the passage of teams, as shown on Fig. I., and 
 the few now open, and the still fewer to continue 
 open, will display the great advantage gained in the 
 mere removal of impassable obstructions to teams, 
 and preventions to ploughing and tillage. 
 
 After all the covered drains which were at 
 first deemed essential had been constructed, on 
 the land first occupied, I obtained, by purchase, 
 the adjacent land, Talley's, (shown in Fig. I.) 
 which first enabled me to give another and lower 
 place of discharge to the waters of half of the 
 whole farm — and also put in my possession the 
 head sources (on the third terrace,) of sundry 
 springs and under-ground veins, which before I 
 could not command, nor their issues into my for- 
 mer property. These new and important facili- 
 ties I proceeded to put to use, as soon as my other 
 labors permitted, by extending the main ditch, 
 enlarged and deepened, entirely through the cen- 
 tral low-grounds, and making the new out-let (at 
 Q, Fig. II.,) as deep as the neighboring property 
 would permit — and the whole ditch (1900 yards) as 
 deep as could then be safely kept open. To obtain 
 greater draining depth than could be done at first by 
 the spade, the auger was used to bore through the 
 impervious clay bottom (of the earlier excavations,) 
 and into the glutted sand-bed, by which much of 
 the under-water was drained upward, in advance 
 of the later and still deeper, and much more ef- 
 fectual excavation by the spade. All of the glut- 
 ted sand-bed, when first exposed, or tapped, is 
 quick-sand. And even if the first digging could 
 have been sunk deep enough everywhere to pene- 
 trate the quick-sand, it would not have been safe 
 to do so at first. If then attempted to be dug into, 
 the fluid quick-sand would flow in from the sides 
 like water — and thus leaving the solid upper clay 
 without support, it would fall in, and nearly fill 
 the ditch. To prevent this evil, it was necessary 
 at first barely to reach the quick-sand, if it could 
 be reached by digging — and then leave it to dis- 
 charge the before confined water through the new 
 out-let thus afforded, until the general cleaning out 
 of the ditches in the next spring season. Then the 
 upper sand, previously opened, and before quick 
 or fluid, would, by being drained, have become 
 firm; and then a layer (of 7 or 8 inches thick,) 
 
D R A I N A^ E . 
 
 could be dug out, before agaia reaching and having 
 again to stop at the sand still quick. In this man- 
 ner, and in successive years from 1850 to 1855, 1 
 gradually enlarged the whole main ditch, and deep- 
 ened it to 6 feet generally, and to 7 at one point — 
 reaching the quick-sand for two-thirds of the whole 
 length of 1900 yards, and excavating the bottom 
 into what had been quick-sand full two feet in some 
 parts. Also the quick-sand has- been reached by 
 deepening with the spade, for some 1000 yards 
 length of the lower parts of the several larger tri- 
 butary streams, and of the upper part of the main 
 stream, which is formed by their confluence, (at 
 ;), Fig. II.) Only at and near the old out-let of 
 the main ditch, .4 (Fig. II.,) the depth is still less 
 than 4 feet, and the quick-sand is not approached — 
 because of my not being allowed to lower the dis- 
 charge througli the adjoining and lower land. 
 This deep ditching into the under-bed of glutted 
 sand was the third method used for draining this 
 land, and the only correct principle of procedure. 
 The object had before been but partially effectea 
 by the previous and numerous covered drains, 
 most of which derived their supplies of water from 
 the sand-bed below — and in most cases of the 
 earlier works, when the sand had not been exposed 
 to the eye, or its presence and close neighborhood 
 then known. And as the constructing, of covered 
 drains and the later deep digging of the principal 
 open ditches were in progress together, for some 
 years of the same time, and as both plans were, 
 and still are, in operation together, their separate 
 effects cannot be estimated with any opproach to 
 accuracy. 
 
 The actual and the necessary operation of this 
 penetrating, for such long extent of diggings, the 
 before confined water of the sand-bed, is to draw 
 in as much water therefrom as can find a lower 
 or more ready discharge by this new and lower 
 out-let than existed before. And in proportion to 
 this measure of relief, or the reducing the previous 
 glut of the sand-bed, so much will be lessened the 
 former upward pressure of the confined water, and 
 its universal though slow discharge to the surface 
 by insensible filtration. The lateral passage of 
 the under-water, through the sand-bed, from be- 
 neath the hills to the nearest new out-let into the 
 deep ditches, is still from 600 to 1100 yards of 
 distance — through which, the water has to force 
 its way through fine sand, and with very slight 
 descent. Of course, such passing of the under- 
 water must be extremely slow. But, gradually, 
 the small veins in the loose sand must be washed 
 out larger at and near their out-lets, and these 
 openings will extend higher and higher into the 
 body of the sand-bed, and the v/ater will then flow 
 out faster. The facility for percolation , and the con- 
 sequent better draining operation, maybe expected 
 to increase for years to come. But already, the pro- 
 gress of the operation, though slow, is manifest, 
 both in the greater general dryness and good tilth 
 * of the soil, and also in the laying dry of some co- 
 vered drains, and the lessening the flow of water 
 from many others. These latter effects can only 
 result from lower discharges having been given for 
 the water of the sand-bed. Should the deepening 
 of the main ditches into the sand-bed serve to keep 
 permanently free from water 6 inches depth only 
 of the upper layer ©f the sand, that would be 
 enough to cut off the previous permanent supply 
 of under-water to every older covered drain — and 
 would prevent ail the former upward pressure of 
 water, and its former effect of keeping all the 
 earth above too damp. Further — by the removal 
 
 of the glut of water from the few upper inches 
 depth of the sand, so much of the sand-bed would 
 thereby be changed from being a continual source 
 and supply of wetness, to a sure means of dryness 
 to all the over-lying earth and soil. For then, 
 there being no wet earth above the sand to consti- 
 tute an impervious bed, (as all wet earth is imper- 
 vious to more water,) the excess of rain-water, 
 instead of remaining in pools in every slight de- 
 pression of the surface, will sink into and filtrate 
 through the then pervious under-earth (even if it 
 be clay,) to the then drained sand below, to be 
 therein absorbed, carried down to the lower glut, 
 and with the other water pass off to the nearest 
 lower out-let. A layer of dry (or well drained) 
 sand, at from 5 to 7 feet below tlie surface of level 
 land, will as certainly keep the surface soil drained, 
 as the same sand, if always surcharged with con- 
 fined water, will surely make the surface-soil wet — 
 and will render all efforts to drain the soil of but 
 slight benefit, until the surcharge of w"ater, and its 
 upward pressure, shall have been removed. 
 
 So far, nothing has been said of the draining of 
 the larger portion of the land, lying north of the 
 present main ditch, (Fig. II. and IV.) And almost 
 Hothing had been done especially for that object, 
 except to keep open rain-ditches through all the 
 lowest depressions of surface, and grips through the 
 slightest depressions, and to have all this land, as 
 elsewhere, kept in beds and alleys, (or " ridge and 
 furrow" culture,) so as to lead off, as quickly as 
 could be, the surface-water derived directly from 
 rains. To these imperfect drainage operations, 
 always formerly in use, I could devise no means 
 of improvement, other than more perfect execu- 
 tion of that plan. Much of the soil was of the 
 stiff clay of medium elevation, (h to /, Fig. IV. 
 and of green tint in Fig. I.,) all of which suffered 
 from wetness, and yet in Avhich no practicable 
 depth of ditching could find under-water. The 
 causes of both these facts may be seen in the pro- 
 file of strata exhibited in Fig. III. and IV. The 
 water in the sand-bed, below this higher clay sur- 
 face, k to I, had pressed upward in the same way 
 as elsewhere, and as has already been described. 
 And though the over-lying earth was there so much 
 thicker, that thickness did not prevent the earth 
 being injuriously affected, and up to its surface, by 
 the upward pressure of the water confined below. 
 The rain falling in excess on the surface, could 
 not sink into the under-beds, except in dry sea- 
 sons — (for undrained soil isthedryest of all and very 
 dry and hard in dry seasons — ) and of course a 
 small portion of the injurious excess of rain-water 
 could only be drawn olf, by means of alleys, grips 
 and rain-ditches, and slowly and imperfectly, be- 
 cause of the almost perfectly level surface of this 
 clay soil. 
 
 The removing or lessening of the general sur- 
 charge of water, by the later tapping the sand- 
 bed along the -main ditch and elsewhere, has re- 
 duced the upwai'd pressure, and consequent wet- 
 ness of soil, on .the north side as much as on the 
 south, though in a different mode. And the drain- 
 ing effect of the main-ditch on the north side is 
 the more manifest, because nothing more has there 
 been done than had always before operated. In- 
 deed much less is now done than formerly. For 
 some of the former wet and impassable ditches are 
 now but shallow and usually dry grips; and many 
 former grips are no longer opened. A large space 
 of this land (in River Field,) for which beds and 
 alleys, and also sundry grips, had been heretofore 
 deemed indispensable, has been tilled in corn this 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 / 
 
 unusually wet year (1857) with flush ploughing, 
 and without a grip or water-furrow — or there ap- 
 pearing any indication of the want of either — the 
 crop being tlie best ever grown on the land. By 
 cutting off, at the main ditch, so much of the for- 
 mer supply of under-water, probably all the for- 
 mer upward pressure of water has been now re- 
 moved from this land — and the upper layer of the 
 sand-bed may already serve to drain from, instead 
 of supplying water to, the surface soil. This ma- 
 nifest change, and draining effect has been pro- 
 duced generally on land of this description lying 
 as much as half a mile from the nearest part of the 
 main ditch, the deepening of which is the only 
 known cause. This condition of things will serve 
 to explain why the covered drains dug north of 
 the main ditch have not operated to draw any un- 
 der-water. 
 
 If my views and deductions are correct, the 
 draining effects of tapping the quick-sand bed, and 
 reducing its surcharge of water, will increase for 
 a long time to come. And as soon as the effect 
 extends so as to drain the whole upper layer of 
 the sand-bed, then all the covered drains should 
 cease to flow — and serve only (and for that would 
 still serve well,) in aid of surface draining, to 
 draw and to speedily discharge, any excess of rain 
 that may fall on the bordering land, and whicii 
 will quickly find its way into any neighboring co- 
 vered drains. 
 
 Besides in the greater depth of draining, there 
 has been effected, in connection with the ditches, 
 much improvement, which it will he enough here 
 to slightly mention. The great depth of an open 
 stream ditch *can only be maintained by well and 
 broadly sloping the sides — having the width of the 
 top not less than thrice the perpendicular depth of 
 the ditch, and the bottom as narrow as can convey 
 the ordinary stream. To this shape most of the 
 open ditches have been made to approach, through 
 greater or less portions of their courses — and the 
 work will be persevered in until all that are de- 
 signed to be kept open shall have been brought to 
 the shape and proportions named. When this 
 widening of the top and sloping of the sides shall 
 have been completed for the central and higher 
 portion of the main ditch, then that portion of the 
 bottom may be sunk a foot lower, so as to pene- 
 trate to the quick-sand throughout. Already, by 
 thus lowering the margins, and sloping the sides 
 of the rain-ditches, (of which the bottoms usually 
 are dry, except immediately after the fall of rain,) 
 — and of which work, much is effected by the 
 plough, and when ploughing to prepare for tillage — 
 most of the length, of the rain-ditches, even now, 
 are no longer obstructions to the passage of teams, 
 or the running of ploughs, carts, or even the work- 
 ing of reaping machines. In the last harvest, 
 (of 1857,) the reaping machine safely and effec- 
 tually cut across one of these completed and pro- 
 perly shaped rain-ditches, along which good wheat 
 stood within a few inches of the middle of the firm 
 bottom. Yet this ditch formerly was a standing 
 puddle of mire and water, 3 feet deep from the 
 top of its then raised banks, and served to ob- 
 struct tillage and prevent the growing of crops 
 for full 12 feet of width, besides the damage to 
 the tilled crops by the teams turning on both sides 
 of the ditch. Yet the bottoms of these ditches, 
 are now deeper than in their best original state, 
 and are far more effective for draining than any 
 depth could cause, if without the present lowered 
 and sloped margins. By extending this additional 
 improvement to all the open ditches — and mainly 
 
 by ploughing, (when preparing the field for corn,) 
 so as always to throw every furrow-slice in the 
 direction from the ditches and grips — all the rain- 
 ditches will hereafter be nearly obliterated, as im- 
 pediments to tillage; and tlie obstruction of tlie 
 larger stream-ditches will be very much lessened. 
 Where parts of the rain-ditches are already so 
 shaped as no longer to impede tillage (or plough- 
 ing across, if dsired,) so much of the n)arks for 
 such ditches are omitted on Fig. II. But after a 
 fcv.^ more years, and of ploughings from these 
 ditches, scarcely any of these present impediments 
 to tillage will remain — and the now obstructing 
 rain-ditches, though then as deep and as operative 
 as ever, will be much less noticeable in the fields, 
 than the marks for them now appear on the maps. 
 
 The higher land, or third terrace, throughout, 
 (Fig. I., white with yellow outlines,) which had no 
 ditches prior to my occupancy, neverlheless re- 
 quired, and has received, much under-draining. 
 The injurious under-v/ater, there, was derived 
 from higher sources than the general sand-bed. 
 Therefore these covered drains will not be laid 
 dry by the deepening of the main ditch, or any 
 other now open ditches. 
 
 An important improvement has latterly been 
 made, of different character; not operating di- 
 rectly to drain, but indirectly, by diverting or 
 dividing the great rain-floods which came down 
 the bed of South Branch from high and hilly lands 
 outside of the low-grounds and the farm. This 
 stream formerly pursued the verv circuitous course 
 shown in Fig. I. (from T by" P and S to .^.) 
 Since, by cutting a ditch along the boundary 
 line of the farm, and the straiglitest course per- 
 missible, to the eastern out-let Jl, V\g. II., about 
 half the length of the previous passage of the wa- 
 ter has been saved; and much injury prevented, in 
 reducing the height of the floods of the before con- 
 fluent streams. From this cause, added to the more 
 important general deepening and enlarging of the 
 main stream ditch, and its having the additional 
 out-let at Q, in latter years it has rarely occurred 
 that any rain-flood has overflowed a few of the 
 lowest spots of tillage land. 
 
 The changes, and the beneficial effects of the 
 whole under-draining, both by the numerous co- 
 vered drains, and the few later deep open ditches, 
 though certainly very great, and also highly profi- 
 table, cannot be estimated otherwise than gene- 
 rally, and much on supposition. The actual and 
 known increased production of the farm, which 
 occurre.d. during and since these operations, is no 
 correct measure of the benefit of draining. For — 
 besides extensions of cultivated surface by the 
 later purchase of very poor land, (as was all the 
 old tilled part of Talley's,) and the gradual bring- 
 ing under culture 26 acres of new cleared and rich 
 forest swamp land — there were in progress other 
 improvements, and especially that of early and 
 general marling. How much of the subsequent 
 and general improvement of fertility, and actual 
 increase of crops, may be due to marling, or to 
 better tillage, and a better rotation, including the 
 introduction of the pea-crop for manuring — and 
 how much is due to draining, or might have been 
 obtained by draining alone — I cannot know, and 
 will not hazard a conjectural estimate. But high 
 as I place the fertilizing effects of marling, these 
 could not have been oljtained, (nor the proper 
 benefits of any other manures,) if on other than 
 drained or dry soils. And except on the higher 
 I and naturally dry ground, my marling would have 
 I been of but little effect, without the aid of draining. 
 
10 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 Neither did the draining, even when most effec- 
 tual, convert the before unproductive ground at 
 once to a productive condition. All the naturally 
 wet land, that had not been too v/et for the ordi- 
 nary' mechanical operation of ploughing, had been 
 regularly tilled, and had been reduced by cropping 
 and wet ploughing to extreme sterility. This was 
 the case with nearly all the' higher wet land, 
 (marked green on Fig. I.,) and on parts of the 
 loivest land also. After such land had been well 
 drained, it still was so poor as to be worthless in 
 its then condition; and even after marl had been 
 applied, it was still very poor, and only then ren- 
 dered capable of being well and profitably im- 
 proved and enriched, by the further use of putres- 
 cent or alimentary manures, aided by proper til- 
 lage, and manuring crops. 
 
 Further, the addition of more surface for crops, 
 by the bringing in the extremely poor land later 
 bought — and also the poorest parts of the older 
 purchase, (at first omitted from tillage because of 
 their extreme barrenness,)— while adding something 
 more to the general or gross products of the farm, 
 served to lessen, and to keep down, and still keeps 
 down even to tliis time, the general or average rate 
 of production to the acre — which is the much surer 
 indication of the measure of improvement, or of its 
 increase. For these reasons, tlie statement of for- 
 mer and recent crops would be delusive, and lead 
 to incorrect conclusions — in some cases making 
 the improvement appear greater than the truth, 
 and in others, much less. It is then with the claim 
 
 for allowances for all these grounds for incorrect 
 deductions, that the following statement of the 
 principal grain crops will be submitted. 
 
 It should be premised that the crops for the first 
 two or three years were made on the then dryest 
 portions of the land, and where the want of draining 
 was then least felt. Also very early in my occu- 
 pancy, the old ditches were all well cleaned out, 
 (and some of them also deepened,) and the former 
 plan of draining (by the first method,) was in its 
 best operation. No wheat had been sown for 
 1844; and ray first crop, in 1845, was grown on 
 detached pieces of the dryest and richest land that 
 the farm offered, without regard to the order of 
 culture, or any plan of rotation. Also I had pre- 
 viously marled part of the ground for this first 
 crop of wheat. All these circumstances made 
 that crop much lai'ger than a fair average field or 
 portion of the farm would then have yielded. It 
 is understood that previous to my occupancy, the 
 land (including the subsequent Talley purchase) 
 had never yielded as much as 1000 bushels of wheat 
 in any one year, and rarely reached to near that 
 quantity. In my occupancy, as well as before, no 
 guano, or other bought or transported manure, 
 (other than marl,) has ever been applied to this 
 land. Neither has any hired or additional labor 
 been employed for the drainage or other improve- 
 ments, more than the always insufficient supply of 
 hand and team-labor, used for the tillage, cropping, 
 and general management of the farm. 
 
 CROPS OF WHEAT AND CORN MADE ON MARLBOURNE FARM. 
 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 CORN. 1 
 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Average 
 to acre. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Crop 
 Bushels. 
 
 Average 
 to acre. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 134 
 
 201 
 235 
 256 
 263 
 238 
 267 
 259 
 255 
 287 
 333 
 327 
 351 
 
 1977 
 
 2432* 
 
 3511 
 
 5127 
 
 3375* 
 
 4595 
 
 6072 
 
 5332 
 
 4790 
 
 5830 
 
 8004 
 
 5647* 
 
 8410 
 
 14.75 
 11 42 
 15.32 
 
 20.02 
 
 12.83 
 
 19.73 
 
 22.74 
 
 20.60 
 
 18.8 
 
 20.31 
 
 24. 
 
