Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2011 witii funding from Tine Library of Congress Iittp://www.arcliive.org/details/outlinesofuniver01fisli OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY DESIGNED AS A TEXT-BOOK AND FOR PRIVATE READING BY / GEORGE PARK FISHER, D.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR IN YALE COLLEGE ■V ^^ ^f \^ IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS NEW YORK AND CHICAGO \ r^x THE LIBRARTj or CONGRESgj t WASHINGTON Copyright, 1S85, By IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & COMPANY. ■>^fe,; INSCRIBED BY THE AUTHOR AS A TOKEN OF LOVE AND THANKFULNESS TO HIS DAUGHTER C. R. F. PREFACE. IN writing this volume I have aimed to provide a text-book suited to more advanced pupils. My idea of such a work was, that it should present the essential facts of history in due order, and in conformity to the best and latest researches ; that it should point out clearly the connection of events and of successive eras with one another; that through the interest awakened by the natural, unforced view gained of this unity of history, and by such illustrative incidents as the brevity of the narrative would allow to be wrought into it, the dryness of a mere summary should be, as far as possible, relieved ; and that, finally, being a book intended for pupils and readers of all classes, it should be free from sectarian partiality, and should limit itself to well-established judgments and conclusions on all matters subject to party contention. Respecting one of the points just referred to, I can say that, in composing this work, I have myself been more than ever impressed with the unity of history^ and affected by this great and deeply moving drama that is still advancing into a future that is hidden from view. I can not but hope that this feeling, spontaneous and vivid in my own mind, may communicate itself fo the reader in his progress through these pages. The most interesting object in the study of history is, to quote Dr. Arnold's words, " that which most nearly touches the inner life of civ- ilized man, namely, the vicissitudes of institutions, social, political, and religious." But, as the same scholar adds, " a knowledge of the exter- nal is needed before we arrive at that which is within. We want to get a sort of frame for our picture. . . . And thus we want to know clearly the geographical boundaries of different countries, and their external revolutions. This leads us in the first instance to geography and military history, even if our ultimate object lies beyond." Some- thing more is aimed at in the present work than the construction of this "frame," without which, to be sure, a student wanders about " vaguely, like an ignorant man in an ill-arranged museum." By the use of different sorts of type, it has been practicable to introduce a VI PREFACE. considerable amount of detail without breaking the main current of the narrative, or making it too long. By means of these additional passages, and by appending lists of books at the close of the sev- eral periods, the attempt has been made to aid j-ounger students in carrying forward the study of history beyond the usual requirements of the class-room. I make no apology for the sketches presented of the history of science, literature, art, and of moral and material de- cline or improvement. Professor Seeley, in his interesting book on The Expansion of England, is disposed to confine historj' to the civil com- munity, and to the part of human well-being which depends on that. "That a man in England," he tells us, "makes a scientific discovery or paints a picture, is not in itself an event in the history of England." But, of course, as this able writer himself remarks, " history may assume a larger or a narrower function ; " and I am persuaded that to shut up history within so narrow bonds, is not expedient in a work designed in part to stimulate readers to wide and continued studies. One who has long been engaged in historical study and teaching, if he undertakes to prepare such a work as the present, has occasion to traverse certain periods where previous investigations have made him feel more or less at home. Elsewhere at least his course must be to collate authorities, follow such as he deems best entitled to credit, and, on points of uncertainty, satisfy himself by recurrence to the original sources of evidence. Among the numerous works from which I have derived assistance, the largest debt is due, especially in the ancient and mediaeval periods, to Weber's Lehi'buch der Welt- geschichte, which (in its nineteenth edition, 1883) contains 2328 large octavo pages of well-digested matter. Duruy's Histoire du Moyen Age (eleventh edition, 1882), and also his Histoire des Temps Modern es (ninth edition), have yielded to me important aid. From the writings of Mr. E. A. Freeman I have constantly derived instruction. In particular, I have made use of his General Sketch of E2i7-opea7i His- tory (which is published in this country, under the title. Outlines of History), and of his lucid, compact, and thorough History of Euro- pean Geography. The other writings, however, of this able and learned historian, have been very helpful. Mr. Tillinghast's edition of Ploetz's Epitome I have found to be a highly valuable store- house of historical facts, and have frequently consulted it with advan- tage. The superior accuracy of George's Chronological Tables is the reason why I have freely availed myself of the aid afforded by them. Professor (now President) C. K. Adams's excellent Manual of His- torical Literature, to which reference is repeatedly made in the fol- lowing pages, has been of service in preparing the lists of works to PREFACE. VH be read or consulted. Those lists, it hardly need be said, aim at nothing like a complete bibliography. No doubt to each of them other valuable works might easily be added. As a rule, no men- tion is made of more technical or abstruse writings, collections of documents, and so forth. The titles of but few historical novels are given. Useful as the best of these are, works of this class are often inaccurate and misleading ; so that a living master in historical authorship has said even of Walter Scott, who is so strong when he stands on Scottish soil, that in his Ivanhoe " there is a mistake in every line." With regard, however, to historical fiction, including poems, as well as novels and tales, the student will find in Mr. Justin Winsor's very learned and elaborate monograph (forming a distinct section of the catalogue of the Boston Public Library), the most full information up to the date of its publication. Most of the historical maps, to illustrate the text of the present work, have been engraved from drawings after Spruner, Putzger, Freeman, etc. Of the ancient maps, several have been adopted (in a revised form) from a General Atlas. That the maps contain more places than are referred to in the text, is not a disadvantage. I wish to express my obligation to a number of friends who have kindly lent me aid in the revisal of particular portions of the proof- sheets of this volume. My special thanks are due, on account of this service, to Professor Francis Brown of the Union Theological School; to Professors W. D. Whitney, Tracy Peck, T. D. Seymour, W. H. Brewer, and T. R. Lounsbury, of Yale College ; to Mr. A. Van Name, librarian of Yale College ; and to Mr. W. L. Kingsley, to whose his- torical knowledge and unfailing kindness I have, on previous occa- sions, been indebted for like assistance. To other friends besides those just named, I am indebted for information on points made familiar to them by their special studies. G. P. F. New Haven, Sept. i, 1S85. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction i PART 1. ANCIENT HISTORY. Prom the Beginning of Authentic History to the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes (A.D. 375) > 17 DIVISION I. . ORIENTAL HISTORY. Introduction 18 Section I. CHINA AND INDIA. CHAPTER L — China 20 CHAPTER II. — India 25 Section II. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS. CHAPTER L — Egypt 33 CHAPTER II. — Assyria and Babylon 43 CHAPTER III. — The Phcenicians and Carthaginians ... 51 CHAPTER IV.— The Hebrews • • 55 CHAPTER v. — The Persians 64 DIVISION II. EUROPE. Introduction 73 Section I. GRECIAN HISTORY. Introduction 75 X CONTENTS. Period I. GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS. PACE CHAPTER I. — The Prehistoric Age 78 CHAPTER IL — The Formation of the Principal States . . 85 Period II. THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE, CHAPTER I. — The Persian Wars 93 CHAPTER n. — The Ascendency OF Athens 96 CHAPTER m. — The Peloponnesian War 102 CHAPTER IV. — Relations with Persia : the Spartan and Theban Hegemony 109 Period III. THE MACEDONIAN ERA. CHAPTER I. — Philip and Alexander ....... hi CHAPTER H. — The Successors of Alexander 116 Section II. ROMAN HISTORY. Introduction . . . - 124 Period I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS (753-304 B.C.). CHAPTER I. — Rome under the Kings (753-509 B.C.) . . . . 12S CHAPTER II. — Rome under the Patricians (509-304 B.C.) . . 133 Period II. TO THE UNION OF ITALY (304-264 B.C.). CHAPTER I. — Conquest of the Latins and Italians (304-282 B.C.), 138 CHAPTER II. — War with PyrrhUs and Union with Italy (282- 264 B.C.) ' 139 Period III. THE PUNIC WARS. To the Conquest of Carthage and of the Greek States (264-146 B.C.) . . 143 CHAPTER I. — The First and Second Punic Wars (264-202 B.C.) . 143 CHAPTER II. — Conquest of Macedonia: the Third Punic War: the Destruction of Corinth (202-146 B.C.) 148 CONTENTS. xi Period IV. THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND OF THE CIVIL WARS (146-31 B.C.). PAGE CHAPTER I. — The Gracchi: the First Mithridatic War: Marius AND Sulla (146-7S B.C.) 153 CHAPTER H. — PoMPEius and the East: to the Death of Cras- sus (78-53 B.C.) 158 CHAPTER ni.— PoMPEius and C^sar : the Second Triumvirate . 164 Period V. THE imperial MONARCHY. To the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes (375 A.D.) ..... 168 CHAPTER I. — The Reign of Augustus . 168 CHAPTER n. — The Emperors of the Augustan House . . . 176 CHAPTER HI. — The Flavians and the Antonines . . . .180 CHAPTER IV. — The Emperors made by the Soldiers: the Abso- lute Monarchy : the Triumph of Christianity . . . .185 PART II. MEDI.®VAL HISTORY. From the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Fall of Constantinople {A.D. 375-1453)- Introduction . 198 Period L TO THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK RULERS (A.D. 375-751). CHAPTER I. — Causes of the Fall of the Western Empire : the Teutonic Confederacies 199 CHAPTER XL — The Teutonic Migrations and Kingdoms . . 204 CHAPTER HI. — The Eastern Empire 217 CHAPTER IV. — Mohammedanism and the Arabic Conquests . . 223 Period II. FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE (A.D. 75^-962). CHAPTER I. — The Carlovingian Empire to the Death of Char- lemagne (A.D. 814) 234 CHAPTER II. — Dissolution of Charlemagne's Empire: Rise of the Kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy .... 240 CHAPTER III. — Invasions of the Northmen and Others: the Feudal System 246 Xll CONTENTS. Period III. FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES (A.D. 962-1270). PAGE CHAPTER I. — The Church and the Empire : Predominance of the Empire: to the Crusades (A.D. 1096) 260 CHAPTER H. — The Church and the Empire: Predominance of the Church : to the End of the Crusades (A.D. 1270) . . 269 CHAPTER ni. — England and France: the First Period of their Rivalshif (A.D. 1 066-1 2 1 7) 2S9 CHAPTER IV. — Rise of the Burgher Class: Society in the Era OF the Crusades -?oi Period IV. FROM THE end OF THE CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTAN- TINOPLE (A.D. 1270-1453) : THE DECLINE OF ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY : THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY. Introduction 311 CHAPTER I.— England and France : Second Period of Rival- ship : the Hundred Years' War (A.D. 1339-1453) . . . 311 CHAPTER II. — Germany: Italy: Spain: The Scandinavian Coun- tries: Poland and Russia: Hungary: Ottoman Turks: the Greek Empire 331 CHAPTER III. — The Countries of Eastern Asia . . . .355 PART III. MODERN HISTORY. From the Fall of Constantinople (1453) to the Present Time .... 361 Introduction 361 Period I. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFORMA- TION (i45>i5^7). Introduction 363 CHAPTER I. — France: England : Spain : Germany: Italy: the Ottoman Turks: Russia: the Invasions of Italy . . • 363 CHAPTER II. — Invention and Discovery: the Renaissance . . 387 V CONTENTS. Xlll Period II. THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (15 17-1648). PAGE Introduction 396 CHAPTER I. — The Reformation in Germany: to the Treaty of NUREMBURG (1517-1532) 397 CHAPTER II. — The Reformation in Teutonic Countries: Switz- erland, Denmark, Sweden, England 403 CHAPTER III. — The Reformation in Germany, from the Peace OF Nuremberg to the Peace of Augsburg (1532-1555) . . 408 CHAPTER IV. — Calvinism in Geneva: Beginning of the Catholic Counter-Reformation 411 CHAPTER V. — Philip II., and the Revolt of the Netherlands . 414 CHAPTER VI. — The Civil Wars in France, to the Death of Henry IV. (1610) 417 CHAPTER VII. —The Thirty-Years' War, to the Peace of West- phalia (1618-1648) 422 CHAPTER VIII. — Second Stage of the Reformation in England: to the Death of Elizabeth (1547-1603) 429 CHAPTER IX. — The English Revolution and the Commonwealth (1603-1658) 435 CHAPTER X. — Colonization in America: Asiatic Nations: Cul- ture and Literature (1517-1648) 441 Period III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLU- TION (1648-1789), Introduction 451 CHAPTER I. — The Preponderance of France: First Part of the Reign of Louis XIV. (to the Peace of Ryswick, 1697): the Restoration of the Stuarts : the English Revolution of 16S8 452 CHAPTER II. — War of the Spanish Succession (to the Peace of Utrecht, 1713) : Decline of the Power of France: Power AND Maritime Supremacy of England 463 CHAPTER III.— The Great Northern War: the Fall of Swe- den : Growth of the Power of Russia 470 CHAPTER IV. — War of the Austrian Succession: Growth of THE Power of Prussia : the Destruction of Poland . . 474 CHAPTER V. — Contest of England and France in America: War of American Independence : the Constitution of the United States 479 CHAPTER VI. — Literature, Science, and Religion. . . . 490 PAGE Introduction XIV CONTENTS. Period IV. THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815). 1 497 CHAPTER I. — From the Assembling ok the States-General to THE Execution of Louis XVI. (1789-1793) 499 CHAPTER II. — From the Execution of Louis XVI. to the Fall OF Robespierre (Jan. 21, 1793-JuLY 27, 1794) -508 CHAPTER III. — From the Fall of Robespierre to the Empire OF Napoleon (1794-1804) 515 CHAPTER IV. — From the Beginning of the Empire to the Rus- sian Campaign (1804-1812) 523 CHAPTER V. — From the Russian Campaign (1812) to the Con- gress of Vienna (1814-15) 530 CHAPTER VI. —American History in this Period (17S9-1815) . 536 CHAPTER VII. — Literature, Art, and Science (1789-1815) . . 543 Period V. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE PRESENT TIME. Introduction 547 CHAPTER I. — Europe, from the Congress of Vienna (1S15) to the French Revolution of 1830 549 CHAPTER II. — Europe, from the Revolution of 1S30 to the Rev- olutionary Epoch of 1848 554 CHAPTER III. — Europe, from the Revolutions of 1848 to the Austro-Prussian War (1S66) 566 CHAPTER IV. — Europe, from the Beginning of the Austro- Prussian War to the End of the Franco-German War (1866-1871) 57s CHAPTER V. — Europe, from the Third French Republic, and the Union of Italy (1871) 584 CHAPTER VI. — The United States since 1815 : The South Ameri- can States: Eastern Asia 601 CHAPTER VII. — Discovery and Invention : Science and Litera- ture : Progress of Humane Sentiment: Progress towards the Unity of Mankind 618 LIST OF MAPS. PAGE The World as known to the Ancients -.-.16''' Physical Features of Asia 18" Ancient Egypt 32^ Ancient Palestine 56'^ Physical Features of Europe 72 Ancient Greece and the jEgean Islands 74 Greek and Phcenician Colonies . . .76 Empire of Alexander the Great no Kingdoms of the Successors of Alexander ...... 116 Ancient Italy (Northern Part) 122 Ancient Italy (Southern Part) 122 "^ Ancient Roman Empire 174 The New Nations after the Great Migrations (about A.D. 500) . 212 Empire of the Saracens (about A.D. 750) 228 Empire of Charlemagne 232 Empire of Charlemagne A.D. 843 240 Empire of Charlemagne A.D. 887 240 Central Europe about A.D. 9S0 242 '' Mediterranean Lands at the Time of the Crusades . . . 270 ' France and England A.D. 11 54-1189 292 / Central Europe A.D. 1360 328 ^ Central Europe A.D. 1660 328 Italy about the Middle of the Sixteenth Century .... 410 Europe at the Time of Napoleon's Greatest Power (about A.D. 1810) 528 y XV XVI LIST OF MAPS. PAGE Central Europe in 1S15 534 Territorial Growth of the United States 538 ' Europe after 1878 584 Austro-Hungary since 187S 586 France since 1871 590 German Empire since 1871 592 Turkish Empire, Greece, etc., since 1878 596 Asia at the Present Time 600 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Definition of History. — The subject of history is man. His- tory has for its object to record his doings and experiences. It may then be concisely defined as a narrative of past events in which men have been concerned. To describe the earth, the abode of man, to delineate the different kingdoms of nature, and to inquire into the origin of them, or to explain the physical or mental constitution of human beings, is no part of the office of history. All this belongs to the departments of natural and intel- lectual science. But history, as we now understand the terra, is more than a bare record of what men have done and suffered. It aims to point out the connection of events with one another. It seeks to ex- plain the causes and the consequences of things that occur. It would trace the steps that mark the progress of the race, and of the different portions of it, through extended periods. It brings to light the thread which unites each particular stage in the career of a people, or of mankind as a whole, with what went before, and with what came after. Nations. — History has been called " the biography of a soci- ety." Biography has to do with the career of an individual. His- tory is concerned with the successive actions and fortunes of a community ; in its broadest extent, with the experiences of the human family. It is only when men are connected by the social bond, and remain so united for a greater or less period, that there is room for history. It is, therefore, with nations, in their internal progress and in their mutual relations, that history especially deals. Of mere clans, or loosely organized tribes, it can have little to say. History can go no farther than to explore their genealogy, and state what were their journey ings and habits. The nation is a form of society that rests on the same basis — a basis at once natural and part of a divine system — as the family. By a nation is meant a people dwelling in a definite territory, living under the 2 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. same government, and bound together by such ties as a common language, a common religion, the same institutions and customs. The elements that enter into that national spirit which is the bond of unity, are multiple. They vary to a degree in different peoples. As individuals are not alike, and as the history of any particular community is modified and molded by these individual differences, so the course of the history of mankind is shaped by the peculiar characteristics of the various nations, and by their interaction upon one another. In like manner, groups of nations, each charac- terized by distinctive traits derived from affinities of race or of religion, or from other sources, act on each other, and thus help to determine the course of the historic stream. Scope of History. — The rise and progress of culture and civ- ilization in their various constituents is the theme of history. It does not limit its attention to a particular fraction of a people, to the exclusion of the rest. Governments and rulers, and the public doings of states, — such as foreign wars, and the struggles of rival dynasties, — naturally form a prominent topic in historical writings. But this is only one department in the records of the past. More and more history interests itself in the character of society at large, and in the phases through which it has passed. How men lived from day to day, what their occupations were, their comforts and discomforts, their ideas, sentiments, and modes of intercourse, their state as regards art, letters, invention, reli- gious enlightenment, — these are points on which history, as at present studied and written, undertakes to shed light. Points of View. — An eminent German philosopher of our day, Hermann Lotze, intimates that there are five phases of human development, and hence five points of view from which the course of history is to be surveyed. These are the intellectual (embra- cing the progress of truth and knowledge), the industrial, the czs- thetic (including art in all its higher ramifications), the religious, and the political. An able English scholar, Goldtvin Smith, resolves the elements of human progress, and thus the most gen- eral topics of history, into three, " the moral, the intellectual, and the productive ; or, virtue, knoivledge, and industry^ " But these three elements," he adds, " though distinct, are not separate, but closely connected with each other." The Philosophy of History. — That there is, in some sense, a " reign of law " in the succession of human events, is a conviction warranted by observed facts, as well as inspired by religion. Events do not spring into being, disjoined from antecedents leading to them. Even turning-points in history, which seem, at the first glance, abrupt, are found to be dependent on previous conditions. They are perceived to be the natural issue of the times that have gone before. Preceding events have foreshadowed them. There INTRODUCTION. 3 are laws of historical progress which have their root in the charac- teristics of human nature. Ends are wrought out, which bear on them e\ddent marks of design. History, as a whole, is the carry- ing out of a plan : "... through the ages one increasing purpose runs." Au^istitie long ago argued, that he who has not left "even the entrails of the smallest and most insignificant animal, or the feather of a bird, or the little flower of a plant, or the leaf of a tree, without a harmony, and, as it were, a mutual peace among all its parts, — that God can never be believed to have left the kingdoms of men, their dominations and servitudes, outside of the laws of his providence." To discern the plan of history, and the causes or laws through which it is accomplished, as far as our limited capacity will allow, is the object of what is called the philosophy of history. Freedom and Law. — It must not be forgotten, however, that man is a free agent. History, although it is not an aimless pro- cess, is, nevertheless, not subject to the forces and laws which govern in the realm of matter. Physical analogies are not a literal image of what takes place in the sphere of intelligence and free- dom. Moral evil, wherever it is a factor in history, has its origin in the will of man. In respect to it, the agency of God is per- missive and overruling. Through his providence, order is made to emerge, a worthy goal is at last reached, despite the elements of disorder introduced by human perversity. Nor is progress continuous and unbroken. It is often, as one has said, a spiral rather than a straight line. It is not an unceas- ing advance : there are backward movements, or what appear to be such. Of particular nations it is frequently evident, that, intel- lectually and morally, as well as in power and thrift, they have sunk below a level once attained. Of the inscrutable blending of human freedom with a pre-ordained design, GuizoT says: "Man advances in the execution of a plan which he has not conceived, and of which he is not even aware. He is the free and intelligent artificer of a work which is not his own." " Con- ceive a great machine, the design of which is centered in a single mind, though its various parts are intrusted to different workmen, separated from, and strangers to, each other. No one of them understands the work as a whole, nor the general result which he concurs in producing; but every one executes with intelligence and freedom, by rational and voluntary acts, the par- ticular task assigned to him." {Lectures 07i the History of Civilization, Lect. xi.) Personal Power. — The progress of society has been inseparably connected with the agency of eminent persons. Signal changes, whether wholesome or mischievous, are linked to the names of individuals who have specially contributed to bring them to pass. The achievements of heroes stand out in as bold relief in authentic history as in the obscure era of myth and fable. Fruitful inven- tions, after the earlier steps in civilization are taken, are traceable to particular authors, exalted by their genius above the common level. So it is with the literary works which have exerted the deep- est and most lasting influence. Nations have their pilots in war and in peace. Epochs in the progress of the fine arts are ushered 4 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. in by individuals of surpassing mental power. Reforms and revo- lutions, which alter the direction of the historic stream, emanate from individuals in whose minds they are conceived, and by whose energy they are effected. The force thus exerted by the leaders in history is not accounted for by reference to general laws. Great men are not puppets moved by the spirit of the time. To be sure, there must be a preparation for them, and a groundwork of sympathy among their contemporaries : otherwise their activity would call forth no response. Independently of the age that gives them birth, their power would lose its distinctive form and hue : they would be incapable of influence. Cromwell would not have been Cromwell had he been born in any other period of English history. Nor could he have played his part, being what he was, had not the religious and political struggles of England for genera- tions framed a theater adapted to his talents and character. Michael Angela could not have arisen in a half-civilized tribe. His creative power would have found no field in a society rude, and blind to the attractions of art. Nevertheless, his power was creative. Cromwell and Michael Angelo, and such as they, are not the passive organs, the mere outcome, of the communi- ties in whicfi they appear. Without the original thought and personal energy of leaders, momentous changes in the life of nations could never have taken place. A great man may be obliged to wait long for the answering sympathy which is required to give effect to his thoughts and purposes. Such a mind is said to be in advance of the age. Another generation may have to appear before the harvest springs from the seed that he has sown. Moreover, it is not true that great men, efficient leaders, come forward whenever there is an exigency calling for them, or an urgent need. Rather is it true that terrible disasters sometimes occur, at critical points in history, just for the lack of leaders fit for the emergency. The Meaning of History. — A thoughtful student can hardly fail to propose to him- self the question, " What is the meaning of history ? Why is this long drama with all that is noble and joyous in it, and with its abysses of sin and misery, enacted at all? " It is only a partial answer that one can hope to give to this grave inquiry, for the designs of Providence can not be fully fathomed. But, among the ends in view, the moral training of mankind stands forth with a marked prominence. The deliverance of the race from moral evil and error, and the building-up of a purified society, enriched with all the good that belongs to the ideal of humanity, and exalted by fellowship with God, is not only an end worthy in itself, but it is the end towards which the onward movement of history is seen to be directed. Hence, a central place in the course of hir'ory belongs to the life and work of Jesus Christ. No more satisfactory' silution of this problem of the significance of history has ever been offered than that brought forward by the Apostle Paul in Acts xvii. 27, where he says that the nations of men were assigned to their places on the earth, and their duration as well as bound- aries determined, " that they should seek the Lord, if haply they might feel after him, and find him." "Works on the Philosophy of History.— (Professor C. K. Adams's Manual of Historical Literature (1882) is an excellent guide in historical reading. Briefer lists of works in Metliods of Teaching and Studying History, edited by G. Stanley Hall.) Books on the Philosophy of History : R. Flint, The Philosophy of History, vol. i., — Writers on the subject in France and Germany. Vol. ii. will treat of England and Italy. The work is a critical review of the literature on the subject. Schlegel, The Philosophy of History; Shedd's Lectures on the Philosophy of History; Bunsen's God in History (3 vols., 1870); LoTZE, Mikrokosmiis, vol. iii., book vii. ; Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws; Buckle, History of Civilization in England (2 vols.). This work is based on the denial of free-will, and the doctrine that physical influences, — climate, soil, food, etc. , — are the main causes of intellectual progress. Draper's History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (2 vols., 2d edition, 1876) is in the same vein. Opposed to this philosophy are Goldwin Smith's Lectures on the Study of History; C. Kingsley, in his Miscellanies, The Limits of Exact Science as applied to History; Froude, in Short Studies, vol. i.. The Science of Historj'; Lotze, as above; also, Flint, and Droysen, Grundriss der Historik. Hegel's Philosophy of History has profound observations, but connected with an a priori theory. INTRODUCTION. 5. Historical Writing. — The beginning of historical writing was in the form of lists of kings, or bare records of battles, or the simple registration of other occurrences of remarkable interest. The Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chinese, and other nations, furnish examples of this rudimental type of historical writing. More continuous annals followed ; but these are meager in contents, and make no attempt to find links of connection be- tween events. The ancient Hebrew historians are on a much higher plane, and, apart from their religious value, far surpass all other Asiatic histories. It was in Greece, the fountain-head of science, that history, as an art, first appeared. Herodotus, born early in the fifth century B.C., first undertook to satisfy curiosity respecting the past by a more elaborate and entertaining narrative. He begins his work thus : " These are the researches of Herodo- tus of Halicarnassus, which he publishes, in the hope of thereby preserving from decay the remembrance of what men have done, and of preventing the great and marvelous actions of the Greeks and the barbarians from losing their due meed of glory, and withal to put on record what were the grounds of their hostility." In Herodotus, history, owing to the inquiry made into the causes of events, begins to rise above the level of a mere chronicle, its primitive type. Thucydides, who died about 400 B.C., followed. He is far more accurate in his investigations, having a deep insight into the origin of the events which he relates, and is a model of candor. He, too, writes to minister to the inquisitive spirit of his countrymen, and of the generations that were to follow. He began to write his history of the war between the Athenians and the Peloponnesians while it was still going on, in the belief, he says, "that it would turn out great, and worthier of being recorded than any that had preceded it." The attention of historical writers was still con- fined to a particular country, or to insulated groups of events. Before there could spring up the idea of universal history, it was necessary that there should be a broader view of mankind as a whole. The ancient Stoics had a glimpse of the race as a family, and of the nations as forming one complex unity. The conquests and extended dominion of Rome first suggested the idea of universal history. Polybius, a Greek in the second century B.C., had watched the progress of Rome, in its career of conquest, until " the affairs of Italy and Africa," as he says, " joined with those of Asia and Greece, and all moved together towards one fixed and single point." He tells us that particular histories can not give us a knowledge of the whole, more than the survey of the divided members of a body once endowed with- life and beauty can yield a just conception of all the comeliness and vigor which it has received from Nature. To Polybius belongs the distinction of being the first to undertake a universal history. Christianity, with its doctrine of the unity of mankind, and with all the moral and religious teaching characteristic of the gospel, contributed effectively to the widening f the view of the office and scope of history. It is only in quite recent times that history has directed its attention predominantly to social progress, and to its causes and conditions. History, in its etymological sense (from the Greek, io-ropio) , meant the ascertaining of facts by inquiry; then, the results of this inquiry, the knowledge thus obtained. The work of Herodotus was "history" in the strictest sense: he acquired his information by travel and personal interrogation. The German philosopher, Hegel, has divided histories into three classes: i. Original his- tories; i.e., works written by contemporaries of the events described, who share in the spirit of the times, and may have personally taken part in the transactions. Such are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon's Anabasis, Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion in England, Caesar's Commentaries. 2. Reflective liistories, where the author writes at a later point of time, on the basis of materials which he gathers up, but is not himself a partaker in the spirit of the age of which he treats. 3. Philosophical histories, which set forth the rational development of history in its inmost idea. Another classification is the following: i. Genealogies, like the records of Manetho, the Egyptian priest. 2. The chronicle, following the chronological order, and telling the story in a simple, popular way. 3. The "'pragmatic " form of writing, which aims to explain by reference to the past some particular characteristic or phase of the present, and uses history to 6 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. point a special moral lesson. 4. The form of history which traces the rise and progress of " ideas," tendencies, or ruling forces, — such as the idea of civil equality in early Rome or in modern France, the religious ideas of Mohammedanism, the idea of representative government, the idea of German unity, etc. A broad line of distinction has been drawn between " the old or artistic type of history," and the new or sociological type which belongs to the present century. The ancient historians represented the former type. They prized literary form. They aimed to interweave moral and political reflections. Polybius often interrupts his narrative to introduce remarks of this sort. But they were not, as a rule, diligent and accurate in their researches. And, above all, they had no just conception of society as a whole, and of the comple.x forces out of which the visi- ble scene springs. The Greeks were the masters in this first or artistic form of history. The French Revolution was one stimulus to a profounder and more comprehensive method of study- ing history. The methods and investigations of natural science have had a decided influence in the same direction. The Sources of History. — History must depend for credence on cred- ible evidence. In order to justify belief, one must either himself have seen or heard the facts related, or have the testiinony, direct or indirect, of wit- nesses or of well-informed contemporaries. The sources of historic knowledge are mainly comprised in oral tradition^ or in some form of written records. Tradition is exposed to the infirmities of memory, and to the unconscious invention and distortion which grow out of imagination and feeling. Ordi- narily, bare tradition, not verified by corroborative proofs, can not be trusted later than the second generation from the circumstances narrated. It ceases to be reliable when it has been transmitted through more than two hands. In the case of a great and startling event, like a destructive convulsion of nature or a protracted war, the authentic story, though unwritten, of the central facts, at least, is of much longer duration. There may be visible monuments that serve to perpetuate the recollection of the occurrences which they commemo- rate. Institutions may exist — popular festivals and the like — which keep alive the memory of past events, and, in certain circumstances, are sutficient to verify them to generations far removed in time. Events of a stirring char- acter, when they are embodied in songs of an early date, may be transmitted orally, though in a poetic dress. Songs and legends, it may be added, even when they do not suffice to verify the incidents to which they refer, are valuable as disclosing the sentiments and habits of the times when they ori- ginated, or were cherished. The central fact, the nucleus of the tradition, may be historical when all the details belonging with it have been effaced, or have been superseded by other details, the product of imagination. The historical student is to distinguish between traditionary tales which are ?/«- trustwort]iy throughout, and traditions which have their roots i}i fact. Apart from oral tradition, the sources of historical knowledge are the following : — 1. Contemporary registers, chronicles, and other documents, either now, or known to have been originally, in a manuscript form. 2. Inscriptions on monuments and coins. Such, for example, are the in- scriptions on the monuments of Egypt and on the buried ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. Such are the ancient epitaphs, heathen and Christian, in the Roman catacombs. The study of ancient inscriptions of various sorts has thrown much light of late upon Grecian and Roman antiquity. 3. The entire literature of a people, in which its intellectual, moral, and social condition, at any particular era, is mirrored. 4. Material structures of every kind, as altars, tombs, private dwellings, — as those uncovered at Pompeii, — public edifices, civil and religious, paintings, weapons, household utensils. These all tell a story relative to the knowl- edge and taste, the occupations and domestic habits, and the religion, of a past generation or of an extinct people. 5. Language is a memorial of the past, of the more value since it is not the product of deliberate contrivance. Comparative philolog)\ following lan- guages back to their earlier stages and to the parent stocks, unveils the con- dition of society at remote epochs. It not only describes the origin of nations, but teaches something respecting their primitive state. INTRODUCTION. ■ 7 6. Histories written at former periods, but subsequently to the events de- scribed in them, are a secondary but valuable source of historical knowledge. This is especially true when their authors had access to traditions that were nearer their fountain, or to literary monuments which have perished. Historical Criticism. — Historical scholars are much more exacting as regards evidence than was formerly the case. The criticism of what purports to be proof is more searching. At the same time, what is called " historical divination " can not be altogether excluded. Learned and sagacious scholars have conjectured the existence of facts, where a gap in recorded history — " the logic of events" — seemed to presuppose them; and later discoveries have verified the guess. This is analogous to the success of Leverrier and Adams in inferring the existence of an unknown planet, which the telescope afterwards discovered. An example of historical divina- tion on a large scale is furnished by the theories of the great German historian, Niebiihr, in respect to early Roman history. He oropounded opinions, however, which in many particulars fail to obtain general assent at present. Credibility of History. — At the opposite pole from credulity is an unwarrantable historical skepticism. The story is told of Sir Walter Raleigh, that when he was a prisoner in the Tower, and was engaged in writing his History of the World, he heard the sounds of a fracas in the prison-yard. On inquiry of those who were concerned in it, and were on the spot, he found so many contradictions in their statements that he could not get at the truth. Where- upon, it occurred to him as a vain thing to undertake to describe what had occurred on the vast theater of the world, when he could not ascertain the truth about an event occurring within a bow-shot. The anecdote simply illustrates, however, the difficulty of getting at the exact truth respecting details, — a difficulty constantly exemplified in courts of justice. The fact of the conflict in the court of the Tower, the general cause, the parties engaged, the consequences, — as, for example, what punishment was inflicted, — were undisputed. The great facts which influence the course of history, it is not difficult to ascertain. Aloreover, as against an extrav- agant skepticism, it may be said that history provides us with a vast amount of authentic information which contemporaries, and even individual actors, were not possessed of. This is through the bringing to light of documents from a great variety of sources, many of which were secret, or not open to the view of all the leaders in the transactions to which they refer. The private correspondence of the Protestant leaders, — Luther, Melanchthon, Cranmer, etc., — the letters of Erasmus, the official , reports of the Venetian ambassadors, the letters of William the Silent and of Philip II., put us in possession of much information, which at the time was a secret to most of the prominent participants in the events of the sixteenth century. The correspondence of Washington, Hamilton, Jeflerson, John Adams, Wolcott, Pickering, etc., introduces us into the secret counsels of the American political leaders of that day. Numerous facts conveyed from one to another under the seal of privacy, and not known to the others, are thus revealed to us. On the nature and value of tradition, a very valuable discussion is that of Ewald, History of Israel, vol. i. pp. 13-38; Sir G. C. Lewis, Essays on the Credibility of Early Roman History, in which Niebuhr's conclusions are criticised; A. Bisset, Essays on Historical Truth. On the sources of history, Art. by Gairdner in The Contemporary Review, vol. xxxviii. History and Geography — Political Geography, which describes the earth as inhabited, and as parceled out among nations, has a close relation to history. Without a distjnct idea of the position of places and the boundaries of countries, historical narrations are enveloped in a sort of haze. France, for example, is a name with very different meanings at different dates in the past. Un- less the varying uses of the word Burgundy are understood, im- portant parts of European history are left in confusion. Physical Geography. — Even more helpful is Physical Geogra- phy, which surveys the earth in its three great divisions, — land, sea, and air, — without reference to lines of political demarkation. The configuration of the different portions of the globe, with the varieties of climate, the relations of mountain and plain, of land and water, have strongly affected the character of nations and the currents of history. In regions extremely hot or extremely cold man can not thrive, or build up a rich and enduring civilization. The occupations of a people are largely dependent on its situa- 8 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. tion, — whether it be maritime or away from the sea, — and on peculiarities of soil and temperature. The character of the Nile valley, and its periodical inundation, is a striking illustration of the possible extent of geographical influences. The peninsular and mountainous character of Greece went far to shape the form of Greek political society. The high plateau which forms the greater portion of Spain, with the fertile belts of valley on the Atlantic and Mediterranean border, have helped to determine the employments and the character of the Spanish people. Had the physical characteristics of the Spanish peninsula been essen- tially different, the success of Wellington in expelling the French, with the forces at his disposal, would not have been possible. Were there a chain of mountains along our Atlantic coast as near as are the Andes to the Pacific, what different results would have arisen from the English settlements in North America ! The Al- pine barrier in the north of Italy was indispensable to the building- up and maintenance of the dominion of ancient Rome. Of the great basin or plain between the Alps and the Apennines, open to the sea only on the east, through which flows one great river, fed by streams from the mountains on either side. Dr. Arnold says : " Who can wonder that this large and richly watered plain should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should have been contended for so often by successful invaders?" While the agency of climate, soil, and other physical circumstances may easily be exaggerated, that agency must be duly considered in accounting for historical phenomena. The best historical Atlas is the copious German work of VoN Spruner. Freeman's His- torical Geography oj Etirope is a work of great value. Droysen's AUg. Hist. Atlas. Smaller atlases are those of Putzger, Rhode, Appleton's Hist. Atlas, the International, and the Collegiate. Smaller still, Keith Johnston's Crown Atlases and Half-Crown Atlases. On Mediaeval History, Labberton's Atlas; also, Koeppen: in Ancient Geography, Smith's work, Kiepert's, Long's. On Physical Geography, Guvot's text-books; Vaughan's Connection between History and Physical Geography, in Contevip. Review, vol. v.; Hall's Methods oJ Studying History, etc., p. 201 seg., Eiicycl. Britt., Art. Geography. Chronology, — An exact method of establishing dates was slowly reached. The invention of eras was indispensable to this end. The earliest definite time for the datmg of events was established at Babylon, — the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. The Greeks, from about 300 B.C., dated events from the first recorded victory at the Olympic games, 776 B.C. These games occurred every fourth year. Each Olympiad was thus a period of four years. The Romans, though not until some centuries after the founding of Rome, dated from that event; i.e., from 753 B.C. The Mohammedan era begins at the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed to Mecca, 622 B.C. The method of dating from the birth of Jesus was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, about the middle of the sixth century. This epoch was placed by him about four years too late. This requires us to fix the date of the birth of Christ at 4 B.C. The day was the simplest and earliest division of time. The week has been in use for this purpose in the East from time immemorial. It was not introduced among the Romans until after the spread of Christianity in the Empire. The month was the earlier unit for periods of greater length. To make the lunar and the solar years correspond, and to determine the exact length of the solar year, was a work of dfficulty, and was only gradually eflected. Julius INTRODUCTION. 9 Cmsar reformed the calendar in 46 B.C., the date of the Julian era. This made the year eleven minutes too long. Pope Gregory XIU. corrected the reckoning, in 1582, by ordering Oct. 5th to be called the 15th, and instituted the " Gregorian calendar." The change, or the " New Style," was subsequently adopted by Great Britain (in 1752), and by the other Protes- tant nations. The diflerence for the present century between the Old and the New Style is twelve days: during the last century it was eleven. The Julian civil year began with Jan. i. It was not until the eighteenth century that this became the uniform date for the commence- ment of the legal year among the Latin Christian nations. On the general subjects of chronology: Eiicycl. Briti., Arts. Chronology and Calendar. Manuals of Reference: Rosse's Index 0/ Dates (1858) ; Haydn's Dictionary of Dates (Vin- cent's edition, i865) ; Blair's Chronological Tables; Woodward and Gates, Encycl. of Chro- nology (1872). ETHNOLOGY. Ethnology is a new science. Its function is to ascertain the origin and filiation, the customs and institutions, of the various nations and tribes which make up, or have made up in the past, the human race. In tracing their relationship to one another, or their genealogy, the sources of information are mainly three, — physical characteristics, language, and writtefi memorials of every sort. Ethnology is a branch of Anthropology, as this is a subdivision of Zoology, and this, again, of Biology. Ethnography differs from Ethnology in dealing more with details of description, and less with rational exposition. Races of Mankind. — Authorities differ widely from one another in their classification of races. Prichard made seven, which were reduced by Cuvier to three ; viz., Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethi- opic. Bliimenbach made five, and Pickering eleven. It is the Caucasian variety which has been chiefly distinguished in history, and active in the building-up of civilization. None of the numer- ous schemes of division, from a zoological point of view, however, are satisfactory. Httxley has proposed a fourfold classification : i. The Australoid, represented by the Aus- tralians and the indigenous tribes of Southern India. 2. The Negroid. 3. The Mongoloid. 4. The Xanthochroi, or fair whites, among whom are comprised most of the inhabitants of Northern Europe. To these are added a fifth variety, the Melanochroi, to which belong a part of the Celts, the Spaniards, Greeks, Arabs, etc. Of the various methods of race-division, A . von Humboldt says: " We fail to recognize any typical sharpness of definition, or any general or well-established principle, in the division of these groups. The extremes of form and color are certainly separated, but without regard to the races which can not be included in any of these classes." (Cosmos, i. 365.) For example, black skin, woolly hair, and a negro-like cast of countenance, are not necessarily connected together. Monogenism. — Zoologists, from the point of view of their own science, now more generally favor the monogejtist doctrine, which traces mankind to a single pair, than the polygenist, which assumed different centers of origin. The present tendencies of natural science, especially since Darwin, are favorable to the monogenist view. " The opinion of modern Zoologists, whose study of the species and breeds of animals makes them the best judges, is* against this view of the several origins of man, for two principal reasons. First, That all tribes of men, from the blackest to the whitest, the most savage to the most cultured, have such general likeness in the structure of their bodies and the working of their minds, as is easiest and best accounted for by their being descended from a common ancestry, however distant. Second, That all the human races, notwithstanding their form and lO UNIVERSAL HISTORY. color, appear capable of freely intermarrying, and forming crossed races of every combination, such as the millions of mulattoes and mestizoes spnmg in the New World from the mixture of Europeans, Africans, and native Americans; this again points to a common ancestry of all the races of man. We may accept the theory of the unity of mankind as best agreeing v^ith ordinary experience and scientific research.' (Tyler's AtUhropology, etc., pp. 5, 6.) Evidence of Language. — Languages, through marked affinities, are grouped together into several great famihes. i. The Aryan, or Indo-European, of which the oldest known branch is the Sanskrit, the language in which the ancient books of the Hindus, the Vedas, were written. With the Sanskrit belong the Iranian or Persian, the Greek, the Latin or Italic, the Celtic, the Germanic or Teutonic (under which are included the Scandinavian tongues), the Slavonian or Slavo-Lettic. 2. The Semitic, embracing the communities described in Genesis as the descendants of Shem. Under this head are embraced, first, the Assyrian and Babylonian ; secondly, the Hebrew and Phcenician, with the Syrian or Aramaic ; and thirdly, the Arabic. The Phoenician was spread among numer- ous colonies, of which Carthage was the chief. The Arabic fol- lowed the course of Mohammedan conquest. It is the language of the northern border of Africa, and has strongly affected various other languages, — the Persian, Turkish, etc. 3. The Turanian or Scythian. This is an extensive family of languages. The Finno- Hungarian, which includes two cultivated peoples, the Fins and Hungarians ; the Samoyed, stretching from the North Sea far east- ward to the boundary between Russia and China ; and the Turkish or Tartar, spreading from European Turkey over a great part of Central Asia, are connected together by family ties. They spring from one parent stock. Whether the Mongolian and the Tungusic — the last is the language of the Manchus — are also thus affiliated, is a point not absolutely settled. Besides these three great divisions, there are other languages, as the Chinese, and the monosyllabic tongues of south-eastern Asia, which possibly are connected lineally with it ; the Japanese ; the Malay- Polynesiari, a well-developed family ; the Hamitic (of which the Egyptian or Coptic is the principal member) ; the Di-a- vidian or South Indian; the South African; the Cent)-al African; the Afnej-ican Indian languages, etc. On language and the divisions of language, W. D WhITNEV, Language, and the Study p/ La7iguage (1867), Oriental and Linguistic Studies (two series, 1872-74), Life and Growth of Language (1875); Art. Philology, in Encycl. Briti., vol. xviii.; Max Miiller's Lectures on the Science of Language (two series), and other writings by the same author. Ethnology and History. — History is generally written from the political ])oint of view. It is the history of nations considered separately and in relation to one another. There are, also, histories of culture. His- tory, from a cultural point of view, without paying regard to national bounda- ries, seeks to unfold the rise and progress of arts and industry, of inventions, of customs, manners, and institutions. It is the history of culture and civili- zation. History, from the ethnological point of view, would describe the migrations and experiences of the different races of men, and the formation INTRODUCTION. II of the various nationalities by these races, through conquest and intermix- ture. Following the divisions of linguistic science, we should have, first, the Egyptian race and their history. Then we should have the Semitic race, in the three eras of their pre-eminence, and in their various branches. Then would come the Aryan, or Indo-European family, whose power, except when interrupted and partially broken by the Mohammedan conquests, has con- tinued to dominate in history since the rise of the ancient Persian Empire. There have been three periods of Semitic ascendency, — the era of the Assyrian and Baby- ' Ionian empires ; that of the Phoenician cities and of Carthage (a Tyrian settlement) , with their colonies ; and that of the Arabic-Mohammedan Conquests. This last epoch falls within the Chris- tian era. In this course of Semitic history would be embraced the narrative of the Israelites, and of their dispersion in ancient and in modern times. The Indo-European, or Aryan family, follows next in order. In recording its history, we should consider, first, its oldest representa- tive of which we have knowledge, — the Indian race, with its literature, its social organization, and its religions, Brahmanism and Buddhism. Then come the Persians, with their religion founded by Zoroaster, and the Armenians. With the fall of the Ancient Persian Empire, the center of power was transferred from Asia to Europe, where it has since continued, though still in the hands of the same Aryan race. The history of the Greeks and of the Romans succeeds; then the history of the three races, — the Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonian, — as they present themselves at the threshold of authentic history. The forming of the several nationalities of Europe would have to be traced: the Slavonian, including Russia and Poland; the Teutonic, comprising England, Holland, Germany, and the Scandinavian peoples (viz., Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland) ; the Romanic or Italic nations (viz., Portugal, Spain, Provence, Italy, Wallachia, the Grisons of Switzerland) , which are the nations the basis of whose languages is the rustic or people's Latin of the middle ages. Such, in brief outline, is the method which history, from the point of view of race affinities, as these are indicated by language, would adopt. Unity of Descent. — Whether mankind are all descended from one pair — the Moftogenist view, or spring from more than one center of origin — the Polygenist view, is a question which philological science can not answer. The facts of language are reconcilable with either doctrine. While cautious philologists are slow in admitting distinct affinities between the generic fami- lies of speech, — as the Semitic and Indo-European, — which would be in- dicative of a common origin, they agree in the judgment, that, on account of the mutability of language, especially when unwritten, and while in its earlier stages, no conclusion adverse to the monogenist doctrine can be drawn from the diversities of speech now existing, or that are known to have existed at any past time. As far as science is concerned, the decision of the question must be left to zoology. The tendencies of natural science at pres- ent, as we have said above, are strongly toward the monogenist view. The variety of physical characteristics not only affords no warrant for assuming diversity of species among men ; they do not even imply diversity of par- entage at the beginning. "Nothing," says Max Mijller, " necessitates the admission of different independent begin- nings for the material elements" [the vocabulary] "of the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech." The same thing Miiller affirms of " the formal elements " [the gram- matical structure] " of these groups of languages." " We can perfectly understand how, either through individual influences or by the wear and tear of speech in its continuous working, the different systems of grammar of Asia and Europe may have been produced." {^Lectures on Language, ist series, p. 340.) The same conclusions are reached by Professor W. D. Whitney, who, while disclaiming for linguistic science the power to prove that the human race in the beginning formed one society, says, that it is " even far more demonstrable" that it can " never prove the variety of human races and origins." (Life and Growth of Language, p. 269.) We know that nations can learn and unlearn a language. The Irish, adopting the lan- guage of their English conquerors, is one of many examples of the same sort in history. What effects upon language took place, prior to recorded history, from the mingling of tribes and peoples, it is impossible to ascertain. The consequences to language, of mixture among different forms of speech, were like those which must have been produced upon the physical man from the mingling of diverse physical types in remote ages. Science, if it has no decided verdict to render, does not stand in conflict with the monogenist doctrine, which has generally been understood to be the teaching of the Scriptures. 12 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. MYTHOLOGY. The polytheistic religions are in themselves a highly interesting part of the history of mankind. In the multiform character that belongs to them we find reflected the peculiar traits of the several peoples among whom they have arisen. The history of religion stands in a close connection with the development of the fine arts, — architecture and sculpture, painting, music, and also poetry. The earliest rhythmical utterance was in hymns to the gods. To worship, all the arts are largely indebted for their birth and growth. This, however, is only one of the ways in which religion is inter- woven with the rise and progress of civilization. By mythology, we mean the collective beliefs of any tribe or nation respecting deities or semi-divine personages. Recent studies in language, or the science oi comparative philology, have thrown light on the origin of mythology, and upon the affinities of different polytheistic religions with one another. Among various nations belonging to the same family (as, for exam- ple, the peoples of the Aryan race), names of gods, and, to some extent, qualities and deeds attributed to them, have been identified. Myths are found to have traveled in different guises from land to land. At the same time, these discoveries have given rise to much unverified theory and conjecture. Too much stress has been laid, by certain writers, on mistakes in language as a source of mythology. In the primitive stage of language, all nouns had a gen- der, &\\.\\er male or female; and verbs, even auxiliary verbs, it is alleged, expressed a^/Ztv'/j' of some sort. On the basis of these facts it has been inferred, that, at a later day, figurative expressions, descriptive of natural changes, were taken as literal ; as if one should interpret the saying, " the sun follows the dawn," as meaning that one person pursues another. By this kind of misunderstanding, it has been thought, a throng of mythological tales arose. By some it is held that the names of animals, which had been given to ancestors, were interpreted liter- ally by their savage descendants, or that traditions of having come from a certain mountain or river caused these natural objects to be mistakenly regarded as actual progenitors. These suggestions are of very limited value in solving the problem of the origin of the ethnic reli- gions. Much, however, has been learned from observing the rites and beliefs of existing savage nations. Not a few religious notions and ceremonies, once in vogue among cultivated heathen peoples, may be plausibly considered a survival from a more remote and barbarous condition of society. That mythology is the product of a mere exaggeration of actual events, or is an allegorical picture, either of the operations of nature or of human traits, is an untenable and obsolete view. We shall not err in defining the main sources of the religions to be, first, the sense of dependence, and the yearning for the fellowship and favor of powers " not ourselves," by which the lot of men is felt to be determined; secondly, the effort to explain the world of nature above and beneath, and the occurrences of life; and thirdly, the personifying instinct which belongs to the childhood of nations as of individuals. This tendency leads to the attributing of conscious life to things inanimate. A like tendency may impel the savage and the child to ascribe mind to the lower animals The fact that language, in its earlier stage, was charged with personal life and activity, is itself the work of the personifying instinct. When nature is thus personified, where there is no sense of its unity and no capacity to rise in faith to a living God above nature, the result is a multitude of divinities of higher and lower rank. Myths respecting them are the spontaneous invention of unreflecting and uncritical, but imaginative, peoples. Thus they ser^-e to indicate the range of ideas, and the moral spirit of those who originate and give credence to them. This is not the place to consider the question, ^V^lat was the primitive religion of man? The earliest deities that history brings to our notice were not fetiches, but heavenly beings of lolty attributes. Whether the religions of savage tribes, in common with their low grade of intelli- gence, are, or are not, the result of degeneracy, is a question which secular history affords no means of deciding with confidence. It may be added, that, in historic eras, the mythopoeic fancy is not inactive. Stories of marvelous adventure clustered about the old Celtic K.ing Arthur of England and the " knights of the Round-Table," and fill up the chronicles relating to Charlemagne. Wherever there is a person who kindles popular enthusiasm, myths accumulate. This is eminently true in an atmosphere like that which prevailed in the mediaeval period, when imagination and emotion were dominant. INTRODUCTION. 1 3 PREHISTORIC TIMES. Prehistoric Relics. — Within the last half century, in various countries of Europe, and in other countries, also, which have been, earlier or later, seats of civilization, there have been found numer- ous relics of uncivilized races, which, at periods far remote, must have inhabited the same ground. Many of these antiquities are met with in connection with remains of fossil elephants, hyenas, bears, etc., — with animals which no longer live in the regions re- ferred to, and some of which have become wholly extinct. Dwelling- places of these far-distant peoples — such as caves and rock-shelters, and the remains of the lake-habitations that were built on piles, in Switzerland and elsewhere — sepulchers, camps, and forts, and an immense number of implements and ornaments of stone and metal, have been examined. The most ancient of these monuments carry us as far back as the era called by geologists the Quaternary or Drift period, jj The Three Stages. — But there are marked distinctions in the relative age of the various relics referred to. They indicate differ- ent degrees of knowledge and skill ; and this proof of a succession of peoples, or of stages of development, is confirmed by geological evidence. The prehistoric time is divided into the Stone Age, the Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron, according as the implements in use were of one or another of these materials. But the Stone Age includes an earlier and a later sub-division. In the first and most ancient section, the weapons and utensils, mostly of flint, were very rude in their manufacture. This was the Paleolithic Age, where there are no signs of habitations constructed by the hand, or of domesticated plants and animals. Men lived in caves, and their vestments were the skins of beasts. Yet, among their implements are found fragments of bone, horn, ivory, and stone, on which are carved in outline, often with much skill, representations of the rein- deer, the bear, the ox, and of other animals. In the Neolithic period, there was a decided advance. Implements are better made and polished. There were domestic animals and cultivated plants. The lake-dwellings in Switzerland were well contrived for shelter and defense. Every hut had its hearth. It is probable that most of them were furnished with a loom for weaving. Fragments of pottery are found, and flax was grown and made into cord, net- tings, etc. Stalls were constructed near the huts for the ox, the goat, the horse, sheep, and pigs. The lake-dwellers cultivated wheat and barley. The Bronze Age, when implements were made of copper or of a mixture of copper and tin, exhibits proof of de- cided improvement in various directions ; and the Age of Iron, a still more marked advance. In the Swiss remains referred to are distinct traces of a transition from the Stone Age to the Age of 14 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Bronze, and then to the Age of Iron. The kitchen-middens, or shell-mounds, of Denmark belong exclusively to the Neolithic period. Where the transition was made from the Stone Age to the Age of Bronze, it apparently occurred in some cases by degrees, and peacefully ; but sometimes by the incoming of an invading people more advanced. It should be observed that the lines of division between these periods are not sharply drawn : implements of stone continued to be used after the Bronze and even the Iron periods had been introduced. Nor were these several ages in one region contemporaneous with like conditions in every other. Moreover, it is not possible to find in all countries once civilized proofs of a passage through these successive eras. In Egypt, the evidences of a Stone Age are scanty. The most ancient human remains show that man in his physical characteristics was on a level with man at present. Dr. Daniel Wilson, speaking of the age of the Flint-folk, says: " It is of no slight impor- tance to perceive that the interval which has wrought such revolutions in the earth" [involving great geological changes and mutations of climate] " as are recorded in the mammaliferous drift, shows man the same reasoning, tentative, and inventive mechanician, as clearly distin- guished then from the highest orders of contemporary life of the Elephantine or Cave periods, as he is now from the most intelligent of the brute creation. . . . The oldest art-traces of the paleotechnic men of central France not only surpass those of many savage races, but they indicate an intellectual aptitude in no degree inferior to the average Frenchman of the nine- teenth century." {Prehistoric Man, pp. 33, 34.) Literature. — Wilson, Prehistoric Ulan, etc. (2 vols., 1876); Joly, Matt before the Metals (1883); Kearv, The Daivn 0/ History. The writings of E. B. Tylor, Primitive Cjilltire (2 vols.), A7ithropology, Early History of Mankind ; his Art. Anthropology, Encycl. Britt. ; Lubbock's Prehistoric Times, and his Origin of Civilization ; Argyll, The Unity of Nature (1884); J. Geikie, Prehistoric Europe (18S1) ; Lyell, The An- tiquity of Man ; W. E. Hearn, Tlie Aryan Household ; L. H. Morgan, Ancient Society. The Antiquity of Man. — Science does not furnish us with the means of fixing the date of the first human inhabitants of the earth. But its various departments of investigation concur in pronouncing the interval between the creation of man and the present to be far longer than the traditional opinion has assumed. For the growth of language and its manifold ramifications ; for the development of the different races of mankind, physically consid- ered ; for the geological changes since the beginning of the Stone Age in the regions where its rehcs are uncovered ; for the rise of the most ancient civilization in Egypt as well as in Babylon and China, — it is thought that periods of very long duration are in- dispensable. As to the date of the Neolithic man, or of the last section of the Stone Age, Professor J. Geikie writes: "Any term of years I might suggest would be a mere guess; but I have written to little purpose, however, if the phe- nomena described in the preceding chapters have failed to leave the impres- sion upon the reader, that the advent of Neolithic man in Europe must date back far beyond fifty or seventy centuries." {Prehistoric Europe, p. 558.) The chronol(\gy gathered from Genesis has been supposed to place the date of man's creation at a point far less remote. Usher's calculation, attached to the authorized English Version of the Bible, sets this date at 4004 B.C. The discussion of these questions of Scriptural chro- nology belongs to theology and biblical criticism. It may be observed here, however, that of INTRODUCTION. 1 5 the three forms in which Genesis is handed down to us, — the Hebrew text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint, or ancient Greek translation, — no two agree in the numbers on which the estimate is foimded. Hence Hales and Jackson, following the larger numbers in the genealogies of the Septuagint, place the date of the creation at a point about fourteen hundred years prior to that fixed upon by Usher. ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, The periods of history are not divided from one another by merely chronological limits, according to intervals of time of a definite duration. Such a classification may be of use to the memory, but it is arbitrary in its character. The landmarks of history are properly placed at the turning-points where new eras take their start, whether the intervals between them are longer or shorter. Of these natural divisions, the most general and the most marked is that between ancient and modem history. Ancient history not only precedes modern in time : it is distinguished from the latter as relating to a by-gone state of things. Modem his- tory, on the contrary, deals with an order of things now existing. Between the two there is this line of demarkation. History (with the exception of China and India, which require distinct consideration, as standing apart) begins with Egypt, and flows down in a continuous stream, until, in the fourth century A.D., the Roman Empire, into which the ancient civilized peoples were incorporated, was broken up. Then the new nations, espe- cially the tribes of the Germanic race, took power into their hands ; Christianity was established among them ; out of the chaos of elements there emerged the European nations, with their offshoots, — the peoples at present on the stage of action. Ancient history had its center in the Mediterranean. It embraced the peoples who dwelt on the shores of that sea, in the three continents, and the nations that were brought into relations with them. The Roman Empire, the final outcome of ancient history, was " the monarchy of the Mediterranean." With the breaking-up of the Empire, new races, new centers of power, a universal religion in the room of national religions, and a new type of culture and civilization, were introduced. Invaluable legacies were handed over from the past, surviving the wreck of ancient civilization. There is, however, a unity in history : the transition from the ancient to the modern era was gradual. MEDLEVAL AND LATER MODERN HISTORY. Since the fall of the Roman Empire, there has occurred no revo- lution to be compared with the circumstances and results of that event. An old world passed away, and a new world began to be. Yet the student, as he travels hitherward, arrives at another epoch of extraordinary change, — a period of ferment, when modem soci- l6 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ety in Europe takes on a form widely different from the character that had belonged to it previously. The long interval between ancient history and modern (in this more restricted sense of the term) is styled the Middle Ages. Its termination may be found in the fifteenth century, and a convenient date to mark the boun- dary-line is the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453). History thus divides itself into three parts : — PART I. Ancient History, to the migrations of the Germanic Tribes (375 A.D). PART II. Medleval History, from A.D. 375 to the Fall of Constantinople (1453). PART III. Modern History, from 1453 until the present. Works on General History. — Ranke, Unh'ersal History; Ploetz, Epiio7ne of Ancient, Mediceval, and Modern History (Boston, 1884); Weber, Wcltgeschichte (2 vols); Ass.mann, Handbuch d. aUgemei}ien Geschiclite (5 vols., 1853-1862); by the same, Abriss d. allgem. Gesch. {in 3 parts) ; Oncken, Allgein. Geschiclite in Rinzeldarstel- lungen (a series of full monographs of high merit). Copious works on Universal History, in German, by Weber, Schlosser, Becker, Leo. Laurent, Etudes sur i'Histoire de I'Hu- manite (this is an extended series of historical dissertations), — The Orient and Greece (2 vols.); Rome (i vol.); Christianity (i vol.), etc. Prevost-Paradol, Essai sur I'His- toire Universale (2 vols. ; a suggestive critical survey of the course of history, with the omission of details) . S. Willard, Synopsis of History. PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. FROM THE BEGINNING OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY TO THE MIGRA- TIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES (A.D. 37S). Divisions of Ancient History. — Ancient history separates itself into two main divisions. In tlie first the Oriental nations form the subject ; in the second, which follows in the order of time, the European peoples, especially Greece and Rome, have the central place. The first division terminates, and the second begins, with the rise of Grecian power and the ' great conflict of Greece with the Persian Empire, 492 B.C. Sections of Oriental History. — But Oriental history divides itself into two distinct sections. The first embraces China and India, nations apart, and disconnected from the Mediterranean and adjacent peoples. China and India have a certain bond of connection with one another through the spread in China of the Buddhistic religion. The second section includes the great em- pires which preceded, and paved the way for, European history ; viz., Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, and Persia. In this section, along the course of the historic stream, other nations which exer- cised a powerful influence, attract special attention, especially the Phoenicians and the Hebrews. All these Oriental peoples are so connected together that they stand in history as the Earliest Group of Nations. The historic narrative must be so shaped as to describe them in part singly, but, at the same time, in their mutual relations. Ancient history, from an ethnographical point of view, would embrace two general divisions, — Eastern peoples and Western peoples. The first would comprise Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic); Hindus, Bac- trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan) ; Parthians, Chinese, Japanese. The second would incluJe Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). (Ploetz, Universal History, p. i.) From 3. geographical -poml of view, ancient history would fall into three general divisions: I. Asia, including (i) India, (2) China (with Japan), (3) Babylonia and Assyria, (4) Phoe- nicia, (5) Palestine, (6) Media and Persia. II. Africa, including (i) Egypt, (2) Carthage. III. Europe, including (i) Greece, with its states and colonies; (2) Italy. \ ' 17 Division I. ORIENTAL HISTORY. Physical Geography. — Europe and Asia together form one vast continent, yet have a partial boundary between them in the Ural Mountains and River, and in the deep bed of the Caspian and Black seas. Asia, which extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific, and from the Arctic Sea to the Indian Ocean, embraces an immense plateau, stretching from the Black Sea to Corea. This plateau spreads like a fan as it advances eastward. It is traversed by chains of mountains, and bordered also by lofty mountains, of which the Himalayas is the principal range. From this girdle of mountains descend slopes which lead down into th'e lowlands. The great plateau is broken into two by the Hin- du-Kush range. The eastern division, the extensive plateau of Central Asia, is bordered on the north by the barren plains of Siberia. In the lowlands on the east and south are included the fertile plains of Central China and of Hindustan. The pla- teau of eastern Asia has been the natural abode of nomad tribes, Tartars and Mongols, whose invading hosts have poured through the passes of the mountains into the inviting territories below. The plateau of western Asia, stretching westward from the Indus, is not so high as that of the east. It begins with the lofty table- lands of Iran, and extends, ordinarily at a less elevation, to the extremity of the continent. On the south lie the plains of Mesopotamia. Arabia is a low plateau of vast extent, connected by the plateau and mountains of Syria with the mountain region of Asia Minor. As might be expected, civilization sprang up in the alluvial valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, and on the soil watered by the great rivers of China, the Hoang-Ho and the Yang-tse-Kiang. Egypt was looked on by the Ancients as a part of Asia. Its language was distinct from the languages of the African nations. The seat of its power and thrift was the valley of the Nile. The conflicts of the nations settled in the lowlands with the mountainous peoples, eager for spoil and conquest, are a characteristic feature of Oriental His- tory. CHINA. 23 extended on the west as far as Russian Turkestan. In this period, there was a marked revival of learning and authorship. Then lived a famous public officer, Vang Chen, who, when asked to take a bribe, and assured that no one would know it, answered, " How so ? Heaven would know, Earth would know, you would know, and I should know." Under this dynasty, a custom of burying slaves with the dead wa^^abolished. Beginning in 221 B.Crr "there followed the " era of the three kingdoms." It was an age of martial prowess, civil war, and bloodshed. This long period of division was interrupted in 265 A.D. by a re-union of the greater part of the empire for a brief period. But discord soon sprang up ; and it was not until 590 A.D. that unity and order were restored by Yang-Kian, who founded the dynasty, named from his local dominion, Suy. Religion in China. — The ancient religion of China was poly- theistic. The supreme divinity was called Tien or Shang-ti. Tien signifies Heaven. Was Heaven, or Shang-ti — or the Lord — the visible heaven, the expanse above, clothed with the attribute of personality? This has been, and still is, the prevailing opinion of missionaries and scholars. Dr. Legge, however, holds that Tien is the lord of the heavens, a power above the visible firmament ; and thus finds monotheism as the basis of the Chinese religious creed. The prevailing religions of China are three, — Buddhism (which in its original form was brought in from India in the first century of the Christian era), Confucianism, and Taouism. It may be observed, that, in all these systems, there is but a vague sense of personality as inhering in the heavenly powers, in comparison with the creeds in vogue among heathen nations generally. Another fact to be noted is, that, in Chinese worship, the veneration for ancestors, a feeling inbred in the Chinese mind, is a very prominent and pervading element. Confucius did not profess to reveal things supernatural. His teaching is made up of moral and political maxims. He builds on the past, and always inculcates reverence for the fathers and for what has been. There is much wise counsel to parents and to rulers. His morality reaches its acme in the Golden Rule, which he gives, however, only in its negative relation : " Do not unto others what you would not that others should do unto you." Laou-tsze is a more speculative and mystical thinker. In his moral aphorisms, he approaches the theory of the ancient Stoics. Teh — i.e., virtue — is lauded. Teh proceeds from Tao. To explain what the Chinese sage means by Tao, — a word that signifies the " way," — is a puzzle for commentators and inquirers. From Tao all things originate : they conform to Tao, and to Tao they return. There are noble maxims in Laou-tsze, — precepts enjoining com- 24 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. passion, and condemning the requital of evil with evil. Taouism is a type of religion which traces itself to the teaching of Laou-tsze. That teaching became mixed with wild speculations. Then cer- tain Buddhistic rites and tenets were added to it. The result, finally, was a compound of knavery and superstition. Taouism is at once mystical and rationalistic in its tone. Literature in China. — The Chinese language was crystallized, in the written form, in the monosyllabic stage of its development. Beginning in hieroglyphs, literal pictures of objects, and having no alphabet, it has so multiplied its characters and combinations of characters as to put great hindrances in the way of the acquisition of it. The utter absence of inflection may have crippled the devel- opment of poetry and of the drama, for which the Chinese ha\-e a natural taste. In these departments, Chinese productions do not rise above mediocrity. For this, however, the lack of imagination and of creative power is largely accountable. It is in the province of pure prose — as in historical narrations, topogi'aphical writings, such as geographies, and in the making of encyclopedias — that the Chinese have excelled. But the yoke of tradition has ever}^vhere weighed heavily. In one sense, the Chinese have been a literary people. The system of competitive examinations for public offices has diffused through the nation a certain degree of book-learning ; yet the masses have been kept in a state of ignorance. At the foundation of all learning are the " nine classics," which consist of five works, edited or written by Confucius, of which the " Shoo King," or Book of History, stands at the head, together wiih the four books written by his disciples and the disciples of Mencius. Great as have been the services of Confucius, his own sla\'ish rev- erence for the past, so stamped upon his writings, has had the effect to cramp the development of the Chinese mind, and to fasten upon it the fetters of tradition. Government and Civilization. — The government of China is " a patriarchal despotism." As father of his people, the king has absolute authority. The power of life and death is in his hand. Yet the right of revolution was taught by Confucius and Mencius, and the Chinese have not been slow to exercise it. The powers of the emperor are limited by ceremonial regulations, and by a body of precedents which are held sacred. He administers rule with the help of a privy council. Officers of every rank in the employ of the government constitute the aristocratic class of Mandarins, who are divided into different ranks. Invention. — Printing by wooden blocks was known in China as early as the sixth century A.D. Printing did not come into general use until the thirteenth century. The use of movable types, although devised, it is said, many centuries earlier, did not come into vogue until the seventeenth century. Gunpowder was INDIA. 25 used as early as 250 A.D., in the making of fire-crackers ; but it was certainly as late as the middle of the twelfth century that it was first employed in war. The Chinese were early acquainted with the polarity of the loadstone, and used the compass in jour- neys by land long before that instrument was known in Europe. In various branches of manufactures, — as silk, porcelain, carved work in ivory, wood, and horn, — the Chinese, at least until a recent period, have been pre-eminent. In the mechanical arts their prog- ress has been slow. Their crude implements of husbandry are in contrast with their exhibitions of skill in other directions. Al- though imitation long ago supplanted the activity of inventive talent, to China belongs the distinction of being a civihzed land before the Christian nations of Europe had emerged into being. Literature. — The Middle Kingdom, by S. Wells Williams (2 vols.) ; Encycl. Britt., Art. China by Professor Douglas; Arts. Confucius and Mencius by Dr. Legge; Legge, The Religions of China; Richthofen, China (3 vols.) ; Giles, Historic Cliina, and Other Sketches (1882) ; Legge, The Chineie Classics; Boulger, History of China (1881-84) > Thornton, History of China. Japan. — The authentic history of Japan belongs mainly in the modern period, since the tenth century A.D. The most ancient religion of Japan, designated by a term which means " the way of the gods," included a vari- ety of objects of worship, — gods, deified men, the mikados, or chief rulers, regarded as "the sons of heaven," animals, plants, etc. Unquestioning obedience to the mikado was the primary religious duty. It was a state- religion. Buddhism, brought into the country in 552 A.D., spread, and became prevalent. The Japanese are a mixed race. Kioto and the adjacent provinces are said to have been occupied by the conquerors. Prior to 660 B.C. we have no trustworthy history of the island. This is the date assigned by the Japa- nese to their hero, yim?nii Tenno, the first mikado, the founder of an unbroken line. For several centuries, however, the history is open to ques- tion. The tenth mikado, Sujin, is noted as a reformer, and promoter of civilization. An uncrowned princess, Jijigu-Kogo (201-269 A.D.), is famous for her military prowess. She suppressed a rebellion, and subdued Corea. Ojin, a celebrated warrior, is still worshiped as a god of war. The intro- duction of Chinese literature and civilization at this period, makes a turning- point in Japanese history. Literature. — J. J. Rein, fapan: Travels and Researches, vol. i. (18S1) ; E. J. Reed, Japan (2 vols., 1880); Siebold, Nippon (5 vols. 4to, and plates); Kampfer, History of Japan (2 vols, fol., 1728) ; Encycl. Britt., Art. Japan. CHAPTER II. INDIA. India is the central one of the three great peninsulas of Southern Asia. On the north is the mountainous region of the Himalayas, below which are the vast and fertile river plains, watered by the Indus, the Ganges, and other streams. On the south, separated 26 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. from the Ganges by the Vindhya range, is the hilly and moun- tainous tract called the Deccan. The Aryan Invaders. — The history of India opens with glimpses of a struggle on the borders of the great rivers, — first of the Indus and then of the Ganges, — between an invading race, the Sanskrit- speaking Aryans from the north-west, and the dusky aborigines. These rude native tribes have left few relics but their tombs. Be- fore they tenanted the soil, there dwelt upon it still earlier inhab- itants, whose implements were of stone or bronze. The incoming people referred to above were of that Indo-European stock to which we belong. From their camping-ground in central Asia, they moved in various directions. A part built up the Persian king- dom ; another portion migrated farther, and were the progenitors of the Greek nation ; and a third founded Rome. The Indian Aryans migrated southward from the headwaters of the Oxus at some time prior, doubtless, to 2000 B.C. Our knowledge of them is derived from their ancient sacred books, the Vedas ; of these the oldest, the Rig- Veda, contains ten hundred and seventeen lyrics, chiefly addressed to the gods. Its contents were composed while the Aryans dwelt upon the Indus, and while they were on their way to the neighborhood of the Ganges. The Rig- Veda, therefore, exhibits this people in their earliest stage of religious and social development. They were herdsmen, but with a martial spirit, which enabled them by degrees to drive out the native tribes, and compel them to take refuge in the mountains on the north, or on the great southern plateau. Among them women were held in respect, and marriage was sacred. There are beau- tiful hymns written by ladies and queens. No such cruel custom as the burning of widows existed : it was of far later origin. They were acquainted with the metals. Among them were blacksmiths, coppersmiths, goldsmiths, carpenters, and other artisans. They fought from chariots, but had not come to employ elephants in war. They were settled in villages and in towns. Mention is made of ships, or river-boats, as in use among them. They ate beef, and drank a sort of fermented beer made from the soma plant. The Vedic Religion. — The early religion of the Indian Aryans was quite different from the system that grew up later among them. We do not find in it the dreamy pantheism that appears afterwards. It is cheerful in its tone, quite in contrast with the gloomy asceticism which is stamped on it in after times. The head of each family is priest in his own household. It is only the great tribal sacrifice which is offered by priests set apart for the service. The worship is polytheistic, but not without tendencies to monotheism. The principal divinities are the powers of nature. The deities {deva) were the heavenly or the shining ones. " It was the beautiful phenomenon of light which first and most power- INDIA. 27 fully swayed the Aryan mind." The chief gods were the Father- heaven ; Indra, the god of thunder and of rain, from whom the refreshing showers descended ; Varuna, the encompassing sky ; and Agni, the god of fire. Among these Indra, from his beneficence, more and more attracted worship. Soma, too, was worshiped ; soma being originally the intoxicating juice of a plant. Brihaspati, the lord of prayer, personifying the omnipresent power of prayer, was adored. Thirty-three gods in all were invoked. The bodies of the dead were consumed on the funeral-pile. The soul survived the body, but the later doctrine of transmigration was unknown. All the attributes of sovereign power and majesty were collected in Varuna. No one can fathom him, but he sees and knows all. He is the upholder of order ; just, yet the dispenser of grace, and merciful to the penitent. Worship is made up of oblations and prayers. It must be sincere. The gods will not tolerate deceit. They require faith. Of the last things and the last times the Rig- Veda hardly speaks. The Vedic hymns have much to say of the origin of things, but little, except in the last book, of the final issues. There are four Vedas, — the Rig- Veda, which has the body of hymns ; the Yajur- Veda, in which the prescribed formulas to be used in acts of sacrifice are collected : the Sama-Veda, containing the chants; and the Atharva-Veda, a collection of hymns, in part of a later date. Besides, each Veda contains, as a second part, one or more Brdhniaiias, or prose treatises on the ceremonial system In addition, there are theological works supplementary, and of later origin, — the intermediate Aratiyakas, and the Upanishads, which are of a speculative cast. Not only is nature — mountains, rivers, trees, etc. — personified in the Vedas : the animals — as the cow, tiie horse, the dog, even the apparatus of worship, the war-chariot, the plow, and the furrow — are addressed in prayer. The sacrificial fire is deified in Agni, the sacrificial drink in Soma. Indra has for his body-guards the Maruts, gods of the storm and lightning. He is a warlike god, standing in his chariot, but also a beneficent giver of all good gifts. Varuna is the god of the vast luminous heavens, in tlreir serene ma- jesty. Indra, on the other hand, represents the atmosphere in its active and militant energy. The number of the gods is variously given. In passages, they are said to be many thousands. Rites. — There is no hierarchy among the gods. But there is a tendency to confuse the attributes of the different divinities. Occasionally, for the time being, one eclipses all the rest, and is addressed as if all others were forgotten. There is sometimes a tendency to regard them as all one, under different names. But this tendency develops itself later. Offerings consisted of rice, cakes, soma, etc. Victims also were sacrificed, the horse especially; also the goat, the buffalo, and other animals. Sacrifice purchases the gifts and favor of the gods. It is an expression of gratitude and dependence. It has, moreover, a deep, mysterious energy of an almost magical character. The Aryans on the Ganges. — Later, but earlier than 1000 B.C., we find that the Aryan invaders have moved onward in their career of conquest, and have planted themselves on the plains of the Ganges. A marvelous transformation has taken place in their social constitution, their religion, and in their general spirit. The caste system has sprung up, of which there are few traces in the 28 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Rig-Veda. In the first or lowest of these distinct classes are the Sudras, or despised serfs, who are the subjugated aborigines ; the second, or next higher, class is composed of the tillers of the soil, who are of a lower rank than the third, the warrior caster- These, in turn, fall below the Brahmans, or priests, who, as rites of worship grew more complicated, and superstition increased, gained, though not without a struggle, a complete ascendency. This marks the beginning of the sacerdotal era. The tendency of the farmer caste was to decrease, until, in modern times, in various provinces they are hardly found. The supremacy of the Brahmans was largely owing to their eminence as the great literary caste. They arose out of the families by whom the hymns had been com- posed, and who managed the tribal sacrifices. They alone under- stood the language of the hymns and the ritual. Brahman, in the earliest Veda, signifies a worshiper. Brahminical Pantheism. — The polytheism of the earlier type of religion was converted into pantheism. BraJima, the supreme being, is impersonal, the eternal source of all things, from which all finite beings — gods, nature, and men — emanate. It is by emanation, — an outflow analogous to that of a stream from its fountain, in distinction from creation, implying will and self-con- sciousness, — that all derived existences emerge into being. With this doctrine was connected the belief in the transmigration of souls. All animated beings, including plants as well as animals, partake of the universal life which has its origin and seat in Brahma. Alienation from Brahma, finite, individual being, is evil. To work the way back to Brahma is the great aim and hope. Absorption in Brahma, return to the primeval essence, is the supreme good. The sufferings of the present are the penalty of sins committed in a pre-existent state. If they are not purged away, the soul is con- demned to be embodied again and again, — it may be, in some repul- sive animal. This process of metempsychosis might be repeated far into the indefinite future. With the doctrine of Brahma and of transmigration was connected the feeling that all life is sacred. The Brahman spared even trees and plants from destruction. Pol- lution or defilement might be contracted in a great \'ariety of ways. There grew out of these ideas of sin, rigorous penances, most painful forms of self-torment. It was only by practices of this sort that there was hope of avoiding the retribution so much dreaded. The Brahminical Codes. — The principal of these codes is the Laws of Mann. Manu was imagined to be the first human being, conceived of as a sage. This code is a digest compiled by the priests at a date unknown, but comprising in it materials of a very high antiquity. Hence, while exhibiting Brahmanism in its maturer form, it affords glimpses of society at a much earlier date. A sec- ond code was compiled not earlier than the second century A.D. INDIA. 29 These codes present Hindu law under three heads : (i) domestic and civil rights and duties, (2) the administration of justice, (3) purification and penance. In truth, the codes prescribe regula- tions for every department of life. The obligations of kings, of Brahmans, and of every other class, are defined in detail. One motive that is kept in view is to set forth and fortify the special privileges of the Brahminical order. The Philosophy of the Brahmans. — In process of time, commenta- ries on the Vedas were multiplied. Discord arose in the interpretation of the sacred books. Out of this debate and confusion there emerged, in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., several philosophical systems. These aimed to give peace to the soul by emancipating it from the bondage of matter, and by imparting a sense of independence of the body and of the external world. These old philosophies are preserved in the Upanishads, or Instructions. The main idea in these diverse systems — the Satikhya, the Vedanta, etc. — is, that the soul's notion of itself as separate from the supreme, impersonal heing, is the fallen state. This duality must be over- come. Conscious of its identity with the Supreme, the soul enters into yoga, or the state of unison with the Infinite. He who is thus taken away from the illusions of sense, or the yogin, is free from the power of things perishable. Death brings a complete absorption into the source of all being. It is the bliss of personal extinction. This sort of philosophy attached great value to contemplation and self-renunciation. It led to a light esteem of ritual practices and ceremonies. BUDDHISM. The Brahminical system has not ceased to maintain its suprem- acy in India since the time when it was presented to view in the law-codes. But it has not escaped alteration and attack. New movements, religious and political, have appeared to modify its character. Of these. Buddhism is by far the most memorable. The Life of Buddha. — Of the fife of Buddha we have only legendary information, where it is impossible to separate fact from romance. The date of his death was between 482 and 472 B.C. He was then old. He belonged to the family of Gautamas, who were said to be of the royal line of the Qakyas, a clan having its seat about a hundred and thirty-seven miles north of Benares. The story is, that, brought up in luxury, and destined to reign, he was so struck with the miseries of mankind, that, at the age of twenty- nine, he left his parents, his young wife, and an only son, and retired to a solitary life to meditate upon the cause of human suffering. From Brahminical teachers he could obtain no solution of the problem. But after seven years of meditation and struggle, during which sore temptations to return to a life of sense and of ease were successfully resisted, he attained to truth and to peace. For forty- four years after this he is said to have promulgated his doctrine, gathering about him disciples, whom he charged with the duty of spreading it abroad. The Buddhistic Doctrine. — Buddhism was not a distinct revolt against the reigning system of rehgion. Buddha left theology to the Brahmans. Indra, Agni, and the other divinities, and the ser- 30 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. vices rendered to them, he left untouched. Being an anchorite, he was not required to concern himself with the rites and observ- ances in which others took part. His aim was practical. His doctrine, though resting on a theoretical basis, was propounded simply as a way of salvation from the burdens that oppressed the souls of men. Nor did he undertake a warfare against caste. The blessing of deliverance from the woes of life he opened to all without distinction. This was the limit of his opposition to caste. The Road to Nirvana. — Buddha taught, ( i ) that existence is always attended with misery; (2) that all modes of misery re- sult from passion, or desire unsatisfied ; (3) that desire must be quenched ; (4) that there are four steps in doing this, and thus of arriving at Nirvana, which is the state in which self is lost and absorbed, and vanishes from being. These four ways are (i) the awakening to a perception of the nature and cause of evil, as thus defined; (2) the consequent quenching of impure and revengeful feelings; (3) the stifling of all other evil desires, also riddance from ignorance, doubt, heresy, unkindliness, and vexa- tion ; (4) the entrance into Nirvana, sooner or later, after death. The great boon which Buddha held out was escape from the hor- rors of transmigration. He attributed to the soul no substantial existence. It is the Karma, or another being, the successor of one who dies, the result and effect of all that he was, who re-appears in case of transmigration. Buddhism involved atheism, and the denial of personal immortality, or, where this last tenet was not explicitly denied, uncertainty and indifference respecting it. On the foundation of Buddha's teaching, there grew up a vast system of monasticism, with ascetic usages not less burdensome than the yoke of caste. The attractive feature of Buddhism was its moral precepts. These were chiefly an inculcation of chastity, patience, and compassion ; the unresisting endurance of all ills ; sympathy and efficient help for all men. Deification of Buddha. — By the pupils of Buddha he was glo- rified. He was placed among the Brahminical gods, by whom he was served. A multitude of cloisters were erected in his honor, in which his relics were believed to be preserved. On the basis of the simpler doctrine and precepts of the founder, there accumu- lated a mass of superstitious beliefs and obsen-ances. The Spread of Buddhism. — After the death of Buddha, it is said that his disciples, to the number of five hundred, assembled, and divided his teaching into three branches, — his own words, his rules of discipline, and his system of doctrine. During the next two centuries Buddhism spread over northern India. One of the most conspicuous agents in its diffusion was Asoka, the king of Behar, who was converted to the Buddhistic faith, and published INDIA. 31 its tenets throughout India. His edicts, in which they were set forth, were engraved on rocks and pillars and in caves. He or- ganized missionary efforts among the aborigines, using only peace- ful means, and combining the healing of disease, and other forms of philanthropy, with preaching. He carried the Buddhistic faith as far as Ceylon. It spread over Biinnah (450 A.D.). Siani was converted (638 A. D.), and Java between the fifth and seventh centuries of our era. Through Central Asia the Buddhistic mis- sionaries passed into China in the second century B.C., and Buddhism became an established system there as early as 65 A.D. At present, this religion numbers among its professed adherents more than a third of the human race. The Brahminical Re-action. — In India Buddhism did not sup- plant- the old religion. The Brahmans modified their system. They made their theology more plain to the popular apprehen- sion. They took up Buddhistic speculations into their system. But they rendered their ceremonial practices more complex and more burdensome. Their ascetic rule grew to be more exacting and oppressive. In diffusing and making popular their system, customs, like the burning of widows, were introduced, which were not known in previous times. The divinities, Brahma, the author of all things, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, were brought into a relation to one another, as a sort of triad. Suc- cessive incarnations of Vishnu became an article of the creed, Krishna being one of his incarnate names. For centuries Brah- manism and Buddhism existed together. Gradually Buddhism de- cayed, and melted into the older system ; helping to modify its character, and thus to give rise to modern Hinduism. For ten centuries Buddhism, with multitudinous adherents abroad, has had no existence in the land of its birth, ^x ' The Greek-Roman Period. — In 327 AT.©., Alexatider the Great advanced in his victorious career as far as India, entered the Pun- jab, which was then divided among petty kingdoms, and defeated one of the kings, Porus, who disputed the passage of the river Jhelum. The heat of the climate and the reluctance of his troops caused the Macedonian invader to turn back from his original design of penetrating to the Ganges. Near the conflu- ence of the five rivers he built a town, Alexandria. He founded, also, other towns, established alliances, and left garrisons. On the death of Alexander (323 B.C.) and the division of his empire, Bactria and India fell to the lot of Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian monarchy. About this time a new kingdom grew up in the valley of the Ganges, under the auspices of Chandra Gupti, a native. After various conflicts, Seleucus ceded the Greek settlements in the Punjab to this prince, to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. The successors of Seleucus sent Grseco- 32 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Bactrian expeditions into India. Thus Greek science and Greek art exerted a perceptible influence in Hindustan. During tlie first six centuries of the Christian era, Scythian hordes poured down into northern India. They were stoutly resisted, but effected settle- ments, and made conquests. The events as well as the dates of the long struggle are obscure. The non-Aryan races of India, both on the north and on the south of the Ganges, many of whom received the Buddhistic faith, were not without a marked influence — the precise lines of which it is difficult to trace — upon the his- tory and life of India during the period of Greek and Scythic oc- cupation and warfare. The Dravidian people in southern India, made up of non- Aryans, number at present forty-six millions. Literature. — Mill's History of India (Wilson's edition, 9 vols.): Momer Williams, Indian Wisdom; Max Muller's ///rfory of Sanskrit Literature ; Earth's The Religions of India, 1882; Eucycl. Britt., Arts. India, Brahtnanism, Buddhism. rf Tt=r-_^l?r;M_^ " Z^ 52 n'l' i 31 7i^ ^HebrpDi; 9Ai e •ypoLu. 1 "^ J % .^Ai. « TJ axrcTf,>rC ^itu^r L xiuiijdiAJ' ' ca kf. , Section II. THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS. CHAPTER I. EGYPT. The Land and the People. — When the curtain that hides the far distant past is Ufted, we find in the valley of the Nile a people of a dark color, tinged with red, and a peculiar physiognomy, who had long existed there. Of their beginnings, there is no record. They did not come down the river from the south, as some have thought; but they were of Asiatic origin. Their language, if it seems to have certain affinities with the Semitic tongues in its grammar, is utterly dissimilar in its vocabulary : its modern descend- ant is the Coptic, no longer a spoken dialect. The Egyptians Avere of the Caucasian variety, but not white like the Lybians on the west. On the east were tribes of a yellowish complexion and various lineage, belonging to the numerous people whom the Egyptians designated as Amu. On the south, in v/hat was called Ethiopia, was a negro people ; and, also beyond them and east- ward, a dusky race, of totally different origin, a branch of the widely diffused Ctishiies. The Nile : Divisions of the Country. — Egypt (styled by its ancient inhabitants, from the color of the soil deposited by the Nile, Ke?n or the Black Land, and by the Hebrews called Miz- raim) is the creation of the great river. "Egypt," says Herodotus, "is the gift of the Nile ;" and this is not only true, as the historian meant it, physically, because it is the Nile that rescued the land from the arid waste by which it is bordered ; but the course of Egyptian history — the occupations, habits, and religion of the people — was largely determined by the characteristics of the river. The sources of the Nile have had in all ages the fascination of mystery, and have been a fruitful theme for conjecture. It was reserved for modern explorers to ascertain that it takes its rise in equatorial Africa, in the two great lakes, the Albert and Victoria Nyanzas. From that region, fed by few tributaries, it flows to the 33 34 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Mediterranean, a distance of two thousand miles, but breaks, as it nears the sea, into two main and several minor arms. These spread fniitfulness over the broad plain called, from its shape, the Delta. Above the Delta the fringe of productive land has a width of only a few miles on either side of the stream. Its fertility is due to the yearly inundation which, as the effect of the rainfall of Abyssinia, begins early in July, and terminates in November, when the river, having slowly risen in the interval to an average height of twenty-three or twenty-four feet, reaches in its gradual descent the ordinary level. This narrow belt of territory, annually en- riched with a layer of fertile mud, is in striking contrast with the barren regions, parched by the sun, on either side, with the long chain of Arabian mountains that adjoin it on the east, and with the low hills of the Lybian desert on the west. By dikes, canals, and reservoirs, the beneficent river from the most ancient times has been made to irrigate the land above, where are the towns and dwellings of the people, and thus to extend and keep up its unri- valed fertility. The country of old was divided into two parts, — Upper Egypt, as it is now called, with Thebes for its principal city, extending from the first cataract, near Sycue, to the Memphian district ; and Lower Egypt, embracing the rest of the country on the north, including the Delta. The two divisions were marked by differences of dialect and of customs. The country was fur- ther divided into nonies, or districts, about forty in all, but varying in number at different times. They were parted from one another by boundary stones. Each had its own civil organization, a cap- ital, and a center of worship. Early Culture. — At a far remote day, there existed in Lower Egypt an advanced type of culture. Sepulchers, with their in- scriptions and sculptures, were made of so solid material that they have remained to testify to this fact. When the pyramids were built, mechanical skill was highly developed, Egyptian art had reached a point beyond which it scarcely advanced, and the administration of government had attained substantially to the form in which it continued to exist. The use of writing, the di- vision of the year, the beginnings of the sciences and of literature, are found in this earliest period. Egyptian culture, as far as we can determine, was not borrowed. It was a native product. The earliest period was the period of most growth. The prevailing tendency was to crystallize all arts and customs into definite, established forms, and to subject every thing to fixed rules. The desire to preserve what had been gained overmastered the im- pulses to progress : individuality and enterprise were blighted by an excessive spirit of conservatism. Moreover, the culture of the Egyptians never disengaged itself from its connection with every-day practical needs, or the material spirit that lay at its EGYPT. 35 root. They did not, like the Greeks, soar into the atmosphere of theoretical science and speculation. They did not break loose from the fetters of tradition. The Hieroglyphics. — We owe our knowledge of ancient Egypt chiefly to hieroglyphical writing. Tlie liieroglyplis, except those denoting numbers, were pictures of objects. Tlie writing is of three kinds. The first, the hieroglyphical, is composed of literal pictures, as a circle, o, for the sun, a curved line, ( or — , for the moon, a pointed oval, <=>, for the month. The second sort of characters, the hieratic, and the third, the demotic, are curtailed pictures, which can thus be written more rapidly. They are seldom seen on the monuments, but are the writing generally found on the papyrus rolls or manuscripts. They are written from right to left. The hieroglyphs proper may be written either way, or in a perpendicular line. In the demotic, or people's writing, the characters are somewhat more curtailed, or abridged, than in the hieratic, or priestly, style. There were four methods of using the hieroglyphics in historical times. First, there were the primary, repre- sentational characters, the literal pictures. Secondly, the characters were used figuratively, as symbols. Thus a circle, O, meant not only the sun, but also " day " ; the crescent, -^, denoted not only the moon, but also " a month ; " a pen and inkstand signified " writing," etc. So one object was substituted for another analogous to it, — as the picture of a boot in a trap, which stood for "deceit." A conventional emblem, too, might represent the object. Thus, the hawk denoted the sun, two water-plants meant Upper and Lower Egypt. Thirdly, hieroglyphics were used as determinatives. That is, an object would be denoted by letters (in a way that we shall soon explain), and a picture be added to detert?tine, or make clear, what was meant. After proper names, they designated the sex ; after the names of other classes, as animals, they specified the particular genus. Fotirthly, the bulk of the hieroglyphs are phonetic. They stand for sounds. The picture stood for the initial sound of the name of the object depicted. Thus the picture of an eagle, akhdm, represented " A." Unfortunately, numerous objects were employed for a like purpose, to indicate the same sound. Hence the number of characters was multiplied. The whole number of signs used in writing is not less than nine hundred or a thousand. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone — a large black slab of stone — with an identical inscription in hieroglyphics, in demotic and in Greek, furnished to Champollion (1810) and to Yoimg the clew to the deciphering of the Egyptian writing, and thus the key to the sense of the monumental inscriptions. The Egyptian manuscripts were made of the pith of the byblus plant, cut into strips. These were laid side by side hori- zontally, with another layer of strips across them ; the two layers being united by paste, and subjected to a heavy pressure. The Egyptians wrote with a reed, using black and red ink. Sources of Knowledge of Egyptian History. — These are (i) the inscriptions on the monuments. These, it must be remembered, are commonly in praise of the departed, and of their achievements. (2) The list of kings in the Turin papyrus, a very important Egyp- tian manuscript, discovered by Champollion. (3) Ma7ietho. An Egyptian priest; he wrote, about 250 B.C., a history. Only his lists of dynasties are preserved as given in an Armenian version of Eusebuis, a writer of the fourth century, and in George Synceltiis, a writer of the eighth century, who professed to embody the statements of Eusebius and of another author, Julius A/ricamis, probably of the second century, who had also quoted the lists of Manetho. Manetho is of great importance ; but we do not know accurately what his original text was, it being so differently reported. His details frequently clash with the monuments. Moreover, the method adopted by him in making his lists is, in essential points, subject to doubt. (4) The Greek historians. Herodotus had visited Egj'pt (between 460 and 450 B.C.) , and conferred with Eg^'ptian priests. Diodoriis, also, in the time of Julius Caesar, had visited Egypt. He is largely a copyist of Herodotus. (5) The Old Testament. Here we have many mstructive references to Egypt. But, until Rehoboam, the kings of E|;ypt have in the Scriptures the general name oi Pharaoh. Hence it is not always easy to identify them with corresponding kings on the Egyptian lists. 36 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Chronology. — The date of the beginning of the first dynasty of Egy[)tian rulers is an uncertain and controverted point. There are advocates of a longer and of a shorter chronology. The data are not sufficient to settle accurately the questions in dispute ; but there are many judicious scholars who make the beginning of the fif'st dynasty as early as 3000 B.C., and even earlier. Egyptian history, prior to the Persian conquest (552 B.C.), divides itself into three sections, — the OM Empire, having its seat at Memphis ; the Middle Empire, following upon a period of strife and division, and embracing the rule of foreign invaders, the Hyksos ; and the New Empire, the era of conquest, by foreign power, and of downfall. The expedition of Shishak, king of Egypt, against Rehoboam, is ascertained, from both Egyptian and Hebrew sources, to have been not earlier than 971 B.C., and within twenty-five years of that date. The nineteenth Egyptian dynasty began about the year 1400 B.C. The Middle Empire is thought by some to have commenced as early as 2200 B.C.; by others as late as 1720 B.C. When we go backward into the Old Enrpire, the sources of uncertainty are multi- plied. The main difficulty is to determine whether the lists of dynasties are co-itseciitife through- out, or in part contemf>orary. One class of scholars place the date of the first historic king, McHcs,\.wo or three thousand years earlier than the point assigned by the other class! The date of Menes given by Bockh is 5702 B.C. ; by Loiormant, 5004 B.C. ; by Brugsch, 4455 B.C. ; hy Lc/>siiis, 3852 B.C.; by Bunsen, 3623 or 3059 B.C.; E. yieyer makes 3180 B.C. the lowest possible date for Menes; 3233 B.C. is the date assigned by Diinckcr. On the contrary, R. S. Poole gives 2717 B.C.; Wilkinson, ■2t<:)\ B.C.; and G. Raiuliiisoti, between 2450 and 2250 B.C. There are no means of fully determining the controversy, as Rawlinson has shown {His- tory 0/ Ancient Egypt, vol. ii.,p. 19). It appears to be well ascertained that Egj'ptian civiliza- tion was in being at least as far back as about 3000 B.C. The Political System. — The bulk of the people were farmers and shepherds, indisposed to war. The land was owned in large estates by the nobles, who were possessed of multitudes of serfs and of cattle. They had in their service, also, artisans, oarsmen, and traffickers. The centers of industry were the numerous cities. Here the nobles had their mansions, and the gods their temples with retinues of priests. But the Nomes had each its particular jurisdiction. The traces of two original communities are preserved in the mythological legends and in the titles of the kings. The oldest inscriptions discover to us a systematic organization of the state. The king is supreme : under him are the rulers of the two halves of the kingdom. He creates the army, and appoints its gen- erals. The whole strength of the kingdom is given to him for the erection of the temples which he raises to the gods, or of the stu- pendous pyramid which is to form his sepulcher. The nobility make up his court ; from them he selects his chief officers of state, — his secretary, his treasurer, his inspector of quarries, etc. The princes and princesses are educated in connection with the children of the highest nobles. A body-guard protects the monarch : he shows himself to the people only in stately processions. All who approach him prostrate themselves at his feet. He is the descend- ant of the gods. The Pharaohs are even looked upon as gods incarnate. They are clothed with all power on earth. When they EGYPT. -^J die, they go to the gods ; and rites of worship are instituted for them. That there was a well-ordered and efficient civil adminis- tration admits of no doubt. Whether there existed a thrifty mid- dle class or not we can not decide. The tendency was for the child to follow the vocation of the parent, but there were no rigid barriers of caste. Not until the New Empire, was there an attempt to build up such a wall even about the priesthood. The Religion. — With the Egyptians, rehgion was a- matter of supreme and absorbing interest. There was a popular religion ; and there arose early, in connection with it, an esoteric or secret doctrine relative to the gods and to the legends respecting them, — a lore that pertained especially to the priesthood. Moreover, while the religious system, from the earliest date, is polytheistic, we have proof that the educated class, sooner or later, put a mono- theistic interpretation upon it, and believed in one supreme deity, of whom all the particular gods were so many forms and manifes- tations, or that one being under different names. Whether this more elevated faith preceded the reigning system, or was a later offspring of it, is a matter of dispute. For a long period thq two co-existed, and without collision. The great divinities of Egypt are pre-eminently gods of light. They are associated with the sun. With the agency of that luminary, with his rising and setting, they stand in a close relation. All Egypt worships the sun under the names of Ra and Hones. Horus is the adversary of Seth (called Typhon by the Greeks), the god of darkness, and is born anew every morning to at- tack and conquer him. In honor of Ra, the lofty obelisks, or symbols of the sun's rays, are erected, each of which has its own name and priests. With the sun-gods are joined the goddesses of the heavens, — Nut, Hatho7-, Isis, and others. But Osiris became the most famous sun-god. His worship was origi- nally at Abydos and Busiris. At length his cult spread over the whole land. In the legend, he is murdered by Seth ; but Horus is his avenger. Horus con- quers the power of darkness. Henceforward Osiris reigns in the kingdom of the West, the home of the dead. He is the sun in the realm of the shades. He receives the dead, is their protector, and the judge whose final award is blessedness or perpetual misery. The departed, if their lives have not been wicked, become one with him. They are each of them called by his name. To Osiris, all sepulchral inscriptions are addressed. His career, with the victory of the power of darkness over him, and his glorious revival in the regions of the West, typifies human life and destiny. The principal god at Memphis is Ftah, the primal divinity, the former of heaven and earth ; yet, perhaps, a god of light, since he is styled by the Greeks, Hephmstus. At Thebes, Ainnion was revered as the king of the gods : he shared in the proper- ties of the sun. Thotli is the chief moon-god, who presides over the reckon- ing of time. He is the god of letters and of the arts, the author of sacred books. The Nile is worshiped under the name of Hapi, being figured as a man with pendent breasts, an emblem of the fertility of the river. The gods were often connected in triads, there being in each a father, a mother, and a son. To bring to them the right offerings, and to repeat the right formulas, was a matter of momentous concern. Homage was directed to the material objects with which the activity of the god was thought to be connected, and in which he was believed to be present. All nature was full of deities. There were sacred trees, stones, utensils. Above all, animals, in their mys- 38 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. terious life, were identified with the divinities. Worship was offered to the crocodile, the cat, the bull, etc. In the temples these creatures were carefully tended and obsequiously served. Embalming. — Believing that the soul survives death, the Egyptians linked its weal with the preservation of the body, from which they could not conceive its destiny to be wholly dissevered. Thus arose the universal practice of embalming, and of presenting, at intervals, offerings of food and drink to the departed. The tomb contains a room for sacred services to the dead. The most ancient structures are sepulchers. They were the germ of the pyramid, in which rested the sarcojjhagus of the king. Religion and Morality. — The leading gods were held to be the makers of the world and of men, the givers of good, the rulers and disposers of all things. Morality was not separated from religion. The gods punished un- righteousness and inhumanity. In the age of the pyramid-builders, family life was not wanting m purity; the wife and mother was held in respect: monogamy prevailed. Ala-t was the goddess of truth : in the myth of Osiris, it is in her hall that the dead are judged. The Priests. — The priests are the guardians of religious rites. They are acquainted with the origm and import of them. Their knowledge is communicated only to select believers. It was a body of traditions, guarded as a mysterious treasure. But the priests, certainly until a late period, do not control the king. The civil authority is uppermost. Literature and Science. — The most important Egyptian book that has come down to us is the Book of the Dead. It relates, in a mystical strain, the adventures of the soul after death, and explains how, by reciting the names and titles of numberless gods, and by means of other theological knowledge, the soul can make its way to the hall of Osiris. It is a monument of the pedantic and punctilious formalism of the Egyptian ritual. Most of the papyri that have been preserved are of a religious character. There are songs not void of beauty. The moral writings are of a decidedly higher grade. Works of fiction are constructed with a fair degree of skill, and are not wholly wanting in humor. Some of the hymns are not destitute of merit. It can not be doubted that there were important mathematical writings. Astronomical observations were very early made. In medicine, we have writings which prove that considerable i^roficiency was attained in this de- partment. But here, as in other branches, the spirit was empirical rather than scientific in the higher sense; and the result was to petrify knowledge in an unalterable form. At length rules of medical treatment, with specific remedies, were definitely settled, from which it was a crime against the state to deviate. The Old Empire (to about 2100 B.C.). — Senofent, who belongs to the third dynasty, is the first king who has left behind him a monumental inscription. A rock-tablet in the peninsula of Sinai gives him the title of conqueror. By some, the pyramid of Mey- doun, built in three distinct stages to a height of 125 feet, is ascribed to him, and is believed to be his sepulcher. At Saccarah is a pyramid of like form, 200 feet in height. Khufii, the Cheops of Herodotus, was the builder of the " Great Pyramid " of Ghi- zeh, the largest and loftiest building on earth. Its original perpen- dicular height was not less than 480 feet, the length of its side 764 feet, and the area covered by it more than thirteen acres. Near it are the small pyramids, which were the sepulchers of his wives and other relatives. The statues of Khafra remain, and tlie wooden mummy-case of Menkaura, with the myth of Osiris EGYPT. 39 recorded on it. These were the builders of the two other most celebrated pyramids, the second and the third. With the long reign of Unas closes the first era in Egyptian history. His un- finished pyramid, built of huge blocks of limestone, indicates that he died too soon to complete it. From this date, back to the epoch of Se7ioferii, are included nearly three centuries. In this period of prevalent peace, art had the opportunity to develop. The spirit of progress in this department had not yet been cramped by the " hieratic canon," the fixed rules set for artistic labor. There is evidence of considerable knowledge in anatomy and medicine. The myth of Osiris expanded, and his worship spread. With the sixth dynasty a new epoch begins. The most powerful monarch in this series is Pepi. He levied armies, conquered the negroes of Nubia, and waged war against the nomads of the east- ern desert. The interval from the sixth to the tenth dynasty was marked by usurpations and insurrections. The district governors sought to make themselves independent. Monarchs rose and fell. Syrian invaders appear to have seized the occasion to attack the country. Heliopolis, with Turn for its sun-god, is the center of the new symbolical lore of the priesthood. Power is transferred to Thebes, and Amnion becomes the embodiment of the monotheistic conception, the supreme deity. The Theban ruling-house gradually extended its supremacy over the land. The kings of the twelfth dynasty have left their inscriptions everywhere, and of several of them gigantic portrait- statues remain, Amenemhat I. and his successors are prosperous sovereigns. They carry on a lively intercourse of trade with the small states of Syria, reaching possibly to Babylon. Under the twelfth dynasty, the valley of the upper Nile was conquered. Usurtaseii III., in after times, was revered as the subduer of the Nubian land. By monarchs of this epoch, vast structures, like the temple of Amnion at Thebes and the temple of the Sun at Heli- opolis, were erected. Amenemhat III. built the immense artifi- cial reservoir. Lake Moeris, to receive and dispense the waters of the Nile. Under the twelfth dynasty is the blossoming period of literature. The carving of hieroglyphics and the execution of the details of art reach their perfection. It is the culminating point of Egyptian culture. The Middle Empire (from about 2100 to 1670 B.C.). — The season of prosperity under the twelfth dynasty was followed by an- archy and the downfall of the Theban rule. According to Manetho, it was under a king named Timaos that a horde of invaders — the Hyksos, or '''■ shephei'ds" — came in from the north, devastated the country, and made themselves its rulers. They were probably of Semitic descent, but nothing more is known as to their origin. In connection with them, Semitic, and in particular Canaanite, ele- 40 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. merits penetrated into Egypt, and left their traces in its language. The residence of their kings was Tanis, on the eastern Delta, a splendid city, which they still more adorned. They conquered Memphis, but their power was not permanendy established in Lower Egypt. The duration of their control was a number of centuries, — how many can only be conjectured. It is believed by some scholars that either Apcpi or Nith, kings of the Hyksos line, was the sovereign who made Joseph his prime minister, and invited his family to settle in the land of Goshen. The elevation of a foreigner and a Semite to an exalted office is thought to be less improbable in connection with a Semitic dynasty. The New Empire (from 1670 to 525 B.C.). — The expulsion of the Hyksos was effected by Aahmes /., first king of the eighteenth dynasty. It was accomplished, however, not all at once, but gradu- ally. From this event Egypt enters on a new stage in its career. It becomes a military, an aggressive, and a conquering state. Not- withstanding the enormous sacrifice of life that must have been involved m the erection of pyramids and in other public works, the Egyptians had not been a cruel people : compared with most Semitic peoples, they had been disposed to peace. But now a martial spirit is evoked A military class arises. \\'ars for plunder and conquest ensue. The use of horses in battle is a new and sig- nificant fact. The character of the people changes for the worse. The priestly class become more compact and domineering. Tem- ples are the principal edifices, in the room of massive sepulchers. Under Thothvies I. and his successors, especially Amenophis II., wars were successfully waged against the Syrians, and against the Ethiopians on the south. The palaces and temples of Thebes, including the gigantic structures at Karnak and Luxor, are wit- nesses to the grandeur of these monarchs. The Egyptian arms were carried through Syria, and as far even as Nineveh. Under the Ramessides, the conquests of Egypt reached their farthest limit. Ramses II. — Ramses II., or Ramses the Great (1388-1322 B.C.), — who was called by the Greeks Sesostris, a name with which they linked many fabulous narratives, — is the most brilliant personage in Egyptian history. He is the first of the renowned conquerors, the forerunner of the Alexanders and Napoleons. His monuments are scattered over all Egypt. In his childhood he was associated on the throne with his father, himself a magnificent monarch, Seti I. In the seventh year of the sole reign of the son he had to encounter a formidable confederacy under the lead of the Syrian Iliititcs — the " Khita" — in the north-east, a powerful nation. How he saved himself by his personal valor, on the field of Kadcsh, is celebrated in the Egyptian Iliad, the heroic poem of Pcntaur. A subseciuent treaty with this people is one of tlie most precious memorials of his reign. EGYPT. 41 The Hittites. — Recent explorations have shown that the Hittites of Scripture were families, or smaller communities, in Palestine, of a people whose proper seat was between the Orontes and Euphrates. In one place they are spoken of as distant (Judg. i. 26). The "Khita" of the Egyptians, called " Khatti " by the Assyrians, were a civilized nation, whose sway was so extended that their outposts were at times on the western coast of Asia Minor. They were a non-Semitic people. From them, hardly less than from the Phoenicians, it may be, the Greeks derived the rudiments of their art. The great victory of Ramses (1350 B.C.) was with difficulty won. The Hit- tites were rivals of the Assyrians. At length Sargon captured their caj^ital, Carchemish (717 B.C.), and broke down their power. Subsequently we find Ramses in Galilee, as it was called later : we find him storming the city of Askalon in Philistia, and in various military expeditions, in which he brought home with him multi- tudes of captives. The mighty temples which he built at Abydos, Thebes, and Memphis, and the gorgeous palace, " the House of Ramses," south of Karnak, were in keeping with other displays of his energy and magnificence. Ramses II. is probably " the Pharaoh of the oppression," under whom the Hebrews suffered. His son, Menephthah, is considered to be the Pharaoh under whom the exodus took place. The Bondage of the Israelites. — As the exodus occurred under Menephthah, its date is almost exactly ascertained. It is not so with regard to the settlement of the Hebrews in Goshen. The data from the Scriptures leave scholars divided on the question, whether the Egyptian bondage lasted 430 years, or half that period (as implied in Gal. iii. 17, in accordance with the Septiiagint, or Greek version of the Old Testament). If the longer term is taken, Joseph'' s elevation, as stated above, was under a Hyksos king; if the shorter term is taken, he served a native Egyptian monarch. Among Egyptologists, Brtigsch and RawZitison favor the longer term; Lepsius is equally decided for the shorter. To THE Persian Conquest. — From about 1500 to 1300 B.C., Egypt was the foremost nation in culture, arts, and military prowess. Under the later kings bearing the name of Ramses, the empire began to decay. The Ethiopians in the south revolted, and set up an independent kingdom, Meroe, of which Napata was the capital. Shishak (961-940 B.C.) aspired to restore the Egyptian rule in the East. He marched into Judeea, and captured and plundered Jerusalem. Pie made Rehoboam, king of Judah, a tributary, and strengthened Jeroboam, the ally of Egypt. He even led his forces across the valley of the Jordan. At length (730 B.C.) the Ethi- opians gained the upper hand in Egypt. Their three kings form the twenty-fifth dynasty. As the power of Egypt was on the wane, the power of Assyria was more and more in the ascendant. Shabak joined hands with Hoshea, king of Israel, but was defeated by the Assyrians, under Sargon I., in a pitched battle at Raphia, in which the superiority of the Asiatic kingdom was evinced. Later (701 B.C.) Sennacherib defeated an Egyptian army, sent for the relief 42 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. of Ekron, and made Hezekiah a tributary. Tirhakah, the ally of Hezekiah, continued the struggle. His army was saved from over- throw by the disaster which happened to Sennacherib's host in the neighboring camp on the eve of battle. Twenty years later, he was vanquished by an invading army under the most warlike of the Assyrian kings, Esarhaddon. The rule of the Ethiopian dynasty was subverted. The Assyrians intrusted the government to twenty governors, of whom the most were natives. Of these governors, one, then king of Sais, Psainmeticus I. (653-610 B.C.), in alliance with Gyges, king of Lydia, and with the aid of Carians, Phoenicians, and Lycians, cast off the Assyrian yoke, and became sole ruler of Egypt. This epoch is marked by the introduction of numerous foreigners into the country, and by the exertion of a powerful and lasting Greek influence. Neku II. — the Necho of Scripture — (610-595 B.C.), the son of Psammeticus I., defeated yal)ylon the Second," on the right bank of the river. Baby- lon proper was mainly on the left. Within the walls were enclosed gardens, orchards and fields: the space was only filled in part by buildings; but the whole area was laid out with straight streets intersecting one another at right angles, like the streets of Philadelphia. The wall was pierced by a hundred gates, probably twenty-five in each face. The Euphrates, lined with quay? on both sides, and spanned with draw-bridges, ran through the town, dividing it into two nearly equal parts. The city was protected without by a deep and wide moat. The wall was at least seventy or eighty feet in height, and of vast and unusual thickness. On the summit were two hundred and fifty towers, placed along the outer and inner edges, opposite to one another, but so far apart, according to Herodotus, that there was room for a four-horse chariot to pass between. The temple of Belns was in a square enclosure, about a quarter of a mile both in length and breadth. The tower of the temple was ascended on the outside by an inclined plane carried around the 50 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. four sides. An exaggerated statement of Strabo makes its height six hun- dred and six feet. Possibly, this represents the length of the inclined plane. In the shrine on the top were a golden table and a couch; according to Dio- donis, before the Persian conquest there were colossal golden images of three divinities, with two golden lions, and two enormous serpents of silver. It is thought that Herodotus may have described the splendid temple of N'dbo (now Birs Nivir{ld), and have mistaken it, by reason of its enormous ruins, for the temple of Bel, which it rivaled in magnificence. The great pal- ace is represented to have been larger than the temple of Bel, the outermost of its three inclosing walls being three miles in circumference. Its exterior was of baked brick. The " Hanging Gardens " was a structure built on a square, consisting of stages or stories, one above another, each supported by arches, and covered on the top, at the height of at least seventy-five feet, with a great mass of earth in which grew flowers and shrubs, and even large trees. The ascent to the top was by steps. On the way up were stately and elegant apartments. The smaller palace was on the other side of the river. The Prophets on Assyria and Babylon. — The Hebrew prophets of the eighth and seventh centuries, especially Isaiah, Nahunt, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, are highly instructive respect- ing Assyrian and Babylonian history. These writers contain the most powerful and thrilling passages respecting the great empires with which Israel and Judah were brought into contact, and the grand cities which formed the centers of their power. Isaiah, in chaps, ii.-v , and in vii. i-ix. 7, and in chap, xxviii. i-ii, dwells on the Syro-Israelitish alliance, in the time of Ahaz, between Rcziyi of Damascus, and Pekah of Israel. The invasion of Palestine by Sargon is referred to in chap, xx , and probably in xiv. 29-32, xxix.-xxxii., x. 5-xi. 16, xxii., and, perhaps, in i. It is thought, that, in xxi i-io, the prophet has in mind the rebellion of Merodach-baladan against Sargon, and the prospective subjugation of Babylon, — a sign of what was to befall the minor states. To the invasion of Sennacherib, refer chaps, xviii., xvii. 12-14, xxxiii., xxxvii. 22-32 or 35. In the second part of Isaiah, it is Babylon and its gods and their approaching downfall at the Persian conquest, to which the prophecies relate. Chaps, xl.-xlviii. are specially worthy of attention. But the most impressive utterances of Isaiah on this theme are, perhaps, the thirteenth and fourteenth chapters: " Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldces" excellency," is to be brought down. " It shall never be inhabited; " " neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there." " Wild beasts of the desert shall lie there," " owls shall dwell there," and " dragons in their pleasant palaces." Sheol, the Underworld, the Abode of the Dead, is startled at the arrival of the king of Babylon in the realm of shades. The great ones of the departed accost him, " Art thou also become weak as we ? " " Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols." They gaze on the once mighty sovereign, and scorn- fully ask, " Is this the man that made the earth to tremble, that did shake kingdoms ? " It was probably in the times of Manassch, when the hand of Assyria was heavy on the Judseans, that Nahjiin uttered his predictions. The second arid third chapters are taken up with the catastrophe of Nijierieh : " The chariots shall rage in the streets, they shall jostle one against another in the broad ways." " Take ye the spoil of silver, take the spoil of gold: for there is none end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture " (ii 4, 9). " Woe to the bloody city! it is all full of lies and robbery." " It shall come to pass, that all they that look upon thee shall flee from thee, and say, Nineveh is laid waste: who will bemoan her ? " " Thou hast multiplied thy merchants above the stars of heaven." " Thy crowned are as the locusts, and thy captains as the great grasshoppers, which camp in the hedges in the cold day." "All that hear the bruit of thee shall clap the hands over thee" (iii. i, 7, 16, 17, 19). yereiuiah, bom in the reign of Josiah, was a spectator of the terrible calamities that fell on Zedekiah and his subjects. He depicts the irresistible ^\\e.\ oi Nebuchadnezzar (chap, xxv.), the doom of the nations resisting him, the folly of an Egyptian alliance, the retribution that at last will overtake the conqueror. His pages swarm with references to the momentous events which he witnessed with the profoundest emotion. Ezekiel was carried into exile with y ehoiakitn in 599 B.C. His writings were in part com- posed before the capture of Jerusalem and ol Zedekiah, and in part in the period that followed. Like Jeremiah, he pointed out the folly of the Egyptian alliance against the overshadowing might of Babylon. Incidental allusions to manners and customs — as to the blue apparel of Assyrian nobles (chap, xxiii. 6) — are mingled with the description of historic changes of tragic interest. LiTER.\TURE. — Works On Oriental History mentioned on p. 42. Rich, Babylon and Perscpolis ; Loftus, Chaldiea and Susiann; \-£r\orrmnX, Premieres Civilisations; Sayce, Art. Babylonia {Encycl. Brill.); Miirdler, Kurzge/asste Geschichte Babyloiiietis und Assy- riens ; Harkness, Assyrian Life and History; Budge, Babylonian Life and History; Raw- linson, Egypt and the Bible. Learned discussions may be sought in Schrader, Keilinschrijten und das Alte Testament ; Fricdr. Delilzsch, Arts. Nineve, Sanherib,ctc., (Herzog, Real- Encylclopddie) ; Arts. Assur, Babel, Babylonien, Nineve, etc. (Calwer, BibelUxicon). THE PHCENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. 5 1 CHAPTER HI. THE PHCENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. Phoenicia. — A narrow strip of territory separates the mountains of Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean. Of this belt the northern part, west of Lebanon, about one hundred and fifty miles long, varies in width from five to fourteen miles. In some places the cliffs approach close to the sea. This belt of land was occu- pied by the first of the great maritime and commercial peoples of antiquity, the Phoenicians. Their language was Semitic, closely akin to Hebrew. Commerce and Prosperity of the Phoenicians. — The most im- portant of the Phoenician cities were Sidon — which was the first of them to rise to distinction and power — and Tyre, which be- came more famous as a mart, and comprised, besides the town on the coast. New Tyre, the city built on the neighboring rocky island. In New Tyre was the sanctuary of the tutelary god, Mei- kart. The spirit of trade stimulated ingenuity. The Phoenicians were noted for their glass, their purple dyes, their improved alpha- bet, and knowledge of the art of writing. In mining and in casting metals, in the manufacture of cloth, in architecture, and in other arts, they were not less proficient. From their situation they natu- rally became a seafaring race. Not only did they transport their cargoes of merchandise to the islands and shores of the Mediterra- nean, conveying thither not merely the fruits of their own industry and skill, but also the productions of the East : they ventured to steer their vessels beyond the Strait of Gibraltar ; and, if they did not procure amber directly from the North Sea, they brought tni either directly from Cornwall or from the Scilly Islands. Through the hands of Phoenician merchants " passed the gold and pearls of the East, the purple of Tyre, slaves, ivory, lions' and panthers' skins from the interior of Africa, frankincense from Arabia, the linen of Egypt, the pottery and fine wares of Greece, the copper of Cyprus, the silver of Spain, tin from England, and iron from Elba." These products were carried wherever a market could be found for them. At the instigation of Necho, king of Egypt (611-605 B.C.), they are said to have made a three years' voyage round the southern cape of Africa. Colonies: Opulence. — The Phoenicians were the first great col- onizing nation of antiquity. It was the fashion of Assyrians and other conquerors to transport to their own lands multitudes of peo- ple, whom they carried away as captives from their homes. The Phoenicians — in this particular the forerunners of the Greeks and of the Dutch and the English — planted trading settlements in Cyprus and Crete, on the islands of the vEgean Sea, in southern Spain, and 52 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. in North Africa. Cadiz, the oldest touTi in Europe, was founded by these enterprising traders (about iiooB.C). Tarshish was anotlier of their Spanish settlements. " Ships of Tarshish," like the modern " East Indiamen," came to signify vessels capable of making long voyages. The coast of modern Andalusia and Granada belonged to the Phoenicians. Through caravans their intercourse was not less lively with the states on the Euphrates, with Nineveh and Babylon, as well as with Egypt. Tyre was a link between the East and the West. Hiram: Settlement of Carthage. — The Tyrian power attained to its height under King Hiram (about looo B.C.), the contem- porary of Solomon. Two Greek historians make his reign to extend from 980 to 946 B.C. The alliance with him extended the traffic of Tyre, and increased its wealth. Hiram connected old and New Tyre by a bridge. The Tyrians adorned their city with stately palaces and temples, and built strong fortifications. Engrossed in manufactures and commerce, and delighting in the affluence thus engendered, the Phoenicians were not ambitious of conquest. Al- though conquerors upon the sea, they were not a martial people : like commercial states generally, they preferred peace. Of the people of Laish (Dan), it is said in the Book of Judges (xviii. 7), " They dwelt careless, after the manner of the Zidonians, quiet and secure." This pacific temper was coupled with a fervent at- tachment to their own land and to their countrymen wherever they went. But they lacked the political instinct. They did not appreciate liberty, and their love of traffic and of gain often made them prefer to pay tribute rather than to fight. Their colonies were factories, but were not centers of further conquest, or germs of political communities. When the family of Hiram was exter- minated (about 88 7 B.C.) by the high-priest of the goddess Astarte, who seized on i)ower, civil strife and disorder ensued. Pygmalion, the great-grandson of the high-priest, as it is related by a Grecian authority, slew his uncle, who was to marry Pygma- lion's sister, Elissa. On account of this internal conflict, and from dread of the Assyrian power, a large number of the old families emigrated to North Africa, and founded Carthage (about 850 B.C.). The Phoenician cities were confederated together under hereditary kings, whose power was limited b}- the lay and priestl}- aristocracy. The common people, many of whom were skilled artisans, made themselves felt in some degree in jDublic affairs. The mercantile class were influential. Thus there was developed a germinant municipal feeling and organization. The "strong city," Tyre, is mentioned in Joshua xi.x. 29. In Isaiali xxiii., Tyre is de- scribed as " the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose tralitickers are the honourable of the earth." " He stretched out his hand over the sea, he shook the kingdoms." The fate of Babylon is pointed at by the Prophet, to show what Tyre had to expect from Assyria. Later, before the conquest by Nebuchadnezzar, Ezekicl tlius speaks of Tyre (chap, xxvii.) : "They have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for thee." " Of the oaks of Bashan THE PHCENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. 53 have they made thine oars." The benches of their boats were of " ivory," their sails of fine linen with broidered work from Egypt. "Tarshish was thy merchant ; " " with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they traded in thy fairs." " They traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy market." The nu- merous nations are enumerated which furnished their wares of all descrip- tions to the Tyrian merchants. " Thou wast replenished, and made very glorious in the midst of the seas." The wealth and splendor of Tyre are illustrated (chap, xxviii. 13) by the long list of precious stones — the topaz, the diamond, the onyx, etc. — which were her "covering." Religion and Letters. — In the religion of the Phoenicians, the more elevated ingredients of the Semitic heathenism are in the background. The sensual features of it are more prominent, and savage elements are intro- duced. It was more adapted to foster than to check lust and cruelty. The principal deities are Baal and Aschera. To Aschera, young maidens make an offering of their virtue. Another goddess, Astarte, bearing a spear, is at length fused in the popular faith with Aschera. To Astarte, in Cyprus, maidens likewise sacrifice their chastity. There was the same double ritual, made up of gross sensuality on the one hand, and of ascetic practices by the priesthood on the other, that belonged to the service of Mylitta at Babylon. Moloch, " horrid king," was the god of fire. To appease him at Tyre and Carthage, girls and boys, sometimes m large numbers, and of the highest families, were cast into the flames; while the wailing of their relatives, if it was not stifled by themselves at the supposed demand of piety, was drowned by the sound of musical instruments. To Moloch, the king of Moab (2 Kings iii. 27) offers up his eldest son. Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, son of Hanno, in Sicily, when the tide of battle was turning against him, threw himself into the fire (480 B.C.). Baal and IVfoloch became confused in one divinity, Melkarth, to' whom labors and journeys like those imputed to Hercules were ascribed. To Melkarth costly temples were dedicated at Tyre and Cadiz. Aschera and Astarte were united also in one divinity, who, when represented as a roving goddess, disappearing with the chan- ging light of the moon, is called Dido ; but, when represented as a kind and gentle divinity, is named Anna. Nature — as dying in the autumn, and again reviving in the spring — is figured as the god Adonis, who is hon- ored first by a protracted season of mourning, and then by a joyous fes- tival. The Phoenicians were not a literary people. Their alphabet was the old Semitic alphabet, which was based on the Egyptian hieroglyphics. But in the Phoenician alphabet every character represented a sound. It was thus a vast improvement on the original. From the Phoenicians it spread, and be- came the mother of most of the graphic systems now existing. Cadmus, however, by whom it was said to be carried to the Greeks, is a fabulous per- son. The alleged history of Sachuniathon, which was published in Greek by Philo of Byblus, in the second century A.D., is now generally believed to be the work of Philo himself. Historical Events. — In the struggles against the Mesopota- mian empires, the Phoenicians defended themselves with valor and perseverance. When Sargon (722-705 B.C.) had subjugated their cities on the mainland, insular Tyre for five years repelled his assaults, although the conduits bringing fresh water from the shore were cut off, and the besieged were obliged to content themselves with the scanty supply to be gained from wells dug with great labor. Soon the Tyrian fleets regained their mastery on the sea. When Nebuchadnezzar captured old Tyre, and a multitude of its inhabitants shared the lot of the Jews, and were dragged off by 54 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. the conqueror to the Euphrates, the island city withstood his attack for thirteen years, and did not yield until it extorted from him a treaty. But the power of resistance was weakened by the repeated invasions and domination of Nineveh and Babylon. Tyre submitted to Persia after the downfall of the Babylonian monarchy, and added her fleet to the Persian forces ; although to the Phoenician towns was left a degree of freedom and their local government. Sidon, Tyre, and Arados had a council of their own, which met with their respective kings and senators atTripolis, for the regulation of matters of common interest. Manufactures and commerce continued to flourish. Under the Persian supremacy, Sidon once more became the chief city. In the middle of the fourth century B.C., it revolted against the tyranny of the foreign governors. The Persian king, Ocho, ordered that the noblest citi- zens should be put to death ; whereupon the inhabitants set the city on fire, and destroyed themselves and their treasures in the flames. Tyre remained, but ventured to resist Alexaiider the Great, after his conquest of the Persians, and by him was captured and partly demolished (332 B.C.). After the death of Alexander, the Phoenicians fell under the sway of the Seleucidce at Antioch, and, for a time, of the Egyptian Ptolemies. In early times, there were three Phcenician tribes, Sidotiians, A rz>adiies, and Giblites. The period when Sidon had the most power was about 1300 B.C. ; but the Phcenicians had begun to carry on trade with Assyria, Babylon, Armenia, and Arabia, by land, as early as 1500 B.C., and to make sea-voyages. They founded colonies in Cilicia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera, Malta, in Sicily and Sardinia, at Hadrumetum, Utica, and the two towns of Hippo on the north coast of Africa, and in many other places, either insular or adjacent to the sea. Their sailors, accompanied by the servants of Solomon, went to India from the Red Sea, and brought back the " gold of Ophir." Carthaginian History. — The most prominent of all the Phoe- nician settlements was Carthage. It had remarkable advantages of situation. Its harbor was sufficient for the anchorage of the largest vessels, and it had a fertile territory around it. These circumstances, in conjunction with the energy of its inhabitants, placed it at the head of the Phoenician colonies. In Carthage, there was no middle class. There were the rich landholders and merchants, and the common people. The government was practi- cally an oligarchy. There were two kings or judges {Shofetes), with little power, and a council or senate ; possibly a second coun- cil also. But the senate and magistrates were subordinate to an aristocratic body, the hundred judges. The bulk of the citizens had little more than a nominal influence in public affairs. Ascendency of Carth.\ge. — When the Greeks (about 600 B.C.) spread their colonies, the rivals of the Phoenician settlements, in the west of the Mediterranean, Carthage was moved to deviate from the policy of the parent cities, and to make herself the champion, protector, and mistress of the Phoenician dependen- cies in all that region. Thus she became the head of a North- THE HEBREWS. 55 African empire, which asserted its supremacy against its Greek adversaries in Sicily and Spain, as well as in Lybia. When Tyre was subjugated by Persia, Carthage was strengthened by the immigration of many of the best Tyrian families. As the Tyrian strength waned, the Carthaginian power increased. Syi-acuse, in Sicily, became the first Greek naval power, and the foremost antag- onist of the Carthaginian dominion. In 480 B.C., Carthage made war upon the Greek cities in Sicily. The contest was renewed from time to time. In the conflicts between 439-409 B.C., she confirmed her sway over the western half of the island. In later conflicts (317-275 B.C.), in which Agathodes, tyrant of Syracuse, was a noted leader of the Greeks, and, after his death, Pyrrhics, king of Epirus, was their ally, Carthage alternately lost and re- gained her Sicilian cities. But the result of the war was to estab- lish her maritime ascendency. Literature. — Works mentioned on pp. 16,42: Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Prificipal Nations of Antiquity (6 vols.) ; Movers, Die Phonizier (1841); Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1874); Mommsen, History 0/ Rotne (vol. ii. chap, i.) ; Grote's History of Greece (vol. x.) ; F. W. Newman's Defense of Carthage. . CHAPTER IV. THE HEBRE-WS. Peculiarity of the Hebrews. — While the rest of the nations worshiped " gods many and lords many," whom they confounded with the motions of the heavenly bodies, or with other aspects of nature, there was one people which attained to a faith in one God, the Creator and Preserver of the universe, who is exalted above nature, and whom it was deemed impious to represent by any ma- terial image. More than is true of any other people, religion was consciously the one end and aim of their being. To bring the true religion to its perfection, and to give it a world-wide diffusion and sway, was felt by them to be their heaven-appointed mission. The peculiarity of their faith made them stand alone, and rendered them exclusive, and intolerant of the surrounding idolatries. The mountainous character of their land, separated by Lebanon from Phoenicia, and by the desert from the nations on the East and South, was well adapted to the work which they had to fulfill in the course of history. The Patriarchal Age. — The Israelites traced their descent from Abraham, Avho, to escape the infection of idolatry, left his home, which was in Ur on the upper Euphrates, and with his household and his flocks came into the land of Canaan, where he led a wan- dering life, but became the father of a group of nations. Isaac, his son by Sarah, was recognized as the next chief of the family ; 56 UNIVERSAL IirSTORY. while Ishmacl, Abraham's son by Ha^ar, became the progenitor of the Arabians. Of the two sons of Isaac, Esau, who was a hunts- man, married a daughter of the native people : from him sprung the Edomiles. Jacob kept up the occupation of a herdsman. Of his twelve sons, Joseph was an object of jealousy to the other eleven, by whom he was sold to a caravan of merchants on their way to Egypt. There, through his skill in interpreting dreams, he rose to high dignities and honors in the court of Pharaoh ; and, by his agency, the entire family were allowed to settle on the pas- ture-lands of Goshen in northern Egypt (p. 41). Here in the neighborhood of Heliopolis, for several centuries, they fed their flocks. From Israel, the name given to Jacob, they were com- monly called Israelites. Hebf-ews was a Canaanite name, signifying " from the other side," — that is, from beyond the Euphrates, — in reference to their Chaldsean origin. The Exodus (about 1300 B.C.). — The time came when the Israelites were no longer well treated. A new Egyptian dynasty was on the throne. Their numbers were an occasion of apprehen- sion. An Egyptian princess saved Moses from being a victim of a barbarous edict issued against them. He grew to manhood in Pharaoh's court, but became the champion of his people. Com- pelled to flee, he received in the lonely region of Mount Sinai that sublime disclosure of the only living God which qualified him to be the leader and deliverer of his brethren. A " strong east wind," parting the Red Sea, opened a passage for the Israelites, whom a succession of calamities, inflicted upon their oppressors by the Almighty, had driven Pharaoh (Menephthah) to permit to de- part in a body ; but the returning waves ingulfed the pursuing Egyptian army. " The sea covered them : they sank as lead in the mighty waters." For a long period Moses led the people about in the wilderness. They were trained by this experience to habits of order and military discipline. At Horeb, the Decalogue, the kernel, so to speak, of the Hebrew codes, the foundation of the religious and social life of the people, was given them under circum- stances fitted to awaken the deepest awe. They placed themselves under Jehovah as the Ruler and Protector of the nation in a special sense. The worship of other divinities, every form of idola- try, was to be a treasonable offense. The laws of Jehovah were to be kept in the Ark of the Covenant, in the "Tabernacle," which was the sanctuary, and was transported from place to place. The priesthood was devolved on Aaron and his successors, at the side of whom were their assistants, the Levites. The civil authority in each tribe was placed in the hands of the patriarchal chief and the "elders," the right of approval or of veto being left to the whole tribe gathered in an assembly. The heads of the tribes, with seventy representative elders, together with Aaron and Moses, ■^^ The Sis Cities Golarv BamoOhGiiec EbjathArba. The Five To%viis of tlie Pliilis GaS}\. 1 1 THE HEBREWS. 5/ formed a supreme council or standing committee. On particular occasions a congregation of all the tribes might be summoned. The ritual was made up of sacrifices and solemn festivals. The Sabbath was the great weekly commemoration, a day of rest for the slave as well as for the master, for the toiling beast as well as for man. Every seventh year and every fiftieth year were sab- baths, when great inequalities of condition, which might spring up in the intervals, respecting the possession of land, servitude con- sequent on debts, etc., were removed. Hebrew Laws. — The Israelites, in virtue of their covenant with Jehovah, were to be a holy people, a nation of priests. They were thus to maintain fraternal equality. There was to be no enslaving of one another, save that which was voluntary and for a limited time. Only prisoners not of their race, or purchased foreigners, could be held as slaves. Every fiftieth year, land was to revert to its original possessor. In the sabbatical years the land was not to be tilled. What then grew wild might be gathered by all. There were careful provisions for the benefit of the poor. Heads of Tribes. — The progenitors of the tribes, the sons of Jacob, as given in Exodus, were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulon, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph, and Benjamin. The Hebrew Religion. — Such, in brief, were the beginnings of a religion as unique as it was elevated in its character, — a religion which stood from the outset in mortal antagonism to the Egyptian worship of sun-gods, and to the star-worship, the service of Baal, and of sensual or savage divinities joined with him, — to that ser- vice which was diffused through the Semitic nations of western Asia. A people was constituted to be the guardian of this light, kindled in the midst of the surrounding darkness, to carry it down to later ages, and to make it finally, in its perfected form, the heri- tage of mankind. The Prophets. — Moses was not only a military leader and a legislator : he stands at the head of the prophets, the class of men who at different times, especially in seasons of national peril and temptation, along the whole course of Israelitish history, were raised up to declare the will of Jehovah, to utter the lessons proper to the hour, to warn evil-doers, and to comfort the desponding. Conquest of Canaan : The Era of the Judges. — Moses himself did not enter " the promised land," where the patriarchs were buried, and which the Israelites felt themselves commissioned to conquer. The war was to be a war of extermination. It was im- pressed on the people, that there was no other way to avoid the contagion of idolatry, that it was the fit reward of the nation which they were bidden to dispossess. The word " Canaainte" means " loivlander." It designated the inhabitants of the valley region of Palestine. It was applied, however, to all the tribes, who were under thirty-one kings or chiefs, in the time of Joshua. There were six principal tribes, — the H Mites, Hivites, Amor lies, Jebusites, Perizzites, and Girgashites. These, with the exception of the Hittites, and possibly the A morites, were Semitic in their language. The Canaanites had houses and vineyards. From them the Israelites learned agriculture. " They were in possession of forti- fied towns, treasures of brass, iron, gold, and foreign merchandise." Their religious rites were brutal and debasing, — " human sacrifices, licentious orgies, the worship of a host of divinities." 58 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. On llie death of Moses, Joshua succeeded to the post of a leader. He defeated tlie Amoritcs and other tribes on the east of the Jordan. The land to be ap])ropriated was parceled out among the Iril^es by lot, with the exception that the tribe of Levi received certain cities, with a tenth of the products of the soil. The share o{ Joseph was divided between Ephraim and Manasseh. After the first victories of Joshua, each tribe carried on for itself the struggle with Canaanites, victory over them being followed by indiscriminate slaughter. Resistance was stubborn, and the prog- ress of occui)ation slow. It was not until David's time, centuries after the invasion, W^dX Jebus, the site of Jerusalem, was captured. This delay was due largely to a lack of union, not to a lack of valor. The strength of the Israelites was in their infantry. Hence they preferred to fight upon the hills, rather than to cope with horsemen and chariots on the plains below. The Period of the Judges. — The era of the Judges extends from about 1300 B.C. over at least two centuries. Powerful tribes — d& Moabiies, Midianiies, Aimiwniies, Philisti/ies — were unsub- dued. The land was desolated by constant war. It was one sure sign of the prevailing disorder and anarchy, that " the highways were unoccupied, and the travelers walked through byways " (Judg. V. 6). Not unfrequently the people forgot Jehovah, and fell into idolatrous practices. In this period of degeneracy and confusion, men full of sacred enthusiasm and of heroic courage arose to smite the enemies of Israel, and to restore the obser\'ance of the law. Of these heroic leaders, Deborah, Gideori, Jepihtha, and Samso)i were the most famous. There remains the song of Deborah on the defeat and death of Sisera (Judg. v.). The Philistines, on the western coast, captured the tabernacle, — an act that spread dismay among the Israelites. Then they pushed on their conquests as far as the Jordan, took away from the Israel- ites their weapons, and grievously oppressed them. The Ammon- ites threatened the tribes on the east of the Jordan with a like fate. At this juncture, an effective leader and reformer appeared, in the person of Samuel, who had been consecrated from his youth up to the service of the sanctuary, and whose devotion to the law was mingled with an ardent patriotism. He roused the courage of the people, and recalled them to the service of Jehovah. In the " schools of the prophets " he taught the young the law, trained them in music and song, and thus prepared a class of inspiring teachers and guides to co-operate with the priesthood in uphold- ing the cause of religion. The Monarchy : Samuel and Saul. — In the distracted condi- tion of the country, the people demanded a king, to unite them, and lead them to victory, and to administer justice. They felt that their lack of compact organization and defined leadership THE HEBREWS. 59 placed them at a disadvantage in comparison with the tribes about. This demand Samuel resisted, as springing out of a distrust of Jehovah, and as involving a rejection of Him. He depicted the burdens which regal government would bring upon them. Later history verified his prediction. A strong, centralized authority was not in harmony with the family and tribal government which was the peculiarity of their system. It brought in, by the side of the prophetic order, another authority less sacred in its claims to respect. Collisions between the two must inevitably result. But, whatever might be the ideal political system, the exigency was such that Samuel yielded to the persistent call of the people. He himself chose and anointed for the office a tall, brave, and experi- enced soldier. Said. Successful in combat, the king soon fell into a conflict with the prophet, by failing to comply with the Mosaic law, and by sparing, contrary to the injunction laid upon him, prison- ers and cattle that he had captured. Thereupon Samuel secretly anointed David, a young shepherd of the tribe of Judah ; thus designating him for the throne. The envy of Saul at the achieve- ments of David, and at his growing popularity, coupled with secret suspicion of what higher honors might be in store for the valiant youth, embittered the king against him. David was befriended and shielded by Jonathan, Saul's son, who might naturally be looked upon as his suitable successor. The memorials of the friendship of these two youths, m the annals of that troublous time, are like a star in the darkest night. David was obliged to take refuge among the Philistines, where he led a band of free lances, whom the Philistines did not trust as auxiliaries, but who were inured by their daring combats for the struggles that came afterwards. Saul and Jonathan were slain, Saul by hi& own hand. For six years David was king in Hebron, over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The other tribes were ruled by Saul's son, Ishbo- sheth. At length David was recognized as king by all the tribes. Saul's family were exterminated. Chronology. — There is much difiSculty in settling the chronology in the early centuries of the regal period of Hebrew history. Apart from the questions which arise in comparing the biblical data, the information derived from Egyptian and especially from Assyrian sources has to be taken into ac- count. Hence the dates given below must be regarded as open to revision as our knowledge increases. Assyriologists find that Shalmaneser IT. received tribute from A hah. King of Israel, 854 B.C., and from Jehu, 842 B.C.; that Tiglath-Pileser H. (745-727 B C.) received tribute from Menahem and Azariah, and that Samaria fell in 722 B.C. Assyriology, on the basis of its &iX.2L., as at present ascertained, ^o\AAv!i?i}i^^ omX. a chronology something like the following: Era of the judges, 1 300-1 040; Saul, 1040-1000; David, 1000-960; Solomon, 960-930; Reho- boam, 930-914 (Jeroboam I., 930-910) ; Jehoshaphat, 870+-850 (Ahab, 875-853) ; Azariah and Uzziah, 770-735, (Jehu, 842-815) ; (Jeroboam II., 781-750) ; (Menahem, 748-738). David and Solomon. — David's reign (about 1051-1011 B.C.) is the period of Israel's greatest power. He extended his sway 6o UNIVERSAL HISTORY. as far as the Red Sea and the Euphrates ; he overcame Damascus, and broke down the power of the Philistines ; he subdued the Moabitcs, Ammonites, and Edomiles ; he conquered the Jebusites, and made Jerusalem his capital and the center of national wor- ship. A poet himself, he enriched the religious service, which he organized, by lyrics — some of them composed by himself — of unrivaled devotional depth and poetic beauty. He organized his military force as well, and established an orderly civil administra- tion. His favorite son, Absalom, led away by ambition, availed himself of disaffection among the people to head a revolt against his father, but perished in the attempt. David left his crown to Solomon at the close of a checkered life, marked by great victories, and by flagrant misdeeds done under the pressure of temptation. Character of Solomon's Reign. — Solomon's reign (about loii- 975 B.C.) was the era of luxury and splendor. He sought to emu- late the other great monarchs of the time. With the help oi Hiram, king of Tyre, who furnished materials and artisans, he erected a magnificent temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. He built costly palaces. He brought horses from Egypt, and organized a standing army, with its cavalry and chariots. He established a harem, bringing into it women from the heathen countries, whom he allowed in their idolatrous rites. He was even seduced to take part in them himself. Renowned for his knowledge and for his wisdom — which was admired by the Queen of Saba (Sheba), who came to visit him from the Arabian coast — famous as the author of wise aphorisms, he nevertheless entailed disasters on his coun- try. He established a sort of Oriental despotism, which exhausted its resources, provoked discontent, and tended to undermine morality as well as religion. The Divided Kingdoms. — The bad effect of Solomon's mag- nificence soon appeared. Before his death a revolt was made under the lead oi Jeroboa7n,\N\\\c^ was put down. Oi Rehoboam, the successor of Solomon, the ten tribes north of Judah required pledges that their burdens should be lightened. In the room of the heads and elders of the tribes, the late king's officers had come in to oppress them with their hard exactions. The haughty young king spurned the demand for redress. The tribes cast off his rule, and mixde Je>-oboam I. their king (about 975 B.C.). The temple was left in the hands oi Judah and Benjamin. The divis- ion of the kingdom into two, insured the downfall of both. The rising power of the Mesopotamian Empire could not be met with- out union. On the other hand, the concentration of worship at Jerusalem, under the auspices of the two southern tribes, may have averted dangers that would have arisen from the wider diffusion, and consequent exposure to corruption, of the religious system. The development and promotion of the true religion — the one THE HEBREWS. 6 1 great historical part appointed for the Hebrews — may have been performed not less effectively, on the whole, for the separation. Heathen Rites. — From this time the energetic and prolonged contest of the prophets with idolatry is a conspicuous feature, es- pecially in the history of Israel, the northern kingdom. Jeroboatn set up golden calves at JDan and Bethel, ancient seats of the wor- ship of Jehovah. Wars with Judah and Damascus weakened the strength of Israel. The Egyptian king, Shishak, captured Jerusa- lem, and bore away the treasures collected by Solomon (p. 41). \Ji\dtr Jehoshaphat (about 914-889 B.C.) the heathen altars were demolished and prosperity returned. Struggle with Idolatry : Elijah and Elisha. — The contempo- rary of Jehoshaphat in the northern kingdom was Ahab (about 918-897 B.C.). He expended his power and Avealth in the build- ing up of Baal-worship, at the instigation of the Tyrian princess, Jezebel, whom he had married. At Samaria, his capital, he raised a temple to Baal, where four hundred and fifty of his priests minis- tered. The priests of Jehovah who withstood these measures were driven out of the land, or into hiding-places. The austere and in- trepid prophet Elijah found refuge in Mount Carmel. The peo- ple, on the occasion of a famine, which he declared to be a divine judgment, rose in their wrath, and slew the priests of Baal. In a war — the third of a series — which Ahab waged against Sy?'ia, he still fought in his chariot, after he had received a mortal wound, until he fell dead. He had previously thrown the prophet Micah into prison for predictmg this result. By the marriage of Athalia, a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, with Jehoshaphat's son, Baal-wor- ship was introduced into Jerusalem. Joi-am succeeded Ahab. The prophet Elisha, who followed in the steps of Elijah, anointed Jehu " captain of the host of Joram." He undertook, with fierce and unsparing energy, to destroy Baal-worship, and to extirpate the house of Ahab, root and branch. The two kings of Israel and of Judah he slew with his own hand. The priests and servants of Baal were put to the sword. These conflicts reduced the strength of Israel, which fell a prey to Syria, until its power was revived by Jeroboam II. (825-784 B.C.). The death of Athalia brought on the expulsion of the Phoenician idolatry from Jerusalem. The southern kingdom suffered from internal strife, and from wars with Israel, until Uzziah (809-758 B.C.) restored its military strength, and caused agriculture and trade once more to flourish. The Assyrian Captivity. — The two kingdoms, in the ninth and eighth centuries, instead of standing together against the threaten- ing might of Assyria, sought heathen alliances, and wasted their strength in mutual contention. Against these hopeless alliances, and against the idolatry and the formalism which debased the people, the prophets contended with intense earnestness and un- 62 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. flinching courage. Amos, called from feeding his flocks, inveighed against frivolity and vice, misgovernment and fraud, in Israel. Hosea warned Mcnalion (771-760 B.C) against invoking the help of Assyria against Damascus, but in vain. He was terribly pun- ished by what he suffered from the Assyrians; but Jotham (758- 741 B.C.) and Ahaz (741-725 B.C.), the Jud?ean kings, succes- sively followed his example. Tiglatli-Pilescr made Judaea tributary. 'I'he Assyrian rites were brought into the temple of Jehovah. The service of Moloch and Aschera was introduced. The one incor- ruptible witness for the cause of Jehovah was the fearless and elo- quent prophet, Isaiah. Hosea, king of Israel, by his alliance with Egypt against Sargon, so incensed this most warlike of the As- syrian monarchs, that, when he had subdued the Phcenician cities, he laid siege to Samaria ; and, having captured it at the end of a siege of three years, he led away the king and the larger part of his subjects as captives, to the Euphrates and the Tigris, and re- placed them by subjects of his own (722 B.C.). The later Samari- tans were the descendants of this mixed population. The Babylonian Captivity. — When Sargon, the object of gen- eral dread, died, Hezekiah, king of Judah (725-696 B.C.), flat- tered himself that it was safe to disregard the warnings of Isaiah, and, in the hope of throwing off the Assyrian yoke, made a treaty of alliance with the king of Egypt, and fortified Jerusalem. He abolished, however, the heathen worship in " the high places." Sennacherib, Sargon's successor, was compelled to raise the siege (p. 46). Manasseh (695-640 B.C.), in defiance of the prophets, fostered the idolatrous and sensual worship, against which they never ceased to hft their voices. Josiah (638-609 B.C.) was a reformer. As a tributary of Babylon, he sought to prevent Necho, king of Egypt, from crossing his territory, but was vanquished, and slain at Megiddo, on the plain of Esdmelon. Nehitchadnezzar' s vic- tory over Necho, at Carcheniish, enabled the Babylonian king to tread in the footsteps of the Assyrian conquerors. The revolt of Zedekiah, which the prophet Jeremiah was unable to prevent, and his alliance with Egypt, led to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. In this period of national ruin, the prophetic spirit found a voice through Jeremiah and Ezekicl. It was during the era of Assyrian and Babylonian invasion that the predictions of a Messiah, a great Deliverer and righteous Ruler who was to come, assumed a more definite expression. The spiritual character of Isaiah's teaching has given him the name of " the evangelical prophet." Cyrus, the conqueror of Babylon, opened the way (539 B.C.) for the return of the exiles. A small part first came back under Zerubbabel, head of the tribe of Judah, who was made Persian governor. They began to rebuild the temple, which was finished in 514 B.C. Later (457 B.C.) Ezra "the scribe" diud Nehemiak THE HEBREWS. 63 led home a larger body. The newly returned Jews were fired v/ith a zeal for the observance of the Mosaic ritual, — a zeal which had been sharpened in the persecutions and sorrows of exile. The era of the " kagiocracy," of the supreme influence of the priesthood and the rigid adherence to the law, with an inflexible hostility to heathen customs, ensued. The spirit of which prophecy had been the stimulant, and partially the fruit, declined. The political in- dependence of the land was gone for ever. The day of freedom under the Maccabees, after the insurrection (168 B.C.) led by that family against the Syrian successors of Alexander, was short. But Israel " had been thrown into the stream of nations." Its reli- gious influence was to expand as its political strength dwindled. Its subjugation and all its terrible misfortunes were to serve as a means of spreading the leavening influence of its monotheistic faith. In the year 63 B.C., Pompeins made the Jews tributary to the Romans. In the year 40 B.C., Herod began to reign as a dependent king under Rome. Hebrew Literature. — The literature of the Hebrews is essentially reli- gious in its whole motive and spirit. This is true even of their historical writings. The nnarks of the one defining characteristic of their national life — faith in Jehovah and in his sovereign and righteous control — are every- where seen. Hebrew poetry is mainly lyrical. Relics of old songs are scat- tered through the historical books. In the Psalms, an anthology of sacred lyrics, the spirit of Hebrew poesy attains to its highest flight. Examples of didactic poetry are the Book of "jfob, and books like the Proverbs, composed mainly of pithy sayings or gnomes. Nowhere, save in the Psalms, does the spirit of the Hebrew religion and the genius of the people find an expression so grand and moving as in the Prophets, of whom Isaiah is the chief. Art. — In art the Hebrews did not excel. The plastic arts were generally developed in connection with religion. But the religion of the Hebrews ex- cluded all visible representations of deity. Nor were they proficients in sci- ence. " Israel was the vessel in which the water of life was inclosed, in which it was kept cool and pure, that it might thereafter refresh the world." The HISTORICAL BOOKS of the Old Testament comprise, first, the Pcniaiejcch, which de- scribes the origin of the Hebrew people, the exodus from Egypt, and the Sinaitic legislation. (Questions pertaining to the date and authorship of these five books, and of the materials at the basis of them, are still debated among historical critics. It is not denied, however, by judicious scholars generally, that at least important parts, embracing laws and historical notices con- nected with them, are from Moses.) The early part of Genesis is designed to explain the gene- alogy of the Hebrews, and to show how, step by step, they were sundered from other peoples. The narratives in the first ten chapters — as the story of the creation, the flood, etc. — so strik- ingly resemble legends of other Semitic nations, especially the Babylonians and Phoenicians, as to make it plain that all these groups of accounts are historically connected with one another. But the Genesis narratives are distinguished by their freedom from the polytheistic ingredients which disfigure the corresponding narratives elsewhere. They are on the elevated plane of that pure theism which is the kernel of the Hebrew faith. This whole subject is elucidated by Lenormant, in The Dcginniiigs of History (1882). The Book of Joshua relates the history of the conquest of Canaan; Judges, the tale of the heroic age of Israel prior to the monarchy; the Books of Samuel ^nA oi Kings, of the monarchy in its glory and its decline; the Bocks of Chronicles treat of parts of the same era, more from the point of view of the priesthood; Ruth is an idyl of the narrative type; Ezra, Ncheniiah, and Esther \a.v^ to do with the return of the Jews from exile, and the events next following. The POETIC WRITINGS include the Psalter, by David and other authors; the Pro7ierbs of Solomon; Ecclesiastes, which gives the somber reflections of one who had tasted to the full the pleasures and honors of life; the Canticles, or Song of Solomon, which depicts a young woman's love in its constancy, and victory over temptation. The PROPHETS are divided into four classes: i. Those of the early period from the twelfth to the ninth century, including Samuel, Elijah, Elisha, etc., who have left no prophetical 64 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. writings. 2. The prophets of the Assyrian age (800-700 n.C), where belong "Joel, /liirns, Hoscay fsniah, Micah, and Nnhiiin. 3. The prfi|)hets of the Babylonian age, y.ef>ltaniah, Jeremiah, llahnkktik, Ezckiil. Here some scholars would place the second half of Isaiah. 4. The post-exilian prophets, Jiaggai, Zacharia/i, iMalachi. By some, Jonah and Daniel arc placed under this last head; by others, the first of these books is ranked under (2), and the second of them under (3). The APOCRYi'HAL noOKS belong between the closing of the Old-Testament canon and the New Testament. They exist only in Greek, although some of them were first written in Hebrew. They are instructive as to that intermediate period. "Xhcjirst Book of Maccabees is specially important for its historical matter; the Books of IVisdom and the Son 0/ Sirach, for their moral reflections and precepts. Works relating to Hebrew History. — Ewai.d, History of the Israelitish People (Eng. trans., 5 vols.); Stanley, History of the Jewish Church; Milman, History of the Jews (3 vols.). From a conservative stand-point, Kl'RTZ, History of the Old Cove- nant (3 vo^s.); Hcngstenberg, History of the Old Ciwenant. On the other side, VVeli^ hausen's Art. Israel, in the Encycl. Britt. ; Rcuss, Histoire des Israelites (1877). ITie historical works of Jewish scholars, Herzfeld, Jost, Derenbourc, etc., are valuable. CHAPTER V. THE PERSIANS. In the western part of the plateau of Iran, which extends from the Suleiman Mountains to the plains of Mesopotamia, were the Medes. On the southern border of the same plateau, along the Persian Gulf, were the Persians. Both were offshoots of the Ar}'an family, and had migrated westward from the region of the upper Oxus, from Bactria, the original seat of their religion. Religion. — The ancient religion of the Iranians, including the Medes and Persians, was reduced to a system by the Bactrian sage, Zoroaster (or Zarathustra), who, in the absence of authentic knowl- edge respecting him, may be conjecturally placed at about looo B.C. The Zendavesta, the sacred book of the Parsees, the adher- ents of this religion, is composed of parts belonging to very differ- ent dates. It is the fragment of a more extensive literature no longer extant. The Bactrian religion differed from that of their Sanskrit-speaking kindred on the Indus, in being a form of dualism. It grew out of a belief in good demons or spirits, and in evil spirits, making up two hosts perpetually in conflict with each other. At the head of the host of good spirits, in the Zoroastrian creed, was Onnuzd, the creator, and the god of light ; at the head of the evil host, was Ahriman, the god of darkness. The one made the world good, the other laid in it all that is evil. The one is disposed to bless man, the other to do him harm. The conflict of virtue and vice in man is a contest for control on the part of these antagonistic powers. In order to keep off the spirits of evil, one must avoid what is morally or ceremonially unclean. He who lived pure, went up at death to the spirits of light. The evil soul departed to consort with evil spirits in the region of darkness. Alithra, the sun-god in the Zoroastrian system, is the equal, though the crea- ture, of Onnuzd. Mithra is the conqueror of darkness, and so the THE PERSIANS. 65 enemy of falsehood. The Medes and Persians were fire-worship- ers. To the good spirits, they ascribed hfe, the fruitful earth, the refreshing waters, fountains and rivers, the tilled ground, pastures and trees, the lustrous metals, also truth and the pure deed. To the evil spirits belonged darkness, disease, death, the desert, cold, filth, sin, and falsehood. The animals were divided between the two realms. All that live in holes, all that hurt the trees and the crops, rats and mice, reptiles of all sorts, turtles, lizards, ver- min, and noxious insects, were hateful creatures of Ahriman. To kill any of these was a merit. The dog was held sacred \ as was also the cock, who announces the break of day. In the system of worship, sacrifices were less prominent than in India. Prayers, and the iteration of prayers, were of great moment. The Magi. — The Zoroastrian religion was not the same at all times and in every place. The primitive Iranian emigrants were monotheistic in their tendencies. In their western abodes, they came into contact with worshipers of the elements, — fire, air, earth, and water. It is thought by many scholars, that the Alagian system, with its more defined dualism and sacerdotal sway, was ingrafted on the native religion of the Iranians through the in- fluence of tribes with whom they mingled in Media. The Magi, according to one account, were charged by Darius with corrupting the Zoroastrian faith and worship. Whatever may have been their origin, they became the leaders in worship, and privy-counselors to the sovereign. They were likewise astrologers, and interpreters of dreams. They were not so distinct a class as the priests in India. A hereditary order, they might still bring new members into their ranks. From the Medes, they were introduced among the Persians. Persian Religious Customs. — Peculiar customs existed among the Medes in disposing of the dead. They were not to be cast into the fire or the water, or buried in the earth, for this would bring pollution to what was sacred ; but their bodies were to be exposed in the high rocks, where the beasts and birds could devour them. Sacrifices were offered on hill-tops. Salutations of homage were made to the rising sun. On sojiie occasions, boys were buried alive, as an offering to the divinities. In early times, there were no images of the gods. As far as they were introduced in later times, it was through the influence of surrounding nations. In the supremacy and the final victory, which, in the later form of Zoroastrianism, were accorded to Ormuzd, there was again an approach to monotheism. Hostility to deception of all sorts, and thus to stealing, was a Persian trait. Herodotus says that the Persians taught their children to ride, to shoot the bow, and to speak tlie truth. To prize the pursuits of agriculture and horti- culture, was a part of their religion. They allowed a plurality of 66 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. wives, and concubines with them ; but there was one wife to whom precedence belonged. Voluntary celibacy in man or woman was counted a flagrant sin. History. — The first authentic notice that we have of the Medes shows them under Assyrian power. This is in the time of Shal- maneser IJ., 840 B.C. Their rise is coincident with the fall of Assyria. PJwaortes (647-625 B.C.) began the Median struggle for independence ; although the name of Deioces is given by Herodotus as a previous king, and the builder of Ecbatana the capital. It was reserved for Cyaxares (625-585 B.C.), having delivered his land from the Scythian marauders (p. 47), to complete, in con- junction with the Babylonian king, Nabopolassar, the work of break- ing down the Assyrian empire (p. 48). He brought under his rule the Bactrians, and the Persians about Pasargadce and Persepolis, and made the Halys, dividing Asia Minor, the limit of his king- dom. His effeminate son, Astyages, lost what his father had won. The Persian branch of the Iranians gained the supremacy. Cyrus, the leader of the Persian revolt, by whom Astyages was defeated, is described as related to him ; but this story, as well as the account of his being rescued from death and brought up among shepherds, is probably a fiction. Cyrus. — In the sixth century B.C., this famous ruler and con- queror became the founder of an empire which comprised nearly all the civilized nations of Asia. During his reign of thirty years (559-530 B.C.), he annexed to his kingdom the two principal states, LvDiA and Babylon. The king of Lydia was Crcesus, whose story, embellished with romantic details, was long familiar as a signal example of the mutations of fortune. Doomed to be burned after the capture of San/is, his capital, he was heard, just when the fire was to be kindled, to say something about Solon. In answer to the inquiry of Cyrus, whose curiosity was excited, he related how that Grecian sage, after beholding his treasures, had refused to call him the most fortunate of men, on the ground that " no man can be called happy before his death," because none can tell what disasters may befall him. Cyrus, according to the narrative, touched by the tale, delivered Croisus from death, and thereafter bestowed on him honor and confidence. There is another form of the tradition, which is deemed by some more probable. Crcesus is said to have stood on a pyre, intending to offer himself in the (lames, to propitiate the gixl Saiidoti, that his people might be saved from destruction; but he was prevented, it is said, by unfavorable augviries. The subjection of the Greek colonies on the Asia-Minor coast followed upon the subjugation of Lydia. From these colonies, the Phocceans went forth, and founded Elea in Lower Italy, and Mas- silia (Marseilles) in Gaul. The Asian Greek cities were each allowed its own municipal rulers, but paid tribute to the Persian master. The conquest of Babylon (53S B.C.), as it opened the THE PERSIANS. 6/ way for the return to Jerusalem of the Jewish exiles, enabled Cyrus to establish a friendly people in Judaea, as a help in fortifying his sway in Syria, and in opening a path to Egypt. But in 529 he lost his life in a war which he was waging against the MassagetcB, a tribe on the Caspian, allied in blood to the Scythians. There was a tradition that the barbarian queen, Tornyris, enraged that C)'rus had overcome her son by deceit, dipped the slain king's head in a skin-bag of blood, exclaiming, " Drink thy fill of blood, of which thou couldst not have enough in thy lifetime ! " Cambyses. — The successor of Cyrus, a man not less warlike than he, but more violent in his passions, reigned but seven years (529-522 B.C.). His most conspicuous achievement was the con- quest of Egypt. One ground or pretext of his hostility, according to the tale of Herodotus, was the fact that Amasis, the predeces- sor of Psammeticus III., not daring to refuse the demand of his -daughter as a wife, to be second in rank to the Persian queen, had fraudulently sent, either to Cambyses, or, before his time, to Cyrus, Nitetis, the daughter of the king who preceded him, Apries. De- feated at Pelusium, and compelled to yield up Memphis after a siege, it is said that Psammeticus, the Psammenitus of Herodotus, the unfortunate successor of the powerful Pharaohs, was obliged to look on the spectacle of his daughters in the garb of working- women, bearing water, and to see his sons, with the principal young nobles, ordered to execution. But this tale lacks confirmation. His cruelties were probably of a later date, and were provoked by the chagrin he felt, and the satisfaction ma,nifested by the people, at the failure of great expeditions which he sent southward for the conquest of Meroe, and westward against the Oasis of Amnion. His armies perished in the Lybian deserts. Even the story of his stabbing the sacred steer {Apis), after these events, although it may be true, is not sanctioned by the Egyptian inscriptions. His attack upon Ammon probably arose, in part at least, from a desire to possess himself of whatever lay between Egypt and the Car- thaginian territory. But the Phoenician sailors who manned his fleet refused to sail against their brethren in Carthage. Cambyses assumed the title and character of an Egyptian sovereign. The story of his madness is an invention of the Egyptian priests. Darius (521-485 B.C.). — For a short time, a pretender, a Magian, who called himself Smerdis, and professed to be the brother of Cambyses, usurped the throne. Cambyses is said to have put an end to his own life. After a reign of seven months, during which he kept himself for the most part hidden from view, Smerdis was destroyed by a rising of the leading Persian families. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, of the royal race of the AcJi(Z)iienid(B, succeeded. He married Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus. The countries which composed an Oriental empire were so loosely held 68 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. together that the death of a despot or the change of a dynasty was very likely to call forth a general insurrection. Darius showed his military prowess in conquering anew various countries, including Babylon, which had revolted. He made Arabia tributary, and spread the bounds of his vast empire as far as India and in North Africa. A mighty expedition which he organized against the Scythians on the Lower Danube failed of the results that were hoped from it. The barbarians wasted their own fields, filled up their wells, drove off their cattle, and fled as the army of Darius advanced. He re- turned, however, with the bulk of his army intact, although with a loss of prestige, and enrolled " the Scyths beyond the sea " among the subjects of his empire. His armies conquered the tribes of Thrace, so that he pushed his boundaries to the frontiers of Mace- donia. The rebellion of the Greek cities on the Asia-Minor coast he suppressed, and harshly avenged. Of his further conflicts with the Greeks on the mainland, more is to be said hereafter. He had built Pcrscpolis, but his principal seat of government appears to have been Susa. He did a great work in organizing his imperial system. The division into satrapies — large districts, each under a satrap, or viceroy — was a part of this work. He thus introduced a more efficient and methodical administration into his empire, — an empire four times as large as the empire of Assyria, which it had swallowed up. Government. — Persia proper corresponded nearly to the modern prov- ince of Farsistan or Fars. The Persian Empire stretched from east to west for a distance of about three thousand miles, and was from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width. It was more than half as large as modern Europe. It comprised not less than two millions of square miles. Its popu- lation under Darius may have been seventy or eighty millions. He brought in uniformity of administration. In each satrapy, besides the satrap himself, who was a despot within his own dominion, there was at first a commander of the troops, and a secretary, whose business it was to make reports to the Great King. These three officers were really watchmen over one another. It was through spies ("eyes" and "ears") of the king that he was kept informed of what was taking place in every part of the empire. At length it was found necessary to give the satraps the command of the troops, which took away one important check upon their power. There was a regular system of taxation, but to this were added extraordinary and oppressive levies. Darius introduced a uniform coinage. " Daries," the Persian coin, is a term said to be derived from his name. Notwithstanding the govern- ment by satraps, local laws and usages were left, to a large extent, undis- turbed. Great roads, and postal communication for the exclusive use of the government, connected the capital with the distant provinces. In this point the Persians set an example which was followed by the Romans. From Siisa to Safdis, a distance of about seventeen hundred English miles, stretched a road, along which, at proper intervals, were caravansaries, and over which the fleet couriers of the king rode in six or seven days. The king was an absolute lord and master, who disposed of the lives and property of his sub- jects without restraint. To him the most servile homage was paid. He lived mostly in seclusion in his palace. On great occasions he sat at banquet with his nobles. His throne was made of gold, silver, and ivory. All who THE PERSIANS. 69 approached him kissed the earth; His ordinary dress was probably of the richest silk. He took his meals mostly by himself. His fare was made up of the choicest delicacies. His seraglio, guarded by eunuchs, contained a multitude of inmates, brought together by his arbitrary command, over whom, in a certain way, the queen-mother presided. His chief diversions were playing at dice within doors, and hunting without. Paradises, or parks, walled in, planted with trees and shrubbery, and furnished with refreshing fountains and streams, were his hunting-ground. Such inclosures were the delight of all Persians. In war he was attended with various officers in close attendance on his person, — the stool-bearer, the bow-bearer, etc. In peace, there was another set, among whom was "the parasol-bearer," — for to be sheltered by the parasol was an exclusive privilege of the king, — the fan- bearer, etc. There were certain privileged families, — six besides the royal clan of the Achanienida, the chiefs of all of which were his counselors, and from whom he was bound to choose his legitimate wives. When the monarch traveled, even on military expeditions, he was accompanied by the whole varied apparatus of luxury which ministered to his pleasures in the court, — costly furniture, a vast retinue of attendants, of inmates of the harem, etc. Army and Navy. — The arms of the footman were a sword, a spear, and a bow. Persian bowmen were skillful. Persian cavalry, both heavy and light, were their most effective arm. The military leaders depended on the celerity of their horsemen and the weight of their numbers. It is doubtful whether they employed military engines. They were not wholly ignorant of strategy. Their troops were marshaled by nations, each in its own costume, the commander of the whole being in the center of the line of battle. The body-guard of the king was " the Immortals," a body of ten thousand picked footmen, the number being always kept intact. The enemies of the Persians, except in the case of rebels, were not treated with inhumanity. In this regard the Persians are in marked contrast with the Semitic ferocity of the Assyrians. Their navies were drawn from the subject-peoples. The trireme, with its projecting prow shod with iron, and its crew of two hundred men, was the principal, but not the only vessel used in sea-fights. Literature and Art. — A Persian youth was ordinarily taught to read, but there was little intellectual culture. Boys were trained in athletic exer- cises. It was a discipline in hardy and temperate habits. Etiquette, in all ranks of the people, was highly esteemed. The Persians, as a nation, were bright-minded, and not deficient in fancy and imagination. But they contributed nothing to science. Their religious ideas were an heirloom from remote ancestors. The celebrated Persian poet, Firdotisi, lived in the tenth century of our era. His great poem, the Shahnaineh, or Book of Kings, is a store- house of ancient traditions. It is probable that the ancient poetry of the Persians, like this production, was of moderate merit. Of the Persian archi- tecture and sculpture, we derive our knowledge from the massive ruins of Persepolis, which was burned by Alexander the Great, and from the remains of other cities. They had learned from Assyria and Babylon, but they dis- play no high degree of artistic talent. They were not an intellectual people : they were soldiers and rulers. Literature. — Works mentioned on pp. 16,42: Eiicycl. Brz'tt., Art. Persia; Vaux, Persia from the Monuments (1876); Noldeke, Geschichte der Ferser (1879). Markham, General Sketch of the History of Persia (1874). RETROSPECT. In Eastern Asia the Chinese nation was built up, the principal achievement of the Mongolian race. Its influence was restricted to neighboring peoples of kindred blood. Its civilization, having once attained to a certain stage of progress, remained for the 70 UNIVKR.SAL HISTORY. most part stationary. China, in its isolation, exerted no power upon the general course of history. Not until a late age, when the civilization of the Caucasian race should be developed, was the culture of China to produce, in the mingling of the European and Asiatic peoples, its full fruits, even for China herself. Jtidia — although the home of a Caucasian immigrant people, a people of the Aryan family too — was cut off by special causes from playing an effective part, either actively or passively, in the general historic movement. Egypt, from 1500 to 1300 B.C., was the leading community of the ancient world. But civilization in Egypt, at an early date, crystallized in an unchanging form. The aim was to preserve un- altered what the past had brought out. The bantlagetl mummy, the result of the effort to preserve even the material body of man for all futur-e time, is a type of the leaden conservatism which pervaded Egyptian life. The pre-eminence of Egypt was lost by the rise of the Semitic states. Semitic arms and culture were in the ascendant for six centuries (1300 to 700 B.C.). Babylon, the ancient Clialdcca, shares with Egypt the distinction of being one of the two chief fountains of culiure. From Babylon, as- tronomy, writing, and other useful arts were disseminated among the other Semitic peoples. It was a strong state as far back as 2000 B.C. Babylon was a hive of industry, and was active in trade, a link of intercourse between the East and the West. But this function of an intermediate was discharged still more effec- tively by the P/icenicians, the first great commercial and na\'al power of antiquity. Tyre reached the acme of its prosperity under Hiram, the contemporary oi Solomon, about 1000 B.C. Meantime, among the Hebrew people, the foundations of the true religion had been laid, — that religion of monotheism which in future ages was to leaven the nations. Contemporaneously, the Assyrian Monarchy was rising to importance on the banks of the Tigris. The appearance, " in the first half of the ninth century B.C., of a power advancing from the heart of Asia towards the West, is an event of immeasurable importance in the history of the world." The Israelites were divided. About the middle of the eighth century B.C., both of their kingdoms lost their independence. Assyria was vigorous in war, but had no deep foundation of national life. " Its religion was not rooted in the soil, like that of Egypt, nor based on the observation of the sky and stars, like that of Babylon." " Its gods were gods of war, manifesting themselves in the prowess of ruling princes." The main instrument in effect- ing the downfall of Assyria was the Aletlo- Persian power. Through the Medes and Persians, the Aryan race comes forward into con- spicuity and control. One branch of the Iranians of Bactria, entering India, through the agency of climate and other physical THE PERSIANS. /I influences converted their religion into a mystical and speculative pantheism, and their social organization into a caste-system under the rule of a priesthood. The Medes and Persians, under other circumstances, in contact with tribes about them, turned their religion into a dualism, yet with a monotheistic drift that was not wholly extinguished. The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus anni- hilated Semitic power. The fall of Lydia, the conquest of Egypt by Carnbyses, and the victories of Darius, brought the world into subjection to Persian rule. The dates of some of the most important historical events in this Section are as follows : — Menes, the first historic king of Egypt about 3000 B.C. ■ Accession of Ramses II. to the Egyptian throne .... 