 17.37 
 
 23.96 
 
 156 
 112 
 120 
 175 
 106 
 137 
 124 
 148 
 124 
 143 
 144 
 158 
 138 
 250 
 
 2830 
 1600* 
 3600 
 4500 
 3080 
 5431 
 3500 
 4027 
 5438 
 5097 
 5000 
 6175 
 ^21* 
 10,0001 
 
 18.14 
 
 14.28 
 
 30. 
 
 25.71 
 
 28.12 
 
 39.64 
 
 28. 
 
 27.21 
 
 43.85 
 
 33.11 
 
 34.62 
 
 39.81 
 
 24.06 
 
 40. 
 
 After 1844, all the land cultivated rn corn had been 
 marled, — and all of the wheat, after 1845. 
 
 Since 1848 (inclusive) when my six-field rotation was 
 begun, one entire field has always been under broad- 
 cast peas, of which all the vines, and most of the grain, 
 were ploughed under as manure for wheat. 
 
 * These crops very short, owing to remarkably bad 
 seasons, 
 t This by estimate, as the crop is not yet gathered. 
 
 Then, if putting aside the progressive rates of 
 
 S reduction as a measure of the improvement by 
 raining, there is nothing to adduce for proof, but 
 the former and present condition of the land as to 
 moisture and dryness, intractability and cloddiness, 
 or pulverization and now usual better tilth and 
 ease of ploughing and tillage. The differences in 
 these respects, and whether with or without the 
 knowledge of the former and recent rates of pro- 
 duction, to any observer well acquainted with the 
 farm both in former and the present times, would 
 be sufficient proofs of the benefit and profit of the 
 latter drainage, and the comparative inefficiency 
 of the first-used plan. But to strangers, and by 
 writing, 1 cannot offer any positive or satisfactory 
 evidence, other than the assertion that, in all of 
 the above recited conditions, very great improve- 
 ment has been produced by the two better methods 
 of under-draining — by covered drains, and by still 
 
 deeper and more operative open main ditches. All 
 the ground of the two lower levels, (severally 
 marked blue and green. Fig. I.) and some other 
 also of the much higher and oozy ground, formerly 
 was always much too wet for at least half the year, 
 and yet, most of which, in long droughts, was ex- 
 tremely dry and hard, and very difficult to plough, 
 and when ploughed, was generally left in hard 
 clods. Now, (with some small exceptions,) this 
 land is as dry as any very flat and stiff land well can 
 be; and where longest and best drained, the soil is 
 easily and well pulverized by ploughing, and put 
 in beautiful condition of tilth. It is true that in 
 some limited spaces the draining has not yet been 
 completely effectual. Further, even where most 
 operative, more perfect drainage might be ob- 
 tained by super-adding the English system of " fre- 
 quent" or " thorough draining," to remove surface 
 water — if that very costly improvement could be 
 
NEW PLAN FOR PLOUGHING FLAT LAND. 
 
 11 
 
 afforded on our lo\v--priced lands. But with these 
 exceptions — and speaking according to common 
 opinion qnd understanding in regard to land and 
 draining — every observer of this farm would now 
 pronounce that it is %i^eU drained nearly throughout. 
 And further — a new observer, if enlirely unac- 
 quainted with the former condition of the land, 
 would probably suppose that the lowest land had 
 always been generally as dry — and had needed, for 
 perfect drainage, only the few open stream-ditches 
 now visible. Even these, where completely shaped, 
 have their sides so sloped and lowered, and their 
 bottoms so narrow, and altogether they present so 
 little impediment to passage, that the actual depth 
 and capacity of the open ditches would be much un- 
 der-rated. And if the great number and extent 
 of the concealed under-drains were made known 
 to such new observer, he could scarcely believe 
 that there had ever existed any necessity for their 
 construction. 
 
 But successful and profitable as has been the 
 latter drainage, taken altogether, I have to confess 
 that half of my labors were so injudiciously and 
 improperly applied, as to be (to that amount,) 
 nearly throv/n away. If the proper labors could 
 have been given in the proper order — and beginning 
 with the best and most important means, instead 
 of these being the latest employed — the actual ef- 
 fects and benefits mit,ht have been obtained in half 
 the time, as well as with half the cost of labor that 
 has been incurred. Much of this loss was una- 
 voidable, because of the want, at first, of the pro- 
 perty or the control of other land, necessary for 
 the proper plan of drainage, v/hich has latterly 
 been adopted. But the greater errors and losses 
 were owing to my own want of knowledge in the 
 beginning, both of the true causes of the then ex- 
 isting evils, and of the proper course and means 
 for remedy, even if these means had been then 
 available. 
 
 A KEW FLAW FOR PLOUGHTIVG FLAT LAND, W 
 AID OF DRAINAGE. 
 
 BY EDMUND HUFFIN. 
 
 On the borders of the Atlantic tide-water rivers, 
 and for more extended spaces near the mouths of 
 these rivers, there are many and large bodies of 
 low-land and of surfaces nearly level, or but 
 slightly undulating. All such lands, naturally, are 
 more or less wet and require drainage for their 
 good tillage and production. And whether drained 
 effectively, or ever so imperfectly, such lands, 
 xuider culture, usually require, and have, a num- 
 ber of open ditches, to collect and carry off the 
 streams, and the excess of rain and surface water. 
 
 Note. — In this report of a partfcular drainage operation, 
 it has been the design and effort of the writer to make it as 
 concise ae could be, so as to exhibit, generally, the causes of 
 ■wetness, the means used for remedy, and the results produced. 
 If any reader should desire more extended information on 
 the general subject, either in reasoning as to causes, or instruc- 
 tion and directions for the practical' labors of draining, and in 
 various circumstances, such particular information may be 
 found in two other of my previous writings, viz: the article 
 " On Draining," in my published " Essays and Notes on Agri- 
 culture" (1S55) and a report on the "Agricultural Features of 
 Lower Virginia and North Carolina," first and recently pub- 
 lished in De Bow's " Southern and Western Review," and since 
 communicated, with additions, to the Virginia State Agricul- 
 tural Society. 
 
 In former publications, I have offered my views at 
 length in regard to the proper modes of draining, 
 and the subsequent tillage (in very wide beds,) of 
 lands of this class — and therefore these important 
 and main branches of the general subject need not 
 be here discussed. Nor will either be men- 
 tioned, except incidentally, and as necessary for 
 explanation of the later and auxiliary improvement 
 by the manner of ploughing, which I design now to 
 set forth, and to recommend. 
 
 Whether any field, or farm, of the flat surface 
 in view, is drained properly or improperly, there 
 will be many ditches running in different direc- 
 tions Where the lands are most level (as in large 
 spacesof interior lands of lower Virginia and North 
 and South Carolina,) the ditches may be placed al- 
 most anywhere, and in any direction, to operate as 
 designed. But more generally, and especially 
 on the borders of rivers, the surface has so many 
 and frequent though it may be but slight undula- 
 tions, that the open drains, for rain or surface 
 water, must be placed precisely in the loAvest de- 
 pressions, and directed in the courses of these de- 
 pressions. As these latter circumstances are the 
 mo>,t usual, and are the most difficult, I will sup- 
 pose them to exist, when making the following re- 
 marks. Then, in a field of this kind, we may 
 suppose there to be many slight and mostly narrow 
 depressions, running in various directions, betAveen 
 the somewhat higher and very much broader in- 
 tervals of dryer land, but still not dry enough for 
 draining to be dispensed with. Through all these 
 depressions, (even where there are no springs to 
 collect, or permanent stream to vent,) there pass- 
 open rain-ditches, which are impassable by ploughs 
 and team's — or smaller grips, which perhaps are 
 ploughed across, and therefore rcquirecleaning out, 
 and almost renewing, after every ploughing of the 
 ground. In either case, these open surface-drains, 
 of whatever sizes, are great sources of trouble, 
 and great impediments to tillage. 
 
 Further — as the depressions are usually but very 
 little below the level of the near adjacent ground — 
 and the line of the ditch is not at all lower than 
 its borders — it follows that the earth thrown out 
 in the first digging must raise the margins — perhaps 
 to be raised still higher by every subsequent clean- 
 ing out of the ditch. These banks, even if spread 
 as far as to be thrown by shovels, still raise the 
 margins — and even if but two or three inches 
 higher than the ground farther off from the ditch, 
 this slight elevation seriously impairs the proper 
 draining effect of the ditch. Further — when the 
 ploughs have to stop and turn at the sides of the 
 ditches, they always bring there and leave some 
 earth on the margins — and this serves still more 
 to counteract drainage, and to cause future labor. 
 Such would be existing evils, even when great 
 and unusual care is used to remove the first-raised 
 banks of ditches, and to prevent subsequent accu- 
 mulations of earth there. But it is much more 
 common, and far worse, to let the ditch banks 
 remain to raise the margins — and further, to add 
 to them by the subsequent ploughing, (if flush,) 
 being so ordered that every furrow-slice, cut near 
 to the ditch, is turned towards its banks. 
 
 Within the last two years, I have introduced a 
 new manner of flush ploughing, which serves from 
 the beginning to moderate the evils in question; 
 and which, in the course of time, will have the 
 best effects, in adding to the draining operation 
 and effects of open ditches, of all kinds and sizes, 
 and also in lessening the future labors for main- 
 taining their proper operation. 
 
12 
 
 NEW PLAN FOR PLOUGHING FLAT LAND. 
 
 Fence — or border of another field 
 
NEW PLAN FOR PLOUGHING FLAT LAND. 
 
 13 
 
 The annexed figure, or diagram, will enable me to 
 explain more clearly the manner of ploughing. 
 Tlie whole space represents a field, or part of a 
 field, which is divided by two long depressions into 
 three irregulai'ly shaped "cuts" or divisions, D, 
 E and F. Along the middle of the larger interior 
 depression, there had been kept open a narrow 
 rain ditch, of the usual shape, b, b, say 2 feet deep, 
 and 3 wide, (and which depth was necessary,) at 
 which the plough and teams had to turn, because 
 of the impassable obstruction. The other and 
 smaller depression had a grip (a, a) say 15 inches 
 wide and lU deep, across which the ploughs passed, 
 and which was filled and required cleaning out 
 after every ploughing. A permanent stream ditch, 
 c, d, is one of tiie Ijoundaries, bordered on both 
 sides by tlie lowest ground of the field. A rain- 
 ditch y, b, d, makes another boundary, a farm road 
 another, and on the fourth side is a fence along 
 side of the adjacent farm — or another field of the 
 same farm. 
 
 It is desired to plough each of these cuts in such 
 manner as to throw every furrow-slice from the 
 outsides, and towards the centre. It is supposed 
 that the ditch 6, b, and the grip a, a, are in tlie best 
 locations — that is, combining as much as possible 
 the requisites of having the sliortest courses that 
 can be obtained in the lowest ground. If any de- 
 fect of location exists, it should be corrected, and 
 the ditch or grip be made correct in position. 
 This being done, the next thing is to mark off the 
 ground for ploughing. The field is supposed to 
 have been left, after the last previous tillage, 
 either in broad beds (25 feet or more,) high enough 
 and well-sloped — or in low and narrow beds, pre- 
 viously designed to be ploughed flush, and to be 
 again bedded in the progress of tilling the corn- 
 crop. The farmer, or a careful and intelligent 
 man, and a boy, having each one end of a strong 
 but light cord (of strong iiemp twine) about 75 
 feet long, will direct the ploughman where to 
 mark. Taking one cut, (as D,) the man walks 
 along the outside lines, or as close thereto as the 
 near horse of a plough-team can easily and safely 
 walk. The boy carries the string stretched, and 
 keeps it at right-angles to the outside line on 
 which the man walks. The ploughman, with a 
 small one-horse plough, or coulter, follows the 
 track of the boy, and barely scratches the ground, 
 80 as to make a perceptible mark. If a larger 
 furrow were opened, it would be an inconvenience 
 to the main work. Thus, if beginning on the cut 
 D, the first line laid oft', will be h, h, h, h, h, pa- 
 rallel to, and the length of the line distant from 
 the surrounding boundary line of the cut D. At 
 each angle, the plough should mark a little beyond 
 its supposed full distance, and then be lifted back 
 to the proper place indicated by the length of the 
 string, when stretched from the next side. The 
 intersection of the furrows will mark the exact 
 place for the angle. Thus each successive mark- 
 ing will be made, parallel to and equidistant from 
 the preceding, until the work reaches nearly to 
 the centre. If the last circuit made (i, i, i,) does 
 not permit the line to be again used at its full 
 length, it should be shortened, to any less length 
 (say 30 or 40 feet), and another and the smallest 
 interior space (D) marked around.* Next, the 
 plough should mark a line from each of the angles 
 
 * The engraver of the diagram has made it very incorrect 
 ^in not having the marked lines parallel to each other through- 
 out each of the several cuts — as is described above, and as 
 the drawing also required,— E. R. 
 
 I of the inner space through the corresponding an- 
 gles to the outer boundary, as the dotted lines are 
 I placed. The cut is now ready to be ploughed. 
 I The plough is first lun around the small interior 
 i space (D) turning the slices towards the centre, 
 ! And as the furrows in the beginning are very short, 
 I it will be best (to save much trouble in the fre- 
 i quent turning,) not then to use a team of more 
 I than two horses. But as soon as the furrov/s are of 
 j sufficient length, this temporary expedient should 
 i be laid aside, and the larger plough and team suit- 
 j able for the land be used. After a few furrows 
 : are cut around the inside marked circuit, so as 
 I to well designate the outline, then the small inte- 
 I rior space D should be ploughed outward; or any 
 I way will serve. The plough then resumes its pre- 
 I vious place and course, and continues to go around, 
 I and to turn the slices inward. The ploughman, 
 ! in running every furrow should let the plough cut 
 j straight and fully up to and turn at the dotted 
 I lines. This will keep the work right at the an- 
 j gles, in which places it would otherwise be sure 
 ] to get out of order. But with this care, and with 
 cutting all the furrows as straight and as equal as 
 I every ploughman should do, the ploughing will go 
 on as correctly as in any other mode — and with 
 less loss of labor, and with more thorough execu- 
 tion. More thorough, because there will be no 
 unbroken strips left, and only covered, as in all 
 ridge or bed-ploughing — and no unnecessary and 
 barren water-furrows made, where of no use, as 
 in the closing of "lands" in all flush-ploughing. 
 Further — as the ploughman approaches within a 
 few yards of the next marked line, and still more 
 when nearer, he has in that a test and gauge of 
 his previous work, and a sure guide for the next 
 succeeding. Wherever his last cut furrows obvi- 
 ously vary from being parallel to, or of equal dis- 
 tance from, the surrounding and nearest mark, he 
 has but to make the width of his subsequently cut 
 slices to suit and remedy the defects. The dif- 
 ferences of texture or condition of the soil, or of 
 the C(jver of vegetable matter, will cause the 
 plough to gain more in width in some places than 
 in others, if no care is used to prevent. But with 
 the guidance of the parallel lines marking the 
 widths, and the cross-lines indicating the proper 
 points for the angles of the furrows, it will be easy 
 for the ploughman, (or for any number of ploughs 
 following each other on the same cut,) to make 
 even and equal work, and to close at the outside 
 lines, with but little loss of labor in broken fur- 
 rows. It is obvious that the outside boundaries, 
 whether made by ditches, fences, or growing crops 
 on adjacent fields, can be ploughed more nearly to, 
 in this mode, than in any other whatever. 
 
 The ploughs, and the depth of ploughing, may 
 be of any description suitable to the soil. But, 
 for the convenience of reference to eff'ects, I will 
 suppose the operation and conditions to be like 
 my own. In that, the ploughs for breaking up, 
 whether in winter, to prepare rough or grass land 
 for corn, or in summer, to prepare clover (or weed) 
 land for wheat, are drawn by four mules, and usu- 
 ally in easy ground, cut and turn slices 7 to 8 
 inches deep, and 12 to 14 inches wide. 
 
 First, let us consider the operation of the plough- 
 ing, in reference to its great and usually sole ob- 
 ject, that of thoroughly breaking, loosening, sub- 
 verting, and giving tilth to the soil, for sufficient 
 depth, and also burying and covering the vegetable 
 matter which stood on the previous surface. 
 
 The land is supposed (like mine) to have been 
 left (at the previous tillage,) in straight and well- 
 
14 
 
 NEW PLAN FOR PLOUGHING PLAT LAND. 
 
 shaped broad and high beds — say ^5 or 21h feet 
 wide, and about 16 inches of difference of perpen- 
 dicular height between the centre or crown of the 
 bed, and the bottom of the alley. The new plough- 
 ing will necessarily cross t!ie former ploughing, 
 and the beds and alleys, in every variety of direc- 
 tion. In part, the furrows will run in precisely 
 the same direction with the beds and alleys — in 
 part, they will cross at right-angles — and else- 
 where, they will cross diagonally, at angles of 
 every different size. Before trial, I feared great 
 ditFiculties, and especially in ploughing across the 
 beds at right-angles. But, in practice, the ditR- 
 culties were much less than expected — and, on the 
 whole, less than belong to any other and usual 
 mode of ploughing. When ploughing directly 
 across the beds, it is true that the new furrow is 
 of very unequal depths — perhaps 10 inches at the 
 middle of the bed, and barely 1 to 2 inches when 
 crossing the bottoni of the deep and narrow alley. 
 But these very diflerent depths, if something more 
 laborious to the team, are more suitable to the re- 
 quirements of the soil in the extremes of thick- 
 ness, made artificially by the former bedding. The 
 deeper ploughing under the crown of the bed is 
 still the more beneficial, because that place had 
 been broken but imperfectly, or not at all, by the 
 previous ploughings, which raised the bed, and 
 lapped the soil, without breaking it below, at the 
 crowns of the beds. In the alleys, where the new 
 ploughing barelyscraped, the sub-soil had generally 
 been previously reached, in deepening the alleys; 
 and no greater depth of ploughing was needed, 
 inasmuch as the beds are to remain as they were 
 before. When the new ploughing is immediately 
 across the old beds (or at right-angles,) the beds 
 necessarily there retaiu precisely their former po- 
 sition, and, immediately after the new ploughing, 
 appear even higher than before. In the alleys 
 there was so little cutting, and so little of other 
 earth thrown in, that there will be but little earth 
 to clean out, to leave these beds in better shape, as 
 well as in better tilth, than after any former 
 ploughing. 
 
 The advantages of more easily and throughly 
 breaking the ground, and the disadvantages of 
 throwing more of the ploughed soil into the alleys, 
 both increase as the direction is changed to be 
 diagonal — and from diagonal to coinciding with 
 the direction of the alleys. There could be no- 
 thing of this disadvantage (worth consideration) of 
 throwing more earth into the alleys, if every fur- 
 row was of equal depth, whether in the highest or 
 lowest places — or at the crowns of the beds and in 
 the alleys. In that case, wherever any part of a fur- 
 row was opened, it would be filled by the next cut 
 furrow-slice, of precisely equal size. But in prac- 
 tice, the furrow-slices are not of equal thickness 
 whether cut at the crown, or the side of the bed, 
 and in the alley, ( — and they ought not to be 
 equal — ) and therefore the new flush ploughing 
 does operate slightly, to change for the worse, the 
 previous relative positions of the beds. But this 
 change, and damage, is less than is usually made by 
 the careless ploughing of beds, in the same direc- 
 tion, and whether with the design of raising and 
 preserving the same beds, or cleaving and reversing 
 them. After the flush ploughing described, and in 
 every direction, the former alleys are plainly to be 
 distinguished. And, at a proper time and condition 
 of the land, the running of a two-horse plough up 
 and down in each alley, will sweep out cleanly all 
 the loosened earth that would absorb rain-water, 
 and obstruct its discharge, and leave each bed and 
 
 alley in the best designed shape and condition for 
 surface drainage. But this opening of the alleys 
 cannot be well done immediately after the plough- 
 ing of each cut, -nor until rain shall have fallen, 
 and dried off, so that the loose and turfy earth has 
 been somewhat consolidated. In the interval be- 
 tween the ploughing and the subsequent opening of 
 the former alleys, t!ie only evil and danger of the 
 plan may occur, in the fall of so much rain that it 
 will be long befjre the then water-glutted alleys 
 will be fit for the plough; and when, consequently, 
 great damage will be caused by this long water- 
 soak. ng of the earth in the alleys. Every care 
 should be used to prevent this evil. 
 
 This manner of ploughing should be used cer- 
 tainly for every winter ploughing, (to prepare for 
 corn,) and it may be for any other time when the 
 farmer is sure of being able to complete any one 
 cut, before being stopped in any part of it by hard- 
 ness of the soil caused by drought. On this ac- 
 count, it may be too hazardous to resort to this 
 kind of ploughing, in summer, when " fallowing," 
 or ploughing grass land to prepare for wheat. 
 Except for this danger of being stopped by drought, 
 summer would be the best time for ihe operation, 
 as there would be then no danger of damage to 
 the land from the occurrence of saturating and 
 injurious rains, while the alleys were still partially 
 choked by loose earth. 
 
 So much in regard to the effects of this mode of 
 ploughing or tilth, and as affecting the preserva- 
 tion of the former bedding. Next I will describe 
 the much more important effects and the main ob- 
 ject, in aid of surface-drainage. While the plough- 
 ing will be as cheap, and more effectual, as plough- 
 ing merely, it will at the same time, and with no 
 more expense, greatly aid the other and proper 
 labors for the most effectual surface drainage. 
 
 In general terms, the effect of every such plough- 
 ing is to remove the entire surface-soil, to the 
 depth ploughed, from the out-side towards the 
 centre, as much as the width of the furrow-slices. 
 The amount of earth thus removed is enormous. 
 It is dug and removed by the cheapest possible im- 
 plement and process — and even this labor costs 
 nothing for draining, in as much as it is required 
 for and compensated as necessary tillage. As each 
 furrow-slice removed is replaced by another, there 
 will be but very little (and unappreciable) effect 
 in altering the general level of each cut. But the 
 effect will be considerable, at the outside furrow, 
 even at the first operation — and still more and 
 more at every subsequent ploughing, so long as it 
 ma}^ be expedient to continue the same manner of 
 ploughing, for furthering the same object. 
 
 If ttie f^urrows were cut equal, with perfect ac- 
 curacy, the results might be exhibited to the eye 
 and understanding with geometrical exactness and 
 force. And this can still be done, with due allow- 
 ances for the imperfection of practical operations 
 compared to theory. But to some extent, practice 
 in this case may even surpass the theory stated. 
 For, while the latter supposes equal dimensions of 
 furrow-slices throughout each cut, in practice, it 
 will be quite easy to cut the i'ew outside slices of 
 greater than the general depth, and so the more to 
 lower the outside margin. There is another thing 
 which will be here mentioned, which should be 
 understood hereafter in every named operation. 
 When a boundary line of a cut is aditch (of the usual 
 steep and irregular sides,) the team cannot safely 
 walk so close to the edge as to plough and turn 
 away all the margin earth. There must be from 
 3 feet to 1 foot left everywhere uncut (according 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 15 
 
 to the depth or irregularity of tlic side of the ditch) 
 which earth will require to be dug and pulled 
 back by hand-hoes, which thus perform what 
 the plough cannot do at first. This hoe-'\?'ork-, 
 being always understood, and always required in 
 aid of any manner of ploughing, (and much less in 
 this than any other,) need not again be referred 
 to. And the cutting to the edge of the ditch will 
 be supposed to be effected by the plougii, though 
 always (for the earlier work) requiring to be 
 finished by hand-hoes. 
 
 Then the effect of the first ploughing on this 
 plan, by a four-hors'; plough, will be to remove 
 the whole surface-soil, for 8 inches deep, a fur- 
 row's width, (say 14 inches) in the directions from 
 the outside to the centre. And the outside fur- 
 row-slice, or earth of the dimensions stated, will 
 be removed entirely and permanently from its for- 
 mer position — and its equivalent quantity distri- 
 buted over the interior or central space of the cut. 
 This operation will lower the margin of the boun- 
 dary ditches or grips, 8 inches deep, and for a 
 width of ]4 inches. When the like ploughing has 
 been done on the adjoining cut, (E) and to the 
 other side of the grip a, a, the furrow-slices would 
 thus be removed from both sides of the old'grip, 
 and nearly as deep. A furrow then run along its 
 course, and back in the same track, would deepen 
 the grip, partly fill and slope tlie borders, and thus, 
 •while the grip would be made deeper and better 
 for drainage, it could be less an impediment to 
 tillage, and less liable to be entirely filled with 
 earth by being plouglied across. When the like 
 ploughing is subsequently repeated, another fur- 
 row-slice is removed from the outsides of the 
 cuts, and so much a more gentle slope is given to 
 the grip. Then, and thereafter, the plough will 
 be sufficient to clean the loose earth out of the 
 grips. If more depth is desired, it can be given in 
 closing the ordinary ploughing. And even if made 
 of double the former depth, so wide and so gentle 
 will be the slope of the margins, that the grip will 
 present no serious obstacle to the crossing of 
 ploughs, in any direction, of carts, or even of the 
 passage, at work, of reaping machines. 
 
 The same operation of lowering and sloping off 
 the margins of the deeper rain-ditches would be 
 proceeding in the like manner, and would only re- 
 quire longer time to approach or perhaps reach, 
 the same good results. Even the deepest stream 
 ditches would be much improved, in their surface- 
 drainage operation ; and their obstruction to tillage 
 and to other team labors be greatly diminished. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES OF LOWER VIRGIIVIA 
 AND IVORTH CAROLIM. 
 
 BY EDMUND RUFFIM. 
 
 I. General remarks. The public but slightly in- 
 formed of the region in question, and especially with 
 lower Morth Carolina in general. 
 
 The eastern portion of North Carolina presents 
 a large region, of remarkable features, topogra- 
 phical, geological, and agricultural. The enclosed 
 broad sounds, and other waters, are not less in- 
 teresting, for their recent and great changes; and, 
 
 besides, they have been the scenes of some of the 
 minor but romantic and interesting incidents of 
 history. Into iioanoke Sound, by the then broad 
 open passage from the ocean, which is now dyked 
 across by dry land, Sir Walter Raleigh's ships en- 
 tered, and on Roanoke Island they planted the 
 first, though but ineffectual, settlement of British 
 colonists in America. In another portion of these 
 now almost land-locked Avaters, there occurred 
 many of the acts of Teache, or Blackboard, the 
 celebrated pirate, and finally, the naval engage- 
 ment in which he was defeated and killed. It the 
 lands of this region were even worthless, for agri- 
 cultural and economical uses, they would deserve 
 and rev/ard the investigations of the exploring and 
 laborious geologist; and if destitute of all scien- 
 tific interest, they would deserve far more atten- 
 tion than ever has been bestowed on them, for their 
 peculiarities of agricultural character, and capa- 
 bilities for high improvement and profit. Yet, 
 there is no equal space of territory in all the 
 States of the American Union that has been so 
 little visited or seen by other than its residents, 
 and of which the character and values have been 
 so little noticed or known. It is rare that any 
 stranger enters this terra incognita. And even of 
 the residents of other parts of North Carolina, of 
 the class inclined and accustomed to travel for 
 business or pleasure, where one such has seen this 
 portion of their own country, one hundred have 
 visited the remote States of the North or South, 
 or West. 
 
 The region here referred to, except as to the 
 line of sea-shore, has no exact geographical limits — 
 or at least there is no present information upon 
 which to designate the extreme southern and the 
 whole western boundary. I would include all of 
 the low-lying and very level land, which is the 
 universal character of all the coast lands, of North 
 Carolina, and for a breadth of two to five or more 
 counties westward. As soon as the surface begins 
 to lose its apparent almost perfect level, and to 
 swell perceptibly into rising slopes, there should 
 be placed the western or upper boundar)' of the 
 low and flat region which is here referred to gene- 
 rally. The same character of country extends 
 northward to the Chesapeake bay and its lowest 
 western affluent rivers; and how far south of North 
 Carolina I am not sufficiently informed to say. In 
 addition to the one universal feature of low and 
 level surface of the highest and firmest lands, it is 
 much intersected by narrow strips of lower and 
 swampy but also firm ground; and, also, immense 
 spaces are occupied by large and boggy swamps, 
 which were"" impassable, and almost impenetrable 
 by man, until his improvements and labors had pro- 
 duced artificial passage-ways. 
 
 This great region ati'ords sundry somewhat con- 
 nected, but yet substantive subjects, for separate 
 treatment. Such are the now cultivated land and 
 its agricultural condition, and the improvements 
 most needed — description of the great swamps, and 
 such agricultural improvements as have been there 
 made — the geological origin and structure of the 
 different great classes of lands — notices of the 
 ocean sand-beach, and the enclosed sounds, and 
 other navigable waters, and the changes that have 
 occurred in both, &c. Some others, or perhaps 
 all, of these several divisions of the whole great 
 subject may be hereafter discussed. For the pre- 
 sent, I will confine myself to sketch the agricul- 
 tural features, condition, wants, (and errors of 
 culture,) and capabilities of the particular and 
 peculiar agricultural region which lies between 
 
16 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 the Chesapeake bay and Hampton roads and Nan- 
 semond river, on the north, the ocean on the east, 
 and Albemarle sound on tlie south. On the west, 
 the outline would include all the Dismal Swamp. 
 But all the gryat space, and the circui^stances of 
 that swamp proper, will be passed over now, to be 
 resumed and considered in another and substantive 
 article. The further extension of the western 
 boundary would include the lower Chowan, and 
 the basin of the lower Roanoke. The area desig- 
 nated includes some of the oldest agricultural set- 
 tlements and oldest towns, and'- (on the Roanoke 
 especially) some of the richest lands on our Atlan- 
 tic border. It is also intersected by sundry lines 
 of public travel, and some of which (the land and 
 water steam-lines to Norfolk) have long been used 
 by numerous passengers. Still, all these circiim- 
 stances do not make this particular agricultural 
 district an exception to the general rule or condi- 
 tion of all the great low-land region, of being un- 
 seen, unknown, and little appreciated by strangers. 
 Of the many thousands of travellers who visit, or 
 pass through, Norfolk or Portsmouth, on the great 
 routes, scarcely one ever treads the soil, except in 
 the towns — or ever sees any of the lands of the 
 country, except in the rapidly changing glimpses 
 afforded from a steam-car, or the more distant and 
 uncertain views from a steam-vessel. Princess 
 Anne county, which reaches within three miles of 
 Norfolk, and Norfolk county, lie wholly in the 
 designated section; and these counties, out of the 
 towns, are as little known to the residents of ail 
 other parts of Virginia, as any counties west of 
 the Alleghany mountains. Yet, within the heart 
 of one of these counties, and within a few miles 
 of the other, are the important towns of Norfolk 
 and Portsmouth, and the noblest harbor, and one 
 of the most important Government dock-yards and 
 naval stations, of the United States. And the 
 country has been as little appreciated as it was 
 little known; and even by its residents, until re- 
 cently, and by those v/ho knew it best, as well as 
 by strangers, who had only heard it spoken of and 
 described in the most contemptuous epithets. And, 
 though recent improvements of prices of lands, 
 and in fewer and more remarkable cases, of pro- 
 ducts and profits, and still more, and longer, in 
 some of the North Carolina counties, indicate 
 much actual improvement and higher apprecia- 
 tion, still very few, even of the most intelligent 
 proprietors, are yet fully aware of the true and 
 great wants of their lands, and their great capa- 
 bility for improvement. Proper drainage alone 
 would double the productive value and the profits 
 of the whole great area of what is usually con- 
 sidered the now dry land, and of the firm and par- 
 tially drained swamps. In addition to the pecu- 
 liar grounds for agricultural improvement and 
 profit in the land itself, no known region possesses 
 such great facilities for navigation, and for choice 
 of markets. And, in every respect, no where is 
 there a region where agricultural improvement is 
 more needed, and is more available, and offers 
 more prospective profit; and no where have the 
 great advantages offered by Nature been more 
 neglected, or seem to be less known. 
 
 For the present, my remarks on this region will 
 be applied especially and particularly to the por- 
 tion lying east of Perquimons river. My personal 
 observations did not, at first, extend farther west; 
 and much of whatever may be here said of the 
 country extending beyond Perquimons, and inclu- 
 ding the lower Roanoke valley, will be on report 
 deemed entirely reliable. 
 
 II. Peculiar characters of the low-lands, in surface 
 and qualities of soil. 
 
 The most striking feature of this firm low-land 
 region, is its very low and level surface. Large 
 bodies, say of 1,000 acres or more together, are 
 more uniformly level than any as large spaces of 
 alluvial, or other bottom land, on any of the great 
 rivers of Virginia Such bottom-land as borders 
 the Pamunkey river, for example, might be called 
 undulating, compared to the general greater flat- 
 ness of the whole great region under considera- 
 tion. The numerous smaller swamps, interspersed, 
 (wliicli receive and conduct off the overflowing 
 surface water,) are, usually, not much lower than 
 the adjacent highest ground. So far as the eye 
 would indicate, changes of level of even so much 
 as a foot of difterence, can rarely be perceived, 
 except in the swamps and depressions which con- 
 vey the rivers and smaller streams, or temporary 
 rain-floods. But changes of level which are barely 
 perceptible to the eye, are usually made abun- 
 dantly distinct by the gathering of water on the 
 sliglitly depressed surfaces, which serve to make 
 the numerous swamps of firm soil. A stranger, if 
 travelling tlirough the country in any and different 
 directions, might suppose that the surface of the 
 land was nowhere higher than ten feet above ordi- 
 nary high tide, or the usual height of the naviga- 
 ble and level waters; but the real heights are 
 greater than would thus appear to the eye. In the 
 interior of Princess Anne county, at Level Green, 
 (the farm of Edward H. Herbert, Esq.,) where 
 the surface seems to the eye as low as any — the 
 elevation, as determined by levelling instruments, 
 is about twenty-one feet above tide. Still, the va- 
 riations of surface-level are so gradual, (except as 
 to the beds of water-courses,) that it is often diffi- 
 cult, if not impossible, to reach any outlet for 
 drainage of a few feet of fall, without conveying 
 the water by a ditcli of some miles in length, and 
 through as high, or higher ground. This feature 
 of the surface presents the greatest impediment to 
 the drainage of the interior lands, and especially 
 upon the ordinary method of mere surface drain- 
 age, by open and shallow ditches. 
 
 But with all the slight undulations of surface 
 levels, there is nothing to obstruct the view, except 
 the standing crops and fences on the farms, and 
 the trees on swamp or other forest lands. Except 
 for these obstructions, any object of the size of a 
 man, or horse, could be seen over miles of inter- 
 vening space and distance. In all the great area 
 now under consideration, there is not (native to 
 the locality) a stone, or even a small pebble; and, 
 in few cases, but a little of small gi'avel.* The 
 soils vary, in different places, between open and 
 light sandy loam, and very close compact gray 
 clay (so-called;) or, perhaps, more correctly, ex- 
 tremely close and compact soil and subsoil, com- 
 posed mostly of the minutest particles of sand, and 
 which, therefore, are stiffer, closer, and more in- 
 tractable under cultivation than the finest or true 
 clay elsewhere. Of such red and yellow clays as 
 make many of the best soils and subsoils of the 
 upper country, (above the falls, or among the 
 mountains,) none are seen here. 
 
 * There may be, and probably are exceptions, as higher in 
 the tide-water region, in some coarse and imperfect sand- 
 stone, recently formed, by ferruginous spring-water filtrating 
 through coarse sand, and, in the course of time, cementing 
 with a deposit of iron the before separate and loose grains 
 of sand. There are many such recent formations of this 
 stone. 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 17 
 
 III. Peculiar characters of the rivers, and the many 
 Jit for navigation. 
 
 The water-'courses are numerous, and many of 
 them are deep enough to be navigated by sea-ves- 
 sels. In some of the smaller rivers, in parts too 
 narrow and crooked for the ordinary small vessels 
 to turn about or to pass each other when meeting, 
 there is enough depth of water to float a ship. A 
 glance at this section on a large map of North 
 Carolina will show the great number and close 
 neighborhood of these rivers which flow, nearly 
 parallel to each other, into the northern side of 
 Albemarle Sound. The lower parts of these rivers, 
 where of widths, severally, from one to five miles, 
 are more properly estuaries or large creeks, (in 
 the proper sense of that word, and not as usually 
 misapplied,) kept full by the refluent water of Al- 
 bemarle Sound — ^just as they would be, and to 
 nearly equal height, if there was no other supply 
 of water from head-springs or rain-floods. But 
 even as ascending these rivers, and after they are 
 contracted to very narrow widths, and, as appear- 
 ing on the map, the upper channels might be 
 inferred to be merely shallow and insignificant 
 streams, they are, in fact, deep, though narrow 
 rivers, of level and slow-moving water, and con- 
 tinuing deep almost to their visible head-sources; 
 and otf'er good facilities for navigation to such ex- 
 tent, in number and in length of rivers and their 
 sundry branches, that one-half of them are super- 
 fluous, and, therefore, are not put to use. If any 
 obstructions exist, they are made merely by trees 
 fallen across, and are easily removed. The whole 
 country, and especially from Perquimons county 
 to Currituck Sound, is pervaded by broad and deep 
 estuaries near to the sound; and their head-waters, 
 extending near or into the Dismal Swamp, make, 
 with their many branches, a net-work of natural 
 still-water canals, narrow and crooked, indeed, 
 but as deep, as smooth, and as sluggish as artificial 
 canals, and, free from the changes of levels and 
 the obstruction of lock-gates, which accompany 
 the benefits of canal navigation. Most of these 
 rivers receive their head waters from the Dismal 
 Swamp or other swamps. The water of all is 
 black as seen in the rivers, and the color of brandy 
 or Madeira wine as seen in a glass, being tiius 
 deeply colored, as are all the swamp waters, by 
 the vegetable extractive matters in and on the 
 boggy swamp soils. This discoloration is not en- 
 tirely lost in the salt tide-water of Elizabeth river, 
 at Norfolk, nor in Currituck Sound; where nine 
 miles wide, below the former (and now closed) 
 Currituck inlet, which, not many years ago ad- 
 mitted deep sea-vessels. 
 