1388 B.C. Rise of the Chaldsean kingdom about 2500 B.C. Reign of Hiram at Tyre, and of Solomon .... about 1000 B.C. Assyrian captivity : downfall of Israel 722 B.C. Fall of Nineveh 606 B.C. Babylonian captivity: downfall of J udah 588 BC. Reign of Cyrus begins 558 B.C. Fall of Lydia: capture of Sardis 54g B.C. Fall of Babylon 53S B.C. Reign of Darius begins 521 B.C. Beginnings of Civilization. — In the history of Western Asia, we discern the beginnings of civilization and of the true religion. In the room of useless and destructive tribal warfare, great num- bers are banded together under despotic rule. Cities were built, where property and life could be protected, and within whose massive walls of vast circumference the useful arts and the rudi- ments of science could spring up. Trade and commerce, by land and sea, naturally followed. Thus nations came to know one another. Aggressive war and subjugation had a part in the same result. The power of the peoples of western Asia, the guardians of infant civilization, availed to keep back the hordes of barbarians on the north, or, as in the case of the great Scythian invasion (p. 47), to drive them back to their own abodes. Defects of Asiatic Civilization. — But the civilization of the Asiatic empires had radical and fatal defects. The development of human nature was in some one direction, to the exclusion of other forms of human activity. As to knowledge, it was confined within a limit beyond which progress was slow. The geometry of Egypt and the astronomy of Babylon remained where the neces- sity-of the pyramid-builders and the superstition of the astrologers b?d carried them. Even the art of war was in a rudimental stage. In battle, huge multitudes were precipitated upon one another. There are some evidences of strategy, when we reach the cam- paigns of Cyrus. But war was full of barbarities, — the destruc- tion of cities, the expatriation of masses of people, the pitiless treatment of captives. Architecture exhibits magnitude without elegance. Temples, palaces, and tombs are monuments of labor rather than creations of art. They impress by their size, not by 72 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. their beauty. Statuary is inert and massive, and appears insepa- rable from the buildings to which it is attached. Literature, with the exception of the Hebrew, is not less monotonous than art. The religion of the Semitic nations, the Hebrews excepted, so far from containing in it a purifying element, tended to degrade its votaries by feeding the flame of sensual and revengeful passion. What but debasement could come from the worship of Astarte and Moloch ? The great empires did not assimilate the nations which they comprised. They were bound, but not in the least fused, together. Persia went farther than any other empire in creating a uniform administration, but even the Persian Empire remained a conglom- erate of distinct peoples. Oriental Government. — The government of the Oriental na- tions was a despotism. It was not a government of laws, but the will of the one master was omnipotent. The counterpart of tyr- anny in the ruler was cringing, abject servility in the subject. Humanity could not thrive, man could not grow to his full stature, under such a system. It was on the soil of Europe and among the Greeks that a better type of manhood and a true idea of lib- erty were to spring up. SAXONT. Harz Mts. Tliuringian Northern Plains. Forest. Division II. EUROPE. Physical Geography. — The Alps, continued on the west by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian mountains, and carried eastward to the Black Sea by the Balkan range, form an irregular line, that separates the three peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and Greece from the great plain of central Europe. On the north of this plain, there is a corresponding system of peninsulas and islands, where the Baltic answers in a measure to the Mediterranean. This midland sea, which at once unites and separates the three conti- nents, is connected with the Atlantic by the narrow Strait of Gib- raltar, and on the east is continued in the ^gean Sea, or the Archipelago, which leads into the Hellespont, or the Strait of the Dardanelles, thence onward into the Propontis, or Sea of Mar- mora, and through the Bosphorus into the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azoff beyond. From the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean the Mediterranean is parted by a space which is now traversed by a canal. The irregularity of the coast-line is on^ of the characteris- tic features of the European continent. Especially are the north- ern shores of the Mediterranean indented by arms of the sea ; and this, along with the numerous islands, marks out the whole region as remarkably adapted to maritime life and commercial intercourse. Its Inhabitants. — Europe was early inhabited by branches of the Aryan race. The cradle or primitive seat of the Aryan family — from which its two main divisions, the European and the Asiatic, went forth — is not known. It is a matter of theory and debate. We find the Grceco-Latin peoples on the south, the more central nations of Celtic speech, the more northern Teutons, and in the north-east the Slavonians. But how all these Aryan branches are mutually related, and of the order and path of their prehistoric migrations, little is definitely known. The Celts were evidently preceded by non-Aryan inhabitants, of whom the Basques in Spain and France are a relic. The Celtiherians in Spain, as the name implies, were a mixture of the Celts with the native non-Aryan Iberians. The Greeks and the Italians had a common ancestry, as n 74 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. we know by their languages ; but of that common ancestry neither Greeks nor Latins in the historic period retained any recollection ; nor can we safely affirm, that, of tliat earlier stock, they alone were the offspring. " All the known Indo-F.uropcan languages," writes Professor Whitney, " are descended from a single dialect, which must have been spoken at some lime in the past by a single limited coinmunity, by the spread and cmiRration of which — not, certainly, without incorporating also bodies of other races than that to which itself belonged by origin — it has reached its present wide distribution." " Of course, it would be a matter of the highest interest to detcrmme the place and jxiriod of this important community, were there any means of doing so: but that is not the case, at least at present." " The condition of these languages is reconcilable with any possible theory as to the original site of the family." " One pomt is established, that ' the sep- aration of the fi\'e European branches must have been later than their common separation from the two Asiatic branches,' the Iranians and Indians." (Whitney's The Life and Growth of Language, pp. 191, 193.) 25 LoDgitJlde East 24 -from Greenwich T F S. 6 F O N T I S I'-AppUoni. ^^"^i t. Pen -^^.fiZnr r ;j^ Amplii^oais La ' ^t^n^„fa »' Sij,^^ JJ[BJiOS, Tl'-f C l-EVCADId. y:j.EVCi SAME r. CErnAl.l£NU «' \^ ^ V;r$— >=^J*'?fS' rf»* ^>^ \ iT^I^^MJnoef las" i;^ Jut ^ ^ «. -,/■■% ^ H^'-^ 1,vr''' r^"i'-''fc^«>^'^£^2^yAdramyttiaro ic<*.u,.,k/L_^,,^^^ , %■" fV"' , fJ - ro-c->'C? plot Zn.Sff / >^-V Vl" "V" l39 I )''"' p/o:i/'J"'i 'Ephesus ,,*«'■ S ro '^ lU^-Xf^ ■ Patmosjjt .^^^ ,R„.,-m,,V4;?<.ypa*«./.^ ^ <" "'w'.-S;... ^■, .,.. '^Btuyaf" - Sptl u ai.^i ?/■ 4 JJ -T ]V -dea ProxD ( vr p ^ A-icania c c r M / '-^■^ P V? ^'^ Ast,-pah.aJ^ ,„,.''^i„»1? C a "i V a ' i r L K \<\vi Section I. GRECIAN HISTORY. The Land. — " Greeks " is not a name which the people who bore it appUed to themselves. It was a name given them by their kinsfolk, the Romans. They called themselves Hellenes, and their land they called Hellas. Hellas, or Greece proper, included the southern portion of the peninsula of which it is a part, the por- tion bounded on the north by Olympus and the Cambunian Moun- tains, and extending south to the Mediterranean. Its shores were washed on the east by the ^gean, on the west by the Adriatic, or Ionian Gulf. The length of Hellas was aboikt two hundred and fifty English miles : its greatest width, measured on the northern frontier, or from Attica on a line westward, was about a hundred and eighty miles. It is somewhat smaller than Portugal. Along its coast are many deep bays. Long and narrow prom- ontories run out into the sea. Thus a great length is given to the sea-coast, which abounds in commodious harbors. The tideless waters are safe for navigators. Scattered within easy distance of the shore are numerous islands of great fertility and beauty. So high and rugged are the mountains that communication between different places is commonly easier by water than by land. A branch of the Alps at the forty-second parallel of latitude turns to the south-east, and descends to Tanarum, the southern promon- tory. On either side, lateral branches are sent off, at short inter- vals, to the east and the west. From these in turn, branches, especially on the east, are thrown out in the same direction as the main ridge ; that is, from north to south. Little room is left for plains of much extent. Thessaly, with its single river, the Peneus, was such a plain. There were no navigable rivers. Most of the streams were nothing more than winter-torrents, whose beds were nearly or quite dry in the summer. They often groped their way to the sea through underground channels, either beneath lakes or in passages which the streams themselves bored through limestone. The physical features of the country fitted it for the development of small states, distinct from one another, yet, owing especially to the relations of the land to the sea, full of life and movement. 75 ^6 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. The Grecian States. — The territory of Greece included (i) Northern Orecce, comprising all north of the Malian (Zeitoum) and Ambracian (Arta) gulfs ; (2) Central Greece, extending thence to the Gulf of Corinth ; (3) the peninsula of Peloponnesus (Morea) to the south of the isthmus. The country was occupied, in the flourishing days of Greece, by not less than seventeen states. N'orthcrn Greece contained two principal countries, T/iessaly and Efirus, separated from one another by the Fhidiis. 'I'iiessaly was the largest and most fertile of the Grecian states. The Pencils, into which poured the mountain streams, passed to the sea through a narrow gorge, the famous Vale of Tempc. In the mountainous region of Epirtis were numerous streams flowing through the valleys. Within it was the ancient Doi/ona, the seat of the oracle. Magnesia, east of Thessaly, on the coast, comprised within it the two ranges of Ossa and Pelion. Central Greece contained eleven states. Mails had on its eastern edge the pass of Thermopyla:. In Phocis, on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus, was Delphi. Ba'otia was dis- tinguished for the number and size of its cities, the chief of which was Thebes. Attica projected from Boeotia to the south-east, its length being seventy miles, and its greatest width thirty miles. Its area was only about seven hun- dred and twenty square miles. It was thus only a little more than half as large as the State of Rhode Island, which has an area of thirteen hundred and six square miles. Its only important town was Athens. Its rivers, the Ilissns and the two Cephissusses, were nothing more than torrent courses. In Southern G7-eece\\&r& eleven countries. The territory of Corinth embraced most of the isthmus, and a large tract in Peloponnesus. It had but one considerable city, Corinth, which had two ports, — one on the Corinthian Gulf, LechcFuni, and the other on the Saronic Gulf, Cenclirciv. Arcadia, the central mountain country, has been called the Switzerland of Pelopon- nesus. It comprised numerous important towns, as Mantinea, Orchomenns, and, in later times, Megalopolis. In the south-east was Laconia, with an area of about nineteen hundred square miles. It consisted mainly of the valley of the Enrotas, which lay between the lofty mountain ranges of Pamon and Taygetiis. " Hollow Laceda^mon " was a phrase descriptive of its situation. Sparta, the capital, was on the Etirotas, twenty miles from the sea. It had no other important city. Argolis, projecting into the sea, eastward of Arca- dia, had within it the ancient towns of Mycena: and Argos. The Islands. — It must be remembered that the waters between Europe and Asia were not a separating barrier, but a close bond of connection. There is scarcely a single point " where, in clear weather, a mariner would feel himself left in a solitude between sky and water ; the eye reaches from island to island, and easy voyages of a day lead from bay to bay." Greek towns, including very ancient places, were scattered along the western coast of Asia Minor, between the mountains and the shore. The .^gean was studded with Greek islands. These, together with the islands in the Ionian Sea, on the west, formed a part of Greek territory. The principal island near Greece was Euba\i, stretching for a hundred miles along the east coast of Attica, Boeotia, and Locris. On the opposite side of the peninsula, west of Epirus, was the smaller but yet large island of Corcyra (Corfu). On the west, besides, were Ithaca, Cephallenia, and Zacynthus (Zante) ; on the south, the CEnusscc Islands and Cythera; on the Syracuse •>- rj^-' ^ Greek Colonies I'ha'yiician Colonics. GRECIAN HISTORY. JJ east, ^gina, Salamis, etc. From the south-eastern shores of Euboea and Attica, the Cyclades and Sporades extended in a continuous series, "like a set of stepping-stones," across the y^gean Sea to Asia Minor. From Corcyra and the Acroceraunian promontory, one could descry, in clear weather, the Italian coast. These were all littoral islands. Besides these, there were other islands in the northern and central ^.gean, such as Lem- ttos, Samothrace, Delos, JVaxos, etc. ; and in the southern ^gean, Crete, an island mountainous but fertile, a hundred and fifty miles in length from east to west, and about fifteen in breadth, and containing more than two thou- sand square miles. The Greek race was still more widely diffused through the settlements in and about the western Mediterranean. The Bond of Race. — The Greeks, or Hellenes, were not so much a nation as a united race. Politically divided, they were conscious of a fraternal bond that connected them, wherever they might be found, and parted them from the rest of mankind. Their sense of brotherhood is implied in the fabulous belief in a common ancestor named Hellen. Together with a fellowship in blood, there was a community in language, notwithstanding minor differences in dialect. Moreover, there was a common religion. They worshiped the same gods. They had the same ritual, and cherished in common the same beliefs respecting things supernat- ural. In connection with these ties of blood, of lafiguage, and of religion, they celebrated together great national festivals, like the Olympic games, in which Greeks from all parts of the world might take part, and into which they entered with a peculiar enthusiasm. As the Jews, following the impulses of a holier faith, went up to Jerusalem to celebrate as one family their sacred rites ; so the Greeks repaired to hallowed shrines of Zeus or Apollo, assembling from afar on the plain of Olympia and at the foot of Parnassus. DIVISIONS OF GREEK HISTORY. Greek history embraces three general periods. The first is the formative period, and extends to the Persian wars, 500 B.C. The second period covers the flourishing era of Greece, from 500 B.C. to 359 B.C. The third is the Macedonian period, when the freedom of Greece was lost, — the era of Philip and Alexander, and of Alexander's successors. Period I. is divided into (i) the mythical or prehistoric age, extending to 776 B.C. ; (2) the age of the formation of the prin- cipal states. Period II. includes (i) the Persian wars, 502-479 B.C. ; (2) the period of Athenian supremacy, 478-431 B.C. ; (3) the Peloponnesian war, 431-404 B.C., with the Spartan, followed by the Theban ascendency, 404-362 B.C. Period III. includes (i) the reigns of Phihp and Alexander, 359-323 B.C.; (2) the kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was divided. Period I. GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS. CIIArXER I, THE PREHISTORIC AGE. Origin of the Greeks. — Before the Hellenes parted from their Aryan ancestry, they had words for "father," "mother," "broth- er," " son," and " daughter," as well as for certain connections by marriage. They lived in houses, pastured flocks and herds, possessed dogs and horses. They had for weapons, the sword and the bow. "They knew how to work gold, silver, and copper ; they could count up to a hundred ; they reckoned time by the lunar month ; they spoke of the sky as the 'heaven-father.' " The differences between the Greek and the Latin languages prove, also, that the Greeks and Italians, after their common progenitors broke off from the primitive Aryan stock, had long dwelt apart. The Greeks, when they first become known to us in historical times, consist of two great branches, the Dorians and Io?iia?is, together with a less distinct branch, the /Eolians, which differs less, per- haps, from the parent Hellenes than do the two divisions just named. It is a probable opinion of scholars, that the halting-place of the Hellenes, whence, in successive waves, they passed over into Greece, was Phrygia, in the north-west of Asia Minor. Preceding the Greeks both in northern Greece and in Peloponnesus, and spread over the coasts and islands of the Archipelago, was a people of whom they had an indistinct knowledge, whom they called Pelas- gians. They were husbandmen or herdsmen. Their national sanctuary was at Dodoiia, in Epirus. The "Cyclopean" ruins, composed of huge polygonal blocks of stone, which they left behind in various places, are the remnant of their walls and fortifi- cations. The Greeks looked back on these Pelasgian predecessors as different from themselves. Yet no reminiscences existed of any hostility towards them. It is plausibly conjectured that this prehistoric people were emigrants from the region of Phrygia at a more ancient date, and that the Hellenes, a more energetic and gifted branch of the same stock, followed them, and, without force 7S GRECIAN HISTORY. 79 or conflict, became the founders and leaders of a new historic movement, in which the Pelasgians disappeared from view. In this second migration, the ancestors of the lonians went down from Phrygia to the coast of Asia Minor, and began the career which made them a maritime and commercial people. The Do- rians crossed over to the highlands of northern Greece, where they became hardy mountaineers, not addicted to the sea. The one tribe were to be eventually the founders of Athens ; the other, of Sparta. Besides these two main tribes, the ^^Eolians occupied Thessaly, Bceotia, ^tolia, and other districts. To them the Achmans, who were supreme in Peloponnesus in the days of Homer, were allied. Foreign Influences. — Besides Phrygia, the legends of the Greeks bear traces of a foreign influence from Phcemcia and Egypt. The Phoenicians were unquestionably early connected with the Greeks, first by commercial visits to Greek ports, to which they brought foreign merchandise. The story of Cadmus, who is said to have founded Thebes, and to have brought in the Phoenician alphabet, is fabulous. But it is probable, that, as early as the close of the ninth century B.C., the alphabet was introduced by Phoenicians, and dif- fused over Greece. Another legend is that of Ceovps, conceived of later as an Egyptian, who is said to have built»a citadel at Ath- ens, and to have imported the seeds of civilization and religion. Danaits, another emigrant from Egypt, coming with his fifty daughters, is said to have built the citadel of Argos. In the later times, the Greeks were fond of tracing their knowledge of the arts to Egy|:)tian sources. It is remarkable that the agents by whom genus of civilization were said to have been imported from abroad, though foreign, are nevertheless depicted as thoroughly Greek in their character. Whatever the Greeks may have owed to Egypt, it is probable was mainly derived from lonians who had previously planted themselves in that country. The Dorian Emigration. — It was in the prehistoric time that the Dorians left their homes in northern Greece, and migrated into Peloponnesus, where they proved themselves stronger than the lonians and the Achgeans dwelling there. They left the Achgeans on the south coast of the Corinthian Gulf, in the district called Achaia. Nor did they conquer Arcadia. But of most of Pelopon- nesus they became masters. This is the portion of historic truth contained in the myth of the Return of the Heraclidce, the de- scendants of Hercules, to the old kingdom of their ancestor. Migrations to Asia Minor. — The Dorian conc^uest is said to have been the cause of three distinct migrations to Asia Minor. The Achseans, with their ^olic kinsmen on the north, established themselves on the north-west coast of Asia Minor, Lesbos and Cyme being their strongholds, and by degrees got control in Mysia and 8o ANCIENT HISTORY. the Troad. Ionic emigrants from Attica joined their l)rethren on the same coast. The Dorians settled on the south-west coast; they also settled Cos antl Rhodes, and at length subdued Crete. The Dorian concjuest of Peloponnesus, and the migrations just spoken of, were slow in their progress, and [jossibly stretched over centuries. Character of the Greeks.— Originality is a distinguishing trait of the Greeks. Whatever they borrowed from others they made their own, antl reproduced in a form peculiar to themselves. They were never servile copyists. All the products of the Greek mind, whether in government, art, literature, or in whatever province of human activity, wear a peculiar stamp. When we leave Asiatic ground, and come into contact with the Greeks, we find ourselves in another atmos[)here. A spirit of humanity, in the broad sense of the term, pervades their life. A regard for reason, a sense of order, a disposition to keep every thing within measure, is a marked characteristic. Their sense of form — including a perception of beauty, and of harmony and proportion — made them in politics and letters the leaders of mankind. " Do nothing in excess," was their favorite maxim. They hated every thing that was out of proportion. Their language, without a rival in flexibility and sym- metry and in perfection of sound, is itself, though a spontaneous creation, a work of art. " Tlie whole language resembles the body of an artistically trained athlete, in which every muscle, every sinew, is developed into full play, where there is no trace of tumid- ity or of inert matter, and all is power and life." The great variety of the spiritual gifts of this people, the severest formulas of science, the loftiest flights of imagination, the keenest play of wit and humor, were capable of precise and effective expression in this language "as in ductile play." The use of. the language, so lucid and so nice in its discriminations, was itself an education for the young who grew up to hear it and to speak it. In a genial yet invigorating climate, in a land where breezes from the mountain and the sea were mingled, the versatile Greeks produced by phys- ical training that vigor and grace of body which they so much admired ; and they developed the civil polity, the artistic discern- ment, and the complex social life, which made them the principal source of modern culture. Their moral traits are not so admirable. As a race they were less truthful, and less marked for their courage and loyalty, than some other peoples below them in intellect. Religion. — In the early days, when Greece was open to foreign influences, the simple religion of the Aryan fathers was enlarged by new elements from abroad. The Tyrian deity, Melkarth, appears at Corinth as Melicertes. Astartc becomes Aphrodite (Venus), who springs from the sea. The myth of Dionysus and the worship of Devieter (Ceres) may be of foreign origin. Poseidon (Neptune), GRECIAN HISTORY. 8l the god of the sea, and Apollo, the god of Hght and of healing, whose worship carried in it cheer and comfort, though they were brought into Greece, were previously known to the lonians. By Homer and Hesiod, the great poets of the prehistoric age, the gods in these successive dynasties, their oiifices and mutual rela- tions, were depicted. In Hesiod they stand in a connected scheme or theogony. I. There are the twelve great gods and goddesses of Olympus, who were named by the Greeks,— Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Ares, Hcphaestos, Hermes, Here, Athene, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hestia, Demeter. 2. Numerous other divinities, not included among the Olympic, but some not less important than the twelve. Such are Hades, Helios, Dionysus, the Charites, the Muses, the Nereids, the Nymphs, etc. 3.. Deities who perform special service to the greater gods, — Iris, Hebe, the Horae, etc. 4. Deities whose personality is less distinct, — Ate, Eris^ Thanatos, Hypnos, etc. 5. Monsters, progeny of the gods, — the Harpies, the Gorgons, Pega- sus, Chima;ra, Cerberus, Scylla and Charybdis, the Centaurs, the Sphinx. Below the gods are the demigods or heroes. Legends of Heroes. — The space which precedes the beginning of authentic records, the Greeks filled up with mythical tales, in which gods and heroes are the central figures. The heroes are partly of divine parentage. They are in near intercourse with the deities. Their deeds are superhuman, and embody those ideals of character and of achievement which the early Greeks cherished. The production of a lively imagination, before the dawn of the critical faculty or the growth of reflection, these tales njay yet include a nucleus of historical incident or vague reminiscences of historical re- lations and changes. To attempt to extract these from the fictitious form in which they are embodied, is for the most part hopeless. The exploits of Heracles (Hercules) have a prominent place in the legends. This hero of Argos submitted to serve a cruel tyrant, but, by prodigious labors (twelve in number), delivered men from dangerous beasts, — the Ler- naean hydra, the Nemean lion, etc., — and performed other miraculous services. Theseus, the national hero of Attica, cleared the roads of savage robbers, and delivered his country from bondage. Mitios, the mythical legislator of Crete, cleared the sea of pirates, and founded a maritime state. Of the legendary stories, three of the most, famous are The Seven against Thebes, The Argonaiitic Expedition, and The Trojan War. i. Laius, king of Thebes, was told by an oracle that he should be killed by his son. He exposed him, therefore, as soon as he was born, on Mount Cithseron. Saved by a herds- man, CEdipus was brought up by Polybus, king of Corinth, as his own son. Warned by the oracle that he should kill his father, and marry his mother, the son forsook Corinth, and made his abode at Thebes. Meeting Laius in a narrow pass, and provoked by his attendants, he slew them and him. At Thebes there was a female monster, the Sphinx, who propounded a riddle, and each day devoured a man until it should be solved. CEdipus won the prize which the Queen Jocaste had offered; namely, the crown and her own hand to whomsoever should free the city. When his two sons and daughters had grown up, a pestilence broke out; and the oracle demanded that the murderer of Laius should be banished. CEdipus, in spite of the warnings of the blind priest, Tiresias, finds out the truth. He puts out his eyes, and is driven into exile by his sons, whom he curses. Under the guidance of his daughter Antigone, he finds a resting-])lace at Coloniis, a suburb of Athens, in a grove of the Eutnenides, whose function it was to avenge such crimes as his. He received expiation at the hands of Theseus, and died in a calm and peace- ful way. This legend was the basis of some of the finest of the Greek dramas, 82 ANCIENT HISTORY. "CEdipus Tyrannus," and the "CP^dipus at Colonus" of Sophocles, and "The Seven against Thebes" of yEscliylus. The curse of CEdipus still rested on his sons. The story of Aii/i:^oiic, defying the tyrant Crcoii, and burying her slain brother, Polyiiiccs, is the foundation of the drama of Sophocles, bearing her name. Finally, the Epii^oiii, descendants of the Seven who had fought Thebes, captured and destroyed that city. 2. 'I'he Arf;ouauts were described as a band of heroes, who, through peril- ous and unknown seas, sailed from lolcos in Thessaly, in the ship " Argo," to Colchis, whence they brought away the golden fleece which had been stolen, and which they found nailed to an oak, and guarded by a sleepless dragon, yason, the leader, was accompanied on his return by the enchant- ress, Medea, who had aided him. She, in order to delay their pursuers, killed her brother Absyrlns, and threw his l)ody, piece by piece, into the sea. Her subsequent story involves various other tragic events. 3. The most noted of the legends is the story of the Trojan war. The deeds of the heroes of this war are the subject of the Ihaii. Paris, son of Priam, king of Ilios ('I'roy), in Asia Minor, carried off Helen, the wife of Menelaiis, king of S|)arta. To recover her, the Greeks united in an exi)edi- tion against Troy, which they took after a siege of ten years. Agamemnon, Achilles, Odysseus (Ulysses), Ajax son of Telamon, and Aja.x son of Oileus, Diomedes, and Nestor were among the chiefs on the Greek side. Troy had its allies. The "Odyssey" relates to the long journey of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca, his home. That there was an ancient city, Troy, is certain. A conflict between the Greeks and a kindred jjeople there, is probable. Not unlikely, there was a military expedition of Grecian tribes. Every thing beyond this is either plainly myth, or incapable of verification. Unions of Tribes. — During the period when the Greek popu- lation was dispersing itself in the districts which its different frac- tions occupied in the historic ages, there arose unions among tribes near one another, for religious purposes. They preceded treaties and alliances of the ordinary kind. Such tribes agreed to celebrate, in common, certain solemn festivals. Deputies of these tribes met at stated intervals to look after the temple and the lands pertaining to it. Out of these unions, there grew stipulations relative to the mode of conducting war and other matters of common interest. Treaties of peace and of mutual defense might follow. Thus arose combinations of states, in which one state, the strongest, would have the hegemony, or lead. This became an established characteristic of Greek political life. It was a system of federal unions under the headship of the most powerful member of the confederacy. When such a union was formed, it established a common worship or festival. The Delphic Amphictyony. — In the north of Greece, there was formed, in early times, a great religious union. It was com- posed of twelve tribes banded together for the worship of Apollo at Delphi, and to guard his temple. It was called the Delphic Amphictyony, or " League of Neighbors." The members of this body agreed not to destroy one another's towns in war, and not to cut off running water from a town which they were besieging. The Delphic Oracle. — The sanctuary at Delphi, where the Amphictyonic Council met, became the most famous temple in GRECIAN HISTORY. 83 Greece. Here the oracle of Apollo gave answers to those who came to consult that divinity. The priests who managed the tem- ple kept themselves well informed in regard to occurrences in dis- tant places. Their answers were often discreet and wholesome, but not unfrequently obscure and ambiguous, and thus misleading. In early times their moral influence in the nation promoted justice and fraternal feeling. In later times they lost their reputation for honesty and impartiality. In civil wars the priests were some- times bribed to support one of the contending parties. The Homeric Poems. — Within the last centur}', there has been much discussion about the authorship of the two poems, the Iliad and the OJysscy. The place where they were composed, whether among the lonians in Greece proper or in Asia Minor, is still a matter of debate. It was probably Asia Minor. Seven places contended for the honor of having given birth to the blind bard. Smyrna, and, next to Smyrna, Chios, presents the strongest claim. It is doubtful whether the art of writing was much, if at all, in use among the Greeks at the time of the composition of the Iliad and Odyssey. We know that the custom existed of repeating poems orally by minstrels or rhapsodists at popular festivals. This may have been the mode in which for a time the Homeric poems were preserved and transmitted. The Odyssef has more unity than the Iliad, and seems to be of a somewhat later date. The nucleus of the Iliad is thought by some scholars to be embedded in the group of poems which, it is supposed, constitute the work at present; and that primitive portion, "The Wrath of Achilles," is thought to have been the work of Homer. Whatever may be the truth on these questions, the Iliad and Odyssey present an invaluable picture of Greek life in the period when they were com- posed, which was probably as early as 900 B.C. Social Life in the Homeric Age. — ( i ) Government. In the Homeric portraiture of Greek life, there are towns ; but the tribe is predominant over the town. The tribe is ruled by a king, who is not like an Eastern despot, but has about him a council of chiefs, and is bound by the themistes, the traditional customs. There is, besides, the a^ora, or popular assembly, where debates take place among the chiefs, and to which their decisions, or rather the decision of the king, on whom it devolves finally to deter- mine every thing, are communicated. Public speaking, it is seen, is practiced in the infancy of Greek society. {2) Ciistotns. People live in hill-villages, surrounded by walls. Life is patriarchal, and, as regards the domestic circle, humane. Polygamy, the plague of Oriental society, does not exist. Women are held in high regard. Slavery is everywhere established. Side by side with piracy and constant war, and the supreme honor given to military prowess, there is a fine and bountiful hospitality which is held to be a reli- 84 ANCIENT HISTORV. gious duty. In the Homeric poems, there is often exhibited a noble refinement of thought and sentiment, and a gentle courtesy. (3) Arts and Jiiiliistry. In war, the chariot is the engine: cav- alry are unknown. The useful arts are in a rudimental stage. Spinning and weaving are the constant occupation of women. All garments are made at home : noble women join with their slaves in washing them in the river, 'i'lie condition of the common freeman who took one temporary job after another, was miserable. Of the condition of those who pursued special occupations, — as the carpenter, the leather-dresser, the fisherman, etc., — we have no adequate information. The principal metals were in use, and the art of forging them. There was no coined money : payment was made in oxen. But there is hereditary individual property in land, cultivated vineyards, temples of the gods, and splendid palaces of the chiefs. (4) Geographical Knoiv/edge. In Homer, there is a knowledge of Greece, of the neighboring islands, and western Asia Minor. References to other lands are vague. The earth is a sort of flat oval, with the River Oceanus flowing round it. Hcsiod is better informed about places : he knows something of the Nile and of the Scythians, and of some places as far west as Syracuse. Religion in the Homeric Age. — The Homeric poems give us a full idea of the early religious ideas and practices, (i) The Nature of the Gods. — The gods in Homer are human beings with greatly magnified powers. Their dwelling is in the sky above us: their special abode is Mount Olym- pus. They experience hunger, but feed on ambrosia and nectar. They travel with miraculous speed. Their prime blessing is exemption from mortality. Among themselves they are often discordant and deceitful. {2) Relation of the Gods to Men. They are the rulers and guides of nations. Though they act often from mere caprice or favoritism, their sway is, on the whole, ]5romotive of justice. Zeus is supreme: none can contend with him successfully. The gods hold communication with men. They also make known their will and intentions by signs and portents, — such as thunder and lightning, or the sudden passing of a great bird of prey. They teach men through dreams. (3) Seii'ice of the Gods Sacrifice and supplication are the chief forms of devotion. There is no dominant hierarchy. The temi)le has its priest, but the father is priest in his own household. (4) Morals and Religion. Morality is interwoven with religion Above M, oaths arc sacred, and oath-breakers abhorred by gods as well as by men. In the conduct of the divinities, there are found abundant examples of unbridled anger and savage retaliation. Yet gentle sentiments, counsels to forbearance and mercy, are not wanting. The wrath of the gods is most provoked by lawless self-assertion and insolence. (5) Propitiation: the Dead. The sense of sin leads to the appeasing of the deities by offerings, attended with jirayer. The offerings are gifts to the god, tokens of the honor due to him. The dead live as flitting shadows in Hades. Achilles is made to say that he would rather be a miserable laborer on earth than to reign over all the dead in the abodes below. Greek Literature. — The chief types, both of poetry and of prose, originated with the Greeks. 'Vheir writings are the foun- tain-head of the literature of Europe. Tney prized simplicity : they always had an intense disrelish for obscurity and bombast. GRECIAN HISTORY. 85 The earliest poetry of the Greeks consisted of hymns to the gods. It was lyrical, an outpouring of personal feeling. The lyrical type was followed by the epic, where heroic deeds, or other events of thrilling interest, are the theme of song, and the personal emotion of the bard is out of sight through his absorption in the subject. Description flows on, the narrator himself being in the background. This epic poetry culminates in the Iliad and Odyssey (940-850 B.C.). Their verse is the hexameter. These poems move on in a s^Adft current, yet without abruptness or monotony. They are marked by a simplicity and a nobleness, a refinement and a pathos, which have charmed all subsequent ages. Honier, far more than any other author, was the educator of the Greeks. There was a class called Homeridce, in Chios ; but whether they were them- selves poets, or reciters of Homer, or what else may have been their peculiar work, is not ascertained. There was, however, a class of Cyclic poets, who took up the legends of Troy, and carried out farther the Homeric tales. Hesiod was the founder of a more didactic sort of poetry. He is about a century later than the Iliad. Besides the Theogony, which treats of the origin of the gods and of nature, his Works aiid Days relates to the works which a farmer has to do, and the lucky ot unlucky days for doing them. It contains doctrines and precepts relative to agri- culture, navigation, civil and family life. Hesiod was the first of a Bxotian school of poets. He lacks the poetic genius of Homer, and the vivacity and cheerfuhiess which pervade the Iliad and the Odyssey. CHAPTER II. THE FORMATION OF THE PRIJSTCIPAIi STATES. Aristocratic Government. — The early kings were obeyed as much for their personal qualities, such as valor and strength of body, as for their hereditary title. By degrees the noble families about the king took control, and the kingship thus gave way to the rule of an aristocracy. The priestly office, which required special knowledge, remained in particular families, as the Eumol- pidce at Athens, — families to whom was ascribed the gift of the seer, and to whom were known the Eleiisinian inyslei'ies. The nobles were landholders, with dependent farmers who paid rent. The nobles held sway over tillers of the 'soil, artisans and seamen, who constituted the people (the "demos"), and who had no share in political power. This state of things continued until the lower class gained more property and more knowledge ; and the example of the colonial settlements, where there was greater S6 ANCIENT HISTORY. equality, re-acted on the parent state. The stniggle of the lower ranks for freedom was of long continuance. In all Greek cities, there were Aleioeci, or resident foreigners without political rights, and also slaves from abroad. Free-born Greeks busied them- selves with occupations connected with the fine arts, or with trade and commerce on an extended scale. They commonly eschewed all other employments, and especially menial labor. The Constitution of Lycurgus. — According to the tradition, disorders in Sparta following the Dorian conquest, and strife be- tween the victors and the conquered, moved Lyciirgiis, a man of regal descent, to retire to Crete, where the old Dorian customs were still observed. On his return he gave to the citizens a constitution, which was held in reverence by the generations after him. To him, also, laws and customs which were really of later date, came to be ascribed. The Spartan population consisted ( i ) of the SparfiatcE, who had full rights, and those of less means, — both comprising the Dorian conquerors. They were divided into three Phylce, or tribes, each composed of ten divisions ( Obcu) ; (2) the Periceci, Achaeans who paid tribute on the land which they held, were bound to mili- tary service, but had no political rights ; (3) the Helots, serfs of the State, who were divided among the Spartiat?e by lot, and cultivated their lands, paying to them a certain fraction of the harvest. The form of government established by Lycurgus was an aristocratic republic. The Council of Elders, twenty-eight in number, chosen for life by the Phyte, were presided over by two hereditary kings, who had little power in time of peace, but unlimited command of the forces in war. The popular assembly, composed of all Spartiatae of thirty years of age or upwards, could only decide questions without debate. Five Ephors, chosen yearly by the Phylse, acquired more and more authority. Lycurgus is said to have divided the land into nine thousand equal lots for the fami- lies of the Spartiatae, and thirty thousand for the PericEci. To keep down the helots required constant vigilance, and often occa- sioned measures of extreme cruelty. The Crypteia was an organ- ized guard of young Spartans, whose business it was to prevent insuiTection. Laws and Customs. — The Spartan state was thus aristocratic and military. It took into its own hands the education of the young. Weak and deformed children were left to perish in a ravine of Taygetus, or thrust down among the Perioeci. Healthy children at the age of seven were taken from their homes, to be reared under the supervision of the State. They had some literary instruction, but their chief training was in gymnastics. They were exercised in hunting and in drills ; took their meals together in the syssitia (the public mess), where the fare was rough and scanty; slept in dormitories together ; and by every means were disciplined GRECIAN HISTORY. 87 for a soldier's life. The Spartan men likewise fed at public tables, and slept in barracks, only making occasional visits to their own houses. No money was in circulation except iron : no one was permitted to possess gold or silver. Girls were separately drilled in gymnastic exercises, and made to be as hardy as boys. Mar- riage was regulated by the State. There was more purity, and women had a higher standing, in Sparta than in other parts of Greece. The strength of the Spartan array was in the hoplites, or heavy-armed infantry. In battle, messmates stood together. Cowardice was treated with the utmost contempt. The rigorous subordination of the young to their elders was maintained in war as in peace. The tradition was, that after this constitution of Lycurgus had been approved by the Delphian oracle, he made the' citizens swear to observe it until he should return from a projected journey. He then went to Crete, and staid there until his death. Hegemony of Sparta. — Having thus organized the body politic, Sparta took the steps which gave it the hegemony in Peloponnesus and over all Greece. First, it conquered the neighboring state of Messenia in two great wars, the first lasting from 743-724 B.C., and the second from 685-668 B.C. In the first of these wars, the Mes- senians submitted to become tributary to Sparta,* after their citadel, Ithome, had been captured, and their defeated hero, Aristodemus, had slain himself Many of the vanquished Messenians escaped from their country to Arcadia and Argolis. Some of them fled farther, and founded Rhegmi?i in Lower Italy. In the second war, the Messenians revolted against the tyrannical rule of Sparta, and at first, under Arisfoinefies, were successfiil, but were afterwards defeated by the Spartans, who were inspirited for the conflict by the war-songs of the Athenian poet, Tyrtceus. Aristomenes fled to Rhodes. Most of his people were made helots. The Arcadians, after long resistance, succumbed, and came under the Spartan hegemony (about 600 B.C.). Argos, too, was obliged to renounce its claim to this position in favor of its Spartan antagonist, after its defeat by Cleomenes, the Lacedaemonian king, at Thyrea (549 B.C.) . The Argive League was dissolved, and Sparta gained the right to command in every war that should be waged in common by the Peloponnesian states, the right, also, to determine the contingent of troops which each should furnish, and to preside in the council of the confederacy. She now began to spread her power beyond Peloponnesus, entered into negotiations with Lydia (555 B.C.), and actually sent an expedition to the coast of Asia (525 B.C.). Moreover as early as 510 B.C., by interfering in the affairs of the states north of the Corinthian isthmus, and with Attica in particular, she sowed among the Athenians the seeds of a lasting enmity. Government in Athens : Draco. — According to the tradition, Codrus, who died about 1068 B.C., was the last of the Athenian 88 ANCIENT HISTORY. kings. The Eupa/rids, the noble famiHes, abolished monarchy, and substituted for the king an Archon, chosen for life by them out of the family of Codrus. The Eupatrids stood in a sort of patriarchal relation to the common people. The inhabitants were divided into four tribes. These were subdivided, first into Brother- hoods and Clans, and secondly, into classes based on consan- guinity, and classes arranged for taxation, military service, etc. The entire community comprised the Nobles, — in whose hands the political power was lodged, — the Farmers, and the Artisans. The farmers and the artisans might gather in the Agora, and express assent to public measures, or dissent. In process of time the archons came to be chosen not from the family of Codrus ex- clusively, but from the Eupatrids generally. From 682 B.C. they were nine in number, and they served but for one year. The oppression of the nobles provoked the demand, by the Athenian people, for a body of written laws. The archon Draeo, about 629 B.C., in compliance with this demand, framed a code so rigorous that the word " draconian " came to mean harsh and rigid. It was said of his laws that they were written in blood. The death penalty was imposed for numerous minor offenses. The avarice of the nobles, and their hard treatment of debtors, many of whom were deprived of their liberty, stirred up insurrection and conflict be- tween the people and their masters. A rebellion, led by Cylon, one of the Eupatrids, was put down, and punished by means involv- ing treachery and sacrilege. The insurgents were slain clinging to the altars of the gods, where they had taken refuge. This was the occasion (594 B.C.) of the introduction of the constitution of Solo7i, one of " the seven wise men of Greece." He had acquired popularity by recovering Salamis from the Megarians, and in a sacred war against towns which had robbed the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Legislation of Solon. — The design of Solon was to substitute a better system for the tyrannical oligarchy, but, at the same time, to keep power mainly in the hands of the uiiper class. He divided the people into four classes, according to the amount of their income. To the richest of these the archonship, and ad- mission into the Areopagus, were confined. A new council was established, which had the right to initiate legislation, composed of one hundred from each of the four old tribes, and annually elected by the body of the citizens. The Ecclcsia, or assembly of the whole people, having the right to choose the archons and councilors, was revived. Courts of Appeal, with jury trials, were instituted. The old council of the Areopagus was clothed with high judicial and executive powers. There were laws to relieve a portion of the debtors from their burdens, and to abolish servitude for debt. Every father was required to teach his son a handicraft. GRECIAN HISTORY. 89 Parties in Athens. — The legislation of Solon was a measure of compromise. It satisfied neither party. After journeys abroad, he passed his old age in Athens, and was a spectator of the rising contests between the discordant factions, which his constitution was only able for a time to curb. There were three parties, — a re-actionary party under Lycurgus, a progressive party led by Pisis- tratus, and a moderate or middle party under Megacles. The Tyrants. — At this time, in almost all of the Grecian states, monarchy had given place to aristocracy. The reign of an oli- garchy, the unbridled sway of a few, was commonly the next step. Against this the people in different states, — the demos, — rose in re- volt. The popular leader, or " demagogue," was some conspicuous and wealthy noble, who thus acquired supreme authority. In this way, in the seventh and sixth centuries, most of the states were ruled by "tyrants," — a term signifying absolute rulers, whether their administration was unjust and cruel, or fair and mild. They endeavored to fortify their rule by collecting poets, artists, and musicians about them, for their own pleasure and for the diversion of the populace. Occasionally they gave the people employment in the erection of costly buildings. They formed alliances with one another and with foreign kings. Not unfrecjuently they prac- ticed violence and extortion. The oligarchies sought to dethrone them. Their overthrow often had for its result the introduction of popular sovereignty. Among the most noted tyrants were Peri- aiider of Corinth (655-625 B.C.), Pittacus in Lesbos (589-579 B.C.), and Polycrates in Samos (535-522 B.C.). The Pisistratids. — The government of Athens, framed by Solon, was in effect a " timocracy," or rule of the rich. At the head of the popular party stood Pisistratus, a rich nobleman of high de- scent. He succeeded, by means of his armed guard, in making himself master of the citadel. Twice driven out of the city, he at length returned (538 B.C.), and gained permanent control by force of arms. He managed his government with shrewdness and energy. Industry and trade flourished. He decorated Athens with buildmgs and statues. Religious festivals he caused to be celebrated with splendor. He ruled under the legal forms by having archons chosen to suit him. He died 527 B.C. Hippias, his son, governed with mildness until his younger brother and colleague in power, Hipparchiis, was slain by the two friends, Harmodius and Aristogiton. Then he gave the rein to revenge- ful passion, and laid upon the people burdensome taxes. Hippias was driven out of the city by the Alcmceonidce and other exiled nobles, assisted by the Spartan king, Cleomenes (510 B.C.). He fled to Asia Minor in order to secure Persian help. The Athenian Democracy. — Clistheiies, a brilliant man, the head of the AlcmcEonid family, connected himself with the popular 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. party, and introduced sucli changes in the constitution as to render him the founder of the Athenian Democracy. The power of the archons was reduced. All of the free inhabitants of Attica were admitted to citizenship. New tribes, ten in number, each com- prising ten denies, or hamlets, with their adjacent districts, super- seded the old tribes. A coinuil of five hundred, fifty from each tribe, supplanted Solon's council of four hundred. The courts of law were newly organized. The Ostracis7n was introduced ; that is, the prerogative of the popular assembly to decree by secret ballot, without trial, the banishment of a person who should be deemed to be dangerous to the public weal. Certain officers were designated by lot. Ten Strafegi, one from each tribe, by turns, took the place of the archon polcmarchus in command of the army. Effect of Democracy. — Under this system of free government, the energy of the Athenian people was developed with amazing rapidity. The spirit of patriotism, of zeal for the honor and wel- fare of Athens, rose to a high pitch. The power and resources of the city increased in a proportionate degree. Culture kept pace with prosperity. Lyrical Poetry. — In the eighth century, when monarchy was declining, and the tendency to democracy began to manifest itself, a new style of poetry, different from the epic, arose. The narrative poems of minstrels were heard at the great religious festivals. lUit there was a craving for the expression of individual feeling. Hence, lyrical poetry re-appeared, not in the shape of religious songs, as in the old time, but in a form to touch all the chords of sentiment. Two new types of verse appeared, — the Elegiac and the Iambic, At first the elegy was probably a lament for the dead. It was accompanied by the soft music of the Lydian flute. The instruments which the Greeks had used were string-instruments. The early Greek elegies related to a variety of themes, — as war, love, preceptive wisdom. The iambic meter was first used in satire. Its earliest master of distinction was Archilochus of Paros (670 B.C.). It was employed, however, in fables, and elsewhere \vhen pointed or intense expression was craved. The earliest of the (]reek elegists, Calliniis and Tvricriis, composed war-songs. Mimnermits, Solon, Tkeogtiis, Simoiiides of Ceos, are among the most famous elegists. Music developed in connec- tion with lyric poetry. The Greeks at first used the four-stringed lyre. Ter pander made an epoch (660 B.C.) by adding three strings. Olympus and Thaletas made further improvements. Greek lyric poetry flourished, espe- cially from 670 to 440 B.C. The ^^olian lyrists of Lesbos founded a school of their own. The two great re|.iresentativcs are Alciciis, who sang of war and of love, ViwA Sappho, who sang of love. " Probablv no poet ever surpassed Sap]iho as an inter])rctcr of passion in exquisitelv subtle harmonies of form and sound." Anacreon, an Ionian, resembled in his style the /Eolian lyrists. He was most often referred to by the ancients as the poet of sensuous feeling of every sort. The Dorian lyric jioetry was mostly choral and historic in its topics. Greek lyric ]ioetry reaches the climax in Simoiiides and Pindar. The latter was a Bceotian, but of Dorian descent. Simonides was tender and ]iolished ; Piiiddr, fervid and sublime. The extant works of I'indar are the Epinicia, or odes of victory. Historical Writing. — This age witnesses the beginnings of historical writing. But the logograpJiers, as they were called, only wrote prose epics. GRECIAN HISTORY. 9I They told the story of the foundation of families and cities, reconciling as best they could the myths, so far as they clashed with one another. Philosophy: the Ionian School. — The Greeks were the first to investigate rationally the causes of things, and to try to comprehend the world as a complete system. The earliest phase of this movement was on the side of physics, or natural philosophy. Homer zx\A Hesiod had accounted for the operations of nature by referring them to the direct personal action of different divinities. The earliest philosophers brought in the conception of some kind of matter as the foundation and source of all things. The Ionian School led the way in this direction. Thales of Miletus (620-560 B.C.) made this primary substance to be tvater Anaxi?nander (570-520 B.C.) made all things spring out of a primitive stuff, without definite qualities, and without bounds. He taught that the earth is round, invented the sun-dial, engraved a map on a brass tablet, and made some astronomical calculations. Anax- iinenes (500-494 B.C.) derived all things from air, which he made to be eternal and infinite. The Bleatic School. — The Eleatic School conceived of the world as one in substance, and held that the natural phenomena which we behold, in all their variety and change, are unreal. Xenophancs (who flourished from 730 to 500 B C.) asserted this. Parmenides (504-460 B.C.) taught that succes- sion, change, the manifold forms of things, are only relative , that is, are only our way of regarding the one universal essence. Zeno sought to vindicate this theory logically by disproving the possibility of motion. Other Philosophers. — Another set of philosophers attempted definitely to explain the appearances of things, the changing phenomena, which had been called unreal. Heraclihcs made the world to be nothing but these : There is no substratum of things : there is only an endless flux, a cycle. All things begin and end in fire, the symbol of what is real. Empedocles ascribed all things to fire, air, earth, and water, which are wrought into different bodies by "love" and "hate;" or, as we should say, attraction and repulsion. * n Democritus was the founder of the Atomists, who made all things spring out of the motions and combinations of primitive atoms. Anaxagoras brought ■ in intelligence, or reason, as giving the start to the development of matter, — this principle doing nothing more, however, and being inherent in matter itself. Pythagoras. — A different spirit in philosophy belonged to Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.), who was born in Samos, traveled extensively, and settled in Croton, in southern Italy. His theory was, that the inner substance of all things is number. Discipline of character was a prime object. Pythagoras was sparing in his diet, promoted an earnest culture, in which music was prominent, and gave rise to a mystical school, in which moral reform and religious feeling were connected with an ascetic method of living. Colonies. — It was during the era of the oligarchies and tyrannies that the colonizing spirit was most active among the Greeks. Most of the colo- nies were established between 750 and 550 B.C. Their names alone would make a very long catalogue. They were of two classes : first, independent communities, connected, however, with the parent city by close ties of friend- ship ; and secondly, kleruckies, which were of the nature of garrisons, where the settlers retained their former rights as citizens, and the mother city its full authority over them. In Sicily, on the eastern side, were the Ionian communities, — Naxos, Catana, etc. Syracuse (iom\Aeentment. The gods, esi)ecially Zeus, are the fountain of law. The righteousness of the divine government is especially evinced in the punishment of evil-doers. Transgressors generally, and not those of the worst class alone, as m Homer, are punished in Hades. Pride and insolence call down the vengeance of the gods. Unsleeping justice pursues the crimi- nal. The theory of Nemesis, which pursues the pros|jerous, if they are proud, to their hurt and ruin, is held. (3) Nicniher of the Gods. The num- ber of divinities is multiplied as time advances. The worship of the heroes, children of the gods or goddesses, grows in importance. (4) Rex'elation. There was direct revelation, it was believed, by prophecy, uttered now in an ecstatic, and now in a tranquil, mood. Oracles acquired a new and vast importance. (5) Riles. Visible objects of devotion were multi|)licd; reli- gious ceremonies ramified in all directions; sacred processions, festivals, amusements involving religious observances, abounded. (6) Aforali/y. Moral excellence centered in moderation and self-government, through which the individual keeps both his own nature as to its parts, and himself in relation to others, within due limits. This spirit includes temperance and justice. The stern spirit of law prevails : the requital of injuries is approved. Yet feelings of compassion find a beautiful expression. At Athens, there was public provision for orphans and for the help of the poor. (7) Domestic Life : /Patriotism. The wife lived in retirement, and in submission to her hus- band. When he entertained friends at his table, she was absent ; yet domestic affection was evidently strong. Every other duty merged in patriotism. The Greek placed a great gulf between himself and the "barbarian." He was conscious of higher intellectual gifts, superior culture, better customs. (8) Siu : The Future Life. There was a deeper sense of sin than in the Homeric era. There was a pathetic consciousness of the trouble and sor- row that beset human life. Hades was regarded as a scene of trial and judg- ment, and of rewards as well as sufferings. The soul was not so closely identified with the body. Death was an object of gloomy anticipation. Pericles, in his funeral oration for the fallen patriots, is silent as to a future life. In the tragic poets, it is only the select few whose lot is blessed. As concerns the mass of the people, it is probable that the Homeric notions respecting the state of the dead still prevailed. Generally speaking, we are not warranted in ascribing the more elevated views of religion entertained by the best minds to the mass of the people. The Tragic Drama. — The songs which were sung in the worship of Dionysus (dithyrambs) were accompanied with dance and pantomime. The custom followed of mingling speeches and dramatic action with these lyrics. The change is ascribed to Thespis (about 536 B C), a little later than Solon. Thespis is said to have brought in the stage for the performers. The Greek theaters were large, ojjen to the sky, and sometimes on sites which commanded fine views. There was the amphitheater, with graded seats for spectators, and the stage, together with the orchestra where the choir in song or musical recitation reflected the sympathies and views of the spec- tators of the play. At first there was only one actor, and, of course, a monologue. JEschylus is said to have brought in a second actor, and Soph- ocles a third. These, with Euripides, were the three great dramatists of Greece. The choral song, which had been the chief thing, was made sec- ondary to the dialogue, ^schylus, at the age of forty-five, fought in the battle of Salamis; Sophocles, then fifteen years old, took part in the festival in honor of the victory; and Euripides was born, it was supposed, on the verv day of the battle. These three brought the tragic drama to perfection. Of the productions of ^Eschylus (525-456 B.C.), seven remain. They are inspired with the heroic and elevated mood which was engendered by the GRECIAN HISTORY. lOI great struggle against the Persians. Of thie numerous plays of Sophocles (495-406 IxC), the number of those extant is also seven. They so combine vigor and force with refinement of thought and style that they are surpassed, if indeed they are equaled, by the literary products of no age or country. In Euripides (480-406 B.C.), while there is an insight into the workings of the heart, and the antique nobleness of sentiment, there is less simplicity, and there is manifest the less earnest and believing tone of the later day. In the dramas, the " unities " of time, place, and action are observed. The acts together seldom stretch over a single day. Comedy. — Comedy, in which Aristophanes (452-388 B.C.), a great poet as well as a great wit, was the principal author, dealt largely in satire. Con- spicuous men, and those active in public affairs, were represented on the stage in satirical pieces, so that they were at once identified. The spirit of tiie "old comedy" was patriotic, although it might be unjust, as in the case of Socrates, who was a target for the wit of Aristophanes. The "middle comedy "was nothing really distinct from the "new comedy." The "new comedy," in which Menander (342-290 B.C.) was an eminent author, ceased to present actual persons, and dealt with imaginary characters alone. Among the Greeks in Lower Italy and Sicily, mimes were much in vogue. Greek Art: Architecture. — The Greeks more and more broke away in a free and joyous spirit from the stiff and conventional styles of Egyptian and Oriental art. In the room of the somber, massive edifices of Egypt, they combined symmetry and beauty with grandeur in the temples which they erected. The temples were originally colored within and without. Three styles were developed, — the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corint/iian. In the Doric, the column and entablature have the most solid and simple form. The column has no other base than the common platform on which the pillars rest, and the capital that surmounts it is a plain slab. In the Ionic style, the column has a distinct base, is more tall and slender, and its capital has two volutes, or spiral moldings. The capital of the Corin- thian column is peculiar, representing flower cal ices and leaves, "pointing upwards, and curving like natural plants." The acanthus, on account of its graceful form, was generally copied. The most ancient Doric temples, of a date prior to the Persian war, of which the ruined temple of Neptune at Paestum is one, are, in comparison with later edifices, of a severe and mas- sive style. In the period extending from the Persian war to the Macedonian rule, the stern simplicity of the Doric is modified by the softer and more graceful character of the Ionic. The temple of Theseus at Athens is an ex- ample. The Parthenon was the most beautiful specimen of the Doric, which has appropriated the grace of the Ionic column without losing its own dis- tinctive character. In the later period, after freedom was lost, there was much more ornamentation. It was then that the more decorated Corinthian style flourished. Sculpture. — Before the Persian wars, in the earliest sculpture the re- straint of Egyptian and Oriental styles is perceptible in the sculptors, of whom Dcedalus is the mythical representative. The oldest statues were of wood, which was subsequently covered with gold and ivory, or painted. The lofty style of Phidias (488-432 B.C.), and of Polycletus of Argos, became prevalent in the flourishing period of Greek liberty. Myron, to whom we owe the Dis- cobolus (Disk-Thrower), belongs to the school of ^gina. Statues were now made in brass and marble. They were everywhere to be seen. The pedi- ments and friezes of the temples were covered with exquisitely wrought sculptures. The most beautiful sculptures that liave come down from an- tiquity are the marbles of the Parthenon. The Greeks appreciated to the full the beauty of nature. They gave to their gods ideal human forms, in which were blended every attribute of majesty and grace which are con- ceived to belong to perfected humanity. Sculpture in Greece, as elsewhere, was allied to religion ; " but whilst the religion of the Egyptians was a I02 ANCIENT HISTORY. religion of the tomb, ami their ideal world a gloomy spot peopled by sleep- ing lions, dreamy sphinxes, or weird unearthly monsters, the mythology of the Greeks, rightly understood, is an cxcjuisite poem, the joint creation of the master-minds of infant Greece; and their art is a translation of that poem into visible forms of beauty." In the t/iird period, which maybe made to ter- minate with the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), there were masters in sculj^ture, among whom Praxiteles and Scopus are at the head. More and more, as we come down to the Roman period, while extraordinary technical perfection is still manifested, the loftier qualities of art tend to disappear. Painting. — In Greece, j^ainting first ceased to be subordinate to archi- tecture, and became independent. In early days, there was skill in the orna- mentation of vases and in mural painting. Yet, with much spirit and feeling, there was a conventional treatment. The earliest artist of whom we know much is Polygnottis (about 420 B.C.), whose groups of profile figures were described as remarkable for their life-like character and fine coloring. Apol- lodonis of Athens was distinguished, but Zeuxis of Hcraclea is said to have been the first to paint movable pictures. He is famed for his marvelous power of imitation : the birds pecked at a bunch of grapes which he painted, liut even he was outdone by Parrhasius. Zeuxis, however, had far higher qualities than those of a literal copyist. The most successful of the Greek painters was Apelles. Among his masterpieces was a painting of Venus ris- ing from the waves, and a portrait of Alexander the Great. We have not in ])ainting, as in sculpture, a store of monuments of Greek art; but the skill of the Greeks in painting fell behind their unequaled genius in molding the human form in bronze and marble. CHAPTER III. THE PELOPONNESIAN TATAR. I. TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS (42 1 B.C.). To the Death of Pericles. — Wonderful as was the gro^vth of Athens under Pericles, it is obvious that she stood exposed to two principal sources of danger. Her allies and dependants, the stay of that naval power in which her strength lay, were discontented with her spirit of domination and of extortion. The Pcloponne- siaii Alliance, which was led by Sparta, the bulwark of the aristo- cratic interest, comprised, with the Dorian, most of the ^olian states, — as Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, etc. Its military strength lay mainly in its heavy-armed infantry. Thus Sparta had the advan- tage of strong allies. The motive at the bottom of this alliance was what Thucydides tells was the real cause of the Peloponnesian war, — the jealousy which the growth of Athens excited in other states. This feeling really involved a conviction of the need of maintaining in Greece that which in modern times is called a " balance of power." When Greece was no longer one, as in the best days of the wars with Persia, but was divided into two oppo- site camps, watchful and jealous of one another, an occasion of conflict could not fail to arise. It was complained that Athens GRECIAN HISTORY. IO3 gave help to Corcyra in a war with Corinth, its mother city, made war upon Potidcea in Macedonia, a Corinthian colony, and also shut out Megara from the harbors of Attica. The demands made by Sparta, which included the granting of independence to ^gina, were rejected. Attica was ravaged by Spartan troops, and the coa^t of Peloponnesus by the Athenian fleet (431 B.C.). This desolating warfare was kept up until a frightful pestilence broke out at Athens, — a plague having its ori- gin in Egypt, and passing thence over Asia and the Greek islands. Two of the sons of Pericles died, and ■ an accumulation of public burdens and private sorrows brought on his own death (Sept., 429). The Pestilence. — The horrors of the pestilence are thus described in a celebrated passage of the best of the Greek historians, Thitcydides: " The crowding of the people out of the countiy into the city aggravated the misery, and the newly arrived suffered most. For, having no houses of their own, but inhabiting, in the height of summer, stifling huts, the mor- tality among them was dreadful, and they perished in wild disorder. The dead lay as they had died, one upon another; while others, hardly alive, wallowed in the streets, and crawled about every fountain, craving for water. The temples in which they lodged were full of the corpses of those who died in them; for the violence of the calamity was such that men, not knowing where to turn, grew reckless of all law, human and divine. The customs which had hitherto been observed at funerals were universally violated, and they buried their dead, each one as best he could. Many, having no proper appliances, because the deaths in their household had been so frequent, made no scruple of using the burial-place of others. When one man had raised a funeral-pile, others would come, and, throwing on their dead first, set fire to it; or, when some other corpse was already burning, before they could be stopped, would throw their own dead upon it, and depart. " I'here were other and worse forms of lawlessness which the plague introduced at Athens. Men who had hitherto concealed their indulgence in pleasure, now grew bolder. For, seeing the sudden change, — how the rich died in a moment, and those who had nothing, immediately inherited their property, — they reflected that life and riches were alike transitory, and they resolved to enjoy themselves while they could, and to think only of pleasure. Who would be willing to sacrifice himself to the law of honor when he knew not whether he would ever live to be held in honor ? The pleasure of the moment, and any sort of thing which conduced to it, took the place both of honor and of expediency : no fear of God or law of man deterred a criminal. Those who saw all perishing alike, thought that the worship or neglect of the gods made no difference. For offenses against human law, no punishment was to be feared: no one would live long enough to be called to account. Already a far heavier sentence had been passed, and was hanging over a man's head: before that fell, why should he not take a little pleasure? " • To the Truce with Sparta. — The loss of Pericles, coupled with the terrible calamities which had befallen Athens, let loose the winds of party passion. New leaders of the democracy, of whom C/eon was the most noted, who lacked the refinement and self-restraint of Pericles, took his place. The Athenians were not able to save F/a/cea, to which they owed so much, from destruc- tion at the hands of the Spartans and Boeotians (428 B.C.) ; but Lesbos they recovered, and captured Mytik?ie, the bulk of whose citizens, against the will of Cleon, they spared. To the cruelties of war, which the revengeful temper of the Spartans promoted, there was added another plague at Athens, besides an earthquake, and tremendous rain-storms, alternating with drought. Demosthenes, a brave and enterprising Athenian general, took possession of Pylos in Messenia. The Spartans, under Brasidas, were on the island of Sphacteria opposite ; and their retreat was cut off by the fleet under Nicias, who was the leader of the more I04 ANCIENT HISTORY. aristocratic faction at Athens. Clean, made strategus in the room of Nicias, took S])hacteria l)y storm, contrary to general expecta- tion, and brought home nearly three hundred Spartan "prisoners. Athens had other successes ; but when her forces had been de- feated by the Boeotians at Dclimn, and Brasidas had captured AmphipoUs, and when in a battle there (422 B.C.) Brasidas was victorious over Clean, who fell during the flight, the aristocratic party, which was desirous of peace, gained the upper hand. Nicias concluded a truce with Sparta for fifty years. Each party was to restore its conquests and prisoners. II. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCIBIADES. The Sicilian Expedition. — From this time, Alcibiadcs, a rela- tive of Pericles, but lacking his sobriety and disinterested spirit, plays an active part. Beautiful in person, rich, a graceful and effective orator, but resdess and ambitious, he quickly acquired great influence. Three years after the peace of Nicias, he per- suaded Athens to join a league of disaffected Peloponnesian allies of Sparta; but in the battle of Alanlinea (418 B.C.) the Spartans regained their supremacy. It was at the suggestion of Alcibiades that the Athenians undertook the great Sicilian Expedition, which resulted in the worst disasters they ever suffered. This expedition was aimed at the Dorian city of Syracuse, and the hope was that all Sicily might be conquered. It consisted of about forty thou- sand men, besides the sailors. The commanders were Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. Alcibiades was recalled to answer a charge of sacrilege. At Thurii he managed to escape and went over to the side of Sparta. Gylippus went with a small Spartan fleet to aid Syracuse. The Athenians were repulsed in their attack on the city. Although re-inforced by land and naval forces under a gallant and w-orthy general, Demost/ietics, they fought under great disadvantages, so that their fleet was destroyed in the Syracusan harbor. Their retreating forces on land were cut to pieces or cap- tured. Nicias and Demosthenes died either at the hands of the executioner or by a self-inflicted death. Naval Contests. — No such calamity had ever overtaken a Grecian army. The news of it brought anguish into almost every family in Athens. The Spartans had fortified the village of Decelea in Attica, and sought on the sea, with Persian help, to annihilate the Athenian navy. The allies of Athens, Chios, Miletus, etc., revolted. The oligarchs at Athens overthrew the democratic constitution, and placed the Government in the hands of a Council of Four Hundred. The popular assembly was limited to five thousand members, and was never called together. The object was to make peace with Sparta. But the army before Samos, of which Thrasy- GRECIAN HISTORY. I05 hiilus, a patriotic man, was the leader, refused to accept this change of government. Alcilnades, who had left the Spartans out of anger on account of their treatment of him, was recalled, and assumed command. The oligarchical rule was overturned in four months after its establishment, and the democracy restored, — the assembly being still limited, however, to five thousand citizens. Three bril- liant naval victories, the last at Cyzicus (410 B.C.), were won over the Spartans by Alcibiades who came back to Athens in triumph (408 B.C.). Lysander^Nds the commander of the Spartan fleet on the coast of Asia Minor, and (407 B.C.) gained a victory over the Athenian ships during a temporary absence of Alcibiades. Alcibi- ades was deposed, retired to the Hellespont, and, three years later, died. The new Spartan admiral, Callicratidas, surrounded the Athenian fleet under Conon at Mitylene. By very strenuous exer- tions of the Athenians, a new fleet was dispatched to the help of Conon; and in the battle oi Arginusce (406 B.C.), the Pelopon- nesians were completely vanquished. The public spirit of Athens and the resources of a free people were never more impressively shown than in the prodigious efforts made by the Athenians to rise from the effect of the crushing disaster which befell the Sicilian expedition on which their hopes were centered. "But these exer- tions only availed to furnish to coming generations an example of the heroic energy and love of country which are possible under free government. III. THE FALL OF ATHENS. Lysander once more took command of the Spartan fleet. Shrewd in diplomacy, as well as skillful in battle, he strengthened his naval force by the aid of Cyi'us the Younger, the Persian governor in Asia Minor. Watching his opportunity, he attacked the Athenians at ^Egospotami, opposite Lampsacus, when soldiers and sailors were off their guard (405 B.C.). Three thousand of them, who had not been slain in the assault, were slaughtered after they had been taken captive. Conon escaped to Cyprus with only eight ships. One fast-sailing trireme carried the news of the overwhelming de- feat to Athens. Lysander followed up his success cautiously, but with energy. Islands and seaports surrendered to him, and in them he establislied the aristocratic rule. The Athenians were shut in by land and by sea. A treacherous aristocratic faction within the walls was working in the interest of the Spartans. Famine con- spired with other agencies to destroy the multitude of homeless and destitute people who had crowded into the city. Starvation com- pelled a surrender to the Spartan general. The long walls and for- tifications were demolished by the ruthless conqueror, the work of destruction being carried on to the sound of the flute. All but twelve vessels were given up to the captors. The democratic sys- I06 ANCIENT HISTORY. tern was subverted, and thirty men — the ^^ Thirty Tyrants" — of the ohgarchical party were estabUshed in power, with Critias, a depraved and passionate, though able, man, at their head (404- 403 B.C.)- They put a Spartan garrison in the citadel, and sought to confirm their authority by murdering or banishing all whom they suspected of opposition. Thrasybitltis, a patriot, collected the democratic fugitives at Phy/c, defeated the Thirty, and seized the PircEus. Critias was slain. Ten oligarchs of a more moderate temper were installed in power. In co-operation with the Spartan king, Pausanias, the two parties at Athens were reconciled. An amnesty was proclaimed, and democracy in a moderate form was restored, with a revision of the laws, under the archonship of Eii elides (403 B.C.). It was shortly after this change that the trial and death of Socrates occurred, the wisest and most virtuous man of ancient times (399 B.C.). Philosophy: Socrates. — At the head of the Greek philosophers is the illustrious name of Socrates. He was the son of .Sophroniscus. a sculptor, and was born 469 B.C., just as Pericles was assuming the leadership at Athens. Socrates was the founder of moral philosophy. He was original, being in- debted for his ideas to no previous school. He was as sound in body as in mind. His appearance was unique. His forehead was massive, but his flat nose gave to his countenance an aspect quite at variance with the Greek ideal of beauty. He looked, it was said, like a satyr. He taught, in opposition to the Sophists, a class of men (including Gorgias, Protagoras, and others) who in- structed young men in logic and grammar, taking fees, — which was contrary to the custom of the Greek philosophers, — and cultivating intellectual keen- ness and dexterity, often at the expense of depth and sincerity. Their work as thinkers was negative, being confined mainly to pointing out fallacies in existing systems, but providing nothing positive in the room of them. Socrates had been called by the oracle at Delphi the wisest of men. He could only account for this by the fact, that, in contrast with others, he did not erroneously deem himself to be knowing. " Know thyself " was his maxim. Ilis daily occupation was to converse with different classes, especially young men, on subjects of highest moment to the individual and to the state. By a method of quiet cross-examination, the "' Socratic irony," he made them aware of their lack of clear ideas and tenable, consistent opinions, and endeavored to guide them aright. The soul and its moral improvement was his principal subject. He asserted Theism and the spiritual nature and obligations of religion, without calling in question the existence of the various divinities. He taught the doctrine of a universal Providence. Absolute loyalty to con- science, the preference of virtue to any possible advantage without it, he solemnly inculcated. He believed, perhaps not without a mingling of doubt, in the immortality of the soul. Taking no part in public affairs, he devoted his time to this kind of familiar instruction, — to teaching by dialogue, in compliance with what he believed to be an inward call of God. An impulse within him, which he called a divine " voice," checked him when he was about to take a wrong step. He was charged with corrupting the youth by his teaching, and with heresy in religion. His rebukes of the shallow and the self-seeking had stung them, and had made him many enemies. Such men as Alcibiades and Critias, who had been among his hearers, but for whose mis- conduct he was really not in the least responsible, added to his unpopularity. The Apology, as given by Plato, contains the substance of his most impressive defense before his judges. He took no pains to placate them or his accusers, GRECIAN HISTORY. I07 or to escape after he was convicted. Conversing with his disciples in the same genial, tranquil tone which he had always maintained, he drank the cup of hemlock, and expired (May, 399 B.C.). An account of his teaching and of his method of life is given by his loving scholar, Xenopkon, in the Memo- rabilia. The dialogues of Plato, in which Socrates is the principal interlocutor, mingle with the master's doctrine the pupil's own thoughts and speculations. Plato. — Flato (429-348 B.C.), the foremost of the disciples of Socrates, founded the philosophical school known as the Acadeviy from the place where his pupils were wont to meet him. One of his prominent tenets was the doc- trine of ideas which he regarded as spiritual realities, intermediate between God and the world, of which all visible things are the manifestation. They are the shadow, so to speak, of which ideas are the substance. He defined virtue in man to be resemblance to God according to the measure of our ability. In the Republic, he sets forth his political views, and sketches the ideal state. More speculative than Socrates, Plato, from the wide range of his discussions, from their poetic spirit as well as their depth of thought, not less than their beauty of style, is one of the most inspiring and instructive of all authors. No other heathen writer presents so many points of aftinity with Christian teaching. Aristotle. — Aristotle (3S4-322 B.C.) studied under Plato, but elaborated a system of his own, which was on some points dissonant from that of his instructor. His investigations extended over the field of material nature, as well as over the field of mind and morals. With less of poetry and of lofty sentiment than Plato, he has never been excelled in intellectual clearness and grasp. He was possessed of a wonderful power to observe facts, and an equally wonderful talent for systemizing them, and reasoning upon them. He is the founder of the science of Logic. His treatises*on Rhetoric and on Ethics have been hardly less important in their influence. His Politics is a masterly discussion of political science, based on a diligent examination of the various systems of government. In truth, in all departments of research he exhibits the same capacity for scientific observation and discussion. In religion he was a theist; but he is less spiritual in his vein of thought, and more reserved in his utterances on this theme, than Plato. The names of these two philosophers have been very frequently coupled. Their influence, like their fame, is imperishable. Later Schools : the Cynics. — The impulse given by Socrates gave rise to still other schools of philosophers. Aristippus of Cyrene (about 380 B.C.) founded a sect which held that happiness is the chief end, the goal of rational effort. Antisthenes, who was born 422 B.C., and especially Diogenes, went to the opposite extreme, and founded the school of Cynics, who looked with disdain, not only on luxuries, but on the ordinary comforts of life, and inured themselves to do without them. Their manners were often as savage as their mode of living. Historical "Writings. — The three principal historical writers were He- rodotus (470-402 B.C.), the charming but uncritical chronicler of what he heard and saw, by whom the interference of the gods in human affairs is devoutly credited; TInicydides, who himself took part in the Peloponnesian war, the history of which he wrote with a candor, a profound perception of character, an insight into the causes of events, a skill in arrangement, and a condensa- tion and eloquence of style, which are truly admirable; and Xenophon,z.n author characterized by naturalness, simplicity, and a religious spirit. Greek Life. — It will be convenient to bring together here some features of Greek life, (i) Public Buildings and Divelliiigs. The Greeks almost always preferred to live in cities. These grew up about an Acropolis, which was a fort on a hill, generally a steep crag. This was a place of refuge, and the site of the oldest temple. It became often, therefore, a sacred place from which private dwellings were excluded. At the nearest harbor, there would be a seaport town. The PircEus was more than four miles from Athens, — a mile farther than the nearest shore, but was chosen as being an excellent harbor. Sparta, alone, had no citadel, — the access from the plain being easily defended, — and no walls. The attractive buildings in a io8 ANCIENT IIISTOKY. Greek town were the public edifices. Private hoi>!(CS, ns to the exterior, were very plain, with flat roofs, with few .stories, and low. Towards the street " the house looked like a dead wall with a strong dtxir in it." It was built round an open court: in the case of the best houses, rotind two courts, — one borilured by aparlmenls for the men, the other with the rooms for women. Bedrooms and sitting-rooms were small, ndmitling but little light. Fre.sco-painting on the walls and ceilings came to be common. 'J he furniture of the house was plain and simple, but grace- ful and elegant in form. 'I'he poorer cla.sses slept on skins", the richer, on woolen mattresses laid on girths. The Greeks lived so much in the open air that they took less pains with their dwellings. 'I'he public buildings were costly and substantially built. (2) Miais, Cyniuas- tics, etc. The Greeks rose early. There are no notices of a n>oming bath. The first meal was light. It was succeeded, as was the custom at Rome, by calls on friends. Business might follow until noon, the hour of the dejeuner, or breakfast, which, in the case of the rich, was a substantial meal. Later in the day, males went to the practice of gymnastics, which were followed, in later times, by a warm balh. Towards sunset came the principal meal of the day. Conversation and music, or the attending of a feast with friends, look up the evening; if there was a festal company, often the whole night. At the dinner-table, the Greeks reclined on couches. Ladies, if allowed to be present, and children, were required to sit. Spoons, sometimes knives, but never forks, were used. (3) Costuvte : Use 0/ U'ine. The dress of the Greeks, both of men and women, was simple and graceful. The men were generally bareheaded in the streets. In bad weather they wore close-fitting caps, and, in traveling, broad-brimmed hats. In Alliens and Sparta they always carried walking-slicks. The use of wine was universal. It was always mixed with water. (4) S/aTcs. Slaves were regarded as chattels. No one objected to slavery as wrong. Slaves were better treated at Athens than elsewhere, but even at Athens they were tortured when their testimony was required. They were let out, sometimes by thousands, to work in pestiferous mines. (5) H'onieu and Chil- dren. In Athens, the wife had seldom learned any thing but to spin and to cook. She lived in seclusion in her dwelling, and was not present with her husband at social entertainments, either at home or elsewhere. She had few if any legal rights, although at Athens she might bring a suit against her husband for ill-treatment. Concubinage was not condemned by pub- lic opinion. There was no law against exposing infants whom the parents did not wish to bring up, — that is, leaving them where they would perish. When found and brought up, they were the slaves of the person finding them. This cruelly was frequent in the case of daughters, or of offspring weak or deformed. There were toys and games for children. Archytas, a philosopher, was said to have invented the child's raiile. Dolls, hoops, balls, etc., were common playthings. Boys and girls played hide and seek, blind man's bufif, hunt the slipper, etc. Older people played ball, and gambled with dice. (6) Education. The education of boys was careful ; that of girls was neglected. The boy went to or from school under the care of a slave, called pedagogue, or leader. Teachers were of diflereut social grades, from the low class which taught small children, to the professors of rhetoric and philosophy. It is needless to say how much stress was laid on gymnastic and aesthetic training. Boys read Horner and other authors at an early age, committing much of them to memory. Tliey were taught to play on the harp or the flute, and to sing Lyric poems they learned by heart. Music held a very high place in the esteem of the Greeks for its general influence on the mind Running, wrestling, throwing the dart, etc., the games practiced at the public contests, were early taught. Boys at sixteen or eighteen came of age, and were enrolled as citizens. (7) Musiial Instruments : tite Dance. Instrumental music was common among the Greeks at games and meals, and in battle. They used no bows on the stringed instruments, but either the fingers or the plectrum, — a stick of wood, ivory, or metal. There were three sorts of stringed instruments, the lyre, the cithara (or zithern), and the haip. The wind-instruments were the pipe, the clarionet, and the trumpet. Besides these, there were clanging instruments which were used chiefly in reli- gious ceremonies: such were castinets, the cymbal, and the tambourine. Dancing was origi- nally connected with religious worship. Mimetic dances were a favorite diversion at feasts. There were warlike dances by men in armor, who went through the movemenLs of attack and defense. In mimetic dances the hands and arms played a part. There were peacelul dances or choral dances, marked by rhythmic grace. Sometimes these were slow and measured, and sometimes more lively. Specially brisk were the dances at the festivals of Dionysus (Bacchus). Symbolic dances of a religious character, these Bacchic dances were the germ of the drama. Recitations were first introduced between hymns that attended the choric dances. Then, later, followed the dialogue. (8) Weddings and Funerals. Marriage was attended by a religious ceremonial. There was a solemn sacrifice and a wedding-feast. The bride was conveyed 10 her husband's house, accompanied on the way with music and song. When a person died, his body was laid out for one day, during which the relatives and hired mourners uttered laments round the bier. Burial was at the dawn of day. In later times, a coin was put into the mouth of the corpse, with which 10 pay his passage to the world below. There w;is a funeral proces- sion, and at the tomb a solemn farewell was addressed to the deceased by name. There was then a funeral-feast. Mourning garments were worn liir a sliort period. The dead were buried in the suburbs of the cities, generally on both sides of a highway. In the tomb many little presents, as trinkets and vases, were deposited. (9) Courts 0/ La^u. At law men pleaded their own causes, but might take advii.e or have their speeches composed for them by others. In some cases, friends were allowed to speak in behalf of a litigant. Men like Demosthenes received large fees for services of this kind. There being no public prosecutor, informers were more numerous. They became odious under the name of sycophants, which is supposed to have been first applied to those who informed against breakers of an old law forbidding the exportation of figs from Athens. GRECIAN HISTORY. IO9 CHAPTER IV. RELATIONS "WITH PERSIA. — THE SPARTAH" AND THEBAN HEGEMONY". The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — The Anabasis, the princi- pal work of Xenophon, describes the retreat from the Tigris to the coast of Asia Minor, of a body of ten thousand mercenary Greek troops, — a retreat effected under Iiis own masterly leadership. The Persian Empire, now in a process of decay, was torn with civil strife. Xerxes and his eldest son had been murdered (465 B.C.). The story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason and fratricide. On the death of Darius II. (Darius Nothus) (423-404 B.C.), the younger Cyrus undertook to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes II., and for that purpose organized, in Asia Minor, a military expedition, made up largely of hired Greek ti'oops. At Cunaxa, not far from Babylon, Cyrus fell in the combat with his brother. The Persians enticed the Greek commander, Clear- chus, into their camp, and slew him. Xenophon, an Athenian vol- unteer who had accompanied the army, conducted the retreat of his countrymen, with whom he encountered incredible hardships in the slow and toilsome journey through Armenia to Trapezus (Trebizonid) , and thence to Byzantium. The story of this march, through snow, over rugged mountains, and across rapid currents, is told in the Anabasis. A very striking passage is the description of the joy of the Greeks when from a hilltop they first descried the Black Sea. The soldiers shouted, "The sea! the sea!" and embraced one another and then" officers. The Corinthian War and the Peace of Antalcidas. — Tissa- phernes, the antagonist and successor of the younger Cyrus, was Persian governor in Asia Minor, and set out to bring under the yoke the Ionic cities which had espoused the cause of Cyrus. Sparta came to their aid, and King Agesilaus defeated the Persians near the Pactolus (395 B.C.). The Persians stirred up an enemy nearer home, by the use of gold, and the Boeotians, Corinthians, and Argives, jealous of Sparta, and resentful at the tyranny of her governors (harmosts), and joined by Athens, took up arms against the Lacedeemonians. lysander fell in battle with the allies (395 B.C.). The course of the war in which Conon, the Athenian com- mander, destroyed the Spartan fleet at Cnidus, made it necessary to recall Agesilaus. His victory at Coronea (394 B.C.) did not avail to turn the tide in favor of Sparta. Conon rebuilt the long walls at Athens with the assistance of Persian money. The issue of the conflict was the Peace of Antalcidas with Persia (387 B.C.). The Grecian cities of Asia Minor were given up to the Persians, as were the islands of Ciazomenee and Cyprus. With the exception no ANCIENT HISTORY. of Lcmnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which the Athenians were to con- trol, all of the other states and islands were to be free and indepen- dent. This was a great concession to Persia. Greek union was broken up : each state was left to take care of itself as it best could. Antalcidas cared little for his country : his treaty was the natural result of Spartan aggressiveness and selfisliness. Contest of Thebes and Sparta. — The Spartans had fallen away from the old rules of life ascribed to Lycurgus. They were pos- sessed by a greed for gold. There were extremes of wealth and poverty among them. After the treaty of Antalcidas, they still lorded it over other states, and were bent on governing in Pelo- ponnesus. At length they were involved in a contest with Thches. This was caused by the seizure of the Cadmcia, the Theban citadel, by the Spartan Phozbidas acting in conjunction with an aristocratic party in Thebes (383 B.C.). The Theban democrats, who, under Pelopidas, made Athens their place of rendezvous, liberated Thebes, and expelled the Spartans from the Cadmeia. Hostile attempts of Sparta against Athens induced the Athenians to form a new con- federacy (or symmachy) composed of seventy communities (378 B.C.) ; and, after they had gained repeated successes on the sea, the two states concluded peace. Athens had become alarmed at the increased power of Thebes, and was ready to go over to the side of Sparta, her old enemy. It was a feeling in favor of a balance of power like that which had prompted Sparta at the close of the Pelo- ponnesian war, to refuse to consent to the destruction of Athens, which Thebes and Corinth had desired. Cleombi-otus, king of Sparta, again invaded Bceotia. The principal Boeotian leader was Epaininondas, one of the noblest patriots in all Grecian history, — in his disinterested spirit and self-government resembling Wasliing- ton. The Spartan king was defeated by him in the great battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.), and was there slain. At this time the rage of party knew no bounds. The wholesale massacre of political antag- onists in a city was no uncommon occurrence. Theban Hegemony. — The victory of Leuctra gave the hegem- ony to Thebes. Three times the Boeotians invaded the Spartan territory. They founded Megalopolis in Arcadia, to strengthen the Arcadians against their Lacedaemonian assailants (370 B.C.). They also revived the Alessenian power, recalled the Messenians who liad long been in exile, and founded the city of Messcne. In the battle oi Alaiitinea (362 'S>.C.), Epamitiondas, though victo- rious against the Spartans and their allies, was slain. Peace fol- lowed among the Grecian states, Sparta alone refusing to be a party to it. In the course of this intestine war, the Thebans had broken up the new maritime sway gained by them. Period III. THE MACEDONIAN ERA. CHAPTER I. PHILIP AND ALEXANDER. The Macedonians. — The Greeks, exhausted by long-continued war with one another, were just in a condition to fall under the dominion of Macedonia, the kingdom on the north which had been ambitious to extend its power. The Macedonians were a mixed race, partly Greek and partly Illyrian. Although they were not acknowledged to be Greeks, their kings claimed to be of Greek descent, and were allowed to take part in the Olympian games. At first an inland community, living in the country, rough and un- cultivated, made up mostly of farmers and hunters, they had been growing more civilized by the efforts of their kings to introduce Greek customs. Archelaus (413-399 B.C.) had even attracted Greek artists and poets to his court. At the same time they were exerting themselves to extend their power to the sea. The people were hardy and brave. When Epaminondas died, Philip (359- 336 B.C.) was on the Macedonian throne. He had lived three years at Thebes, and had learned much from Epaminondas, the best strategist and tactician of his day. The decline of public spirit in Greece had led the states to rely very much on mercenary troops, whose trade was war. Philip had a well-drilled standing army. Every thing was favorable to the gratification of his wish to make himself master of Greece. First he aimed to get pos- session of Greek cities in Chalcidice, of which Olynthus was the chief The Athenians had towns in that region, besides Amphipolis, which was formerly theirs. Philip contrived to make the Olyn- thians his allies ; and then, crossing the river Stfytnon, he con- quered the western part of Thrace, where there were rich gold mines. There, for purposes of defense, he founded the city of Philippi. The Sacred "War. — A pretext for interfering in the affairs of Greece, Philip found in the Sacred War in behalf of the temple of Delphi, whose lands had been seized by the Phocians. This 112 ANXIEXT HISTORY. act of the Phocians was a part of tlicir contest against Thcljes, to throw off the Theban supremacy. Athens and Sparta joined the Phocians. The ThessaHan nobles sided with Phihp. He gained the victory in his character of champion of the Amphutyonic Council, and took his place in that body, in the room of the Pho- cians (346 B.C.). He had Thessaly under his feet, and would have marched into Phocis, but turned back when he found an Athenian force at the pass of Thermopyte to resist his progress. Demosthenes. — The Athenians had placed themselves at the head of an ^i^can Leai^ue, and, had they managed wiUi more spirit and prudence, they might have checked Philip. There was one man, worthy of the best days of Greece, who penetrated the de- signs of Philip, and exerted his great powers to stimulate his countrymen to a timely resistance. This was Demosthenes (385- 322 B.C.). He was the prince of the school of orators who had sprung up in these troublous times. Overcoming natural obsta- cles, he had trained himself with such assiduity that a place at the head of all orators, ancient and modern, is generally conceded to him. He was a great statesman, moved by a patriotic spirit : his speeches were for the welfare and salvation of the state. In 358 B.C., a war broke out between Athens and its maritime allies, in which Athens was unsuccessful. It was on the conquest of Thes- saly by Philip, that Demosthenes made against him the first of that series of famous speeches known as Philippics (352 B.C.). In vain he urged the Athenians to rescue Olynthus. I'lie inefficiency of the aid rendered, enabled Philip to conquer and destroy that city, and to sell its inhabitants as slaves (34S B.C.). Thirty cities he destroyed, and annexed all Chalcidice to Macedon. A Mace- donian party was formed at Athens, the foremost leader of which was ^schines, not a good citizen, but an orator only second in rank to Demosthenes. They contended that it was futile to resist the advance of the Macedonian power. Demosthenes went at the head of an embassy to the Peloponnesian states which had taken sides with Philip, but his efforts to dissuade them from this suicidal policy were unavailing. AVhat he wanted was a union of all Greeks against the common enemy, who was bent on robbing them of their liberty. He gathered, at length, a strong party about him at Athens. The overtures of peace from Philip, who was prose- cuting his conquests in Thrace, were rejected. Athenian forces obliged the king to give up the siege of Byzantium (341 B.C.). The consequent enlarged influence of Demosthenes was used by him to secure an increase of the fund for carrying on the war. But Philip had his paid supporters in all the Greek states. /Es- chines at Athens proved an efficient helper. A deputy at the Amphictyonic Council, in 33S B.C., he contrived to bring about another " holy war " against Amphissa in Locris, the end being GRECIAN HISTORY. II 3 to give Philip the command. Philip seized Elaiea, in the east of Phocis, which commanded the entrance to Boeotia and Attica. Dismay spread through Greece. Demosthenes roused the Athe- nian assembly, where all were silent through fear, to confront Philip boldly, and himself went to Thebes, which he induced to form an alliance with Athens. But the allies were defeated at the fatal battle of Cheeronea (August, 338 B.C.), where Alexander, Philip's youthful son, decided the fortune of the day by vanquish- ing the Theban " sacred band." Philip treated the Thebans with great severity. He placed a garrison in the Cadmeia. To Athens he granted favorable terms. Marching into Peloponnesus, he took from Sparta a large part of -its territory, and apportioned it to the Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. At a national assembly at Corinth, from which the Spartans were absent, Philip caused himself to be created leader of the Grecian forces against Persia, with the powers of a dictator. Each of the Greek states was to retain its autonomy ; and a congress, to meet at Corinth, was to settle differences among them. Two years after the battle of Chccronea, at the marriage festival of his daughter with the king of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by means of a conspiracy, in which his queen is thought to have been a partner.