 In travelling along the public road from Eliza- 
 beth City, North Carolina, to Currituck Court- 
 House, within the distance of seven miles, we 
 passed four navigable water-courses, including the 
 Pasquotank and two of its brandies. Three of 
 these had draw-bridges for the passage of masted 
 sea-vessels. The fourth stream had no draw- 
 bridge, because it was not needed in such close 
 vicinity to others; and, also, becaus<', though this 
 branch had abundant depth and an open channel 
 for sea-vessels, it was so narrow and crooked that 
 the banks and trees standing on the borders would 
 entirely obstruct the masts and yards. Such great 
 and numerous natural facilities for navigation, as 
 in the many rivers of this region, are unequalled; 
 and they are exceedeil by the aid of art, only in 
 the canal navigation of the Dutch Netherlands. 
 
 IV. General want of drainage and of proper views 
 on the subject. 
 
 C 
 
 Level as is the general surface, and slight the 
 variations of height, m adjacent spaces of all the 
 peninsula between the waters of the Chesapeake 
 and Albemarle, still there are frequent slight 
 changes; and these, more than great changes else- 
 where, are marked by consequent differences of 
 character. Every farm of a few hundred acres 
 has some of its surface of swamp, and usually un- 
 drained. What is called high or dry land is, in- 
 deed, the highest and dryest, but mostly still and 
 always suffering more or less for want of sufficient 
 drainage. The parts which may be only from 
 two to three feet lower than the neighboring 
 highest surfaces, are, because of the depression 
 only, swamps of wet though firm ground. These 
 swamps are very generally of firm soil, and the 
 boggy swamps are of entirely different materials 
 and formation. In all this flat country there are 
 very few springs showing at the surface, and but 
 rarely any springy or oozy places. The water 
 and the wetness of the numerous smaller swamps 
 are due entirely to rains. On the higher spots, or 
 larger high spaces, the early settlements were all 
 made, and tillage has there been continued, with 
 but little respite, to this time. The intermixed 
 lower lands, or smaller swamps, were deemed 
 worthless, and their culture was rarely attempted 
 until within recent times. Yet, even with the 
 imperfect superficial drainage which only is in 
 use, these swamp lands are found to be best, and 
 of fertility rarely exceeded anywhere. Some of 
 this firm swamp, in Perquimons, of which Mr. J. 
 T. Granberry's estate in part is composed, and 
 which but lately has been drained or brought un- 
 der cultivation, he bought lately, at |55 the acre, 
 unreclaimed. A highly intelligent neighbor told 
 me that he remembered when the same land could 
 not have been sold for 75 cents the acre, and was 
 deemed of no value whatever for tillage. 
 
 The soils and also the subsoils vary in texture 
 from moderately light to extremely stiff, close, 
 impervious (now) to the descent of water, and re- 
 markably intractable under tillage, and almost 
 always either too wet or too dry for good plough- 
 ing, even under good farmers. Under the worst 
 cultivators such soils are sometimes mud or mire, 
 and sometimes of clods almost as hard as brick- 
 bats. These soils are general or common in Per- 
 quimons only. Yet, on good farms, of this very 
 difficult soil, there are seen the best (and excel- 
 lent) crops of wheat, and other best crops, of all 
 the counties on the sound. The greatest drainage 
 labors and most of the best farmers and best cul- 
 tivation are also in that county; yet even there, 
 and though many of the ditches are of great size 
 and the drainage labors are remarkable for their 
 extent and cost, still, almost every where, the 
 tilled land is but partially and insufficiently drained. 
 On much the larger portion, perhaps nineteen- 
 twentieths of all the cultivated and even highest 
 surface of the whole region, the drainage is much 
 worse and still more insufficient. 
 
 V. The true principle of drainage for this region 
 and the geological facts on ichich the principle is 
 founded. 
 
 The great error of the method of drainage, 
 general in all this region, is that the drains or 
 ditches are designed, and only operate, to draw 
 the superfluous and, therefore, injurious rain-water 
 from and over the surface. The principle 1 would 
 propose to substitute, is to draw off (and keep 
 drawn off) the water which is in excess, some feet 
 below and up to the surface, and by thus removing 
 the before constant saturation or glut of the lower 
 
18 
 
 DRAINAGE . 
 
 earth, to permit tlie excess of falling rain to sink 
 into the lower earth, and thence pass off below 
 instead of being kept on and near the surface, as 
 now and heretofore, until it either can flow ofi' on 
 the surface to ditches, or is evaporated. Both the 
 existing error and the evil eliects and also the 
 benefit of the proposed substituted plan are de- 
 pendent; on the geological structure of the land, 
 and especially of its inferior beds. But, in ad- 
 vance of all description and reasoning as to the 
 causes of the supposed existing phenomena and of 
 tracmg the effects in reference to draining, I will 
 simply assume the truih of the great and all-im- 
 portant fact on which my plan and reasoning are 
 founded. 'J'his fact is, that the whole of this low 
 and flat country, at some few feet below the sur- 
 face, (within the extreme limits of from 2 to 8 
 feet, and more generally from 3 to 5 feet,) has 
 underlying it a bed of pure sand which, at least in 
 all wet seasons, is glutted with water from its 
 bottom to its top. This fact is unquestionable, 
 and may be tested easily by every proprietor. 
 But I have to infer, from the geological structure 
 of the region and on reasoning, which would re- 
 quire too much space to state here, the further 
 fact, that this underlying bed of water-glutted 
 saud is nearly horizontal, but, like the overlying 
 earth and its surface, has a gentle and general 
 dip or declination toward the seacoast, or in a 
 southeasterly direction. 
 
 As to the general presence of the sand-bed, it 
 is proved by every well that is dug, and not only 
 here, but in much higher localities of the tide- 
 water region. In the higher country, and at 
 higher levels of surface, the sand-bed lies deeper; 
 and also, there, generally, its upper part is dry, 
 (or without water,) though, by digging deeper, the 
 lower sand, there also, is always found filled (but 
 not surcharged) with water. A like bed of sand 
 underlies most, or all of the bottom or low land, 
 along the rivers in the higher tide-water counties 
 in Virginia; and, as I infer from but limited per- 
 sonal observations, such sand, with much more 
 regularity of position and operation, underlies the 
 whole superficial lajers of the great low-land re- 
 gion here under consideration. But in these low- 
 lands, the sand-bed is naturally always glutted 
 with water, which water is a source supplying 
 moisture to the overlying earth, and also, by be- 
 ing already as full of water as it can be; the 
 glutted sand-bed is an effectual barrier to the de- 
 scent of more rain-water from the surface of the 
 land. This sand-bed is, therefore, the great cause 
 of the existing wetness of the upper beds, and 
 surface soil, and the reason why the usual surface- 
 draining is so imperfect in operation. And the 
 same feature offers the manner and means for 
 effectual drainage. 
 
 Of course, very few particular facts, and in 
 narrow spaces, have been learned from my own 
 personal observations in this low country. But I 
 had previously discovered the underlying and also 
 water glutted sand-bed, (concealed from all pre- 
 vious knowledge, as a general fact,) below the 
 broad bottom lands of my own farm on the Pamun- 
 key river, (in Hanover county, Virginia,) and had 
 long studied its effects; and in reference to it, 
 had devised, and conducted successfully, extensive 
 draining labors. At first, I had supposed this re- 
 markable and then newly discovered feature to be 
 peculiar to the particular locality of my own 
 farm; but in the progress of my draining opera- 
 tions, and the necessary study of the whole sub- 
 ject, and the true principles of drainage, I came 
 
 to infer, that the same feature, of an underlying 
 sand-bed, belongs to the whole of the lands of our 
 great tide-water region, and that this sand-bed, 
 where dipping lowest, and glutted with water, 
 was the great cause of the evil of excessive wet- 
 ness of the lowlying soils above. I felt so confi- 
 dent of the correctness of my deductions, that it 
 induced me at the first time of leisure, to visit the 
 region in question, to seek and to find the facts to 
 confirm and to sustain my theoretical views. And 
 before my first visit to this country, I offered to a 
 friend, residmg therein, advice for the proper 
 drainage of his farm (by seeking for and tapping 
 the glutted sand-bed,) which he acted upon to some 
 extent, and found therein the precise effects and 
 all the benefit that could have been expected from 
 his limited first operations on this new principle. 
 
 To obtain numerous evidences of the very gene- 
 ral existence and position of the sand-bed, it was 
 not required for me to dig or bore into the under 
 beds, or even to see the surface of every locality. 
 Every farm house is supplied with water by one 
 or more wells, and these numerous, previously, 
 and long used wells, go far to supply all the facts 
 required. Whether the sand-bed exists, and near 
 enough to the surface to effect its natural drainage, 
 may be learned usually from inquiries about the 
 wells, their depths, and the causes of the varying 
 quantities of their supply of water. From even 
 but a few such examples, and applying thereto my 
 general views derived from practice and experience 
 of draining in far distant localities, I was confirmed 
 in the general opinions previously formed, in ad- 
 vanceof all personal observation. The conclusions 
 thus reached, and for which I will proceed to argue 
 for the conviction of others, may be thus stated; 
 that nearly all the higher and firm, as well as the 
 lower lands, lying between the Chesapeake and 
 Albemarle Sound, are rendered and kept too wet, 
 not (as universally alleged,) because the soils or 
 their under beds are of too close texture to per- 
 mit the superfluous rain-water to siptk, and so be 
 discharged by percolation; but because the under- 
 lying sand-bed is already surcharged with water, 
 and by its supplying moisture upward, rsnders the 
 moist earth incapable of drinking up more water 
 from above. 
 
 In the upper and middle ranges of the tide-water 
 counties of Virginia, the reaching the sand-bed, 
 and its being dry when reached, are essential con- 
 ditions to the construction of a good ice-house — 
 the dry sand bottom serving immediately to absorb, 
 and convey away, by downward filtration, all the 
 water formed by the melting of the ice. This is 
 the operation of the principle of drainage of the 
 higher beds, by the agency of a dry (or drained) 
 upper layer of the sand-bed below. It is also es- 
 sential to the utility of every well, that it should 
 be sunk through the upper and dry layer (if there 
 be such) of the sand-bed, and into the water- 
 glutted lower part, for the purpose of its furnish- 
 ing a permanent supply of water. And if, as gene- 
 rally in the flat low country, the sand-bed is full 
 of water to its top, (unless after long droughts,) 
 and is so surcharged that the water is pressed up- 
 ward , then , in wells there dug, not only would water 
 be obtained as soon as the sand-bed was reached, 
 but the water would rise still higher, and even near 
 to the surface of the land in very wet seasons. 
 Thus, every well in this low country may afford 
 evidence of the existence, height, and character 
 of the sand-bed at its top, and also the height to 
 which water will rise therefrom, and how near 
 the surface of the land the upper bed must be in- 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 19 
 
 juriously affected by tlie vvaler glut below, and 
 whether permanently, or but for the times of wet- 
 test seasons. Hence, it follows, that little as has 
 heretofore been noticed, or thought of, in regard 
 to these important facts, and the more important 
 deductions from them, and few as are the residents 
 who have thought at all on these particular points, 
 it is only necessary for farmers and thinking men 
 to reflect upon, and apply the facts they already 
 know, to be assured of the true principle and me- 
 thod of drainage for their land, which will now 
 be more fully explained and argued. 
 
 VI. The underlying sand-bed and its opposite opera- 
 tions in regard to draining. 
 
 Whether the underlying sand is of one continuous 
 bed connected throughout, or broken, or separated, 
 is not important. It is enough that it is general, 
 and nowhere known to be wanting. Neitlier is its 
 general thickness known, nor is its bottom but 
 rarely accessible or known. But it is certain that 
 this sand-bed lies upon some lower bed, impenetra- 
 ble to water from above; and which bed, in many 
 known cases, is marl. But whatever may be the 
 lower bed or its texture, the sand-bed itself, however 
 open and loose in texture, if already glutted with 
 water, is incapable of receiving more. Therefore, 
 there is no layer of earth so impenetrable by wa- 
 ter, as any earth, and even sand, already full of 
 water; and, in less degree, all dampness or mois- 
 ture of the underlying bed of earth is so much im- 
 pediment to the reception of rain-water from above. 
 The following rough figure will serve to exhibit a 
 profile or section of the supposed strata of the low- 
 lands; but to render the differences of level appa- 
 rent to the eye, it is necessary greatly to increase 
 the thickness of the strata, and the rate of their 
 dip, in the figure, exceeding the natural and actual 
 conditions. 
 
 S. E. N. W. 
 
 Suppose this figure to represent the surface soil, 
 (a 6,) and also the inferior beds, all dipping very 
 gradually, (and very much less than in the figure,) 
 from northwest to southeast, or in the direction 
 from the falls of the rivers towards the ocean. 
 The finely dotted line, c d, indicates the horizontal 
 level. The upper bed, next below the surface soil 
 (1,) let us first suppose here to be clayey, or of 
 close texture, and not readily permeable by water. 
 The next below is the sand-bed, which is wholly 
 glutted with water, or partly dry (at top,) accord- 
 ing to its level, or dip, or the variable supply of 
 water, and its manner of discharge. The next 
 bed, (3,) is of marl, or other impermeable earth, 
 or otherwise, from its constant wetness, incapable 
 of receiving more water from above. 
 
 Now, of all the excess of rain-water that falls 
 on the whole surface of the tide-water region, (as 
 everywhere else,) part flows off over the surface 
 of the land, and of that which remains, part is 
 
 sooner or later evaporated, and part sinks as low 
 as it can be admitted into, or absorbed by the 
 lower earth. The greater discharge of rain-wa- 
 ter by its flowing off will be on hilly surfaces, and 
 soils of close and com|)act texture. The greater 
 discharge by downward percolation, or filtration, 
 will be on the most sandy or porous earth, (if dry 
 before and to enough depth, and the more so if on 
 level surfaces. Whatever water is not t'aken off 
 by these two modes, can be removed only by eva- 
 poration, and until so removed, the remaining ex- 
 cess of water must saturate the soil, if not cover 
 it in part, in stagnant pools, and, for the time, de- 
 stroy its productive power, and prevent all proper 
 tillage labors. Every transient occurrence of such 
 wet condition must be injurious to tillage lands, 
 and the frequent occurrence of such conditions, 
 even if each one be transient, is enough to render 
 even rich arable land of very little value. 
 
 Of the rain-water that falls on the higher lands 
 (at and above «,) and that sinks into the earth 
 below, and which is too much to be held absorbed 
 by the next beds, (1,) the excess must sink still 
 lower, and go to supply or to surcharge the sand- 
 bed (2,) below. And all the water in that bed, 
 whether filling it wholly, or only its lower portion, 
 would be slowly but continually pressing laterally 
 in the direction of the dip, (towards e.) to seek 
 (and find, ultimately,) a long delayed discharge in 
 the lower channels of rivers. Although the beds 
 of earth may be nearly horizontal, the slightest 
 degree of their general dipping must induce the 
 operation stated. Thus, the supply of water to 
 glut the sand-bed is not only increased by rain- 
 water fallen immediately above, and over porous 
 upper beds, (at 1,) but also another and continuous 
 supply is pressing on laterally, derived from higher 
 levels of the sand-bed (2,) and from rains that fell 
 many miles distant, on the higher country. And 
 therefore, while the upper layer of the sand-bed 
 in the higher country, (or temporarily in the 
 lower country,) may be left dry, (as represented 
 above the level of the dotted line at c,) at the 
 lower level of the same sand-bed, and at the same 
 time, it will be necessarily surcharged with water, 
 which, not finding sufficient discharge in its gra- 
 dualand slow descent along the dip of the bed, 
 presses with all the weight of its higher-lying 
 water in every direction, and not only downward 
 and laterally, but also upward. This is evident 
 even to the eye. For if the water received partly 
 on a higher and distant surface, (near to and also 
 far north westward of a,) serves to keep the water 
 in the sand-bed no higher (at any one time) than 
 the horizontal line at c, it will still fill the Avhole 
 depth of the sand-bed as descending farther east- 
 ward. As the sand-bed dips, the water confined 
 therein (by the higher bed being but lightly per- 
 meable,) would be pressed by the weight of the 
 higher and remote water (rising to c,) and, by a 
 well known law of hydrostatics, would rise as high 
 as the line c, if having an upward vent. And pre- 
 cisely such a vent is afforded by a well, sunk at lo, 
 in which the water reached in the sand-bed (2) 
 will rise to the level of d c, or as high as may there 
 be the then height of the supply of water near to 
 c. Thus, in nearly every well in this low-land re- 
 gion, the water usually rises above the sand-bed 
 which yielded the water; and after great falls of 
 rain, or long continued wetness of the earth, the 
 water supplied by percolation only, and mainly 
 from a distance, rises much higher than usual, 
 and, in some cases, to within one or two feet of 
 the surface of the land. 
 
20 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 So far, for more clear explanation, it has been 
 supposed that the higher bed, (1.) was more or less 
 impervious, and so served to confine in the lower 
 sand-bed its water, and greatly to resist and im- 
 pede its escape by upward discharge. But if, as 
 is more general, the higher bed (1) is of texture 
 permeable to water, that difference does not mate- 
 rially vary the circumstances as to the need and 
 manner of draining. A pervious upper bed will 
 absorb more freely and speedily all the water that 
 hydrostatic pressure would force upward, so as to 
 leave much less visible results of such pressure in 
 particular places, as in wells and deep ditches. 
 But in either case there would be the same gene- 
 ral evil to the upper earth and surface soil, of 
 moisture derived from below; and the same remedy 
 "required, of discharging the injurious supply of 
 water, by tapping its reservoir below. 
 