* Alexander the Great. — Alexander was twenty years old when his father died. His bodily health and vigor qualified him for combats and toils which few soldiers in his army could endure. His energy, rapidity, and military skill lift him to a level with Hannibal and the foremost commanders of any age. He was not without a generous appreciation of art and literature. The great philosopher, Aristotle, was one of his tutors. For the eminent authors and artists of Greece he cherished a warm admiration. But his temper was passionate and imperious. Homer was his delight, and in Homer he took Agamemnon for his model ; but the direst act of cruelty done by Achilles — that of dragging Hector after his chariot — he exceeded when he dragged Batis, a general who had opposed him, at the tail of his chariot through the streets of Gaza. Especially when his passions were inflamed by strong drink, — as at banquets, occasions where Macedonian princes be- fore him had been wont to drink to excess, — he was capable of savage deeds. Alexander in Greece: His Army. — At a congress in Corinth, Alexander was recognized as the leader and general of Greece. In the spring of 335 B.C., he made a campaign against the bar- barous peoples north of Macedonia, — the Thracians, the Getas, and the Illyrians. A false report of his death led to an uprising of the Greeks. Quickly returning, he took vengeance on the The- bans by razing their city to the ground, sparing only the house of the poet Pindar, and by selling its thirty thousand inhabitants into 114 ANCIENT HISTORY. slavery. Athens prayed for pardon, which was granted, even the demand for the surrender of Demosthenes and other leaders being revoked. All resistance in Greece was over. Alexander's hands were free to complete his preparations for the task of concjuering the Persian I^mpire. His army was strong through its valor and discijiline rather than its numbers. The Macedonian //^a/a/ZA: was the most effective force which had hitherto been used in war. ■ It was made up of foot soldiers drawn up in ranks, three feet apart, with spears twenty- one feet in length, held fifteen feet from the point. The length of the spears and the projection of so many in front of the hrst rank, gave to the phalanx a great advantage, although such a body of troops could be turned around with diffi- culty. Alexander began his battles with other troops, and used the phalanx for the decisive charge. Only native Macedonians served in the phalanx. This was the case, also, with the Giaird, a body of infantry, and with two divisions of cavalry, one clad in heavy armor, and one in light. AVith these troops were Greek and barbarian soldiers, infantry and cavalry, and a division for hurling stones, which was used not only in sieges, but also in battles. There was a band of young Macedonian soldiers called pages, also a body-guard selected from these by promotion ; and out of this the king chose his generals. The army consisted of not more than forty thousand men, but it was so organized as to be com- pletely under the control of Alexander ; and he was a military genius of the first order. The Campaign of Alexander : to the Battle of Issus. — In the spring of 334 E.G., Alexander crossed the Hellespont at Abydos. At Ilwm (Troy) he performed various rites in honor of the heroes of the Trojan war, his romantic sympathy with whom was the princi- pal tie between him and the Greeks. A Persian army disputed the passage of the Granicus. He was the first to enter the river, and in the battle displayed the utmost personal valor. His decisive victory caused nearly the whole of Asia Minor to submit to him. Halicarnassus, and the few other towns that held out, were taken by storm. At Tarsus he was cured by his physician, Philip, of a dangerous fever, brought on by a bath in the chilly waters of the river Cydnus. Darius III., the king of Persia, with a large army, approaching from the Euphrates, encountered him in a valley near Issus, in Gilicia. There (333 E.G.) was fought the memorable battle which settled the fate of the Persian Empire. The host of Darius was defeated with great slaughter ; and his camp, with his treasures and his family, fell into the hands of the victor. To the Battle of Arbela. — After the victory of Issus, Syj-ia and Flicenicia submitted, except Tyre, which was captured after a siege of seven months. Two thousand of the inhaliitants were hung on the walls, and thirty thousand were sold into sla\ery. GRECIAN HISTORY. II5 Gaza resisted, and there Alexander was severely wounded. After it was taken, he entered Egypt, and founded the city of Alex- andria, in its consequences one of the most memorable acts of his life. He marched through Lybia to the temple of Jupitei Anufion (331 B.C.). Having thus subdued the lands on the west, he passed through Palestine and Syria by way of Damascus, crossed the Euphrates and the Tigris, and met the Persian army in the plains of Gaugamela, near Arbela, — an army more than twenty times as large as his own (October, 331 B.C.). After a hotly contested battle, the Persians were routed, and their empire destroyed. To the Invasion of India. — Babyloti and Susa with all their treasures, and, afterwards, Persepolis and Pasargadce, fell into the conqueror's hands. He set fire to Persepolis, and sold its male in- habitants into slavery. He pursued Darius into Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia, where the flynig king was murdered by Bessus, one of his own nobles, that he might not give himself up to Alexander. He then marched east and south through Persia and the modern Afghanistan. He tarried at Prophthasia (Furrah) for two months. Here it was that he charged Philotas, one of his best officers, with a conspiracy against his life, and put him to deatlT ; and after this he ordered the murder of Parjnenio, his best general, who had been a companion in arms of King Philip. Founding cities in different places as he advanced, he crossed the Oxus, marched through Sogdiana, and crossed the Jaxai'tes (Sir-Daria). While at Samarcand, in a drunken revel, he slew Clitus, the friend who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus. In a fit of remorse he went without food or drink for three days. In Bactra, the capital of Bactria, he married Roxana, a princess of the country. By this time his head was turned by his unexampled victories, conquests and power. He began to demand of his fol- lowers the cringing adulation that was paid to Oriental monarchs, and when it was denied was ready to inflict summary vengeance. To the Death of Alexander. — Crossing the eastern Caucasus (the Hindu-Kush), Alexander moved down the right bank of the Indus, subduing the tribes whom he met in his path. On the further side of the Hydaspes, he met the Indian prince Porus, whom he defeated and captured, and converted into an ally. He continued his marches and his line of victories as far as the river Hyphasis. Here the Macedonian troops would go no farther. Alexander turned back (327 B.C.), and with his army and fleet moved down the Hydaspes to the Indus, and down the Indus to the sea. Nearchus, his admiral, sailed along the shore to the west, while Alexander conducted the rest of the army amid infinite hard- ships through the desert, and finally met him on the coast. In the beginning of the year 325, he reached Susa. Here he plainly Il6 ANCIENT HISTORY. manifested his puq^ose of combining Macedonia and Greece with the East in one great empire. He adopted the Persian costume and ceremonial, and married both the daughter of Darius III. and the sister of Ariaxcrxes III. He prevailed on eighty of his Macedonian officers and ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to take Persian wives. For himself he exacted the homage paid to a di- vinity. These measures, looking to the amalgamation of Macedon and Greece with the East on terms of equality, were most offensive to the old comrades and subjects of Alexander. He was obliged to quell a mutiny, which he accomplished with consummate ad- dress and courage (July, 324 B.C.). In the marshes about Baby- lon, a place which he intended to make his capital, he contracted a fever, which was aggravated by daily revels, and which terminated his life (323 B.C.), after a reign of twelve years and eight months. Influence of Alexander. — The Persian Empire, when it was attacked by Alexander, was a gigantic body without much vitality. Yet to overcome it, there was requisite not only tlie wonderful military talents of the conqueror, but the vigilance and painstaking which equally characterized him. He has been called " an adven- turer." To fight and to conquer, and to spread his dominion wherever there were countries to subdue, seems to have been his absorbing purjDose. The most substantial result of his exploits, which read more like fable than authentic history, was to spread Hellenism, — to diffuse at least a tincture of Greek civilization, together with some acquaintance with the Greek language, over the lands of the East. This was a most important work in its bearing on the subsequent history of antiquity, and more remotely on the history of all subsequent times. CHAPTER II. THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. Divisions of the Empire. — Alexander left no legitimate chil- dren. The child of Roxana, Alexander the Younger, was born after his father's death. The empire naturally fell to his princi- pal generals, of .whom Perdiccas, having command of the great army of Asia, had the chief power. He was obliged to content his military colleagues, which he did by giving to them provinces. The principal regents, or guardians, were soon reduced to three, — Antipater and Craterus in Europe, and Perdiccas. The govern- ment was carried on in the name of Roxana's son, and of Arrhi- dcBus, the half-brother of Alexander. But Perdiccas soon found that each general was disposed to be in fact a king in his own dominion. He formed the plan of seizing the empire for himself. GRECIAN HISTORY. 11/ This combined the satraps against him. Perdiccas was supported by his friend Eumenes, but had against him Antipatcr and O-a- fenis, the other regents, and the powerful governors, Ptolemy Lagi in Egypt, and Antigomts in Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphiha (322 B.C.). There followed a series of wars lasting for twenty- two years, involving numerous changes of sovereignty, and fresh par- titions of territory. The rebellious satraps triumphed over the royalists, whose aim was to keep the empire intact for the family of Alexander. The ambition of Aniigoniis to make himself the sole ruler, led to a league against him (315 B.C.). In a treaty of peace, Cassandcr, the son of Antipater, was to retain the govern- ment of Macedonia. By him Roxana and the young Alexander were put to death. In a second war against Antigonus, in which, as before, he was supported by his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, they were completely defeated in the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia (301 B.C.) . Antigonus was slain : Demetrius fled to Greece. The re- sult of this protracted contest was, that the Macedonian empire was broken into three principal states, — Macedonia under the Antigo- nida;, the descendants of Antigonus ; Egypt under the Ptolemies ; Syria under the Seleucidce. Besides these, there were the smaller kingdoms of Pergamon and of Bithynia. Other* states broke off from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidae. I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES. Ptolemy Lagi (323-283 B.C.). — When Alexander transferred the seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria, he accom- plished results which he could not at all foresee. The Greek ele- ment became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A great stimulus was given to commerce and to foreign intercourse. - The Egyptians themselves entered zealously into industrial pursuits. Ptolemy Lagi (Soter), the first of the new sovereigns, was wise enough to guard his own territory, and even to establish his rule in Palestine, Phoini- cia, and Ccele-Syria, but to avoid extensive schemes of conquest. Cyrenaica, on the west of Egypt, and the intermediate Lybian tribes, he subdued. Ptolemy was an absolute monarch, but he retained prominent features in the old Egyptian administrative system, gave offices to Egyptians, and protected their religion. The most important civil stations and all military offices were reserved for Grseco-Macedonians : Alexandria was a Greek city. From the beginning he fostered learning and science. He set to work to collect a great library in a building connected with his palace. He founded the Museum, which was a college of professors. It at- tracted a great body of students, and became the university of the eastern world. Under the patronage of Ptolemy, mathematicians, poets, and critics of high repute flourished. Among the structures Il8 ANCIENT HISTORY. raised by him were the Hghthouse of vast height on the island of Pharos, which was connected with the shore by a mole, or cause- way, a mile in length ; the Soma, or mausoleum, containing the hody oi Alexander ; the Temple of Scrapis, completed by his son; and the Hippodrome. Ptolemy Philadelphus. — Ptolony II., surnamed Philadelphus (2S3-247 B.C.), with less talent for war than his father, did much to encourage commerce, and was especially active in his patronage of learning. In this last province he did a greater work than his father. He greatly enlarged the library. He drew learned men to his court from all directions. In his time the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek, in the version called the Septuagint. Under his auspices Aianetho composed his History of Egypt. Ptolemy Euergetes. — Ptolemy III. (247-222 B.C.), surnamed Euergetes (the benefactor), was the most enterprising and aggres- sive of this line of monarchs. Most of his conquests were not per- manent, but some of them were. He was a patron of art and of literature. He raised Egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity that she ever enjoyed. The first three Ptolemies whose reigns had covered a century, were followed by a series of incompetent and depraved kings, nine in number. Ptolemy IV. (Philopator) (222-205 B.C.) was a weak and dissolute prince. In war with Antiochus III. (the Great) of Syria, he saved his kingdom: but his own subjects were rebel- lious and disaflTected. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor) (181-14S B.C.) was a boy at his accession. His guardians engaged in war with Syria, which would have conquered Egypt but for the inter- position of the Romans in his behalf (170 B.C.). II. MACEDON AND GREECE. When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king, Agis III. (330 B.C.), headed a revolt against Antipater ; but Agis was vanquished and slain. The death of Alexander kindled the hope of regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks. Athens, under De- mosthenes and Hyperides, led the way. A large confederacy was formed. Leosthenes, the Greek commander, defeated Antipater, and shut him up within the walls of Lamia (in Thessaly). But the Greeks were finally beaten at Crannon. Favorable terms were granted to their cities, except Athens and ^'Etolia. Twenty-one thousand citizens were deported from Athens to Thrace, Italy, and other places. The nine thousand richest citizens, with Phocion at their head, the anti-democratic party, had all power left in their hands. Demosthenes, Hyperides, and other, democratic lead- ers, were proscribed. Demosthenes took refuge in the temple of Neptune, on the little island of Calaiirea. Finding himself pur- sued by Archias, the ofiicer of Antipater, he took poison, which he had kept by him in a quill, and died. Thus closed the life of an intrepid statesman who had served the cause of liberty and of his country through the direst perils and trials with unfaltering con- GRECIAN HISTORY. 1 19 stancy. The democracy again acquired power temporarily, and Phocion was condemned to death. Cassander, excluded from the Macedonian throne by his father, Antipater, supplanted Polysperchcni, the regent (316 B.C.)- He placed Demetrius oi Phaleroi in power at Athens over a democracy with restricted prerogatives. He was driven out by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who was helped by Athens to possess himself of Macedonia and of the most of Greece, but was compelled (287 B.C.) to give up his throne, which, however, was gained by his son, Atitigo- nus Gonatas (277 B.C.). The Acheean League. — In 279 B.C., there occurred an irrup- tion of the Gauls into Greece, " one of those vast waves of mi- gration which from time to time sweep over the world." The Macedonian king, Ptolemy Ceraumis, was defeated by them in a great battle, captured, and put to death. It was two years before these marauders were driven out, and Macedonia acquired a settled government. This episode m history favored the growth of two leagues — the Acheean League and the /Etolian League. In these leagues the several cities gave up to the central council much more power than Greek cities had been in the habit of granting in former unions. The Achaean League was at first made up of ten Achaean cities. About 240 B.C. Aratus of Sicyon, who had brought Sicyon into the league, delivered Corinth from the Macedonians. To free Greek cities from subjectit)n to them, was long a great object of the league. Peloponnesus, except Sparta, with Athens and ^gina, joined it. The .ffitolian League : War of the Leagues. — The rough ^to- lians north of the Corinthian Gulf, semi-barbarous in their mode of life, formed another league, and got command of Phocis, Locris, and Bceotia. A praiseworthy attempt at reform was made in Sparta by the king, Agis IV. (240 B.C.), who was opposed by the rich, and put to death. Cleomenes, his successor, who had the same spirit as Agis, engaged in conflict with the Achaean League, which then called in Macedonian help (227 B.C.). It had to give up to Macedon the Corinthian citadel. Sparta was overthrown. Soon a war between the two leagues broke out, when the Achseans again called on the Macedonians for aid. These conflicts were followed by the interference of the Romans. The Evil of Faction. — The bane of Greece, from the beginning to the end of its history, was the suicidal spirit of disunion. Her power was splintered at many crises, when, if united, it might have saved the land from foreign tyranny. Her resources were drained, generation after generation, by needless local contests. She owed her downfall to the desolating influence of faction. III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM. Selezicus I. (Nicator) (312-280 B.C.) was the founder of the Syrian kingdom. From * Babylon he extended his dominion to the Black Sea, to the Jaxartes, and even to the Ganges, so far as I20 ANCIENT HISTORY. to make the Indian prince, Sandracoifus, acknowledge him as suze- rain. From Babylon he removed his capital to Antioch on the Orontes, which he founded, — a city destined to be the rival of Alexandria among the cities of the East. The effect of this re- moval, however, was to loosen his liold upon the Eastern provinces of his empire. Seleucia, on the west bank of the 'ligris, he like- wise founded, which became a great commercial city, but was outstripped later by the Parthian city opposite, Ctesiphon. The provinces beyond the Euphrates he committed to his son, Antio- chiis. With him (Antiochus I.) begins the decline of the empire through the influence of Oriental luxury and vice. Under him Syria lost the eastern part of Asia Minor through the invading Gauls, who converted northern Phrygia into Galatia, while north-western Lydia became the kingdom oi Pergamon. Antiochus II. (261-246 B.C. ) could not hold the provmces in subjection. The Parthian and Bactrian kingdoms began under his reign. Antiochus III. (the Great) (223-187 B.C.) checked the Parthians and Bactrians, and expelled the Egyptians from Asia, but prepared for the down- fall of the Syrian Empire by provoking the hostility of the Romans. Baetria, Parthia, Pergamon, Galatia. — j'><7<'/r/Vz, after it broke off from Syria, was under Greek princes until, having been weakened by the Parthians, it was conquered by the Scythians (134 B.C.;. The Parthians issued, as marauders, from the north border of Iran (256 B.C.), under the Arsacidce. They gradually acquired civilization from contact with Greek culture, especially after they established the trading-city of Ctesifihon. About 200 B.C. the rulers oi Pontus made the Greek city o( Sf/io/i' their residence, and attained to a high de- gree of strength under /I////; r/rt'ii/'i-i /'/. (the Great). Pergatiion became a flourishing .state under the Greek rule of Attohis I (241 B.C.). It was famed for its wealth and its trade. Eicinenes II. (197-159 B.C.) founded the library at Pergamon. For him parchment was im- proved, if not invented, the Egyptians having forbidden the exportation of papyrus. Galatia was so named from the swarm of Gallic invaders (about 279 B.C.), who, after incursions in the East, which were continued for forty years, settled there, and by degrees yielded to the influences of Greek culture. Palestine : the Maccabees: the Idumaean Princes. — Palestine fared comparatively well in the times when the Ptolemies had con- trol. Not so after it fell under the permanent sway of Syria. The Jews were surrounded and invaded by Gentilism. On three sides, there were Greek cities. The perils to which their religion was exposed by the heathen without, and by a lukewarm party within, made earnest Jews, the bulk of the people, more inflexible in their adherence to their law and customs. The party of the Pharisees grew out of the intensity of the loyal and patriotic feel- ing which was engendered in the periods following the exile. The synagogues, centers of worship and of instruction scattered over the land, acted as a bulwark against the intrusion of heathen doc- trine and heathen practices. The resistance to these dreaded evils came to a head when the Syrian ruler, Antiochus EpipJianes^ embittered by his failures in conflict with Egypt, resolved to break down religious barriers among his subjects, and, for this end, to exterminate Jewish worship. In i68 B.C. he set up an altar to GRECIAN HISTORY. 121 Jupiter in the temple at Jerusalem, and even compelled Jewish priests to immolate swine. Then the revolt broke out in which the family of Maccabees were the heroic leaders. Judas Macca- bceus recovered the temple, but fell in battle ( i6o B.C.) . Under his brother Simon, victory was achieved, and the independence of the nation secured. The chief power remained in the hands of this family, the Asmoncean princes, until their degeneracy paved the way for Roman intervention under Poinpeius. His adviser was the Idumcean, Antipater, a Jewish proselyte, whose son Herod was made king (39 B.C.). Philosophy : The Stoics and the Epicureans. — In the Greek world the progress of investigation and reflection tended to produce dis- belief in the old mythological system. Social confusion and degeneracy tended to undermine all religious faith. Pyr7-ho (about 330 B.C.) brought forward the skeptical doctrine, that the highest wisdom is to doubt every thing. Euhemerus (315 B.C.) interpreted the whole mythology as an exag- geration, by imagination and invention, of historical events which form its slender nucleus. With the loss of liberty and the downfall of the Greek states, philosophy became, so to speak, more cosmopolitan. It no longer exalted, in the same narrow spirit, the Greek above the barbariart. It looked at mankind more as one community. This was a feature of the first of the two principal sects, the Stoics, of whom Zeno (abcxit 330 B.C.), and Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.) were the founders. They taught that virtue is the only good ; that it consists in living according to nature ; that reason should be dominant, and tranquillity of spirit be maintained by the complete subjugation of feeling. The emotions are to be kept down by the force of an iron will. This is the Stoic apathy. The world is wisely ordered : what- ever is, is right; yet the Cause of all things is not personal. Mankind form one great community, " one city." The Epiciireans, the second of the prominent sects, — so called from Epictcrus, their founder (342-270 B.C.), — made pleasure the chief good, which is to be secured by prudence, or such a regulation of our desires as will yield, on the whole, the largest fruit of happiness. They believed that the gods exist, but denied Providence. Culture. — In the Greek cities which were founded by the Macedo- nians, the political life and independence which Greece had enjoyed did not exist. The *' Hellenistic " literature and culture, as it is called, wdiich followed, lacked the spontaneous energy and original spirit of the old time. The civilization was that of people not exclusively Greek in blood. Alex- andria \Nd,s its chief seat. Poetry languished. It -w^iS p7-ose — and prose in the form of learned inquiries, criticism, and science — that flourished. The jDath was the same as that marked out by Aristotle. Theocritus, born in Syra- cuse, or Cos, under Ptolemy I. (about 320 B.C.), had distinction as a -pastoral or bucolic poet. Euclid, under Ptolemy Soter, systemized geometry. ArcJii- inedes, who died in 212 B.C., is said to have invented the screw, and was skill- ful in mechanics. Eratosthenes founded descriptive astronomy and scientific chronology. " The Alexandrian age busied itself with literary or scientific re- search, and with setting in order what the Greek mind had done in its creative time." After Greece became subject to Rome (146 B.C.) the Grceco-Roinan period 'vi\. Greek literature begins. The Greek historian Polybius stands on the border between the Alexandrian age and this next era. He was born about 210 B.C., and died about 128 B.C. Literature. — Works mentioned on p. 16: Histories of Greece by Grote (12 vols.) (democratic in his sympathies), E. Curtius (5 vols.), Thirlwall (8 vols.), W. Smith (1 vol.), G. W. Cox. Felton, Ancient and Modern Greece ; Fyffe, History of Greece (primer) ; Duncker, History of Greece [separately published]. 122 ANCIENT HISTORY. On special periods: The writings of the ancient authors, — Herodotus (Rawlinson's trans- lation, 4 vols.), Xenophon, Thucyuides (Jowett's translation, 2 vols.), Polybius, Plutarch's Lives. Schafcr, Demosthenes uiid seine Zeit (3 vols.); Drovhes, Geschic/ite des Helle- nisinns (3 vols.) ; E. A. Freeman, History of Federal GoTernnient (vol. i.) ; Finlav, His- tory of Greece from the Conquest of the Rouians (7 vols.) ; G. W. Cox, History of Greece from the Earliest Period to the End of the Persian IVar (2 vols.), and Lives of Creek Statesmen (1 vol.). On special topics: Boeckh, The Public Econoiny of Athens; Coulan^cs, The Ancient City, etc.: GoU, Knlttirbilder ans Hellas iind Rom (3 vols.); Gulil and Koner, The Life of the Greeks aiid Romans, etc.; Green, Greece and Greek Antiquities (primer); J. P. Mahafly, Social Life in Greece, also Rambles in Greece, Old Greek Education, and His- tory of Greek Literature (2 vols.); Becker, Charicles (a story illustrative of Greek life); F. A. Paley, Greek iVit (2 vols.) ; Church, Stories from Homer; Black, The Wise Men of Greece; Neares, Greek Anthology [in Ancient Classics for English Readers], Chief Ancient Philosophies [Stoicism, etc.] (i vol., 1880); Miillcr and T)on3\Aso\\, History of the Litera- ture of Aiicient Greece (3 vols.); ^lure, A Critical History of the Language and Lit- erature of Ancient Greece (5 vols.); Jebb, Attic Orators (2 vols.); Symonds, The Greek Poets (2 vols.); G. F. Schomann, The Antiquities of Greece; Gladstone, Studies on the Homeric Age and Homer; LUbke, Outlines of the History of A rt; Fergusson, History of Architecture; T)'Xx\\crs, Elementary History of Art. Smith's Dictionaries of Greelc and Roman geography, biography, and mythology. 6 ;^-. 7 J. GRECIAN HISTORY. 123 o 2 — o o 3 JO 5* J" i> O (O ^S > n o c 3 o- or? 35- yiz; _2 >^ Op- -eft 3 » 3 n D.2 SH 8 a. 3 3-1 MO > o w a o > o > o c Ui m Ui Section II. ROMAN HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Place of Rome in History. — Rome is the bridge which unites, while it separates, the ancient and the modern world. I'he his- tory of Rome is the narrati\'e of the building up of a single City, whose dominion gradually spread until it comprised all the coun- tries about the Mediterranean, or what were then the civilized nations. " In this great empire was gathered up the sum total that remained of the religions, laws, customs, languages, letters, arts, and sciences of all the nations of antiquity which had succes- sively held sway or predominance." Under the system of Roman government and Roman law they were combined in one ordered community. It was out of the v/reck of the ancient Roman Em- pire that the modem European nations were formed. Their like- ness to one another, their bond of fellowship, is due to the heritage of laws, customs, letters, religion, which they have received in common from Rome. The Inhabitants of Ancient Italy. — Until a late period in Ro- man history, the Apennines, and not the Alps, were the northern boundary of Italy. The most of the region between the Alpine range and the Apennines, on both sides of the Po, was inhabited by Gauls, akin to the Celts of the same name north of the x\lps. On the west of Gallia were the Lii^iin'ajis, a rough people of un- known extraction. People thought to be of the same race as the Ligurians dwelt in Sardinia and in Corsica, and in a part oi Sicily. On the east of Gallia were the Venetians, whose lineage is not ascertained. The Apennines branch off from the Alps in a south- easterly direction until they near the x'\driatic, when they turn to the south, and descend to the extreme point of the peninsula, thus forming the backbone of Italy. On the west, in the central por- tion of the peninsula, is the hilly district called by the ancients, Etruria (now Tuscany), and the plains oi La tin in and Campania. What is now termed Campania, the district about Rome, is a part of ancient Latium. The Etrurians differed widely, both in ap- pearance and in language, from the Romans. They were not 124 ROMAN HISTORY. J 25 improbably Aryans, but nothing more is known of their descent. In the east, in what is now Calabria, and in Apulia, there was another people, the lapygians, whose origin is not certain, but who were not so far removed from the Greeks as from the Latins. The southern and south-eastern portions of the peninsula were the seat of the Greek settlements, and the country was early designated Great Greece. Leaving out the Etrurians, lapygians, and Greeks, Italy, south of Gallia, was inhabited by nations allied to one an- other, and more remotely akin to the Greeks. These Italian nations w^ere divided into an eastern and a western stock. The western stock, the Latins, whose home was in Latium, were much nearer of kin to the Greeks than were the eastern. The eastern stock comprised the Umbi'ia7is and the Oscans. It included the Sabines, Samnites, and Lucanians. We are certain, that, " from the common cradle of peoples and languages, there issued a stock which embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and-«thc Italians; that from this, at a subsequent period, the Italians branched off; and that these divided again into the western and eastern stocks, while, at a still later date, the eastern became subdivided into Umbrians and Oscans." (Mommsen's History of Rome, vol. i., p. 36.) Italy and Greece. — In two important points, Italy is geographi- cally distinguished from Greece. The sea-coast of Italy is more uniform, not being broken by bays and harbors ; and it is not cut up, like Greece, by chains of mountains, into small cantons. The Romans had not the same inducement to become a sea-farinsr o people ; there were fewer cities ; there was an opportunity for closer and more extended leagues. It is remarkable that the out- lets of Greece were towards the east ; those of Italy towards the west. The two nations were thus averted from one another : they were, so to speak, back to back. The Greeks and Romans. — The Greeks and Romans, although sprung from a common ancestry, and preserving common features in their language, and to some extent in their religion, were very diverse in their natural traits. The Greeks had more genius : the Romans more stability. In art and letters the Romans had little originality. In these provinces they were copyists of the Greeks : they lacked ideality. They had, also, far less delicacy of percep- tion, flexibility, and native refinement of manners. But they had more sobriety of character and more endurance. They were a disciplined people ; and in their capacity for discipline lay the secret of their supremacy in arms and of their ability to give law to the world. If they produced a much less number of great men than the Greeks, there was more widely diffused among Roman citizens a conscious dignity and strength. The Roman was natu- rally ^raz/^ .• the fault of the Greek was levity. Versatility belonged to the Greek : virility to the Roman. Above all, the sense of right and of justice was stronger among the Romans. They had, in an eminent degree, the political instinct, the capacity for governing, 126 ANCIENT HISTORY. and for building up a political system on a firm basis. This trait was connected with their innate reverence for authority, and their habit of obedience. The noblest product of the Latin mind is the Roman law, which is the foundation of almost all modem codes. With all their discernment of justice and love of order, the Ro- mans, however, were too often hard and cruel. Their history is stained here and there with acts of unexampled atrocity. In pri- vate life, too, when the rigor of self-control gave way, they sunk into extremes of vulgar sensuality. If, compared with the Greeks, they stood morally at a greater height, they might fall to a lower depth. The Roman Religion. — The difference between the Greek and Roman mind was manifest in the sphere of religion. Before their separation from one another they had brought from the common hearthstone elements of worship which both retained. Jupiter, like Zeus, was the old Aryan god of the shining sky. But the Greek conception, even of the chief deity, differed from the Roman. When the Romans came into intercourse with the Greeks, they identified the Greek divinities with their own, and more and more appropriated the tales of the Greek mythology, linking them to their own deities. Of the early worship peculiar to the Romans, we know but little. But certain traits always belonged to the Ro- man religion. Their mood was too prosaic to invent a theogony, to originate stories of the births, loves, and romantic adventures of the gods, such as the Greek fancy devised. The Roman myths were heroic, not religious : they related to the deeds of valiant men. Their deities were, in the first place, much more abstract, less vividly conceived, less endowed with distinct personal charac- teristics. And, secondly, their service to the gods was more punc- tilious and methodical. It was regulated, do\^ai to the minutiae, by fixed rules. Worship was according to law, was something due to the gods, and was discharged, like any other debt, exactly, and at the proper time. The Roman took advantage of technicalities in dealing with his gods : he was legal to the core. The word reli- gion had the same root as obligation. It denoted the bondage or service owed by man to the gods in return for their protection and favor ; and hence the anxiety, or scrupulous watchfulness against the omission of what is required to avert the displeasure of the powers above. Origin of the Romans. — The Romans attributed their origin to the mythical ^neas, who fled, with a band of fugitives, from the flames of Troy, and whose son, Ascanius, or lulus, settled in All>a Longa, in Latium. What is known of the foundation of Rome is, that it was a settlement of Latin farmers and traders on the group of hills, seven in number, near the border of Latium, on the Tiber. It was the head of navigation for small vessels, and Rome was at ROMAN HISTORY. 12/ first, it would seem, the trading-village for the exchange of the products of the farming-district in which it was placed. Such an outpost would be useful to guard Latium against the Etrurians across the river. Of the three townships, or clans, which united to form Rome, — ihe Ramnes, the Titles, and the Luceres, — the first and third were Latin. The second, which was Sabine, blended with the Roman element, as the language proves. The clans, or tribes, in Latium together formed a league, the central meeting-place of which was at first Alba Longa. There is some reason to think that the Sabines were from Cures near Rome. Certain it is that Rome, even at the outset, derived its strength from a combination of tribes. Period I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS. {753-304 B.C.) CHAPTER I. ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.). Character of the Legends. — There is no doubt that the Romans hved for a time under the rule of kings. These were not hke the Greek kings, hereditary rulers, nor were they chosen from a single family. But the stories told in later times respecting the kings, their names and doings, are quite unworthy of credit. They rest upon no contemporary evidence or sure tradition. To say nothing of the miraculous elements that enter into the narratives, they are laden with other improbabilities, which prove them to be the fruit of imagination. They contain impossibilities in chronology. They ascribe laws, institutions, and religion, which were of slow growth, to particular individuals, apportioning to each his own part in an artificial way. Many of the stories are borrowed from the Greeks, and were originally told by them about other matters. In short, the Roman legends, including dates, such as are recorded in this chapter, are fabrications to fill up a void in regard to which there was no authentic information, and to account for beliefs and cus- toms the origin of which no one knew. They are of sen'ice, however, in helping us to ascertain the character of the Roman constitution, and something about its growth, in the prehistoric age. The Legendary Tales. — Romnlns and Remus, so the legend runs, were sons of the god Mars by Rhea Silvin, a priestess of Vesta, whose father, Ntimitor, had been slain by his wicked brother, A i>i id ins, who thereby made himself king of Alba Longa. The twins, by his command, were put into a basket, and thrown mto the Tiber. The cradle was caught by the roots of a fig-tree: a she-wolf came out, and suckled them, ^.nd Faiistitltis, a shepherd, brought them up as his own children. Romulus grew up, and slew the usurper, Amitlius. The two brothers founded a city on the banks of the Tiber where they had been rescued (753 B.C.). In a quarrel, the elder killed the younger, and called the city after himself, Roma. Romulus, to increase the number of the people, founded an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, which gave welcome to robbers and fugitives of all kinds. There was a lack of women ; but, by a 128 ROMAN HISTORY. 1 29 cunning trick, the Romans seized on a large number of Sabine women, who had been decoyed to Rome, with their fathers and brothers, to see the games. The angry Sabines invaded Rome. Tarpeia., the daughter of the Roman cap- tain, left open for them a gate into the Capitoline citadel, and so they won the Capitol. In the war that followed, by the intervention of the Sabine women, the Romans and Sabines agreed to live peaceably together as citizens of one town, under Romulus and the Sabine, Tatiiis. After the death of Tatius, Romulus reigned alone, and framed laws for the two peoples. During a thunder-storm he was translated to the skies, and worshiped as the god Quirinus (716 B.C.). After a year Niiiiia Ponipilius, a Sabine, was elected king (715-673 B.C.). He stood in close intercourse with the gods, was full of wisdom and of the spirit of peace. He framed the religious system, with its various offices and rites. The gates of the temple of Janus, closed only in peace, were shut during his mild reign. He died of old age, without ill- ness or pain. The peaceful king was followed by the warlike king, Tulhes Hostilius (673-664 B.C.). War breaks out with Alba. The two armies face each other, and the contest is decided by the single combat of the three Horatii, champions of the Romans, and the three Curiatii, champions of Alba. One Roman, the victor and sole survivor, is led to R(Jme in triumph. Thus Alba became subject to Rome. Afterwards Alba was destroyed, but the Albans became Roman citizens. The fourth king, Anciis Maixuts (641-616 B.C.), loved peace, but could not avoid war. He fought against four Latin towns, brought their inhabitants to Rome, and planted them on the Aventine hill. He fortified the hill Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber, and connected it by a wooden bridge with the town. The next king was by birth an Etruscan. Lucunio and his wife, Tanaquil, emigrated to Rome. Lucumo took the name of Lucius Tqrqicinius, was stout, valiant, and wise, a counselor of Ancus, and chosen after him, instead of one of the sons of Ancus, whose guardian he was. Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B.C.) — for so he was called — waged successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. The Etruscans owned him for their king, and sent a crown of gold, a scepter, an ivory chair, an embroidered tunic, a purple toga, and twelve axes in as many bundles of rods. He made a reform of the laws. He built the temple of Jupiter, or the Capitol, laid out the forum for a market-place, made a great sewer to drain the lower valleys of the city, leveled a race-course between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and introduced games like those of the Etruscans. Tarquinius was killed by the sons of Ancus; and Servius Tullius (578-534 B.C.), the son of Ocrisia, a slave-woman, and of a god, was made king through the devices of Tanaquil. He united the seven hills, and built the wall of Rome. He remodeled the constitution by the census and the division of the centuries. Under him Rome joined the Latin league. He was mur- dered by his flagitious son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus (534-510 B.C.) — Tarquin the Proud. He ruled as a despot, surrounding himself with a body- guard, and, upon false accusation, inflicting death on citizens whose property he coveted. By a treacherous scheme, he got possession of the town of Gabii. He waged war against the Volscia7is, a powerful people on the south of Latium. He adorned Rome with many buildings, and lived in pomp and extravagance, while the people were impoverished and helpless. The in- spired Sibyl of CumcB offered him, through a messenger, nine books of prophecies. The price required excited his scorn, whereupon the woman who bought them destroyed three. She came back with the remaining six, which she offered at the same price. On being refused in the same manner, she destroyed another three. This led Tarquin to pay the price when she ap- peared the third time with the books that were left. They were carefully preserved to the end, that in times of danger the will of the gods might be learned. Another story told of the haughty king was, that, vsfhen he had grown old, and was frightened by dreams and omens, he sent his two sons to consult the oracle at Delphi. With them went his sister's son, yunius, who 130 ANCIENT HISTORY. was called Brrihis on account of his supposed silliness, which was really feigned to deceive the tyrant. The offering which he brought to the Delphian god was a simple staff. His cousins, who laughed at him, did not know that it was stuffed with gold. The god, in answer to a question, said that he would reign at Rome who should first kiss his mother. Brutus d'w'incd the sense of the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kissed the mother earth. The cruel outrage of Sex/iis '/art/iiiiiiits, the king's son, of which Lncretia, the wife of their cousin, was the jjure and innocent victim, caused the expulsion of the house of Tarquin, and the abolishing of regal government. Her father and husband, with Brutus and the noble Fublius P'a/erius PoplicoLi, to whom she related "the deed of shame " wrought by Se.xtus, swore, at her request, to avenge her wrong. She herself plunged a dagger into her heart, and expired. Brutus roused the peo])le, and drove out the Targuins. Two consuls were appointed in the room of the king, who should rule for one year. Brutus was one. When it was ascertained that his own sons had taken part in a conspiracy of the higher class to restore Tarqumius, the stern Roman gave orders to the lictors to scourge them, and to cut off their heads with the ax. Now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of Tarquinius should be banished for ever. Tarquinius went among the Etruscans, and secured the aid of the people of Tarq-uinii, and of Veil. In a battle, Arutis, the son of Tarquinius, and Brutus, both mounted, ran upon one another, and were slain. Each army marched to its home, Tarquinius then obtained the help of Porscna, king of the Etruscans, with a strong army. They took Janiai- him ; but Horatms Codes, with two companions, posted himself at the entrance of the bridge, and kept the place, Horatius remaining until the bridge had been torn away behind him. He then, with his armor on, leaped into the river, and swam back to the shore. The town was hard ]^ressed bv the enemy and by famine. Mucins Sccn'ola went into /'orscuci's camp, resolved to kill him. But he slew another whom he mistook for the king. When threatened with death, he thrust his right hand into the fire, to show that he had no fear. Porsena, admiring his courage, gave him his freedom ; and, on being informed that three hundred young Romans were sworn to undertake the same deed which Alucius had come to perform, Porsena made peace without requiring the restoration of Tarquinius. Tnrquinius, not despairing, persuaded the Tusculans and other Romans to begm war against Rome. The Romans appointed a dictator to meet the exigency, A/arcus Valerius. In a battle near Lai'e A'e,pllus, when the Romans began to give way, the dictator invoked Castor and Pollux, vowing to dedicate a temple to them in case he was victorious. Two young men on white chargers appeared at the head of the Roman troops, and led them to victory. Tarquinius now gave up his effort, and went to Cu7nce to the tyrant Aristoiletuus, where he lived until his death. Truth in the Legends. — There are certain facts which are em- bedded in the legends. Alba was at one time the head of the Latin confederacy. The Sabines invaded Latium, settled on some of the hills of Rome, allied themselves with the Ro/nafis, and the two peoples were resolved into one federal state. This last change was a very important step. The tradition of a doubling of the senate and of two kings, Romulus and Tatius, although not in literal form historical, is believed to be a reminiscence of this union. It is thought that the earliest royalty was priestly in its character, and that this was superseded by a military kingship. It is probable that the Etruscans who had made much progress in civilization, in the arts and in manufactures, gained the upper ROMAN HISTORY. I31 hand in Latiwn. The insignia of the Roman kings were Etruscan. The Etruscan kings were driven out. There were advances in civ- ihzation under them, the division of the people into classes took place, and at that period structures like the " Servian " wall were built. Patricians and Plebeians. — The Romans from the beginning were divided into the upper class, the Patricians, and the com- mon people, or Plebeians, who were free, but, like the pcriaci and metceci in Greece, had no political rights. The plebeians, as they included the conquered class, were not all poor. A part of them, who were under the special protection of citizens, their Patrons, were called Clients. The patricians were th^ descendants of the first settlers and proprietors. Under the old constitution, as- cribed in the legends to Romulus, the patricians alone formed the military force, and were styled the Populus. They were divided into curies (districts or wards), at first ten in number, and, after the union of the Romans with the Titles and Luceres, thirty. Each cicria was divided into ten families, ox gentes. The assem- bly of the citizens was called the Comitia Curiata. The Comitia chose the King. The Senate was a council of elders representing in some way the gentes. The clan, or getis, was always of great consequence among the Romans. Its name was a part of the proper name of every citizen. The particular or individual names in vogue were not numerous. The name of the gens was placed between the personal name, or the pra^no- men, and the designation of the special family (included in the gens). Thus in the case of Caius Julius Caesar, " Julius" was the designation of the gens, " Caesar," of the family, while " Caius" was the personal name. The Early Constitution. — The " Servian constitution " made all land-owners, whether patrician or plebeian, subject to taxation, and obliged to do military service. The cavalry — the Equites, or knights, — was made up, by adding to the six patrician companies already existing, double the number of wealthy plebeians. The infantry were organized without reference to rank, but were graded according to their property. The whole people were divided thus into five classes, and, when assembled, formed the Comitia Cen- turiata, — as being made up of the companies called "centuries," or " hundreds." At first this body was only consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars. Gradually it drew away more and more power from the Comitia Curiata, which consisted solely of patricians. Those who had no land were now distinguished from the land-owning plebeians. For the purposes of conscription, the city was divided into four Tribes, or wards. Every four years a census was to be taken. Magistrates. — When the kingship was abohshed, and under the system that followed, the two Consuls were to be patricians. They exercised regal power during their term of office. They ap- pointed the senators and the two Qucestors, who came to have 132 ANXIENT HISTORY. charge of the treasury, under consular supervision. The consuls were attended by twejve Lie tors, who carried \\-\t fasces — bundles of rods fastened around an ax, — which symbolized the power of the magistrate to flog or to behead offenders. The Comitia Centuriata acquired the right to elect the consuls, to hear appeals in capital cases from their verdicts, and to accept or reject bills laid before it. This was a great gain for the plebeians. Yet the patricians were strong enough in this assembly to control its action. On occasions of extraordinary peril, a Dictator might be selected by one of the consuls, who was to have absolute authority for the time. The Senate commonly had an unportant part, however, in the selection of this officer. There was a Master 0/ Norse to com- mand the knights under him. He was appointed by the dictator. Religion. — Worship in families was conducted by the head of the household, the paterfamilias, who offered the regular sacrifices. But, as regards the whole people, worship was under the direction of the pontiffs, with the chief pontiff, the Pontifex Maxiinus, at their head, and in the hands of the priests. These were all offi- cers of the state, elected to their places, and entirely subordinate to the civil magistrates. The pontiffs were not so much priests as they were guardians and interpreters of divine law. They were masters of sacred lore. They -looked out that the numberless and complex rules in respect to religious observances should be strictly complied with. At the same time they had enough knowledge of astronomy to enable them to fix the days suitable for the transac- tion of business, public or private. They had the control of the calendar. The Augiirs consulted the will of the gods as disclosed in omens. The augur, his eyes raised to the sky, with his staff marked off the heavens into four quarters, and then watched for the passage of birds, from which he took the auspices. In early times, there was an implicit faith in these supposed indications of the will of the divinities ; but this credulity passed away, and the auguries became a political instrument for helping forward the schemes of some person or party. Besides the college of pontiffs and the college of augurs, there was the college of Fetiaks, who were the guardians of the public faith in relation to other peoples,- and performed the rites attending the declaration of war or the conclusion of peace. The Soothsayers (haruspices) were of Etrus- can origin. They ascertained the will of the gods by inspecting the entrails of the slaughtered victims. The Flamens were the priests having charge of the worship of particular divinities. The Vestals were virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her temple, and kept the sacred fire from being extinguished. The chief gods worshiped by the Romans were Jupiter, god of the sky; his wife, Juno, the goddess of maternity. Mi'ncrT'a, the goddess of wisdom; ApoUo, the god of augurj- and the arts; Diana, the goddess of the chase and archery; Mars, the god of war; Belloiia, the goddess of war; Vestec, patron of the Reman state and of the national hearthstone; Ceres, the 17 Long-itadi last li-om IB Grcenwidi 19 '^^^^£!^". ,uJ "".z 0.j^^...I j jjj'mpjict lifbTjfi [et ipoBUui'- I F i: R y E t T Y A R JT :E N ^1. ' I ,:a..vj ^ lR, j; T_& IWS-« ■^i-. ._-^k. 32 T.„„.r,i„d.. J':.,.ii f,.„in 35 Tem'o ROMAN HISTORY. 1 33 goddess of agriculture; Saturmis, the patron of husbandry/ Hercules, the Greek god, early naturalized in Italy as the god of gain and of mercantile contracts; Mercury, the god of trade; Neptune, god of the sea. Venus was an old Roman goddess, who presided over gardens, but gradually was identified with the Grecian Aphrodite. Lares and Penates were household divinities, guardians of the family. The Romans assigned a spirit to almost every thing. Each individual had his own protect- ing genius. Janus was the god of beginnings. Terminals was the god of the boundary, Siivanus of the forest, P'ertumnus of the circling year. The farmer, in each part of his labor, — in harrowing, plowing, sowing, etc., — invoked a spirit. So marriage, birth, and every natural event had each a sacred life of its own. Not less than forty-three distinct divinities are spoken of by name as having to do with the actions of a child. Thus the number of divinities was countless. Gods were great or small, according to the department of nature or of life where they severally were present and active. CHAPTER II. ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.). Rivalry of Classes. — The abolishing of royalty left Rome as "a house divided against itself." The power granted to the Comitia Coituriata did not suffice to produce contentment. The patricians still decided every thing, and used their strength in an oppressive way. Besides the standing contest between the patri- cians and plebeians, there was great suffering on the side of the poorer class of plebeians. Many were obliged to incur debts ; and their creditors enforced the rigorous law against them, loading them with chains, and driving their families from their homes. A great and constant grievance was the taking by the patricians of the public lands which had been obtained by conquest, for a mod- erate rent, which might not be paid at all. If they granted a share in this privilege to some rich plebeian houses, this afforded no help to the mass of the people, who were more and more deprived of the opportunity to till the smaller holdings in conse- quence of the employment of slaves. Yet the plebeians had to bear the burden of military service. At length they rose in a 'body, probably in returning from some victory, and encamped on a hill, the Sacred Mount, three miles from Rome, where they threatened to stay, and found another town. This bold move- ment led to an agreement. It was stipulated that they should ■ elect magistrates from their own class, to be called Tribimes of the People, who should have the right to interpose an absolute veto upon any legal or administrative measure. This right each consul already had in relation to his colleague. To secure the commons in this new right, the tribunes were declared to be inviolable. Whoever used violence against them was to be an outlaw. The power of the tribunes at first was merely protective. But their power grew until it became controlling. One point where their authority was apt to be exerted was in the conscription, or military enrollment. This, if it were undertaken in an unfair way, they could stop altogether, and thus compel a change. 134 ^- ANCIENT HISTORY. %■ The Plebeian Assembly. — Not far from this time, there was instituted a new assembly, the Co^niiia of IVibes, or Comitia Tri- biita. There was a new division of the people into tribes or wards, — first twenty, then twenty-one, and, later, thirty-five. In this comitia, the plebeians were at the outset, if not always, the exclusive voters. 'I'he patricians had their assembly, the Comitia Curiata. The Comitia of the Tribes, which was then controlled by the plebeians, chose the tribunes, fiy degrees, both the other assemblies lost their importance. The plebeian body more and more extended its prerogatives. Besides the tribunes, the ^dilcs, two in number, who were assistants of the tribunes, and superin- tended the business of the markets, were chosen by the Comitia Tributa. The Law of Cassius. — The anxiety of the plebeians to be rid of the restrictions upon the holding and enjoyment of land, led to the proposal of a law for their relief by the consul Spiiriiis Cas- sius (486 B.C.). Of the terms of the law, we have no precise knowledge. We only know, that, when he retired from office, he was condemned and put to death by the ruling class. War with the .ffiquians and the Volscians. — About this time Rome concluded a league with the Latins^ and soon after with another people, the Hej-nicans, who lived farther eastward, be- tween the ^quians and Volscians. It was a defensive alliance, in which Rome had the leading place. Then follow the wars with the yEquiaiis and Volscians, where the traditional accounts are mingled with many fictitious occurrences. There are two stories of special note, — the story of Coriolanus, and the story of Cincin- natus. It is related that a brave patrician, Cains Marcius Corio- lamts, at a time when grain was scarce, and was procured with difficulty from Etruria and Sicily for the relief of the famishing, proposed that it should be withheld from the plebeians unless they would give up the tribunate. The anger of this class, and the contempt which he showed for it, caused him to be banished. Thereupon he went to the Volscians, and led an army against Rome, — an army too strong to be resisted. One deputation after another went out of the city to placate him, but in vain. At length Veturia, his mother, and Volumnia, his wife, at the head of a company of matrons, went to his camp, and entreated him. Their prayer he could not deny, but exclaimed, " O my mother ! Rome thou hast saved, but thou hast lost thy son." He died among the Volscians (491 B.C.). The tale, certainly in most of its parts, is fictitious. For example, he is said to have been called Coriolanus, from having previously conquered Corioli ; but such designations were not given among the Romans until centuries later. The story of Cincinnatus in essential particulars is probably true. At a time when the Romans were hard pressed ROMAN HISTORY. 1 35 by the ^quians, the messengers of the Senate waited on Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, formerly a senator and a consul of renown in peace and war, and asked him to become dictator. They found him plowing in his field. He accepted the post, by his prudence and vigor delivered the state, and on the sixteenth day laid down his office, and went back to his farm. The time re- quired by the hero for his task was doubtless much longer than the legend allows. There is an authentic tradition of a war with the Etruscans, who had retained certain towns on the Roman side of the Tiber. The Romans established a fort on the Crcsnera, not far from Veil, which was one of them. In the course of this struggle, it is said that all the Fabii, — a distinguished Roman family, — except one boy, were perfidiously slain. This is an exaggerated tale. A truce was concluded with Veii'vx 474 B.C. for forty years, which left Rome free to fight her enemies on the east and south. The Decemvirs. — The internal conflict of the patricians against the commons in Rome went on. In 471 B.C. the Publilian Law was passed to establish fully the right of the plebeians alone to elect their tribunes, or to exclude the upper class from their comi- tia. The claims of the plebeians, who formed the greater part of the fighting men, rose. They demanded first, however, that they should have the same private rights as the patricians, and that the laws should be made more efficient for their protection by being reduced to a code. This was the object of the Terentilian Law, proposed in 462. The result was a great dispute. Some con- cessions failed to satisfy the plebeians. Finally it was agreed that ten men, Decemvirs, should be chosen indiscriminately from both classes to frame a code, they, meantime, to supersede the Con- suls and tribunes in the exercise of the government (450 B.C.). They were to equalize the laws, and to write them down. The story of the mission to Athens for the study of the laws of Solon, is not worthy of credit. There is no doubt, however, that many obstacles were put in the way of the project by the conservative patricians, and that one of their order, Appiits Claudius, took a prominent part, probably on the side of the people. Virginius. — Here comes m the story of Virgiina. It is related that Applies Claudius was an ambitious and bad man, who, being one of the decemvirs, wished to hold on to power. He conceived a base passion for the daughter of V/rgzui'iis, a brave plebeian centurion, and claimed her on the pretense that she was the daughter of one of his slaves. Standing at his judgment-seat, Virginius, seeing that he could do nothing to save his child from the clutch of the villainous judge, plunged his dagger in her heart. This was the signal for another revolt of the people, which extorted the consent of the upper class to the sacred laws and the restora- tion of the tribuneship. It is a plausible theory that Appius Claitdius favored the plebeian claims, and that the tale told above is a later invention to his discredit. Political Equality. — The laws of the twelve tribes lay at the basis of all subsequent legislation in Rome, and were always held in reverence. The plebeians soon gained further advantages. In 448 B.C., it was ordained, under the consuls Horatius and Valerius, that the plebeian assembly of tribes should be a sovereign assembly, whose enactments should be binding on the whole Roman people. In 445 B.C., the law of Canuleius legalized marriage between the 136 ANCIENT HISTORY. plebeians and patricians. This was an important step towards the closer union of the two classes. The executive power was still in the hands of the patricians. But in 444 a new office, that of military tribunes with consular power, to be chosen from the ple- beians, was established. By way of offset to this great concession, a new patrician office, that of Censor, was created. The function of the two censors, who were to be chosen by the Comitia Centu- riata, was to take the census at short intenals, to make out the tax-lists, to appoint senators and knights, to manage the collection of taxes, to superintend public buildings, and, finally, to exercise an indefinite supervision over public manners and morals. These were very great powers. We find that considerable time elapsed before the plebeians actually realized the advantage which they had legally won in this compromise. About the year 400, they succeeded in electing several military tribunes. As early as 410 B.C. three out of the four treasurers, or paymasters {qucestors), were plebeians. About ten years after (388 B.C.), they obtained, by iht Lici7iia?i Laws, the political equality for which they had so long contended. War with the Etruscans. — But before this result should be reached, other events of much consequence were to occur. The Etruscans, who were not only proficients in the arts, but Avere also active in trade and commerce, had been defeated at sea by the Greeks, in 474 B.C. But on the north they had a more formid- able foe in the Gauls, by whom their power was weakened. The Romans took advantage of the situation to lay siege to Veii, which, after ten years, was captured by their general, Marcus Furius Cainillus. The capture of other towns followed. It was told of Cninillus that Fnlerii surrendered to him of its own accord, for his magna- nimity in sending back a treacherous schoolmaster who had taken out to his camp the sons of the chief citizens. Camillas tied his hands behind him, and ordered the boys to flog him back into the city. Camillus was sent into exile, it was related, on a charge of injustice m dividing the booty obtained at Veii. Invasion of the Gauls. — But the Romans joined with the Etruscans in the attempt to drive back a dreaded enemy of both, the Gauls. In the battle of the AUia, a brook eleven miles north of Rome, on the iSth of July, 390 B.C., the Roman army was routed by them, and Rome left without the means of defense. All the people fled, except a few brave men, who shut themselves up in the Capitol, and, according to the tradition, some aged patri- cians, who, in their robes of state, waited for the enemy. The Gauls, under Brennus, rushed in, and plundered and burned the city. In later times the story was told, that, when the Gauls were climbing up to the Capitol secretly by night, the cackling of the geese awoke Marcus Ma?ilius, and so the enemy was repulsed. There was another story, that, when the Romans were paying the ransom required by Brennus, and complained of false weight, the ROMAN HISTORY. 1 3/ insolent Gaul threw his sword into the scale, exclaiming, " Woe to the conquered ! " and that just then Camilliis appeared, and drove the Gauls out of the city. This is certain, that the Gauls retired of their own free will from their occupation of the city. The destruc- tion of the temples involved the loss of early chronicles, which would have given us better information as to the times preceding. The city was rebuilt without much delay. The Licinian Laws. — The agitation for political reform soon commenced again. The Licinian Laws, which make an epoch in the controversy of parties, were proposed in 376, but were not passed until 367. Besides provisions for the relief of debtors and for limiting the number of acres of public lands to be held by an in- dividual, it was enacted that the military tribuneship should be given up, and that at least one of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians. A new patrician office, the pr(etorship, was founded, the holders of which were to govern in the absence of the consuls. The patricians did not at once cease from the effort to keep the reins in their hands. Several times they broke the law, and put in two patrician consuls. They yielded at last, however ; and, as early as the year 300, all Roman offices were open to all Roman citizens. The patrician order became a social, not a legal, distinc- tion. A new sort of nobility, made up of both patricians and ple- beians, whose families had longest held public offices, gradually arose. These were the optimates. The Senate became the prin- cipal executive body. It was recruited by the censors, principally from those who had held high stations and were upwards of thirty years old. One censor was required to be a plebeian. The con- dition of the people was improved by other enactments, one of which (in 326 or 313) secured to the debtor his personal freedom in case he should transfer his property to the creditor. At about this time, there was a change in the constitution of the army. The sort of arms assigned was no longer to depend on property qualifi- cations. There were to be three lines in battle, — the first two to carry a short spear {pihim), and the third the long lance {Jiasta). Influence of Party Conflicts. — The long contest of parties in Rome was an invaluable political education. It was attended with little bloodshed. It involved discussion on questions of justice and right, and on the best civil constitution. It was not unlike party conflicts in English history. It trained the Romans in a habit of judicious compromise, of perseverance in asserting just claims, and of yielding to just demands. Period II. TO THE UNION OF ITALY. (304-264 B.C.) CHAPTER T. CONQUEST OF THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 B.C.). "Wars with the Gauls. — The increased vigor produced by the adjustment of the conflict of classes manifested itself m a series of minor wars. The Romans were now able to face the Gauls, who had permanently planted themselves in Northern Italy. Against them they waged four wars in succession, the last of \\hich ended in a signal victory for the Roman side (367-349). Wars with the Etruscan cities brought the whole of Southern Etruria under Roman rule (358-351). First Samnite War. — The neighbor that was the hardest for the Romans to conquer was the nation of Samnites, who lived among the Apennines of Central Italy, east of Latium. The con- flict with this tough tribe lasted, with intermissions, for fifty years. The immediate occasion of the struggle was the appeal of Capia — a Greek city in Campania in which Samnites had before settled — for help against their kinsmen in the mountains (343). This prayer the Romans granted when Capua had placed itself under their sway. In the first battle, the Romans under Valerius Corvus won the day. A second Roman army was rescued from imminent danger by the heroism of the elder Decnis iMux, and a Roman victory followed. After a third victory at Siwssu/a, the Romans, on account of the threatening attitude of their Latin confederates, made peace. The Samnites, too, were involved in a war with Tar-entum, a Greek city on the eastern coast. War with the Latins. — The Latins were not disposed to recognize Rome any longer as the head of the league. They demanded perfect equal- ity and an eciual share of the Roman public offices (340). In a battle near Vesu- vius, the plebeian consul, Decius Mus, having devoted himself to death for his country, rode into the thickest ranks of the enemy, and perished, having secured victory for the Roman army. Before the battle, the patrician consul, Titus Maiilius, jjunished his son with death for presuming to undertake, with- out orders, a military exploit, in which, however, he had succeeded. After a second victory of Manlius at TrifaiiuDi, the Latins were subdued (340), the league was broken up, and most of the cities were made subject to Rome, acquiring citizenship without the right of suffrage ; but they were forbidden to trade or to intermarry with one another. Some became Roman colonies. 138 ROMAN HISTORY. 1 39 Several had to cede lands, which were apportioned among Roman citizens. The beaks {7-ostra) of the old ships of Antimn ornamented the Roman forum. Colonies of Roman citizens were settled in the district of the Volscii and in Catnpania. This was an example of the Roman method of separating van- quished places from one another, and of inclosing as in a net conquered ter- ritories. • Second Samnite War. — The establishment by the Romans of the military colony of Fregellcc, in connection with other encroachments, brought on the second Samnite war, which lasted for twenty-two years. The prize of the contest was really the dommion over Italy. A great misfortune befell the Roman arms in 321. The incautious consuls, Veturimis and Postumius, allowed themselves to be surrounded in the Candine Pass, where they were compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give up six hundred Roman knights as hostages. The whole Roman army was compelled to pass under the yoke. The Roman Senate refused to sanction the treaty, and gave up the consuls, at their own request, in fetters to the Samnites. The Sam- nites refused to receive them, spared the hostages, and began the war anew. The Roman consuls, Papirhis Ctosor and Fabius Maxinnts, gained a victory at Cir?/?/^, drove the Samnites out of Campania, and reconquered Fregellce. A great military road, the Appian Way, the remains of which may still be seen, was built from Rovie to Capita (312). The Ftriiscan cities joined in the war against Rome. All Etruria was in arms to overcome the advancing power of the Romans. The coalition was broken by the great defeat of the Etrurians at the Vadimonian Lake,\\\ 310. The Samnites had their numerous allies; but the obstinate valor of the Ro- mans, who were discouraged by no reverses, triumphed. The capture of Boviamim, the capital of the Samnite league (305), ended the war. The Samnites sued for peace. The old treaties were renewed. In the course of this protracted struggle, various Roman colonies were established, and mili- tary roads were constructed. Third Samnite War. — Peace was not of long continuance. The Sam- nites once more armed themselves for a desperate conflict, having on their side the Etruscans, the Unihrians, and the Gaitls (300). The Italian peoples which had been at war with one another, joined hands in this contest against the common enemy. A decisive battle was fought at Sentimiin, — where Decius Mus the younger, following his father's example, devoted himself to death, — resulting in the defeat of the Samnites, and of their allies (295). Soon after, the Samnite general, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans. The Samnites kept up the contest for several years. But in 290 they found that thev could hold out no longer. The Romans secured themselves by fortresses and by colonies, the most important of which was that of Venusia, at the boundary of Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, where they placed twenty thousand colonists. CHAPTER II. "WAR "WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-264 B.C.). Tarentum and Pyrrhus. — The Samnites were overcome. The Greeks and Romans were now to come into closer intercourse with one another, — an intercourse destined to be so momentous in its effect on each of the two kindred races, and, through their joint influence, on the whole subsequent course of European his- I40 ANCIENT HISTORY. tory, Alexander the Great had died too soon to permit him to engage in any plan of conquest in the West. In the wars of his successors the Romans had stood aloof. Now they were brought into conflict with a Greek monarch, P}rrhus, king of Epirus, who was a relative of Alexander, and had married into the royal family of Egypt. He was a man of fascinating person and address, a bril- liant and famous soldier, but adventurous, and lacking the cool- ness and prudence requisite to carry out his project of building up an Hellenic Empire in the western Mediterranean. In the war against the Samnite coalition, the Lucanians had rendered decisive support to the Romans. This was one reason why Tarentutn, the rich and prosperous Dorian city on the Tarentine Gulf, had been a spectator of the contest in which it had abundant occasion to feel a deep interest. Rome had given up to the Lucanians the non-Dorian Greek cities in that region. But when they sought to subdue Thurii, and the Thurines besought the help of Rome, offering to submit themselves to her, the Romans warned the Lucanians to desist. This led to another combination against Rome, in which they took part. A Roman army was destroyed by the Scnonian Gauls. \\\ consequence of this, the Romans slaugh- tered, or drove out of Umbria, this people, and, gaining other de- cisive victories, put their garrisons into Locri, Croto?ia, and Thurii. The Romans were already masters of Central Italy. Only the Greek cities on the south remained for them to conquer. It was high time for Tarentum to bestir itself. It was from the side of Tarentum that the immediate provocation came. The Tarentines were listening to a play in the theater as ten Roman ships came into the harbor. Under a sudden impulse of wrath, a mob at- tacked them, and destroyed five of them. Even then the Romans were in no haste to engage in hostilities. The Tarentines them- selves were divided as to the policy best to be pursued. But the war-party had the more voices. An embassy was dispatched to solicit the help of Pyrrhus. At Tarentum an embassy from Rome was treated with contempt. Pyrrhus came over with a large army. He obliged the Tarentines themselves to arm, and to join his forces. Events of the War. — The Romans were fully alive to the peril, and prepared to meet it. Even the proletarians, who were not liable to military service, were enrolled. The first great battle took place at Heraclea, near the little river Siris (2S0 B.C.). Then the Roman cohort and the Macedonian phalanx met for the first time. It was a collision of trained mercenary troops with the citizen soldiery of Rome. It was a struggle between the Greek and the Roman for the ascendency. I'he confusion caused by the elephants of Pyrrhus, an encounter with which was something new and strange to the Romans, turned the tide ROMAN HISTORY. I4I in his favor. "A few more such victories," said Pyrrhus, "and I am ruined." He desired peace, and sent Cineas a.i a. messenger to the Senate. But Appius Claudius, who had been consul and censor, and was now old and blind, begged them not to make peace as long as there was an enemy in Italy. Cineas reported that he found the Senate "an assembly of kings." In the next year, the two armies, each with its allies numbering seventy thousand men, met at Asculum (279). After a bloody con- flict, Pyrrhus remained in possession of the field, but with an enormous loss of men. The Syracusans in Sicily, who had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, now called upon hira to aid them. He was not reluctant to leave Italy. The Romans captured all the cities on the south coast, except Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence, Pyi-rhus returned to Italy. His fleet, on the passage from Sicily, was defeated by the Carthaginians. At Beneventutn, he was completely vanquished by the Romans, who captured thirteen hundred prisoners and four elephants. Pyrrhus returned to Epirus ; and, after his death (272), Milon, who commanded the garrison left by him in Taren- tum, surrendered the city and fortress. The Tarentines agreed to deliver up their ships and arm.s, and to demohsh their waUs. One after another of the resisting tribes yielded to the Romans, ceding portions of their territory, and receiving Roman colonies. In 266, the Roman sway was established over the whole penin- sula proper, from the Rubicon and the Macra to the southern extremity of Calabria. Citizenship. — In order to understand Roman history, it is necessary to have a clear idea of the Roman system in respect to citizenship. All burgesses of Rome enjoyed the same rights. These were both Public and Private. The private rights of a Roman citizen were ( i ) the power of legal marriage with the families of all other citizens; (2) the power of making legal pur- chases and sales, and of holding property; and (3) the right to bequeath and inherit property. The public rights were, (i) the power of voting wherever a citizen was permitted to vote ; (2) the power of being elected to all offices. Conquered Towns. — "The Roman dominion in Italy was a dominion of a city over cities." With regard to conquered towns, there were, (i) Municipal cities {municipia) the inhabit- ants of which, when they visited Rome, could exercise all the rights of citizens. (2) Municipal cities which had the private, but not the public, rights of citizenship. Some of them chose their own municipal officers, and some did not. (3) Latin Colonies, as they were called. Lands ceded by conquered places were divided among poor Roman citizens, who constituted the ruling 142 ANCIENT HISTORY. class in the communities to which they were transplanted. In the Latin colonies, the citizens had given up their puhlic rights as citizens. (4) Towns of a lower class, called Prcefecturcs. In these, the principal magistrate was the Prefect, who was appointed by the Prcetor {Prcz/or Urbafius) at Rome. The Allies {Soai). — These were a more favored class of cities. They had their relation to Rome defined by treaty. Generally they appointed their own magistrates, but were bound, as were all subject cities, to furnish auxiliary troops for Rome. The Latin Franchise. — This was the privilege which was first given to the cities of Laiium and then to inhabitants of other places. It was the power, on complying with certain conditions, of gaining full citizenship, and thus of taking part in elections at Rome. Roman Colonies. — The Roman Colony (which is not to be con- founded with the Latin Colony referred to above) was a small body of Roman citizens, transplanted, with their families, to a spot selected by the government. They formed a military station. To them lands taken from the native inhabitants were given. They constituted the ruling class in the community where they were established. Their government was modeled after the gov- ernment at Rome. They retained their rights as Roman burgesses, which they could exercise whenever they were in that city. By means of these colonies, planted in places wisely chosen, Italy was kept in subjection. The colonies were connected together by roads. The Appian Way, from Rome to Capua, was built in the midst of the conflict with Sannnum. It was made of large, square stones, laid on a platform of sand and mortar. In later times the Roman Empire was traversed in all directions by simi- lar roads. Period III, THE PUNIC WARS: TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE GREEK STATES. {264-146 B.C.) CHAPTER I. THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (264-202 B.C.). The First Punic War. — By dint of obstinacy, and hard fighting through long centuries, the Romans had united under them all Italy, or all of what was then known as Italy. It was natural that they should look abroad. The rival power in the West was the great commercial city of Carthage. The jealousy between Rome and Carthage had slumbered so long as they were threatened by the invasion of Pyrrluis, which was dangerous to both. Sicily, from its situation, could hardly fail to furnish the occasion of a con- flict. The Afamerfmes, a set of Campanian pirates, had captured Messana. They were attacked by Hiero II., king of Syracuse. A part of them besought help of the Romans, and a part applied to the Carthaginians. The gravity of the question, whether Rome should enter on an untried path, the end of which no man could foresee, caused hesitation. The assemblies voted to grant the request. The Romans had begun as early as 3 1 1 to create a fleet. The ships which they now used, however, were mostly furnished by their South Italian allies. They crossed the channel, and drove out the Carthaginian garrison from Messana. The Carthaginians declared war (264). Hiero was gained over to the side of the Romans ; and after a bloody conflict, with heavy losses to both armies, the city of Agrigentian was captured by the Romans. The Romans were novices on the sea, where the Carthaginians were supreme. Successful on the land, the former were beaten in naval encounters. One of the most characteristic proofs of the energy of the Romans is their creation of a fleet, at this epoch, to match that of their sea-faring enemies. Using, it is said, for a model, a Carthaginian vessel wrecked on the shore of Italy, they con- structed, in the room of their " three-deckers," " five-deckers " 144 ANCIENT HISTORY. furnished with bridges to drop on the decks of the hostile ships, — thus giving to a sea-fight a resemblance to a combat on land. At first, as might be expected, the Romans were defeated ; but in 260, under the consul Cains Dialiiis, they won their first naval victory at Mylce, west of Messana. The Roman Senate decided to invade Africa. A fleet of three hundred and thirty vessels sailed under the command of the consul M. Atiliiis Rcgidus, which was met by a Carthaginian fleet at Economiis, on the south coast of Sicily. The Carthaginians were completely vanquished The Romans landed at Clupea, to the east of Carthage, and rav- aged the adjacent district. There Reguhis remained with half the army, fifteen thousand men. The Carthaginians sued for peace , but when he required them to surrender all their ships of war except one, and to come into a dependent relation to Rome, they spurned the proposal. Re-enforcing themselves with mercenaries from Greece under the command of the Spartan, Xanthippiis, they overpowered and captured Regulus in a battle at Tiaiis (255). A Roman fleet, sent to Clupea for the rescue of the troops, on the return voyage lost three-fourths of its ships in a storm. The Car- thaginians, under Hasdriibal, resumed hostilities in Sicily. He was defeated by the consul Ccecihus Alctellus, at Panonnus, who in- cluded among his captures one hundred elephants (251). The story of the embassy of Regidus to Rome with the Carthaginian offer of peace, of his advising the Senate not to accept it, of his voluntary return according to a promise, and of his cruel death at the hands of his captors, is probably an invention of a later time. The hopes of the Romans, m consequence of their success at Pa- norniiis, revived ; but two years later, under Appius Claudius at Drepanum, they were defeated on sea and on land. Once more their naval force was prostrated. Warfare was now carried forward on land, where, m the south of Sicily, the Carthaginian leader, Hamilcar Barcas, maintained himself against Roman attacks for six years, and sent out privateers to harass the coasts of Italy. Finally, at Rome, there was an outburst of patriotic enthusiasm. Rich men gave liberally, and treasures of the temples were devoted to the building of a new fleet. This fleet, under command of C. Lutatius Catulus, gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian HanriO', 2X Xh^ yEgatian Islands, o\)^o%\X.& Lilybceum (241). The Carthaginians were forced to conclude peace, and to make large concessions. They gave up all claim to Italy and to the neigh- boring small islands. They were to pay an indemnity, equal to four million dollars, in ten years. The western part of Sicily was now constituted a province, the first of the Roman provinces. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. — The Carthaginians were for some time busy at home in putting down a revolt of mercenary troops, whose wages they refused to pay in full. The Romans ROMAN HISTORY. . ^ I45 snatched the occasion to extort a cession of the island of Sardinia (238), which they subsequently united with Corsica in one prov- ince. They entered, about ten years later (229-228), upon an important and successful war against the Illyrian pii'ates, whose depredations on the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian seas were very daring and destructive. The Greek cities which the pirates held were surrendered. The sway of the Romans in the Adri- atic was secured, and their supremacy in Corcyra, Epidamniis, and other important places. The next contest was a terrific one with the Cisalpine Gauls, who were stirred up by the founding of Roman military colonies on the Adriatic, and by other proceedings of Rome. They called in the help of transalpine Gauls, and entered Etrtuia, on their way to Rome, with an army of seventy thousand men. They met the Roman armies near Telamon, south of the mouth of the Umbro, but were routed, with a loss of forty thousand men slain, and ten thousand men prisoners (225). The Romans marched northward, crossed the Po, and subdued the most powerful of the Gallic tribes, the Insubrians (223). Other victories in the following year reduced the whole of upper Italy, with Mediolaniim (Milan) the capital of the hisubrians, under Roman rule. Fortresses were founded as usual, and the great Flaminiaii and ^miliati roads connected that region with the capital. Later, Cisalpine Gaul became a Roman province. Carthaginians in Spain. — Meantime Carthage endeavored in Southern Spain to make up for its losses The old tribes, the Cel- iiberians and Lusitanians m the central and western districts, and the Cantabrians and Basques in the north, brave as they were, were too much divided by tribal feuds to make an effectual resist- ance. The national party at Carthage, which wished for war, had able leaders in Hamilcar and his three sons By the military skill of Hamilcar, and of Hasdnibal his son-in-law, the Carthaginians built up a flourishing dominion on the south and east coasts. The Romans watched the growth of the Carthaginian power there with discontent, and compelled Hasdrubal to declare in a treaty that the Ebro should be the limit of Carthaginian conquests (226) . At the same time Rome made a protective alliance with Saguntum, a rich and powerful trading-city on the south of that river, Has- drubal was murdered in 221 ; and the son of Hamilcar Barcas, HaiiTiibal, who was then only twenty-eight years old, was chosen by the army to be their general. He laid hold of a pretext for beginning an attack upon Sagjintum, which he took after a stout resistance, prolonged for eight months (219). The demand of a Roman embassy at Carthage — that Hannibal should be delivered up — being refused, Rome declared war. When the Carthaginian Council hesitated at the proposal of the Roman enibassy, their spokesman, Quhituf Fabius. said that he carried in his bosom 146 ANCIENT HISTORY. peace or war : they might chose cither. They answered, " We take what you give us;" whereupon the Roman oiiened his toga, saying, "1 give you war!" The Carthaginians shouted, " So let it be I " The Second Punic War. — When the treaty of Catulus was made (241), all patriots at Carthage felt that it was only a truce. They must have seen that Rome would never be satisfied with any thing short of the abject submission of so detested and dangerous a rival. There was a peace party, an oligarchy, at Carthage \ and it was their selfishness which ultimately brought niin upon the state. But the party which saw that the only safety was in aggressive action found a military leader in Hannibal, — a leader not sur- passed, and perhaps not equaled, by any other general of ancient or modern times. He combined skill with daring, and had such a command over men, that under the heaviest reverses his influence was not broken. If he was cruel, it is doubtful whether he went beyond the practices sanctioned by the international law of the time and by Roman example. AVhen a boy nine years old, at his father's request he had sworn upon the altar never to be the friend of the Roman people. That father he saw fall in battle at his side. The oath he kept, for Rome never had a more unyielding or a more powerful enemy. Hannibal in Italy. — In the summer of 21^, Hafinibal crossed the Ebro, conquered the peoples between the Ebro and the Pyrenees, and, leaving his brother Hasdrubal in Spain, pushed into Gaul with an army of fifty thousand foot, twelve thousand horse, and thirty-seven elephants. He crossed the swift Rhone in the face of the Gauls who disputed the passage, and then made his memora- ble march over the Alps, probably by the way now known as the Little St. Bernard pass. Through ice and snow, climbing over crags and circling abysses, amid perpetual conflicts with the rough mountaineers who rolled stones down on the toiling soldiers, the army made its terrible journey into Northern Italy. Fifteen days were occupied in the passage. Half the troops, with all the draught-animals and beasts of burden, perished on the way. The Cisalpine Gauls welcomed Hannibal as a deliverer. No sooner had the valiant consul, Cornelius Scipio, been defeated in a cavalry battle on the Ticinus, a northern branch of the Po (218), and, severely wounded, retreated to Placentia, and his rash colleague, Sempronius, been defeated with great loss in a second battle on the Trebia, than the Gauls joined Hannibal, and reinforced him with sixty thousand troops inured to war. Hannibal, by march- ing through the swampy district of the A mo, where he himself lost an eye, flanked the defensive position of the Romans. The consul Flaniinius was decoyed into a narrow pass ; and, in the battle of Lake Trasumenus (217), his army of thirty thousand men was slaughtered or made prisoners. The consul himself was ROMAN HISTORY. • I47 killed. All Etniria was lost. The way seemed open to Rome ; but, supported by the Latins and Italians, the Romans did not quail, or lower their mien of stern defiance. They appointed a leading patrician, Qiiintus Fabius Maximus, dictator. Hannibal, not being able to surprise and capture the fortress of Spoletium, preferred to march towards the sea-coast, and thence south into Apulia. His purpose was to open communication with Carthage, and to gain over to his support the eastern tribes of Italy. Fabius, the Delayer ( Cunctator) , as he was called, followed and watched his enemy, inflicting what injuries he could, but avoiding a pitched battle. The Roman populace were impatient of the cau- tious, but wise and effective, policy of Fabius. In the following year (216) the consulship was given to L. ALmilius Pauhis — who was chosen by the upper class, the Optimates — and C. Terentius Varro, who was elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the offensive. Varro precipitated a battle at Cannce, in Apulia, where the Romans suffered the most terrible defeat they had ever experienced. At the lowest computation, they lost forty thousand foot and three thousand horse, with the consul yEjnilius Paulus, and eighty men of senatorial rank. No such calamity since the capture of Rome by the Gauls had ever occurred. The Roman Senate did not lose heart. They limited the time of mourning for the dead to thirty days. They refused to admit to the city the ambassadors of Hamtibal, who came for the exchange of prisoners. With lofty resolve they ordered a levy of all who could bear arms, including boys and even slaves. They put into their hands weapons from the temples, spoils of former victories. They thanked Varro that he had not despaired of the Republic. Some of the Italian allies went over to Hannibal. But all the Latin cities and all the Roman colonies remained loyal. The allies ot Rome did not fall away as did the allies of Athens after the Syracusan disaster. It has been thought, that, if Hannibal had followed up the victory at Cannes by marching at once on the capital, the Roman power might have been overthrown. What might then have been the subsequent course of European history ? Even the Roman school-boys, according to Juvenal, discussed the question whether he did not make a mistake in not attacking Rome. But it is quite doubtful whether he could have taken the city, or, even if he had taken it, whether his success would then have been com- plete. He took the wiser step of getting into his hands Capua, the second city in Italy. He may have hoped to seize a Campa- nian port, where he could disembark reinforcements " which his great victories had wrung from the opposition at home." Hannibal judged it best to go into winter-quarters at Capua, where his army was in a measure enervated by pleasure and vice. Carthage made an alliance with Philip HI. of Macedonia, and with Hiero of 148 ANCIENT HISTORY. Syracuse. But fortune turned in favor of the Romans. At Nola, Hannibal \v?i'i defeated l;y Marcellus (215) ; and, since he could obtain no substantial help from home, he was oi)liged to act on the defensive. Marcellus crossed into Sicily, and, after a siege of three years, captured Syracuse, which had been aided in its defense by the philosopher ^/r/«V;/npeius contrived to remain in Rome, and to govern Spain by legates. Each of the two rivals had his active and valiant partisans in the city. The spoils of Gaul were sent to be expended in the erection of costly buildings, and in pro- viding entertainments for the populace. To Pompey, in turn, Rome owed the construction of the first stone theater, which was dedi- cated with unprecedented show and splendor. Bloody conflicts between armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of daily occurrence. Clodiiis, an adherent of Caesar and a reckless parti- san, was slain by Milo, in a conflict on the Appian Way. The Senate and the republicans, of whom Cato was the chief, in order to curb the populace, and out of enmity to Cassar, allied them- selves with Pompeius. It was determined to prevent him from standing as a candidate for the consulship, unless he should lay down his command, and come to Rome. He offered to resign his military power if Pompeius would do the same. This was refused. Finally he was directed to give up his command in Gaul before the expiration of the time which had been set for the termination of it. This order, if carried into effect, would have reduced him to the rank of a private citizen, and have left him at the mercy of his enemies. The tribunes, including his devoted supporter, Marcus Antonius, in vain interposed the veto, and fled from the city. Ccesar determined to disobey the order of the Senate. His legions — two had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them for the Parthian war — clung to him, with the exception of one able officer, T. Labienus. Ccesar acted with great promptitude. He crossed the Rubicon, the boundary of the Gallic Cisalpine province, before Pompeius — who had declared, that with a stamp of his foot he could call up armed men from the ground — had made adequate preparations to meet him. The strength oi Pompeius was mainly in the Easl, the scene of his former glory ; and he was, perhaps, not unwilling to retire to that region, taking with him the throng of aristocratic leaders, who fled precipitately on learning of the approach of Ccesar. Pompeius sailed from Brundisium to Epirus. Cicero, who had ardently desired an accommodation between the rivals, was in an agony of doubt as to what course it was right and ROMAN HISTORY. 165 best for him to take, since he saw reason to dread the triumph of either side. Reluctantly he decided to cast in his lot with the Senate and its newly gained champion. Pharsalus : Thapsus : Munda. — Caesar gained the advantage of securing the state treasure which Pompeius had unaccountably left behind him, and was able to establish his power in Italy. Be- fore pursuing Pompeius, he marched through Gaul into Spain (49 B.C.), conquered the Pompeian forces at Ilerda, and secured his hold upon that country. He then crossed the Adriatic, He encountered Pompeius, who could not manage his imprudent officers, on the plain of Pharsalus (48 B.C.), where the senatorial army was completely overthrown. Pojiipeius sailed for Egypt ; but, just as he was landing, he was treacherously assassinated. His head was sent to Ccesar, who wept at the spectacle, and punished the murderers. Ccesar gained friends everywhere by the exercise of a judicious clemency, which accorded with his natural disposi- tion. He next went to Egypt. There he was met by Cleopatra, whose dazzling beauty captivated him. She reigned in conjunction with her younger brother, who, according to the Egyptian usage, was nominally her husband. The Egyptians were roused against Caesar, and, on one occasion, he saved his life by swimming ; but he finally defeated and destroyed the Egyptian army. At Zela, in Pontus, he met and vanquished Pharnaces, the revolted son of Mithridates, and sent the laconic message, " Veni, vidi, vici " (I came, I saw, I conquered). Early in 46 he landed in Africa, and, at Thapsus, annihilated the republican forces in that region. A most powerful combination was made against him in Spain, including some of his old officers and legionaries, and the two sons of Pompeius. But in the hard-fought battle at Munda (March, 45 B.C.), when Caesar was himself in great personal danger, he was, as usual, triumphant. Caesar as a Civilian. — Marvelous as the career of CcEsar as a general was, his merit as a civilian outstrips even his distinction as a soldier. He saw that the world could no longer be governed by the Roman rabble, and that monarchy was the only alternative. He ruled under the forms of the old constitution, taking the post of dictator and censor for life, and absorbing in himself the other principal republican offices. The whole tendency of his measures, which were mostly of a very wholesome character, was not only to remedy abuses of administration, but to found a system of orderly administration in which Rome should be not the sole misiress, but simply the capital, of the world-wide community which had been subjected to her authority. The Government of Caesar. — Csesar made the Senate an advisory body. He increased the number of senators, bringing in provincials as well as R.oman citizens. He gave full citizenship to all the Transpadane Gauls, l66 ANCIENT HISTORY. and to numerous communities in Transalpine Gaul, in Spain, and elsewhere, lie established a wide-spread colonization, thus planting his veterans in dif- ferent places abroad, and lessening the number of proletarians in Italy. He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth. He re-organized the army, and the civil ad- ministration in the provinces. In the space of five years, while he was busv in important wars, he originated numerous governmental measures of the utmost value. The Motives of Caesar. — The designs of Caesar and of his party are to be distinguished from what they actually accomplished. Cassar was not impelled by a desire to improve the government of the provinces, in taking up arms agiinst the Senate. Nor did he owe his success to the supjjort of ])rovincials; although, in common with the rest of the democratic party at Rome, he was glad to have them for allies. The custom had grown up of virtually giving to eminent generals, absolute power for exterided intervals. This was done, for example, in the case of AIarit(s, on the occasion of the invasion of the Cimbrians and Teiitoiies. In such exigencies, it was found necessary to create what was equivalent to a militarv dictatorship. The idea of military rule became familiar. The revolution made by Caesar was achieved by military organization, and was a measure of ]Dersonal self-defense on his part. Being raised to the supreme power, he sought to rule according to the wise and liberal ideas which were suggested bv the actual condition of the world, and the undesirableness of a continued domination of a single citv, with such a populace as that of Rome. Before he could carry out his large schemes, he was cut down. Assassination of Caesar. — Caesar was tired of staying in Rome, and was proposing to undertake an expedition against the Par- thians. Neither his clemency nor the iiecessity and the merits of the government sustained by him, availed to shield him against the machinations of enemies. The aristocratic party detested his policy. He was suspected of aiming at the title, as well as the power, of a king. A conspiracy made up of numerous senators who secretly hated him, of other individuals influenced by personal spite, and of republican visionaries like Cassiits and Junius Brit tits, who gloried in what they considered tyrannicide, assaulted him on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) in the hah of Pompeius, whither he had come to a session of the Senate. He received twenty-three wounds, one of which, at least, was fatal, exclaiming as he fell, " Et tu Brute ! " (Thou, too, Brutus !) ; for Bt'ufus was one who had been counted a special friend. Cicero had acquiesced in the new government, and eulogized Ccesar and his administra- tion. But even he expressed his satisfaction at the event which left the republic without a master. An amnesty to those who slew Caesar was advocated by him, and decreed by the Senate. The Second Triumvirate. — The Senate gave to the leading conspirators provinces ; to Dccitniis Brit fits, Cisalpine Gaul. But at Rome there was quickly a re-action of popular wrath against the enemies of Caesar, which was skillfully fomented by Marcus Antonius in the address which he made to the people over his dead body, pierced with so many woimds. The people voted to give Cisalpine Gaul to Antonius, and he set out to take it from Decimus Brutus by force of arms. Cicero delivered a famous series ROMAN HISTORY. 