 To whatever height the water (proceeding from 
 the sand-bed) can rise in the unobstructed passage 
 afforded by a well, (or an auger hole, bored for 
 trial,) to the same height must there exist the 
 force to raise the water, though more slowly, by 
 filtration, but by the same hydrostatic pressure in 
 all the neighboring ground. The bed of earth 
 lying over the glutted sand may be so close (in its 
 moist condition) as lo be impervious to the descent 
 of rain-water, from the surface, wliich would act 
 only by the pressure of gravity. But scarcely any 
 earth is close enough to prevent the absorption of 
 water, pressed upward by the much stronger force 
 acting on the water confined below. Therefore, 
 even when the sand-bed may be as low as six or 
 eight feet below the surface, and a bed of unusu- 
 ally close texture between, the confined water may 
 be so strongly pressed upward as to reach within 
 two feet of the surface. In such cases injurious 
 moisture will rise still higher, by capillary attrac- 
 tion, and more evidently over sandy than a close 
 sub-soil or under-bed. It is owing to this condi- 
 tion of things, that many spaces, without showing 
 any standing or flowing, or even the slightest 
 oozing water, either at the surface or in shallow 
 ditches, are always damp and cold, produce only 
 aquatic grasses or weeds, and exhibit every indica- 
 tion of wetness except the actual and usual pre- 
 sence of water. But after every rain, and even 
 light rains, water will stand in puddles on such 
 places, if level, even though the soil and sub-soil 
 are sandy and open. For moist sand is soon filled 
 by water to repletion, and wet sand will hold 
 water on its surface like a dish. 
 
 Thus, I infer that the whole of this low land is 
 underlaid by a sand-bed, glutted with water to its 
 top, and which sand-bed is generally so near the 
 surface soil as to affect it injuriously by water from 
 below. But even if this confined water lay too 
 low to affect the surface earth directly, it would 
 do it indirectly, by preventing the rain-water from 
 sinking, and its excess being discharged by down- 
 ward percolation. If the sand-bed below were 
 dry, or always free from water for its upper twelve 
 inches only, (as near c,) that upper layer of dry 
 sand would serve as natural under-draining for all 
 the upper earth. Such is the condition of things 
 under the excellent and dry low grounds of Bran- 
 don, on James river; and such is inferred to be the 
 case with all the similar low lands, which, though 
 level and of stiff soil, require but little draining 
 labors, and can dispense with all under-draining. 
 The upper layer of the universal sand-bed, being 
 there dry, is always ready to receive and to dis- 
 charge below all water smkingfrom above. Thus 
 these fine lands are under-drained by nature. And 
 
 the only reason why that general under-drainage 
 is not perfect in operation, and ample for all wants 
 of tlie land, is that this dry sand is many feet (10 
 to 14) below the surface of the land, and the in- 
 tervening beds are of clayey and compact texture. 
 Even these impediments would not prevent the 
 surface being generally and perfectly dry, if with- 
 out any artificial drainage. But the natural drain- 
 ing process is too slow, and therefore the aid of 
 some surface ditches are there needed to pass off 
 more quickly the temporary rain-floods. 
 
 But when, instead of the upper sand being dry, 
 and so serving to drain the upper beds, the whole 
 sand-bed is full of water, and that water is pressed 
 upward, then all the upper beds are kept more or 
 less wet-or moist, and are thereby rendered unable 
 to receive any more rain-water from above by fil- 
 tration or percolation. The stiffest and closest 
 clay, when dry, is full of minute fissures; if no 
 moister than usual at some feet below a dry sur- 
 face, such clay will absorb water from above, and 
 slowly pass, any excess, by percolation to an ab- 
 sorbent or receiving bed below. But earth made 
 wet or moist by water forced upward from below, 
 whether it be close clay or loose and coarse sand, 
 can receive no more from above, and all excess of 
 rain-water left there in pools must remain until 
 evaporated. 
 
 We may best estimate the enormity of this evil, 
 of the wet earth below preventing the rain-water 
 from sinking, by the condition of the level wood- 
 land still remaining in a state of nature and with- 
 out any aid from ditches. On such land, in wet 
 seasons and usually in every winter and spring, the 
 excess of rain-water remains and covers most of 
 the surface, and in many cases for weeks or 
 months together. This is universally ascribed by 
 the proprietors and neighbors to the soil or its 
 under-earth being too stiff and close to permit the 
 descent of water; and this is held even where the 
 upper bed is open and light enough for any purpose. 
 Now let us proceed to examine the actual remedy 
 or the drainage plan in general use, and its ef- 
 fects, and next the different principle of drainage 
 and method which 1 propose. 
 
 VII. The usual and general plaii of draining and its 
 radical defects. 
 
 The actual plan or system of draining which is 
 in general and approved use in this region is very 
 uniform in the general principle and features, and 
 also very simple. It consists in digging numerous 
 ditches, mostly shallow and small, merely for the 
 purpose of collecting therein and conveying from 
 the field so much of the excess of rain-water as 
 will flow over the surface. These ditches are at 
 various distances, according to the greater or less 
 excess of wetness of the land, and they are of va- 
 rious degrees of imperfect effect, according to 
 their number and depth. But on no farm is this 
 mode of ditching effectual for drainage, and on a 
 few only has it ever approached that desired end, 
 where the ditches were much deeper than usual 
 and great labor has been bestowed, though on an 
 erroneous system. 
 
 The numerous swamps, so-called, or spaces, 
 either broad or narrow, a little more depressed or 
 level than the adjacent ground, serve to afford 
 ground for outlets in deep and large ditches acting 
 as main water-carriers through these swamps to 
 some one of the numerous rivers or deep creeks 
 with which the whole counti^y is intersected. Some 
 of these deep and main discharging ditches may 
 severally receive the waters from two or three 
 different farms and properties, and extend for 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 21 
 
 miles before reacliiiig the final outlet. Still, bji 
 combined effort for the common benefit, these 
 longest ditches may be made ciieaply enough for 
 their object, and may be made deep enough to suit 
 for any system of drainage. 
 
 Supposing that a proper outlet has been secured 
 through which to discharge the water into the 
 river, then each farmer next proceeds to dig the 
 receiving smaller ditches to collect the excess of 
 rain-water from the field. In most cases the farms 
 are so level that the ditches may be laid off in al- 
 most any direction, and usually they are made to 
 coincide with the cardinal points of the compass, 
 or otherwise made parallel with, or perpendicular 
 to some road or other straight and long outline of 
 the field. As the most laborious, and also the 
 most perfect draining on this plan, and on the 
 stiffest soil, is seen in Perquimons county, the ope- 
 rations there will be held especially in view in the 
 following description: 
 
 In beginning a large drainage operation, or in 
 renewing and substituting a former irregular and 
 imperfect laying off, the main ditch of the field or 
 farm is first dug to discharge into some common 
 main water-carrier, or other deep outlet. But so 
 uniform is the general level and shape of surface, 
 that the required main drtch can usually be made 
 straight, and to agree, in the preferred manner, 
 with the other smaller ditches, and with the direc- 
 tion of the ploughing. Into the "main" and 
 decf)est ditch, (usually 3 to 4 feet deep,) and at 
 right-angles to it, and 1,000 feet apart, the pa- 
 rallel "leading" ditches enter, which are 2 to 3 
 feet deep. Then crossing the last, and parallel to 
 the main ditch, and 150 feet apart, (on some farms, 
 only 125 feet,) are dug narrow "tap-ditches," 18 
 or 20 inches deep, and which empty, at both ends, 
 into the "leading ditches." The land is tilled in 
 five feet beds, laid off parallel with the smallest or 
 tap ditches. Still, all these ditches, with the nar- 
 row beds and their alleys, (on water-furrows,) are 
 deemed insufficient to carry off the excess of rain- 
 water, without the further aid of "hoe-furrows," 
 which are opened first by a plough, and afterwards 
 cleaned out by hand-hoes after every ploughing of 
 the field, because every ploughing (or horse-tillage) 
 fills them. These "hoe-furrows" are made across 
 the narrow beds, at irregular distances of from 18 
 to 25 yards and empty into the tap ditches. A " hoe- 
 furrow" is made to pass through every slightest 
 cross-depression, and wherever else deemed most 
 necessary. Thus the alleys of the five feet beds 
 first receive the surplus and overflowing rain-water; 
 and so much thereof as can flow off over a level, or 
 nearly level surface, passes out of the open ends 
 of the alleys (from both ends) into the leading 
 ditches, or across the beds along the hoe-furrows 
 into the tap-ditches, and thence to the leading 
 ditches. From the latter the water passes into 
 the broader, and deeper, main ditch, and from it 
 to the common outlet of the farm. The hoe-fur- 
 rows (or grips) are a little deeper than the alleys 
 of the five feet beds. The alleys may be 6 or 7 
 inches below the crowns of the beds. This plan 
 is, on some farms varied by the leading ditches 
 running parallel to the main ditches; but the num- 
 ber of ditches and furrows, and the spaces between, 
 are not varied. 
 
 The object of this plan, and the only possible 
 operation of it, is to draw off the excess of rain- 
 water mainly over the surface; and even with ail 
 these numerous ditches and furrows, on perfectly 
 level land, no water can flow ofl" until it has satu- 
 rated the soil, or stands above it in numerous little 
 
 shallow pools; and if the field is under tillage, and 
 has been deeply ploughed, all the ploughed layer 
 will suck up as much rain-water as it can retain, 
 before any surplus will begin to flow off over the 
 surface, or, by lateral and horizontal percolation, 
 to ooze out from the soft soil into the lower fur- 
 rows and ditches. Such draining at best only 
 begins to remove the injurious excess of water 
 from the soil, after it has effected all the damage 
 it can do for the time. It is true that every hour 
 of the continuance of the water would greatly 
 increase the first damage of the saturated soil, 
 and that continuance the numerous drains serve 
 to cut short and reduce, in time and in evil effect. 
 
 Some of the main ditches in Perquimons are 
 of much greater depth and of unnecessary width 
 at the bottom, (which should always be narrow, 
 no matter how wide at top. and how deep a ditch 
 may be.) Mr. J. T. Cranberry's main ditch is 
 7 to 8 feet deep; and, though without its being so 
 designed, this ditch reached the sand-bed and 
 tapped its glut of waier. This great depth had 
 been sought only for the different purpose of hav- 
 ing a sufficient vent for the great quantity of sur- 
 face water to be discharged from the field. 
 
 This system cuts up every field, by spade-dug 
 ditches, into separate spaces of little more than 
 three and a half acres each. Then bridges are 
 required at suitable crossing places over every 
 main and leading ditch, and also over every tap- 
 ditch when they are crossed by a farm load or a 
 temporary track for hauling in a crop. As many 
 other rough wooden structures are required to give 
 passage to water and to exclude hogs where ever 
 a fence crosses the tap or other ditches. The la- 
 bor necessary to dig and keep open all these ditches, 
 with all the other accompaniments and the in- 
 creased labor of tillage, &c., among these open 
 ditches, must be enormous. It would not be much 
 more costly, and would return much more nett 
 profit, to adopt, instead, the modern English sys- 
 tem of deep and covered underdraining — which 
 system, after all, is but the drainage of surface- 
 water, derived from rains, by downward filtration, 
 and as soon as may be effected after the rain has 
 fallen on the surface in excess. 
 
 This plan of draining by numerous ditches sepa- 
 rating and surrounding small rectangular spaces 
 was first used on the low (embanked marsh) rice- 
 lands of South Carolina, where it was not incon- 
 venient for tillage, inasmuch as no ploughing or 
 other team-labor was practicable on the soft and 
 miry soil. Thence the same system was trans- 
 ferred to much of the high and firm land under 
 cotton culture, but which needed some attention 
 to drainage. Such ditching was practiced as late 
 as 1843, on much land in Charleston district which 
 scarcely needed a ditch (dug by the spade) any 
 where. But there, while these frequent ditches 
 were deemed indispensable by many planters, they 
 were also deemed so great an impediment to the 
 plough that that implement was excluded there- 
 from, and these fields were cultivated by hand- 
 labor entirely. In Perquimons, full use is made 
 of the plough despite of the many obstructing 
 ditches. And it has not been very long since 
 cross-ploughing also was in use among these many 
 ditches — the corn rows being laid off' and ploughed 
 across as well as lengthwise of the long and nar- 
 row rectangles. Of course the culture then must 
 have been flat or without beds and intervening al- 
 leys, preserved throughout the year's tillage, as 
 since and now. 
 
 VIII. Evidences or illustrations of the existing inju- 
 
22 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 riesfrom superfluous water, and of the proper means 
 Jer relief. 
 
 The plan or principle on which I would propose 
 to drain the lands of this low country is very dif- 
 ferent from what has heretofore been unusually 
 aimed at, and, but partially effected. Instead of 
 removing the excess of water by passing it off 
 over the surface through numerous shallow and open 
 tap-ditches, I would, by a few deep and mostly 
 covered drains, tap the glutted sand-bed below, 
 and thus, as much as practicable, lessen or entirely 
 abate the previous upward pressure and direction 
 of the confined water, and thereby relieving the 
 upper bed of earth of its present supply of mois- 
 ture from below, make it dry and permeable, and 
 so permit, for the future, the excess of rain-water 
 to sink into the drained upper bed, and be thus 
 drawn off by percolation to the still lower sand- 
 bed, (then empty enough at top to receive such 
 temporary additions,) and thence the water to pass 
 along the dip of the sand-bed, and far beneath the 
 surface of the land, to the nearest deep stream or 
 other place of discharge. 
 
 It is admitted that, except as to my own li- 
 mited operations and experience, on a single farm, 
 (Marlbourne,) there is almost no such practical 
 proof of the effects here anticipated in regard to 
 this great low-land region, of which so little is 
 well known to me. But recent, and few, and 
 limited as have been my means for personal ex- 
 amination and investigation in this region, there 
 can be little doubt of the general existence of the 
 one important natural feature on which my plan 
 and reasoning rest, viz: the under-lying and water- 
 glutted sand-bed, having a general, very slight, 
 continuous dip. If this is the general and natural 
 condition of the land, and if it is a sufficient cause 
 for its present wetness, then it follows that the 
 true principle of drainage, which sound theory 
 wotild direct, is to draw the water from the bottom, 
 and not from the top, as is the only function of 
 shallow ditches. It may be, in some few localities, 
 that the glutted sand-bed lies too low to be reached 
 by ditches without too great labor and expense. 
 But even such objections to the practical opera- 
 tions will not invalidate the correctness of the 
 theory. And such good objections to practice 
 probably exist in but f^ew cases of limited localities. 
 
 It is manifest, to the least consideration, that the 
 usual and universally approved plan and procedure 
 cannot drain this land. As to the moisture infil- 
 trating from the glut below, or driven upward 
 by hydrostatic pressure, or drawn still higher and 
 diffused as mere dampness by capillary attraction, 
 it is obvious that this moisture Cannot be lessened 
 by any number of ditches in the upper earth. As 
 to the excess of rain-water, when remaining sepa- 
 rate on the surface, some of it will flow off in 
 shallow ditches. But none will so pass off, from 
 a level surface until the excess of w^ater stands in 
 small pools. Nor can any of the surplus water 
 escape by filtrating laterally through the soil until 
 the soil or upper earth has drunk up more rain- 
 water than it can retain. These conditions of 
 extremely wet earth, (and the more if of recentlj' 
 and deeply ploughed land,) must exist before the 
 present system of drainage can even begin to act, 
 and must still remain in force after the ditches 
 have ceased to draw from the land that portion of 
 the water which cannot be held absorbed. All 
 the still remaining water, (and enough for the 
 time to convei't tilled soil to mire,) will be removed 
 only by evaporation, as none can sink into the 
 earth below in its present and uaual wet state 
 
 caused by the glut of water in the sand-bed, and 
 the moisture always rising therefrom. 
 
 The best farmers seeing the imperfect operation 
 of this plan of drauiing, have sought the desired 
 improvement in digging all their ditches deeper 
 than usual. But, unless such deepening reached 
 and tapped the sand-bed, the deeper ditches could 
 not gather any water from below, and could con- 
 vey no more from the surface of the land than 
 would be done by shallower ditches in somewhat 
 longer time. 
 
 IX. The upper beds alwaijs permeable if drained. 
 But even if it be conceded to my argument that 
 
 the sand-bed could be tapped, and the previous up- 
 per layer of its water be drawn off and kept per- 
 manently lowered, it would still be denied by most 
 of the farmers that the rain-water can then sink 
 through the earth. This denial would be founded 
 on the supposed impervious texture of the inter- 
 vening bed of eartli. This belief of the under 
 earth being impermeable to water is not only gene- 
 ral in Perquimons, (and with much color of truth 
 there.) where the upper earth is extremely close 
 and stiff, and in some places eight feet or more in 
 thickness, but also in Princess Anne and Norfolk 
 counties, where the soil and under earth are abun- 
 dantly porous, and not generally more than four 
 feet thick. 
 
 Further, the immense quantity of rain-water 
 which remains long, and covers much of the sur- 
 face on the fore«t land in its natural condition, and 
 which water passes off where ditches have been 
 dug, makes it seem incredible that even half of all 
 this water could sink through the earth below. 
 It is also a prevailing belief that there is more rain 
 in this region than general. I presume that no more 
 rain falls from the clouds-, but as very little of the 
 excess of rain-water sinks into the earth, (because 
 of its wetness below,) there is far more of the sur- 
 plus rain-water to be removed and discharged by 
 ditches than in other localities. In some of the 
 nearly as level but higher lands of parts of South- 
 ampton and Surry, in Virginia, sc-.nrely a ditch is 
 required, and there is no evil of rain-water re- 
 maining on the surface. T!.:ie, in furnishing a 
 pervious soil and sub-soil and dry underbeds, nature 
 has effectually under-drained such lands, and in so 
 doing has enabled most of the surplus rain-water 
 to disappear by downward filtration. The great 
 quantity of rain-water in the low-lands which passes 
 off in the ditches is owing to the small absorb- 
 ing power of the always wet lower earth, and, in 
 less degree, of the upper also. 
 
 X. Examples of the effects of the true principle of 
 drainage, in both arlijicial and natural operations. 
 
 Though there has been very little practice in 
 this region on the plan of tapping and drawing off 
 the confined water of the inferior sand-bed, and 
 almost none by design, there still have been some 
 such operations, and with marked beneficial re- 
 sults. Mr. J. T. Granberry, in Perquimons, and 
 Mr. E. H. Herbert, in Princess Anne, tapped the 
 water of the sand-bed when they anticipated no- 
 thing of the important effect, and merely designed 
 to make unusuallj' large and deep ditches. Mr. 
 W. Sayre, then of Norfolk county, acting on my 
 general views and advice, given to him before I 
 had seen his land, or even any part of the region 
 in question, sought foi' and found the wet sand-bed 
 at four to five feet deep, and to which no ditch on 
 his farm, or near to it, had before penetrated. 
 He deepened the greater length of his general out- 
 side ditch to the sand, and found great increased 
 draining benefit therefrom in the single year which 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 23 
 
 he afterwards continued to own and reside on the [ 
 farm. One of the effects could scarcely be mis- : 
 taken. In the summer after the first opening of 
 this deep encircling ditch to the sand-bed, the well, 
 half a mile distant from the ditch, ceased to sup- 
 ply water, and continued thus nearly dry until in 
 the following winter. This well, (or another very 
 close by,) had always before, and as far back as 
 known, yielded water abundantly, and through the 
 dryest seasons. The subsequent and lonfj failure 
 must have been caused by the cutting oil, by the 
 deep outside ditch, the supply to the well of water 
 from the sand-bed. It is difficult to appreciate 
 such slow and gradual effects, or to know always 
 to what particular causes to ascribe them. Such 
 eflects from this mode of drainage may be slowly j 
 increasing for years before reaching their max- j 
 imum of beneficial operation. I 
 
 But on this principle there are many other and 
 great drainage operations which nature has ex- 
 ecuted, and which show the beneficial results that 
 are here promised. Every river or smaller deep 
 water channel in this low-land is, in effect, a deep 
 drain cut into the glutted sand-bed, and which cut 
 or tapping has been operating to draw off" the 
 neighboring confined water, and to prevent its up- 
 ward pressure so far as circumstances permitted. 
 Along the sides of every river and deep branch, 
 the bordering lands, for half a mile or more in 
 breadth, are much drier than any other adjacent 
 lands of equal elevation and like surface. This is 
 the case in Durant's Neck, where the land is very 
 level, and also lower than is usual for the firmest 
 soil. This is the long peninsula of good land lying 
 petween Perquimons and Little river, and extend- 
 ing to Albemarle Sound. 
 
 The depressed shore of a river does not serve 
 the better to drain bordering land because the 
 river is a mile or more in width. A covered 
 drain, having but a four-inch pipe or passage for 
 water, if serving to reduce and convey away all 
 the excess of under-water, and to prevent its pre- 
 vious upward pressure, and so leave the upper 
 layer of the sand-bed dry, would, for draining ef- 
 fect, serve all the purposes of the widest river of 
 no greater draining depth. If the natural depres- 
 sion for the river's passage serves to drain by 
 lateral percolation half a mile width of the bor- 
 dering land, a deep artificial drain sunk a foot or 
 two into the sand-bed, and whether open or co- 
 vered, may be expected to do as much. And if 
 so, deep parallel drains a mile apart perhaps might 
 drain the intermediate land. And such drains, 
 even if ten feet deep and covered, would still be 
 made and kept at less cost than the never-ceasing 
 trouble of the numerous shallow and open ditches 
 in- Perquimons. But in most other places, as Prin- 
 cess Anne and Norfolk counties, the glutted sand- 
 bed is not usually more than four feet below the 
 surface, and drains sunk into the sand, and if four 
 or even eight of them to the mile of width or 
 cross-distance, would not be very costly, and could 
 scarcely fail of their object. 
 
 XI. Draining vertically by bore-holes. 
 
 Where the water is closely confined in the sand- 
 bed by the compact texture of the wet overlying 
 earth, and the upward pressure of the confined 
 water is considerable, (because of the quantity, 
 or height, or weight of the water at the higher 
 sources,) a portion of the water may be drawn 
 higher than the top of the sand-bed by the use of 
 the auger. As in most of the wells the water rises 
 to more or less height above the top of the sand, 
 so it would rise as high in holes bored by an inch- 
 
 auger. And if the main or discharging ditches 
 were sunk but a few inches lower, then the water 
 could be thus drawn up in holes bored in such 
 ditch, the water rising through the boring would 
 continue to flow off along the bottom of the ditch. 
 In such cases, the holes, if found operative, should 
 be bored every thirty to fifty yards in a new ditch, 
 as some will not act at all. Each such bore, when 
 acting to bring up a continued stream, is an artifi- 
 cial "boiling spring." And if there is sufficient 
 quantity and force of the water thus rising, there 
 is no more reason why the artificial boiling spring 
 shall be obstructed and its flow stopped than a 
 natural one. 
 
 XII. The presence of quicksand both as an impedi- 
 ment or an aid to effectual draining. 
 
 It was by such borings (commenced for a very 
 different object) that I first discovered the general 
 existence and the properties of the water-glutted 
 sand-bed on my own farm, and by them drew up 
 and passed ofl" water in considerable quantity be- 
 fore my main ditch had been sunk within two feet 
 of the sand-bed. But if it is practicable and safe 
 to go deeper with the spade, this vertical draining, 
 in open ditches, should be but a temporary expe- 
 dient, as it was in my own case. If the water wall 
 rise, say two feet in such bore-holes, to the then 
 bottom of an open ditch, it will operate partially 
 to reduce the glut of water below and prevent so 
 much of its upward pressure. But the reduction 
 will not be of any water that cannot force its pas- 
 sage so high. The greatest value of the fact of 
 tiius draining up water by boring, is the sure indi- 
 cation it affords of the still greater success of a 
 future deeper digging of the ditch. If water thus 
 rises to the height of two feet, it will rise with 
 much more force and longer continuance if the 
 ditch is sunk deeper and the water has so nauch 
 less height to rise. If by still later and deeper 
 digging the ditch is sunk into the sand, then there 
 will no longer be vertical or boiling springs, but, 
 { instead, water oozing or flowing in laterally from 
 I the upper sand and along the whole line of such 
 ': digging. Of course, and the more if the sand is 
 very fine, such continuous opening is better than 
 any number of auger-holes, even if the bores 
 should always continue open and discharging. 
 
 The inability to execuie, at once, so extensive 
 and costly an operation, compelled me to deepen 
 my main ditch at different times and in several 
 successive years. But there is another reason for 
 such gradual deepening, which will probably be 
 found to operate in all diggings into the sand-bed 
 in this low country. It is most likely that this 
 water-glutted bed is everywhere a "quick-sand," 
 almost semi-fluid, and which, as soon as dug into, 
 will flow in from the sides ar.d fill with sand the 
 deeper excavation. And if the digging is per- 
 sisted in it will cause caving or falling in of the 
 solid and dry upper margins of the ditch, so that 
 any effectual or permanent deepening at that time 
 will be impracticable. If quick-sand is the greatest 
 impediment to continued and successful deepening 
 of the digging, its presence is also the surest proof 
 of the necessity for the work and the best surety 
 for its final and complete success. Quick-sand is 
 nothing but a very pure and loose sand of which 
 all the interstices are glutted with water. There 
 is no coherence of the different particles of such 
 sand, and the water contained therein is nearly as 
 much in bulk as the solid matter of the sand itself, 
 and when drained and passing off the water is con- 
 tinually renewed by lateral supply from more or 
 less remote and higher sources. Hence quick-sand 
 
M 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 is setni-fluid, and flows in almost as freely as wa- 
 ter, fills every lower cavity of an open ditch, and 
 is like to enter every crevice of the filling material 
 of a covered drain, and finally to choke the nar- 
 row conduit. Nothing can be worse than quick- 
 sand to oppose the immediate and complete exca- ' 
 vation of a ditch, whether to be covered or left 
 open. But delay and time afford the remedy. 
 When quick-sand is reached the digging should at 
 first go no deeper than its surface, or no deeper ; 
 into the sand than may be without causing da- 
 mage. Then the oefore confined water, which 
 rendered the sand "quick" or semi-fluid, will find [ 
 a discharge into the ditch. The previous upward 
 pressure will be removed. Later, the water will 
 subside, leaving free the upper sand, thus drained 
 into the ditch, and as low as the level of the dis- j 
 charge. In a year after the first operation, the i 
 then bottom of the ditch will no longer be of , 
 quick-sand, as at first, but will have become firm, [ 
 and may then be deepened some six or eight inches 
 more, before reaching what is still quick-sand \ 
 below. Thus so much deeper and fuller discharge j 
 is given to the water, and so much more of the 
 quantity removed, that thereby another layer of 
 the then highest quick-sand is gradually converted 
 to dryer and firm sand, and which may also be 
 subsequently taken out safely by the spade. In 
 this manner, and easily, and with best effects, I 
 have, in three successive years, gained two feet of 
 depth below the original surface of a bad quick- 
 sand, in which at first I could not keep open the 
 shallowest permanent passage. If all the glutted 
 sand-bed of the low country (as inferred) is also 
 of quick-sand, in like manner it may at first be 
 barely tapped by ditching, and afterwards, and 
 gradually, be dug into deeper, until all the inju- 
 rious excess of under-water has been reduced and 
 removed. 
 
 XIII. Tests by u^hich to judge, in advance, of the 
 expediency or success of desired draining operations, 
 and illustrations of effects. 
 
 Such is my view of the cause of the general 
 wetness of this low-land, region, and such the pro- 
 posed remed)'. If the principle is sound, and the 
 deductions true, it is enough for my argument, and 
 also for very extensive applications of the theory 
 in practice. But it is not for me, slightly informfed 
 of particular facts and localities as I am by per- 
 sonal observation, to offer particular directions for 
 practical operations, or to state the natural and 
 various conditions of different localities, which 
 may either invite or discourage and forbid efforts 
 to drain by means of reaching the deep-seated 
 sources of the injurious waters. In many or most 
 localities of this great low-land region the pro- 
 posed means may be used both cheaply and pro- 
 fitably. In others, owing to the greater depth of 
 digging necessary, the operation, though equally 
 sure of success, might be of more cost than profit. 
 Every judicious farmer acquainted with the local 
 details can best determine as to the applicability 
 of my general plan to his own farm and vicinity. 
 But there are certain indications and preliminary 
 tests of the need for and probable success of such 
 undertakings, which each farmer should consult 
 in advance. These will now be mentioned. 
 
 The shallow wells on every farm will have 
 shown whether a sand-bed has been reached, 
 whether its being tapped brought up water, and at 
 what height above the sand, if any, the water 
 stands permanently, and how much higher after 
 winter, or the wettest seasons. These facts would 
 serre to show how high the water may be drawn 
 
 up by borings, and how much below that height it 
 may be sunk by deep ditching. Thus, any depth 
 of ditching below the highest temporary rising of 
 the water, in wells or bore-holes, would do so j>ie 
 good in draining off" or reducing the glut below, 
 and its upward pressure, though such benefit might 
 be but for the wettest seasons. But the deeper the 
 digging the greater would be the reduction of the 
 hurtful excess of water. And the remedy would 
 not be complete, until the main ditches were sunk 
 into the sand-bed, so as to take off' from the adja- 
 cent ground, all the former upward pressure of 
 the under-water, and also render the upper layer 
 of the sand-bed dry, and therefore capable of 
 freely imbibing new supplies of rain-water infil- 
 trated from above. 
 
 Next, as to the assumed permeability to water 
 of the upper bed of earth. It has been admitted 
 that the upper beds, even if of the most sandy and 
 loose texture, if full of water below, are imper- 
 meable to more water standing on the surface. 
 But if such wet earth be deprived of all super- 
 fluous moisture, (as by any proper draining,) then, 
 what was impervious before, may become as per- 
 vious as desirable. Every one has observed such 
 change in clay, when dug into, and the sides and 
 bottom of the excavation left exposed to a drying 
 atmosphere. Of course, such extent of drying, 
 and the consequent great opening of fissures, is 
 not to be looked for under the covering earth. 
 But in long droughts, earth not aff'ected by under- 
 water, will become as dry as dust for four feet 
 or more below the surface. This is often seen in 
 the digging of graves in summer; while in that 
 dry condition there must be formed innumerable 
 small pores and fissures, caused by contraction, 
 in the most compact earth, through which water 
 would freely sink, and in great quantity, and as 
 low as the earth had thus dried, and fissures been 
 formed. And these fissures could not be again 
 entirely closed by wetness and expansion of the 
 earth, so as to exclude all percolation of water. 
 It is not for me to assert that there will be enough 
 of these fissures, and reaching to sufficient depth, 
 to serve to carry down by percolation all the ex- 
 cess of rain-water, even when gradually falling 
 on the earth. But there can be no question that 
 water will be so absorbed, and conveyed away in 
 great quantity, in a soil with under-beds thus 
 drained, when the same earth, before beingdrained, 
 would have been incapable of absorbing any wa- 
 ter below the quickly saturated surface soil. 
 
 For the good effect and success of the plan of 
 draining Ihe earth from below, it is not necessary 
 that all or even a large proportion of the water 
 in the sand-bed shall be so drained off". It may 
 be that the bed is twenty feet thick. However 
 thick the bed, its being full of water and sur- 
 charged, (proved by the water pressing upward,) 
 shows that the supply of water from the higher 
 parts of the country is greater than the sand-bed 
 has openings for its lateral discharge. Thus, sup- 
 pose the whole natural discharge of the sand-bed, 
 into rivers and other outlets, and by evaporation, 
 to be in volume, as 19, and the supply of water 
 from rains, and from the more elevated and dis- 
 tant parts of the bed, to be as 20, then it is seen 
 that the excess of supply of 1 part can only be 
 removed by being forced upward through the earth. 
 This is the water that operates injuriously, di- 
 rectly, by causing wetness to the under-earth, and 
 indirectly, by preventing the excess of rain-water 
 from being discharged by sinking. Then, if by 
 tapping the sand-bed, this twentieth part of the- 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 25 
 
 water only is removed, the whole upward pres- 
 sure, and the surcharge is prevented. But further, 
 if by deeper draining the still full (hut not then 
 overgorged) sand-bed has its water drawn off and 
 lowered only one foot of its 20 or more of sup- 
 posed depth, that upper foot of sand, thus made 
 dry, will serve as under-drnining (or absorbent) 
 material for all the upper earth, and may receive 
 and continually pass off" all the surplus rain-water 
 that may thereafter fall on the surface. Such is 
 the fortunate natural condition of the best low- 
 ground farms on the lower James river before 
 adverted to — best, not so much for their great na- 
 tural fertility, and good constitution, valuable as 
 these are, as because they are thus under-drained 
 by nature. The upper layer of the sand-bed un- 
 der these lands, is always dry for some feet down. 
 This dry layer, though some twelve feet or more 
 below earth of clayey texture, is the true cause 
 of the usual dry condition of those soils. And 
 although the wells reach water in abundance at a 
 few feet lower in the sand, that water has no up- 
 ward pressure, and cannot damage the higher beds 
 of earth and soil. In these cases the natural 
 means for the lateral discharge of water from the 
 sand-bed, (in its high level,) are greater than 
 needed for the quantity supplied. Therefore, the 
 higher layer of the sand-bed is Icept free from wa- 
 ter, and always ready to receive, and convey still 
 lower, any new and temporary supply from the 
 upper beds and soil. If, on the contrary, the ave- 
 rage supply of water had ever so little exceeded 
 the means for average discharge; this upper layer 
 of sand would have been always over-gorged with 
 water, and the surface would suffer with wetness, 
 as do the low-lands on the Pamunlcey river, and 
 all this great low-land region here under consi- 
 deration. 
 
 Though wet earth is perfectly impervious to the 
 entrance and passage by percolation of more wa- 
 ter from the surface, (pressing downward, and by 
 its own weight only,) I doubt whether any earth 
 in the tide-water region is impervious. If pre- 
 viously drained, at least, none such has occurred 
 in my extensive draining labors and experience. 
 Much soil is made more impervious by having been 
 ploughed or tilled when wet. This operation ap- 
 proaches, in effect, to what is called ''ptiddling," 
 or kneading wet clay, or loam, which is done for 
 the purpose of closing all the pores, and making 
 the earth impervious to water. Such, in the 
 greatest perfection, is the working of clay for pot- 
 tery, and in less degree, for making tiles and 
 bricks. Hence it is that deep and proper plough- 
 ing, introduced on land before often ploughed wet, 
 and always sliallow, has well-known draining ef- 
 fect, because the "puddled" and impervious pan 
 IS broken up, and the rain-water then permitted to 
 sink through the natural fissures of the lower 
 earth. 
 
 NOTE. 
 It was after the whole of this article had been written that 
 I saw (Ma}', ISoTi in the city of Charleston, South Carolina, the 
 best exemplification, and practical proof, of the soundness of 
 the views expressed above. Under the city, and also, (as in- 
 ferred from a superficial and hasty glance,) under all the 
 higher ground of the whole neighboring country, there lies the 
 bed of sand as described above. The top of the sand is gene- 
 rally within three feet of the surface of the higher and firm 
 ground on which the city is built. As deep in this sand as to 
 the level of 20 inches above low tide mark, excavations were 
 then in progress, in which were to be constructed large cul- 
 verts, designed to carry away, with the drained water, the 
 filth of the city. These deep culverts were in and across the 
 higher parts of the site of Charleston, and extending on a 
 level from the. tide-water of one river to the other. The 
 greatest depth was 14 feet — and more than 10 feet in some 
 D 
 
 places in the sand-bed, and rarely less than 7 feet. The sand 
 was wet to its top ; and a little below, it was quick, and becom- 
 ing more and more fluid, and yielding more and more water 
 as opened, to the bottom of tlie excavation. Water was 
 usually reached at the depth of three feet l)elow the surface of 
 the street. In the street fire-wells, the water usually stood 
 still higher. I saw one, just before it was drawn off, and laid 
 dry b.v the new and deeper digging for the culvert, in which 
 the water stood within IS inches of the surface of tlie ground. 
 No digging for agricultural draining could have been afforded 
 of one-fourth this depth into the quick-sand — nor could any 
 works for agricultural objects and profits, only, have been 
 coniplsted speedily, and at such great expense of labor and 
 other appliances. Therefore, no mere agricultural drainage 
 operations could have offered such full and satisfactory evi- 
 dences of the correctness of my theoretical views, as did then, 
 and will still more hereafter, this great city work, of which 
 drainage was but a secondary object, and a mean sought to be 
 used, (in the collected spring-water, held back, for a time, by 
 flood gates,) to wash and float off to the rivers, the soluble and 
 other putrescent filth of the city The ditch, opened to lay the 
 culvert in, was 10 feet wide, with perpendicular siiies As 
 soon as the excavation reached the uppi-r quick-sand, a nar- 
 row trench only was then dug along the middle, and kept 
 deepest by the strong force of as many laborers as could have 
 room to work. This central and narrow trench served to 
 drain the sand which was then left on the sides — and by being 
 thus made dry, it became almost immediately firm — and in a 
 few hours this former quick-sand could be easily removed 
 by shovels. But before entirely removing this layer of sand 
 to the outer limit of the designed excavation, the farther 
 caving in, (from without the limits) was prevented by driving 
 down a close shield of thick boards, placed vertically, and 
 with their lower edges sharpened. These boards were sup- 
 ported, and kept in their designed direction, by a strong frame- 
 work of timbers, stretching across the entire width of the 
 ditch. These sharpened boards were driven downward as the 
 excavation was lowered, and were always kept a little below 
 the still fluid surface of the sand, and which would cave in, if 
 not at first held up by this strong and continuous barrier. 
 After thus securing the sides, and removing the sand through 
 a course of some two feet thick, then another like narrow 
 trench would be dug, and by its aid, anotjier layer of quick- 
 sand would be first drained, and then thrown out. In this 
 manner, the designed level for the bottom would be reached, 
 and therefore the culvert (of arched and well cemented brick- 
 work, laid on a floor of plank,) was constructed, and, for each 
 portion, completed very soon after the excavation had been 
 begun. Thus, by great expense of labor, and of mechanical 
 supports and other appliances, this work, for each short dis- 
 tance, might be completed, and made secure, in a day, which, 
 if for agricultural draining, might have required, (in the ne- 
 cessary intermissions of labor,) years for completion, and to 
 be sunk onlv one-third as much depth into quick-sand. 
 