167 of harangues against Antonius, called the Philippics. Antonius, being defeated, fled to Lepidus, the governor of Transalpine Gaul. Octavius, the grand-nephew and adopted son of Ctzsar, a youth of eighteen, now became prominent, and at first was supported by the Senate in the hope of balancing the power of Antonius. But in October, 43, Octavianus (as he was henceforward called), Antonius, and Lepidus together formed a second triumvirate, which became legal, by the ratification of the people, for the period of five years. A proscription for the destruction of the enemies of the three contracting parties was a part of this alliance. A great number were put to death, among them Cicero, a sacri- fice to the vengeance of Antonius. War against the republicans was the necessary consequence. At Philippi in Thrace, in the year 42, Antonius and Octavianus defeated Brutus and Cassius, both of whom committed suicide. Porcia, the wife of Brutus^ and the daughter of Cato, on hearing of her husband's death, put an end to her own life. Many other adherents of the republic fol- lowed the example of their leaders. The victors divided the world between themselves, Antonius taking the east, Octavianus the west, while to the weak and avaricious Lepidus, Africa was assigned ; but he was soon deprived of his share by Octavianus. Civil War: Actium. — Antonius was enamoured of Cleopatra, and, following her to Egypt, gave himself up to luxury and sensual gratification. Civil war between Octavianus and the followers of Antonius in Italy (40, 41 B.C.) was followed by the marriage of Octavia, the sister of Octavianus, to Antonius. But after a suc- cession of disputes between the two regents, there was a final breach. Antonius (35) went so far as to give Roman territories to the sons of Cleopatra, and to send to Octavia papers of divorce. The Senate, at the instigation of Octavianus, deprived his unworthy colleague of all his powers. War was declared against Cleopatra. East and West were arrayed in arms against one another. The conflict was determined by the naval victory of Octavianus at Acti- um (Sept. 2, 31 B.C.). Before the battle was decided, Cleopatra fled, and was followed by Antonius. When the latter approached Alexandria, Antonius, deceived by the false report that Cleopatra had destroyed herself, threw himself upon his sword and died. Cleopatra, finding herself unable to fascinate the conqueror, but believing that he meant that she should adorn his public triumph at Rome, poisoned herself (30). Egypt was, made into a Roman province. The month Sextilis, on which Octavianus returned to Rome, received in honor of him the name of " August," from "Augustus," the "venerated" or "illustrious," the name given him in 27 B.C. by the Roman people and Senate. He celebrated three triumphs ; and, for the third time since the city was founded, the Temple of Janus was closed. Period V. THE IMPERIAL MONARCHY: TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES {375 A.D.). CHAPTER I. THE KEIGN OP AUGUSTUS. Augustus as a Ruler. — The long-continued, sanguinary civil wars made peace welcome. Augustus knew how to conceal his love of power under a mild exterior, and to organize the monarchy with a nominal adherence to republican forms. One by one, all the offices of Senate and people were transferred to him. As Im- pcrator, he had unlimited command over the military forces, and was at the head of a standing army of three hundred and forty thousand men. To him it belonged to decide on peace and war. The Senate, composed to suit his views, was resolved into a con- sultative and judicial body, with a separate Council of State, chosen by him from its members. The authority of the Tribunes belonged to him, and thus the popular assemblies became more and more a nullity. " The Senate was made up of his creatures ; the people were won by bread and games ; the army was fettered to him by means of booty and gifts." While the forms of a free state re- mained, all the functions of authority were exercised by the ruler. State of the Empire. — (i) Its Extent. The Roman Empire extended from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a di.stance of more than three thousand miles, and from the Danube and the English Channel — later, from the friths of Scotland — to the cataracts of the Nile and the African desert. Its ]iopula- tion was somewhere from eighty millions to one hundred and twenty millions. It was composed of the East and the West, a distinction that was not simply geographical, but included deejier characteristic differences. (2) Ttw Prcm- inces. The provinces were divided (27 B.C.) into the procoisular, ruled by the Senate, and the imperial, ruled by the legates of Augustus. His author- ity, however, was everywhere supreme. Over all the empire extended the system of Roman law, the rights and immunities of which belonged to Ivoman citizens everywhere. (3) Tlie Tioo Languages. It was a Roma)io-Helleitie monarchy. Local dialects remained ; but the Greek language was the lan- guage of commerce, and of polite intercourse in all places. The Greek tongue and Hellenic culture were the common property of the nations. The Latin was prevalent west of the Adriatic. It was adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, and in other provinces. It was the language of courts and of the 168 ROMAN HISTORY. 1 69 camp. (4) yoiirneys and T^-ade. The Roman territory was covered with a net-work of magnificent roads. Journeys for purposes of trade and from motives of curiosity were common. Religious pilgrimages to famous shrines were frequent. The safety and peace which followed upon the civil wars stimulated traffic and intercourse between the different ixgions united under the imperial government. Literature. — The Augustan period was the golden age of Roman litera- ture. Literary works were topics of conversation in social circles. Libraries were collected by the rich. The shops of booksellers were places of resort for cultivated people. There were active and liberal patrons of poets and of other men of letters. Such patrons were Mcecenas, Horace's friend, and Ati- gjistiis himself. Then favors were repaid by praises and flattery, as we see in the verses of Horace, Virgil, and especially of Ovid. The lectures of gram- marians and rhetoricians, of philosophers and physicians, were largely at- tended. Literary societies were formed. Periodicals and bulletins were published, in which the proceedings of the Senate and of the courts were recorded. The business of scribes — copyists of manuscripts — engaged a vast number of persons. "Writings of Cicero. — Cicero (106-43), ^"^ ^^^ philosophic writings, reproduces the thoughts and speculations of the Greek sages, in the manner of a cultivated and appreciative student. His speeches and his epistles, espe- cially those to his friend, Atticus, lift the veil, as it were, and afford us most interesting glimpses of the civil and social life of the Romans of that day. The Poets. — One of the most original of the Latin poets is Lucretius (95-51 B.C.), whose poem "On the Nature of Things" is an effort to dispel superstitious fear by inculcating the Epicurean doctrine that the world is self- made through the movement and concussion of atoms, and that the gods leave it to care for itself. A contemporary of Lucretius, and a poet of equal merit, but in an altogether different vein, is Catullus. He is chiefly noted for his lyrics. Virgil (70-19 B.C.), in the ALtteid, has produced a genuine Roman epic, although his dependence on Homer is obvious throughout, and in the Bucolics, and in particular in the Georgics, where he shows most originality, has made himself immortal as a pastoral poet. Horace (65-8 B.C.), like most of the Roman authors, in many of his poems is inspired by his Greek models, but, in his Satires and Poetic Epistles, expresses the character of his own genius. His " Odes," for their beauty and melody and the variety of their topics, rank among the best of all productions of their kind. Ovid (43 B.C.— A.D. 18), in his chief work, the Metamorphoses, handled the mythical tales of the Greeks, and, in his poems on Love, likewise introduced many Grecian tales. He was much influenced by the Alexandrian poets. The Historians. — In historical composition, most of the Roman authors had Greek patterns before their eyes. Nevertheless, Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17), thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of whose " Annals " have been preserved, and Sallust, to whom we are indebted for narratives of the conspiracy of Cataline and of the Jugurthine war, are far from being servile copyists. The simple and lucid but graceful style of the Commentaries of Ca:sar makes this work an example of the purest Latin prose. La"w Writers. — In one department, that of jurisprudence, the Romans were eminently original. The writings of the great jurists were simple and severe, and free from the rhetorical traits which Roman authors in other departments borrowed from the Greeks. Other Authors. — Among other eminent authors of this period are the great Roman antiquary, Varro (116-27 B.C.) ; the elegiac poets, Tibulliis and Proferiziis; Pheedrris, the Roman JEsop ; the historian, Cornelhis Nepos ; and the Greek historical writers of that day, Diodore of Sicily and Dionysius of Halicarnassus ; also, Strabo, the Greek geographer (64 B.C.-A.D. 24). 170 ANCIENT HISTORY. THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. The Jews and their Dispersion. — There were three ancient peoples, each of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. The Greeks were the intellectual people, the Romans were founders in law and politics : from the Hebreivs the true religion was to spring. At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, the Hebrews, like the Greeks and Romans, were scattered abroad, and mingled with all other nations. Wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism, and built their synagogues for instruction in the law and for com- mon worship. In the region of Babylon, a multitude of Jews had remained after the captivity. Two out of the five sections of Alexandria were occupied by them. At Antioch in Syria, the other great meeting-place of peoples of diverse origin and reli- gion, they were very numerous. In the cities of Asia Minor, of Greece and Macedonia, in Illyricum and in Rome, they were planted in large numbers. Jewish merchants went wherever there was room for profitable trade. Generally regarded with aversion on account of their religious exclusiveness, they nevertheless made so many proselytes that the Roman philosopher, Seneca, said of them, " The conquered have given laws to the conquerors." Prophecy had inspired the Jews with an abiding and fervent expectation of the ultimate conquest of heathenism, and prevalence of their faith. If the hope of a temporal Messiah to free them from the Roman yoke, and to lead them to an external victory and dominion, burned in the hearts of most, there were some of a more spiritual mind and of deeper aspirations, who looked for One who should minister to the soul, and bring in a reign of holiness and peace. Preparation for Christianity among the Heathen. — In the heathen world, there was not wanting a preparation for such a De- liverer. The union of all the nations in the Roman Empire had lessened the mutual antipathy of peoples, melted down barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse, and weakened the pride of race. An indistinct sense of a common humanity had entered the breasts of men. Writers, like Cicero, talked of a great community, a single society of gods and men. The Stoic philosophy had made this idea familiar. Mankind, it was said, formed one city. x\long with this conception, precepts were uttered in fa\or of forbearance and fra- ternal kindness between man and man. In religion, there was a drift towards monotheism. The old mythological religion was de- caying, and traditional beliefs as to divine things were dissolving. Many minds were yearning for something to fill the void, — for a more substantial ground of rest and of hope. They longed for a goal on which their aspirations might center, and to which their ex- ertions might tend. The burden of sin and of suffering that rested on the common mass excited at least a vague yearning for deliver- ROMAN HISTORY. I/I ance. The Roman Empire, with all its treasures and its glory, failed to satisfy the hearts of men. The dreams of philosophy could not be realized on the basis of ancient society, where the state was every thing, and where no higher, more comprehensive and more enduring kingdom could spring into being. Christ and the Apostles. — Four years before the date assigned for the beginning of the Christian era, Jest/s was born. Herod, a tyrannical king, servile in his attitude toward the Romans, and subject to them, was then ruling over the Jews in Palestine. But, when Jesus began his public ministry, the kingship had been abol- ished, and Judsea was governed by the procurator, Pontius Pilate (A.D. 26). Jesus announced himself as the Messiah, the founder of a kingdom "not of this world ; " the members of which were to be brethren, having God for their Father. He taught in a tone of authority, yet with " a sweet reasonableness ; " and his wonderful teaching was accompanied with marvelous works of power and mercy, as "he went about doing good." He attached to himself twelve disciples, among whom Peter, and the two brothers James axid John, were the men of most mark. These had listened to the preaching of John, the prophet of the wilderness, by whom Jesus had been recognized as the Christ who Avas to come. The minis- try of the Christ produced a wide-spread excitement, and a deep impression upon humble and truth-loving souls. But his rebuke of the ruMng class, the Pharisees, for their formalism, pretended sanctity, self-seeking, and enslavement to tradition, excited in them rancorous enmity. His disappointment of the popular desire for a political Messiah chilled the enthusiasm of the multitude, many of whom had heard him gladly. After about three years, he was betrayed by one of his followers, Judas Iscariot ; was accused of heterodoxy and blasphemy before the Jewish Sanhedrim ; the con- sent of Pilate to his death was extorted by a charge of treason based on the title of " king," which he had not refused ; and he was crucified between two malefactors. Not many days elapsed before his disciples rallied from their despondency, and boldly and unitedly declared, before magistrates and people, that he had manifested himself to them in bodily form, in a series of inter-j views at definite places and times. They proclaimed his contin- ued though invisible reign, his perpetual presence with them, and his future advent in power. In his name, and on the ground of his death, they preached the forgiveness of sins to all who should believe in him, and enter on a life of Christian obedience. In the year 33 or 34, the death of Stephen, the first martyr, at the hands of a Jewish mob, for a time dispersed the church at Jerusalem, and was one step towards the admission of the Gentiles to the privileges of the new faith. But the chief agent in effecting this result, and in thus giving to Christianity its universal character and 1/2 ANCIENT HISTORY. mission, was the Apostle Paul, a converted Pharisee. Antioch in Syria became the cradle of the Gentile branch of the church, and of the missions to the heathen, in which Paul was the leader ; while Peter was efficient in spreading the gospel among the Jews in Pal- estine and beyond its borders. By Paul numerous churches were founded in the course of three extended missionary journeys, which led him beyond Asia into Macedonia, (Greece, and Illyricum. By him the gospel was carried from Jerusalem to Rome, where he died as a martyr under Nero in 67 or d"^. Not far from the same time, according to a credible tradition, Peter, also, was put to death at Rome. The preachers of the Christian faith pursued their work with a fearless and untiring spirit, and met the malignant perse- cution of the Jews and the fanatical assaults of the heathen with patient endurance and with prayer for the pardon and enlighten- ment of their persecutors. The Victory of the Germans. — Augustus avoided war when he could. His aim was to defend the frontiers of the empire rather than to extend them. The Parthians were prevailed on to return of their own accord the standards and prisoners taken from the army of Crassus. But in Germany, Drusus, the brave step-son of Augustus, made four campaigns on the east of the Rhine, as far as the Weser and the Elbe. On his way back from the Elbe, a fall from his horse terminated his life (9 B.C.). His brother, Tiberius, managed to establish the Roman power over a part of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the river (4 B.C.) Long before (27 B.C.) the western shore of the river had been formed into two provinces. Upper and Lower Germafiy. An incapable and incautious general, Quintilius Varus, excited the freedom- loving Germans to revolt under the brave chief of the Chcrusci, Arminius (or Hermann). Three Roman legions were annihilated in the Teutoburg forest. Varus taking his own life. The civil and military chiefs who were taken captive, the Germans slew as a sac- rifice to their gods. The rest of the prisoners were made slaves. " Many a Roman from an equestrian or a senatorial house grew old in the service of a German farmer, as a servant in the house, or in tending cattle without." There in the forest of Teutoburg the Germans practically won their independence. On hearing the bad news, Augustus, for several days, could only exclaim, " Varus ! give me back my legions ! " After the death of Augustus, in his seventy- sixth year, the noble son of Drusus, Germanicus, conducted three expeditions against Arminius (A.D. 14-16), obtained a victory over him, and took his wife prisoner, who died in captivity ; but the Romans permanently held only the left bank of the Rhine. Roman Life. — Various particulars characteristic of Roman waj-s have been, or will be, incidentally referred to. A few special statements may be ROMAN HISTORY. 1/3 given in this place. The Romans, like the Greeks, built a town round a height (or capitol) where was a stronghold (arx), a place of refuge. Here temples weie erected. The forum, or market-place, was near by, where the courts sat, and where the people came together to transact business. The dwellings were on the sides of the hill, or on the plain beneath. The streets were narrow. The exterior of the houses was plain. They were of brick, generally covered with stucco, and whitewashed. Glass was too costly to be much used : hence the openings in the walls were few. When the space became valuable, as in Rome, the houses were built high. The chief room in the house was the atriwn, which, in earlier times, was not only the common room but also the bedroom of the family. In the primitive dwellings it had been the only room. A passage led from it through a door-way into the street. In front and on both sides were apartments, and in the rear a walled court, or garden. Large houses had several inclosed courts. Rich men and nobles built magnificent palaces. The walls of Roman dwellings within were decorated with fresco-paintings, some of which at Pompeii are left in all their freshness. Round the dinner-table were couches, on which those who par- took of the meal reclined. In other rooms chairs were plentifully supplied. Lamps were very numerous and of beauiiful design, but the wick was so small that they gave but little light. There was little furniture in the atrhim. Statues stood round the walls of this room, if the house were one of the better sort, and in open presses on the walls were the images or masks of the dis- tinguished ancestors of the family. At a funeral of a member of the house- hold they were worn in the procession by persons representing the deceased progenitors. Dress. — The principal material of a Roman's dress was woolen cloth. The main article of wearing apparel for a man was the toga, thrown over the shoulders, and brought in folds round the waist in a way to leave the right arm free. Under it was a tunic. At the age of about seventeen, the boy publicly laid aside the toga with a purple hem, and put on the white toga, the token of citizenship. Women wore a long tunic girded about the waist, with a tunic and a close-fitting vest beneath. Except on a journey or in an open theater, as a protection from the sun, neither men nor women wore any covering on the head. Women, when they walked abroad, wore veils which did not cover the face. The color and form of the shoes varied with the rank of the individual, and were significant of it. In the house, sandals were used. Order of Occupations. — The interval from sunrise to sunset was di- vided into twelve hours. The seventh hour of the day began at noon. At the third hour, there was usually a light meal, which was followed by busi- ness, or visits of friendship. The wealthy Roman was followed about the city by a throng of clients, who called on him with their morning greeting before he rose, and received their gift of food or money At noon came the prandium, or more substantial breakfast. This was followed by a short sleep, in the case of those who were at leisure to take it. Then came games and physical exercise of various sorts. A favorite recreation, both for young and old, was ball-games. Exercise was succeeded by the bath, for which the Romans from the later times of the republic had a remarkable fondness. In private houses the bathing conveniences were luxurious. The emperors built magnificent bath-houses, which included gymnasia, and sometimes libra- ries. What is now called the Turkish bath was very much in vogue. Dinner, or the cena, the prmcipal meal, was about midway between noon and sunset. The fork was not used at the table, but only in carving; but spoons, and sometimes, it would appear, knives, were used by the host and his guests. ""' ' 1 was so carved that it was usually taken with the fingers. At the ; toga was exchanged for a lighter garment, and sandals were laid The beverage was wine mixed with water. At banquets of the rich, > ■: dessert of fruit and cakes had been taken, there was, in later times, 174 ANCIENT HISTORY. the conviviuni, or social "drinking-bout." Under the empire, this became often a scene of indecent revelry. The Roman dinner-table was not so likely as a Greek repast to be enlivened by flashes of intellect and of wit, or by music furnished by the guests. Musicians were more commonly hired per- formers, as were also the dancers. The Romans enjoyed games of chance. Playing with dice, and gambling along with it, became common. Marriage and the Household. — There were two kinds of marriage. I By one the wife passed entirely out of the hands {maims) of the father into the hands of the husband, or under his control. There was frequently a religious rite {confarreatio) ; but, when this did not take place, the .other customary ceremonies were essentially the same. At the betrothal tlje pro- spective bride was frequently presented with a ring, and with som? more valuable gift, by the man whom she was to marry. In the h(jusehol4l not- withstanding the supreme authority of the husband, the wife had an hoilored position and an active influence. The children were, in law, the property of the father. Their lives were at his disposal. The mother had charge of their early training. The father took the principal charge of the young boj'^ltaught him athletic exercises, and took him to the forum with him. Schools began to exist in the early period. Boys and girls studied together. The peda- gogue was the servant who accompanied the child to school, and conducted him home. Greek was studied. The law of the Twelve Tables was committed to memory. Virgil and Horace became school-books, along with Cicero and earlier writers. In the later republican period, Greeks took the business of teaching largely into their hands. There were flourishing schools of rhetoric managed both by Greek and by Latin teachers. Young Romans who could afford to do so went to Athens and other cities in the East for their university training. Slaves. — Town-slaves were found in the richer families in great numbers (p. 152). They were not only employed in menial occupations} they were clerks, copyists, sculptors, architects, etc., as well as actors and singers. The work of the farm-slaves was harder. They were shut up in the night in large barracks, made partly under ground, into which was admitted but little light or air. They often worked in chains. In town and country both, the unlim- ited power of the master led to great severity and cruelty in the treatment of slaves. Women as well as men were often guilty of brutal harshness. Fe- males as well as males were the sufferers. The town-slave, however, might be favored by his master: he might be allowed to save money of his own, and might, perhaps, buy his freedom, or receive it as a gift. During the holi- days of the Satzn'nalia, slaves vi'cre allowed unusual privileges and pleasures. The freednien could become citizens, and were then eligible to any ofiice. Magistrates. — A Roman who sought ofiice went round soliciting votes. This was called ambitio (from avibire, to go round), whence is derived the English word ambition. He presented himself in public places in a toga specially whitened, and was hence called a cajididate (from Candida, meaning white). He sought to get support by providing shows and games. The voting was by ballot. Magistrates had their seats of honor, which were made in a particular shape. In the different forms used in the trial of causes, there was one general practice,^— the magistrate laid down the law, and referred the judgment as to the facts in^e case to an umpire, either an hidivldual or a special court. ROMAN HISTORY. 1 75 THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE. C. Julius C/esar, tn. Aiirelia. C Julius Caesar. Julia, in. M. Atius Balbus. I Atia, ;«. C. Octavius. I C. Octavius (adopted as son by the will of Julius) became C. Julius Csesar Octavianus Augustus, m. 2, Scribonia ; -i, Livia. I I Julia, Tiberius (adopted as )n. 2, M. Vipsanius Agrippa. son by Augustus). Agrippina, m. Germanicus. Caius (Caligula), m. Cffisonia, I Julia Drusilla. Agrippina, m. Cn. Domitius. I Li. Domitius Nero, 7?t. Poppaea Sabina. Claudia Augusta. Julia, m. ^milius Paulus. I iEmilia Lepida, m. I, Claudius; 2, Junius Silanus. Junia Calvina, m. Vitellius. THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE. Tiberius Claudius Nero. vz. Livia Drusilla (afterwards wife of Augustus). Tiberius Claudius Nero. Drusus Claudius Nero, m. Antonia, daughter of the Triumvir and niece of Augustus. Germanicus, m. Agrippina. Ti. Claudius Drusus, m. 5, Valeria Messalina. Octavia, Britannicus. By adoption, m. Nero. Nero. 1/6 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER II. THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE. Tiberius. — During the long reign of the prudent Aiigitsfus, there was peace within the borders of the empire. He said of him- self, that he " found Rome of brick, and left it of marble." This change may be taken as a symbol of the growth of material pros- perity in the Roman dominions. But in his private relations, the emperor was less fortunate. His daughter Julia, a woman of brilliant talents, disgraced him by her immorality, and he was obliged to banish her. Her two elder sons died when they were young. The empire devolved on his adopted step-son Tiberius (24-37), who was obliged to adopt his nephew Germanicus. He was the grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, and the son of Antonia, his niece, and the deceased Drusus. The legions on the Rhine would have raised Germanicus to the throne, but he refused. Tiberius, in his earlier years, was comparatively mild in his policy. But his natural jealousy and cruelty broke through the restraint which he at first imposed on himself. Distrusting everybody of prominence, he took for his chief helper, Sejanus, a man of Etrus- can origin, the son of a Roman knight. Him he made captain of the body-guard. These select troops, ten thousand in number, instead of being dispersed over the city as formerly, were collected in a fortified camp before the Viminal gate. There was thus formed the Prcetorian Guard, which the emperor might use at any time against the people, but which, under its powerful prefect, might itself set up or cast down the chief ruler. Popular assem- blies from this time wholly ceased. The Senate became a slavish instrument for carrying out the despot's will. The emperor usurped the right to put to death without trial, all who had been thrown into prison. Every attempt against his person was made to be high treason. A word that could be construed as implying hostility was punished by the loss of property and life. In these times of servility and tyranny, great calamities of another sort fell upon the empire. Destructive conflagrations occurred. There was an earthquake which reduced many of the most populous cities of Asia Minor to heaps of ruins. At FidentE, a Sabine city, fifty thousand men were crushed or buried alive by the fall of an amphitheater. The last years of the hfe of Tiberius he spent in retirement at Caprcce, given up to debauchery and cruelty, yet a prey to bitter misanthropy, and, according to Tacitus, to the torture of remorse. Sejanus, who was left in power at Rome, contrived to destroy several members of the imperial family. When it was discovered that he was intriguing for the tlirone, and plotting to assassinate his master, the Senate was commanded to execute him ROMAN HISTORY. 1/7 (A.D. 31). The emperor became more suspicious than ever. A reign of terror followed, in which hundreds of men, women, and even children were massacred. At length there was an end to his bloody decrees, when, in his seventy-eighth year, his barbarous and profligate career closed with a violent death, inflicted by his own household (A.D. 37). Caligula. — There was no law for the regulation of the succes- sion. But the Senate, the praetorians, and the people united in caUing to the throne Cams, the son of Germanicus (37-41). This ruler, called Caligula, at first mild and generous in his doings, soon rushed into such excesses of savage cruelty and monstrous vice that he was thought to be half-deranged. He was fond of seeing with his own eyes the infliction of tortures. His wild ex- travagance in the matter of public games and in building, drained the resources of the empire. After four years, this madman was cut down by two of his guards whom he had grievously insulted. Claudius. — Claudius, the uncle and successor of Caligula, and the son of Drusus and Antonia, was not bad, but weak. He was a student and a recluse in his habits. His favorites and nearest connections were unprincipled. The depravity of his wife, Mes- salifia, was such that he did right in sanctioning her death. The immoral and ambitious Agrippina, whom he next married, had an influence less malign. But she was unfaithful to her husband ; and this fact, together with the fear she felt that Nero, her son by her first marriage, would be excluded from the throne, impelled her to the crime of taking the life of Claudius by poison. Nero. — Nero reigned from 54 to 68. He was the grandson of Germanicus, and had been the pupil of the philosopher Seneca, and of Burrus, an excellent man, the captain of the Prstorian Guard. The first five years of Nero's reign were honorably dis- tinguished from the portion of it that followed. When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought to him, he regretted that he had ever learned to write. His first great crime was the poisoning of Britannicus, the son of Claudius. Nero became en- amored of a fierce and ambitious woman, Poppcza Sabina. On the basis of false charges, he took the life of his wife, Octavia, the daughter of Claudius (A.D. 65). His criminal mother, Agrip- pina, after various previous attempts made by him to destroy her, was dispatched by his command (A.D. 59). His unbridled cruelty and jealousy moved him to put to death the two men to whom he owed most, Seneca and Burrus. He came forward as a musician, and nothing delighted him so much as the applause rendered to his musical performances. He recited his own poems, and was stung with jealousy when he found himself outdone by Lucan. His eagerness to figure as a charioteer prompted him, early in his reign, to construct a circus in his own grounds on the Vatican, 178 ANCIENT HISTORY. where he could exhibit his skill as a coachman to a throng of de- lighted spectators. At length he appeared, lyre in hand, on the stage before the populace. Senators of high descent, and matrons of noble family, were induced by his example and commands to come forward in public as dancers and play-actors. The public treasure he squandered in expensive shows, and in the lavish dis- tribution of presents in connection with them. The Christians. — Nero has the undesirable distinction of being the first of the emperors to persecute the Christians. In A.D. 64 a great fire broke out at Rome, which laid a third of the city in ashes. He was suspected of having kindled it ; and, in order to divert suspicion from himself, he charged the crime upon the Christians, who were obnoxious, Tacitus tells us, on account of their " hatred of the human race." Their withdrawal from cus- tomary amusements and festivals, which involved immorality or heathen rites, naturally gave rise to this accusation of cynical misanthropy. A great number were put to death, " and in their deaths they were made subjects of sport ; for they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and, when day declined, were burned to serve for nocturnal lights." At length a feeling of compassion arose among the people for the victims of this wanton ferocity. Prior to this time, while the Christians were confounded with the Jews as one of their sects, they had been more protected than persecuted by the Roman authorities. Now that they were recognized as a distinct body, — the adherents of a new religion not identified with any particular nation, but seeking to spread itself everywhere, — they fell under the condemnation of Roman law, and were exposed to the hostility of magistrates, as well as to the wrath of the fanatical populace. Nero was a great builder. The ground which had been burnt over in the fire he laid out in regular streets, leaving open spaces, and limiting the height of the houses. But a large area he re- served for his " Golden House," which, with its lakes and shady groves, stretched over the ground on which the Coliseum afterwards stood, and as far as the Esquiline. The City of Rome. — Ancient Rome was mostly built on the left bank of the Tiber. It spread from the Palatine, the seat of the original settle- ment, over six other hills; so that it became the " city of seven hills." All of them appeared higher than they do now. Of these hills the Capitoline was the citadel and the seat of the gods. In earlier days, from a part of the summit, the Tarpeian Rock, criminals were hurled. In time the hill became covered with public edifices, of which the grandest was the Temple of "Capi- toline Jupiter." On the Palatine were eventually constructed the vast pal- aces of the emperors, the ruins of which have been uncovered in recent times. The walls of Serviiis Tiillius encompassed the seven hills. The walls constructed by Aurelian (270-275 B.C.), Probiis, and Honorius (402 B.C.), inclosed an area twelve miles in circumference. The streets were ROMAN HISTORY. 1/9 most of them narrow ; and, to economize space, the houses were built very- high. One of the finest, as well as most ancient, thoroughfares was the Via Sacra, which ran past the Coliseum, or the Flavian amphitheater, and under the Triumphal Arch of Titus, erected after the capture of Jerusalem, along the east of the Forum to the Capitol. There was a particular street in Rome where shoemakers and booksellers were congregated. The central part of the city was thronged, and noisy with cries of teamsters and of vend- ers of all sorts of wares. The fora — one of which, the " Roman Forum," between the Capitoline and the Palatine, was the great center of Roman life — were open places paved, and surrounded with noble buildings, — tem- ples, and basilicas, or halls of justice. The fora were either places for the transaction of public business, or they served the purpose of modern mar- ket-places. Among the public buildings of note were the vast colonnades, places of resort both for business and for recreation. The sewers, and espe- cially the aqueducts, were structures of a stupendous character. Among the most imposing edifices in ancient Rome were the baths. Those built by Diocletian had room for three thousand bathers at once. In these establish- ments the beauty of the gardens and fountains without was on a level with the elegance of the interior furnishings, and with the attraction of the libra- ries, paintings, and sculptures, which added intellectual pleasure to the physical comfort for which, mainly, these gigantic buildings were constructed. Besides the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, there were many other temples, some of which were but little mferior to that majestic edifice. The triumphal arches — as that of Titiis, already mentioned, which was built of Pentelic marble — and the commemorative columns — as the Col- umn of Trajan, which stood in the forum that bears his name — were among the architectural wonders of the ancient capital of the world. The plain, named of old the Campus' Martius, on the north-west side of the city, and bordering on the Tiber, contained, among the buildings and pleasure-grounds by which it was covered, the Pantheon, and the magnificent mausoleum of Augustus. On the south-west of the Coelian Hill, the Appian Way turns to the south-east, and passes out of the Appian Gate. It is skirted for rhiles with sepulchral monuments of ancient Romans, of which the circular tomb of Metella Ccecilia is one of the most interesting. There are varying esti- mates of the population of ancient Rome. Probably the number of free inhabitants, in the early centuries of the empire, was not far from a million ; and the slaves were probably almost as many. Death of Nero: Galba. — Growing jealous of the legates who commanded armies on the frontiers, Nero determined to destroy them. They consequently revolted ; and war between the troops of two of them issued in the death of Vindex, the general in Gaul. But Galba was deputed to carry on the contest ; and Nero, being forsaken even by his creature, Tigellinus, and the praetorians, at last gained courage to call on a slave to dispatch him, and died (A.D. 68) at the age of thirty. The principal events out of Italy, during his reign, were the revolt of the Britons under the brave queen Boadicea (A.D. 6i), and the suppression of it by Suetonius Paulinus ; the war with the Parthians and Armenians, extending slightly the frontier of the empire ; and the beginning of the Jew- ish war. Despite the corruption at Rome, her disciplined soldiers still maintained their superiority on the borders. Otho : Vitellius. — With the death of Nero, the Augustan fam- ily came to an end. Galba began the series of miUtary emperors. I So ANCIENT HISTORY. A Roman of the old type, simple, severe, and parsimonious, he pleased nobody. The proetorians killed him, and elevated Otho, a profligate noble, to the throne ; but he was obliged to contend with a rival aspirant, Vitellius, commander of the German legions, who defeated him, and became emperor A.D. 69. Vitellius was not only vicious, like his predecessor, but was cowardly and ineffi- cient. The Syrian and Egyptian legions refused to obey so worth- less a ruler, and proclaimed their commander. Flavins Vespasian, as emperor. As Vespasian's general, Anionius, approached Rome, Vitellius renounced the throne, and declared his readiness to retire to private life. His adherents withstood him ; and, in the struggle that followed between the two parties in the city, the Capitoline Temple was burned. The Flavian army took Rome, and Vitellius was put to an ignominious death (A.D. 69). CHAPTER III. THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES. Vespasian : the Je^wish War. — Vespasian, the first in the list of good emperors, restored discipline in the army and among the praetorians, instituted a reform in the finances, and erected the im- mense amphitheater now called the Coliseiwi, for the gladiatorial games. By his general, Cerealis, he put down the revolt in Ger- many and Eastern Gaul, and thus saved several provinces to the empire. Civilis, the leader of the rebellion, had aimed to estab- lish an independent German principality on the west of the Rhine. Vespasian had begun the war with the Jews while Nero reigned (A.D. 66). The Romans had to face a most energetic resistance. Among the captives taken by them in Galilee was the Jewish his- torian, Josephus. At the end of A.D. 67, all Galilee was sub- dued. The fanatical, or popular, party, the Zealots, got the upper hand at Jerusalem. The city was torn with the strife of violent factions. In A.D. 70 commenced the memorable siege by Titus, the son of Vespasian, the details of which are given by Josephus. The fall of the city was attended with the conflagration of the temple. Although the estimate given by Josephus of the number that perished during the siege, which he places at eleven hundred thousand, is exaggerated, it is true that the destruction of life was immense. The inhabitants of the city who were not killed were sold as slaves. In Britain a most competent officer — Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus — was made governor in A.D. 78. He conquered the country as far north as the Tyne and the Solway. and built a line of forts across the isthmus between England and Scotland. ROMAN HISTORY. l8l Titus (A.D. 79-81). — Vespasian's firm and beneficent reign was followed by the accession of Titus, who had been previously asso- ciated by his father with himself in the imperial office. Titus was mild in temper, but voluptuous in his tastes, and prodigal in ex- penditures. One of the marked events of his short reign was the destruction of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum by a great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79). The uncovering of the streets and buildings of Pompeii in recent times has added much to our knowledge of ancient arts and customs. A terrible fire and de- structive pestilence at Rome were regarded as sent by the gods, not on account of the sins of the emperor, but of the nation. Domitian (A.D. 81-96). — Domitian, the younger brother of Titus, succeeded him. In his war against the Marcomanni, north of the Danube, he met with reverses (87). This failure aggravated his naturally morose and jealous disposition, and he became ex- ceedingly cruel. The murders committed by him, and his many acts of intolerable tyranny, occasioned a conspiracy, which had the effect to make him still more barbarous through the fear which it excited in his bosom. He was killed by the freedmen of his own palace (A.D. 96). His war with the Dacians on the Danube had been concluded by the shameful stipulation to pay them an annual tribute as a reward for abstaining from predatory incursions into Moesia (A.D. 90). For the first time, Rome purchased peace of her enemies. Domitian was guilty of persecuting the Chris- tians, among whom, it is now known, was included at least, one member of his own family, his niece, Flavia Domatilla, who was also allied to him by marriage. The epistle of Clement of Rome, the oldest extant Christian writing after the Apostles, refers to the barbarities inflicted upon Christian disciples by this tyrant. Nerva (A.D. 96-98). — The Senate now took the initiative, and placed on the throne one of their own number, Nerva, an old man of mild and virtuous character. The administration was in every point in contrast with the preceding. But the best thing Nerva did was to provide for the curbing of the praetorians by ap- pointing, with the concurrence of the Senate, a most competent man to be his colleague and successor. Trajan (A.D. 98-117). — Trajaii was a native of Spain, and had been brought up in the camp. He belongs among the very best of the Roman emperors. He upheld the ancient laws and insti- tutions of the state. He provided for the impartial administration of justice. He restored freedom of speech in the Senate. He founded schools, and establishments for the care of orphans, facil- itated coiTimerce by building new roads, bridges, and havens, and adorned Rome with a public library, and with a new and magnificent forum, or market-place, where "Trajan's Column " was placed by Senate and people as a monument of his victories and services. l82 ANCIENT HISTORY. He relished the society of hterary men hke the historian Tacitus. He was an intimate friend of Pliny (the younger), whose corre- spondence while he was governor of Bitliynia throws much light upon the emperor's character and policy. Trajan's own manner of life was simple, and free from luxury. To the people he fur- nished lavishly the diversions which they coveted. He made an aggressive war against the Dacians on the Danube, and constituted a new province of Dacia. He carried his arms into the Fa?-ihian territory; and three new provinces — Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria — were the fruit of his campaign in the East. In a letter to Pliny, he defined the policy to be pursued towards Christians, who had become very numerous in the region where Flitiy gov- erned. The effect of the emperor's rescript was to place Chris- tianity among the religions under the ban of the law. This decision was long in force, and guided the policy of future emperors towards the new faith. Hadrian ( A.D. 117-138). — Trajan was succeeded by Hadrian, a lover of peace, — a cultivated man, with extraordinary taste in the fine arts, and their generous patron. He was diligent and full of vigor in the transaction of public business. Although genial and affable, his temper was not so even as that of Trajan ; and he was guilty of occasional acts of cruelty. He spent the larger portion of his reign in traveling through his dominions, personally attend- ing to the wants and condition of his subjects. He constructed great works in different portions of the empire : in Rome, his Mau- soleum (now the Castle of St. Angela), and his grand temple of Rome and Venus. He began the wall connecting the Scottish friths. A fresh revolt broke out among the Jews (A.D. 131), under a fanatic named Barcochebas, which was suppressed in 135. Jeru- salem was razed to the ground ; and the Jewish rites were for- bidden within the new city of ^-Elia Capitolina, which the emperor founded on its site. This gave a finishing blow to the Jewish and Judaizing types of Christianity within the limits of the Church. Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138-161), — Antoninus Pius was the adopt- ed son and successor of Hadrian. He was one of the noblest of princes, a man of almost blameless life. His reign was an era of peace, the golden age in the imperial history. He fostered learning, was generous without being prodigal, was firm yet patient and indulgent, and watched over the interests of his sub- jects with the care of a father. It is a sign of the happiness of his reign that it does not afford startling occurrences to the narrator. Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180). — Hardly less eminent for his virtues was the next in the succession of sovereigns, Marcus Aure- lius (161-180). "A sage upon the throne," he combined a love of learning with the moral vigor and energy of the old Roman character, and with the self-government and serenity of the Stoic ROMAN HISTORY. 1 83 school, of the tenets of which he was a noble exemplar as well as a deeply interesting expounder. A philosopher was now on the throne ; and his reign gives some countenance to the doctrine of Plato, that the world could be well governed only when philosophers should be kings, or kings philosophers. He endured with patience the grievous faults of his wife Faustina, and of his brother by adop- tion, and co-regent, Lucius Verus. He protected the eastern fron- tier against Parthia. In the war with the Marcomanni, he drove the German tribes back over the Danube, and gained a signal vic- tory over the Quadi in their own land. His great object was to strike terror into the barbarian enemies of the empire on the north, and prevent future incursions. Although victorious in many of his battles, he failed to accomplish this result. The danger from bar- barian invasion increased with the lapse of time. Before his work was finished, Marcus Aurelius died at Vindobona (Vienna), in March, 180. During his reign, there was persecution of Christians. Especially the churches of Lyons and Vienne have left a record of their sufferings. The virtuous emperors, who were strenuous in their exertions to maintain the old laws and customs, were apt to be more severe in their treatment of Christians, whom they igno- rantly regarded as a mischievous sect, than were those emperors who were men of looser principles. State of Morals. — The Roman Empire, in the declining days of heathenism, presented the spectacle of a flourishing civilization in contrast with extreme moral degeneracy. Rich and populous cities; stately palaces; beautiful works of art — as vases, statues, carved altars — on every hand ; bridges and aqueducts, and noble highways, binding land to land ; institutions of education in the provincial cities as well as in Rome ; a thriving trade and com- merce ; a rapid spread of the Roman language, of the Roman legal system, and Roman culture and manners over the subject countries, — these are among the signs and fruits of civilization. But with all this outward prosperity and elegance, there was a growing sensuality, a decay of manly feeling, a disregard of the sanctity of the marriage tie, an insatiable hunger for wealth and for the pleasures of sense. One of the most corrupting features in the social condition was slavery. Every Roman of moderate means aspired to ovvn at least a few slaves. Some owned from ten to twenty thousand, mostly field-hands. Many householders pos- sessed as many as five hundred. Horace gives it as a sign of the simplicity of his life as a bachelor, that he is waited on at table by only three slaves. Slave-holding among the Romans brought in temptations to all sorts of brutality and vice. It brought a poison- ous atmosphere into every household. Nothing more clearly illus- trates the moral degradation of this period than the character of the sports in which people of all ranks delighted. The most at- 1 84 ANCIENT HISTORY. tractive theatrical performances came to be comedies, from the Greek and Latin plays of the same order, where scenes were in- troduced from the licentious stories of the Greek mythology. But the Pantomime, which was often of an unchaste and even obscene character, gradually usurped the place of every other exhi- bition on the stage. The chief amusements of the people of all classes were the Circus and the Arena. In the Circus, before hundreds of thousands of spectators, nobles of ancient lineage competed in the chariot race. Gladiatorial games, which had first taken place at funerals, and in honor of deceased friends, acquired an almost incredible popularity. At the games instituted by Augustus, ten thousand men joined in these bloody combats. In the festivals under the auspices of Trajan, in A.D. io6, eleven thousand tame and wild animals were slain. Not satisfied with seeing pairs of men engage in mortal conflict, the Romans were eager to witness bloodshed on a larger scale. The emperors pro- vided actual battles between hundreds and, in some cases, thou- sands of men, which were beheld by countless spectators. On an artificial lake in Caesar's garden, Augustus gave a sea-fight in which three thousand soldiers were engaged. The effect of these brutal spectacles of agony and death was inevitably to harden the heart. Literature. — If the sanguinary fights in the arena excited little or no condemnation, the prevalence of various other sorts of immorality, at variance with the practice of better days, could not fail to call out different forms of censure. One of these forms of protest was through the satirical poets. Of these caustic vi'riters, Persiiis (34-62) is obscure and of a moderate degree of merit. Juvenal (about 42-122), on the contrary, is S]3irited and full of force. Martial (43-101), a Spaniard by birth, was the author of numerous short poems of a pithy and pointed character, called epigramniata. All these poets, if we make proper discount for the exaggeration of satire, are very instructive as to the manners and morals of their time. Liician (120-200), who wrote in Greek, the best known of whose works are his " Dialogues," touched with his broad humor a great many of the superstitions and follies of the day. The popular teachers in the imperial time were the rhetoricians, analogous to the Greek Sophists, — teachers of rhetoric and eloquence, — one of whom, Qitiittiliau (who was born about 40, and died about iiS), was the first to re- ceive from the public treasury a regular salary, and had among his pupils the younger Plifty and the two grand-nephews of Domitiau. The influence of the mania for rhetoric was more and more to impart an artificial character to literature and art. The epic poems of such writers as Liican and Statins are to a large extent imitations ; although Lucan's princijial poem, " Pharsalia," gives evidence of poetic talent. Where there was so little productive genius, it was natural that grammarians and commentators should abound. There was one great writer, the historian Tacitus (about 54-117), who towers above his contemporaries, and in vigor and conciseness has seldom been equaled. The elder riiny (23-79), whose curiosity to witness the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 cost him his life, was a famous observer and author in natural history. His nephew, the younger Pliny, the friend of Trajan, has left to us ten books of " Epistles," which jiresent an agreeable picture of the life and thoughts of a cultivated Roman gentleman. The philosopher Seneca, with the exception ROMAN HISTORY. 1 85 of Marcus Anrelius, the most eminent expositor of the Roman Stoic school, was a voluminous author. No ancient heathen writer has uttered so many thoughts and precepts which bear a resemblance to teachings of the New Testament. The study that flourished most in this period is Jurisprudence. It is the classic era of the jurists. Persons versed in the law were preferred by the emperors for high offices. Men who would have been statesmen under the Republic, found a solace and delight in legal studies. Among the most learned jurists of this era, were Caius Papinian, and Ulpian. Of the Greek writers, one of the most important is Plutarch (about 50-120), whose " Lives," and "Essays " (or Aloralia), are among the most delightful and instructive of all the works of antiquity. One of the noblest philosophical writers of that or of any other period is the Stoic Epictetus (50-c. 120). The two most popular systems of philosophy in the closing days of the Republic and the early period of the Empire, were the Stoic and the Epicu- rean. The severity of the Stoic doctrine was somewhat softened by its Roman teachers ; but the rigorous self-control, the superiority to misfortune, and the contempt of death, which it recommended, found favor with noble Romans in dark days. Cato and other champions of the falling Republic were disciples of this school. Later, New Platonism, of a mystical and con- templative type, secured many adherents. Skepticism. — Long before the fall of the Republic, faith in the old mythology had begun to decline. This change followed upon an intimate contact of the Romans with the Greek religion. It was hastened by the fa- miliarity acquired by the Romans with so great a variety of heathen systems. The decay of morality was attended with a spread of skepticism as regards the supernatural world altogether. In the course of the debate in the Roman Senate on the punishment of the confederates of Catiline, Julius Ccesar op- posed their execution, on the ground that death puts an end to conscious- ness, and thus to all suffering. It does not appear that in that body, where Cicero and Cato were present, any one disputed this tenet. Cicero in, his philosophical essays advocates the doctrine of immortality by arguments, mostly gathered from Greek sources, — arguments some of which are of more and some of less weight. His correspondence, on the contrary, even in times of bereavement, affords no proof that this consoling truth had any practical hold upon his convictions. Superstition. — The spread of skepticism was attended,- as time went on, with a re-action to the other extreme of superstition. Magic and sorcery came into vogue. There was an eagerness to become acquainted with Ori- ental religious rites, and to pay homage to deities worshiped in the East with mysterious ceremonies. Another tendency strongly manifest was to- wards what is called syncretism, or a mingling of different religious systems. It was hoped that the truth might be found by combining beliefs drawn from many different quarters. This eclectic drift was signally manifest in religion as well as in philosophy. CHAPTER IV. THE EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS: THE ABSO- LUTE MONARCHY. Commodus. — Rome had enjoyed good government for eighty- four years. This was owing to the fact that her sovereigns had been nominated to their office, instead of inheriting it. None of the emperors during this interval had male children. Marcus 1 86 ANCIENT HISTORY. Aureliics made the mistake of associating with him in power his son Comjvodus, who was eighteen years old when his father died, and reigned alone from i8o to 192. He began his despicable career as sole ruler by buying peace of the Marcomanni and the Quadi. He turned out to be a detestable tyrant, who was like- wise guilty of the worst personal vices. He was strangled in his bedroom by one of his concubines, Marcia, with the assistance of others, all of whom he was intending to kill. At this time the army, where there had been more energy and virtue than in any other class, began to decline in discipline. Society was growing more and more corrupt. It proves the inherent strength of the organization of the Roman Empire, that, amid all the causes of disintegration and decay, it lasted for two centuries longer. I. EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS. We now enter upon a period of military license. The emperors are appointed by the soldiers. The rulers, when the soldiers fall out with them, are slain. In the course of ninety-two years, from 192 to 2S4, twenty-five emperors, with an average reign of less than four years for each, sat on the throne. Only two reigns exceeded ten years. Ten emperors perished by violence at the hands of the soldiers. A real advantage in this way of making emperors, was, that supreme power might thus devolve on able generals ; but another, and a fatal result, was the demoralizing of the armies, by whose favor the rulers of the state were set up and pulled down. To Alexander Severus (A.D. 222). — The assassins of Commodus, with the assent of the praetorians, made a worthy senator, Pertinax, em- peror; but his honesty and frugality, and his disposition to maintain discipline among the soldiers, caused them to murder him three months after his ac- cession (193). It is said that they then sold the imperial office at auction to a rich senator, but the leaders of the armies in different regions refused their consent. Of these, Scptimiiis Scvertis (193-21 1) made his way to the throne, and put down his rivals. The empire became a military despotism. A gar- rison of forty thousand troops, the prefect of whom was in power second only to the sovereign, took the place of the old praetorians. Sct'erus was a good general. In a war against the Parthians, he captured Ctesiphon, their capital. Crtrffcrt/Az, his son (211-217), was a base tyrant. He was murdered by the praDtorian prefect, Afacritius, who reigned for a short time (217-218), but perished in consequence of his attempts to reform the discipline of the army. Hclioiriibalus (218-222) was not more cruel than others had been, but his gross and shameless debauchery was without a precedent. Power of the Provinces: Discord. — In the reign of Caracalla is placed the Edict which, gave the rights of citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The provinces had been steadily rising in power and influence. At Rome, among officials of the highest grade, as well as in the higher professions, there was a throng of provincials. The provinces were disposed to nominate ROMAN HISTORY. 18/ emperors of their own. It was hard for the central authority to keep under control the frontier armies. To add to these sources of division, there was a growing jealousy between the East and West, owing to a difference in language, ideas, and interests. Per- sia was soon to threaten the empire on the East, and Gothic bar- barians to invade its territories. Alexander Severus: Persia. — Alexander Severus (222-235) was a man of pure morals, and sincerely disposed to remedy abuses and to govern well. But the evils were too great for the moderate degree of vigor with which he was endowed. The overthrow of the Parthian kingdom, in 226, created, in the Neiv Persian Alonarchy, a formidable enemy to Rome. Alex- ander did little more than check the advance of Persia. In a war against the Germans, he was slain by his own soldiers. To Decius (A.D. 249). — The fierce and brutal Maximin, who had excited the soldiers of Alexander Severus to mutiny, reigned from 235 to 238. The Senate roused itself to resist his advance into Italy ; and he, and his son with him, were killed in his tent by his soldiers. Gordian (238-244) at least held the frontier against the attacks of the Persians. Philip, an Arabian, probably a Roman colonist, after reigning from 244 to 249, was supplanted by Decius, whom his rebellious Moesian and Pannonian soldiers raised to IDower. ■ Decius to Claudius (A.D. 250-268). — The short reign of Decius was marked by the first general persecution of the Christian Church. During his reign, the Goths (A.D. 250) invaded the empire. They traversed Dacia, and crossed the Danube. They ravaged McBsia, and even made their way into Thrace. Decius was defeated by them in Mczsia, and slain. The peril of the empire continually in- creased. The German tribes on the north, the Goths on the Lower Danube and the Euxine, and Persia in the east, arrayed themselves in hostility. The reigns of Valeriaji (253-260) and of his associate and successor, Gal- lienns (260-268), were marked by continuous disaster. Numerous indepen- dent rulers — "the thirty tyrants" — established themselves, generally for a very short time, in different regions. In the East, one kingdom, the capital of which was Palmyra, and which had for a ruler Zenobia, the widow of its founder, lasted for ten years (264-273). The Goths occupied Dacia, z.\\A from the Cimmerian Bosphorus sent out their predatory expeditions in all direc- tions, plundering cities, including Athens and Corinth, and carrying off im- mense booty to their homes south of the Danube. The Persians conquered Armenia, took Valerian prisoner, advanced into Syria, and burned Antioch. To Diocletian (A.D. 284). — It would seem as if the Roman empire was on the verge of dissolution. But a series of vigorous emperors — among them Claudius (26S-270) and Aiirelian (270-275) — quelled rebellion within its borders, and re-established its boundaries ; although Aurelian gave up to the Goths Dacia, which had been of no benefit to the empire. Probus (276-282) was a prudent as well as valiant ruler. Cams (282-283) invaded Persia, captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and might, perhaps, have completed the conquest of the country, but for his death. Numerianus (283-284) was the last in the succession of rulers during this period of military control, of which the corruption of tljie army was the worst result. l88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 11. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY (tO A.D. 375). Diocletian. — Once more the gigantic and weakened frame of the Roman Empire was invigorated by a change in the character of the chief rulers and in the method of government. Diocletian (284-305), one of a number of energetic emperors who were of Illyrian birth, first stripped the imperial office of its limitations, and converted it into an absolute monarchy. This new system was carried to its completion by Constaiitine. Diocletian took from the Senate what political jurisdiction was left to it. He abol- ished the difference between tlie treasury of the state and the pri- vate coffers of the prince. The precedence of Rome was taken away by making other great cities to be seats of government. There were to be two emperors under the title of Augustus, with two Ccesars under them ; and thus the empire was divided, for administrative purposes, into four parts. Maxiniian, the second Augustus, was to rule over Italy, Africa, and the islands, with Milan for his residence. Consiantius Chlorus had the western provinces, — Spain, Gaul, and Britain. At Nico media, Diocletian, a man of imposing presence and of great talents as a statesman, exercised rule for twenty years with efficiency and success. The new sys- tem, if it involved the peril of strife among the regents, led to a more vigilant and efficient government in the different provinces, and provided for a peaceful succession to the throne. But the government came to resemble, in the omnipotence of the emperor, in the obsequious homage paid to him, and in the cringing man- ners of the court, an Oriental despotism. The old heathen religion was considered by consen'ative Romans to be an essential part of the imperial system, and indispensable to the unity of the em- pire. It was this view, in connection with other influences, which moved Diocletian, near the close of his reign, in 303, to set on foot a systematic persecution of the Christian Church, by a series of extremely severe and well-contrived measures, through which it was designed to extirpate the new religion. The last great persecution, in the reign of Decius, cruel though it had been, did not approach in severity this final effort to exterminate the disciples of the Chris- tian faith, who had now become very numerous. Terrible suffer- ings were inflicted, but without avail. In 305 Diocletian, partly on account of a serious illness, formally abdicated, and obliged Max- imian to do the same. Civil wars followed, until Constantine, the son of Constantius, gained the supremacy, first as joint ruler with Licinius, who governed in the East, and then, after a bloody strug- gle which began in A.D. 314, as sole master of the empire (A.D. 324). Constantine (A.D. 306-337). — The career of Constantine was stained by acts of cruelty towards members of his own family. In ROMAN HISTORY. 1 89 the closing period of his hfe, he was less just and humane than in earlier days. The change which had taken place in the imperial system was signally manifest in his removal of the seat of govern- ment to Constantinople, which was built up by him, and named in his honor. Placed between Europe and Asia, on a tongue of land where it was protected from assault, it was admirably suited for a metropolis. But the change of capital involved dangers for the western portions of the empire, exposed as they were to the as- saults of the barbarians. Especially was this event a land-mark in the destruction of the old system of government. The empire was divided, for purposes of government, into four prefectures, each of which was subdivided into dioceses. Constantine established, likewise, different classes of nobles, the type of modern systems of nobility. He organized the army afresh, under the Master of the Horse and Master of the Foot, each, however, commanding, in action, both infantry and cavalry, and each having under him dukes and counts. In short, the system of central and despotic administra- tion, with subordinate rulers, which Diocletian began, was perfected by Constantine. Diocletian, in order to fortify the imperial power against the army, had shared his power with " a cabinet of em- perors," which his genius enabled him to control. To prevent the breaking up of the empire through the system of viceroys thus created to preserve it, Constantine separated the civil authority from the mihtary as regards the subordinate rulers, while both functions were united in himself. He still further exalted his throne by giving it even more of an Oriental character, by creating a multitude of officials, who were satellites of the sovereign, and by becoming the secular head and guardian of the Christian Church. The arrangements of his court, with its grades of officials, from the chamberlain downwards, were after the Oriental pattern. THE DOWNFALL OF HEATHENISM. Progress of Christianity. — The failure of the grand attempt of Diocletian to exterminate Christianity was an indication of its coming triumph. Its progress had been gradual yet rapid, and, in its earlier stages especially, obscure. Of the labors of most of the apostles we know little. On the approach of the Jewish war (p. I So), the Apostle yi?/?;?, and other Christians with him, had re- paired to Asia Minor. There, at Ephesus, this apostle lived until the reign of Trajan, and from that center exerted a wide influence, the traces of which are marked and various. The cities were the principal scenes of early missionary work. They were the " stra- tegic points." In them it was easier for Christian preachers to gain a hearing, and in them they were exempt from the hindrance created by strange dialects. Wherever Christians went, even for purposes of trade or mechanical industry, they carried the seeds 190 ANCIENT HISTORY. of the new doctrine. Even with regard to tlie cliurches of Alex- andria and Carthage, which became so flourishing, and in the case of the church at Rome itself, we can not say how they were first planted. The exultant terms in which the ecclesiastical writers at the end, and even as early as the middle, of the second century speak of the increasing numljer of the converts, proves that the Christian cause was fast gaining ground. Its adherents were sometimes of the higher class, but mostly from the ranks of the poor. Persecutions. — Persecution from the side of the heathen began among the populace. Always when fire, tempest, or plague oc- curred, they were ascribed to the wrath of the heathen gods at the desertion of their altars, and the cry was for Christian blood. But Christianity, from the time of Trajan, was an illegal religion. Magistrates might at any time require Christians to do homage to the emperor's bust, or to burn incense to the old divinities. To make a proselyte of a Roman citizen, or to meet in private com- ])anies for worship, was unlawful. The persecutions by public au- thority have been said to be ten ; but this number is too small if all of them are reckoned, and too large if only those of wide extent are included. The constancy with which even young women and children sometimes endured the torture, excited wonder in the beholders. Among the more noted martyrs are Ignatius, bishop of Antioch (116) ; Poly carp, bishop of Smyrna, who had been a pupil of the Apostle John, and was put to death in 156 ; and Cyp- rian, the aged bishop of Carthage, one of the leading ecclesiastics of the time, who suffered under Valerian in 2 5 8. The Church under Constantine. — The accession of Constantine made Christianity the predominant religion in the Roman Empire. His conversion was gradual. More and more he came to rely for support in his conflicts with his rivals upon the God of the Christians. The sign of the cross, which he said that he beheld in the sky, and which led him to make the cross his standard, may have been an optical illusion occasioned partly by his own mental state at the moment, when, after prayer, he was standing at noon-day in the door of his tent. He remained, like many others in that day, not without relics of the old beliefs, as is seen from inscriptions on his coins, and other evidences. His own bap- tism he deferred until he was near his end, on account of the prev- alent idea that all previous guilt is effaced in the baptismal water. The edict of unrestricted toleration was issued from Milan in 312. Constantine did not proscribe heathenism. He forbade immoral rites, and rites connected with magic and sorcery. But, with this exception, heathen worshipers were not molested. But the em- peror gave his zealous j^ersonal countenance to the Christian cause, and marks of his favor to its adherents. By the privileges ROMAN HISTORY. 19I and immunities which he granted {o the Church and its minis- ters, he did more than he would have been likely to effect by the use of severity against its adversaries. Organization of the Church. — The early Christian societies were little republics, at first under the supervision of the apostles. Their organi- zation shaped itself partly after the model of the synagogue, and partly from the pattern of the civil communities and the voluntary associations about them. In the ajDOstolic age a body of elders or bishops and a body of deacons in each church guided its affairs, while the members took an active part in the choice of their officers, and in the general direction of ecclesiastical proceedings. In the second century, when we get a distinct view of the churches after the obscure interval that follows the age of the apostles, we find that over the elders is a bishop, whose office grows in importance as the churches become larger, as the need of more compact organization is felt, and as the clergy become more and more distinct from the laity. The bishop of the city church acquires jurisdiction over the adjacent country churches. The bishop in the capital of each province comes to exercise a certain superintendence within the province. This is the metropolitan sys- tem. More and more the bishops of the great cities, especially Jionie, Alex- andj-ia, and Antioch, exercise a parallel supervision in larger divisions of the empire. This is the patriarchal system. As early as the closing part of the second century, the catholic or universal church presents itself before us, conceived of as a unity which is made such by the hierarchy of bishops, and by connection with the apostolic sees, — the churches founded by the apostles in person. As the apostles were thought of as having a head in Peter, the bishops of Rome, who were looked on as his successors, had ac- corded to them a precedence over other bishops. The grandeur of Rome, the strength of the church there, its services to other churches in the em- pire, especially in the West, together with many other considerations addi- tional to its alleged historic relation to Peter and to Paul, gave to the Roman See, as time went on, a growing and acknowledged pre-eminence. The custom of holding synods helped to build up the unity of the Church, and to give power and dignity to its officials. Sects: Theology. — The Church from the beginning had to contend with opposing sects. There was a desire to amalgamate the Christian doc- trine with other systems. On the Jewish side, the Ebionites <:\\mg to the Old Testament ritual observances, a part of them being bitterly hostile to the Apostle Paul, and another part, the Nazareans, not sharing this fanatical feel- ing, but still adhering to the Jewish ceremonies. On the other hand, the Gnostics introduced a dualism, and ascribed to the Demiurge — a second deity, either subordinate to the supreme God, or antagonistic to him — the origination of this world and of the Old Testament religion. They made a compound of Christianity, Judaism, and heathen religion and speculation, each Gnostic sect giving to one or the other of these ingredients the preponderance in the strange and often fantastic medley. The controversy with heathenism was prose- cuted with the pen. Of the numerous defenses of Christianity, now addressed to heathen rulers and now to its opponents in private stations, the most re- markable work in the first three centuries was the writing of Origen — who was the most eminent of the teachers of theology at Alexandria — in reply to Celsus, Origen, after scholarly labors so vast as to earn for him the title of the Ada- mantine, died in 254, in consequence of his sufferings in the Diocletian perse- cution. Two defenses of the Christian faith, composed about the middle of the second century by Justin Martyr, are specially instructive as to the state of Christian opinion and the customs of the Church. The first great center of theological activity was Alexandria, where philosophy was studied in a liberal spirit. In the East, the questions relative to the divinity of Jesus and the relation of the divine to the human nature, engrossed attention. In the 192 ANCIENT HISTORY. West, it was the practical aspects of theology, the doctrine of sin and of the deliverance of the will by grace, which were chiefly discussed. The Arian controversy grew out of the assertion by Artus, a presbyter of Alexandria, that Jesus was the first-made of all beings, the instrument of the creation of all other beings, but himself a creature. The leader of the orlhodo.v oppo- sition to this opinion was the famous Alexandrian archdeacon, afterwards bishop, AthanasMS. This debate it was which led to the assembling, under the auspices of Constantine, of the Council of Nicaa (A.D. 325), the first of a series of General Councils, for the adjudication of doctrinal disputes, that were held in this and the following centuries. The Arian doctrine was con- demned at Nicaja, and, after a long contest in the period subsequent, was finally determined to be heretical. In the West, the main controversy was that raised by Pelagius, respecting the power of the will, the native character of men, and the agency of God in their conversion. In this debate, Augus- tine (354-430), the most eminent theologian of the West, bishop of Hippo in North Africa, was the renowned champion of the doctrine of grace against what he considered an exaggerated assertion of free-will. Pelagianism was condemned in the West, and nominally in the East where views interme- diate between the Pelagians and Augustinians commonly prevailed. The most eminent scholar contemporary with Augustine was ferotne, who died in 420, the author of the Latin version of the Scriptures, called the Vul- gate. Preceding Augustine in North Africa, early in the third centurv, was Tertiillian, a vigorous and fervid writer, who first made Latin the vehicle of theological discussion; and, a little later, Cyprian, whose works relate chiefly to church unity and hierarchical government, of which he was a devoted champion. Late in the second century, Irenaiis, bisho]> of Lyons in Gaul, one of the most eminent ecclesiastics of that day, composed an elaborate work against the Gnostic heresies. Irenceus had known Folycatp, a disciple of John the apostle. Christian Life. — Passing within the sphere of Christian life, there can be no doubt that Christianity exerted a power, of which there had been no experience before, in reforming the character and conduct of those even who had been addicted to crime and vice. The fraternal feeling of Christians for one another impressed the heathen about them as something new and singularly attractive. It expressed itself in unstinted charity for those in poverty, and in helpfulness for all sorts of distress. The church was a home for the weary and friendless. In the strong reaction against the sen- suality of a dissolute society, ascetic tendencies appeared, which, in process of time, issued in monasticism. Anthony of Thebes, born about 250, was one of the earliest and most celebrated of the Anchorites, who chose a hermit life, and abjured all the luxuries of hfe and most of the comforts which belong to social existence. To the Anchorites succeeded the Cxnohites, societies of monks who dwelt in a common habitation under fixed rules ; and these were naturally followed by confederacies of such communities under one organization. The monastic vows were poverty, or the renunciation of property ; celibacy, or abstinence from marriage ; and obedience to the conventual superior. Sometimes in the early centuries great evils and abuses sprang up in connection with mo- nastic life. For example, monks might become fanatical and ROMAN HISTORY. I93 violent. But they furnished numerous examples of sincere piety, and of unselfish and intrepid self-sacrifice for the welfare of others. Changes in "Worship. — As the Church grew in numbers and wealth, costly edifices were constructed for worship. The services within them be- came more elaborate. At length art was called in to adorn the Christian sanctuaries. Sculpture and painting were enlisted in the work of providing aids to devotion. Relics of saints and martyrs were cherished as sacred possessions. Religious observances were multiplied; and the Church, under the Christian emperors, with its array of clergy and of imposing ceremonies, assumed much of the stateliness and visible splendor that had belonged to the heathen system which it had supplanted. Last days of Heathenism. — When Christianity had become powerful, its disciples forgot the precepts of their Master, and sometimes persecuted the heathen. Christian mobs demolished the old temples. The great temple of Serapis in Alexandria was destroyed, and the statue of the god was broken in pieces. The- odosius /. (379-395) made the celebration of heathen rites a capi- tal offense, and confiscated the property by which heathen worship had been supported. Arians, too, he persecuted, but with less harshness. The Eastern emperor, Justinian, suppressed the school of New Platonic philosophers at Athens, and banished the teachers (529). Heathenism hngered in remote districts, and was hence called paganism, or the religion of rustics. The last adherents of the ancient religion inhabited in the seventh century remote valleys of the Italian islands. The oracles were for ever dumb. The old divinities were never more to be invoked. But it was not by force that heathenism was extirpated. If it had not lost its vitality, it would have survived the penal laws against it. It per- ished by the expulsive energy of a better faith. Causes of the Triumph of Christianity. — The causes of the spread and triumph of Christianity lie ultimately in the need which men feel of reli- gion, especially in times of dread and distress, and in the intrinsic excellence which was felt to belong to Christianity. In the first and second centuries the dreary feeling engendered by the hollow skepticism that prevailed was favorable to the Christian cause. There was a void to be filled, and the gospel came to fill it. In the third century, when the progress of Christianity was specially rapid, there was a perceptible revival of religious feeling among the heathen ; and this, too, operated to the advantage of the gospel. At least it must have done so in numerous instances. In that century the ter- rible plagues which desolated the empire, with the sufferings that sprung from wild anarchy and misgovernment, made the church a welcome asylum for the afflicted. In theyfrj-/ place, Christianity was a religion. It was nei- ther a merely speculative nor a merely moral system. It took hold of the supernatural. Secondly, it presented to a corrupt society a moral ideal of spotless perfection. Thirdly, it offered, in the doctrine of the cross, a wel- come solace, — consolation in life, with a sense of reconciliation, and the hope of everlasting good. Other causes, such as Gibbon enumerates, were operative. But these are themselves mo'&xX'^ effects ox aspects of the gospel; or they were auxiliary, not principal, causes. 194 ANCIENT HISTORY. Christianity and Liberty. — The founders of Christianity had no thought of becoming the authors of a political revolution. They had a very different puri)ose in view. To overthrow the existing order of society would have been e(|ually unwise and impracticable. What was needed was a new spirit of justice and of love. The virtues that were called for then were the /lass/ve virtues, — gentleness, forbearance, the calm endurance of ills of which there was no present remedy. The Christian spirit, therefore, did not evoke in the disciples of the new faith sentiments of liberty akin to those which had belonged to (ireek and Roman heroes. Indirectly, however, Christianity brought into human society the germs of liberty. In the/irsi place, while it enjoined absolute submission to rulers, it made an exception whenever their commands should require disobedience to God's law. This position involved the denial to the state of that absolute supremacy accorded to it by the an- cients. The allegiance to the state became a qtnilijicd allegiance. Secondly, there arose within the state another community, which took into its hands, to a large extent, the regulation of social life. The boundaries of the two authori- ties might be indistinct, but there was a real division of control between them. It is true that tyranny might arise within the Christian organization itself: still, its very existence planted on the earth a principle of liberty, which was destined ultimately to work out the destruction of all tyranny, whether civil or religious. For the first time the rulers of the Roman world were faced by an opposition, meek yet too inflexible for all their ])ower to overcome. This is the first stage in the history of modern liberty. The "heroic and invincible Athanasius^'' as Milton styles him, boldlv confronted Constantine and his suc- cessors, and chose to spend twenty years of his life in voluntary or enforced exile rather than bow to their tyrannical decrees. Ambrose, the great arch- bishop of Milan, compelled the Emperor TIteodositts — who, in a fit of anger had ordered a massacre at Thessalonica — to do penance before he could be admitted to the communion. Such occurrences indicate that the days of imperial omnipotence, even over unarmed subjects, were past. Successors of Constantine. — Constantine left his empire to his three unworthy sons. Constantine, the eldest, had the West- ern provinces for his share. He endeavored to wrest Italy from his brother Constans, but was slain at Aquileia (340). This event left Constans the master of the entire West. He took up his abode in Gaul, where he was slain by Magnentius, the leader of a mutinous body of soldiers (350). Constantius was at Edessa, engaged in war against the Persians. He marched westward, and routed Magnentius at Mursia, in Pannonia. This rival fled to Gaul, and was there attacked and destroyed. Gallus, the cousin of Constantius, was put to death for the murder of one of the emperor's officers (354). Julian, the brother of Gallus, was the sole remaining survivor of the family from which the emperor sprung. Constantius, under whom the whole empire was now for a few years (357-361) united, made a triumphal visit to Rome. He was the defender of the Arians, but he found it impossible to coerce the Roman Christians into the adoption of his opinion. The orthodox bishop whom he had banished, was restored. Constantius was succeeded by his cousin Julian (361-363), commonly called the Apostate. Fascinated by the heathen philosophy, and a secret convert to the old religion, he ROMAN HISTORY. 195 £: O Cm (D S (T) -1 »5 7^ 13 m « B rt- ^ P 9 s (-»■ l-t P ® 3 ■IM hi U*"* tn ^ p c (T> (/) ;u ij w n o s ^ B- o S tl^ c OP c^ £i 3 p" CO P JO 3 W C p U3 tn p 3 ^ X n w p ►H CO S P B c' ;« u HH B- > H-l ►i ffi S a ^ Cfl « B ffi •t 3 p "• M Z H w 3" H > Z P H H-I Z H 196 ANCIENT HISTORY. proved that its vitality was gone, by his ineffectual exertions to rescue it, and restore its predominance. He was not without merits as a ruler. He looked out for the impartial administra- tion of justice : he revived discipline and a military spirit in the army, and sought to infuse a better spirit into the civil adminis- tration. While he avoided cruel persecution, he directed all his personal efforts to the weakening of the Christian cause. Julian led an expedition against the Persians. He sailed down the Euphrates to Circesium, and thence proceeded into the interior of Persia. He repulsed the enemy, but was slam while engaged in the pursuit. The soldiers on the field of battle chose one of his o^ctxs, Jovian (363-364), who was a Christian, to be his suc- cessor. He conducted the retreat of the army. His reign lasted for only seven months. He showed no intolerance either towards Pagans or Arians, but he gave back to Christianity its former posi- tion. The army next chose Valentinian I. (364-375), the son of a Pannonian warrior, who associated with him, as emperor in the East, his brother Valens (364-3 78). Valens ruled from Constan- tinople. Valentmian fixed his court at Milan, and sometimes at Treves. He was an unlettered soldier, but strict and energetic in the government of the state, as well as of the army. His time was mostly spent in conflict with the barbarians on the northern frontiers. He carried forward this contest with vigor on the Rhine and on the Danube. He trained up his son Gratian to be his successor. The great event of the reign of Valens was the irruption of the Huns into Europe, and the consecpent invasion of the Goths, by whom Valens was defeated and slain in 378. Several emperors followed, until, on the death of Thcodosius /., (the Great) (395), the Roman Empire was permanendy divided. Rome bore the shock of the barbarian invasions until, in 476, Odoacer supplanted the Caesars, and became the first barbarian king of Italy. The fourth century in which these invasions — which overthrew the Western Empire, and transferred power to new races — occurred, forms the era of transition from ancient to mediaeval history. Literature. — The general worlcs on Ancient History (p. i6). On Roman History as a whole: Merivale's General History 0/ Rome (from 753 B.C. to A.D. 476; i vol.); DvRVV, Histoire lies Roinaitts, etc. ( vols.,410); Wagner, Rom, etc. (3 vols.); Creighton, History of Rome (primer); Freeman, Outlines of History, chapi. iii. and iv.; Smitn and Lawrence, Smaller History of Rome; Leighton, History of Rome (i vol.). On the Roman Repnllie : Mommsen, The History of Rome (4 vols.); Liddell, A History of Rome, etc. (i vol.); Ihne, The History of Rome (Eng. trans., 3 vols.); Miche- let. History of the Roman Republic (i vol., i2mo); Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (4 vols.). On the Roinan Empire : Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire (7 vols.): Seeley, Roman imperialism [three Lectures]; Mo.mmsen, The Provinces (5th vol- ume of his History, 1S85). On special periods : Ihne, Early Rome (i vol.) ; T. Arnold, History of Rome (3 vols.; reaches into the second Punic war) ; Long, The Decline of the Roman Republic (5 vols.); R. B. Smith, Rome and Carthage ; Merivale, The Roman Trium^'irates ; T. Arnold, History of the Later Roman Cominomuealth (2 vols.); Gibbon, History of the Decline ROMAN HISTORY, 1 9/ and Fall of the Roman Empire (Smith's edition) ; Finlay, A History of Greece from the Conquest of the Romans to the Present Time (7 vols.)- Txo'Ao'f't, Life of Cicero (2 vols.); Fov.s\th, Life of Cicero (2 vols.); Middleton's Life of Cicero ; Froude, Life of CcEsar (i vol.; ; Boissier, Ciccron et ses Amis (i vol., i2mo). Treatises: T. Arnold, Roman Provincial Administration; Kuhn, Verfassung d. Rojnischeti Si'ddte ; Guhl and Koner, Life of the Greeks and Romans; Marquardt, Handbuch d. Romischen Alterthumer (7 vols.) ; Beckek, Galbis (an archaeological novel) ; Smith's Dictionaries of Classical Biography and Mythology, Antiquities, and Geography; Rich, Greek atid Roman Antiijniiies ; Madvig, Verfassung nnd V eriualtung des Riim Staates, (2 vols.). Wilkins, Roman Antiquities (primer); Burn, Rome and the Campagna ; Zieg- LER, Z?ai alte Rom ; Smith and Wace's Dictiotiary of Christia?t Biography ; Smith and Cheatham's Dictionary of C/iristian Antiquities ; FRIEDLA^'DER, Sittengeschichte Rons (2 vols.). Histories of Roman Literature by Simcox, Cruttwell, Schmitz, Teiiffel. On Early Christianity : The Lives of Jesus, by Neander, Weiss, Farrar, Edersheim, Andrews. Neander's Planting and Training of the Churcli. Works on the Life of St. Paul, by CoNEVBEARE ANu HowsoN, by Lewis, by Farrar. Fisher's The Beginnings of Chris- tianity ; Pressense, Early Days of Christianity. Church Histories of Neander, Gieseler, ScHAFF, Robertson, Hase, Kurtz, Alzog. Uhlhorn, Christian Charity in the Ancient Church ; Mason, The Persecutions of Diocletian. For other titles, see Adams's Manual of Historical Literatu7-e, p. 114 sq., and his Sug- gestions to Students and Readers, p. 148 sq. PART II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Character of the Middle Ages. — The middle ages include the long interval between the first general irruption of the Teu- tonic nations towards the close of the fourth century, to the middle of the fifteenth century, when the modern era, with a dis- tinctive character of its own, began. Two striking features are observed in the mediaeval era. First, there was a mingling of the conquering Germanic nations with the peoples previously making up the Roman Empire, and a consequent effect produced upon both. The Teutonic tribes modified essentially the old society. On the other hand, there was a re-action of Roman civ- ilization upon them. The conquered became the teachers and civilizers of the conquerors. Secondly, the Christian Church, which outlived the wreck of the empire, and was almost the sole remaining bond of social unity, not only educated the new na- tions, but regulated and guided them, to a large extent, in secu- lar as well as religious affairs. Thus out of chaos, Christendom arose, a single homogeneous society of peoples. It was in the middle ages that the pontifical authority reached its full stature. The Holy See exercised the lofty function of arbiter among con- tending nations, and of leadership in great public movements, like the Crusades. Civil authority and ecclesiastical authority, empe- rors and popes, were engaged in a long conflict for predominance. Thus there are three elements which form the essential factors in Mediaeval History, — the Barbarian element, the Roman element, with its law and civil polity, and with what was left of ancient arts and culture, and the Christia?i, or Ecclesiastical, element. As we approach the close of the mediseval era, a signal change occurs. The nations begin to acquire a more defined individuality ; the superintendence of the church in civil affairs is more and more renounced or relinquished ; there dawns a new era of invention and discovery, of culture and reform. 19S Period I. FROM THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES TO THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK RULERS. iA.D. 375-751.) CHAPTER I. CAUSES OP THE FALL OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE: THE TEUTONIC CONPEDERACIES. Gradual Overthrow of the Empire. — When we speak of the destruction of the Roman Empire by the barbarians, we must not imagine that it was sudden, as by an earthquake. It was graduaU Had the empire not been undermined from within, it would not have been overthrown from without. The Roman armies were recruited by bringing numerous barbarians into the ranks. At length whole tribes were suffered to form permanent settlements within the boundaries. of the empire. A " king" with his entire tribe would engage to do military service in exchange for lands. More and more both the wealth and the weakness of Rome were exposed to the gaze of the Germanic nations. Their cupidity was aroused as their power increased. Meantime the barbarians were learning from their employers the art of war, and were gaining sol- dierly discipline. Their brave warriors rose to places of com- mand. They made and unmade the rulers, and finally became rulers themselves. Another important circumstance is, that most of the Germanic tribes were converts to Christianity before they made their attacks and subverted the throne of the Caesars. In fine, there was a long preparation for the great onset of the bar- barian peoples in the fifth century. Causes of the Pall of the Empire. — But the success of the barbarian invasions presupposes an internal decay in the empire. It was one symptom of a conscious decline, that the conquering spirit was chilled, and the policy was adopted of fixing the limits of the Roman dominion at the Rhine and the Danube. Rome now stood on the defensive. The great service of the imperial government, for which it was most valued, was to protect the frontiers. This partly accounts for the consternation of Augustus, 199 200 MEDIy*;VAL HISTORY. when, in the forests of Germany, the legions of Varus were de- stroyed (p. 172). The essential fact is, that Rome became nnalile to keep up the strength of its armies. Firs/, there were lacking the men to fill up the legions. The civil wars had reduced the population in Italy and in other countries. The efforts of Augus- tus to encourage marriage by bounties proved of little avail. Sec- ondly, the class of independent Italian yeomen, which had made up the bone and sinew of the Roman armies, passed away. Slave- ry sui)planted free labor. Thirdly, in the third century terrible plagues swept over the empire. In 166 a frightful pestilence broke out, from which, according to NicbuJir, the ancient world never recovered. It was only the first in a series of like appalling visitations. FourtJily, the death of liberty carried after it a loss of the virtue, the virile energy, by which Rome had won her supremacy. Fifthly, the new imperial system, after Diocletian, effective as it was for maintaining an orderly administration, drained the resources of the people. The municipal government in each town was put into the hands of curiales, or the owners of a certain number of acres. They were made responsible for the taxes, which were levied in a gross amount upon the town. The fiscus, or financial administration of the empire, was so managed that the civil offices became an intolerable burden to those who held them. Yet it was a burden from wliich there was no escape. One result was, that, while slaves were often made coloni, — that is, tillers or tenants, sliaring with the owner the profits of tillage, — and thus had their condition improved, many freeholders sank to the same grade, in which serfdom had its origin. When to the exhausting taxation by government, there were added the dispo- sition of large proprietors to despoil the poorer class of land- holders, and from time to time the predatory incursions of barbarians, the small supply of Roman legionaries is easily ac- counted for. Three Races of Barbarians. — While the empire, as regards the power of self-defense, was sinking, the barl)arians were not only profiting by the military skill and experience of the Romans, but were forming military unions among their several tribes. In the East, there was one civilized kingdom, Persia, the successor of the Parthian kingdom, but not powerful enough to be a rival, — certainly not in an aggressive contest. But nortliward and north- east of the Roman boundaries, there stretched "a vague and unexplored waste of barbarism," " a vast, dimly-known chaos of numberless barbarous tongues and savage races." A commotion among these numerous tribes, the imcounted multitudes spreading far into the plain of Central Asia, had begun as early as the days of Julius Ciiesar. They were made up of three races, — the Teu- tons, or Germanic peoples ; eastward of them, the Slavonians ; THE TEUTONIC NATIONS. 20I and, farther beyond, the Asiatic Scythians. The Slavonians, an Aryan branch, hke the Teutons, had their abodes in the space between Germany and the Volga. They were a pastoral and an agricultural race, of whose religion little is known. Their incur- sions and settlements belong to the sixth and seventh centuries, and to the history of the Eastern Empire. Teutonic Confederacies. — Of the confederacies of German tribes, the Goths are first to be mentioned. In the third century they had spread over the immense territory between the Baltic and the Black seas. They were divided into the West Goths {Visigoths) and East Goths {Ostrogoths). Their force was augmented by the junction of kindred tribes. To the east of them, towaids the Don, was a tribe of mixed race, the Ahini. In the third century the CrOths had made their terrible inroads into Mcesia and Thrace, and the brave emperor Decius had perished in the combat with them. They had pushed their marauding excursions as far as the coasts of Greece and Ionia. In the middle of the fourth century they were united, with their allied tribes, under the sovereignty of the East Gothic chieftain, Hermanric. A second league of Ger- manic peoples was the Alemanni, which included the formidable tribes called by Caesar the Suevi, and who, after various incursions, had establislied themselves on the Upper Rhine, in what is now Baden, Wiirtemberg, and north-east in Switzerland, and in the region southward to the summits of the Alps. Their invasion of Italy in 255, when they poured through the passes of the Rhetian Alps, and penetrated as far as Ravenna, was repelled hy Aure/ian, afterwards emperor. A third confederacy was that of the Franks (or Free- men) on the Lower Rhine and the Weser. In North Germany, between the Elbe and the Rhine, were the Saxons. The Biirgun- dians, between the Saxons and the Alemanni, made their way to the same river near Worms. East of the Franks and Saxons, were the valiant Lombards, who made their way southwards to the center of Europe, and finally to the Danube. The Frisians were situated on the shore of the North Sea and in the adjacent islands. North of the Saxons were the Danes and other peoples of Scan- dinavia, — Teutons all, but a separate branch of the Teutonic household. To bold and warlike tribes, now banded together, such as were the Franks and the Alemanni, the Rhine, with its line of Roman cities and fortresses, could form no permanent barrier. When they crossed it, they might be driven back ; but this was only to renew their expeditions at the first favorable moment. The prey which they saw near by, and of which they dreamed in the distance, was too enticing. No more could the Danube fence off the thronging nations ; all of whom had heard, and some of whom had beheld, the wealth and luxury of the civilized lands. 202 MEDI/liVAL HISTORY. Beginning at ihe Euxiiie, and moving westward along the line of the Danube and the Rhine, we find, at the end of the fourth century, that the six most prominent names of Teutonic tribes are the Goths, Vantluls, Dtirgun- dians, Franks, Saxons, and Lovibards. Over the vast plains to the south and west of the Casi)ian are spread the Ilnns, who belong to one branch of the Scythian or Turanian group of nations. Habits of the Germans. — We have notices of the Germans from ynlius Ciesar, the most full descri[)tion of them in the Gennania of Taci- tus. They were tall and robust, and seemed to the Romans, who were of smaller stature, as giants. Tacitus speaks of their "fiercely blue eyes." They lived in huts made of wood, and containing the cattle as well as the family. They tilled the soil, but their favorite employments were war and the chase. Cai)able of cruelty, they were still of a kindly temper, and fond of feasts and social gatherings, where they were apt to indulge in excessive drinking and in gambling. They were brave, ■i.wA not without a delicate sense of honor. Family ties were sacred. The women were chaste, and were com- panions of their husbands, although subject to them. Most of the people W'ere freemen, who were landowners, and carried arms The nobles were those of higher birth, but with no special privileges The freemen owned serfs, who were bound to the soil, and slaves who were generally prisoners taken in war. There was an intermediate class, the ////, who held land of a superior. Many freemen lived apart, but many were gathered in villages. The land about a village was originally held in common. Each village had a chief, and each collection of villages, or hundred, a count, or chief of high rank; and there was a " king," or head of the tribe. All these chieftains were elected by the freemen at assemblies periodically held. When the duke or general was chosen, he was raised on a shield on the shoulders of the men. The judges in the trial of causes sat, with assessors or jurymen around them, in the open air. But private injuries were avenged by the individual or by his family. One marked characteristic of the Germans was the habit of devoting themselves to the service of a military leader. They paid to him ]Dersonal allegiance, and followed him in war. The Germans were, above all, distinguished by a strong sense of personal independence. If their mode of living resembled outwardly that of other savage races, yet in their free political life, and in the noble promise of their language even in its rudiments, the comparison does not hold. In their faithfulness, courage, and ])ersonal purity, they are emphatically contrasted with the generality of barbarous peoples. Religion of the Germans. — We know more of the Scandinavian reli- gion through the Eddas, the Iliad of the Northmen, than of the religion of the Germans; but the two religions were closely allied. Among the chief gods worshiped by the Germans were Woden, called "Odin" in the North, the highest divinity, the god of the air and of the sky, the giver of fruits and delighting in battle; Donar (Thor), the god of thunder and of the weather, armed with a hammer or thunderbolt ; Thin (Tyr), a god of war, answering to Mars; Fro (Freyr),god of love; and Frauwa (Freya), his sister. Particu- lar days were set apart for their worship. Their names appear in the names of the days of the week, — Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. Sun- day is the day of the sun, and Monday the day of the moon. Saturday alone is a name of Latin origin. Among the minor beings in the German mythology were fairies, elves, giants, and dwarfs. There were festivals to the gods. Their images were preserved in groves. Lofty trees were held sacred to divinities. The oak and the red ash were consecrated to Donar. .Sacrifices, and among them human sacrifices, were offered to the gods. Their will was ascertained by means of the lot, the neighing of wild horses, and the flight of birds. Priests were not without influence, but were not a professional class, and were never dominant. Valiant warriors at death were admitted into Walhalla (the hall of the slain), where they sat at banquet with the gods. THE TEUTONIC NATIONS. 203 <1 c S — 1 C) 3 5' B 1-! jj- -C »- P 5 s — fh X Cu2 B O »J 5. e 5" OSE. " ■£is H W M H ffi W a Cfl H l-H K > § z O •-I in w ^ HH > r w c CO M •^ :ix K Op 204 MEDIytVAL IIISTOKV. CHAPTER IT. THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS. The Goths: Theodosius I. — Towards tlie close of the fourth century, when Valcns (364-3 78) wiis reigning in the East, tlie Jliins moved from their settlements north of the Caspian, defeated the Alans, a powerful nation, and, compelling them to enter their service, invaded the empire of the Osfrof^oihs, then ruled by Hcrmanric. The Huns belonged to one branch of the Scyth- ian race. They had migrated in vast numbers from Central Asia. Repulsive in form and visage, with short, thick bodies, and small, fierce eyes, living mostly on horseback or in their wagons, these terrible warriors, with their slings and bone-pointed arrow^s, struck terror into the nations whom they approached. The Gothic Empire fell. The Ostrogoths submitted, and Hermanric died, it is thought by his own hand. The Visigoths crowded down to the Danube, and implored Valens to give them an a.sylum upon Roman territory. They had previovisly been converted to Chris- tianity, mainly by the labors of Ulphilas, who had framed for them an alphabet, and translated nearly the whole Bible into their tongue. Fragments of this Alaso-Gotliic version are the oldest written monument in the Teutonic languages. Christianity was taught to them by Ulphilas in the Arian type ; and this circum- stance was very important, since it was the occasion of the spread of Ai'ianism among many other Teutonic peoples. Valens granted their request to cross the Danube, and, under Fritigern and Ala- vivi/s, to settle in Moesia (370). By the connivance of the officers of Valens, they were allowed to retain their arms. The avarice of corrupt imperial governors provoked them to revolt ; and, in the battle of Adrianople, Valens was defeated. The house into which the wounded emperor was carried was set on fire, and he per- ished. Gratian, who, since the death of Valentinian I. (375), had been the ruler of the West, summoned the valiant Theodosiiis from his estate in Spain, to which he had been banished, to sus- tain the tottering empire. Gratian made him regent in the East. His father had cleared Britain of the Picts and Scots, and restored it to the empire. Under him the son had learned to be a soldier. He had been driven into retirement by court intrigues. He now accomplished, as well as it could be done, the miglity task laid upon him. He checked the progress of the Goths, divided them, incor- porated some of them in the army, and dispersed the rest in Thrace, Moesia, and Asia Minor (3S2). Four years later forty thousand Ostrogoths were received into the imperial service. Once Rome had conquered the barbarians, and planted its colonies among them ; now, after they had proved their power, and gained THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 205 boldness by victory, it received them within its own borders. The indolence and vice of Gratian produced a revolution in the West. Maximus was proclaimed imperator by the legions of Britain, and Gratian was put to death by his cavalry (383). After sanguinary conflicts, Theodosius obtained, also, supreme power in the West. He gave to orthodoxy, in the strife with Arianism, the supremacy in the East ; and, under his auspices, the General Council of Con- stantinople re-affirmed the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity (381). In the ancient church he had a glory second only to that of Con- stantine. With the exception of his harsh and inquisitorial laws for the forcible suppression of Arianism and paganism, his legisla- tion was generally wise and beneficent. Arcadius : Honorius. — Theodosius left the government of the East to his son Arcadius, then eighteen years of age, and that of the West to a younger son, Honorius. The empire of the East continued ten hundred and fifty-eight years after this division ; that of the West, only eighty-one years. The Eastern Empire was defended by the barriers of the Danube and the Balkan mountains, by the strength of Constantinople, together with the care taken to protect it, and by the general tendency of the barbarian invasions westward. Rome, in the course of a half-century, was the object of four terrible attacks, — that of Alaric and the Visigoths ; of Radagaisus with the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans ; of Ge?iseric with the Vandals ; of Attila with the Huns. Alaric in Italy. — The Visigoths made Alaric — the head of their most illustrious family, the Balti — their leader. Honoriii-s was controlled by the influence of Stilicho, a brave soldier, by birth a Vandal ; Arcadius was ruled by a Goth, Rufimis, a cunning and faithless diplomatist. Alaric and his followers were enraged at the withholding of the pay which was due to them yearly from Arcadijis. Rufinus, in order to keep up his sway, and out of hos- tility to Stilicho, arranged that they should invade Eastern Illyri- cum, a province on which each of tlie emperors had claims, and which he feared that Stilicho would seize. They ravaged Thrace and Macedonia, passed through the undefended strait of Ther- mopylse, spared Athens, but devastated the rest of Greece. The only protector of the empire now was Stilicho, to whom Theodo- sius had committed the care of his two sons, and whose power was exercised in the West. He caused the perfidious Rufinus to be put to death by Gainas, one of the Gothic allies of Arcadius. The place of the minister was taken by £u tropins, an Armenian who had been a slave. Stilicho fought the Goths in two cam- paigns, but, perhaps from policy, suffered them to escape by the Strait oi Naupactus {Lepanto). To prevent further ravages, Arca- dius had no alternative but to appoint Alaric master-general or duke of Illyricum. This obliged Stilicho to retire. Raised upon 206 MEDTyiiVAL HISTORY. the shield, and thus made king by his followers, Alaric led them to the conquest of Italy. Honoriiis fled for refuge from Milan to the impregnable fortress of Kavenim. Stilicho came to his relief, and defeated the Visigoths at Pollentia (403). But Honorius copied the example of Arcadius, made Alaric a general, and gave him the commission to conquer Illyricum for the Western Empire. After his defeat, he was moving against Rome with his cavalry, when his retreat was purchased by a pension. It was when Hono- rius was celebrating his triumph at Rome that a monk named TclemacJius leaped into the arena to separate the gladiators. He was stoned to death by the spectators, but the result of his self- devotion was an edict putting a final stop to the gladiatorial shows. The emperor now fixed his residence, which had been at Milan, at Ravenna, a city that was covered on the land side by a wide and impassable morass, over which was an artificial causeway, easily destroyed in case it could not be defended. It had served him as an asylum during the invasion of Alaric. Radagaisus. — The empire was not long left in peace. Alaric was a Christian, and partially civilized. Radagaisus was a Goth, but a heathen and a barbarian. The Siievi under his command, took their course southward from the neighborhood of the Baltic, and, drawing after them the Burguudians, Vandals, and Alans, — tribes which began to be alarmed by the hordes of Huns that were gathering behind them, — advanced to the pillage of the empire. Leaving the bulk of their companions on the borders of the Rhine, two hundred thousand of them crossed the Alps, and made their way as far as Florence. Stilicho once more saved Rome and the empire by forcing them back into the Apennines, where most of them perished from famine. Radagaisus surrendered, and was beheaded. The news of this disaster moved the host which had been left behind, joined by the remainder of the army of Rada- gaisus, to make an attack upon Gaul. Despite the resistance of the Ripuarian Franks, to whom Rome had committed the defense of the Rhine, they crossed that river on the last day of the year 406. For two years Gaul was a prey to their ravages, until the Suevi, the Alans, and the Vandals, sought for fresh booty on the south of the Pyrenees (409). In Gaul they "destroyed the cities, ravaged the fields, and drove before them in a promiscuous crowd, the bishop, the senator, and the virgin, laden with the spoils of their houses and altars." Brief as was this period of devastation, it marks the severance of Gaul from the empire. Alaric again in Italy. — Stilicho had kept up friendly relations with Alaric, and had retained in Italy thirty thousand barbarians in the pay of the empire. The brave general became an object of suspicion to Honorius, who caused him to be assassinated, and the wives and children of the barbarian troops to be massacred. THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 20/ The men fled to Alaric. He came back with them to avenge them. He appeared under the walls of Rome. " It was more than six hundred years since a foreign enemy had been there, and Hannibal had advanced so far, only to retreat." When the en- voys of the Senate represented to Alaric how numerous was the population, he answered, "The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed." But he consented to accept an enormous ransom, and retired to winter quarters in Tuscany. The court at Ravenna re- fused to assign lands to the Visigoths for a permanent settlement in Northern Italy. Alaric demanded the post of master-general of the Western armies. Once more he advanced to Rome, seized the "Port" of Ostia, and compelled the Senate to a.^^omt Attalus, the prefect of the city, emperor. He besieged Ravenna without effect, quarreled with Attains, and deposed him, and for the third time marched upon Rome. Slaves within the city opened the Sala- rian gate to their countrymen, and on the 24th of August, 410, the sack of the city began. To add to the horrors of the scene, a terrific thunder-storm was raging. For three days Rome was given up to pillage. Only the Christian temples were respected, which were crowded by those who sought within them an asylum. Rome had been the center of Paganism. The scattering and destruction of its patrician families was the ruin of the old religion. Alaric did not long survive his victory. He died at Consentia in Briittium. He was buried under the little river Basetitws, which was turned out of its course while the sepulcher was constructing, and then restored to its former channel. The slaves employed in the work were put to death, that the place of his burial might remain a secret (41c). Athaulf: "Wallia. — Athaulf (called Adolphus), the brother and successor of Alaric, was an admirer of the empire. He en- listed in the service of Honorius, and married his sister, Placidia, who was in the hands of the Goths, either as a captive or as a hostage. He put down usurpers in the south of Gaul who had set themselves up as emperors, and entered Spain, in order to drive out the barbarians from that country. But he was assassi- nated (415). His successor, W^allia, carried forward his plans, in the name of Honorius, against the Alans, the Suevi, and the Vandals. He partly exterminated the Alans, chased the Suevi into the mountains on the north-west, and the Vandals into the district called after them, Andalusia. Three Barbarian Kingdoms. — The kingdom of the Sicevi thus established (419), under the kings reigning from 438 to 455 con- quered Ltisitania, and would have subdued all Spain had they not been checked by the Visigoths. As a reward for their ser- vices, the latter received from Honorius, Aquiiaine in Gaul, as far as the Loire and the Rhone, with Toulouse for their capital. 208 iMEDI^VAL HISTORY. They conquered the Sitein in 456, and in 5S5 subjugated them ; in 507 the Franks had driven them out of Gaul. Early in the fifth century the Burgundian kingdom grew up in South-eastern Gaul. At the end of that century the Rhone was a Burgundian river. Lyo7is and Vienne were Burgundian cities. Thus in the first twenty years of the fifth century there arose three barbarian king- doms. Of these, that of the Suevi soon vanished (585), being absorbed by the Visigoths ; that of the Biirgundiayis continued until 534 ; while that of the Visigoths in Spain lasted until the conquest by the Arabs in 711. Conquest of Africa by the Vandals. — Jlonorius died in 423. He had sho\vn himself a zealous defender of the Church against heresy, and was the author of edicts for the suppression of hea- thenism, and for the destruction of heathen temples and idols. But he had proved himself inefficient in the defense of the em- pire. His nephew Valentinian III., the son of Placidia and of the general Cons tan tins, whom she had married in 417, succeeded him ; but he was only six years old, and for twenty-five years the government was carried on in his name by his unworthy mother. She had two able generals, Aetius and Boniface, whose discord was fatal in its effects. At the same time in the East, the govern- ment was managed by Pukheria for her brother, Theodosius II., who had succeeded Arcadius in 40S. A'ciius, who was a Hun, by insidious arts persuaded Placidia to recall Boniface, who was governor of Africa, at the same time that he advised Boniface to disobey the order which he represented as a sentence of death. Boniface sent to Gondci-ic, king of the Vandals in Spain, — who, after the retreat of the Visigoths, were strong in that country, — an offer of an alliance. Genseric, the Vandal leader, the brother and successor of Gonderic, landed in Africa in 429 Avith lifty thousand men. Too late the treachery of Aetius was explained to Boniface. Genseric, with his allies, tribes of nomad JNIoors, defeated him in a bloody battle, and besieged Hippo for fourteen months. Augus- tine, tlie bishop of Hippo, animated the courage of its defenders until his death in 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. Boni- face was again defeated, and Hippo was taken. The Vandals pushed on their conquest, but eight years passed before Carthage was reduced (439). Valentinian had recognized by treaty tlie kingdom of the Vandals. Genseric was cliaracterized by genius and energy as well as by cruelty and avarice. He built up a na\'y, and made himself master of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. He was able to defy Constantinople, on account of his control of the Mediterranean. At the same time he entered into relations with the barbarians in the north, in order that Aetius, who endeavored to bring in some degree of order and obedience in the empire, might be checked and restrained on all sides. The THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 209 Vandals were Arians, and made full use of the difference in faith as a motive for plundering and maltreating the orthodox Christians in Africa, whom their arms had subdued. Attila: Chalons. — The enemy whom Genseric invoked to make a diversion in his favor against the combined rulers of the East and . of the West, was Attila. For a half-century the Huns had halted, in their migration, in the center of Europe, and held under their sway the Ostrogoths, the Gepids, the Marcomanni, and other tribes. The empire of Attila extended from the Baltic to the north of the Danube, and as far east as the Volga. His name inspired terror wherever it was heard. He was styled " the scourge of God." The "sword of Mars" — the point of an ancient sword which, it was said, was discovered by supernatural means, and was presented to him — was deemed the symbol of his right to the dominion of the world. Yet, notwithstanding his fierce visage and haughty mien, he was an indulgent ruler of his own people, and not without pity and other generous traits. Such was the dread of him that it was said that no blade of grass grew on the path which his armies had traversed. First, he attacked Theodosius II. in the East, to force him to recall the troops which he had sent against Genseric. He crossed the Danube, destroyed seventy cities, and forced the Eastern emperor not only to pay a tribute heavier than he had paid before, but also to cede to the Huns the right bank of the river. Theodosius failed in a treacherous attempt to assassinate him through Attila's ambassador, Edeem, whom he had bribed. Attila discovered the plot, but pardoned with disdain the ambas- sadors of the emperor who went to him in his wooden palace in Pan- nonia. He contented himself with reproaching Theodosius with " conspiring, like a perfidious slave, against the life of his master." Regarding Constantinople as impregnable, he turned to the West. He demanded of the Western emperor the half of his states ; and, moving to the Rhine with six hundred thousand barbarians, he crossed that river and the Moselle, advanced on his devastating path into the heart of Gaul, crossed the Seine, and laid siege to Orleans. Everywhere the inhabitants fled before him. The cour- age of the people in Orleans was sustained by their bishop, who at length, as the city was just falling into the hands of the assailants, saw a cloud of dust, and cried, " It is the help of God." It was Aetiiis, who, on the death of Boniface, had thought it prudent to fly to the Nuns, had come back to Italy at the head of sixty thou- sand men, obtained forgiveness of Flacidia, and been made master- general of her forces. He had united to the Roman troops the barbarians who had occupied Gaul, the Visigoths under Theodoric, the Saxons, the Burgundians, the Ripuarian and the Salian Franks. On the Catalaunian fields, a vast plain near Chalons, whither Attila now retreated to find room for the effective use of his 2IO MEDI71-:VAL HISTORY. cavalry, the two multitudinous armies, each composed of a motley collection of nations, met. It was, like the conflict at Marathon, one of the decisive battles of history. It was to determine whether the Aryan or the Scythian was to be supreme in Europe. The battle-field was strewn, it was said, with the bodies of a hundred and sixty thousand men, — an exaggeration indicating that the carnage was too great to be estimated. Attila was worsted. He encircled his camp with a rampart of wagons ; and in the morning the victors saw him standing on the top of a mound composed of the trappings of horsemen, which was to serve as his funeral-pile, with torch-bearers at hand ready to light it in case of defeat. Aetius was weakened by the withdrawal of the Visigoths : the allies did not venture to attack the lion standing thus at bay, but suffered him to return to Germany (451). Attila in Italy. — The next year Attila invaded Upper Italy. He destroyed Aquileia, the inhabitants of which fled to the lagoons of the Adriatic, where their descendants founded Vonce. Padua, Verona, and other cities were reduced to ashes. At Milan he saw a painting which represented the emperor on his throne, and the chiefs of the Huns prostrate before him. He ordered a picture to be painted in which the king of the Huns sat on the throne, and the emperor was at his feet. The Italians were without the means of defense. Leo I. (Leo the Great), bishop of Rome, at the risk of his life accompanied the emperor's ambassadors to Attila's camp. Their persuasions, with rich gifts and the promise of a tribute, availed. The army of Attila was weakened by sickness, and Aetius was approaching. The king of the Huns decided to retire to his forests. The apparition of the two apostles, Peter and Paul, threatening the barbarian with instant death if he did not comply with the prayer of their successor, is the subject of one of the paintings of Raphael. Some months after he left Italy Attila died at the royal village near the Danube, probably from the bursting of an artery during the night (453). The nations which he had subjugated regained their freedom. The chiefs of the Huns contended for the crown in conflicts which dissipated their strength. The expeditions of Attila were like a violent tempest, — destructive for the moment, the traces of which soon disappear. About the name of Attila, there gathered cycles of traditions, Gallo-Ronian or Italian, East German or Gothic, West German and Scandinavian, and Hun- garian. Such traditions in Germany formed, later, the germ of the national epic, the A^ibelungen-lied. They testify to the powerful impression which the hero of the Huns made on the memory and imagination of the different nations. Genseric. — Attila did not see Rome ; but Genseric, his ally, visited it with fire and sword (455). The emperor was Petronius Maximus, a senator, who had slain Valentinian III. as the penalty THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 211 for a mortal offense. The weakness of Maximus as a ruler caused him to be destroyed by the populace. Eiidoxia, the widow of Valentinian, whom Maximus had compelled to marry the author of her husband's death, had secretly implored the aid of the king of the Vandals. Once more Leo showed his fearless spirit by going into the camp of the Vandal king, and interceding for Rome, He only succeeded, however, in mitigating to a limited extent the hor- rors that attended the pillage of the city by the fierce and greedy soldiers, the Vandals and Moors, who followed Gens eric. For fourteen days (June 15-29, 455) Rome was given up to carnage and robbery. The conqueror carried off every thing of value that was capable of being transported. Eudoxia was rudely stripped of her jewels, and with her two daughters, descendants of the great Theodosius, was conveyed away with the conqueror to Carthage. For twenty years longer Genseric ruled over the Mediterranean in spite of the hostility of both empires. An expedition sent against him at tlie instigation of Ricimer, the Sueve, by the East- ern emperor Leo, was ill commanded by Basiliscus, and failed. But after the Vandal king died (477), his kingdom was torn by civil and religious disorders, and by the revolts of the Moors, and, fifty-seven years after the death of its founder, was conquered by the general of the Eastern Empire. Fall of Rome : Odoacer. — After the death of Maximus, Avitus was appointed emperor by the king of the Visigoths in Gaul. The barbarians hesitated to assume the purple themselves, but they determined on whom it should be bestowed. Of the emperors that iViCcttdeA, MajoriaJi (457-461) — who was raised to the throne by Ricimer, military leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army — presents an instance of a worthy character in a corrupt time. At last another )eader of mercenaries ( Orestes, a Pannonian) made his son emperor, — a boy six years old, called Romulus Augustulus (475). Odoacer, who commanded the He- ruli, Rugii, and other federated tribes, — mercenaries to whom Orestes refused to grant a third part of the lands of Italy, — made himself ruler of that country. The Senate of Rome, in pursuance of his wishes, in an address to the Eastern emperor Zeno, declared that an emperor in the West was no longer necessary, and asked him to make Odoacer patrician, and prefect of the diocese of Italy. It was in this character — not as king, but in nominal subordination to Zeno, the head of the united Roman Empire — that Odoacer governed (476). For more than a half-century people had been accustomed to see the barbarians exercise supreme control, so that the extinguishment of the Western Empire was an event less marked in their eyes than it seemed to the view of subsequent ages. Ostrogothic Kingdom of Theodoric. — When Odoacer had reigned twelve years, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths in Mcesia, 212 MEUIyEVAL HISTORY, — who in his youth had hved at the court of Constantinople, had defended the Eastern emperor, but had been provoked to hostihty to him, — was authorized h'j Zeno to move upon Italy. A host consisting of two hundred thousand fighting-men, together with their famihes and goods, followed the Gothic leader. Defeated at Verona (489), Odoacer was forced to make a treaty for a division of power, and to surrender Ravetina, where he had taken refuge ; but very soon, in the tumult of a banquet, he was slain by Theod- oric's own hand, either from fear of a rival, or because he sus- pected that Odoacer was plotting against him. From this time the long reign of Theodoric was one of justice and of peace. More by negotiation than by war, he extended his dominion so that it embraced Illyrium, Pannonia, Noricum, and Rhcetia, and, in the West, South-eastern Gaul (Provence). The Bavarians paid him tribute ; the Alemanni invoked his assistance against the Franks, against whom he afforded succor to the Goths of Aquitaine. In his administration he showed reverence for the old imperial sys- tem, and for its laws and institutions. He fostered agriculture, manufactures, and trade. Although he could not write, he en- couraged learning ; and a learned Roman, Cassiodorus, he ap- pointed to high offices. He permitted the Goths alone to bear arms. He caused to be compiled from the Roman law a collection of statutes for the Goths and for his new subjects, and established mixed tribunals for causes in which both were parties. Cassiodo- rus ascribes to Theodoric the words, " Let other kmgs seek to procure booty, or the downfall of conquered cities : our purpose is, with God's help, so to conquer that our subjects shall lament that they have too late come under our nile." He did what he could to promote peace among other barbarian nations. The prosperity of Italy, and the increase of its population, were a proof of the good government which it enjoyed. An Arian, he respected the Catholics, confirmed the immunities enjoyed by the churches, and generally allowed the Romans to elect their own bishop. He also protected the Jews. The persecution of the Arians in the East (524) hy Justin /., awakened in his mind the belief that a conspiracy was forming against him. He accused Boetliius of being a partner in it, and adjudged him to death (424). While in prison at Pavia, this cultivated man, whom Theodoric had highly esteemed, composed a work on the " Consolations of Philosophy," which has made his name immortal in literature. The course of Theodoric at this time drew upon him the severe displeasure of his orthodox subjects. Soon after his death (526) his ashes were taken out of the tomb, and scattered to the winds. Hence nothing remains of his sepulcher at Ravenna but his empty mau- soleum. Before the close of the century, as we shall see, another German THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 213 tribe, the Lombards, founded a powerful state in Italy, which con- tinued for more than two hundred years (568-774). The Franks: Clovis. — When Clovis (481-5 11), a warlike and ambitious chief of the Merovingian family of princes, became king of the Franks, they numbered but a few thousand warriors. The remnant of the Roman dominion on the Seine and the Loire he annexed, after having put to death Syagrhis, the Roman gov- ernor, who was delivered up to him by the Visigoths. He made Soissons, and then Paris, the seat of his authority. A Salian Frank himself, he joined to himself the Ripuarian Franks on the Lower Rhine, and made war on the Alemanni, who were planted on both sides of the river. Before a battle (formerly thought to have been at Tolbice), he vowed, that, if the victory were given him, he would worship the God of the Christians, of whom his wife Clotilde was one. Clotilde was the niece of the Burgundian king, who was an Arian ; but she was orthodox. The victory was won. Clovis, with three thousand of his nobles, was baptized by Remigius {St. Jiemi), Archbishop of Rheims. Hearing a sermon on the crucifixion, Clovis exclaimed, tliat, if he and his faithful Franks had been there, vengeance would have been taken on the Jews. He was a barbarian still, and the new faith imposed little restraint on his ambition and cruelty. But his conversion was an event of the highest importance. The Gallic church and clergy lent him their devoted support. The Franks were destined to become the domi- nant barbarian people. It was now settled that power was to be in the hands of Catholic — as distinguished from heretical Arian — Christianity. Clovis forced Gundohald, the Burgundian king, to become tributary, and to embrace the Catholic faith. He extended his kingdom to the Rhone on the east, and on the south (507-5 11), confined the Visigoths in Gaul to the strip of territory called 5".?///- mania, which they held for three centuries longer. Brittany alone remained independent under its king. Clovis was hailed as the " most Christian king " and the second Constantine, and was made patrician and consul by the Eastern emperor Atiastasius, in which titles, with their insignia, he rejoiced. In the closing part of his life he took care to destroy other Frank chieftains who might possibly undertake to dispute or divide with him his sovereignty. Distribution of Tribes. — If we look at the map at the close of the fifth century, we find that all the western dominions of Rome are subject to Teutonic kings. The F7-anks, still retaining Western and Central Germany, rule in Northern Gaul, and are soon to extend their sway to the Pyrenees, and to conquer Burgundy. The West Goths are the masters in Spain, and still hold Aquitaine, the most of which, however, is soon to be lost to the Franks. Italy and the lands north of the Alps and the Adriatic form the East Gothic kingdom of Theodoric. Africa is governed by the Arian Vandals. To the north of the Franks, the tribes of Germany, which were never subject to Rome, have already begun their conquests in Britain. With the exception of Britain, which is falling under the power of the Saxons, and Africa, these 214 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. countries are still nominally parts of the Roman Empire, of which Constanti- iiojjlc is the c:i])ital. In the east, the boundaries of the empire, notwithstand- ing the aggressions and insults which it has suffered, are but little altered. The Merovingians. — The dominion of Clovis was partitioned among his four sons (511). Theodo7'ic, the eldest, in Rheims, ruled the Eastern Franks, in what soon after this time began to be called Austrasia, on both banks of the Rhine. Neustria, or the rest of the kingdom north of the Loire, was governed in parts by the other three. Theodoric gained by conquest the land of the Thuringians, whose king, Hcnnanfrid, he treacherously de- stroyed. A part of this land was given to the Saxons. The his- tory of the Franks for half a century lacks unity. The several rulers rarely acted in concert. They made expeditions against the Burgundians, the Visigoths, and the Ostrogoths. Twice they attacked the Burgundians. The last time, in 534, they con- quered them, deprived them of their national kings, and forced them to become Catholic. In 531 they made war on the Visi- goths to avenge the wrongs inflicted on Clotilde, a princess of their family who suffered indignities at the hands of the Arian king Amalaric. They crossed the Pyrenees, and brought away Clotilde. A second division of the kingdom was made in 551 among the grandsons of Clovis, and consummated in 567. Aus- trasia, having Rheims for its capital, had a population chiefly German. Neustria, where the Ciallo-Roman manners were adopt- ed, had Soissons for its capital ; and Burgundy had its capital at Orleans. The population in both these last dominions was more predominantly Romano-Celtic, or " Romance." Family contests, and wars full of horrors, — in which the tragic feud of two women, Brunhilde of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, king of the Visigoths, and Fredcgunde of Neustria, played a prominent part, — ensued. In 613 Clotaire II. of Neustria united the entire king- dom. Brunhilde was captured, and put to death in a barbarous manner. The son of Clotaire, Dagobcrt, was a worthless king. The Frank sovereigns of the royal line are inefficient, and the vir- tual sovereignty is in the hands of the " Mayors of the Palace," the officers whose function it was to superintend the royal house- hold, and who afterwards were leaders of the feudal retainers. The family of the Pipins, who were of pure German extraction, acquired the hereditary right to this office, first in Austrasia and later in Neustria. The descendants of /*///;/ of Heristal, as dukes of the Franks, had regal power, while the title of king was left to the Merovingian princes. The race of Pipin was afterwards called Carolingians, or Karlings. The pre]5onderance of power at first had been with Neustria, but it shifted to the ruder and more energetic Austrasians. The battle of Tcstry, in which Pipin of Heristal at their head overcame the Neustrians, determined THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS. 215 the supremacy of Germany over France (687). His son and suc- cessor, Charles Afarle/ {j 14.- j 4.1), made himself sole " Duke of the Franks ; " and Fi/>in the Short (741-768), the son of Charles Mar- tel, became king, supplanting the Merovingian line (754). - Saxon Conquest of England. — In the fourth century, when the power of Rome was declining, the Picts and Scots from the North began to make incursions into the Roman province of Britain. At the same time Teutonic tribes from the mouths of the Weser and the Elbe, began to land as marauders upon the coast. Honorius withdrew the Roman troops from the island in 410; and it was conquered by these invading tribes, especially the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They became one people, called Anglo-Saxons, Angles or English. They were fierce barbarians, who drove the Celts whom they did not kill or enslave — and whom they called Welsh, or strangers — into Wales and Cornwall. They formed kingdoms, the first of which, Kent, was the result of the coming of Hengist and Horsa, whom Vortigern, the native prince, had invited to help him against the Picts (449). There were seven of these Saxon kingdoms (the Heptarchy), not all of which were at any one time regular communities. They were almost constantly at war with one another and with the natives. They had a king elected from the royal family. Freemen were either Earls or Churls, \\\Q. "gentle" or the "simple." The churl was attached to some one lord whom he followed in war. The thanes were those who devoted themselves to the service of the king or some other great man. The thanes of the king became gentle- men and nobles. There were thralls, or slaves, either prisoners in war, or made slaves for debt or for crime. Connected with the king was a sort of Parliament, called the Witenagemot, or Meet- ing of the Wise, composed originally of all freemen, and then of the great men, the Ealdormen, the king's thanes. After the Saxons were converted, the bishops and abbots belonged to it. In minor affairs, the " mark," or township, governed itself. Conversion of the Saxons. — The seven kingdoms, in the ninth century, were united under Egbert, who became king of Wessex in 802. He was called the king of England. Towards the Celtic Christians, the heathen Saxons were hostile. The conversion of the Saxons was due to the labors of Augustine and forty monks, whom Pope G?-egory the Great (Gregory I.) sent to the island as missionaries in 597. Their first conversions were in Kent, whose king, Ethelbert, had married Bertha, the daughter of a Frankish king. Augustine, who had great success, became the first arch- bishop of Canterbury, and he consecrated a bishop of London. During the seventh century the other Saxon kingdoms were grad- ually converted. York became the seat of a second archbishopric. While Britain had been cut off from close relations with the con- 2l6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. tinent, the Celtic Church there had failed to keep pace with the changes of rite and polity which had taken place among Christians beyond the channel. The consequence was a strife on tliese points between the converted Saxons, who were devoted to the holy see, and the " Culdees " or Old British Christians. Conversion of the Irish. — About the middle of the fifth cen- tury the gospel had been planted in Ireland, mainly by the labors of Patrick, who had been carried to that country from Scotland by pirates when he was a boy, and had returned to it as a mis- sionary. The cloisters, and the schools connected with them, which he founded, flourished, became nurseries of study as well as of piety, and sent out missionaries to other countries of West- em Europe. Character of the Teutonic Kingdoms. — The Teutonic tribe was made up of freemen and of their dependents. The rights of freemen, such as the right to vote, continued ; but these were modified as differences of rank and wealth arose. Their leaders in peace and war were the duke {dux), the count {comies, or graf), and the kerzog (duke of higher grade) over larger provinces. The companions of the king and the local chiefs grew into a nobility. Once or twice in the year there was a gathering of the freemen in assemblies, to decree war or to sanction laws. Land was partly held in common, partly by individuals either as tenants of the communitv, or as individual owners. The soil was shared in proportions by the con- querors and the conquered. The Church. — The Germanic tribes were generally more or less ac- quainted with the Romans, and were Christians by profession. They were subject to the influences of religion, of law, and of language, in the countries where they settled. Power passed from the Empire to the Church. The Church was strong in its moral force. Its bishops commanded the respect of the barbarians. They were moral and social leaders. In the period of darkness and of tem])est, the voices of the Christian clergy were heard in accents of fearless rebuke and of tender consolation. In the cities of Italy and Gaul, the bishops, at the call of the people, informally took the first place in civil affairs. Remarkable men arose in the Church, who were con- spicuous as ambassadors and peace-makers, as intercessors for the suffering, and courageous protectors of the injured. Such a man was Leo the Great. The barbarians were awed by the kingdom of righteousness, which, without exerting force, oi^posed to force and passion an undaunted front. There was often a conflict between their love of power and passionate impatience of control, and their reverence for the priest and for the gospel. They could not avoid feeling in some measure the softening and restraining influence of Christian teaching, and learning the lessons of the cross. Socially, the Church, as such, "was always on the side of peace, on the side of industry, on the side of purity, on the side of lil^erty for the slave, and protection for the oppressed. The monasteries were the only keepers of literary tradition: they were, still more, great agricultural colonies, clearing the wastes, and setting the example of improvement. They were the only seats of human labor which could hope to be spared in those lands of perpetual war." Nevertheless, the religious condition of the West, the condition of the Church and of the clergy, could not fail to be |iowerfully affected for the worse by the influ.x of barbarism, and the corrupting influence of the barba- rian rulers. A great deterioration in the Church and in its ministry ensued after the first generation following the Germanic conquests passed away. This demoralization was more among the secular clergy than the monastic. THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 21/ The " History of the Franks," by Gregory of Tours (540-595), is an instructive memorial of the times. He was himself an intrepid prelate, who did not quail before Chilperic I. and Fredegmide, but braved their wrath. Chilperic proposed to establish by his authority a new view of the Trinity of his own devising, but was resisted by Gregory, who told hini that no one but a lunatic would embrace such an opinion. A still more crude reform of the alphabet, which the Prankish king contrived, and proposed to put in force by having existing books rewritten, Gregory eifectually resisted. Roman Lavy. — The barbarians were profoundly impressed by the system of Roman law. This they recognized as the rule for the Roman population in the different countries. More and more they incorporated its exact pro- visions into their own codes. A«iong the West Goths in Spain the two elements were ultimately fused into one body of laws (642-701). Under the Franks, the Roman municipal system was not extinguished; the Teutonic count or bishop standing in the room of the Roman president or consular, and a more popular body taking the place of the restricted municipality. The Roman civil polity, with its definite enactments for every relation in life ^nd every exigency, was always at hand, and exercised an increasing control. State of Learning. — The Latin language — the rustic Latin of the lower classes — was spoken by the conquered peoples. Latin was the lan- guage of the Church and of the Law. The consequence was, that the two languages, the tongue of the conqueroi-s and of the Roman subjects, existed side by side in an unconscious struggle with one another. In the west and south of Europe, the victory was on the side of the Latin. The languages of these countries, the " Latin nations," grew out of the rustic dialects spoken in Roman times. In these nations the result of the mixture of the races was the final predominance of the Latin element in the civilization. In Gaul, the Franks yielded to I^atin influences: France was the product. With the fall of the empire, classical culture died out. The cathedral and cloister schools preserved the records of literature. The study of language, and the mental discrimination and refinement which spring from it and from literary discipline, passed away. Centuries of comparative illiteracy — dark centu- ries — followed. Yet the monks were often active in their own rude style of composition ; and among them were not only good men, but men of eminent natural abilities, who were unconsciously paving the way for a better time. Saxon England. — In England, by the Saxon conquest, a purely Teu- tonic kingdom was built up. The Saxons were heathen, who had never felt the civilizing influence of Rome. The traces of the earlier state of things in the province which had long been sundered from the enipire, they swept away in the progress of their conquest. CHAPTER IIL THE EASTERN EMPIKE. Religious Disputes. — While the West was beginning to recover from the shock of the barbarian invasions, society in the Eastern Empire w^as growing more enervated and corrupt. For a consid- erable period the Byzantine government was managed by the influence of women. Thus Theodosius II., the successor of Arca- dius (408-450), was governed during his whole reign by his sister Pulchej'ia. In the East, there was an intense interest felt in the abstruse questions of metaphysical theology. The Greek mind was speculative ; and eager and often acrimonious debate on such questions as were raised by Nestorius respecting the two natures 2l8 MEDI^:VAL HISTORY. of the Saviour, was heard even in the shops and markets. The court meddled actively in these heated controversies^ and was swayed to one party or the other by the theologians whom, for the time, it took into its favor. The emperors assumed the high pre- rogative of personally deciding in doctrinal disputes, and of dic- tating opinions to the clergy, who gradually lost their independence, and became abjectly subservient to the imperial will. The Hippodrome. — The rage for doctrinal dispute in the sixth century was only exceeded by the pa.ssions kindled in connec- tion with the circus, or hippodrome, at Constantinople. In old Rome the competitors in the chariot-races were organized, the drivers wore their respective badges, — red, white, blue, or green, — and emperors of the baser sort, like Caligula and Caracalla, visited the stables, and were enrolled on the lists of the rival factions. But in Constantinople the factions of the blue and the green, not content with the contest of the race-course, were violent political parties in which courtiers and the emperor himself took sides. The animosity of the blues and the greens broke out in frequent bloody conflicts in the streets. Their respective adher- ents spread into the provinces. On one occasion, under Jus thiiati, they raised a sedition called Nika (from the watchword used by the combatants), which well-nigh subverted the throne. In this period the body-guard of the emperor played a part resembling that of the old praetorians at Rome. Justinian. — A new dynasty began \\''\t\\ Justin /., who succeeded Anastasius in 518. A peasant from Dardania (Bulgaria), who to the end of life was obliged to sign his name by means of an engraved tablet, but, from being prefect of the Guard, became emperor, Justin Avas still not without merit as a ruler. He edu- cated his WQ\)\\t\\', Justinian I. (527-565), and made him his suc- cessor. Justinian married Theodora, who had been a comedian and a courtesan, and was famous for her beauty. She was the daughter of Acacius, who had had the care of the wild beasts maintained by one of the factions of the circus. She joined the blues, and it was her brave spirit that prevented Justinian from taking flight when he was in imminent danger from the revolt of the Nika. The most important proceedings and decisions in affairs of state were determined by her will. Outwardly correct in her life, and zealous for orthodoxy, her vigor of mind and cleverness were not without service to the government ; but her vindictive passions had full indulgence. Justinian's reign was the most brilliant period in the Byzantine history after the time of Constantine. Under his despotic rule the last vestiges of republi- can administration were obliterated. His love of pomp and of extravagant expenditure, in connection with his costly wars, sub- jected the people to a crushing weight of taxation. THE EASTERN EMPIRE. * 219 War with Persia. — The brilliant achievements in war during Justinian's reign were owing to the skill and valor of his generals, especially of the hero Belisariiis. After a hundred years of amity with Persia, war with that kingdom broke out once more under Anastasius and Justin. Belisariiis saved the Asiatic provinces, and defended the empire on the east against Cobad, and against his successor, Chosroes I. (531-579), who was, perhaps, the great- est of the Persian kings of the Sassanid dynasty. The " endless peace" made with him in 533 lasted but seven years. Chosroes captured Antioch in 540. The worst consequences of this success were again averted by Belisariiis, who was recalled from Italy in all haste. In the treaty of ^d 2, Justinian ingloriously agreed to pay for the honor of being the protector of the Christians in Persia the annual tribute of three thousand pieces of gold. Conquest of Africa. — From a military point of view the con- quests o{ Justinian in Africa, in Italy, and in Spain, were the signal events of his reign. Victory proved fatal to the barbarian con- querors in those countries. They were weakened by the southern climate, by sensual indulgence, and by strife among themselves. Justinian was ready to profit by this diminished capacity of resist- ance. Gelimer, king of the Vandals, had put to death Hildimer, a kinsman of Theodosius I. The emperor made this an occasion of attacking the Vandal kingdom, which was distracted by reli- gious differences and contention. Belisariiis sailed to Africa with a fleet of six hundred vessels, manned with twenty thousand sail- ors and fifteen thousand troops. Three months after landing he gained a decisive victory, and took possession of Africa, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles (534). He carried Gelimer as a captive to Constantinople, and presented him to Justinian and Theodora, seated side by side in the hippodrome to receive the triumphal procession in honor of the victor. The captive ruler could only exclaim, " Vanity, vanity ! All is vanity ! " Conquest of Italy. — Professedly to avenge the wrongs of Amalasontha, the ambitious and intriguing daughter of Theodoric, who had been killed as a consequence of the disaffection of the Goths, Belisariiis was sent to Italy. Sicily was conquered (535), and Naples and Rome wert taken (536). Vitiges, the new king of the Goths, united the forces of the nation ; but he was driven to shut himself up in Ravenna, and Ravenna surrendered (540). The Goths had offered the sovereignty of the country to Belisa- riiis. The jealousy of Justinian, and war with Persia, led to the recall of Belisarius before he could complete the work of con- quest. The Goths under Totila, a nephew of the late king, re- gained the greater part of Italy. Belisarius (544-549) was sent for the second time to conquer that country. He gained impor- tant successes, and recaptured Rome ; but he was feebly supported 220 " MEDIEVAL HISTORY. by the suspicious and envious ruler at Constantinople, and was at length called home. Narses, a eunuch, insignificant in person, but as crafty as he was brave, was commissioned to accomplish what Belisarius had not been allowed to effect. He entered Italy at the head of an army, made up mostly of Huns, Heruli, and other barbarians, and defeated Totila, who died of his wounds (552). The Ostrogothic kingdom fell. The Gothic warriors who survived had leave to quit the country with their property, they having taken an oath never to return. The Ostrogoths, as a na- tion, vanish from history. The Ex.'^rchate, or vice-royalty of the Eastern Empire, was established, with its seat at Ravenna. In Spain, Justinian obtained Valencia and Eastern Bcetica (552), in reward of the assistance which he had rendered to AtJianagihi against a competitor for the throne. Constantinople was saved by Belisafius from a threatened attack of the Bu/gaj-ians, who had crossed the Danube on the ice (559). This great general, whose form and stature and benign manners attracted the ad- miration of the people, as his noble but poorly requited services gave him a right to the gratitude of the sovereign, was accused, in 563, of conspiracy against the life of Justinian. His property was confiscated, but his innocence was finally declared. The story that he was deprived of his eyes, and compelled to beg his bread, is not credited. He died in 565. A few months later Justinian himself died at the age of eighty-three. He has been aptly com- pared, as to his personal character and the character of his reign, to Louis XIV. of France. x-Vmong the many structures which he reared was the temple of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and count- less fortresses for the defense of the capital, of the Danube, and of other parts of the exposed frontier. The Civil La"W. — Justinian's principal distinction in history grows out of his relation to legislation, and to the study of the law. He caused a famous lawyer, Tribonian, with the aid of a body of jurists, to make those collections of ancient law which are still in force in many countries. The Code included the imperial constitutions and edicts in twelve books (527, 528). This was followed (533) by the Tnsfitiitcs, embracing the principles of Roman jurisprudence, which was to be studied in the schools of Constantinople, Berytiis, a.nd IiO///e ; and the Digest, or Pandects, comprising the most valu- able passages from the writings of the old jurists, that were deemed of authority. In this last work three million lines were reduced to a hundred and fifty thousand. Finally a fourth work, The Novels, embraced the laws of Justinian after the publication of the code (534-565). These works, taken together, form the Civil Law, — the Corpus yitris Civilis. They arc the legacy of Rome to later times. Humane principles are incorporated into the civil law, but, likewise, the despotic system of imperialism. Tlie Lombards in Italy. — In the great "Wandering of the Nations," the German tribe of Lombards, or Langobards, had made their way into Pannonia. To the east of them, in Dacia, there had arisen the kingdom of the Gepidce, a people akin to the THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 221 Goths. In that region, also, were the Turanian Avars, with whom the Lombards allied themselves, and overthrew the king- dom of the Gepidce. After the conquest of Italy, Narses had established there the Byzantine system of rule and of grinding taxation. Discontent was the natural result. The enemies of Narses at Constantinople persuaded Justin II. and his queen Sophia, who had great influence over him, that prudence de- manded the recall of the able, but avaricious and obnoxious, gov- ernor. The queen was reported to have said, that " he should leave to men the exercise of arms, and return to his proper station among the women of the palace, where a distaff should be placed in the eunuch's hand." " I will spin her such a thread," Narses is said to have replied, " as she shall not unravel her life long." He forthwith invited the Lombai-ds into Italy, an invitation which they were not loth to accept. Alboin was their leader, who had married the beautiful Rosamond, daughter of the Gepid kmg whom he had slain. Narses repented of his rash proceeding, but he died before he could organize a resistance to the invaders. These founded the great Lombard kingdom in the north of Italy, and the smaller Lombard states of Spoleto and Beneven- tuni. Ravenna, — the residence of the Exarchs, — Rome, Na- ples, and the island city of Venice, were centers of districts still remaining subject to the Greek emperor, as were also the southern points of the two peninsulas of Southern Italy, and, for the time, the three main islands. Alboin was killed in 5 74 at the instiga- tion of Rosainond, to whom, it was said, at a revel he had sent wine to drink in the skull of Cunimund, her father. The Lombards were not like the Goths. They formed no treaties, but seized on whatever lands they wanted, reserving to themselves all political rights. The new-comers were Arian in religion, and partly heathen. There was little intermixture by marriage between the two classes of inhabitants. Lombard and Roman was each gov- erned by his own system of law. Later, especially under the kings Liutprand, Rachis, and Aistulf (713-756), this antagonism was much lessened, and the Roman law gained a preponderating influence in the Lombard codes. Gradually the power of the independent Lombard duchies increased. The strength of the Lombard kingdom was thus reduced. The Lombards more and more learned the arts of civilized life from the Romans, and shared in the trading and industrial pursuits of the cities. Their gradual conversion to Catholic Christianity brought the two peo- ples still nearer together. It was within half a century of the Lom- bard conquest that Gregory I. (Gregory the Great) held the papal office (590-604). After Justinian. — During the century and a half that followed the death of Justinian, the history of the Byzantine court and 222 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. empire is an almost unbroken tale of crime and degeneracy. The cruelty of such emperors as Phocas (602-610) and Justinian II. surpasses the brutality of Nero and Domitian. The reign of Heraclius is the only refreshing passage in this dreary and repul- sive record. He led his armies in person in a series of cam- paigns against Chosroes II., the Persian king. At the very time when Constantinople was besieged in vain by a host of Persians and Avars, he conducted his forces into the heart of the Persian Empire ; and in a great battle near Nineveh in 627, he won a deci- sive victory. With the reign of Heraclius, the transient prosperity of the Greek Empire comes to an end. It was exhausted, even by its victories, Ovenvhelmed with taxation, it was ruined in its trade and industry. Despotism in the rulers, sensuality and base- ness in rulers and subjects, undermined public and private virtue. In addition to other enemies on every side, it was attacked by the Arabians ; and Heraclius lived to see the loss of Syria and of Egypt, and the capture of Alexandria, by these new assailants. Controversy on Image-Worship. — The period of theological debate, when at its height in the fourth and fifth centuries, what- ever extravagances of doctrinal zeal attended it, dealt with themes of grave importance ; and controversy was often waged by men of high ability and moral worth. After that time, there succeeded to the tempest an intellectual stagnation, under the blighting breath of despotism, coupled with the effect of a lassitude, the natural sequel of the long-continued disputation. But, in the eighth and ninth centuries, a new controversy took place, which convulsed the Eastern Empire, and extended to the \\' est. The matter in dispute was the use of images in worship. Pictorial representations had been gradually introduced in the earlier cen- turies, but had been opposed, especially in Egypt and in the Afri- can Church. After the time of Constantine, they came by degrees into universal use. This formed a ground of reproach on the part of the Mohammedans. The warfare upon images was begun by Leo III, the Isaurian (717-741), a rough soldier with no appre- ciation of art, who issued an edict against them. The party of '•' image-breakers," or iconoclasts, had numerous adherents ; and the opposite party of " image-worshipers," who had a powerful support from the monks in the convents, were ardent and inflex- ible in withstanding the imperial measures. Neither the remon- strances of John of Damascus, the last of the Greek Fathers, nor of the Roman bishop, made an impression on Leo. The agita- tion spread far and wide. Subsequent emperors followed in his path. At length, however, the Empress Irene (7S0-802) restored image-worship ; and, in 842, the Empress Thcdora finally con- firmed this act. In the controversy, religious motives were active, but they were mingled on both sides with political considerations. THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 223 The alienation of feeling on the part of the Roman bishops was one cause of the separation of Italy from the Greek Empire. Literature and Culture. — While there was a prevalence of illiteracy in the West, there continued in the Eastern Empire an interest in letters, and a respect for classical literature. Devoted Greek monks taught the Gospel to the Bulgarians and to the Slavonian tribes on its borders. Cyril and Methodius, faithful missionaries, gave the Bible to the Moravians in their own tongue. In the seventh century, yohn of Damascus compiled from the Greek Fathers a celebrated treatise on theology. But the period of original thought in theology, as elsewhere, had passed by. This work of the Damascene was made up chiefly of excerpts from the Fathers before him. In earlier days the church in the East had been served by erudite theologians of great talents and of great excellence, such as Basil the Great (328-379), Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianztim (326-390) ; all of whom were liberal-minded men, stren- uous defenders of orthodox doctrine, and yet not unfriendly to philosophical study. Of even wider fame was yohft Chrysostom (347-407), a preacher of captivating eloquence and of an eiarnest Chrisfcjan spirit, whose censure of the vices of the Byzantine court provoked the wrath of the Empress Eudoxia, and twice drove him into banishment. In the declining days of the empire, literary effort was mainly confined to compilations and comments. Eusebius, in the fourth century, had written a History of the Church, and a Chronicle, or General History; and, a century later (about 432), Zosimus composed a Histoiy in a spirit of antipathy to Christianity and of sympathy with the old religion. To Procopius (who died about 565) we owe an inter- esting history of the times of yustinian. After the seventh century, all traces of life and spirit vanish from the pages of the Byzantine historians. In mathematics and astronomy, in architecture and mechanics, the Byzantine Greeks were the teachers of the Arabians and of the new peoples of the West. The Byzantine style of architecture was of a distinct type, and was widely diffused. The Slavonic Tribes. — In the sixth century the Slavonian tribes come into view. The Avars stirred up such a commotion among those tribes as the Huns had created among the Germans. The Slaves were driven to the north- west, where later they came into relations with Germany ; and to the south- west, where, as conquerors and as learners, they stood, in some degree, in relation to the Eastern Empire, in the same position as that of the Germans in reference to the Western. North and East of the Adriatic arose Slavo- nian States, as Servia, Croatia, Carinthia. Istria and Dalmatia, except the cities on the coast, became Slavonic. The Slaves displaced the old Illyrian race. In the seventh and eighth centuries, Macedonia and Greece were largely occupied by Slavonians. The Bulgarians were a Turanian people, who mixed with the Slavonians, and adopted their language. In 895 the Magyars, a Turanian people, crowded into Dacia and Pannonia; and thus the Bulgarians were confined to the lands south of the Danube. The Mag- yars formed the kingdom of Hungary. The Slavonian Riissians were cut off from the Southern tribes of the same race. CHAPTER IV. MOHAMMEDAK-ISM AND THE ARABIC CONQUESTS. Condition of Arabia. — In the sixth century the influence of the Greek and of the Persian Empires, especially of the Persian, was prevalent in Arabia. It was then inhabited mostly by tribes 224 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. either distinct or loosely bound together, and contained no inde- pendent state of any considerable importance. The Arabs of that day had " all the virtues and vices of the half-savage state, its re- venge and its rapacity, its hospitality and its bounty." In the Hejaz district — situated between fertile and more civilized Yemen, or Arabia Felix, in the south-west of the peninsula and the Sinaitic region, — and in Nejd to the east of Hejaz, which were the two districts in which Islam and the Arabian Empire took their rise, dwelt tribes whose common sanctuary was the Kaaba at Mecca, in the wall of which was the quadrangular black stone kissed by all devotees, and supposed to have been received from the angel Gabriel. The religion of the Arabs was polytheism in many different forms, in which idol-worship was prominent ; but all agreed in acknowledging one supreme God, Allah, in whose name solemn oaths were taken. Once in the year the tribes gathered in Mecca for their devotions ; and a great fair in the vicinity, attended by a poetical contest, made the city prosperous. The town was made up of separate Septs, or patriarchal families, each under its own head, of which septs the Ominiads were of princi- pal importance, and had charge of the Kaaba. Afohaini?ied be- longed to the Hashimites, another and poorer branch of the leading tribe of Koreish. The Koreishites, by their trading-journeys to Syria, had acquired more culture then others, whether Bedouins, or residents of Medina. At the time when Mohammed was born, which was probably in 572, the religion of the Arabs had sunk into idolatry or indifference. There were three hundred and sixty images in the Kaaba. But there were some who were called hanifs, who were serious and earnest, and turned away from idola- trous worship. Besides the Sabiati religion of the Persian sun- worshipers, the leading tenets and rites of Christianity and of Judaism, both in the degenerate types which they assumed on the Syrian borders, were not unfamiliar to Arabs dwelling in the cara- van routes on the borders of the Red Sea. Career of Mohammed. — Mohammed vfas early left an orphan under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. In his youth he tended sheep, and gathered wild berries in the desert. In his twenty-fifth year he became the commercial agent of a wealthy widow, Khadija, made journeys for her into Palestine and Syria, — where he may have received religious knowledge and impressions from Christian monks and Jewish rabbis, — and, after a time, married her. He is described as having a commanding presence, with piercing eyes, fluent in speech, and with pleasing ways. Eventually he came into close contact with the hanifs. He followed the custom of retiring for meditation and prayer to the lonely and desolate Mount Hira. A vivid sense of the being of one Almighty God and of his own re- sponsibility to God, entered into his soul. A tendency to hysteria MOHAMMEDANISM. 22$ — in the East a disease of men as well as of women — and to epi- lepsy helps to account for extraordinary states of body and mind of which he was the subject. At first he ascribed his strange ecstasies, or hallucinations, to evil spirits, especially on the occasion when an angel directed him to begin the work of prophesying. But he was persuaded by Khadija that their source was from above. He be- came convinced that he was a prophet inspired with a holy truth and charged with a sacred commission. His wife was his first convert. His faith he called Islam, which signifies " resignation to the divine will." His cousin Ali, his friend Abtibekhr, and a few others, believed in him. There is no doubt that the materials of Mohamnaed's creed were drawn from Jewish and Christian sources : Abraham was the hanif, whose pure monotheism he claimed to re-assert ; but the animating spirit was from within. The sum of his doctrine was, that there is only one God, and that Mohammed is the apostle of God. After the Hegira. — The Koreishites, the rulers and the elders, persecuted him. They flung out the reproach, that his adherents were from the poor or from the rank of slaves. This provoked him to denounce them, and to threaten them with the Divine judg- ment and with perdition. He lost his uncle in 619 : his wife had died before. He had found sympathy with his claims from pious men from Medijia. They offered him an asylum. Thither he went in 622, the date of his Hegira, or Flight from Mecca, from which the Mohammedan calendar is reckoned. At Medina he won influence : he was frequently resorted to as an adviser, and as a judge to settle disputes. His activity in this direction was beneficent. His injunctions respecting the rights of property, and the protection due to women, were, in the main, discreet and wholesome. Naturally and speedily he' became a political leader as well as a religious ^former. This new course on which he entered made a breach between him and i\\Q Jews, whom he had hoped to conciliate. He drew off from fellowship with them, made Friday the principal day of public worship, and Mecca its principal seat. For the Jewish fast he substituted the month of Ramadan. His plan was to cement together the Arab tribes, superseding the old tie of blood by the new bond of fellowship in adherence to him. The project of a holy war to conquer and to crush the idolaters, and to establish his own authority, was the means to this end. Mecca was the first object of assault. He attacked and plundered a Meccan caravan in 623. The next year he defeated the Koreishites in the battle of Bedr. In the battle of Ohud (626) his followers were worsted. Other conflicts ensued, with attacks on \!^t Jews in the intervals, until, in 630, he entered Mecca at the head of ten thousand men, and destroyed all the idols. This event secured the adhesion of the Arabian tribes, together with the chiefs 226 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. of Yemen and of the other more civilized districts. Hearing that the Emperor Hcraclius was proposing to attack him, he went forth to meet him, but found that the rumor was false. He was prepar- ing a new expedition against the Greeks when he died, in 632. Character of Mohammed. — From the time of the flight of Mohammed to Medina, the prophet turned more and more into the politician. Under the circumstances, this was, perhaps, an almost inevitable change. But one consequence was the bringing out of his natural vindictiveness, and the transformation of the enthusiast into the fanatic. Beginning as the prophet of Arabia, he came to think that he was the prophet of the whole world. There was a call to a wider warfare against idolatry A crusade, partly political and partly religious, involved a mixture of craft and cruelty which exhibit his character in a new light. Yet it is probable that he always sincerely felt that his work in general was one to which he was called of God. Even the prosaic regulations and " orders of the day," which are placed in the Koran, if not the reproduction, in cataleptic visions, of his previous thoughts, may have been re- garded by him as having a divine sanction. The extent of possible self-deception in so extraordinary a combination of qualities, it is not easy to define. His conduct was, for the most part, on a level with his precepts. There was one exception ; he allowed not more than four wives to a disciple : he himself, at one time, had eleven. While Khadija lived he was wedded to her alone. The Koran. — The Koran is regarded as the word of God by a hundred millions of disciples. It is very unequal in style. In parts it is vigorous, and here and there imaginative, but generally its tone is prosaic. Its narrative portions are chiefly about scriptural persons, especially those of the Old Tes- tament. Mohammed's acquaintance with these must have been indirect, from rabbinical and apocryphal sources. Adam, N'oah, Abraham, Moses, and Christ are acknowledged as prophets. The deity of Christ and the doctrine of the Trinity are repudiated. The miracles of Jesus are acknowledged. Moham- med does not claim for himself miraculous power. Predestination is taught, but this became a conspicuous tenet of Moslems after the death of the founder. The immortality of the soul is admitted, the pains of hell are threatened to the wicked and to "infidels;" and a sensual paradise is promised to the faith- ful, although it is declared that higher spiritual joys are the lot of the most favored. The faith of Mohammed was. in substance, Judaism, the religion of the Old Testament; power being set before holiness, however, in the con- ception of God, and the supernatural mission of Jllohammed substituted for the future Messianic reign of righteousness and ]:ieace, and coupled with the emphatic proclamation of the last judgment. The law in the Koran is a civil as well as a moral code. Notwithstanding his countenance of sensuality by his own practice, as well as by his legalizing of polygamy, and his notion of paradise, Mohammed elevated the condition of woman among the Arabs. Before there was unbridled profligacy: now there was a regulated ])olygamy. Severe prohibitions are uttered against thieving, usury, fraud, false witness ; and alms-giving is emphatically enjoined. Strong drink and gambling were prohibited. The gem of the Koran is " The Lord's Prayer of the Moslems : " " In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner, the Sovereign of the day of MOHAMMEDAN CONQUESTS. 22/ judgment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in the right way; in the way of those to whom Thou hast been gracious, in whom there is no wrath, and wlio go not astray." The Arabic Conquests : Syria, Persia, Egypt. — Mohammed made no provision for the succession. The Caliphs, or " success- ors," combined in themselves civil, military and religious authority. They united the functions of emperor and pope. AH, the husband of Fathna, Mohammed's favorite daughter, had hoped to succeed him. But, by the older companions of the prophet, Abicbekr, Mo- hammed's father-in-law was a])pointed. The Schiites were sup- porters of Ali, while the Sunnites, who adhered to " the traditions of the elders," were against him. These two parties have con- tinued until the present day ; the Persians being Schiites, and the Turks, Sunnites. Mohammed, before he died, was inflamed with the spirit of conquest. Full of the fire of fanaticism, mingled with a thirst for dominion and plunder, the Arabians rapidly extended their sway. These warriors, to their credit be it said, if terrible in attack, were mild in victory. Their two principal adversaries were the Eastern Empire and Persia. Mohammedanism snatched from the empire those provinces in which the Greek civilization had not taken deep root, and it made its way into Europe. It conquered. Persia, and became the principal religion of those Asiatic nations with which history mainly has to do. Mohammed had made a difference in his injunctions between heathen, apostates, and schis- matics, all of whom were to be exterminated without mercy, and Jews and (Christians, to both of whom was given the choice of the Koran, tribute, or death. They must buy the right to exercise their religion, if they refused to say that " Allah is God, and Mohammed is His prophet." Omar (634-644), the next caliph after Abu- bekr, and a leader distinguished alike for his military energy and his simplicity of manners and life, first brought all Arabia, which was impelled as much by a craving for booty as by religious zeal, into a cordial union under his banner. Then he carried the war beyond the Arabian borders. Palestine and Sy7-ia were wrested from the Greek Empire ; the old cities oi Jerusalem, Antioch, and Damascus fell into the hands of the impetuous Saracens. A mosque was erected on the site of Solomon's Temple. The Persian Empire was invaded, and, after a series of sanguinary battles, especially the battle of Cadesia (636J, followed by the battle of Nehavend (642), was destroyed. Ctesiphon, with all its riches, was cap- tured, and Persepolis was sacked. The last king of the line of Sassa7iids, Yezdcgcrd III., having lived for many years as a fugitive, perished by the hand of an assassin (652). Meantime Egypt \\2.^ submitted to the irresistible invaders under Amrov, who was aided by the Christian sect of the Copts, out of hostility to the Greek Orthodox Church. After a siege of fourteen months, Alexandria 228 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. was taken; but it is probably not true that the library was burned by Omar's order. In the disorders of the times, the great collec- tions of books had probably, for the most part, been dispersed and destroyed. Six friends of Mohammed, selected by Ojnar, chose Otlnnan (644-656) for his successor, who stirred up enmity by his pride and avarice. Under him the Christian Berbers in Africa were won over to the faith of Islam, and paved the way for its further advance. The Ommiads: Conquest of Africa and Spain. — Othvian was assassinated by three fanatics, and All was then raised to the cal- iphate ; but Miiawwiyah, representing the family of the Omviiuds, made himself the head of an opposing party, and, after the assassi- nation of AH, became sole caliph (661). He removed the seat of the caliphate to Damascus. He carried the Arabian conquests as far as the Indus and Bokliara. He created a fleet on the Mediterranean, under an " Admiral," that is, a commander on the sea. In seven successive years he menaced Constantinople with his navy. At a later time, in 717, under the caliph 6"^//- man, another great attempt was made on the capital of the Greek Empire. With an army of a hundred and twenty thousand men, he traversed Asia Minor and the Hellespont, and was supported in his attack by a fleet of eighteen hundred sail. But the energetic defense, which was aided by the use of " the Greek fire," — an arti- ficial compound which exploded and burned with an uncjuench- able flame, — caused the grand expedition to fail ; and the Eastern Empire had another long lease of life. The successors of Muaw- wiyah accomplished the subjugation of Africa. They were invited by the native inhabitants, who groaned under the burdens of tax- ation laid on them by the Greek emperors. About A.D. 700 the Arab governor, Musa, completed the conquest of the African do- minion of the Greeks as far as the Atlantic. The amalgamation of the Berbers with the other inhabitants of that region, and with the Arabs, resulted in the race called Moors. At this time the Spanish Visigothic kingdom, which had become Catholic (586- 601), was much enfeebled, and a prey to discord. Under Tarik — from whom Gibi-aliar, or the mountain of Tarik near which he landed, is named — the Arabs crossed into Spain, and for the first time found themselves face to face with the barbarians of the North. In the great battle of Xeres de la Fronto-a, near the Gua- dalquivir, in 711, which lasted for three days, the fate of the Visigothic kingdom was decided. Eight years were occupied in conquering Spain. In 720 the Saracens occupied Scpti mania north of the Pyrenees, a dependency of the Gothic kingdom. Gaul now lay open before them. The Mohammedan power threatened to encircle Christendom, and to destroy the Church and Christianity itself. In the plains between Tours and Poitiers, the Saracens were -nr^ vf'iG '^r^'A ^ Constantine /, I'^'t""^''' c,j^ ^V Telemsen ^alulall. / _^'Pw- "'^ -D- I « (Kairouan ^ ^■^ % Biskara* ^^^ J^Mel Tuggurt ^^••fe'^'* BELAD AL JEEID*/ '^ *Sejelinesa |^ Tessabit CRETE . ^BMODC Tarablos -4 ?V S .Warjela -<»-' LeWdat^^ Tolmaita/'''i^^ert>« .. z. ^ ■'-AN T U AT ^ Gadauies "<• Sort* B A G R A wA H Soltna* -^ W A D A N ^Taghiza •Telig Jerma, ^ S A .Zawilah H Tessowa' /\. Tabu, ^ ^ Medrum lia E A' Koukou ^ Za- e Zaga T Nebrina • EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS C ABOUT A. D. 750. O F A-^ A R S ^♦Tnma rtarliha ^^^ >?,, •Semendn .drift \ SEx Af Kurgeiij^ ,^„ i^ Botliara I Nautenjan ^ ^ Ghazma ^ f^s S ^ A cO \ I '^■^ Erzet^um* BebilTY J-f sl^ > \k"^ M>y /Cabmen I A ^^- \^ ^m„iJ^< '^ ^^ . Isfahan. "^ g-S "^ Si'^Ta'^'; / ' 'S ■ O -,, M \ / ■^ .SMraz ^£R„AN ^ ^- "^"^'AV-^ "^- ,-^- ""'J?"* ^^ ^ ^ S I N D *) ^ ^ II A M / -V Taljouk • Tima. ^ , -v ' ^ . ^^ -^ .Madain •^^"' „• ^' \ -^.^.e^.. Hedyen t ^ ^ "^ Derayeli •yemame iKoftV-^ . __ j*i,ossdr ) , Hedyet ^ ^ ■-» S '^ • \sROuanV ^* ''-'•^^, Wedma Yanil»o .^^ -^ '^ Y.OREISH ^ O H A f SEA As ten tP ,H*<' ^.^-<: / ^^ '"'^'' /» Amhara Zaleg* EMPIRE. OF TegaT)et Debra* SOKOTORA \ .GV '""''of ^ A/ Debra* / Shavah i / H A B E S H ,y < \ Bali / « ^ MOHAMMEDAN STATES. 229 met by the Austrasian Franks under Charles Martel (732). The impetuous charges of the Saracen cavalry were met and beaten back by the infantry of the Franks, which confronted them hke an iron wall. The Mohammedan defeat saved Christian Europe from being trampled under foot by the Mussulman ; it saved the Chris- tian people of the Aryan nations from being subjugated by the Semitic disciples of the Koran. At the same time that Spain was overrun, the Turkish lands on the east of the Caspian were sub- dued. The old antipathy between the Iranians and Turanians, the Schiite Persians and the Sunnite Turks, was afterwards carried into Europe by the Ottoman Moslems. The Abassides : Bagdad. — Misgovernment embittered the faithful against the rule of the Omriiiads in Damascus, although Syria had become a source of higher culture for the Arabians : there they became acquainted with Greek learning. The adher- ents of All found vigorous champions in the Abassides, who, as Hashemifes, laid claim to the caliphate. One of them, Abul Abbas, was made caliph by the soldiers in 750. The fierce cru- elty of his party against the Omtniads led to the murder of all of them except Abderrahinan, who fled to Africa, and, in 755, founded an independent caliphate at Cordova. The Abassides attached themselves to the Sunnite creed. Under Almansor, the brother and successor of Abbas, Bagdad, a city founded by Al- mansor (754-775) on the banks of the Tigris, was made the seat of the caliphate, and so continued until the great Mongolian in- vasion in 1258. Bagdad was built on the west bank of the Tigris, but, by means of bridges, stretched over to the other shore. It was protected by strong, double walls. It was not only the proud capital of the caliphate : it was, besides, the great market for the trade of the East, the meeting-place of many nations, where cara- vans from China and Thibet, from India, and from Ferghana in the modern Turkestan, met throngs of merchants from Armenia and Constantinople, from Egypt and Arabia. There trading-fleets gathered which carried the products of the North and West down the great rivers to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Bag- dad was to the caliphs what Byzantium was to Constantine, or Alexandria to the Ptolemies. It became the grandest city in the world. Canals to the number of six hundred ran through it, and a hundred and five bridges bound its two parts together. It was furnished with many thousand mosques and as many baths. The palace of the caliphs comprised in itself all the splendor which Asiatic taste and extravagance could collect and combine in one edifice. The Eastern Caliphate. — Deprived of the western extremity of their empire, the Abassides still ruled over Asia and Africa. In their luxurious and splendid court, the caliphs, served by a 230 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. vast retinue of officers with the Vizier at their head, copied the magnificence of the ancient Persians. The most famous of the cahphs of Bagdad is Haroiui-al-Kaschid, or " Aaron the Just " (768-809). His name is famihar even to children as the won- derful hero of the "Arabian Nights." His reign, like that of Solomon in ancient Judaea, was considered in after times the golden age of the caliph dominion. As in the case of Charle- inai^ne, poetry and romance invested his character and reign with all tliat can give glory and honor to a king and a sage. iJrilliant pictures were drawn of the boundless wealth and luxury of his court, and of his admirable piety and wisdom. About him there was assembled a host of jurists, linguists, and poets. Three hun- dred scholars traveled at his expense through different lands. Righteous judgments were ascribed to him, and oracular sayings. He was made the ideal ruler of Oriental fancy. His real character fell much below the later popular conception. He behaved like an Eastern despot towards all his kindred who stood in his way. The Persian family of Bai-mccides he exterminated, when his pas- sionate attachment to one of them turned to hatred on account of an obscure affair connected with the harem. Stories told by Western chroniclers of his relations with Charlemagne require to be sifted. The Greek emperor Nicepho7-iis, who had rashly defied him, he addressed as the " Roman dog." Nine times Haroitn invaded the Greek Empire, left its provinces wasted as by a hurricane, and extorted from it a tribute which he obliged the emperors, who repented of their daring, to pay in coin stamped with his image. His best distinction is in the liberal patronage which he, no doubt, extended to learning. In this he was imi- tated by his son Al Mamun (813-833), who founded numerous schools, and expended vast sums in behalf of science and letters. The caliphate was weakened by the introduction of the Turks, somewhat as the Roman Empire fared from its relations with the Germans. Montassem (833-842), the eighth of the Abassides, brought in a Turkish guard of forty thousand slaves, purchased in Tartary. These soldiers, instead of remaining ser\^ants, became lawless masters, and disposed of the throne as the praetorians at Rome had done. The palace of the caliphs was filled with vio- lence. Revolution and anarchy, kept up during two centuries, broke the caliphate into fragments. Conspiracies and insurrec- tions were the order of the day. Africa had detached itself in the time of Haroiin-al-Raschid. In Asia various independent dynasties arose, formed mostly by Turkish governors of provinces. The Turkish Emirs. — In the eleventh century, the Scljiikian Turks despoiled the Arabs of their sovereignty in the East. The caliph at Bagdad gave up all his temporal power to Togrul Bey (1058), and retained simply the spiritual headship over orthodox MOHAMMEDAN STATES. 23 I Mussulmans. To the Turk who bore the title Emir al Omra, was given the military command. He was what the Mayor of the Palace had been among the Franks. In 1072 his son, Malek Shah, made Ispahan his capital, and governed Asia from China to the vicinity of Constantinople. The Fatimite Caliphate. — In the ninth and tenth centuries the Aglaites (800-909), whose capital was Cairoan (in Tunis), were dominant in the Western Mediterranean, established them- selves, in their marauding expeditions, in Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily, and several times attacked Italy. In 909 they, with the Edrissites, adherents of Ali, in Fez, formed, under a Fatimite chief, Moez, with Egypt, the African Caliphate, the seat of which was at Cairo (968). The Fatimite caliphs extended their power over Syria. The most famous of the caliphs of Cairo was Hakem (996-1020), a monster of cruelty, who claimed to be the incarna- tion of Deity. These caliphs claimed to be the descendants of Ali and of Fatitna. Their dynasty was extinguished by Saladin in 1171. The Caliphs of Cordova. — In Spain the caliphs of Cordova allowed to the Christians freedom of worship and their own laws and judges. The mingling of the conquerors with the conquered gave rise to a mixed Mozarabic population. The Franks conquered the country as far as the Ebro (812)^ \]ndex Mohammed I. (852), the Saracen governors of the provinces sought to make themselves independent ; but the most brilliant period of the caliphate of Cor- dova followed, under Abderrah?nan I. (912-961). In the eleventh century, there was anarchy, produced by the African guard of the caliphs, which played a part like that of the Turkish guard at Bag- dad, and by reason of the rebellion of the governors. In 1031 the last descendant of the Ommiads was deposed, and in 1060 the very title of caliph vanished. The caliphate gave place to nu- merous petty Moslem kingdoms. The African Mussulmans came to their help, and thus gave the name of Moors to the Spanish Mohammedans. Their language and culture, however, remained Arabic. The Arabian conquests had moved like a deluge to the Indus, to the borders of Asia Minor, and to the Pyrenees. In Syria they were not generally resisted by the people* Egypt, for the same reason, was an easy conquest. It took the Moslems sixty years to conquer Africa. In three years, nearly all Spain was theirs ; and it was not until seven hundred years after this time that they were utterly driven out of that country. The Moslem Government. — The Moslem civilization rested on the Koran. Grammar, lexicography, theology, and law stood connected at first with the study and understanding of the Sacred Book. The Caliph was the fountain of authority. There was a fixed system of taxation, the poll-tax and land-tax being imposed only on non-Moslem subjects. All Moslems received a yearly pension, a definite sum determined by their rank. The 232 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. empire was divided into provinces, each governed by a Prefect, who was a petty sovereign, subject only to the Caliph. The Generals were appointed l)y the caliph, by the ])refects, or by the Vizier, who was the prime minister. The yudges {cadis) were appointed by the same officers. There was a court of appeal over which the cali[)h i^resided. There were inspectors of the markets, who were also censors of morals. The Iindtn had for his function to recite the public prayers in the moscpie. The leader of the yearly pil- grimage to Mecca was an officer of the highest dignity. Theology: LaAw: Literature. — The Mohammedans entered into dis- cussions of theology, which gave rise to differences, and to schools and sects. The nature of the Deity, predestination, the future life, were subjects of jiro- found and subtle incjuiry. More than once, pantheistic doctrine was bra)\ Muir, T!tc CorAn (187S); R. P.. Smith, .1/<'//rt»//H<>// and Mohammedanism (1875); Stobart, Islam and its Foiindo' ; Ockley, History 0/ the Saracens (sixth edition, 1857) ; Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens (1870). FRANK KINGS. 233 c 3 _ S W s'O < >o So <'^ ^^ h o •I) S. o us B P It, S,3 •a 0.0 o B- ■?w s p c" fr M> ^ ^s 00 2 3' 3OT V " a, So 00 _, ^3 ^2. • a '00 *<; ' 00 ^ IS 00 » -4 s p "S & ^^ p P d 5"® c '^ .-1 ^ g ■^0 n s^ >- S s lO ^"2. Qv D-tT -I n, 2,- •-1 an a on g H W o > o a o c Period II. FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE. (.A.D. 751-962.) CHAPTER I. THE CARLOVINGIAN" EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OP CHARLEMAGNE (A.D. 814). Pipin the Short. — The great event of the eighth century was the organization and spread of the dominion of the Franks, and the transfer to them of the Roman Empire of the West. Three Frank princes — Charles Martel, Pipin the Short, and Charlemagne, or Karl the Great — were the main instruments in bringing in this new epoch in European history. They followed a similar course, as regards the wars which they undertook, and their general policy. Charles Martel, the conqueror of the Saracens at Poitiers, rendered great services to the Church ; but he provoked the lasting dis- pleasure of the ecclesiastics by his seizures of church property. He rewarded his soldiers with archbishoprics. Pipin, however, was earnestly supported by the clergy. He had the confidence and favor of the Franks, and in 751, with the concurrence of Pope Zacharias, deposed Childeric III., and assumed the title of king. The long hair of Childeric, the badge of the Frank kings, was shorn, and he was placed in a monastery. In 752 Pipin was anointed and crowned at Soissons by Boniface, the bishop of Mentz, who exerted himself to restore order and discipline in the Frank Church, which had fallen into disorder in the times of Charles Martel. Pipin in Italy. — The controversy with the Greeks about the use of images had alienated the popes from the Eastern Empire. The encroachments of the Lombards threatened Rome itself, and were a constant menace to the independence of its bishops. Pope Stephen III. resorted to Pipin for help against these aggres- sive iieighbors ; and, in 754, Stephen solemnly repeated, in the cathedral of St. Denis, the ceremony of his coronation. The Car- lovingian usurpation was thus hallowed in the eyes of the people 234 CHARLEMAGNE. 235 by the sanction of the Church. The alliance between the Papacy and the Franks, so essential to both, was cemented. Pipin crossed the Alps in 754, and humbled Aistulf, the Lombard king ; but, as Aistulf still kept up his hostility to the Pope, Pipin once more led his forces into Italy, and compelled him to become tributary to the Frank kingdom, and to cede to him the territory which he had won from the Greek Empire, — the exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis, or the lands and cities between the Apennines and the Adriatic, from Fe7'rara to Ancona. This territory the Frank king formally presented to St. Peter. Thus there was founded the tem- poral kingdom of the popes in Italy. Pipin was called Patricius of Rome, which made him its virtual sovereign, although the office and title implied the continued supremacy of the Eastern Empire. He united under him all the conquests which had been made by Clovis and his successors. His sway extended over Aqiiitaine and as far as the Pyrenees. It was the rule of the Teutonic North over the more Latin South, which had no liking for the Frank sover- eignty. Charlemagne: the Saxons and Saracens. — Pipin died in 768. By the death of his younger son, Carloman, his older son, Charles, in 771 became the sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne is more properly designated Ka7'l the Great, for he was a German in blood and speech, and in all his ways. He stands in the foremost rank of conquerors and rulers. His prodigious energy and activity as a warrior may be judged by the number of his campaigns, in which he was uniformly successful. The eastern frontier of his dominions was threatened by the Saxons, the Danes, the Slaves, the Bavarians, the Avars. He made eighteen expeditions against the Saxons, three against the Danes, one against the Bavarians, four against the Slaves, four against the Avars. Adding to these his campaigns against the Saracens, Lombards, and other peoples, the number of his militaiy expeditions is not less than fifty-three. In all but two of his marches against the Saxons, however, he accomplished his purpose without a battle. That he was ambi- tious of conquest and of fame, is evident. That he had the rough ways of his German ancestors, and was unsparing in war, is equally certain. Yet he was not less eminent in wisdom than in vigor ; and his reign, on the whole, was righteous as well as glorious. The two most formidable enemies of Charlemagne were the Sax- ons and the Saracens. The Saxon war " was checkered by grave disasters, and pursued with undismayed and unrelenting deter- mination, in^which he spared neither himself nor others. It lasted continuously — with its stubborn and ever-recurring resistance, its cruel devastations, its winter campaigns, its merciless acts of ven- geance — as the effort which called forth all Charles's energy for thirty-two years" (772-804). The Saxons were heathen. The 236 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. conquest of them was the more difficult because it involved the forced introduction of Christianity in the room of their old reli- gion. More than once, when they seemed to be subdued, they broke out in passionate and united revolt. Their fiercest leader in insurrection was Witikind. A last and terrible uprising, in con- sequence of the slaughter of forty-five hundred Saxons on the Aller as a punishment for breach of treaty, was put down in 785, when Witikind submitted, and consented to receive Christian bap- tism. During the progress of the Saxon war, at the call of the Arab governor of Saragassa for aid against the caliph Abdcnah- vian, Charles marched into Spain, and conquered Saragossa and the whole land as far as the Ebro. On his return, in the valley of Roncevcaux, the Frank rear guard was surprised and destroyed by the Basques. There fell the Frank hero Roland, whose gallant deeds were a favorite subject of mediaeval romances. The duchy of Bavaria was abolished after a second revolt of its duke, Passilo (788). One of the most brilliant of Charlemagne's wars was that against the Hunnic ^^r'^ri- (791). Their land between the ^wi- and Raah he annexed to his empire. Bavarian colonists were planted in it. Enormous treasures which they had gathered, in their incursions, from all Europe, were captured, with their " Ring," or palace-camp. The Slavonic tribes were kept in awe. Brittany was subjugated in 811. In the closing years of Charles's reign, the Danes became more and more aggressive and formidable. He visited the northern coasts, made Boulogne and Ghent his harbors and arsenals, and built fleets for defense against the audacious invaders. Charlemagne in Italy. — Some of the most memorable inci- dents in Charlemagne's career are connected with Italy. While he was busy in the Saxon war, he had been summoned to protect Pope Hadrian I. (772-795) from the attack of the Lombards. To please his mother, Charles had married, but he had afterwards divorced, the daughter of the Lombard king Desidei-iiis. She was the first in the series of Charlemagne's wi\'es, who, it is said, were nine in number. By the divorce he incurred the resentment of Deside- rius, who require(i the Pope to anoint the sons of Carloman as kings of the Franks. In 772 Charlemagne crossed the Alps by the Mont Cenis and the St. I3ernard, captured Pavia, and shut up Desiderius in a Frank monastery. The king of the Franks be- came king of the Lombards, and lord of all Italy, except the Venetian Islands and the southern extremity of Calabria, which remained subject to the Greeks. The German king and the Pope were now, in point of fact, dominant in the West. A woman, Irene, who had put out the eyes of her son that she herself might reign, sat on the throne at Constantinople. This was a fair i)retext for tlirowing off the Byzantine rule, which afforded no protection to CHARLEMAGNE. 23/ Italians. Once more Charles visited Italy, to restore to the papal chair Leo III., who had been expelled by an adverse party, and, at Charles's camp at Paderborti, had implored his assistance. On Christmas Day in the year 800, during the celebration of mass in the old Basilica of St. Peter, Leo III. advanced to Charlemagne, and placed a crown on his head, saluting him, amid the acclama- tions of the people, as Roman emperor. Meaning of Charles's Coronation. — The coronation of Charle- magne made him the successor of Augustus and of Constantine. It was not imagined that the empire had ever ceased to be. The Byzantine emperors had been acknowledged in form as the rulers of the West : not even now was it conceived that the empire was divided. In the imagination and feeling of men, the creation of the Caesars remained an indivisible unity. The new emperor in the West could therefore only be regarded as a rival and usurp- er by the Byzantine rulers ; but Charlemagne professed a friendly feeling, and addressed them as his brothers, — as if they and he were exercising a joint sovereignty. In point of fact, there had come to be a new center of wide-spread dominion in Western Europe. The diversity in beliefs and rites between Roman Chris- tianity and that of the Greeks had been growing. The popes and Charlemagne were united by mutual sympathy and common in- terests. The assumption by him of the imperial title at their instance, and by the call of the Roman people, was the natural issue of all the circumstances. Charles's System of Government. — Charlemagne showed him- self a statesman bent on organization and social improvement. There was a system of local officers. The border districts of the kingdom were made into Marks, under Margraves or Mar- quesses, for defense against the outlying tribes. One of them, to the east of Bavaria, was afterwards called Austria. Dukes gov- erned provinces, some of which afterwards became kingdoms. Their power the emperor tried to reduce. The empire was di- vided into districts, in each of which a Cotcnt ( Graf) ruled, with inferior officers, either territorial or in cities. Bishops had large domains, and great privileges and immunities. The officers held their places at the king's pleasure : they became possessed of landed estates, and the tendency was, for the offices to become hereditary. The old German word Graf is of uncertain derivation, but means the same as count (from the Latin conies). Mark is a word found in all the Teutonic languages. From the signification of boundary, it came to be applied, like its synonym ma7-ck, to a frontier district. A margrave [Mark-Graf) M'as a mark-coKJit, or an officer ruling for the king in such a district. A viscoimt (vicecomes) was an officer subordinate to a count. Pfalz, meaning originally palace (from the Latin palatium), was the term for any one of the king's estates. The pfalsgrave {Pfalz-ijraf) was first his representative in charge 238 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. of one of these domains. The stallgrave {Stall-Graf) corresponrlcd to the con- stable [comes staltiili) in English and French. It signifies the officer in charge of the king's stables, the groom. He had a military command. A later designation of the same office is marshal (from two old German words, one of which means a horse, as seen in our word mare, having the same etymology, and the other means a servant). Imperial deputies, or missi, lay and ecclesiastical together, vis- ited all parts of the kingdom to examine and report as to their condition, to hold courts, and to redress wrongs. There were ap- peals from them to the imperial tribunal, over which the Palsgrave presided. Twice in the year great Assemblies were held of the chiefs and people, to give advice as to the framing of laws. The enactments of these assemblies are collected in the Capitularies of the Frank kings. In the Church, Charlemagne tried to secure order, which had sadly fallen away, and had given place to confu- sion and worldliness. He himself exercised high ecclesiastical pre- rogatives, especially after he became emperor. Learning and Culture. — One of the chief distinctions of Charlemagne is the encouragement which he gave to learning. In his own palace at Aachen [Aix), he collected scholars from different quarters. Of these the most eminent is Alcjiin, from the school of York in England. He was familiar with many of the Latin writers, and while at the head of the school in the palace, and later, when abbot of St. Martin in Tours, exerted a strong influence in promoting study. Charlema:fne himself spoke Latin with facility, but not until late in life did he try to learn to write. It was his custom to be read to while he sat at meals. Augustine's City of God was one of the books of which he was fond. In the great sees and monasteries, schools were founded, the benefits of which were very soon felt. Charles's Personal Traits. — Charlemagne was seven feet in height, and of noble presence. His eyes were large and animated, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his frame would have led one to expect. His bearing was manly and dignified. He was exceedingly fond of riding, hunt- ing, and of swimming. Eginhard, his friend and biographer, says of him, " In all his undertakings and enterprises, there was nothing he shrank from because of the toil, and nothing that he feared because of the danger." He died, at the age of seventy, on Jan. 28, 814. He had built at Aix la Chapelle a stately church, the columns and marbles of which were brought from Ravenna and Rome. Beneath its floor, under the dome, was his tomb. There he was placed in a sitting posture, in his royal robes, with the crown on his head, and his horn, sword, and book of the Gospels on his knee. In this posture his majestic figure was found when his tomb was opened by Otto III., near the end of the tenth centurv. The marble chair in which the dead monarch sat is still in the cathedral ?XAi.x: the other relics are at Vienna. The splendor of Charlemagne's reign made it a favorite theme of romance among the poets of Italy : a mass of poetic legends gathered about it. Extent of the Empire. — Charlemagne's empire comprised all Gaul, and Spain to the Ebro, all that w-as then Germany, and the greater part of Italy. Slavonic nations along the Elbe were his allies. Pannonia, Dacia, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia, — except the sea-coast towns, which were held by tlie Greeks, — were subject to him. He had numerous other allies and friends. Even Haroun- CHARLEMAGNE. 