 But though the depth of this great work, for the draining 
 and cleansing of a city, can never be imitated, or even ap- 
 proached in depth, in the country, or for agricultural profits, 
 it is not therefore the less in proof of the correctness of my 
 previous views of the natural features which cause the gene- 
 ral wetness of the low country, and the proper and efficient 
 means for, and the true principle of drainage for such lands, ff 
 And, in advance of the completion of this work, and of all 
 manifest draining results thereof, I will venture to predict that 
 these results will be such as must be inferred from my reason- 
 ing stated above, and that these results will be evident for all 
 the ground witliin half a mile, or perhaps much more, from 
 the lines of the draining culverts. 
 
 XIV. Some of the farming praclices of the low- 
 lands — Defects and proposed improvfments — Rotations 
 of crops — Peafalloui, and narrow, and broad-bed 
 tillage. 
 
 In my hasty journeys through this country, 
 thoucch diligently engaged in taking general and 
 superficial views, I had but little opportunity to 
 observe extensively, or to examine the details of 
 farming. Therefore, nothing like minute descrip- 
 tion will be attempted, and only general remarks 
 offered on some of the most striking advantages 
 and capabilities of the lands, and defects of their 
 culture. 
 
 The early settlements were made on the dryest 
 places, and on most of these, tillage has been 
 continued almost incessantly, from the first set- 
 tlement to recent, or to the present time. Under 
 such treatment, and with the necessary, or at 
 least certain and frequent wet ploughing of land, 
 always too wei in winter and spring, it is surpris- 
 
26 
 
 DRAINAGE . 
 
 ing that fields so abused have not become poorer 
 than they are. 1 saw none that were so unpro- 
 ductive as the poorest fields of the higher tide- 
 water counties in Virginia, which have not been 
 marled or limed, or as all such most exhausted 
 lands were before marling and liming were begun; 
 and wherever the formerly most reduced lands 
 have latterly been occupied by good farmers, they 
 have been greatly and rapidly improved. Sundry 
 such cases are to be seen, and especially in Per- 
 quimons county. The oldest tilled lands are here 
 referred to. The greatest recent improvements 
 have been the bringing under culture the exten- 
 sive firm swamp lands which have lost little or 
 nothing of their original and great fertility. 
 
 On the farms of Messrs. Francis Nixon and J. 
 T. Granberry, I saw the manner in which these 
 swamp lands are brought under cultivation. The 
 large trees, not needed for timber or fuel are 
 beited and so killed. The heavy forest growth is 
 mostly of gum, poplar, oak, and large swamp 
 pine, (used for naval timber,) some of the latter 
 of great size. The smaller growth is cut down 
 more than once, and mostly dies. The land is 
 used for grazing, until the roots are enough rotted 
 to permit ditching and ploughing. This will be in 
 about five years after the belting of the trees. 
 Then the principal ditches are dug on the plan 
 before described, and as they are to remain, ex- 
 cept that when encountering a very large tree in 
 the route, the ditch is there curved around the 
 tree. The next spring, (or before) the smaller 
 ditches are also cut, and the land ploughed and 
 planted in corn. 
 
 There is no marl in this region, except at a few 
 exposures of small extent — or rather, the marl lies 
 too deep to be accessible. Some marl has been 
 excavated and used in Princess Anne. There are 
 extensive Indian banks of mussel-skells on the 
 borders of the Chowan river; and in Currituck, 
 an Indian bank of oyster-shells stretches almost 
 continuously for forty miles- along the eastern 
 margin of the sound. There are also in shallow 
 waters of the sounds immense beds of oyster- 
 shells, in the places where the animals lived, be- 
 fore being killed by the water becoming fresh. 
 So there is no want of material for calcareous 
 manuring, independent of the supplies of lime and 
 ^of shells, available from the waters of the Chesa- 
 peake. Some of the Indian bank shells have been 
 used, and more lime, and to good effect, as re- 
 ported, and better than ought to be expected on 
 land not well drained. Next after supplying the 
 first necessity, draining, liming would be especially 
 beneficial to all the lands of this region. Besides 
 other reasons, and bencfitsto be gained, lime applied 
 on the new and rich lands would serve the better 
 to preserve their fertility; and, on the poorest lands, 
 it will enable the most speedy and complete ac- 
 quiring of fertility. But the best effects from lime 
 can be counted on only on land previously well 
 drained, or, otherwise, not needing draining. 
 
 The great crop of the Nojcth Carolina counties 
 is corn. Next to this, and especially in Perqui- 
 mons, is wheat. These two are the only great 
 crops for market. The lands generally, if not 
 suffering much from wetness, produce corn well. 
 On the new clearings of firm swamp lands, ditched 
 well on the ordinary plan, fifty bushels to the acre 
 may be made. I saw a small field of wheat in 
 Princess Anne, (where that crop is rarely at- 
 tempted, and never on large spaces,) and several 
 large fields in Perquimons, that in growth equalled 
 ■what I had just before seen on some of the best 
 
 lands on James river. There is no better land for 
 the growth of wheat than the soils of close and 
 medium texture here. But the imperfect draining 
 of the fields must prevent the product and quality 
 of the grain being in proportion to the growth of 
 straw; and, moreover, the humid air of the whole 
 region, (caused mainly by the general want of 
 draining, and the consequent great evaporation 
 from the earth,) makes the wheat crops more 
 liable to be diseased with rust. 
 
 It was with much surprise, some years ago, that 
 I heard that the best and largest crops of wheat 
 in Perquimons, and in some other parts of this 
 region, were still reaped by the sickle, or reap- 
 hook. This primitive mode of harvesting, which 
 is older than the days of the patriarch Jacob, and 
 which formerly was general in the United States, 
 as it still is in Kurope, 1 had supposed had every- 
 where, in this country, been substituted by the 
 more expeditious scythe and cradle, if not by the 
 still more modern reaping machine. And when 
 first informed of the ancient usage remaining here, 
 I had erroneously inferred that il. indicated very 
 slow progress in agricultural knowledge and im- 
 provement. But, when on my visit, while finding 
 this practice far more extended than my previous 
 idea of it, I also heard reasons in its defence, 
 which seem to maintain its good economy. Nei- 
 ther is this practice confined to small crops. The 
 best farmers and largest v;heat growers, who 
 sometimes make crops of more than five thousand 
 bushels, reap them with the sickle. I knew that, 
 by this mode, there may be avoided much of the 
 great waste of wheat that is usually made by 
 cradling; but had supposed that the slower opera- 
 tion of the sickle, and the high prices of harvest 
 labor, and the scarcity of laborers at any price, 
 had caused this implement to be abandoned every- 
 where in the United States, except for spots of 
 rank and tangled wheat, or on steep hill-sides. 
 Even for these latter circumstances, in which the 
 proper use of the sickle would always be prefera- 
 ble, I have not been able to resort to it, because 
 none of our laborers are now accustomed to it, 
 and they would make awkward and very slow 
 work. But in this district, the regular use of the 
 sickle has never been abaiidoned, or suspended, 
 and, therefore, the laborers are expert; and in a 
 heavy growth of wheat, a good hand, with the 
 I sickle, can reap more wheat than he could, on the 
 j same ground, with the cradle, besides saving much 
 1 more of what is cut down. The difference of 
 ! waste will more than pay the diffierence of amount 
 j of labor and greater expense through a crop. 
 I Further, by using the sickle, and cutting as high 
 \ as can be to save the wheat, most of the tall straw 
 is left standing as stubble in the field, which is the 
 cheapest, and as good a disposition as can be 
 made of it for manviring the land, and makes a 
 vast saving of labor in the hauling, threshing, and 
 stacking, compared to the handling of all the 
 greater length of straw, as usually cut by the 
 scythe and cradle, or by a reaping machine. But, 
 if admitting that the reaping of a heavy growth 
 of wheat by the sickle is preferable, still, in a 
 merely agricultural country it could not be done, 
 for want of the additional force of hands which 
 this process certainly requires. But in the pecu- 
 liar condition of this district, this objection does 
 not apply. There is so great a number of la- 
 borers employed in cutting timber, and in the 
 fisheries, that there are enough, for the higher 
 wages of harvest, to supply the then extraordinary 
 demand for labor on every wheat farm. 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 27 
 
 Light growths of wheat are often reaped by- 
 cradling; and where both modes are thus in use 
 together, the more extensive use of the sickle is, 
 in itself, good evidence of the heavy crops of 
 wheat raised here by good farmers, and on good 
 land. Perquimons has generally siiff soil, and is 
 much the best wheat producing part of this region, 
 (not including the Roanoke bottom.) In Pasquo- 
 tank the lands are also good, but lighter, and better 
 for corn. Those of Camden and Currituck are 
 inferior in value of soil and agricultural products, 
 and also as to improved farming. Currituck, espe- 
 cially, is so intersected by navigable waters, and 
 bounded by the sound and the ocean, that the 
 labors or pursuits of the residents are all more or 
 less connected with the water and its products. 
 
 Except corn and wheat, there is scarcely a crop 
 of large culture raised for market in the North 
 Carolina counties. Cotton, which is so universally 
 and extensively cultivated in the nearest higher 
 counties of North Carolina, and even to some 
 extent in those of Virginia, is not attempted here, 
 as a crop, for market. The general prevalence of 
 wet soil is a sufficient cause for the absence of this 
 crop. Oats, and especially hay, would be good 
 crops for this humid climate and soil. But neither 
 is raised for market, and hay scarcely at all, the 
 fodder and shucks of corn serving in the place of 
 hay, as everywhere in our corn-growing country. 
 Yet vessel loads of coarse and mean hay, from the 
 northern States, are continually brought here for 
 the use of the towns, and for the teams of the 
 lumberers working in the swamp forests. There 
 is no better country for grass east of the mountains. 
 On the farm of Edward H. Herbert, Esq., Princess 
 Anne, on a large space, and elsewhere in Norfolk 
 county, in small lots, 1 sav,^ dry meadows of or- 
 chard grass and clover that would have been 
 deemed good for the best grass districts, and which 
 well attested both the fertility and good drainage 
 of the fields on which these crops grew. 
 
 In the counties in Virginia, where near to Nor- 
 folk, and with easy access by the regular steamers 
 to the great northern cities, "truck" farming, or 
 cultivating green vegetables and fruit for sale, is 
 the sole business on sundry of the most valuable 
 farms, and it enters more or less into the culture 
 of many others. This business is carried on ex- 
 clusively, largely, and successfully in Norfolk 
 county, on river farms only, and within a few miles 
 of the wharves. The limitation to these localities 
 is compelled, first, because of the necessary ready 
 access to the steam-vessels, and also because it is 
 only in close neighborhood to a considerable town 
 that numerous laborers can be hired whenever 
 wanted for gathering vegetables and fruits, which 
 requires, rarely, many hands, and for short and 
 uncertain lengths of time. This kind of farming 
 is the most perfect in all its operations, the most 
 costly in money and labor, and the most produc- 
 tive, not only in the gross returns, but in nett pro- 
 fit, and, as reported, it is the only kind of farming 
 in the county that is well conducted. It is not 
 long since this "truck farming" has been estab- 
 lished on any thing like its present important posi- 
 tion; and in that time, the lands near Norfolk and 
 Portsmouth, suitable forthis business, and so used, 
 have increased, in market value and price, from 
 500 to 1,000 per cent. 
 
 This market gardening, or "truck-farming," in 
 these large operations, is a peculiar and remarka- 
 ble branch of agriculture, which well deserves 
 thorough examination, and more full report, than 
 this slight notice. It is an important and admira- 
 
 ble kind of what in England is called "high farm- 
 ing," requiring great expenses, but returning so 
 much the larger profits. Compared to nearly all 
 other farming of the surrounding and neighbor- 
 ing lands, the "truck" farms appear like an oasis 
 in a desert. The quantity and the cost of manures 
 applied on these farms, and the magnitude of other 
 expenses, and still more the great returns of pro- 
 ducts and profits would be astonishing, if not ap- 
 pear incredible, to a stranger. Still, this business 
 is the most laborious employment of a proprietor, 
 exacting unceasing attention, care, and anxiety, 
 for every hour. Nothing short of untiring indus- 
 try, care, and also good judgment, can attain suc- 
 cess and its great rewards; and even all these will 
 not always prevent heavy losses. The business 
 is precarious, and subject to gieat changes and 
 hazards, and losses, which no industry or care can 
 guard against. A single severe frost, at an un- 
 usual time, may destroy a valuable crop, for which 
 all the expenses have been incurred, except for 
 the gathering and shipping; and which loss may 
 reduce the nett receipts expected by thousands of 
 dollars. 
 
 In the Virginia counties, the required drainage 
 and culture are of much easier execution than in 
 Perquimons, and yet both are more negligently 
 performed. No where does there seem to be any 
 regular system of rotation of crops. This essen- 
 tial part of good farming is neglected everywhere 
 by poor and bad farmers. The most energetic and 
 successful cultivators and improvers here have 
 been so much occupied in the heavy labors of 
 clearing and draining their new and rich swamp 
 lands, that they had no opportunity to use any re- 
 gular rotation of crops. This is a sufficient reason 
 as to the newly cleared lands, for which, for some 
 years, regul'ar rotation would not be required, and 
 would even be improper. But this circumstance 
 and the continued additions of new surface to the 
 tilled land should not prevent the older and poorer 
 land being kept under a proper rotation, or at 
 least under a proper succession of crops. And the 
 neglect is the more reprehensible and strange, inas- 
 much as the farmers of this region possess peculiar 
 facilities for rotations, in the pea-crop, and a cli- 
 mate admirably adapted to its growth. The li- 
 mited territory on which both the pea and the wheat 
 crop can grow well, (the one suiting so well to 
 prepare for and aid the growth of the other,) I 
 deem the most favored of all agricultural regions. 
 Still more strange appeared to me the general 
 neglect of peas as a manuring crop in this region, 
 from some of the best farmers of which 1 obtained 
 most of my early practical instruction as to this 
 particular value of the pea-crop. Yet this great 
 means for improvement, on most farms, seems to 
 be but little used or appreciated. It is true, that 
 peas are planted, as a secondary crop, in every 
 field of corn, and the returns are highly valued. 
 But this pea-crop, except so much as is gathered 
 for seed or for sale, is generally eaten on the 
 ground by the hogs designed for slaughter, (greatly 
 indeed for benefit in that respect,) so that very 
 little of the crop, except the roots and stems, go 
 to manure the land. I heard of no separate crops 
 of broad-cast peas, (or "pea-fallow,") to prepare 
 and manure for a succeeding wheat crop, the most 
 valuable use to which the pea-crop can be applied. 
 It is a frequent practice here for the land in corn 
 (and secondary peas) not to be sown in wheat the 
 autumn of the same year, (as is usual in Virginia,) 
 but for the field to remain until the autumn of the 
 following year, and then to be sown in wheat. 
 
28 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 This practice leaves the field idle and useless all 
 the spring and summer, when in that time it mig,ht 
 be sown m peas, and bring a manuring and cleans- 
 ing crop to precede tlie wlieal, without any loss of 
 time or of land. Tliis is a regular part of my own 
 established rotation, and, as supposed, its best 
 feature, though my more northern position and 
 shorter warm season render the pea-crop much less 
 productive and beneficial than in this more favored 
 region. Still more than this omission, another is 
 common and as reprehensible. Wheat, in some 
 cases, is made to follow wheat in two successive 
 years. If, in such cases, there was merely inter- 
 posed between these two crops a broad-cast crop 
 of peas, (for which there is plenty of growing 
 time,) that addition only would serve to substitute 
 a cleansing, enriching, and judicious succession of 
 crops, for one that is inexcusable and abominable. 
 Clover is made on most of the good farms of Per- 
 quimous, and used as a preparing (or fallow) crop 
 for wheat. With the superior facilities for the 
 best growth of peas, if I were farming in this re- 
 gion, 1 should much prefer pea-fallow to clover- 
 fallow to precede wheat. 
 
 The reason offered for the total omission of pea- 
 fallow is the |;reat and engrossing tillage labors 
 required for the great crops of corn, and also for 
 the wheat harvest, both of which occur with and 
 include the very time in wliich the land for broad- 
 cast peas should be ploughed and sov* n. This is 
 true, and a sufficient reason, if it is necessary to 
 plant in corn as much land as the laboring force 
 can cultivate. But it would be much better to 
 secure the great benefit of a manuring pea-crop to 
 precede wheat, by the (temporary) sacrifice of 
 omitting to plant as much corn as would release 
 enough labor for the additional pea-crop. This 
 sacrifice was a necessary incident of my own 
 change (in 1848) of the five-shift rotation, without 
 pea-fallow, to the six-shift, with one entire field 
 under broad-cast peas. The fields of both corn 
 and wheat, by this change, were reduced, severally, 
 to five-sixths of their previous size. Yet the vvhf at 
 crops have continued since to increase, on the 
 general average, and to exceed more and more the 
 previous entire product, and so have the corn- 
 crops, except in the first year only of the reduced 
 extent of cultivation. Yet the advantages of ma- 
 nuring by the pea-crop in my locality ayd climate 
 are very inferior to those of this region of North 
 Carolina. 
 
 While the many firm swamps remained gene- 
 rally under forest, these lands afforded excellent 
 "range" for live-stock, or a great quantity of 
 food, especially for cattle and hogs. But this be- 
 nefit, (if it was one,) has almost ceased in the 
 best cultivated parts of the counties on the sound. 
 Such is Durant's Neck, the narrow and level and 
 very low peninsula which stretches for twelve miles 
 between Perquimons and Li'.tle river to Albemarle 
 sound. This land, being but a few miles wide 
 anywhere, and bounded nearly around by these 
 deep waters, is in consequence better drained, na- 
 turally, than the interior lands, and is very pro- 
 ductive. Nearly all this " neck" is enclosed, and 
 an unusually large proportion of the wliole is un- 
 der tillage, and there is scarcely any unenclosed 
 forest or waste land for ranging live stock, and 
 none that affords any grazing profit. I know no 
 place where it would be so profitable to dispense 
 with fences, as is done by mutual agreement, by 
 the proprietors of three several neighborhoods in 
 Prince George county. Virginia, each including 
 from 4,U00 to 8,000 acres, and making from 10 to 
 
 15 farms and separate properties. If the cultiva- 
 tors of Durant's Neck would do the like they 
 would only have to make one short and straight 
 fence to enclose all their fine farms, and save all 
 the cost of their present useless fences. Yet 
 every farm and field is now separately fenced in, 
 and some oi the proprietors have no n)aterials for 
 fencing, and buy, and transport from a distance, 
 all their rails. This locality, more strongly than 
 any other, shows the absurdity of our fence Jaws, 
 and also the strength and Jong vitality of old. 
 habits and opinions, when the former good reasons 
 for them liave long ceased to exist. If the live- 
 stock were reduced in numbers to one-fourth, and 
 these were well kept, by being herded within the 
 farms, one cow would yield as much profit as four 
 do now. And when the grazing stocks were so 
 lessened in number there would be much surplus 
 grass left to manure the pasture or other land. 
 While three-fourttis of all the present fencing 
 might be dispensed with, the other fourth would 
 serve to make a sufficient pasture enclosure for 
 every farm. For nothing in geometry, is more 
 clearly demonstrable than the proposition that it 
 will require greatly less length of enclosure to 
 fence in the cattle of any well cleared and settled 
 section of country, than to fence in all tlie fields 
 and crops to protect them from the cattle if left at 
 large. One-fourth of the present fencing in Du- 
 rant's Ne".k would suffice not only to make on 
 every farm a proper pasture enclosure, but also 
 the general and joint barrier fence against all 
 other people's stock. Most of the farmers in 
 Prince George, who have joined in these arrange- 
 ments, if not situated on the border, have no fence 
 except the pens in which to confine the animals 
 at night. But this extreme course is not true 
 economy. 
 