239 al-Raschid, the famous Caliph of Bagdad, held him in high honor. Among the most valued presents which were said to have come from the Caliph were an elephant, and a curious water- clock, which was so made, that, at the end of the hours, twelve horsemen came out of twelve windows, and closed up twelve other windows. This gift filled the inmates of the palace at Aix with wonder. Condition of the People. — The number of free Franks dimin- ished under Charlemagne. They were thinned out in the wars, or sunk into vassalage. The warnings and rebukes in the Capitula- ries, or body of laws, show that the upper clergy were often sen- sual and greedy of gain. The bishops would often lead in person their contingent of troops, until they were forbidden to do so by law. Nine-tenths of the population of Gaul were slaves. Charle- magne made Alcnin the present of an estate on which there were twenty thousand slaves. Especially in times of scarcity, as in 805 and 806, their lot was a miserable one. At such times, they fled in crowds to the monasteries. The social state was that of feud- alism " in all but the development of that independence in the greater lords, which was delayed by the strength of Karl, but fostered, at the same time, by his wars and his policy towards the higher clergy." Conversion of Germany : Boniface. — The most active mission- aries in the seventh and eighth centuries were from the British islands. At first they were from Ireland and Scotland. Coliwi- ban, who died in 615, and his pupil Gallus, labored, not without success, among the Alemanni. Gallus established himself as a hermit near Lake Constance. He founded the Abbey of St. Gaul. The Saxon missionaries from England were still more effective. The most eminent of these was Winfrid, who received from Rome the name of Bonifacius (680-755). He converted the Hessians, and founded monasteries, among them the great monastery of Fulda. There his disciple, Sturm, " through a long series of years, directed the energies of four thousand monks, by whose unsparing labors the wilderness was gradually reclaimed, and brought into a state of cultivation." Boniface had proved the impotence of the heathen gods by felling with the axe an aged oak at Geismar, which was held sacred by their worshipers. Among the Thuringians, Bavarians, and other tribes, he extir- pated paganism by peaceful means. He organized the German Church under the guidance of the popes, and, in 747, was made archbishop of Mentz, and primate. But his Christian ardor moved him to carry the gospel in person to the savage Frisians, by whom he was slain. He thus crowned his long career with martyrdom. Conversion of the Scandinavians. — The apostle of the Scan- dinavians was Ansgar (801-865). "^^^ archbishopric of Ham- burg was founded for him by Louis the Pious, with the papal 240 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. consent ; but, as Hamburg was soon plundered by pirates, he be- came bishop of Bremen ( w -S o 5-a 3 3- Ou ffi O p c •o m 3 o ;^ 3- -1 1 — 1 ^ 5 ^ hH >s w ui C/i o 3 (S-5 W 3 ■a o 3" in 3 i > cr Ob a (t sa cr r y p a H) iw O _p te) o- p a n tfq <; 3- M o 2 ^ < a *. S. XT a' re el- ft" s' t/1 >§ c o o re S 'T3 ■d > i« 5 o ^ 3 !" p^' o O- o* c cn 3 O 1- 3"_ >a a D 2-2. a- a " M Q-K* H S:* << re n ?1 J " li 3 w 3 o ^ 2 ffir' >5 o Wi" ^ p. ^ " B > o OOCfQ O 3 w H i" a a >^ "* C ° p' H_0 - O ^_IJJ ns « a;-< c a i^ (T O R w > o »^ > o o :^ 1-8 > t>>o H u D-^ K g"M o 5:3 ID W p-g T w O.'^ 'ctv 2: "■o CO p - H t > •a 3- C ^ »" w E z 3 orq >-( o s td tl tra R c 3 JO D- k- ( ><; > W a K •< ft p < CI w -e§- -l OJ Period III. FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES. {A.D. 962-1270.) CHAPTER I. THE CHURCH AWD THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE EMPIRE: TO THE CRUSADES, A.B. 1096. I. KINGS AND EMPERORS OF THE SAXON HOUSE (918-IO24). Henry the Fowler (918-936). — The envoys who carried to Duke Henry of Saxony the announcement of his election as king of Germany are said to have found him in the Hartz Mountains with a falcon on his wrist : hence he was called Henry the Foiuler. He is a great figure in mediaeval history, and did much to make Ger- many a nation. He won back Lorraine, which had broken off from the kingdom. With it the Netherlands — Holland, Flanders, etc. — came to Germany. He united all the five great duke- doms, and governed with wisdom and moderation. At the end of five years, the Hungarians poured in with irresistible force. There was no alternative but to conclude with them a truce for nine years, during which he was to pay tribute. He set to work at once, however, to strengthen the defenses of his kingdom. He built walled towns and fortresses in the eastern districts of Saxony and Thuringia, and drafted one out of nine of the men from the population in the marches for military service. The fortresses were to be kept stored with provisions. The oldest towns of Saxony and of Thuringia are of this date. Then he disciplined his soldiers, and trained them to fight, like the Hungarians, on horseback. He conquered the Slavonian J J ends who dwelt east of the E3e and the Saa/e, and established the margraviate of Meissen to repel tlieir attacks. His victory over the Slaves at Lenzen (929) made the north-eastern frontiers of Germany secure. Editha, the daughter of Athe/stan, king of England, was given in marriage to his eldest son, Otto. Henry now felt himself strong enough to throw off the 260 THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 261 Hungarian yoke, and answered with defiance their demand for the annual tribute. The struggle with them was hard ; but they were completely vanquished at Mersedui'g in 533, and their camp taken. Henry founded the mark of Schleswig as a defense against the Danes. This wise and vigorous monarch laid the foundations of the German Empire. He was not only a mighty warrior : he built up industry and trade. He was buried at Quedlinburg in the abbey which he had founded. Otto I.: the Palsgraves. — Otto I. (936-973) carried forward with equal energy the work which his father had begun. Having been chosen king by the German princes and chiefs at Aix, he was presented to the people in the church by the archbishop of Mentz ; and they gave their assent to the election by raising the hand. Otto had a contest before him to maintain the unity of the kingdom. He aimed to make the office of duke an office to be allotted by the king, and thus to sap the power of his turbulent lieges. The dukes of Bavaria and Franconia, with Lorraine, and with the support of Louis IV., king of France, rose in arms against him. He subdued them ; and the great duchies which had revolted against him becoming vacant, he placed in them members of his own family. He confirmed his authority by extending the power of the palsgraves, or counts palatine, — royal officers who superin- tended the domains of the king in the several duchies, and dis- pensed justice in his name. He favored the great ecclesiastics as a check to the aspiring lay lords. He invested the bishops and abbots with ring and staff, and they took the oath of fealty to him. Wars of Otto I. — Against the Hungarians, Otto achieved a triumph. He gained a victory over them at Augsburg in 955, in v/hich they were said to have lost a hundred thousand men. This put an end to their incursions into Germany. He was likewise the victor in conflict with Slavonians. He sudbued Boleslav I. of Bohemia, who had thrown off the German suzerainty, and obliged him to pay a tribute. Under the pious Boleslav II., Christianity was established there, and a bishopric founded at Prague (967). The Duke of Poland was forced to do homage to him, and to permit the founding of the bishopric of Posen. Against the Danish king, Harold the Blue-toothed, he carried his arms to the sea, the northern boundary of Jutland. He erected three new bishoprics among the Danes, and founded the archbishopric of Magdeburg, with subordinate sees in the valleys of the Elbe and the Oder. These achievements gave Otto great renown in Western Europe. The kings sent ambassadors to him, and presents came from the sovereigns at Constantinople and Cordova. Otto I. in Italy. — Otto now turned his eyes to Italy. After Arnulf, the Carlovingian emperor, left Italy (in 896), that country had been left to sixty years of anarchy. The demoralization and dis- 262 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. order of Italy, the profligacy of the Romans and of the pontiffs, — every thing being then subject to the riotous aristocratic factions, — rendered unity impossible. For a time (926-945 ) Hugh of Pro- vettce \\3iS called king: then followed his son Lothar (945-950). The next Italian king, Bcrengar II. of Ivrea (950), who, like his two predecessors, was an offshoot of the Carlovingian house, tried to force Adclheid, the beautiful young widow of Lofhar, into a marriage with his son Adalbert. She (being then nineteen years of age) escaped with great difficulty from the prison where she was confined, took refuge in the castle of Canossa, and appealed to the great Otto, king of the Germans, for help, — to Otto, " that model of knightly virtue which was beginning to show itself after the fierce brutality of the last age." He descended into Italy, married the injured queen, and obliged Berengar to own him as suzerain (951). ^^/rz/o-^i;;- prov^ed faithless and rebellious. Once more Otfo entered Italy with an overpowering force, and was pro- claimed king of the Lombards at Pavia. Pope John XII. had proposed to him to assume the imperial office. He was crowned, with his queen, in St. Peters, in 962. He had engaged to confirm the gifts of previous emperors to the popes. When John XII. reversed his steps, allied himself with Be/ruga?-, and tried to stir up the Greeks, and even the Hungarians, against the emperor, Otfo came down from Lombardy, and captured Rome. He caused John to be deposed by a synod for his crimes, and Leo VIII. to be appointed in his place (963). But, while Otto was again ab- sent, Leo was driven out by the Romans, and John returned ; but, soon after, he died. The Romans then elected Benedict pope. Otto captured Rome once more, deposed him, and restored Leo. Benedict was held in custody, and died in Hamburg. On a third journey to Italy, in 966, Otto crushed the factions which had so long degraded Rome and the Church. On this occasion, he ne- gotiated a marriage between Theophania, a Greek princess, and his son, also named Otto. Thus he acquired the southern extremity of Italy. The Holy Roman Empire. — Otto had taken Charlemagne for his model. The " Holy Roman Empire of the German nation," the great political institution of the middle ages, was now estab- lished. In theory it was the union of the world-state and the world- church, — an undivided community under Emperor and Pope, its heaven-appointed secular and spiritual heads. As an actual political fact, it was the political union of Germany and Ita/y, in one sovereignty, which was in the hands of the German king. The junction of the two peoples was not without its advantages to both. It was, however, fruitful of evils. The strength of Ger- many was spent in endless struggles abroad, which stood in the way of the building up of a compact kingdom at home. For THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 263 Italy it was the rule of foreigners, of which she might feel the need, but to which she was never reconciled. Otto II.: Otto ni.: Henry II. — Otto II. (973-983) was highly- gifted intellectually, but lacked his father's energy and decision. Hetnj the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, revolted, but was put down, and deprived of his duchy. Otto obliged Lothar, the West Frankish king, to give up his claim to Lotharingia, which he attempted to seize. Otto, in 980, went to Italy, and, in the effort to conquer Southern Italy from the Greeks and Saracens, barely escaped with his life. This was in 982. He never returned to Germany. While Otto III. (983-1002) was a child, his mother, Theophania, was regent for a time in Germany, and his grand- mother, Adelheid, in Italy. One of Otto's tutors was Gerberi, an eminent scholar and theologian. The proficiency of the young prince caused him to be styled the " Wonder of the World." He was crowned emperor in Rome in 996, when he was only sixteen years old. He dreamed of making Rome once more the center of the world, for his interest was chiefly in Italy. But his schemes were ended by his early death. As the year 1000 approached, there was deep agitation everywhere in Europe, owing to the gen- eral expectation that at that date the world would come to an end. On this account pilgrims flocked to Rome. Henry II. (1002-1024), as nearest of kin to the Saxon house, was the next emperor. Be- sides waging war with his own insurgent lieges, he had to carry on a contest for fourteen years with Boleslav, king of Poland, who had to give up Bohemia and Meissen. He founded the bishopric of Bamberg (1007). From this time the German kings, before their coronation as emperors, took the title oi King of the Romans. The highest nobles were styled " Princes." The nobles lived in the castles, which were built for strongholds, as the power of the lords grew, and private wars became more common. II. THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-II25). Conrad II. : Burgundy : the Poles. — At a great assembly of dukes, counts, and prelates at Oppenheim on the Rhine, Conrad, a Franconian nobleman {Conrad II.), was elected emperor (1024- 1039). He was in the prime of life, and went to work vigorously to repress disorder in his kingdom. He had the support of the cities, which were now increasing in importance. At his corona- tion in Rome, in 1027, there were two kings present, Canute of England and Denxnark, and Rudolph III. of Burgundy (or Aries, as the kingdom wa^v called which had been formed by Rudolph 11, by uniting Burgundy with a great part of Provence') . After the death of Rudolph, who had appointed Conrad his successor, the emperor was crowned king of Arks, which remained thus attached to Germany. But at. a later time the Romance, or non-German 264 MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. portions, were absorbed by France. The Duchy of Burgundy, a fief of the French king, was not included in the kingdom. The Poles invaded Germany in great force. Miesko, their leader, was repelled, and obliged to do homage for his crown, and to give up Li/satia, which had been received by Boleslav from Hctiry II. In Italy, Conrad issued an edict making the smaller fiefs there hereditary. He seems to have designed to do away with dukes, and to make the allegiance of all vassals to the king immediate. Henry III.: the Truce of God. — With Henry III. (1039- 1056) the imperial power reached its height. He was for a time duke of Bavaria, Sivabia, and Frauconia, as well as emperor. In Hungary he conquered the enemies of Peter the king, and re- stored him to the throne, receiving his homage as vassal of the empire. He had great success in putting down private war. In 1043 he proclaimed a general peace in his kingdom. He favored the attempt to bring in the Truce of God. This originated in Aquitaine, where the bishops, in 1041, ordered that no private feuds should be prosecuted between the sunset of Wednesday and the sunrise of Monday, the period covered by the most sacred events in the life of Jesus. This " truce," which was afterwards extended to embrace certain other holy seasons and festivals, spread from land to land. It shows the influence of Christianity in those dark and troublous times. Although it was imperfectly carried out, it was most beneficent in its influence, and specially welcome to the classes not capable of defending themselves against violence. Synod of Sutri. — In 1046 He?iry W3S called into Italy by the well-disposed of all parties, to put an end to the reign of vice and disorder at Rome. He caused the three rival popes to be deposed by a synod at Sutri, and a German prelate, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, to be appointed under the name of Clement II., by whom he was crowned emperor. After Clement died, Henry raised to the Papacy three German popes in succession. While in the full exercise of his great authority, and when he was not quite forty years of age, he died. Henry IV.: His Contests in Germany. — Henry IV. (1056- 1106), at his father's death, was but six years old. He had been crowned king at the age of four. Agnes of Poitou, his mother, the regent, had no ability to curb the princes, who were now re- leased from restraint, and eager for independence. By a bold stratagem, an ambitious prelate, Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, carried off the young king, and assumed the guardianship over him. He had a rival in the person of Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, whom Henry liked best, as being more indulgent and complaisant, and who at length became his chosen guide. But in 1066 the princes caused Adalbert to be banished from THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 265 court. They obliged Henry to marry Bertha, the daughter of the margrave of Turin, to whom he had been betrothed by his father. The union was repugnant to him, and he sought a divorce ; although her patience eventually won the victory, and she became a ■ cherished wife. Henij, arrived at man's estate, was involved in a contest with three of the great dukes. It was evident that he meant to tread in the footsteps of his father, and to reduce the princes to submission. Hostility arose, especially between the young king and the Saxons, who did not relish the transfer of the imperial office to the Franconian line. The passionate and wilful disposition of Henry, and his sensual propensities, were his worst enemies. The strongholds which he erected among the Saxons, in themselves a menace, were made haunts of his boon companions and comrades in the chase. The extortion and dep- redations to which the Saxons were a prey provoked a great insur- rection, which at first prevailed ; but the excesses of the elated hisurgents — as seen, for example, in the plundering and burning of churches — caused a reaction. Henry suppressed the revolt, and dealt with the Saxons with the utmost harshness, treating their dukedom as conquered territory. The Saxon chiefs were now in durance : his enemies on every side had willingly yielded, or were prostrate. The hour seemed to have come for Henry to exer- cise that sovereignty as Roman emperor over Church and State which his father had wielded ; but he found himself confronted by a new and powerful antagonist in the celebrated Pope Gregory VII. (1073-1085). Hildebrand : Investitures. — The state of affairs in the Roman Church had called into existence a party of reform, the life and soul of which was Hildebraiid. He was the son of a carpenter of Soano, a small town in Tuscany, and was born in 1Q18. He was educated in a monastery in Rome, and spent some time in France, in the great monastery of Cluny. He became the influential adviser of the popes who immediately preceded him. The great aim of H^ildebrand and of his supporters — one of the most prominent of whom was the zealous Peter Damiani, bishop of Ostia — was to abolish simony and the marriage of priests. By simony was meant the purchase' and sale of benefices, which had come to prevail in the diiferent countries. The old church laws requiring celibacy had been disregarded, and great numbers of the inferior clergy were living with their wives. In Hildebrand's view, there could be no purity and no just discipline in the Church without a strict enforce- ment of the neglected rule. The priests must put away their wives. Connected with these reforms was the broader design of wholly emancipating the Church from the control of the secular power, and of subordinating the State to the Church. For this end there must be an abolition of investiture by lay hands. This 266 MEDI/1-:VAL HISTORY. demand it was that kindled a prolonged and terrible controversy between the emperors and the popes. The great ecclesiastics had temporal estates and a temporal jurisdiction, which placed them in a feudal relation, and made them powerful subjects. It was the custom of the kings to invest them with these temporalities by giving to them the ring and the staff. This enabled the kings to keep out of the benefices persons not acceptable to tliem, who might be elected by the clergy. On the other hand, it was com- plained that this custom put the bishops and other high eccle- siastics into a relation of dependence on the lay authority ; and, moreover, that, the ring and staff being badges of a spiritual func- tion, it was sacrilegious for a layman to bestow them. Contest of Hildebrand and Henry IV. — In the period of law- lessness at Rome, Hildebrand had welcomed the intervention of Henry III., and even of Henry IV., at the beginning of his reign. But this he regarded as only a provisional remedy made necessary by a desperate disorder. On acceding to the Papacy, he began to put in force his leading ideas. The attempt to abolish the marriage of priests was resisted, and stirred up great commotion in all the countries. The legates of the Pope set themselves to stem the tide of opposition by inveighing, in addresses to the com- mon people, against the married clergy, as unfit to minister at the altar. By this means, a popular party in favor of the reform was created. In 1075, in a s)'nod 2XRome, Hildebrand pronounced the ban against five councilors of Henry IV. for simony. At the same time he threatened Pliilip of France with a similar penalty. He forbade princes to invest with any spiritual office. To oaths of allegiance he did not object, but to any investiture of a spiritual kind. Gregory selected Hemy IV. as the antagonist with whom to fight out the battle. Henry was one of the worst offenders in the matter of simony. He had sold, for example, the archbishopric of Milan : the incumbent thus installed, Gregory deposed. More- over, the rank of the emperor would make a victory over him a signal triumph of the cause. Another important fact was the disaffection of the German princes, and, most of all, of the Saxons. The fire of rebellion in Saxony had not been quenched : it was still smouldering. Gregory summoned Heniy to Rome to answer to the charges made against him. In three German synods held in 1076, the incensed emperor caused empty accusations to be brought against the Pope, and a declaration to be passed depos- ing him. He sent to the pontiff a letter filled with denunciation, and addressed "to the false monk, Hildebrand." Gregory issued decrees excommunicating Henry, deposing him, and declaring his subjects free from their obligation of allegiance. It was the re- ceived doctrine, that a heretic or a heathen could not reign over Christian people. The discontented German princes took sides THE CHURCH AND THE EMriRE. 267 with Gregory. In an assembly at Tribur in 1076, they invited the Pope to come to Augsburg, and to judge in the case of Henry : he was to hve as a private man ; and, if he remained excommunicate for a year, he was to cease to be king ahogether. Humiliation of Henry IV. — Henry was now as anxious for rec- onciliation with the Pope as before he had been bold in his de- fiance. In the midst of winter, with his wife and child and a few attendants, he crossed the Mt. Cenis pass, undergoing extreme difficulty and hardship, and presented himself as a penitent before Gregory, who had arrived, on his way to Augsburg, at the strongly fortified castle of Canossa. The Pope kept hira waiting long, it is said, barefoot and bareheaded in the court-yard of the castle. Finally he was admitted and absolved, but only on the condition that Gregory was to adjust the matters in dispute between the emperor and his subjects. Continued Conflict. — When Henry found that his imperial rights were still withheld, his fiery spirit rebounded from this depth of humiliation. The Lombards, with whom Gregory was unpopular, joined him. A majority of the German princes, adher- ing to the Pope, in 1077 elected Rudolph, duke of Swabia, emperor. The Pope took up his cause, and in 1080 once more excommuni- cated and deposed Henry. The emperor proclaimed anew, through synods, the Pope's deposition, and things were back in the former state. The emperor's party appointed a counter-pope, Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna, under the name of Clement HI. Rudolph vf as, killed in battle (1080). Henrfs power now vastly increased. He invaded Italy (1081), and laid waste the territory of Matilda, countess of Tuscany, a fast friend of Gregory. In 1084 he captured Rome. The Pope had found a defender in Robert Guiscard, the Norman duke of Lower Italy, ,whom he had excommunicated, but whom (in 1080) he forgave, and took into his service. Robert released Gregory, who had been besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo. Hildebra?id died at Salerno, May 25, 1085. When near his end he uttered the words which are inscribed on his tomb : " I have loved righteousness, and hated iniquity ; there- fore do I die in exile." Of the rectitude of his intentions, there is no room for doubt, whatever view is taken of the expediency of his measures. He united with an unbending will the power of accommodating himself to circumstances, as is witnessed in his treatment of Robert Guiscard, and in his forbearance towards William the Conqueror, king of England, with whom he did not wish to break. Of this great pontiff, Sir James Stephen says : " He found the Papacy- dependent on the empire : he sustained it by alliances almost commensu- rate with the Italian peninsula. He found the Papacy electoral by the Roman people and clergy : he left it electoral by a college of papal nomina- 268 MEDMiVAL HISTORY. tion. lie found the cmjicror the virtual patron of the holy see: he wrested that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy the allies and depen- dants of the secular power: he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries of his own. He found tiie higher ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns: he delivered them from that yoke to subjugate them to the Roman tiara. He found the patronage of the Church the mere desecrated s]joii and merchandise of princes : he reduced it within the dominion of the su]5reme pontiff. He is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and pro- fane abuses of his age : he is more justly entitled to the jjraise of having left the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which have succeeded him." Last Days of Henry IV. — In 10S5 Henry IV. returned to Ger- many, having been crowned emperor by his Pope, Clement III. The Saxons were tired of strife ; and, on the assurance that their ancient privileges should be restored, they were pacified. Her- mann of Luxemburg, whom they had recognized as their king, had resigned the crown ( 10S7). The last days of Henry were clouded by the rebellion of his sons, first of Conrad (1091), and then of Henry (1104), who was supported by the Pope, Paschal H. The emperor was taken prisoner, and obliged to sign his own abdica- tion at Ingelheim in 11 05. The duke of Lotharingia and others came to his support, and a civil war was threatened ; but Henry died at Li'ittich in 1106. His body was placed in a stone coffin, where it lay in an unconsecrated chapel, at Spires, until the re- moval of the excommunication ( 1 1 1 1 ) . Concordat of 'Worms. — Henry V. (1106-1125) was not in the least disposed to yield up the right of investiture. Hence he was soon engaged in a controversy with Paschal //. Henry went to Rome with an army in mo, and obliged the Pope to crown him emperor, and to concede to him the right in question. When he went back to Germany, the Pope revoked the concession, and excomrnunicated him. The German princes, as might be ex- pected, sided with the pontiff. The conflict in Germany went on. The emperor's authority, which was established in the South by means of his powerful supporters, was not secured in the North ; but, during the last three years of his life, he was at peace with the Church. By the Concordat of Worms in 1 122, it was agreed that investiture should take place in the presence of the emperor or of his deputies ; that the emperor should first invest with the scepter, and then consecration should take place by the Church, with the bestowal of the rin^^ and the staff. All holders of secular benefices were to perform feudal obligations. Lothar of Saxony. — The princes over whom Henry V. had exercised a severe control opposed the elevation of Frederick of Hohenstaufen, the son of his daughter Agnes. At a brilliant assembly at Mentz, Lothar of Saxony was chosen emperor (1125- 1137). He allowed all the Pope's claims, and was crowned at Rome by Innocent II., accepting the allodial possessions oi Matilda THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 269 of Tuscany, as a fief from the pontiff. He carried on a war with the Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick of Swabia, and his brother Conrad, who finally yielded. Lothar was helped in the conflict by Henry the Proud, the duke of Bavaria, who also became duke of Saxony. Germany under Lothar extended its influence in the north and east. Culture in the Eleventh Century. — The tenth century, owing to causes which have been explained, was a dark age. In the eleventh century circumstances were more favorable for culture. Under the Saxon emperors, intercourse was renewed with the Greek Empire. There was some intercourse with the Arabs in Spain, among whom several of the sciences were cultivated, espe- cially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine (p. 232). The study of the Roman law was revived in the Lombard cities, and this had a disciplinary value. The restoration of order in the Church, after the synod of Sut7'i (1046), had likewise a wholesome influence in respect to culture. There were several schools of high repute in France, especially those at Rheims, Chartres, Tours, and in the monastery of Bee, in Normandy, where Lanfranc, an Italian by birth, a man of wisdom and piety, was the abbot. CHAPTER n. THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIKE : PKEDOMINANCE OF THE CHURCH: TO THE END OF THE CRUSADES, A.D. 1270. The Two Religions. — The Crusades were a new chapter in the long warfare of Christendom with Mohammedanism. " In the Middle Ages, there were two worlds utterly distinct, — that of the Gospel and that of the Koran." In Europe, with the exception of Spain, the Gospel had sway ; from the Pyrenees to the mouths of the Ganges, the Koran. The border contests between the two hostile parties on the eastern and western frontiers of Christendom were now to give place to conflict on a larger scale during centu- ries of invasion and war. State of the Greek Empire. — The Greek Christian Empire lay between the Christian peoples of the West and the dominion of the Arabs. That empire lived on, a spiritless body. After Jiis- tinian, there is an endless recurrence of wars with the Arabs, and with the barbarians on the North, and of theological disputes, either within the empire itself, or with the Church of the West. The Greeks complained that a phrase teaching the procession of the Spirit from the Son had been added in the West to the Nicene 270 MEDI/'EVAL HISTORY. Creed. The Latins complained of the use of leavened bread in the sacrament, of the marriage of priests, and of some other (ireek peculiarities. The separation of the two churches was consum- mated when, in 1054, the legate of the Pope laid on the altar of S/. Sophia, at Constantinople, an anathema against " the seven mortal heresies " of the Greeks. Attacks of Russians and Bulgarians. — Left to itself, the em- pire showed some energy in repelling the attacks of the Russians and Bulgarians. A number of capable rulers arose. The Russians, of the same race of Northmen who had ravaged Western Europe, kept up their assaults until their chief, Vladimir, made peace, ac- cepted Christianity, and married the daughter of the emperor, Basil IL (1019). The empire between 9S8 and 1014 was in- vaded twenty-six times by King Samuel of Bulgaria. But the Bulgarian kingdom was overthrown, in 1019, by Basil II. In the twelfth century it regained its independence. The Greek Emperors. — Li the ninth century the Greeks made head against the Arabs, especially by means of their navy. Li the tenth century John I. ^Zimisces) crossed the Euphrates, and created alarm in Bagdad. The tenacity of life in the Greek Em- pire was surprising in view of the languishing sort of existence that it led. After Heracliiis, there were three dynasties, the last of which, the Alacedonian (867-1056), produced three remarkable men, Niccphorus Phocas, Zimisccs, and Basil II. But the dynasty of Commeni, which, in the person oi Isaac /., ascended the throne in 1057, had to combat a new and vigorous enemy, the Turks, who had made themselves masters of Asia (p. 270). One of this line of emperors, Alexius /., appealed to the Germans for help. This had some influence in giving rise to the first of the Crusades. In these conflicts the Latins bore the brunt. The exhausted Greek Empire played a minor part. Conquests of the Turks. — The Mussulman dominion of the Arabs had become enfeebled. The Ommiad dynasty at Cordova had disappeared under the assaults of Christians, and of the Moors of Africa. The Fatimite caliphs were confined to Egypt. The rule of the Abassids of Bagdad had been well-nigh demolished by the Seljukian Turks in 1058. They founded in the eleventh century an extensive empire. The sultan, Alp Arslan, took the emperor, Ro- nianus IF. I)iogenes, prisoner (1071), and conquered Armeuia. Malek Shah invaded Syria, Palestine, Jerusalem, and carried his arms as far as Egypt, while a member of the Turkish family of Scljuk wrested Asia Minor from the Greeks, and established the kingdom of Iconium, which was called Roum, extending from Mount Taurus to the Bosphorus. After the death of Malek Shah, there were three distinct sultanates, Persia, Syria, and Kerman, — the last being on the shores of the Indian Ocean. P .P) Elbostan/ O^ J^\ ■pi!',''^^ ^: basia " kv'^-V^ , ,„„ei=ia,\ .-r yj'Mt .-poller— rs'V^'ii^ '^ J / ^S-^»7 , " 9.j«''C . C A a-henS^ ^ ^6 ^^ k>^<. o'" (Herarlea m Bapli5-\^ -^ a^-'-*^.o.»AHamaTi^ ^^.igousta < \^ CY.W /" He" TiipoV I TRIPOLI ; Bevrout^ "Pa^lbek •Palmyra & E 4 /^j Pi?, of Damascus THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 2/1 The Pilgrims to Jerusalem. — The immediate occasion of the Crusades was the hard treatment of the Christian pilgrims wlio visited the sepulcher of Christ in Jerusalem. There the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, had erected a stately church. Pilgrimages — which had become more and more a custom since the fourth century — naturally tended to the sacred places in Pales- tine. Especially was this the case as the year looo, the time when the world was expected to end, drew near. In 1064 a great pil- grimage, in which seven thousand persons, priests and laity, of all nations, were included, under Siegfried, archbishop of Mentz, made its way through Hungary to Syria. Not more than a third of them lived to return. The reports of returning pilgrims were listened to with absorbing interest, as they told of the spots to which the imagination of the people was constantly directed. What indignation then was kindled by the pathetic narrative of the insults and blows which they had endured from the infidels who profaned the holy places with their hateful domination ! In the ninth century, under caliphs of the temper of Haroun Al-Ras- chid. Christians had been well treated. About the middle of the tenth century the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt were the rulers at Jerusalem. Hakem was fierce in his persecution, but his succes- sors were more tolerant. When the Seljukian Turks got control there, the harassed pilgrims had constant occasion to complain of insult and inhumanity. The Call of the Greeks. — The Greek emperor, Alexius Co??i- ?nenus, threatened by the Mussulmans on the opposite bank of the Bosphorus, sent his call for succor to all Christian courts. Two popes, Sylvester II. and Gregory VII. , had in vain exhorted the princes to rise in their might, to do away with the wrong and the shame which the disciples of Jesus were suffering at the hands of his enemies. Motives to the Crusades. — After this, only a spark was need- ed to kindle in the Western nations a flame of enthusiasm. The summons to a crusade appealed to the two most powerful senti- ments then prevalent, — the sentiment of religion and that of chiv- alry. The response made by faith and reverence was reinforced by that thirst for a martial career and for knightly exploits which burned as a passion in the hearts of men. The peoples in the coun- tries formed by the Germanic conquests were full of vigor and life. Outside of the Church, there was no employment to attract aspir- ing youth but the employment of a soldier. Western Europe was covered with a net-work of petty sovereignties. Feudal conflicts, while they were a discipline of strength and valor, were a narrow field for all this pent-up energy. There was a latent yearning for a wider horizon, a broader theater of action. Thus the Crusades profoundly interested all classes. The Church and the clergy, the 272 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. lower orders, tlic women and the children, shared to the full in the religious enthusiasm, which, in the case of princes and nobles, took, the form of an intense desire to engage personally in the holy war, in order to crush the infidels, and at the same time to signalize themselves by gallant feats of arms. There was no surer road to salvation. There was, moreover, a hope, of which all in distressed circumstances partook, of improving their temporal lot. The Council of Clermont. — The prime author of the first Cru- sade was Pope Urban II. He authorized an enthusiast, Peter the Hermit^ of Amiens, to travel on an ass through Italy and Southern France, and to stir up the people to the great undertaking of delivering the Holy Sepulcher. With an emaciated countenance and flashing eye, his head bare, and feet naked, and wearing a coarse garment bound with a girdle of cords, he told his burn- ing tale of the inflictions endured by the pilgrims. At the great council of Clermont, in 1095, where a throng of bishops and nobles, and a multitude of common people who spoke the Ro- manic tongue, were assembled, Urban himself addressed the assembly in a strain of impassioned fervor. He called upon every- one to deny himself, and take up his cross, that he might win Christ. Whoever would enlist in the war was to have a complete remission of penances, — a "plenary indulgence." The answer was thundered forth, " God wills it." Thousands knelt, and begged to be enrolled in the sacred bands. The red cross of cloth or silk, fastened to the right shoulder, was the badge of all who took up arms. Hence they were called crusaders (from an old French word derived from croix, a cross). The Undisciplined Bands. — The farmer left his plow, and the shepherd his flock. Both sexes and all ages were inspired with a common passion. Before a military organization could be made, a disorderly host, j)oorly armed and ill-provided, led by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, a French knight, started for Constantinople by way of Germany and Hungary. They were obliged to separate ; and, of two hundred thousand, it is said that only seven thousand reached that capital. These per- ished in Asia Minor. They left their bones on the plain of Niccea, where they were found by the next crusading expedition. First Crusade (1096-1099). — "The Crusades were primarily a Gaulish movement ; " in French-speaking lands, the fire of chivalric devotion was most intense. The first regular army of soldiers of the cross departed by different routes under separate chiefs. First of these was Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, the bravest and noblest of them all. With him were his brothers, Baldwin, and Eustace, count of Boulogne. Promi- nent among the other chiefs were Hugh, count of Vermandois ; Robert, duke of Normandy, who had pawned his duchy to his THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRK 2/3 brother, William II., tlie king of England ; Robert, count of Flanders ; Raymond, count of Toulouse ; Bolicmond of Tarentum, son of Robert Guiscard ; and Taticred, Robert Guiscard's nephew. The Spaniards were taken up with their own crusade against the Moors. In consequence of the late absorbing struggles between emperors and popes, the Germans and Italians did not now em- bark in the enterprise. The relation of the Norman dynasty in England to the conquered Saxons prevented the first crusading host from receiving substantial aid from that country. The leaders of the army finally consented to become the feudal dependents of the emperor Alexius while they should be within his borders, and to restore to him such of their conquests as had been lately wrested by the Turks from the Eastern Empire. Alexius was more alarmed than gratified on seeing the swarm of warriors which he had brought into his land. After a siege of seven weeks, Niccea was surren- dered, not, however, into the hands of the European soldiers who had conducted the siege, but to the shrewd Alexius. At Dorylceum, in a desperate battle the Turks were defeated ; but, on their march eastward, they waited the lands which they left behind them. The crusaders suffered severely from disease consequent on the heat. A private quarrel broke out between Tancird and Baldwin. Bald- win, invited to Edessa hy the Greek or Armenian ruler, founded there a Latin principality. After besieging Antioch for several months, by the treachery of a renegade Christian, Bohemond, with a few followers, was admitted into the city. The Christians slew ten thousand of its defenders ; but, three days after, Antioch was shut in by a great army of Turks under the sultan Kerboga. The crusaders were stimulated by the supposed discovery of the " holy lance," or the steel head of the spear which had pierced the side of Jesus. The Turks were vanquished, and the citadel of Anti- och was possessed by Bohemond. The wrangling chieftains were now compelled by the army to set out for Jerusalem. When they reached the heights where they first caught a glimpse of the holy city, the crusaders fell on their knees, and with tears of joy broke out in hymns of praise to God. But, not accustomed to siege operations, and destitute of the machines and ladders req^ uisite for the purpose, they found themselves balked in the first attempts to capture the city. Yet after thirty days, their needs having been meantime in a measure supplied, Jerusalem was taken by storm (July 15, 1099). The infuriated conquerors gave the rein to their vindictive passions. Ten thouand Saracens were slaughtered. The Jews were burned in the synagogues, to which they had fled. When the thirst for blood and for plun- der was sated, feelings of penitence and humility took possession of the victors. The leaders, casting aside their arms, with bared heads and barefoot, entered into the church of the Holy Sepul- 274 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. cher, and on their ])ended knees thanked (lod for their success. After debate, the princes united in choosing Godfrey of Bouillon as ruler of the city. He woukl not wear a royal crown in the jjlace where the Saviour of the world had worn on his bleeding forehead a crown of thorns. He designated himself Protector of the Holy Scpulcher. Shortly after, at Ascalon, he won a great victory against the vastly superior forces of the Egyptian sultan. Godfrey died the next year (iioo), and was succeeded by his brother Balchuin, who first took the title of King of Jerusalem. The force of the Moslems, and the almost incessant strife and division among the crusaders themselves, made the kingdom hard to defend. The New Kingdom. — Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had the most to do with the defense and enlargement of the new kingdom. It was organized according to the method of feudalism. It contin- ued until the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187. The Military Orders. — The principal supporters of the new kingdom at Jerusalem were the orders of knights, in which were united the spirit of chivalry and the spirit of monasticism. To the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, they added a fourth vow, which bound them to fight the infidels, and to protect the pilgrims. These military orders acquired great privileges and great wealth. Each of them had its own peculiar apparel, stamped with a cross. The two principal orders were the Knights of St. John, or the Hospitallers, and the Knights l^emplar. The Hospi- tallers grew out of a hospital established in the eleventh century near the Holy Sepulcher, for the care of sick or wounded pilgrims. The order, when fully constituted, contained three classes of mem- bers, — knights, who were all of noble birth, priests and chaplains, and serving brothers. After the loss of the Holy Land, the island oi Rhodes was given up to them. This they held until 1522, when they were driven out by the Turks, and received from the empe- ror, Charles F., the island of Malta. The Templars gained high renown for their valor, and, by presents and legacies, acquired im- mense wealth. After the loss of their possessions in Palestine, most of their members tqok up their abode in Cyprus: from there many of them went to France. Not a few of them became addicted to violent and profligate ways. They were charged, whether truly or falsely, with unbelief, and Oriental superstitions caught up in the East from their enemies. These accusations, coupled with a desire to get their property, led to their suppression by Philip V. in the beginning of the fourteenth century. A third order was that of Teutonic Knights, founded at Jerusalem about 1 128. In the next century they subjugated the heathen IVendsm Prussia (i 226-1 2S3). THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 2/5 Welfs and Waiblings. — The emperor Lothar died on a jour- ney back from Italy in 1137. Henry the Proud, of the house of Welf, to whom he had given the imperial insignia, hoped to be his successor, and hesitated to recognize Conrad III. (1137-1152) of the house of Hohenstaiifen, who was chosen. Conrad required him to give up Saxony, for the reason that one prince could not govern two duchies. When he refused, Bavaria, also, was taken from him, and given to Leopold,*maxgxdcvG. of Austria. This led to war, in which the king, as usual, was strongly supported by the cities. Henry the Proud left a young son, known later as Hen?y the Lion. Count Welf, the brother of Henry the Proud, kept up the war in Bavaria. He was besieged in Weittsberg. During the siege, it is said that his followers shouted " Welf'' as a war-cry, while the besiegers shouted " Waiblings," — W^aiblingen being the birthplace oi Frederick, duke of Swabia, brother of Conrad. These names, corrupted into Giielphs and Ghibellines by the Italians, were afterwards attached to the two great parties, — the supporters, re- spectively, of the popes and the emperors. Henry the Lion after- wards received Saxony ; and the mark of Bi-andenburg was given in lieu of it to Albert the Bear. Welf I. was a powerful nobleman, who received from Heiiry IV. the fief of Bavaria. When Hejiry- V. died, the natural heirs of the extinct Franco- nian line were his nephews, Frederick of Hoheiistaufen, duke of Swabia, and Conrad. But the Saxons supported the wealthy Lothar, who was chosen emperor, and won over to his side Henry the Proud, grandson of Welf I., to whom Lothar gave his daughter in marriage, and gave, also, the dukedom of Saxony, in addition to his dukedom of Bavaria. In these events lay the roots of the long rivalship between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens. Henry the Lion, as stated above, was the son of Henry the Proud. GENEALOGY OF THE WELFS. TVelf, Duke of Bavaria, 1070-1101. Henry the Black, Duke -of Bavaria, 11 20-1 126. Judith, 7n. Frederic, Duke Henry the Proud, Duke of Bavaria 1126, of Saxony 1137; of Swabia (a?. 1147), the . deprived, 1138. son of Agnes, who was the daughter of Henry 1 IV. Frederic I (Bar- Henry the Lion, bar-ossa) was the son of , „,_ Matilda, daughter of Henry II of England. Judith, and this Frederic I of Swabia. The Swabian dukes were called Hoheii- I stau/eiis, from a castle on I 1 Mount Staufeii in WUr- Henry the Young, d. 1227. Otto IV, d. 1218. temberg. 276 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Second Crusade (1147-1149). — The preacher of the second Crusade was SV. Beruard, whose saintly life and moving eloquence produced a great effect. Louis VI J. of France and Conrad JII. were the leaders. The expedition was attended by a series of calamities. The design of recapturing Edessa from Noitreddin, the sultan of Aleppo, was given up. The siege of Damascus failed (1148), C<^//r but the next year Louis, with his whole army, was captured, and obtained his release after much delay, by the surrender of his con- quests, and in return for a large ransom. Not disheartened by this failure, the pious monarch, in 1 2 70, sailed to Tunis, where he and most of his army perished from sickness. In 1291 Acre, the last town held by the Christians, was taken by the Egyptian Matne- lukes ; and the Crusades came to an end. Effects of the Crusades. — The Crusades were a spontaneous movement of Christian Europe. It was a great tide, which bore away all classes of people. It lends to the Middle Ages an ideal and heroic character. An overpowering sentiment, submerging calculation and self-interest, swept over society. There was infi- nite suffering : countless lives were the forfeit. The results, how- ever, were beneficent, i. It is true that the conquests made in the East were all surrendered. The holy places were given up. Yet the Turks had received a check which was a protection to Europe during the period when its monarchies were forming, and were gaining the force to encounter them anew, and repel their dan- gerous aggressions. 2. The Feudal System in Europe was smitten with a mortal blow. Smaller fiefs, either by sale or by the death of the holders, were swallowed up in the larger. The anarchical spirit was counteracted. Political unity wa.?, ^yromoitd. 3. There was a lessening of the social distance between suzcraifi and serf. They fought side by side, and aided one another in common perils. The consequence was an increase of sympathy. 4. There was a?i expansion of knowledge. There was a widening of geo- graphical knowledge. An acquaintance was gained with other peoples and countries. To the more civilized Saracens, the cru- saders seemed brutal and barbarous. The crusaders in turn were impressed with the superior adwmcement and elegance of the Sara- cens. It was not the lord only who belield distant lands : the serf was taken from the soil to which he had been tied. He drew stimulus and information from sojourning under other skies. 5. A great impulse was given to trade and commerce. An acquaintance was gained with new products, natural and artificial. New wants were created. 6. The cities advanced in strength and wealth. Important social consequences resulted from their growth. Why the Crusades Terminated. — After the thirteenth cen- tury it was impossible to rekindle the crusading enthusiasm. The THE CHURCH AND THE EMriRE. 285 fire had burned out. It seemed as if the idea had exhausted itself in action. This effect was due, (i) to the absence of novelty in such undertakings ; ( 2 ) to the long experience of the hard- ships belonging to them, which tended to dampen the romantic zeal that had formed a part of the motive ; (3) to the disappoint- ments following upon the practical failure of so prodigious and costly exertions : (4) to an altered condition of public feeling of a more general character. Antipathy to the infidel, the more exclusive sway of religious sentiment, were giving way to a min- gling of secular aims and interests. There were new and wider fields of activity at home. The mood of men's minds was no longer the same. Luxuries introduced by the Crusades. — The effect of the Crusades in bringing in new comforts and luxuries, and in thus altering the style of living, was remarkable. At the very outset, a great deal of money, obtained by the sale or pawning of estates, was spent in the outfit of the hundred thousand nobles, who, at the beginning, took the cross. Costly furs, em- broidered cushions, curtains of purple dye, pavilions worked with gold, banners of purple or of cloth-of-gold, showy costumes, and shining armor, — such was the splendor that met the eyes of thousands who had never before beheld such a spectacle. The journey to the East brought under the observa- tion of the crusaders, arts and fashions to which they had been strangers. They saw the gilded donies and marble palaces of Constaiititzople, and the . treasures of ancient art which had been gathered within the walls of that ancient capital. Antioch, with all its wealth, fell into their hands. Later, the merchants of both religions followed in the wake of the armies, and met one another. The superb fabrics of the East were carried to the West by routes which now became safe and familiar. The precious ores and tissues of Damascus, and the beautiful glassware of Tyre, were conveyed to Venice, and thence to places more distant. Silk stuffs of exquisite beauty were brought from Mosul and Alexandria. The elegance of the East, with its rich fabrics, its jewels and pearls, was so enchanting that an enthusiastic crusader termed it " the vestibule of Paradise." It was not the nobles alone in the West who acquired these attractive products of skill and industry. The cities shared in tliem. Even the lower classes partook of the change in the way of living. Life in the Castle. — Even in the earlier days of feudalism, the seclu- sion of the castle was not without an influence in promoting domestic inter- course and affection. A new sentiment respecting woman sprang up in the Middle Ages, and was fostered by the honor which the New Testament and the teaching of the Church rendered to saintly women. A spirit of gallantry and devotion to woman, partly natural to the Germanic race, and partly arising from causes like that just named, sprang up in the midst of prevailing ignorance and perpetual strife. In the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries life in the castle is found to be very much improved. In the eleventh century it lacked comfort, to say nothing of luxury. The lights were torches of dry wood : even candles were not in general use. Houses in France, England, and Germany commonly had thatched roofs. They were made of logs covered with a sort of clay or mud. They were built with low and narrow doors, and with small windows which admitted but little light. In the middle of the smoky hall was a large, round fireplace. There was no chimney, but only a funnel, which pierced the ceiling. The seats were benches and stools. The feet of the family and guests were kept warm by hay spread beneath them. In the later period the substitution of dry 286 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. rushes and straw was thought to be a marvelous gain. Beds of straw were introduced into all the apartments of nobles, and even of kings. To sleep on a straw couch was deemed a regal luxury. One consecjueuce of the Cru- sades w;u; to introduce cari^ets and hangings into the dwellings of the great. Improved timepieces took the place oi the water-clocks, which were a wonder in the days of Charlemagne In the twelfth century the castle begins to look less like a dungeon. Within and without, it ceases to wear so exclusively the aspect of a fortress. The furniture has more beauty. In the great hall are the large tables attached to the Hoor, the sideboards, the cupboards, the stately chair of the lord, the couch with its canopy, the chests for the wearing- apparel, the armor on the walls. In the thirteenth century France was covered with chateaux, which, in the case of princes and nobles of highest rank, had their spacious courts, their stables, their lodgings for the servants. All these were within the ])recincts of the jmlace. In the great hall were held the assemblies of vassals, banquets, judicial trials. In the wealthiest mansions, there was a main saloon on the floor above, reached by a spiral stairway, and serving also for the principal bed-chamber. There the stone floor gave place to marble of varied colors. Mosaics and other ornaments were introduced. Sculptures, carvings, and mural paintings decorated the apartments. Glass mirrors, imported by way of Venice, took the place of the mirrors of polished metal. Larger windows, of painted glass, became common among the rich, in the room of the small pieces of glass, or of ala- baster, which had before served to let in a few rays of light. Tallow candles came into vogue. Lamps were not unknown. On great occasions, lanterns and wax candles were used for a festive illumination. Chimneys were in use, and about the vast fire-place the family group could gather. The hosjjitality of the castle was often bountiful. The chase, the favorite amusement, gave life and animation to the scene, and prepared the inmates for the feast that followed. Minstrels enlivened the social gathering. Troops of mounte- banks and buffoons furnished amusement, and were sometimes lavishly rewarded. There were singers and buffoons who were attached permanently to the household. There were others who traveled from place to place, and were even organized into corporations or guilds. The /oo/, ox jester, to whom a large license was allowed, was long deemed a necessary adjunct of the castle-ball. Carriages were little used: rank was indicated by the accouterments of the war-horse or of the palfrey. From the twelfth century onward, the improvement in the comforts of living was not confined to the nobles and to rich burghers in cities. It was shared by the rural classes, notwithstanding the miseries — such as insecurity, and dangers of famine — that belonged to their condition. Poverty and Disease. — A French writer on the histors' of luxury, speaking of France in this period, says, " In the cities, we meet at once luxury, certain beginnings of prosperity, and frightful misery. Beggary exists in a foim the most hideous: there is an organization of it with grades, and a sort of hierarchy. In the face of sumptuous costumes, of chateaux better adorned, of the nascent wealth of industry', France included more than two thousand lepers, and knew not how to treat maladies born of the most imperfect hygiene and the most sordid filth. Such were the extremes. The course of general progress went forward between them." The condition of the poorest class in England was no better. " The absence of vege- table food for the greater part of the year, the personal dirt of the people, the sleeping at night in the clothes worn in the day, and other causes, made skin-diseases frightfully common. At the outskirts of every town in England, there were crawling about emaciated creatures covered with loathsome sores, living Heaven knows how. They were called liy the common name of lepers; and probably the leprosy, strictly so called, was awfully common." Such being the life of the poor in villages, and in the absence of drainage and other modern safeguards of health, in large towns, it is no wonder that in the Middle Ages there were terrible pestilences, and that the average length of life was much less than at present. ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 287 9.^ g 5 o r s S. « o ^ n. [-• s W S! *^ c 5fl K > W M • > 1 '^ 1 "5; d w Un en w ? s^ « W Z > 13 g. » 5 z (fq' H kO j" CO T g- 1 i •^ s 2> ffi a C - § >g X HH > 1 t3 n ^rf H 288 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. « Q < Q o l- h CO W o> z o o H 05 OJ "^3 C oi Pi< O --> > c 'S 2 H S w ITD "o ^ l-H ^o^^A.. -•^. ;^t.Malo Do,Jfront Chartre^„^y ^, "-, W " c> -< I E7 Aibferre 6 LangresX ■■■■: ..."'fci o F p cn T u Mail per tuis ro U RA I NE ' Bou^ :a.i \\lPerigueux. © \...p--:^c;„,K^ -r^^&^r^ „A. CY. OF PERIGORD / A T < \ -P^ , 1 Ul 111 .^ Ofl . X-'^l, DY. OF o?«Agen jj5 Pampfeluna f ^■'"'* , """V / KJI. OF /^-^x Bureos E^ V, NAVARRE.J , v\r\ >._ / ■'■ ^^C Baix-^nette ^ O G ^Guadalaxara ( )-^-J. (\ 'Mailrul // ■, , ) f^ A l/.O^' Cafetellon de la Plana \ ,- \S ^,N0 :e ^ FEANCE A>JD ENGLAND (1154 - 1189.) ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 293 long-continued discord in England, — discord in the royal family, between the king and the clergy, and, later, between the king and the barons. On the Continent, the king of England required a great and united force to break the feudal bonds which grew stronger between the king of France and the French provinces of England. We shall soon see how France enlarged her territory, and how the English dominion on the Continent was greatly re- duced. Reforms of Henry. — In order to control the barons, he ar- ranged with them to pay money in lieu of military service. In this way they were weakened. At the same time, he encouraged the small landowners to exercise themselves in arms, which would prepare them for self-defense and to assist the king. Moreover, he sent judges through the land to hear causes. They were to ask a certain number of men in the county as to the merits of the cases coming before them. These men took an oath to tell the truth. They gradually adopted the custom of hearing the evi- dence of others before giving to the judges their verdict, — that is, their declaration of the truth (from vere dictum). Out of this custom grew the jury system. Becket: Constitutions of Clarendon. — The Conqueror had granted to ecclesiastical courts the privilege of trying cases in which the clergy were concerned. On this privilege the clergy had been disposed to insist ever since the fall of the Roman Empire. Under Stephen the energetic restraint exercised upon them was removed. In the early years of the reign of Henry II., there were great disorders among the Norman clergy, and crimes were of frequent occurrence. These were often punished more lightly than the same offenses when committed by a layman, as church courts could not inflict capital punishment. Henry undertook to bring the clergy under the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. In this attempt he was resisted by Thomas a Becket, who had been his chancelor, and whom he raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury (1162), in the full expectation of having his support. He had been gay and , extravagant in his ways, and zealous in behalf of whatever the king wished. But the brilliant chancelor became a strict and austere prelate, the champion of the clergy, with a will as inflexible as that of Henry. The only bishop that voted against him at his election, remarked that " the king had worked a miracle in having that day turned a layman into an archbishop, and a soldier into a saint." In this controversy, the clergy had reason to fear that Henry, if he got the power, would use it to punish and plunder the innocent. At a great council of prelates and barons, the Constitutiotis of Clarendo7i were adopted (1164), which went far towards the subjecting of the ecclesias- tics, as to their appointment and conduct, to the royal will. 294 MEDIi^VAL HISTORY. Bcckct, with the other prelates, swore to observe these statutes ; but he repented of the act, was absolved by the Pope from his oath, and fled to France. Later a reconciliation took place be- tween him and the king. Becket returned to Hngland, but with a temper unaltered. A hasty expression of Henry, uttered in wrath, and indicating a desire to be rid of him, was taken up by four knights, who attacked the archbishop, and slew him, near the great altar in the cathedral at Canterbury (Dec. 29, 11 70). The higher nobles welcomed the occasion to revolt. Henry was regarded as the instigator of the bloody deed, and was moved to make important concessions to the Pope, Alexander III. His life was darkened by quarrels with his sons. In 1173 the kings of France and Scotland, and many nobles of Normandy and Eng- land, joined hands with them. Henry, afflicted with remorse, did penance, allowing himself to be scourged by the monks at the tomb of Becket, or "St. Thomas," — for he was canonized. The people rallied to him, and the nobles were defeated. The rebellion came to an end. The king of Scotland became more completely the vassal of England. In another rebellion the king's sons rebelled against him: in 11 83 John, the youngest of them, joined with his elder brothers. Then Henry's heart was broken, and he died (in 11 89). Conquest of Ireland. — In the first year of Henry's reign, he was authorized by Pope Hadrian IV. to invade Ireland. In 11 69 Dermot 0/ Lcinsier, a fugitive Irish king, undertook to enlist adventurers for this service. He was aided by Richard of Clare, earl of Pembroke, called St7-ongboiv, and others. They were successful; and in 11 71 Henry 0x0%%^^ over to Ireland, and was acknowledged as sovereign by all the chiefs of the South. A synod brought the Irish Church into subjection to the see of Can- terbury. But there was constant warfare, and the North and East of the island were not subdued. The whole country was not con- quered until Elizabeth's time, four centuries later. Weakening of Great Vassals in France. — The weakening of Henry's power was the salvation of Louis I'll, who had more the spirit of a monk than of an active and resolute monarch. At his death a new epoch is seen to begin. The dominion of the great vassals declines, and the truly monarchical period commences. It was the change which ended in making the king the sole judge, legislator, and executive of the country. Louis the Fat, Philip Augustus, and St. Louis {Louis IX.) are the early forerunners of Louis XIV., under whom the absolute monarchy was made complete. Philip Augustus of France (1180-1223): Richard the Lion- hearted of England (1189-1199). — Philip Augustus was the last king of France to be crowned before his accession. The custom ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 295 had helped to give stability to the regal system. Now it was no longer needful. Philip was only fifteen years old when he began to reign alone. For forty- three years he labored with shrewdness and perseverance, and with few scruples as to the means employed, to build up the kingly authority. His first act was a violent attack on th.e/e7C's, whom he despoiled and banished. This was counted an act of piety. He acquired Vermandois, Va/ois, and Amiens ; refusing to render homage to the Bishop of Amiens, who claimed to be its suzerain. During the life of Henry II., Philip had allied himself closely with his son Richard (the Lion-hearted), who succeeded his father. Richard was passionate and quarrelsome, yet generous. He was troubadour as well as king. After his coronation (1189), the two kings made ready for a Crusade together. To raise money, Richard sold earldoms and crown lands, and exclaimed that he would sell London if he could find a buyer. The two kings set out together in 1190. They soon quarreled. Philip came home first, and, while Richard was a prisoner in Austria, did his best to profit by his misfortunes, and to weaken the English reigning house. In the absence of Richard, John, his ambitious and unfaithful brother, was made regent by the lords and the London citizens. As nothing was heard of the king, John claimed the crown. Hearing of the release of Richard, Philip wrote \.o John (1194), " Take care of yourself, for the devil is let loose." Richard made war on Philip in Normandy, but Pope Innocent III. obliged the two kings to make a truce for five years (1199). Two months after, Richard was mortally wounded while besieging a castle near Limoges, where it was said that a treasure had been found, which he as the suzerain claimed. He had never visited England but twice ; and, although he always had the fame of a hero, the country had no real cause to regret his death. John of England (11^9-1216). — John (surnamed Sansterre,ox Lackland, a name given to younger sons who died before they were old enough to hold fiefs) was chosen king. Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine desired to have for their duke young Arthur, duke of Brittany, the son of Geoffrey, John's elder brother. Philip Augustus took up the cause of Arthur, but deserted him when he had gained for himself what he wished. Arthur was taken prisoner ; and it was said XkidX John ordered his 'ket-p^r, Hubert de Bmgh, to put out his eyes. His uncle was also accused of drowning him or stabbing him with his own hand. It is certain that Arthur did not live long after this time. Philip summoned John, as being a vassal, to clear himself of this crime before his peers in France. John did not appear, and his fiefs were declared to be forfeited. Philip seized on Noj'tnandy, which thenceforward was French, and Brittany, which became an immediate fief of the king (1204). 296 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. He took the other possessions of England in Northern Gaul. There were left to the English the duchy of Aquitaine, with Gas- cony and the Channel Islands. The lands south of the Loire, John had inherited from his mother. Tyranny of John. — John robbed his sul)jects, high and low, under the name of taxation. Not content with forcing money out of the Jews, one of whom he was said to have coerced by pulling out a tooth every day, he treated rich land-owners with hardly less cruelty. He had not, like Henry II., the support of the people, and added to his unpopularity by hiring soldiers from abroad to help him in his oppression. John's Quarrel with the Pope : Magna Charta. — As rash as he was tyrannical, John engaged in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III. The monks of Canterbury appointed as archbishop, not the king's treasurer, whom he bade them choose, but another. The Pope neither heeded the king nor confirmed their choice, but made them elect a religious and learned Englishman, Stephen Langton. John, in a rage, drove the monks out of Canterbury, and refused to rec- ognize the election. The Pope excommunicated him, and laid England under an interdict; that is, he forbade services in the churches, and sacraments except for infants and the dying ; mar- riages were to take place in the church porch, and the dead were to be buried without prayer and in unconsecrated ground. As John paid no regard to this measure of coercion. Innocent absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and handed his kingdom over to the king of France (121 2). Resisted at home, and threatened from abroad, John now made an abject submission, laying his crown at the feet of Fandulph, the Pope's legate. He made him- self the vassal of the Pope, receiving back from him the kingdoms of England and Ireland, which he had delivered to Innocent, and engaging that a yearly rent should be paid to Rome by the king of England and his heirs. Philip had to give up his plan of invad- ing P^ngland. John^s tyranny and licentiousness had become intol- erable. Langton, a man of large views, and the English Church, united with the barons in extorting from him, in the meadow of Runny mcde, — an island in the Thames, near Windsor, — the Mag- na Charta, the foundation of English constitutional liberty. It secured two great principles : first, that the king could take the money of his subjects only when it was voted to him for public objects ; and secondly, that he could not punish or imprison them at his will, but could only punish them after conviction, according to law, by their countrymen. The Great Charter is based on tlie charter of Henry I. It precisely defines and secures old customs. I. It recognizes the rights of the Church. 2. It stcures person and firofierty from seizure and spoliation ivitltoitt the judgment 0/ peers or the law 0/ t he laud. 3. There are regulations for courts of law. 4. Ex.actions by the lord arc limited to the three customary feudal aids (p. 256) . The benefits granted to the vassal are to be extended to the lower tenants. 5. How the Great Council is to be composed, and how conveaed, is defined. 6. The ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 29/ "liberties and free customs" of London and of other towns are secured. 7. Protection is given against certain oppressive exactions of the Crown. 8. The safety of merchants against exactions in coming into England, and in going out, and in traveling through it, is guaranteed. 9. There is some provision in favor of the villain. War with France. — John joined in a great coalition against Philip Augustus. He was to attack France in the south-west ; while the emperor, Otto IV., and the counts of Flanders and Boulogne, with all the princes of the Low Countries, were to make their attack on the north. It was a war of the feudal aristocracy against the king of the French. At the great battle of Bouvines (1214) the French were victorious. The success, in the glory of which the communes shared, added no territory to France ; but it awakened a national spirit. John was beaten in Poitou, and went home. Deposition of John. — In England, John found that all his exertions against the Charter, even with the aid of Rome, were unavailing. In a spirit of vengeance, he brought in mercenary freebooters, and marched into Scotland, robbing and burning as he went. Every morning he burned the house in which he had lodged for the night. At length the English barons offered the crown to Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus ; hwijohti died in 1 2 16, and Louis found himself deserted. He had shown a dis- position to give lands to the French. The Albigensian War. — The war against the Albigenses began in the reign of Philip ; but he pleaded that his hands were full, and left it to be waged by the nobles. That sect had its seat in the south of France, and derived its name from the city of AIM. It held certain heterodox tenets, and rejected the authority of the priesthood. In 1 208, under Innocent III, a crusade was preached against Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, in whose territory most of them were found. This was first conducted by Simon de Mojit- fort, and then by Philip's son, Louis VIII., the county of Tou- louse being a fief of France. The result of the desolating conflict was, that, after the accession of Louis IX., the county of Toii- /(^/zfj-^" was incorporated in the French kingdom (1229). In that year, at the council of Toulouse, the Inquisition, a special eccle- siastical tribunal, was organized to complete the extermination of the Albigensians who had escaped the sword. The advantages resulting from the crushing of the sovereignties of the South were sure to come to the French monarchy. But Philip left it to the nobles and to his successors to win the enticing prize. The first period of rivalry between England and France ends with John and Philip Augustus. For one hundred and twenty years, each country pursues its course separately. Monarchy grows stronger in France : constitutional government advances in England. 298 MEDIAEVAL IIISTORV. Louis IX. of Prance (1226-1270). — 111 Louis IX. (St. Louis) France had a king so noble and just that the monarchy was sanctified in the eyes of the people. At his accession he was but eleven years old, and with his mother, Blanc)ie of Castile, had to encounter for sixteen years a combination of great barons deter- mined to uphold feudalism. Most of them staid away from his coronation. When the young king and his mother approached Paris, they found the way barred ; but it was opened by the de- voted burghers, who came forth with arms in their hands to bring them in. I'he magistrates of the communes swore to defend the king and his friends ( 1 22S) . They were supported by the Papacy. In 1 23 1 the war ended in a way favorable to royalty. The treaty of 1229 with Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, led to the grad- ual absorption of the South. Theobald oi Champagne became king of Navarre, and sold to the crown Chartres and other valu- able fiefs. In the earlier period of his reign Louis was guided by his wise, even if imperious, mother, who held the regency, England and France. — In 1243 Louis defeated Henry III of England, who had come over to help the count of La Marche and other rebellious nobles. In 1245 Charles of Anjou, the king's brother, married Beatrice, through whom Provence passed to the house of Anjou. The king's long absence (i 248-1 254), during the sixth Crusade, had no other result but to show to all that he combined in himself the qualities of a hero and of a saint. After his return, his government was wise and just, and marked by sym- pathy with his people. In 1259 he made a treaty with Henry III, yielding to him the Limousin, Perigord, and parts of Sain/onge, for which Henry relinquished all claims on the rest of France. Louis fostered learning. The University of Paris flourished under his care. In his reign Robert of Soi-bon (1252) founded the Sorbonne, the famous college for ecclesiastics which bears his name. Civil Policy of Louis. — In his civil policy Louis availed him- self of the Roman law to undermine feudal privileges. The legists enlarged the number of cases reserved for the king himself to adjudicate. He established new courts of justice, higher than the feudal courts, and the right of final appeal to himself. He made the king's "Parliament" a great judicial body. He abolished in his domains the judicial combat, or duel, — the old German method of deciding between the accused and the accuser. He liberated many serfs. But, mild as he was, he had no mercy for Jews and heretics. In his intercourse with other nations, he blended firm- ness and courage with a fair and unselfish spirit. He refused to comply with the request of the Pope to take up arms against the emperor, Frederic II ; but he threatened to make war upon him if he did not release the prelates whom he had captured on their way to Rome. The " Pragmatic Sanction " of St. Louis is of ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 299 doubtful genuineness. It is an assertion of the liberties of the Gallican Church. With loyalty to the Holy See, and an exalted piety, Louis defended the rights of all, and did not allow the clergy to attain to an unjust control. Voltaire said of him, " It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher point." He stands in the scale of merit on a level with Alfr-ed of England. Parliaments in France. — The word parliavient in French history has a very different meaning from that which it bears when applied to the English institution of the same name. There were thirteen parliaments in France, each having a jurisdiction of its own. They were established at different times. Of these the Parliament of Paris was the oldest and by far the most important. The king and other suzerains administered justice, each in his own domain. The Parliament of Paris was originally a portion of the king's council that was set apart to hear causes among the fiefs. It considered all appeals and judicial questions. But in the reign of Louis IX., commissioners, or baillis, of the king, held provincial courts of appeal in his name. The great suzerains established, each in his own fief, like tri- bunals, but of more restricted authority. Louis IX. made it optional with the vassal to be tried by his immediate suzerain, or in the king's courts, which were subordinate to his council. As time went on, the authority of the royal tribunals increased, as that of the feudal courts grew weaker. In the Parliament of Paris, a corps of legists who understood the Roman law were admitted with the lords, knights, and prelates. More and more these " counselors " were left to themselves. Parliament was divided into Cham- bers, of which the Grand Chamber for the final hearing and decision of ap- peals was of principal importance. Philip the Fair (1302) restricted Parlia- ment to 'p'^xeiy jtidicial duties. He provided that it should hold two annual sittings at Paris. Thus there grew up a judicial aristocracy. After 1319 the members were appointed for life. At length, under Henry IV., the seats in Parliament became hereditary. The great magistrates thus constituted wore robes of ermine, or of scarlet adorned with velvet. The Palace of Jus- tice {Palais de Jicstice), on an island in the Seine, was given to Parliament for its sessions by Louis IX. In its hall scenes of tragic interest, including, in modern times, the condemnation of Marie Atitoinette and of Robespierre, have taken place. The crown was represented by a great officer, a public prose- cutor or attorney-general (procureur general). He and his assistants were termed the " king's people " {gens du roi). They had the privilege of speak- ing with their hats on. It was an ancient custom to enroll the royal ordi- nances in the parliamentary records. Gradually it came to be considered that no statute or decree had the force of law unless it was entered on the registers of Parliament. Great conflicts occurred with the kings when Par- liament refused "to register'' their edicts or treaties. Then the king would hold "a bed of justice," — so called from the cushions of the seat where he sat in the hall of Parliament, whither he came in person to command them to register the obnoxious enactment. This royal intervention could not be resisted : commonly the enrollment would be made, but sometimes under a protest. Each of the local parliaments claimed to be supreme in its own province: they were held to constitute together one institution, and all the judges were on a level. Attempts at political interference by Parliaments, the kings resisted. At the French Revolution in 1789, the Parliaments were finally abolished. Henry III. (1216-1272). — John's eldest son, Henry, when he was crowned by the royalists, was only nine years old. For a short time he had a wise guardian in Williain, Earl of Petnbroke. 30O MEDIy^VAL HISTORY. In two battles, one on the land and one on the sea, Louis VIII. ( 1 1 23-1 126), son of Philip Augustus of France, was defeated. He made peace, and returned to France. Henry married Eleanor, the daughter of Raymond, count of Provence, — a beautiful and accomplished woman, but she was unpopular in England. The king, as well as his wife, lavished offices, honors, and lands upon foreigners. He was a weak prince, and unwisely accepted for his second son, Edmund, the crown of the Two Sicilies, which could be won only at the expense of England. This measure induced the barons to compel Henry to a measure equivalent to the pla- cing of authority in the hands of a council. This brought on a war between the king and the barons. The latter were led by Sitnon de Mojitfort (the second of the name), who had inherited the earl- dom of Leicester through his mother. Through him Parliament assumed the form which it has since retained. The greater barons, the lords or peers, with the bishops and principal abbots, came together in person, and grew into the House of Lords. The free- holders of each county had sent some of the knights to represent them. The attendance of these knights now began to be regular ; but besides the two knights from each county, who were like the county members of our own time, Simon caused each city and borough to send two of their citizens, or burgesses. Thus the House of Coffimons arose. Simon defeated Zi''(?«;j at Lewes (1264) : but the barons flocked to the standard of Prince Edzvard, who escaped from custody ; and Simon was defeated and slain at the battle of Evesham in 1265. Henry was restored to power. He died in 1272, and was buried in JVesttnifister Abbey, which he had begun to rebuild. Under Henry, the Great Charter, with some altera- tions, was three times confirmed. A Charter of the Forest was added, providing that no man should lose life or hmb for taking the king's game. Cruel laws for the protection of game in the forests or uncultivated lands had been a standing grievance from the days of the Norman Conquest. The confirming of the Great Charter in 1225 was made the condition of a grant of money from the National Council to the king. When the bishops, in 1236, desired to have the laws of inheritance conformed to the rules of the Church, the barons made the laconic answer, " We will not change the laws of England " {Nolumus leges Anglice mutare). STATE OF SOCIETY. 30! CHAPTER IV. BISS OP THE BURGHER CLASS: SOCIETY IN THE ERA OF THE CRUSADES. Rise of the Cities. — Under feudalism, only two classes present themselves to view, — the nobility and the clergy on the one hand, and the serfs on the other. This was the character of society in the ninth century. In the tenth century we see the beginnings of an intermediate class, the germ of " the third estate." This change appears in the cities, where the burghers begin to increase in intel- ligence, and to manifest a spirit of independence. From this time, for several centuries, their power and privileges continued to grow. Growth of the Cities. — The same need of defense that led to the building of towers and castles in the country drove men within the walls of towns. Industry and trade developed intelli- gence, and produced wealth. But burghers under the feudal rule were obliged to pay heavy tolls and taxes. For example, for pro- tection on a journey through any patch of territory, they were required to make a payment. Besides the regular exactions, they were exposed to most vexatious depredations of a lawless kind. As they advanced in thrift and wealth, communities that were made up largely of artisans and tradesmen armed themselves for their own defense. From self-defense they proceeded farther, and extorted exemptions and privileges from the suzerain, the effect of which was to give them a high though limited degree of self-government. Origin of Municipal Freedom. — It has been supposed that municipal government in the Middle Ages was a revival of old Roman rights and customs, and thus an heirloom from antiquity. The cities — those on the Rhine and in Gaul, for example — were of Roman origin. But the view of scholars at present is, that municipal liberty, such as existed in the Middle Ages, was a native product of the Germanic peoples. The cities were incorporated into the feudal system. They were subject to a lay lord or to a bishop. In Italy, however, they struggled after a more complete repubhcan system. Cities and Suzerains. — In the conflicts which were waged by the cities, they were sometimes helped by the suzerain against the king, and sometimes by the king against the nearer suzerain. In England the cities were apt to ally themselves with the nobihty against the king : in Germany and France the reverse was the fact. But in Germany the cities which came into an immediate relation to the sovereign were less closely dependent on him than were the cities in France on the French king. 302 MElJl/IiVAL HISTORY. Two Classes of Cities. — Not only did the cities wrest from the lords a large measure of freedom : it was often freely con- ceded to them. Nobles, in order to bring together artisans, and to build up a community in their own neighborhood, granted ex- traordinary privileges. Charters were given to cities by the king. Communities thus formed differed from the other class of cities in not having the same privilege of administering justice within their limits. German Cities. — The cities in Germany increased in number on the fall of the Hohenstaufen family. They made the inclo- sure of their walls a place of refuge, as the nobles did the vicinity of their castles. They eventually gained admittance to the Diets of the empire. They formed leagues among themselves, which, however, did not become political bodies, any more than the Italian leagues. The Roman La-w. — The revised study Of the Roman law brought in a code at variance with feudal principles. The middle class, that was growing up in the great commercial cities, availed themselves, as far as they could, of its principles in regard to the inheritance of prof)crty. The legists helped in a thousand ways to emancipate them from the yoke of feudal traditions. Municipal Government. — The cities themselves often had vassals, and became suzerains. Government rested in the hands of the magistrates. They were chosen by the general assembly of the inhabitants, who were called together by the tolling of the bell. The magistrates governed without much restraint until another election, unless there were popular outbreaks, " which were at this time," as Guizot remarks, " the great guarantee for good government." Where the courage and spirit of burghers were displayed was in the maintenance of their own privileges, or purely in self-defense. In all other relations they showed the utmost humility ; and in the twelfth century, when their emanci- pation is commonly dated, they did not pretend to interfere in the government of the countr)^ Travelers and Trade. — The East, especially India, was con- ceived of as a region of boundless riches ; but commerce with the East was hindered by a thousand difficulties and dangers. Curiosity led travelers to penetrate into the countries of Asia. Among them the Polo family of Venice, of whom Marco was the most famous, were specially distinguished. Marco Polo lived in China, with his ftither and his uncle, twenty-six years. After his return, and during his captivity at Genoa, he wrote the celebrated accounts of his travels. He died about 1324. Sir John Mande- ville, an Englishman, who was born about 1300, traveled in Eastern countries, and on his return wrote a narrative of his adventures, which he dedicated to Edward III. Merchants did not venture STATE OF SOCIETY. 3O3 SO far as did bold explorers of a scientific turn. Commerce in the Middle Ages was mainly in two districts, — the borders of the North Sea and of the Baltic, and the countries upon the Mediterranean. Trade in the cities on the African coast, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, was flourishing ; and the Arabs of Spain were industri- ous and rich. Arks, Mai'seilles, Nice, Genoa, Florence, Amalfi, Venice, vied with one another in traffic with the East. Interme- mediate between Venice and Genoa, and the north of Europe, were flourishing marts, among which Strasburg and other cities on the Rhine — Augsburg, Ulni, Ratisbon, Vienna, and Nuretuberg — were among the most prominent. Through these cities flowed the currents of trade from the North to the South, and from the South to the North. The Hanseatic League. — To protect themselves against the feudal lords and against pirates, the cities of Northern Germany- formed (about 1 241) the Hanseatic League, which, at the height of its power, included eighty-five cities, besides many other cities more or less closely affiliated with it. This league was dominant, as regards trade and commerce, in the north of Europe, and united under it the cities on the Baltic and the Rhine, as well as the large cities of Flanders. Its merchants had control of the fisheries, the mines, the agriculture, and manufactures of Germany. Lubeck, Cologne^ Brunswick, znd Dan tzic^txe. its principal places. Lubeck was its chief center. In all the principal towns on the highways of commerce, the flag of the Hansa floated over its counting-houses. Wherever the influence of the league reached, its regulations were in force. It almost succeeded in monopoliz- ing the trade of Europe north of Italy. Flanders ; England : France. — The numerous cities of Flan- ders — of which Ghent, Ypres, and Bruges were best known — became hives of industry and of thrift. Ghent, at the end of the thirteenth century, surpassed Paris in riches and power. In the latter part of the fourteenth century, the number of its fighting men was estimated at eighty thousand. The development of Holland was more slow. Amsterdam was constituted a town in the middle of the thirteenth century. England began to exchange products with Spain. .It sent its sheep, and brought back the horses of the Arabians. The cities of France — Rouen, Orleans, Rheims, Lyons, Marseilles, etc. — were alive with manufactures and trade. In the twelfth century the yearly fairs at Troyes, St. Denis, and Beaucaire were famous all over Europe. New Industries. — It has been already stated that the crusaders brought back to Europe the knowledge as well as the products of various branches of industry. Such were the cloths of Damascus, the glass of Tyre, the use of windmills, of linen, and of silk, the plum-trees of Damascus, the sugar-cane, the mulberry- tree. Cotton 304 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Stuffs came into use at this time. Paper made from cotton was used by the Saracens in Spain in the eighth century. Paper was made from hnen at a somewhat later date. In France and Germany it was first manufactured early in the fourteenth century. The Jews. — The Jews in the Middle Ages were often treated with extreme harshness. An outburst of the crusading spirit was frequently attended with cruel assaults upon them. As Christians would not take interest, money-lending was a business mainly left to the Hebrews. By them, bills of exchange were first employed. Obstacles to Trade. — l"he great obstacle to commerce was the insecurity of travel. Whenever a shipwreck took place, whatever was cast upon the shore was seized by the neighboring lord. A noble at Leon, in Brittany, pointing out a rock on which many ves- sels had been wrecked, said, " I have a rock there more precious than the diamonds on the cro\\Ti of a king." It was long before property on the sea was respected, even in the same degree as property on the land. Not even at the present day has this point been reached. The infinite diversity of coins was another embarrassment to trade. In every fief, one had to exchange his money, always at a loss. Louis ILL. ordained that the money of eighty lords, who had the right to coin, should be current only in their own territories, while the coinage of the king should be re- ceived everywhere. Guilds. — A very important feature of mediaeval society was the guilds. Societies more or less resembling these existed among the Romans, and were called collegia, — some being for good fellow- ship or for religious rites, and others being trade-corporations. There were, also, similar fraternities among the Greeks in the second and third centuries B.C. In the Middle Ages, there were two general classes of guilds : First, there were the peace-guilds, for mutual protection against thieves, etc., and for mutual aid in sickness, old age, or impoverishment from other causes. They were numerous in England, and spread over the Continent. Secondly, there were the trade-guilds, which embraced the guilds- merchant, and the craft-guilds . The latter were associations of workmen, for maintaining the customs of their craft, each with a master, or alderman, and other officers. The)- had their provisions for mutual help for themselves and for their widows and orphans, and they had their religious observances. Each had its patron saint, its festivals, its treasury. They kept in their hands the monopoly of the branch of industry which belonged to them. They had their rules in respect to apprenticeship, etc. Almost all profes- sions and occupations were fenced in by guilds. Moiiasticism. — Society in the Middle Ages presented strikmg and picturesque contrasts. This was nowhere more apparent than in the sphere of religion. Along with the passion for war and STATE OF SOCIETY. 305 the consequent reign of violence, there was a parallel self-conse- cration to a life of peace and devotion. With the strongest relish for pageantry and for a brilliant ceremonial in social life and in worship, there was associated a yearning for an ascetic course under the monastic vows. As existing orders grew rich, and gave up the rigid discipline of earlier days, new orders were formed by men of deeper religious earnestness. In the eleventh century, there arose, among other orders, the Carthusian and Cistercian ; in the twelfth century, the Premonstrants and the Carinelites, and the order of Trinitarians for the liberation of Christian captives taken by the Moslems. The older orders, especially that of the Benedictines in its different branches, became very wealthy and powerful. The Cistercian Order, under its second founder, St. Bernard (who died in 1153), spread with wonderful rapidity. The Mendicant Orders. — In the thirteenth century, when the papal authority was at its height, the mendicant orders arose. The order of St. Francis was fully estabhshed in 1223, and the order of St. Dominic in 12 16. They combined with monastic vows the utmost activity in preaching and in other clerical work. These orders attracted young men of talents and of a devout spirit in large numbers. The mendicant friars were frequently in conflict with the secular clergy, — the ordinary priesthood, — and with the other orders. But they gained a vast influence, and were devotedly loyal to the popes. It must not be supposed that the monastic orders generally were made up of the weak or the disappointed who sought in cloisters a quiet asylum. Disgust with the world, from whatever cause, led many to become members of them ; but they were largely composed of vigorous minds, which, of their own free choice, took on them the monastic vows. The Rise of the Universities. — The Crusades were accompanied by a signal revival of intellectual activity. One of the most im- portant events of the thirteenth century was the rise of the univer- sities. The schools connected with the abbeys and the cathedrals in France began to improve in the eleventh century, partly from an impulse caught by individuals from the Arabic schools in Spain. After the scholastic theology was introduced, teachers in this branch began to give instruction near those schools in Paris. Numerous pupils gathered around noted lecturers. An organization followed which was called a tiniversity, — a sort of guild, — made up of four faculties, — theology, canon law, medicine, and the arts. The arts included the three studies {trivinm) of grammar, rheto- ric, and philosophy, with four additional branches (the qiiadri- viuni), — arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy. Paris became the mother of many other universities. Next to Paris, Oxford was famous as a seat of education. Of all the universities, Bologna in Italy was most renowned as a school for the study of the civil law. 3o6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Scholastic Theology. — The scholastic theology dates from the middle of the eleventh century. It was the work of numerous teachers, many of them of unsurpassed acuteness, who, at a time when learning and scholarship were at a low ebb, made it their aim to systemize, elucidate, and prove on philosophical grounds, the doctrines of the Church. Aristoile was the author whose philosophical writings were most authoritative with the schoolmen. In theology, Ai/gustine was the most revered master. The main question in philosophy which the schoolmen debated was that of Nominalism and Realism. The question was, whether a general term, as man, stands for a real being designated by it (as man, in the example given, for humanity), or is sim])ly the name of divers distinct individuals. The Leading Schoolmen. — In the eleventh c&wX\xx^ Anselm of Can- terbury was a noble example of the scholastic spirit. In the thirteenth century Abelard was a bold and brilliant teacher, but with less depth and discretion. He, like other eminent schoolmen, attracted multitudes of pu- pils. The thirteenth century was the golden age of scholasticism. Then flourished Albert the Great, T/iofnas Aquinas, St. Bonaventnra, and others very influential in their day. There were two schools of opinion, — that of the Thomists, the adherents of Aqidnas, the great theologian of the Dominican order; and that of the Scotists, the adherents of Duns Scotus, a great light of the Franciscans. They differed on various theological points not involved in the common faith. The discussions of the schoolmen were often carried into distinctions bewildering from their subtlety. There were individuals who were more disposed to the indicctive method of investigation, and who gave attention to natural as well as metaphysical science. Perhaps the most eminent of these \i Roger Bacon. He was an Englishman, was born in 1219, and died about 1294. He was imprisoned for a time on account of the jealousy with which studies in natural science and new discoveries in that branch were regarded by reason of their imagined conflict with religion. Astrology was cultivated by the Moors in Spain in connection with astronomy. It sj^read among the Christian nations. Alchemy, the search for the transmutation of metals, had its curious votaries. But such pursuits were popularly identified with diabolic agency. The Vernacular Literatures : the Troubadours. — Intellectual activity was for a long time exclusively confined to theology. The earliest literature of a secular cast in France belongs to the tenth and eleventh centuries, and to the dialect of Provence. The study of this language, and the poetry composed in it, became the recreation of knights and noble ladies. Thousands of poets, who were called Troubadours (from trobar, to find or invent), appeared almost simultaneously, and became well known in Spain and in Italy as well as in France. At the same time the period of chivalry began. The theme of their tender and passionate poems was love. They indulged in a license which was not offensive, owing to the laxity of manners and morals in Southern France at that day, but would be intolerable in a different state of society. Kings, as well as barons and knights, adopted the rroven9al language, and figured as troubadours. In connection with jousts and tournaments, there would be a contest for poetical honors. The "Court of Love," made up of gentle ladies, with the lady of the castle at their head, gave the verdict. Besides. the songs of love, another class of Proven9al poems treated of war or politics, or were of a satirical cast. From the Moors of Spain, rhyme, which belonged to Arabian ]3oetry, was introduced, and spread thence over Europe. After the thirteenth century the trouba- dours were heard of no more, and the Provencal tongue became a mere diakct. STATE OF SOCIETY. 