 In Princess Anne, there still remains so much 
 uncleared and swamp land, that the leaving cat- 
 tle to range at large is deemed very profitable to 
 the owners, and perhaps, in general, it is there, 
 more an offset to the expenses of fences, under 
 our fence law, than in any other courity of lower 
 Virginia. The open swamps bear reeds in great 
 quantity, which afford abundant and excellent 
 food for cattle through winter and summer. There 
 are herds of cattle that have become wild, and 
 are made use of when wanted for beef, only 
 by being hunted and shot. These wild cattle 
 would be very profitable to their owners, as they 
 require neither food nor attention, except that 
 they are as much at the disposal of every other 
 person who may be inclined to shoot and steal 
 them. 
 
 It becomes a slight observer of a newly seen 
 agricultural district of novel and peculiar cliarac- 
 ter, to be diffident of his own opinions thereon, 
 and more especially, when they are in opposition 
 to those of the judicious and experienced resident 
 farmers. One of such subjects I will mention, 
 though without any view of urging the superior 
 value of my opinions and practice, in this respect 
 on my friends in this region, who unanimously and 
 strongly protested against them, at least for their 
 lands. Their experience of facts, in contradic- 
 tion, certainly deserves more to be respected than 
 my theoretical views as to this region, even though 
 they have been sustained by the results of my own 
 practice and experience elsewhere. 
 
 As stated before, the tillage generally, and on 
 the best managed farms, is in narrow beds (five 
 feet,) for corn, and the same size is preserved for 
 wheat. The beds are reversed for every crop, 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 29 
 
 both of corn and wheat. I v/ill not here repeat 
 my objections to tiiis narrow bed tillage, nor my 
 reasons for preferring (where any are necessary) 
 beds of twenty-five or more feet in width. These 
 views have been stated and argued at length in 
 dilierent former publications. (The latest and 
 fullest articles on tillage in broad beds, and also 
 on draining in general, are in "Essays and Notes 
 on Agriculture," 1855.) I will onl}' say liere, that 
 all tiie reasons for preparing wide beds for low 
 and flat lands generally, apply with greater force 
 to the lands of this region, and especially in Per- 
 quimous, because they are of more regular level, 
 and with fewer alternations of slight depressions 
 and elevations, than any other low-lands within my 
 knowledge. The best farmers here, with whom 
 I have argued this question, object on various 
 grounds to my broad-beds, but especially, because 
 their frequent cross "hoe-furrows" are deemed 
 indispensable, and if the broad and higlier beds, 
 and their deeper alleys were in use, the "hoe- 
 furrows" would have to be made still deeper, and 
 require more labor to dig, and to renew after 
 every ploughing or horse-tillage, and be even in- 
 convenient for the ploughs to cross. This objec- 
 tion would be valid, if indeed it would be neces- 
 sary (with the broad-beds, and deeper alleys) to 
 retain the hoe-furrows; but this necessity 1 doubt. 
 For with so much higher beds and deeper alleys 
 between them, on land scarcely varying from a 
 level, or from a regular and gentle slope, 1 think 
 that the deeper alleys would substitute liie hoe- 
 furrows, and render them superfluous, except where 
 a cross depression of surface required a particular 
 cross grip. In my own practice, on the Pamunkey 
 flats, the surface is much more irregular, yet there 
 are no grips kept across the bed?, except along the 
 cross depressions. If the inequalities of surface 
 level were as rare as on the Perquimons lands, my 
 cross grips would be fewer and less necessary than 
 they are. 
 
 But if my plan of broad-beds would suit this 
 region, there might still be added thereto another 
 improvement, which t commenced using in 1855, 
 and which has been continued since on the Marl- 
 bourne farm, with increasing confidence and ap- 
 proval. Without taking time here to describe and 
 recommend the operation in general on the dif- 
 ferent circumstances of my own farm and prac- 
 tice, I will merely apply the plan to the present 
 existing divisions and ditches of the Perquimons 
 lands.* We will suppose that these present ditches 
 are all necessary and proper to be retained — though 
 such is not my opinion, if a different system of 
 drainage were in use. Then suppose merely the 
 change that each of the rectangular enclosed spaces 
 of 150 feet wide, instead of being, as now, in 
 thirty beds of five feet wide, was ploughed into 
 six ,beds, each of twenty-five feet width. After 
 two or three years ploughing, and tillage, and 
 gathering of these wide beds separately, they 
 would be as high, and their intermediate alleys 
 as deep as desirable. Then, instead of continuing 
 to plough each bed separately, the first furrow 
 should be cut alongside of the central alley, and 
 
 * When I first began this manner of flush ploughing of low 
 and bedded land, and with considerable appreliension as to its 
 coinplete success, it was not known to me that any other far- 
 mer had either used or thought of the same method. But, 
 subsequently, when recommending it to tlie trial of K. H. 
 Herbert, Esq., of Princess Anne, as an important aid to his 
 usual efficacious practice of draining, he informed me that he 
 had already introduced and used this plan of flush plougliing 
 on his land earlier than my first trial of it, and had found the 
 results entirely satisfaotory. 
 
 turning the slice into it. This furrow should begin 
 and end at 75 or 80 feet distance from the ends of 
 the rectangular "slip," or at (or something less 
 than) the same distance of the (Central alley from 
 the sides of the slip. Turning the plough at that 
 distance, another furrow should be cut alongside, 
 and throwing the slice to the first, thus making, a 
 "list" in the former central alley. So tlie plough- 
 ing would proceed around this first list, cutting 
 across the ends as well as along the sides, and 
 throwing every furrow-slice towards the centre of 
 the ploughing. This plougliing, though flush, and 
 cutting across the ends as well as along the beds, 
 and with no regard paid to the alleys, would 
 scarcely alter the outline of the previous surface, 
 and would not lessen the height of the crowns of 
 the beds or the depth of the alleys, except the 
 central alley, which would in time be filled, and 
 would not then be needed. The outside furrows 
 would just reach the encircling ditches of the 
 "slip," turning tlie depth and width of a furrow- 
 slice from each at every repetition of such plough- 
 ing. One or two furrows run along each of the 
 old alleys, after the flush plougliing, would clean 
 theut out and put tlie broad-beds in their original 
 shape, and they would be more thoroughly broken 
 by this mode of ploughing. Every successive 
 ploughing of the land to prepare for any crop 
 should be done in like manner. The tendency and 
 operation would be to raise the central part of 
 each rectangular division so ploughed around, and 
 to lower and slope the sides and ends, or margins, 
 next to the surrounding ditches. After a few such 
 ploughings the shallow tap-ditches would be, to 
 the eye, almost obliterated, or changed to mere 
 ploughed alleys or grips. Yet, in fact, they might 
 be deeper than before, and would certainly be 
 more operative for surface drainage than before. 
 The preserving and cleaning out of these "tap- 
 ditches," instead of requiring spades and shovels, 
 would thereafter be as well done by the last finish- 
 ing furrows of the plough. These ditches would 
 no longer present any obstruction to the crossing 
 of ploughs, or partly loaded carts If desired, (and 
 it might be even desirable in future time,) the corn- 
 rows and their ploughing, in narrow beds, might 
 be directed across the beds and tap-ditches. Fur- 
 ther, the end margins of the "slip" being equally 
 depressed, and sloped to the edges of the larger 
 leading ditches, these would be much more easily 
 crossed by teams, and fewer and smaller bridges 
 would be required. Thus, in the course of time, 
 each separate "slip" would be converted to one 
 broad bed of 150 feet wide, and gently rounding 
 surface, and 1,000 feet long, (the present dimen- 
 sions of the separate divisions,) with sloped mar- 
 gins and ditches between deeper than before, yet 
 presenting either little obstruction, or none, to the 
 crossing of ploughs and teams. 
 
 POSTSCRIPT. 
 
 Lands on the Chowan and Roanoke. 
 
 A later excursion to a portion of Chowan county, 
 and to some of the best farms on the Roanoke 
 river enables me to add something to the foregoing 
 notes of this generally uniform region, and espe- 
 cially in remarkable exceptions, on the Roanoke, to 
 this general uniformity of agricultural character. 
 
 In Chowan county, my view extended only over 
 the lands within 12 miles of Edenton, and from 3 
 to 4 miles back from the Chowan river and Albe- 
 marle Sound. The general elevation of the sur- 
 face is from 11 to 14 feet above the level of the 
 Sound — and the land is more uniform in leyel 
 
30 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 than any other that I had before seen. The soils 
 are moderately stiff, and of good texture for pro- 
 ducing wheat. Before being cleared of the forest 
 growth, and dildhed, most of the surface of the 
 land was subject to be covered by the water left 
 by heavy rains. The system of drainage in gene- 
 ral use is similar to that of Perquimons. But the 
 small parallel (or "tap") ditches are wider apart — 
 usually 180 feet. According to this system, the de- 
 tails of draining were well executed, and eti'ective; 
 and the lands best drained, (especially those of 
 Dr. Thomas Warren,) were very fertile and pro- 
 ductive. These, where seen in their natural state, 
 seemed to the eye, and by their growth and wet- 
 ness, to be swamp. But in fact, they are of the 
 highest level of the neighborhood, and among the 
 dryest, after being drained and cultivated. The 
 natural forest growth was piincipally of black 
 gum, ash, maple, with some oak and pine — and 
 with these, a general under-growth of reeds. For 
 miles, no change of level of the surface was visi- 
 ble; and the slight general descent of surface 
 could be known only by the direction of the flow 
 of water in the larger ditches. The farms border- 
 ing on the Sound, only, have some narrow depres- 
 sions, of a few feet only in depth, which serve as 
 exceptions to the otherwise general level of the 
 surface. The water in the wells of Edenton and 
 the neighboring country is generally about 13 feet 
 below the surface of the land. This would indi- 
 cate that the water-glutted sand-bed here lies too 
 low to produce the damage elsewhere usual to 
 land, by keeping water on the surface — or to 
 afford a facility for draining operations, by tap- 
 ping the sand-bed by deep drains, or by boring. 
 On these points, my hasty and limited observa- 
 tions, aided by inquiry, afford no information better 
 than conjecture. 
 
 The broad Chowan is the only river of all this 
 low-land region, east of the Roanoke, which re- 
 ceives any considerable supply of water from 
 higher and distant sources, or is filled by any other 
 than the refluent water of Albemarle Sound. And 
 even as to the Chowan, all the water brought by 
 its upper tributaries, the Meherrin, Nottoway, and 
 Blackwater rivers, if alone, would not usually fill 
 the twentieth part of the broad and deep bed of 
 the Chowan. So that even this greatest of these 
 neighboring rivers is but a partial and limited ex- 
 ception to their general character of having almost 
 no head-springs, or supplies from remote sources. 
 
 But the Roanoke is remarkably different in these 
 respects. Its very distant sources are in the Alle- 
 ghany Mountains, and they make large streams, 
 at all times, even at the base of these mountains. 
 Its bed, throughout its long course to Albemarle 
 Sound, is very narrow for the great quantity of 
 water flowing therein, and which ordinary supply 
 is enormously increased by the transient rain-floods 
 coming from the upper country. These rise to 
 great heights, and cause great injury to the very 
 rich and extensive bottom lands bordering on this 
 river. But f )r the rare and terrible disasters to 
 the crops, caused by these high freshes, they would 
 be of great improving benefit to the fertility of 
 lands they overflow, in the abundant deposit of 
 richest alluvium which the water leaves. This de- 
 posit has made, and maintains, the Roanoke lands 
 the richest on the Atlantic slope; and they would 
 be more valuable than the bottom lands of any of 
 the rivers of that slope, but for their griater lia- 
 bility to be overflowed, which is owing to the re- 
 markable narrowness of the whole bed and course 
 of the river, compared to its length, and to the 
 
 volume of water which it conveys. The bed of 
 the river, and even to its outlet into the Sound, is 
 too narrow to discharjje its floods; and hence they 
 overflow the bordering low grounds, of the second 
 terrace as well as the first or lowest, to their great 
 damage. Thus these rich alluvial low grounds of 
 the Roanoke are greatly subject to disaster from 
 being overflowed by floods, from which danger the 
 low borders of tlie other rivers of Albemarle 
 Sound are almost entirely exempt. 
 
 That the low lands of the Roanoke are so dif- 
 ferent from all of the neighboring rivers, is owing 
 but in part to the great length of its course, from 
 its distant mountain head-springs. This indeed 
 causes the great volume of the floods, as well as 
 their great burden of rich alluvium. But there 
 is still an additional cause for the obstructed dis- 
 charge, in the different geological character of the 
 land over which the lower course of this river 
 passes. The lower channels of the other neigh- 
 boring rivers, on both sides, together with their 
 bordering lands, seem all to have subsided, at some 
 far i-emote time, below their former levels. But 
 the bed of the Roanoke seems to have preserved 
 its original elevation, if indeed it has not been ac- 
 tually up-heaved still higher. The primitive rock 
 shows in ledges under the channel of the Roanoke 
 far below the foot of the great falls; and even 
 high above the present height. of water in the 
 bank at Halifax ferry. The river is very uniform 
 in breadth, and not varying much from about 120 
 yards, from the falls to Albemarle Sound. 
 
 The " first low ground" or lowest terrace, gives 
 the richest soil — which however is not black, or 
 dark-colored, but of I'eddish yellow, or hazel loam. 
 The "second low ground" is worse in quality, but 
 still is good land. The "third" is still worse; and 
 there is in some cases still a fourth terrace, nearly 
 as high as, though evidently lower than, and dif- 
 ferent from, the highest table or ridge land, which 
 is usually sandy and naturally poor. 
 
 Corn is the great crop of the Roanoke lands. 
 Though fine crops of wheat are raised by the 
 Messrs. Burgwyn, in Northampton, North Caro- 
 lina, and J. C. Johnston in Halifax, giving evi- 
 dence of the fitness of the low-ground soils for 
 that crop. Cotton is the next greatest crop to 
 corn; and this culture is sufficient evidence that 
 the lands on which it succeeds do not naturally 
 suffer damage from under or spring-water. The 
 farmers have not much to do for drainage, except 
 to exclude, by deep and broad ditches and their 
 banks, and to vent by culveits, the streams and rain- 
 floods coming in from the high lands, and, by dykes, 
 to keep ofi' the high floods of the river. Both these 
 great objects are well efl'ected only on the pi'oper- 
 ties of a few of the planters — at enormous expense, 
 but at far less cost than the alternative of losing 
 the growing crops usually once in 7 to 10 year*, on 
 an average. 
 
 The land nearest to the river, whether of the 
 first or second terrace, is always higher than the 
 exterior of the same terrace farther back from the 
 river. This shape of the surface offers the highest 
 foundation for the dykes next to the river, where 
 they are required to be placed. There are great 
 differences and frequent changes in the elevation 
 of ground bordering on the river, and consequently 
 as much difference in the required heights of the 
 embankments. The home plantation of Th. P. 
 Devereux, Esq., Conniicanara, in Halifax county. 
 North Carolina, is protected by an embankment 
 rising to the height of 26 feet throughout above 
 the low-water level of the river. The highest 
 
DRAINAGE . 
 
 31 
 
 fresh yet known, before the embankment was made, 
 rose 22 feet, and covered the whole plantation ex- 
 cept a few acres Much of the dyke, being on 
 margin of the hig;hest elevation, is only 4 feet 
 high. But one part, which seemed about half a 
 mile long, it is 14 feet high. To every foot of 
 perpendicular height, there is given 5 feet width 
 of base. On Polenta in Northampton, another of 
 Mr. Devereux's several plantations, (all of which 
 are thus secured by embankments,) the dyke, for 
 200 to 250 yards of its length is 17 feet high, and 
 more than 100 feet broad at the base. And these 
 high embankments are not the only heavy expense. 
 For it is through their highest parts (these being 
 over the lowest surface of tie land,) that it is ne- 
 cessary to keep open large culverts to discharge 
 the waters of land-streams and rain-floods, and 
 from which, by valves, to exclude the river-floods 
 when these are higher than the interior water. 
 On this and four other adjacent farms there are 7 
 of the large-sized culverts, which cost about f,2000 
 each — and three of these are on one only of the 
 farms. These culverts are constructed of wood, and 
 of course cannot be very durable. Still, great as 
 is the expense, for embankment and culverts, for 
 each plantation, it is cheaply paid for in the safety 
 of a single crop, which would otherwise be lost, if 
 without this means for security from inundation. 
 Such is the correct reasoning of each individual 
 proprietor, and improver in this mode. And thus 
 each one, of the few who have yet so improved, 
 may secure his own possessions from the floods of 
 
 the river. But it is obvious that every such em- 
 bankment, operating as an obstruction, must serve 
 to raise the floods somewhat higher on the lands 
 still subject to be submerged. And should every 
 proprietor exercise his equal right to embank all 
 his own lands, and thus the general operation shall 
 strive to confine the river within the limits of its 
 shores, the attempt must fail, and the floods, rising 
 higher in proportion to their lateral confinement, 
 will overtop any dykes which can be made by se- 
 parate individuals, each working on his own sepa- 
 rate plan. It would be very far better, and the 
 only means by which general success can possibly 
 be attained, if the State were to require such works 
 to be constructed on one uniform and the best gen- 
 eral pian, for the benefit of all the lands and their 
 proprietors. If such general plan confined the 
 water to its present channel, that confinement 
 would cause much increased velocity and power 
 of abrasion, and thereby a deepening of the bed 
 of the river, if the bottom is soft enough to be so 
 deepened by washing. And if this effect would 
 be prevented by only a few narrow ledges of rocks 
 too hard to be lowered by abrasion, it might be 
 well worth the expense of deeper passages being 
 opened through such narrow and harder obstruc- 
 tions. All the additional and general depth that 
 could be so gained, would serve for the improve- 
 ment of navigation of the river, as well as to aid 
 the operation of the embankments to protect the 
 lands from the river-floods. 
 
y..z^ 
 
 
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