307 The Norman Writers. — The first writers and poets in the French language proper appeared in Normandy. They called themselves Trou- veres. They were the troubadours of the North. They composed romances of chivalry, and Fabliaux, or amusing tales. They sang in a more warlike and virile strain than the poets of the South. Their first romances were written late in the twelfth century. About that time Villehardouin wrote in French a history of the conquest of Constantinople. From the poem en- titled " Alexander," the name of Alexandrine verse came to be applied to the measure in which it was written. A favorite theme of the romances of chivalry was the mythical exploits of Arthur, the last Celtic king of Britain, ' and of the knights of the Round Table. Another class of romances of chiv- alry related to the court of Charlemagne. The Fabliaux in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were largely composed of tales of ludicrous adventures. German, English, and Spanish Writers. — In Germany, in the age of the Hohenstaufens, the poets called Minnesingers abounded. They were conspicuous at the splendid tournaments and festivals. In the thirteenth century numerous lays of love, satirical fables, and metrical romances were composed or translated. Of the Round Table legends, that of the San Graal (the real blood) was the most popular. It treated of the search for the precious blood of Christ, which was said to have been brought in a cup or charger into Northern Europe by Joseph of Arimathea. During this period the old ballads were thrown into an epic form ; among them, the Nihelungen- lied, the Iliad of Germany. The religious faith and loyalty of the Spanish character, the fruit of their long contest with the Moors, are reflected in the poem of the Cid, which was composed about the year 1200. It is the oldest epic poem in any of the Romance languages. In England during this period, we have the chronicles kept in the monasteries. Among their authors are William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Matthew Paris, a Bene- dictine monk of St. Albans. Dante. — Dante, the chief poet of Italy, and the father of its vernacular literature, was born in Florence in 1265. The Divine Cofnedy is universally regarded as one of the greatest products of poetical genius. The family oi Alighieri, to which Dante belonged, was noble, but not of the highest rank. He was placed under the best masters, and became not only an accomplished student of Virgil and other Latin poets, but also an adept in theology and in various other branches of knowl- edge. His training was the best that the time afforded. His family belonged to the anti- imperial party of Giielfs. The spirit of faction raged at Flore7tce. Daniewas attached to the party of " Whites" [Bi'anc/iz), and, having held the high office oi prior in Florence, was ban- ished, with many others, when the "Blacks" (Nerz) got the upper hand (1302). Until his death, nineteen years later, he wandered from place to place in Italy as an exile. Circum- stances, especially the distracted condition of the country, led him to ally himself with the Ghz- bellines, and to favor the imperial cause. All that he saw and suffered until he breathed his last, away from his native city, at Ravenna, combined to stir within him the thoughts and passions which find expression in his verse. No poet before Dante ever equaled him in depth of thought and feeling. His principal work is divided into three parts. It is an allegorical vision of hell, purgatory, and heaven. Through the first two of these regions, the poet is conducted by Virgil. In the third, Beatrice is his guide. When he was a boy of nine years of age, he had met, at a May-day festival, Beatrice, who was of the same age ; and thenceforward he cherished towards her a pure and romantic affection. Before his twenty-fifth year she died; but, after her death, his thoughts dwelt upon her with a refined but not less passionate regard. She is his imaginary guide through the abodes of the blest. His Young Life ( Vita Ntiova) gives the history of his love. The " Divine Cotnedy" — so called because the author would modestly place it below the rank of an epic, — besides the lofty genius which it exhibits, besides the matchless force and beauty of its diction, sums up, so to speak, what is best and most characteristic in the whole intellectual and religious life of the Middle Ages. Thomas _ A qninas was Dante's authority in theology. The scholastic system taught by the Church is brought to view in his pictures of the supernatural world, and in the comments connected with them. Painting. — After the Lombard conquest of Italy, art branched off into two schools. The one was the Byzantine, and the other the Late Roman. In the Byzantine paintings, the human figures are stiff, and conventional forms prevail. The Byzantine school conceived of Jestis as without beauty of per- 3o8 MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. son, — literally "without form or comeliness." The Romans had a directly opposite conception. Byzantine taste had a strong influence in Italy, espe- cially at Venice. This is seen in the mosaics of St. Mark's Cathedral. The first painter to break loose from Byzantine influence, and to introduce a more free style which flourished under the patronage of the Church, was Cimabue ( 1240-1302), who is generally considered the founder of modern Italian paint- ing. The first steps were now taken towards a direct observation and imita- tion of nature. The artist is no longer a slavish copyist of others. " Cima- /wd'," says M. 7'aine, "already belongs to the new order of things; for he invents and expresses." But Ciinalme was far outdone by Giotto (1276-1337), who cast off wholly the Byzantine fetters, studied nature earnestly, and abjured that which is false and artificial. Notwithstanding his technical de- fects, his force, and "his feeling for grace of action and harmony of color," were such as to make him, even more than Civiahie, "the founder of the true ideal style of Christian art, and the restorer of portraiture." "His, above all, was a varied, fertile, facile, and richly creative nature." The contempo- rary of Dante, his portrait of the poet has been discovered in recent times on a wall in the Podesta at F"lorence. " He stands at the head of the school of allegorical painting, as the latter of that of poetry." The most famous pupil of Giotto wa.s Taddeo Gaddi (about 1300-1367). Sculpture. — In the thirteenth century, the era of the revival of art in Italy, a new school of sculpture arose under the auspices especially of two artists, Niccolo of Pisa and his son Giovanni. They brought to their art the same spirit which belonged to Giotto in painting and to Dante in ))oetry. The same courage that moved the great poet to write in his own vernacular tongue, instead of in Latin, emboldened the artists to look away from the received standards, and to follow nature. In the same period a new and improved style of sculpture apjjears m other countries, especially in the Gothic cathedrals of Germany and France. Architecture. — The eailiest Christian churches were copies of the Roman basilica, — a civil building oblong in shape, sometimes with and some- times without rows of columns dividing the nave from the aisles : at one end, there was usually a semicircular apse. Most of the churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were built after this style. Then changes were introduced, which in some measure paved the way for the Gothic, the pecul- iar type of mediaeval architecture. The essential characteristic of this style is the pointed arch. This may have been introduced by the returning crusaders from buildings which they had observed in the East. Its use and develop- ment in the churches and other edifices of Europe in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries were without previous example. The Gothic style was carried to its perfection in France, and spread over England and Germany. The cathedrals erected in this form are still the noblest and most attractive build- ings to be seen in the old European towns. The cathedral of Rheims was commenced in 1211 : the choir was dedicated in 1241, and the edifice was completed in 1430. The cathedral of Amietis was begun in 1220; that of Cltar- trcs was begun about 1020, and was dedicated in 1260; that of Salisl'ury was begun in 1220; that of Cologne, in 1248; the cathedral of Siras/ntrg was only half finished in 1318, when the architect, Eruu'ii 0/ Stcinbach, died; that of Notre Dame in Paris was begun in 1163; that of Toledo, in 1258. These noble buildings were built gradually: centuries passed before the completion of them. Several of them to this day remain unfinished. STATE OF SOCIETY. 309 So w as 0-5 gS — o S H ^ I M OS's if o-y - O i-l H L gs o O c a- ffQ ja 5"— ~ s 5- «5 hi E H* < M "„ > ^ z w _o * a 1 « — I H S K 3 a fiJ a- X ^ a- c ■^ CO W ?3 g- 0) •il 1—4 «*"• < c > ^^^ r" o^ 3IO MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. CJ Pk '2 ^ I ° Cl, .-^ fM UM C -5 -5 .S I— I W f^ O rt N \S Cl ■^ -^ hi T 1 r» M PI ■^ ■^ ^ 1^ > > - >> >> >, S a a S> a (S n X n c8- e! ^ s: -3 -a H H Period IV. FROM THE END OF THE CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. {A.D. 1270-1453.) THE DECMNE OF ECCrESIASTICAt AUTHORITY : THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAX SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY. Character of the New Era. — The Church was supreme in the era of the Crusades. These had been great movements of a soci- ety of which the Pope was the head, — movements in which the pontiffs were the natural leaders. We come now to an era when the predominance of the Church declines, and the Papacy- loses ground. Mingled with religion, there is diffused a more secu- lar spirit. The nations grow to be more distinct from one another. Political relations come to be paramount. The national spirit grows strong, — too strong for outside ecclesiastical control. With- in each nation the laity is inclined to put limits to the power and privileges of the clergy. In several of the countries, monarchy in the modern European form gets a firm foothold. The enfran- chisement of the towns, the rise of commerce, the influence gained by the legists and by the Roman law, of which they were the ex- pounders, had betokened the dawn of a new era. The develop- ment of the national languages and literatures signified its coming. Germany and the Holy Roman Empire no longer absorb attention. What is taking place in France and England is, to say the least, of equal moment. CHAPTER I. , ENGLAND AND PRANCE: SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALSHIP: THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (A.D. 1339-1453). Philip III. of France (1270-1285). — In France royalty made a steady progress down to the long War of a Hundred Years. Philip III. (i 270-1285) married his son to the heiress oi Navarre. His sway extended to the Pyrenees. He failed in an expedition against 312 MEDIilLVAL HISTORY. Peter, king of Aragon, who had supported the Sicihans against Charles of A?jjou ; but the time for foreign conquests had not come. Philip IV. of France (1285-1314) : "War with Edward I. of Eng- land. — Philip IV. (the Fair) has been styled the "King of the Legists." He surrounded himself with lawyers, who furnished him, from their storehouse of Roman legislation, weapons with which to face baron and pope. In 1292 conflicts broke out between English and French sailors. Philip, in his character as suzerain, undertook to take peaceful possession of Guieiine, but was pre- vented by the English garrisons. Thereupon he summoned Edward I. of England, as the holder of the fiefs, before his court. Edward sent his brother as a deputy, but the French king de- clared that the fiefs were forfeited in consequence of his not appearing in person. In the war that resulted (i 294-1 297), each party had his natu- ral allies. Philip had for his allies the Welsh and the Scots, while Edward was supported by the Count of Flanders and by Adolphus of Nassau, king of the Romans. In Scotland, IVilliatn Wallace withstood Edward. Philip was successful in Flanders and in Guieiine. Edward, who was kept in England by his war with the Scots, secured a truce through the mediation of Pope Boniface VIII. Philip then took possession of Flanders, with the exception of Ghent. Flanders was at that time the richest country in Europe. Its cities were numerous, and the whole land was populous and industrious. From England it received the wool used in its thriv- ing manufactures. To England its people were attached. Philip loaded the Flemish people with imposts. They rose in revolt, and Robert d'Artois, Philip's brother, met with a disastrous defeat in a battle with the Flemish troops at Coiirtrai, in 1302. The Flemish burghers proved themselves too strong for the royal troops. Flan- ders was restored to its count, four towns being retained by France. Conflict of Philip IV. and Boniface VIII. — The expenses of Philip, in the support of his army and for other purposes, were enormous. The old feudal revenues were wholly insufficient for the new methods of government. To supply himself with money, he not only levied onerous taxes on his subjects, and practiced ingenious extortion upon the Jews, but he resorted again and again to the device of debasing the coin. Flis resolution to tax the property of the Church brought him into a contro\'ersy, mo- mentous in its results, with Pope Boniface VIII. (p. 313). Boniface's idea of papal prerogative was fully as exalted as that formerly held by Hildebrand and Innocent III. But he had less prudence and self-restraint, and the temper of the times was now altered. If Philip was sustained by the Roman law and its inter- ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 313 preters, whose counsels he gladly followed, Boniface, on the other hand, could lean upon the system of ecclesiastical or canon law, which had long been growing up in Europe, and of which the Canonists were the professional expounders. The vast wealth of the clergy had led to enactments for keeping it within bounds, like the statute of 7nortmain in England (1279) forbidding the giving of land to religious bodies without license from the king. The word mortmain meant dead hand, and was applied to possess- ors of land, especially ecclesiastical corporations, that could not alienate it. The jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts, which kings, because they happened to have a less liking for feudal law, had often favored, had now come to be another great matter of con- tention. In 1296 Boniface VIII., in the bull clericis laicos, — so named, like other papal edicts, from the opening words, — for- bade the imposition of extraordinary taxes upon the clergy with- out the consent of the Holy See. Philip responded by forbidding foreigners to sojourn in France, which was equivalent to driving out of the country the Roman priests and those who brought in the obnoxious bull. At the same time he forbade money to be carried out of France. This last prohibition cut off contributions to Rome. The king asserted the importance of the laity in the Church, as well as of the clergy, and the right of the king of France to take charge of his own realm. There was a seeming reconciliation for a time, through concessions on the side of the Pope; but the strife broke out afresh in 1301. Philip arrested Bernard Saisset, a bold legate of the Pope. Boniface poured forth a stream of complaints against Philip (1301), and went so far as to summon the French clergy to a council at Rome for the settle- ment of all disorders in France. The king then appealed to the French nation. On the loth of April, 1302, he assembled in the Church of Notre Dame, at Paris, a body which, for the first time, contained the deputies of the universities and of the towns, and for this reason is considered to have been the first meeting of the States General. The clergy, the barons, the burghers, sided cor- dially with the king. The Pope then published the famous bull, Unajn Sane tarn, in which the subjection of the temporal power to the spiritual is proclaimed with the strongest emphasis. Boniface then excommunicated Philip, and was preparing to depose him, and to hand over his kingdom to the emperor, Albert I. Death of Boniface VIII. — Meantime Philip had assembled anew the States General (1303). The legists lent their counsel and active support. It was proposed to the king to convoke a general council of the Church, and to summon the Pope before it. William of Nogaret, a great lawyer in the service of Philip, was directed to lodge with Boniface this appeal to a council, and to publish it at Pome. With Sciarra Colorina, between whose fam- 314 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. ily and the Pope there was a mortal feud, Nogaret, attended also by several hundred hired soldiers, entered Anagni, where Boniface was then staying. The two messengers heaped upon him the se- verest reproaches, and Colotina is said to have struck the old pon- tiff in the face with his mailed hand. The French were driven out of the town by the people ; but from the indignities which he had suffered, and the anger and shame consequent upon them, Boniface shortly afterwards died. The " Babylonian Captivity " (1309-1379). — From the date of the events just narrated, the pontifical authority sank, and the secular authority of sovereigns and nations was in the ascendant. After the short pontificate of Benedict XL, who did what he could to reconcile the ancient but estranged allies, France and the Papacy, a French prelate, the Archbishop of Bordeaux, was made pope under the name of Clement F., he having previously engaged to comply with the wishes of Philip. While the Papacy continued subordinate to the French king, its moral influence in other parts of Christendom was of necessity reduced. Clement V. was crowned at Lyons in 1305, and in 1309 established himself at Avigno7i, a possession of the Holy See on the borders of France. After him there followed at Avigno7i seven popes who were subject to French influence (1309-1376). It is the period in the annals of the Papacy which is called the " Babylonian captivity." Philip remained implacable. He was determined to secure the condem- nation of Boniface VLLL., even after his death, Clement V. had no alternative but to summon a council, which was held at Vienne in 131 1, when Boniface was declared to have been orthodox, at the same time that Philip was shielded from ecclesiastical censure or reproach. Suppression of the Knights Templars. — One of the demands which Philip had made of Clement V., and a demand which the council had to grant, was the condemnation of the order of Knights Templars, whose vast wealth Philip coveted. On the 13th of October, 1307, the Templars were arrested over all France, — an act which evinces both the power of Philip, and his injustice. They were charged with secret immoralities, and with practices involving impiety. Provincial councils were called together to decree the judgment preordained by the king. The Templars were examined under torture, and many of them were burned at the stake. A large number of those who were put to death re- voked the confessions which had been extorted from them by bodily suffering. Individuals may have been guilty of some of the charges, but there is no warrant for such a \-erdict against the entire order. The order was abolished by Clement F. Law Studies: Mercenary Troops. — During the reign of Philip the Fair, it was ordained that Parliament should sit twice every year ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 315 at Paris (1303). A university for the study of law was founded at Orleans. The king needed soldiers as well as lawyers. Mercenary troops were beginning to take the place of feudal bands. Philip brought the Genoese galleys against the ships of Flanders. The Three Sons of Philip : the " Salic Law." — Three sons of Philip reigned after him. Louis X. (1314-1316) was induced to take part in an aristocratic reaction, in behalf of " the good old customs," against the legists ; but he continued to emancipate the serfs. At the accession of Philip V. (131 6-1322), it was decreed that no female should succeed to the throne of France. This was imagined to be a part of the old " Salic Law." The rule was really the result of the "genealogical accident" that for three hundred and forty-one years, or since the election of Hugh Capet, every French king had been succeeded by his son. In several cases the son had been crowned in the lifetime of the father. Thus the principle of heredity, and of heredity in the male line, had taken root. Under Philip V. and his successor, Charles IV. (1322-1328), there was cruel persecution of the Jews, and many people suffered death on the charge of sorcery. Edward I of England (1272-1307): Conquest of "Wales: "Wil- liam "Wallace. — Edward, who was in the Holy Land when his father died, was a gallant knight and an able ruler, — " the most brilliant monarch of the fourteenth century." Llywelyn, prince, of Wales, having refused to render the oath due from a vassal, was forced to yield. When a rebellion broke out several years later, Wales was conquered, and the leader of the rebellion was executed (1273). Thus Wales was joined to England ; and the king gave to his son the title of "Prince of Wales," which the eldest son of the sovereign of England has since worn. Edward was for many years at war with Scotland, which now included the Gaehc-speaking peo- ple of the Highlands, and the English-speaking people of the Low- lands. The king of England had some claim to be their suzerain, a claim which the Scots were slow to acknowledge. The old line of Scottish princes of the Celtic race died out. Alexander HI. fell with his horse over a cliff on the coast of Fife. Two competitors for the throne arose, both of them of Norman descent, — Joh7i Baliol and Robert Bruce. The Scots made Edward 2:0. umpire, to decide which of them should reign. He decided for Baliol (1292), stip- ulating that the sr^zerainty should rest with himself When he called upon Baliol to aid him against France, the latter renounced his allegiance, and declared war. He was conquered at Dunbar (1297), and made prisoner. The strongholds in Scotland fell into the hands of the English. The country appeared to be sub- jugated, but the Scots were ill-treated by the English. Willia7n Wallace put himself at the head of a band of followers, defeated 3l6 MEDI^.VAL HISTORY. them near Stirlhig in 1292, and kept up the contest for several years with heroic energy. At length Edward, through the skill acquired by the English in the use of the bow, was the victor at FalJdrk in 1298. Wallace, having been betrayed into his hands, was brutally executed in London (1305). Edward carried off from Scone the stone on which the Scottish kings had always been crowned. It is now in Westminster Abbey, under the coronation chair of the sovereign of Great Britain. There was a legend, that on this same stone the patriarch Jacob laid his head when he beheld angels ascending and descending at Bethel. Where that stone was, it was believed that Scottish kings would reign. This was held to be verified when English kings of Scottish descent inherited the crown. Robert Bruce. — The struggle for Scottish independence was taken up by Robert Bruce, grandson of the Bruce who had claimed the crown. His plan to gain the throne was disclosed by John Comyn, nephew of Baliol : this Comyii young Bruce stabbed in a church at Dumfries. He was then crowned king at Scone, and summoned the Scots to his standard. The English king sent his son Edward to conquer him ; but the king himself, before he could reach Scotland, died. Parliament: the Jews. — Under Edward, the form of govern- ment by king, lords, and commons was firmly established. Parlia- ment met in two distinct houses. Against his inclination he swore to the " Confirmation of the Charters," by which he engaged not to impose taxes without the consent of Parliament. The statute of mortmain has been referred to already. The clergy paid their taxes to the king when they found, that, unless they did so, the judges would not protect them. Edward had protected the Je^vs, who, in England as elsewhere, were often falsely accused of horrible crimes, and against whom there existed, on account of their religion, a vio- lent prejudice. At length he yielded to the popular hatred, and banished them from the kingdom, permitting them, however, to take with them their property. Edward II. (1307-1327). — Edward II., a weak and despicable sovereign, cared for nothing but pleasure. lie was under the influence of the son of a Gascon gentleman, Peter of Gaveston, whom, contrary to the injunction of his father, he recalled from ban- ishment. Gavesion was made regent while the king was \\\ France, whither he went, in 1308, to marry Isabel, daughter of Philip the Fair. After his return, the disgust of the barons at the conduct of Gaveston, and at the courses into which Edzvard was led by him, was such, that in 1310 they forced the king to give the government for a year to a committee of peers, by whom Gaveston was once more banished. When he came back, he was captured by the barons, and beheaded in 1312. Bruce: Bannockburn: Deposition of Edward II. — After vari- ous successes, Robert Bruce kiid siege to Stirling in 13 14. This led to a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward set out for Scotland with an army of a hundred thou- sand men. A great battle took place at Bannockburn, where ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 317 Bruce, with a greatly inferior force of foot-soldiers, totally defeated the English. He had dug pits in front of his army, which he had covered with turf resting on sticks. The effect was to throw the English cavalry into confusion. Against the Despencers, father and son, the next favorites of Edward, the barons were not at first successful; but in 1325 Edward's queen, /i-«(^// Guesclin, a valiant gentleman of Brittany, who became one of the principal heroes of the time. The war lasted for a year, and the King of Navarre made peace. In Brittany, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner by the English party and the adventurers who fought wath them. The king secured his release by paying his ransom ; and he led the companies into Spain to help the cause of Henty of Transtamare, who had a dispute for the throne of Castile with Peter the Cruel. The Black Prince supported Peter, and, for a time, with success. In 1369 Hefiry vfas established on the throne,, and with him the French party. The principal benefit of this Spanish contest was the deliverance of France from the companies of freebooters. Advantages gained by the French. — King Charles reformed the internal administration of his kingdom, and at length felt him- self ready to begin again the conflict with England. Edward HI. ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 323 was old. The Black Prince was ill and gloomy, and his Aquita- nian subjects disliked the supercilious ways of the English. Charles declared war (1369). The English landed at Calais. But the cities were defended by their strong walls ; and the French army, under the Duke of Burgutidy, in pursuance of the settled policy of the king, refused to meet the enemy in a pitched battle. The next year (1370) they appeared again, and once more, in 1373, both times with the same result. The Duke of Anjou reconquered the larger part of Aquitaine. Du Guesclin was made constable of the French army, and thus placed above the nobles by birth. The English fleet was destroyed by the Castilian vessels before Rochelle (1372). Du Guesclin drove the Duke of Montfort, who was protected by the English, out of Brittany. In 1375 a truce was made, which continued until the death of Edward III. (1377). Then Charles renewed the war, and was successful on every side. Most of the English possessions in France were won back. The last exploit of the Black Prince had been the sacking of Limoges (1370). After this cruel proceeding, broken in health, he re- turned to England. State of England. — The Black Prince, after his return, when his father was old and feeble, did much to save the country from misrule, so that his death was deplored. The Parliament at this time was called "the Good." It turned out of office friends of John of Gaunt, — or of Ghent (the place where he was born),; — the third son of Edward. They were unworthy men, whom John had caused to be appointed. At this time occurred the first in- stance of impeachment of the king's ministers by the Commons. When the Black Prince died, his brother regained the chief power, and his influence was mischievous. During Edward's reign, Flem- ish weavers were brought over to England, and the manufacture of fine woolen cloths was thus introduced. John "Wickliffe. — In this reign the English showed a strong disposition to curtail the power of the popes in England. When Pope Urban F., in 1366, called for the payment of the arrears of King John's tribute. Parliament refused to grant it, on the ground that no one had the right to subject the kingdom to a foreigner. It was in the reign of Edwai'd III. that John Wickliffe became prominent. He took the side of the secular or the parish clergy in their conflict with the mendicant orders, — "the Begging Friars," as they were styled. He also advocated the cause of the king against the demands of the Pope. He contended that the clergy had too much wealth and power. He adopted doctrines, at that time new, which were not behind the later Protestant, or even Puritan, opinions. He translated the Bible into English. He was protected by Edward III. and by powerful nobles, and he died in peace in his parish at Lutterworth, in 1384 ; but, after his deathj 324 MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. his bones were taken up, and burned. His followers bore the nick- name of Lollards, which is probably derived from a word that means to sing, and thus was equivalent to psalm-singcrs. Richard n. (1377-1399): the Peasant Insurrection: Deposi- tion of Richard. — Richard, the young son of the Black Prince, had an unhappy reign. At first he was ruled by his uncles, espe- cially h^ John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Four years after his accession, a great insurrection of the peasants broke out, from discontent under the yoke of villanage, and the pressure of taxes. The first leader in Essex was a priest, who took the name oi Jack Straw. In the previous reign, the poor had found reason to com- plain bitterly of the landlords ; but their lot was now even harder. AVhen the insurgents reached Blackheath, they numbered a hun- dred thousand men. There a priest named John Ball harangued them on the equaUty of rights, from the text, — When Adam delved, and Eve span. Who was then a gentleman ? Young Richard managed them with so much tact, and gave them such fair promises, that they dispersed. One of their most fierce leaders, Wat Tyler, whose daughter had been insulted by a tax- gatherer, was stabbed during a parley which he was holding with the king. There was a Gloucester party — a party led by his youngest uncle, the Duke of Gloucester — which gave Richard much trouble ; but he became strong enough to send the duke to Calais, where, it was thought, he was put to death. In 1398 he banished t\vo no- blemen who had given him, at a former day, dire offense. One of them was Thomas Moivbray, Duke of Norfolk ; the other was Henty of Bolingbroke, Duke of Hereford, afterwards called Duke of Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt. When John of Gaunt died, Richard seized his lands. In 1399, when Richard wdiS in Ireland, Bolingbroke landed, with a few men-at-arms and with Archbishop Arundel ; and, being joined by the great family of Percy in the North, he obliged Richard to resign the crown. He was deposed by Parliament for misgovemment. Not long after, he was mur- dered. Lancaster was made king under the name of Henry LV. It was under Richard that the statute oi prceniunire (of 1353) was renewed, and severe penalties were imposed on all who should procure excommunications or sentences against the king or the realm. The English Language and Literature. — In the course of the reign of Edward III., the French language, which had come in with the Normans, ceased to be the speech of fashion; and the English, as altered by the loss of inflections and by the introduction of foreign words, came into general use. The English ceased to speak the language of those who were now held to be national enemies. In 1362 the use of English was established in the ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 325 courts of law. The Old Etiglisk ceased to be written or spoken correctly. The Latin still continued to be familiar to the clergy and to the learned. William Langland wrote a poem entitled the Vision of Piers Plowman (1362). /'/>rr^ M^ /Vi?a/wa«'j C;v(/i? is a poem by another author. The two principal poets are Chaucer and Gozver, both of whom wrote the new English in use at the court. Chaucer's great poem, the Canterbury Tales, is the latest and most remarkable of his works. Henry IV. (1399-1413): Two Rebellions: The Lollards. — By right of birth, the crown would have fallen to Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, the grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, Lionel having been a son of Edward III., older than John of Gaunt. But there was no law compelling Pariiament to give the throne to the nearest of kin. So it fell to the house of Lancaster. Henry had to confront two rebellions. One was that of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower, which he long tried to put down, and which was gradually overcome by Henry, Prince of Wales, the story of whose wild courses in his youth was perhaps exaggerated. The other rebellion was that of the powerful Northumberland fam- ily of the Percys, undertaken in behalf of Richai-d if he was alive, — for it was disputed whether or not he had really died, — and if not alive, in behalf of the Eai'l of March. The Percys joined Glen- dower. They were beaten in a bloody battle near Shi'ewsbury, in 1403, where Northumberland's son "Hotspur " {Harry Percy) was slain. While praying at the shrine of St. Edward in Westminster, the king was seized with a fit, and died in the " Jerusalem Cham- ber " of the Abbot. Under Henry the proceedings against heretics were sharpened ; but the Commons at length, from their jealousy of the clergy, sought, although in vain, a mitigation of the statute. In the next reign, the LoUards, who were numerous, had a leader in Sir John Oldcaslle, called Lord Cobham, who once escaped from the Tower, but was captured, after some years, and piit to death as a traitor and heretic. Whether he aimed at a Lollard revolution or not, is uncertain. The Lollards were persecuted, not only as heretics, but also as desiring to free the serfs from their bondage to the landlords. The Burgundians and Armagnacs. — In the last days of Charles V. of France, he tried in vain to absorb Brittany. Flanders and Languedoc revolted against him. The aspect of public affairs was clouded when Charles VI. ( 1380-142 2), who was not twelve years old, became the successor to the throne. His uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Bei-ri, and Burgundy, contended for the regency. Their quarrels distracted the kingdom. A contest arose with the Flem- ish cities under the leadership oi Philip Van Artevelde ; but they were defeated by the French nobles at Roosebeke, and Artevelde was slain. This victory of the nobles over the cities was followed by the repression of the municipal leaders and lawyers in France. Two factions sprang up, — the Btirgundians and the Armagnacs. 2,26 MKDI/l'lVAL HISTORY. Margaret, the wife of the Duke of Lurgundy, received Flanders by inheritance, on the death of her father the Count (1382). The king was beginning to free himself from the control of the factions when he suddenly went mad. Thenceforth there was a struggle in France for supremacy between the adherents of the dukes of Burgundy and the adherents of the house of Or/cans. The latter came to be called Armagnacs (14 10), after the Cotint d'Armagnac, the father-in-law of Charles, Diike of Orleans. The strength of the Burgu7idia?is was in the North and in the cities. They adhered to Urban VI., the pope at Rome, in opposition to the Avignon pope, Clement VII. ; for these were the days of the papal schism. They were also friends of the house of Lancaster in England, — o( Henry IV. and Ilemy V. The strength of the Armagnacs was in the South. At the outset, it was a party of the court and of the nobles : later it became a national party. Louis, Duke of Orleans, was treacherously assassinated by a partisan of the Bm-gundians (1407). This act fomented the strife. Battle of Agincourt: Treaty of Troyes (1420). — It was in 1393 that theking partially lost his reason. For the rest of his life, ex- cept at rare intervals, he was either imbecile or frenzied. By the division of counsels and a series of fatalities, gigantic preparations for the invasion of England had come to naught (i 386-1 388). Henfy V. of England (1413-1422) concluded that the best way to divert his nobles from schemes of rebellion was to make war across the Channel. Accordingly he demanded his " inheritance " ac- cording to the treaty of Bretig7ty, together with Normandy. On the refusal of this demand, he renewed the claim of his great- grandfather tof the crown of France, although he was not the eldest descendant of Edward III. Henry invaded France at the head of fifty thousand men. By his artillery and mines he took Harfleur, but not until after a terrible siege in which thousands of his troops perished by sickness. On his way towards Calais, with not more than nine thousand men, he found his way barred at Agincou7-t by the Armagnac forces, more than fifty thousand in number, comprising the chivalry of France (1415). In the great battle that ensued, the horses of the French floundered in the mud, and horse and rider were destroyed by the English bowmen. The French suffered another defeat like the defeats of Crecy and Poitiers. They lost eleven thousand men, and among them some of the noblest men in France. France was falling to pieces. Rouen was besieged by Henry, and compelled by starvation to surrender (14 19). The fury of factions continued to rage. There were dreadful massacres by the mob in Paris. The Duke oi Bur- gundy, John the Fearless {Jea7i sans Peur), was murdered in 14 19 by the opposite faction. The young Duke Philip, and even the Queen of France, Isabella, were now found on the Anglo-Burgun- ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 32/ dian side. By the Ti'eaty of Troyes, in 1420, Catherine, the daugh- ter of Charles VI., was given in marriage to Henry V., and he was made the heir of the crown of France when the insane king, Charles VI., should die. Henry was made regent of France. The whole country north of the Loire was in his hands. The Dauphin Charles retired to the provinces beyond that river. THE HUNDKED TEAKS' WAR: PERIOD III. (TO THE END, 1453). Prance in 1422. — Both Hen7y and Charles VI. died in 1422. The Duke of Bedford was made regent in France, ruling in the name of his infant nephew {Henry VI.). Charles VII. (1422- 1461) was proclaimed king by the ArtJtagjiacs south of the Loire. His situation was desperate, but he represented the national cause. Bedford laid siege to Orleans, the last bulwark of the royal party. The English were weakened, however, by the withdrawal of the Duke of Burgundy and his forces. Joan of Arc. — When the national cause was at this low point, Providence raised up a deliverer in the person of a pure, simple- hearted, and pious maiden of Doniremy in Lorraine, seventeen years of ^.go., Jeanne Dare by name (the name Joan of Arc being merely a mistake in orthography) . The tales of suffering that she had heard deeply moved her. She felt herself called of Heaven to liberate France. She fancied that angels' voices bade her under- take this holy mission. Her own undoubting faith aroused faith in others. Commissioned by the king, she mounted a horse, and, with a banner in her hand, joined the French soldiers, whom she inspired with fresh courage. They forced the Enghsh to give up the siege of Orleans, and to march away. Other defeats of the English followed. The Maid of Orleans took Charles to Rheims, and stood by him at his coronation. The English and Burgun- dians rallied their strength. Joan of Arc was ill supported, and was made prisoner before Paris by the Burgundians. They deliv- ered her to the English. She was subjected to grievous indignities, was condemned as a witch, and finally burned as a relapsed heretic dit Rouen (143 1). The last word she uttered was " Jesus." Her character was without a taint. In her soul, the spirit of religion and of patriotism burned with a pure flame. A heroine and a saint combined, she died " a victim to the ingratitude of her friends, and the brutahty of her foes." The English driven out. — In 1435 t^e Duke of Burgundy was reconciled to Chai-les VII., and joined the cause of France. The generals of Charles gained possession of one after another of the provinces. During a truce of two years, Henry VI. of England (1422-1461) married Margaret of Anfou, the daughter of King 328 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Rene. Henry was of a gentle temper, but lacked prudence and vigor. The king of fVance and the dauphin began the organization of a standing army, which greatly increased the military strength of the country (1439). In 1449 ^^ "^^'^^ \s\\}^ England was renewed. With the defeat of the English, and the death of their commander, Talbot, in 1453, the contest of a century came to an end. All that England retained across the Channel was Calais with Havre and Giiines Castle. France was desolated by all this fruitless strife. Some of the most fertile portions of its territory were reduced to a desert, " given up to wolves, and traversed only by the robber and the free-lance." Rebellion of "Jack Cade." — The peasants in England were now free from serfdom. Under Henry VI. occurred a formidable insurrection of the men of Kent, who marched to Lx)ndon led by John Cade, who called himself yi?/;/? Mortitner. They complained of bad government and extortionate taxes. One main cause of the rising was the successes of the French. The condition of the laboring class had much improved. The insurgents were defeated by the citizens, and their leader was slain. In this reign began the long " Wars of the Roses," or the contest of the houses of York and Lancaster for the throne. THE VISCONTI AND SFORZA. 329 S o tj ^ 3 S "no o 2 " 3 ' Hi. o^ ►tif (H c g » 13 ■0 0. "■ X 0. cr C rt r^ tl en M • ;j "g S» 3 , 1 CT 3 > C w* a ^tQ 3 5. • 0" n ?r s. 5 c ^ ^ 0- 3 3 <^ ss? ^g SI.M. 8 S g 99 3 g| ►j 3 ST F S. 3 ■tw H 3 1^ M crS K) n 1 ^i!;! n J> b^ § c H ^0 3" ^ x' — _c J" ."■< 2^ d Os- C-H c c 3 H H r;- ^s. r— s 2 > ^-^ I— I ^ I. -I 330 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. ^ i M o K c H en W Ci o >-• ^S" fc O M u ■«■ m o c 2 CO 5 s M O Q a S a !3 i-i M Q o ^ ^ (^ '3, U K i h B O P z oo u T u vO « "_ ffi iz; h H M OD " X s s CS >7 P a « c p &6. by sea; the French counts and knights had to be redeemed from captivity with a large ran- som ; and ten thousand prisoners of lower rank were slaughtered by Bajazet. Bosnia was now in the hands of the victor. Constanti- nople had to pay tribute, and seemed likely to become his prey, when a temporary respite was obtained for it by the coming of a host even more powerful than that of Bajazet. Mongolian Invasion. — Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan (p. 283) , revived the fallen Tartar kingdom. At the 352 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. head of his wandering Tartars, which grew into an army, he left Samarcand, where he had caused himself to be proclaimed sove- reign, and, in a rapid career of conquest, made himself masier of the countries from the Wall of China to the Mediterranean, and from the boundaries of Egypt to Moscow. Every\vhere his path was marked with blood and with the ruins of the places which he destroyed. At Ispahan, in Persia, seventy thousand persons were killed. At Delhi, one hundred thousand captives were slain, that his relative, the " Great Mogul," might reign in security. It was his delight to pile up at the gates of cities pyramids of twenty or thirty thousand heads. Later (1401), at Bagdad, he erected such an obelisk of ninety thousand heads. He gained a great victory over the " Golden Horde " in Russia (p. 283), conquered the un- subdued parts of Persia, entered Bagdad, Bassorah, and Mosul, vanquished the khan of Kaptchak, and penetrated Russia in his devastating progress, as far as Moscow (1396). Then followed the conquest oi Hindustan. Tamerlane and Bajazet. — The two powerful monarchs, Tamer- lane and Bajazet, now measured their strength in combat with one another. Trembling ambassadors of the Greek emperor, and of certain Seljukian princes, had waited on Tarnerlane in Gengia at the foot of the Caucasus. On the i6th of June, 1402, the two armies — four hundred thousand Tartars, and eight hundred thou- sand Mongols, if one may credit the reports — met at Aftcyra. The Ottomans were defeated, and Bajazet was taken prisoner. Led into the presence of Tamerlane, he found the Mongol quietly playing chess with his son. Asia Minor submitted to the con- queror, who penetrated as far as Smyrna. An old man, he was looking towards China as another field for invasion, when he died (1405). Bajazet died soon after. Turkish Conquests: the Greeks and Latins. — The grandson of Bajazet, Murad II. (1421-1451), took up anew his projects of conquest. The empire of Taynerlane quickly fell to pieces. His course had been like that of a hurricane, terrible in its work of destruction, but soon at an end. I'he Byzantine dominion was soon confined to Constanti7Wple and small districts adjacent. On all sides the Ottoman power was supreme. The Greek emperor, Jolni VII. {PalcEologus) , now endeavored, in imitation of previous attempts, to bring about a union of the Greek and Latin churches, and thus remove a principal obstacle to the obtaining of military help from the West. He went to Italy, attended by the patriarch and many bishops. After long debates and conferences on the abstnise points of doctrinal difference, a verbal agreement was reached between the two parties (1439). But the result was re- ceived with so much disfavor and indignation in Constantinople, that the effort to bring the sundered churches together came to FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 353 naught. The Pope, however, stirred up the Christian princes to engage in war against the Turk. The defeat of Vladislav, king of Hungary, and of Hunyady, at Varna (1444), caused by the rash onset of the king upon the janizaries, was succeeded by another Turkish victory at Kosovo, four years later (p. 350). Fall of Constantinople. — Murad II. was succeeded by his ambitious and unmerciful %oxi, Mohammed II. (1451-1481), who determined that Co?istantinople should be his capital. The city had seven thousand defenders, comprising two thousand Genoese and Venetians, who were commanded by an able man, the Geno- ese Justiniani. The Emperor Constanti?ie XII. worshiped ac- cording to the Roman rites ; while his court observed the Greek forms, and spurned a union with the hated Latin Christians, whose help the emperor was to the end anxious to obtain. The city was stoutly defended for fifty-three days ; and when it could be held no longer against the furious assault of the Turks, the gallant Con- standne, casting aside his golden armor, fell, bravely fighting with the defenders on the ramparts (May 29, 1453). Constantinople became the capital of the Turks. The crescent supplanted the cross, and the Church of St. Sophia was turned into a mosque. Turkish Government. — The Sultan, or padischah, among the Turks is absolute master, and proprietor of the soil. There is no order of nobles, and there are no higher classes except the priests {ima?}is) and the religious orders {dervishes) . In the seraglio of the Sultan, with its palaces and gardens, the harem is separated from the other apartments. The grand vizier presides over the council of ministers {divan). The provinces are governed by pashas with large powers. Beneath them is a gradation of inferior rulers in the subdivisions of the provinces. The tnufti with his subordinate associates is a high authority on questions of religion and law. Turkish Literature. — The literature of the Ottoman Turks is in merit below the literature of other Mohammedan peoples. It lacks originality, being based on Persian and partly on Arabic models. Changes in the Middle Ages. — We have seen great changes gradually taking place in the Middle Ages. One is the centralizing of political authority by the subjection of the local rulers, or lords, to the will of the king. Another is the enfranchisement of the serfs, and the growing power and self-respect of a middle class. The invention of gunpowder took away the superiority of the mail-clad and mounted warrior. The peasant on the battle-field was a match for the knight. Clergy and Laity. — There was a change from the time when the clergy were the sole possessors of knowledge, and the exclusive 354 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. guides of opinion. In the lay part of society, there was an awak- ing of intellectual activity and a spirit of self-assertion. A brief sketch of important ecclesiastical changes, some of which have been adverted to, will be here in place. Popes in the Thiiteenth Century. — From Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII., or from near the end of the eleventh to the begin- ning of the fourteenth century, the highest authority was claimed and exercised by the popes. Frederick Barbarossa., the greatest of the German emperors, held the stirrup of IIadria?i IV., and humbled himself before Alexander III. Innocent III. compared the authority of popes, in contrast with that of kings, to the sun in relation to the moon. He excommunicated Pliilip Augustus of France, y<3A« of England, and other monarchs. He claimed the right to refuse to crown the emperor if he should judge him not worthy of the imperial office. The papacy continued to exert these lofty prerogatives until Boniface VIII. He asserted that " the two swords," the symbols of both secular and spiritual rule, were given to St. Peter and to his successors : the temporal au- thority must therefore be subject to the spiritual. The body of ca7ion law was framed in accordance with these views. It em- braced the right of the Pope to depose kings and princes. To the sovereign pontiff was accorded the right to dispense from Church laws. With the growth of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the differ- ent countries, the Pope, as the supreme tribunal in all matters affecting the clergy and covered by the canon law, gained a vast increase of judicial prerogatives. The Babylonian Exile : the Great Schism. — During the resi- dence of the popes at Avignofi, there was great complaint on ac- count of the dependence of the papacy on France, as well as on account of the heavy taxes levied for the support of the pon- tifical court, and of the immorality which at times prevailed in it. Gregory XL, to the joy of all good men, returned to Rome (1376). But at his death, two years later, a majority of the cardinals elected an Italian, Urban VI., in his place. The adherents of the French party made a protest, and chose the Cardinal of Geneva, under the name of Clement VII. England, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Holland, and almost all Italy, acknowledged Urban. France, Spain, Scotland, Savoy, and Lorraine obe)'ed Clement. This great schism of the West created sorrow and alarm among well-disposed Christian people. It tended strongly to diminish the reverence felt for the papal office, and to weaken its influence. The Reforming Councils. — The first important effort to termi- nate the division was made by the University of Paris. Its rector, Nicolas de Clemangis, was prominent in the movement. Gerson and other eminent scholars and ecclesiastics took part in it. Three great councils were held; the first at Pisa (1309), the second at CHINA. 355 Co7istance (1414), and the third at Bask (1418). At these assembhes, the French theologians proceeded upon the " GalUcan theory " of the constitution of the Church, according to which supreme authority was held to reside in a general council, — not in the Pope, but in the collective episcopate. At the Council of Constance, where it is a significant fact that the votes were taken by nations, there were gathered not only a throng of prelates and inferior clergy, but also the Emperor Sigistnund, and a multitude of princes, nobles, and spectators of every rank. " The whole world," it was said, "was there." Three popes, each of whom claimed to be legitimate, were deposed ; and under the auspices of the council, which affirmed its own sovereign authority, another pope, Martin V., was elected in the room of them. The results of the two councils of Pisa and Constance, as regards the reforma- tion of the Church "in head and members," disappointed the hopes of those who were disaffected with the existing state of things. The Council oi Basle exhibited the same spirit as that of Constance, and passed various measures in the interest of national churches, for the restriction of papal prerogatives, and for practical reforms. The council, however, broke into two parts ; and the hopes con- nected with it were likewise, to a great extent, frustrated. In 1438 the French synod of Bourges issued " the "Pragmatic Sanction," containing a strong assertion of the rights and immunities of national churches, — a document which gave occasion to much controversy down to its repeal under King Francis I. Had it been practicable for good men in \ht fifteenth century to unite in wholesome measures for promoting the purity and unity of the Church, the religious revolutions of the sixteenth might have been postponed, if not avoided. CHAPTER III. THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN ASIA. I. CHINA. The Tang Dynasty (618-907). — The confusion in China, after the establishment of the three kingdoms, was brought to an end by the Sui dynasty, which, however, was of short duration. Be- tween the Hans and the new epoch beginning with the T'angs, diplomatic intercourse was begun with Japan; Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians ; a new impulse was given to the spread of Buddhism ; the first traces of the art of printing are found ; and the Yang-tse and the Yellow Rivers were connected by a canal. 356 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Events in This Period. — Under the T'angs, the empire was united, peaceful, and prosperous. One of the most remarkable occurrences was the usurpation (649) and successful reign of a woman, the Empress Wu. Her policy was wise, and her generals were victorious. The Emperor Hiuen Tsung had a long reign (713-756), and was an ardent patron of literature, but in his later years fell into immoral ways, as was seen in the character of the poems written under his patronage. Under this dynasty, there were productions in poetry of an excellence never surpassed in China. Buddhism, although resisted by the Confucianists and Taouists, gained ground. A bone of Buddha was brought into China with great pomp and ceremony. Early in the reign of the T'angs, Afo- hainmedanism first appeared in China. In the transition period before the accession of the next dynasty (900-960), the art of printing came more into use. l"he practice of cramping women's feet is said by some to have originated at this time. The Sung Dynasty (960-1280). — In the early part of this era, China was prosperous. But the Tartars began their invasions ; and it was finally agreed that one of their tribes, which had helped to drive out another, should retain its conquests in the North. These Tartar conquerors, the Kins, were invaded by the Mongol Tartars under Genghis Khan (1213). After a long struggle, both the Kins and the Sungs were conquered by the Mongols, and the em- pire of Kublai Khan (i 259-1 294), the ruler of nearly all Asia except Hindustan and Arabia, was established. Under the Suiigs, a system of military drill for all the citizens was ordained. Liter- ature flourished ; Buddhism and Taouism concluded to live in peace with one another ; and the system of competitive examina- tions and literary degrees was more fully developed. After the complete conquest of China, the dominion of Kublai Khan lasted for about a century. The celebrated Venetian traveler, Marco Polo, visited his court. In this period, mathematics was more studied, and romances were first written. Three out of the " Four Wonderful Books," which are leading novels, were then composed. The Grand Canal was finished by Kublai Khan, and thus Peking. was connected with Southern China. His great naval expedition against Japan failed. The Ming Dynasty (1368-1650). — Hung-wu, the son of a Chi- nese laborer, shook off the Mongol yoke, and founded a new dynasty with its capital at Nanking; whence it was aftenvards transferred by the third emperor, Yu?ig-lo (1403-1425), to Peking. He conquered and annexed Cochin China and Tonquin. and even portions of Tartary. The Tartars continued their attack ; and in 1450 Ching-tung, the emperor, was taken prisoner, and held until he was released in consequence of a Chinese victory. JAPAN AND INDIA. 35/ 11. JAPAN. Changes In Government. — In the seventh century A.D., there began changes in Japan which resulted in a dual government, and eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent times. The Mikados retired from personal contact with their subjects ; and the power by degrees fell into the hands of the families related to the Mikado, and combined into clans. Military control was exercised by the generals {Shoguns), and towards the end of the eighth century devolved on the two rival clans of Gen and Hei, or Taira and Minamoto, About the same time (770-780) the agri- cultural class became distinct from the military, and were com- pelled to labor hard for their support. One family, the Fujiwara, by degrees absorbed the civil offices. They gradually sank into luxury. From the middle to the end of the twelfth century, there was terrible civil war between the Taira clan and the Minamoto clan, in which the former were destroyed. The military power passed from one family to another ; but a main fact is that the Shoguns acquired such a control as the " mayors of the palace " had possessed among the Franks. The Mikados lost all real jjower, and the Shoguns or Tycoons had the actual government in their hands. In recent times (1868) a revolution occurred which restored to the Mikado the power which had belonged to him in the ancient times, before the changes just related took place. Civil "War: Feudalism. — The final struggle of the two clans, the Hei or Taira, and the Geti or Minamoto, was in the naval battle of Datinoura, in 1185, which was followed by the extermi- nation of the Taira. Yoritomo, the victor, was known as the Sho- gun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in 12 19 to that of their adherents, the Hojo family, who ruled the Shogun and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mongol Tartars failed, their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon (1281). The Hojo rule terminated, after a period of anarchy and civil war, in 1333. The "war of the chrysanthemums " — so called from the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum — was between two rival Mikados, one in the North, and the other in the South (133 6- 1392). There ensued a period of confusion and internal war, lasting for nearly two centuries. Gradually there was developed a system of feudal- ism, in which the daimios, or lords of larger or smaller principaHties, owned a dependence, either close or more loose, on the Shogun. But feudalism was not fully established until the days of the Toku- gama dynasty, early in the seventeenth century. .III. INDIA. Mohammedan States. — During the Middle Ages, India was invaded by a succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The first 358 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. invasions were in the seventh and the early part of tlie eighth centuries. A temporary lodgment was effected in the province of Sind, on the north-west, in 711 ; but the Moslems were driven out by the Hindus in 750. The next invader was the Afghan sultan, Mahmiid of Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies seventeen times into India. From his time the Punjab, except for a brief interval, has been a Mohammedan province. The last of his line of rulers, Bahratn, was conquered by the Afghan A/lah-ud-dijt of Ghor (115 2). Bahram's son fled to Lahore, but the Ghoride dynasty soon absorbed his dominion. One of the Ghoride rulers, Mohammed Ghori, the Shahab-ud-din of the Mohammedan writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. After his death, Kitiab-ud-din, who had been a Turkish slave, became the founder of the " slave" dynasty (1206-1288), whose capital was Delhi. AUah-ud-din, by whom he was assassinated (1294), had a brilliant reign of twenty years, and conquered Deccan and Guzerat. Of the Togluk dynasty, which gained the throne in 132 1, Mohammed Togli/k (1325-1351) is said to have had the "reputation of one of the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature." Desiring to remove the seat of empire to the Deccan, he compelled the inhabitants of Delhi to leave their old home, and to make the journey of seven hundred miles. Tamerlane. — Revolts in India made the triumph of Timour (Tamerlane) easy (1398). The Mongol leader sacked Delhi, and made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. A half century of anarchy followed this invasion. LiTERATURF. — On Mediaeval History: The General Subject. (See list of works on Uni- versal History, p. 16.) Gibbon's Decline ami Fall, tic ; "The Students' Gibbon" (Smith, I vol.); Fkeeman, Getieral Sketch of European History, and Historical Geography of Europe ; DuRUV, Histoire du Moycn Age, etc. (nth edition, 18S2) ; Hallam, Vieu> 0/ the State 0/ Europe during the Middle Ages (3 vols.); Koeppen, The Vi^orld in the Middle Ages : an Historical Geography with Accounts, etc. (fol.) ; Sheppard, The Fall 0/ Rome and the Rise 0/ the New Nationalities (i vol.) ; White, The Eighteen Christian Centuries ; G. W. Greene, History of the Middle Ages (1876); Dunham, History of Europe during the Middle Ages (4 vols.) ; Bryce, Tlie Holy Roman Empire ; Putz and ArnoM, Med iceval History ; E. A. Freeman, Historical Essays (series i and 3). Works on Church History. The Church Histories of Gieseler, Ne.\nder; Milman, History of Latin Christianity ; Alzog [a Roman CaihoWc], Manual, etc. (3 vols., 1874- 78); Hardwick (vol. i., Midd'e Ages): Students' History of the Church; Stanley's Easterii C/turch ; Trench, Lectures o)i Mediceval Church History. On Portions of the Mediaeval Period. Froissart, Chronicles, etc.: Ci'RTEls, History of the Roman Empire [395-800] ; R. W. Church, The Beginnings of the Middle Ages ; A. Thierry, Histoire d'Attila, etc.. Si. Jerome, etc., St. Jean Chrysostome, etc.: Church, Life of Anselm ; Morison, Life and Times of St. Bernard ; Gfrorer, PaSst Gregorius I'll. u. sein Zeitalter (1859); Villemain, Life of Gregory VH. (2 vols.); Johnson, The Normans in Europe (i vol.); Teste, History of the Wars of Frederic I. and the Com- mu7ies of Lomhardy ; Kington, History of Ff-ederick H. ; iVIullinger, The Schools cf Charles the Great, and the Restoration of Education in the qth Century (1877); MoN- talembert, Tlie Monks of the iVest (7 vols.) ; Sartorius, Gesch. des hanseatischen Bundes (3 vols.) ; E. L. CuTTS, Charlemagne; Mrs. Oliphant, Life ofFraftcis of Assist; Hasse, LcbcJi Anselm. General Character of the Beriod. Robertson, A View of the Progress of Society in Europe from the SjibTcrsion of the Roman Empire, etc. (Introduction to the History of Charles v.) ; Kingsley, C, The Roman and the Teuiou : a Series of Lectures, clc; ouu- WORKS ON THE MIDDLE AGES. 359 LIVAN, Historical Causes and Effects ; f-rom the Fall of the Roman Empire A.D. ^476 to 1517; Ozanam, A. F., History of Civilization in the Fifth Cetitury ; Laurent, Etudes, etc. (vol. vii.) ; Sir James Stephen, Ecclesiastical Essays ; Wright, Essays on the Middle Ages. Scott's novels, — Ivanhoc, The Talisman, Auue of Geierstein: they are historically much less correct pictures than his romances which relate to Scotland. Particular Aspects of the Period. Savigny, Gesch. d. rotnischen Rechts im Mittelaltef (7 vols.); Sismondi, Litcratjire in the South of Europe; Hallam, Ijitroduction to the Study of Literature, etc, ; Geffchen, Church and State (2 vols.) ; GuizoT, History of the Origin of Representative Goverjunent in Europe; Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages; J. E. Thorold Rogers, A History of Agriculture and Prices in England [1259- 1793] (4 vols., 1866) ; Labarte, Histoire dcs Arts ludustriels au Moyen Age, etc. (4 vols.) ; E. L. CuTTS, Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages; Viollet-le-Uuc, Annals of a Fortress : H. C. Lea, History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, etc , Studies in Church History, and Siiperstition Ufid Force; Lacroix, IVorks on the Middle Agi.s, richly illustrated (5 vols., London, 1880) ; Mills, History of Chivalry, etc. (2 vols., 1825) ; Bulfinch, Age of Chivalry, or Legends of Kijig Arthur ; Legends of Cliarleniagne, or Rotnance of the Middle Ages (2 vols.) ; Cox AND Jones, Popiilar Romances of the Middle Ages ; Nasse, On the Agri- cult7iral Coimnutiity of the Middle A^es (1871); Roth, Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens, etc.; Secretan, Essaisur la Fcodalite; Smith, T., English Guilds (1870); Wilda, Das Gilden- •wesen im Miitelalter (1831). Works on the Crusades G. W. Cox, The Crusades (1878) ; also, art. Crusades in the Encycl. Brit.; Michaud, History of the Crusades (3 vols.); Von Svbel, The History and Literature of the Crusades ; Mills, A History of the Crusades, etc. (2 vols); Heeren, in Vermischte historische Schriftcji (3 vols.) ; Procter's History of the Crusades ! Gray's Children's Crusade; Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzz'iige (1803). For works on Mohammedanism and the Arabic kingdom, see p. 232. The works here mentioned respecting the sev.ral countries either relate to their entire his- tory, or to their history prior to the close of the Middle Ages. L England and Scotland. — Green's //zi^or_)/ of the English People (4 vols.), and Short History of England {1 vol.) ; the " Students' Hume; " the histories of Bright, Knight, LiNGARD, Hume, GuizoT, White, Creasy, Thompson (in Freeman's Series) ; Gairdner, Out- line, etc. ; Turner's History of the A nglo-Saxons ; Palgrave's Rise and Progress of the Ejiglish Comtnonwealth ; Palgrave's History of Normandy and of England ; Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest (6 vols.), and History of William Rufus ; Green, The Maliing of Etigland, and The Conquest of England : Pearson's History of England during the Early and Middle Ages ; Stubbs, Tlie Early Plantagenets ; Longman's History of Edia'ard IH. ; Gairdner's History of Richard Hi , and The Houses of Lan- caster and York; Yeatman, Introduction to the Study of Early English History; Life of Wickliffe, by Lechler, by Loserth, by Wilson. Kemble's The Saxons in England ; Stubbs's Constitutional History of England in its Origin atid Development (3 vols.) ; Stubbs's Select Charters ; Creasy's Rise and Prog- ress of the English Constitution ; Thompson's Essay on Magna Charta ; Bissct, His- tory of the Struggle for Parliajiicniary Government in England (1S77); Taswei.i - Langmead's English Constitutional History, etc. ; Freeman's Growth of the English Constitution, etc. ; Bagehot, The English Constitution. -Scotland. — J. H. Burton, History of Scotland (8 vols.); Miss Macarthur, History of Scotland (i vol.) ; E. M. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (2 vols.). Ireland. — C. G. Walpole, The Kingdom of Ireland. H. France. — General histories by Crowe (5 vols.) ; Duruy (2 vols.) ; GuizoT (to 1789, 5 vols. ; 1789-1848, 3 vols.); and Outlines of the History of France {x vol.) ; Bonnechose (to 1848) ; Jervis (Students' History) ; Martin (17 vols.) ; Kitchin, Lacombe, Michelet (17 vols.) ; Sismondi (31 vols.). Thierry's Histoire des Gaulois ; Wallon's St. Louis et son Temps (2 vols.); Sismondi, The French under the Carlovingians (i vol.), France under the Feudal System (1 vol ) ; Barante's Histoire des Dues de Bourgogne de la Maison de Valois, 1364-1477; Wallon's Jeanne d'Arc (2 vols); Tuckey's Joan of Arc ; Jameson's Life and Times of Du Guesclin. Coulanges' Histoire des Institutions Politiques de I'Ancienne France (1877); Am- pere's Histoire Litteraire de la France avant C/iarlemagne (2 vols.); Ampere's Hist. Litt. de la France sous Charlemagne et durant les Xe et Xle Siecles ; Guizot's History of Civilization in France (3 vols.), and Essai sur T Histoire de Fra?ice ; Thierry's The Formation and Progress of the Third Estate in France; Sir James Stephens's Lectures on the History of P'rance. HL Germany. — Dunham's History of the Germanic Empire; Histories by C. T. Lewis (founded on D. Miiller), Kohlrausc'h, Menzel, Sime, i6mo; B. Taylor, Brewer, Zim- mermann. Popular History of Germany (4 vols.). Geisebrecht's Geschichte d. deutschen Kaiserzeit (4 vols.) ; Von Raumer's Geschichte der Hohenstaufen utid ihrer Zeit (6 vols.). Coxe's History of the House of Austria ; Krones's Handbuch d. Geschichte Oster- reichs (3 vols.) ; Marlath's Geschichte Osterreichs. Arnold, Ansiedclungen iind VVanderungen deutscher St'dmme (1875) ; also, Deutsche Urzeit (1879); Ozanam, Les Germains avant le Christianisme (1872); SoHM, Die altdeutsche Reichs- und Gerichtsverfassung ; Maurer's histories of German local institu- tions (the Marts, the Villages, the Cities) ; Waitz, Deutsclie Verfassungsgeschichte (8 36o MEDI/EVAL HISTORY. vols.); Wirth, Die Geschichte der Deiitschen (1853); Sugenheim, Ceschichte d. deutschen Volkes 7ind seiner Kiiltur, etc. IV. Italy. — Cantu, Histoire des Italiens (12 vols., 1859); Hunt's History 0/ Italy (in Freeman's Series); Butt's History of Italy (2 vols.); Leo's Ceschichte von Italieti (5 vols.); SiSMONDl's Histoire des Rcpnlcrs (3 vols.); Malleson, S/wrZ/Vj from Cenoese History (i vol.); Oliphant, Makers of Florence, etc.; Svmonds, Sketches and Studies in Southern Europe; 'I'aine, Florence and I'enice, and Rome and Naples; Freeman, Historical and Architectural Studies (chiefly Italian, i vol.). V. Russia. — Bell's History of Russia (3 vols.) ; Howorth's History of the Mongols ; Karamsin, Histoire de l' Empire de Russie (11 vols.); Histories of Russia, by Kelly, Lamartine, Levesque ; Rambaud, History of Russia (2 vols., 1879) ; Ralston, Early Russian History. VI. Poland. — Histories of Poland, by Dunham (i2mo), Fletcher, Joachim (2 vols.), Ropell and Caro. VII. Spain and Portugal. — Lembke und Schafer, Ceschichte von Spanien (3 vols.) ; M,\RIANA, The Gcjieral History of Spain ; Dunham, History of Spain atid Portugal ; Crawfoku, Portugal, Old and New ; Coppee, History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab Moors (2 vols.) ; Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature (3 vols.) ; Prescott's His- tory of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (introductory' chapter). VIII. Switzerland. — History of Switzerland, in Lardner's CvcloP/EDIA (1832); His- tories of Switzerland, by Morin (5 vols.); J. MliUer; Zschokke; Rochholz, Tell und Gessler in Sage und Ceschichte (1877). IX. Scandinavia. — Dunham's History of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (3 vols.) ; Dahlmann's Cescliichte von Danemark bis zur Reformation (with Norway and Iceland, 3 vols.) ; Histories of Sweden, by Fryxell, Geijer and Carlson (5 vols.) ; Laing's History of Norway ; Mallet's Northern Antiquities ; M.^urer's History of Iceland ; Rink's Danish Greenland; Sinding's Scandinavia; Wheaton's History of the Northmen; Worsaac's Danes and Northmen in Crcat Britain. X. Ottoman Turks. — Hammer-Purgstall's Ceschichte des osmanischen Reiches (10 vols.); Cv.EAS\'s History of the Ottoman Turks; Freeman, The Ottoman Power in Europe (1877) ; Zinkeisen, Ceschichte d. osmanisch. Reiches in Europa (7 vols.). XI. China, Japan, and India. — (See lists on pp. 25, 32.) Dickson, Japan, etc. (voL L, 1869); Grifi&s, The Mikado's Empire (1876). PART III. MODERN HISTORY. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE {14^3) TO THE PRESENT TIME. INTRODUCTION. Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediaeval, is marked by several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as ap- pear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the Middle Ages. 1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms. 2. There has been a gradual secularizing of politics. Govern- ments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control. 3. As another side of this last movement, political unity in Europe has superseded ecclesiastical unity. The bond of union among nations, in the room of being membership in one great ecclesiastical commonwealth, became political : it came to be mem- bership in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of public law and outlines of policy. 4. In this system, one main principle is the balance of power. This means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging its bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors. We have seen the action of such a principle among the ancient states of Greece. Even in the Middle Ages, as regards Italy, the popes endeavored to keep up an equilibrium. They supported the Nor- man kingdom in Southern Italy, or the Lombard leagues in the North, as a counterpoise to the German emperors. In the six- teenth century, there were formed combinations to check the power of Charles V., king of Spain and emperor of Germany, and after- wards to restrain his successor on the Spanish throne, Philip II. In the seventeenth century, there were like combinations against Louis XIV. of France, and, in the present century, against the first Napoleon. 361 362 MODERN HISTORY. 5. The vast influence and control of Europe, by discovery, colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a striking feature of modern times. 6. With the increase of commerce and the growing power of the middle classes, there has arisen the " industrial age." Interests connected with production and trade, and with the material side of civilization, have come into great prominence. 7. Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far more diversified than was the case in the Middle Ages. - 8. The influence of Christianity in its ethical relations — as an instrument of political and social reform, and a motive to philan- thropy — has become more active and conspicuous. Period I. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFOR- MATION {1453-1517): THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DIS- COVERT: THE RENAISSANCE. Character of This Period. — In this period monarchy, especially in France, England, and Spain, acquires new strength and exten- sion. The period includes the reigns of three kings who did much to help forward this change : Louis XL of France, LLenry VLL. of England, and Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. The Italian wars begin with the French invasion of Italy : the rivalship of the king- doms, and the struggles pertaining to the balance of power, are thus initiated. In this period fall new inventions which have altered the character of civilization, and great geographical dis- coveries, of which the discovery of the New World is the chief. It is the epoch, moreover, of the Renaissance, or the re-awakening of learning and art. There is a new era in culture. All these movements and changes foretoken greater revolutions in the age that was to follow. CHAPTER I. FRANCE: ENGLAND: SPAIN: GERMANY: ITALY: THE OTTOMAN TURKS: RUSSIA: THE INVASIONS OF ITALY. I. FRANCE. Charles VII. and the Nobles. — The result of the hundred- years' war was the acquisition of Aqtcitaine by the French crown. Aquitaine was incorporated in France. Southern Gaul and North- ern Gaul were now one. During the last years of Charles VLL., his kingdom was comparatively peaceful. Its prosperity revived. A jiew sort of feudalism had sprung up in the room of the old no- blesse, whose power had been crushed. The new nobility was made up of relatives of the royal family, as the Dukes of Burgundy, Berry, Bourbon, and the house of Anjou. On the east of France 363 364 MODERN HISTORY. was Burgundy, which had expanded into a great European power. " The duchy of Burgundy, with the county of Charolois, and the counties of Flanders and Artois, were joined under a common ruler with endless imperial fiefs in the Low Countries, and with the imperial county of Burgundy." The Burgundian boundary was on the south of the Somme, and little more than fifty miles north of Paris. The Burgundian dukes were constantly striving to bring it still nearer. On the east and south, the house of Atijou held the duchy of Bar and Provence, besides other possessions. On the south, too, was the province of Dauphiny ; and on the west the strong, half-independent duchy of Bretagne, or Brittany. Charles had a standing quarrel with his son Louis, who early showed his power to inspire dread, but gave no signs of the policy which he triumphantly pursued, after he became king, of putting down feudal insubordination. His young wife Mafgaret, daughter of James I. of Scotland, was twelve years old when he, a boy of thir- teen, was married to her. He aroused such terror and aversion in her mind that she died at twenty-one of a broken heart. Louis — to whom, much to his disgust, Dauphiny instead of Normandy was given to rule — abetted the great lords in their resistance to his father's authority ; and, when threatened with coercion, fled to Brussels, to the court of his father's cousin, Philip of Burgundy, where he was kindly entertained. Charles VII., who knew the traits of his son, said, " As for my cousin of Burgundy, he harbors a fox that will one day eat up his chickens." Even then the relations of Louis and Charles, Count of Charolois, the heir of Burgundy, were cool and unsympathetic. The king occupied Dauphiny, and in 1457 it was fully incorporated in France. The rulers of France and Burgundy, taken up with their own schemes of territorial gain, turned a deaf ear to the calls of Pope Pius II. for a crusade against the Turks. It has been said that most of the kings of the house of Valois were either bad or mad. The indo- lent and heartless Charles VII. would seem to have been both. In his last days he suspected that the Dauphin's plots were aided by persons about himself, and that his food was poisoned. He refused to eat, and died in 146 1. Character of Louis XI. — Louis XL (1461-14S3) showed him- self a master of "statecraft," or the cunning, diplomatic manage- ment which pursued its ends stealthily, held no engagements sacred, and was deterred by no scruples of conscience from what- ever perfidy was thought requisite to attain the objects in view. Louis was one of the earliest examples of the kingcraft which in the succeeding age was deemed a gift to be coveted by princes. It was, an art in which the Italians were masters ; and its secrets were set forth, somewhat later than the time oi Louis, in "The Prince " of Machiavelli, a work in which that eminent statesman and historian FRANCE. 365 describes the means by which despots may entrap and crush their enemies. Whether he meant to afford aid to tyrants, or aid to their subjects through an exposure of the tricks of their rulers, the " MachiavelUan " spirit designates the policy of intrigue that pre- vailed all through the sixteenth century, and infected even some of the best of the public men of that age. Louis was mean- looking, shabby in his dress, with a cunning aspect ; in his whole deportment and character, in sharp contrast with the chivalrous princes, Philip and Charles of Burgundy. If he was vindictive, he was perhaps not more cruel than others ; but he was ungenial, regarding men as his tools. He took pleasure in the society of his provosts or hangmen, — Tristan VHermite and Olivier le Daim. He often ordered men to execution without so much as the form of a trial. There was in him a vein of superstition. He was punctilious in his devotions. He would not swear a false oath over the cross of St. Loup of Angers, because he thought that death would be the penalty. He did not quail before an enemy in battle ; yet such was his alarm at the prospect of death, that he collected about him relics and charms, magicians and hermits, to help him prolong his days. Strife with the Nobles. — The first years of Lotiis's reign (1461-1467) were passed in a struggle with the great lords whom he was determined to subdue. At the beginning his measures for this end were imprudent. They combined against him in the League of the Public IVeal in 1464. Their force was so great that he stood in imminent peril. He counted on the support of Paris, and was trying to reach that city Avhen the hostile armies encoun- tered one another at Montl'h^ri (1465). It was an absurd battle, where at night both parties thought themselves beateli. The king secured his place of refuge. He deemed it prudent to make peace on the terms demanded by the Count of Charolois, and the other nobles. This treaty of Conflans (1465) he caused the Par- liament of Paris to refuse to ratify or register. He had trusted to his ability to regain what he might surrender. The strife between the Duke of Brittany and the king's brother Charles, now made Duke of Normandy, enabled Louis soon to recover Normandy. Charles the Bold, and Louis. — The death of Philip made his son, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles was in the prime of life, of a chivalrous temper, courteous and polished, fond of reading and music, as well as of knightly sports, and with his head full of dreams of ambition. With certain noble qualities, his pride was excessive, his temper not only hot but obstinate, and, as he grew older, he became more overbearing and cruel. He was the most powerful prince in Europe. The most of his lands were German. In the early part of his reign he pursued the same scheme as that which was at the root of the League of the Public 366 Mf^DKRX HISTORY. JVea/. He aimed to hem in Loiiis, and to build up his omti power in the direction of France. He alHed himself, in 1466, with the House of York, then uppermost in England. An English force was sent to Calais in 1467. Threatened by this coalition of adver- saries, Louis hastened to attack Brittany, and forced its duke to conclude a separate peace. Trusting too much to his powers of negotiation, and yielding to the treacherous advice of Cardinal Balue, one of his chief counselors, the king determined to go in person to confer with Charles of Burgundy. He soon learned that his safe-conduct was of little value. At Peronne, he found himself in the midst of enemies, and in reality a prisoner. While there, Lil'ge was in revolt, as Charles ascertained, at the king's instigation. The wrathful duke could be appeased only by agree- ing to every thing that he required. Louis had to undergo the humiliation of attending Charles and his army, and of basely tak- ing part in the vengeance inflicted on the city which he had him- self stirred up to revolt. He was glad to escape with his life. After his return, he ordered Balue to be put in an iron cage, where he was kept for ten years, — a mode of punishment of Balue's own invention. Louis repudiated the treaty of Peronne, under the ad- vice of a body of Notables, all of whom he had nominated and summoned. A new league was organized against him ; but the king by his wariness, and by his promptitude in attacking Brittany, gained advantages, so that a truce was concluded with the Bur- gundian duke in 1472. Philip de Comniines, at that time a com- panion and counselor of Charles, left his service for that of Louis. To his Memoir's we owe most instructive and interesting details respecting these princes, and the manners and occurrences of the time. Charles the Bold, and the Swiss. — From this time Charles turned his attention eastivard, and devoted himself to building up a great principality on the Rhine, which might open the way for his succession to the empire. It seemed to be his plan to bring to- gether the old kingdom of Lotharingia and that of the Burgundies. He found no sympathy in his schemes from the emperor Fred- erick LLL. The great barrier in Charles's way was the freedom- loving spirit of the inhabitants of the Swiss mountains. Availing himself of a plausible pretext, he endeavored to get possession of Cologne by first laying siege to Neuss, which lies below it. Wast- ing his strength in the unsuccessful attempt to capture this place, he failed to make a junction of his forces with the English troops who landed in France under his ally, King Edward IV. The English king was persuaded to make a truce with France by the wily Louis, who was constantly on the watch for any mistakes or mishaps of his impetuous Burgundian adversary. The cruelty of Charles to the Swiss inhabitants of Granson, who had surrendered, FRANCE. 367 brought upon him an attack of their exasperated countrymen near that place (1476). The Burgundians were routed ; and the duke's camp, with all its treasures, including his sword, the plate of his chapel, and precious stones of inestimable value, fell into the hands of the hardy mountaineers, who knew nothing of the worth of these things. The next year the Duke once more flung his reckless valor against the strength of the Swiss infantry, and barely escaped from an utter defeat at Morat. Made desperate by misfortune, he risked another battle n&ds Nanci, in 1477, at the head of an inferior force, composed partly of treacherous mercenaries, and was vanquished and slain. He had intended to make Nanci his capi- tal ; but his body was found near by in a swamp, stripped of its clothing, frozen, and covered with wounds. Extension of France. — Louis XL could hardly stifle expres- sions of joy at the news of the death of his hated and formidable rival. While Charles had been busy in Germany, Louis had taken the opportunity to put down, one by one, the great nobles who had shown themselves ill-affected. He secured to France Roussillon and the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. It was now his purpose to lay hold of as many as possible of the possessions of the late duke. Mary, the daughter of Charles the Bold, the heiress of Burgundy, gave her hand in marriage to Maxi??iilian of Austria, an event which carried after it the most important consequences. The result of the conflicts of Louis and Maxi- milian was the Peace of Arras (1482), which left in the hands of France the towns on the Sonune, and the great Burgundian duchy. For a time Maximilian, as holder of the French fiefs of Flanders and Artois, was a vassal of the French king. On the death of King Rene, in 1480, and the extinction of the house of Aujou, Louis annexed the three great districts of Anjou, Maine, and Provence, the last of which Avas a fief of the empire. Last Days of Louis XI. — In his last days, old King Louis, in wretched health, tortured with the fear of death, and in constant dread of plots to destroy him, shut himself up in the castle of Plessis-les-Tours, which he strongly fortified, and manned with guards who were instructed to shoot all who approached without leave. He kept up his activity in management, and in truth de- vised schemes for the advantage of his realm. His selfish and malignant temper brought to him one unexpected joy from the sudden death of Mary of Burgutidy (1482), from which, how- ever, France did not reap the advantages which he expected. He died in 1483, at the age of sixty-one. He, more than any other, was the founder of the French monarchy in the later form. He centralized the administration of the government.- He fought against feudalism, old and new. He strengthened, however, local authority where it did not interfere with the power of the king. In matters of internal government he was often just and wise. 368 MODERN HISTORV. Charles VIIL (1483-1498) : Anne of Beaujeu. — Charles VIII. at the death of his father was only fourteen years old. But in his older sister, Anne of Beaujeu, the wife of Peter of Bourbon, he had an energetic guide who for ten years virtually managed public affairs. She proved too strong for the opposition of the royal princes, of the nobility, and of the States General. The nobles turned for support to Richard III. of B^n gland. Anne strengthened with men and money Henry of Riclimond, the rival and conqueror of Richard. The Duke of Brittany, with his allies, the Duke of Orleans, the Prince of Orange, and others, was defeated in a hardly contested battle in 1488, which was followed by a treaty advantageous to France. The crowning achievement of Anne of Beaujeu was the marriage oi Anne of Brittany to Chatles VIIL This was accomplished although she had already been married by proxy to Maximilian, while Charles was pledged to marry Mar- garet, the emperor's daughter. If Anne of Brittany should out- live Charles, she engaged to marry his successor. This second marriage actually took place : she became the wife of Louis XIL. Brittany was thus incorporated in France. The Italian expedi- tions, the great events in the reign of Charles VLLL., will be related hereafter. II. ENGLAND. "Wars of the Roses : the House of York. — The cro^^'Tl in Eng- land had come to be considered as the property of a family, to which the legitimate heir had a sacred claim. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) grew out of family rivalries. It was a fight among nobles. But other reasons were not without influence. The party of Yoj-k (whose badge was the white rose) was the popular party, which had its strength in Kent and in the trading cities. It went for reform of government. The party of Lancas- ter (whose badge was the red rose) was the more conser\'ative party, having its strength among the barons of the North. Rich- ard, Duke of York, thought that he had a better claim to the Eng- lish crown than Henry VI., because his ancestor, Lionel, was an older son of Edward LII. than John of Gaunt, the ancestor of Henry. The king was insane at times, and Richard was made Protector or Regent of Parliament. But Henry, becoming better, drove him from his presence. He organized an insurrection, but was defeated in a battle at Wakefield by the troops of the strong- hearted queen. He was crowned with a wreath of grass, and then beheaded. His brave son, Rutland, was killed as he fled. But Richard's eldest son, Edward — Edivard IV. (1461-1483) — supported by the powerful Earl of Warwick, " the king-maker," defeated the queen in two battles, imprisoned Henry VI. who had fallen into imbecility, and took possession of the throne. Edward ENGLAND. 369 was popular because he kept order. But the favors which he lavished on the Woodiiilles, relatives of his Lancastrian wife Eliza- beth, enabled the opposing party, to which Warwick deserted, to get the upper hand (1470) ; and Edward fled to Holland. But he soon returned, and triumphed in the battle of Towton (1471). Henry VI. was secretly murdered in the Tower. The house of Yoi'k was now in the ascendant. A quarrel between the king and his ambitious brother Clarence, who had married Wd^ wick's daughter, led to the trial and condemnation of the latter, who was put to death in the Tower. It was during the reign of Edward I V. that Caxton set up the first printing-press in Eng- land. Edward was succeeded by his brother, Richard III. (1483- 1485), a brave but merciless man, who made his way to the throne by the death of the two young princes Edward and Richard, whose murder in the Tower he is with good reason supposed to have procured. He had pretended that Edward IV. had never been lawfully married to their mother. Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, descended by his mother from John of Gaunt, aided by France, landed in Wales, and won a victory at Bosworth over the adherents of the white rose, — a victory which gave him a kingdom and a crown. Thus the house of Lancaster in the person of Henry VII. (1485-1509), gained the throne. He married Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of j5'c/7£/ %- 5 !" S 2 3 « - •I?" O S trq S *■ 374 MODERN HISTORY. V. ITALY. Condition of Italy. — Italy, at the epoch of the French inva- sions, was the most prosperous as well as the most enlightened and civilized country in Europe. Its opulent and splendid cities were the admiration of all visitors from the less favored countries of the North. But national unity was wanting. The country was made up of discordant states. Vefiice was ambitious of conquest ; and the pontiffs in this period, to the grief of all true friends of religion, were absorbed in Italian politics, being eager to carve out principalities for their relatives. Italy was exposed to tiao perils. On the one hand, it was menaced by the Ottoman Turks ; not to speak of the kings of France and Spain, who were rival aspirants for control in the Italian peninsula. On the other hand, voyages of discovery were threatening to open new highways of commerce to supersede the old routes of traffic through its mari- time cities. Milan. — The fall of Constantinople produced a momentary union in Italy. At Lodi, in 1454, the principal states took an oath of perpetual concord, — Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan; Cosmo de Medici, to whom Florence had given the name of "Father of his Country;" Alfonso V. the Magnanimous, king of Naples and Sicily; the Popes Calixtus III. zxiA Pius II. (1455— 1464). But conflicts soon arose among them. An abortive attempt was made by John of Calabria to deprive Ferdinand of Naples of his inheritance (1462). In 1478 there was a coalition against Florence ; in 1482, a coalition against Venice. The Turks made the best use of these quarrels, and captured Otranto (1480), killing or enslaving twelve thousand Christians. The idea of the ancients that tyrannicide is a virtue, whether the master be good or bad, was caught up, and gave rise to conspiracies. At Milan, in 1476, the cruel Duke Galeazzo Maria was assassinated by three young men, near the Church of St. Stephen. Giovanni Galeazzo, his son, a minor, married a daughter of the king of Naples. But his uncle, Liidovico il Moro, had seized on power, and ruled in the name of Giovanni (1480). He imprisoned Giovanni and his young wife ; and being threatened by the king of Naples, who had for an ally Peter de Medici, he formed an alliance with the Pope and the Venetians ; and, not confiding in them, he invited C/iarles VIII. of France to invade the kingdom of Naples. Genoa fell under the yoke of Lndovico, who was invested with it by Charles VIII. as a fief of France. Venice. — Venice, which up to the fall of Constantinople had been the strongest of the Italian states, forgot its duties and its dangers in relation to the Turks, in order to aggrandize itself in Italy. It could not avoid war with them, which broke out in 1464. ITALY. 375 The Turks took Negropont and Scutari, passed the Piave, and the fires kindled by their troops could be seen from Venice. The city made a shameful treaty with them, paying them a large sum (1479). But four years after, it conquered Cyprus, which it did not scruple to demand the privilege of holding as a fief of the Sultan of Egypt. The great power of Venice at this time was a cause of alarm to all the other states ; but their first combina- tion against it in 1482, in defense of the Duke of Ferrara, was of no effect. In 1454 the government of Venice was placed practi- cally in the hands of three " inquisitors" who exercised despotic power under the old forms, and, by such means as secret trials and executions, maintained internal order and quiet at the cost of liberty. Its soldiers were condottieri, under foreign leaders, whom it watched with the utmost jealousy. Florence. — Cosmo de Medici had continued to be a man of the people (p. 339). But the members of his family who fol- lowed him, while they copied his munificence and public spirit, behaved more as princes. x\gainst Peter I. plots were formed by the nobles, but were baffled (1465). Jerome Riario, a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV., strove with papal help to conquer for himself a principality in the Romagna. The Florentines protested against it as a breach of the treaty of Lodi. Hence Riario took part in the conspiracy of the Pazzi against the lives of Lorenzo and Julian, sons of Cosmo. They were attacked in the cathedral of Florence by the assassins, during the celebration of mass ; Julian was killed, but Lorenzo escaped. The Archbishop of Pisa, one of the accomplices, was hung from his palace window in his pon- tifical robes. The Pope excommunicated the Medici, and all the Italian states plunged into war. The capture of Otranto at this time by the Turks frightened the princes. Lorenzo de Medici repaired in person to Naples to negotiate with Ferdinand, the Pope's ally, and peace was concluded. Lore77zo earned the name of " The Magnificent " by his lavish patronage of literature and art. Savonarola. — Against the rule of Lorenzo, one voice was raised, that of the Dominican monk Jerome Savonarola, a preach- er of fervid eloquence, who aimed in his harangues, not only to move individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough amendment of public morals, and a political reform in the direc- tion of liberty. In his discourses, however, he lashed the ecclesi- astical corruptions of the time, not sparing those highest in power. There were two parties, that of the young nobles, — the arribiati, or " enraged ; " and that of the people, — the frateschi, or friends of the monks. Savonarola proclaimed that a great punishment was impending over Italy. He predicted the invasion from north of the Alps. 376 MODERN HISTORY. Florence in the Age of Lorenzo. — Florence in the time of Lorenzo presented striking points of resemblance to Athens in its most flourishing days. In some respects, the two communities were quite unlike. Florence was not a conquering power, and had no extensive dominion. Civil and mili- tary life were distinct from one another: the Italian had come to rely more upon diplomacy than upon arms, and his wealth and mercantile connections made him anxious to avoid war. In Florence, moreover, trade and the me- chanic arts were in high repute ; industry was widely diffused, and was held in honor. But in equality and pride of citizenship, in versatility of talent and intellectual activity, in artistic genius and in appreciation of the prod- ucts of art, in refinement of manners, cheerfulness of temper, and a joyous social life, the Florentines in the fifteenth century compare well with the Athenians in the age of Pericles. In Florence, the burgess or citizen had at- tained to the standing to which in other countries he only aspired. Nobility of blood was counted as of some worth; but where there was not wealth or intellect with it, it was held in comparatively low esteem. Prosperous mer- chants, men of genius and education, and skillful artisans were on a level with the best. Men of noble extraction engaged in business. The common- wealth conferred knighthood on the deserving, according to the practice of sovereign princes. Persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to labor in their shops and counting-houses. Frugal in their domestic life, the Florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict sumptuary laws. Limits were set to indulgence in finery, food, etc. The population of Flor- ence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand. In the neighborhood of the city, there was a multitude of attractive, richly furnished villas and countr}-- houses. Among the industries in which the busy population was engaged in 1472, a chronicler enumerates eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of the silk-merchants' guild, thirty-three great banks, and forty-four goldsmiths' and jewellers' shops. The houses of the rich were furnished with elegance, and decorated with beautiful works of art. There was a great contrast be- tween the simplicity of ordinary domestic life, especially as regards provisions for the table, and the splendor displayed on public occasions, or when guests were to be hospitably entertained. The effect of literary culture was seen in the tone of conversation. It is remarkable that the great sculptors were all goldsmiths, and came out of the workshop. A new generation of painters had a like practical training. In those days, there was a union of manual skill with imagination. The art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped all the others. In such a society, there was naturally a great relish for public festivals, both sacred and secular. Everywhere in Italy the Mysteries, or religious plays, exhibiting events of scriptural history, were in vogue ; bril- liant pantomimes were enjoyed, and the festivities of the yearly carnival were keenly relished. In the government of Florence, the liberty of the citizens was mainly confined to the choosing of their magistrates. Once in office, they ruled with arbitrary power. There was no liberty of the press, nor was there freedom of discussion in the public councils. It was a community where, with all its cultivation and elegance, morality was at a low ebb. Lorenzo himself, although " he had all the qualities of poet and statesman, connoisseur and patron of learning, citizen and prince," nevertheless "could not keep himself from the epicureanism of the time," and was infected with its weaknesses and vices. "These joyous and refined civilizations," writes M. Taine, "based on a worship of pleasure and intellectuality, — Greece of the fourth century, Provence of the twelfth, and Italy of the sixteenth, — were not enduring. Man in these lacks some checks. After sudden outbursts of genius and creativeness, he wanders away in the direction of license and egotism ; the degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the sophist and the dilettant." The Popes. — The VoYtts, Nicholas V. (1447-1455), a protect- or of scholars and a cultivated man, and Pii/s II. (1458-1464), THE OTTOMAN SULTANS. 377 THE OTTOMAN SULTANS. Othman, 1307-1325. Orchan, 1325-1359. Alaeddin. Amurath I, 1359-1389. Bajazet I, 1389-1402. I Soliman, 1402-X410. Musa, 1410-1413. Issa. Mohammed I, 1413-1421. Amurath IT, 1421-1451. Mohammed II, 1451-1481. Bajazet II, 1481-1512. Djem. Selim I, 1 512-1520. Soliman I, 1520-1566. Selim II, 1566-1574. Amurath. Ill, 1574-1595. Mohammed III, 1595-1603. Achmet I, 1603-1617. Mustapha I, 1617-1618, 1622-1623. I 1 1 Othman II, 1618-1622. Amurath IV, 1623-1640. Ibrahim, 1640-1649, deposed. Mohammed IV, 1649-1687, deposed. Soliman II, 1687-1691. Achmet II, 1691-1695. Mustapha II, 1695-1703, deposed. Achmet III, 1703-1730, deposed. Mahmoud I, Othman III, Mustapha III, Abnl Hamid I, 1774-1789. 1730-1754- 1754-1757- 1757-1774- Selim III, 1789-1807, deposed. Mustapha IV, 1807-1808, deposed. Mahmoud II, 1808-1839. Abdul Medjid, 1839-1861. Abdul Aziz, 1861-1876. Mnrad V (June 4, 1876-Aug. 31, 1876). Abdul Hamid II (Aug. 31, 1876-). [Mainly from George's Genealogical Tables."] 378 MODERN HISTORY. zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the Turk. Paul II. (1464-1471) pursued the same course; but after him, for a half-century, there ensued the deplorable era when the pon- tiffs were more busied with other interests than with those per- taining to the weal of Christianity. The pontificates of Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), Innocent VIII. (1484-1492), and especially of Alexander VI. (1492-1503), the second pope of the Borgia family, present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of " nepotism," as the projects for the temporal advancement of their relatives were termed. The Roman principality was the prey of petty tyrants, and the theater of wars, and of assassinations perpetrated by the knife or with poison. Alexander VI suc- ceeded in subduing or destroying all these petty lords. He was seconded in these endeavors by his son Ccesar Borgia, brave, accomplished, and fascinating, but a monster of treachery and cruelty. No deed was savage or base enough to cost him any remorse. Hardly had he acquired the Roniagna, when Pope Alexander died. He drank of a poison which it was charged that he and Ccesar Borgia had intended for a cardinal. The latter was betrayed, was imprisoned for a time by Ferdinand the Catholic, and, while he was in the service of the King of Navarre, was slain before the castle of Viana. Naples. — In Naples, Ferdinand I., who was established on his throne by the defeat of his competitors in 1462, provoked a revolt of his barons by his tyranny, invited them to a festival to cele- brate a reconciliation with them, and caused them to be seized at the table, and then to be put to death. He treated the people with equal injustice and cruelty. He allowed the Turks to take Otranto {i^^o), and the Venetians to take Gallipoli and Poli- castro (1484). Weakness of Italy. — Italy, at the close of the fifteenth cen- tury, with all its proficiency in art and letters, and its superiority in the comforts and elegances of life, was a prey to anarchy. This was especially true after the death of lorenzo de Medici. Diplomacy had become a school of fraud. Battles had come to be, in general, bloodless ; but either perfidy, or prison and the dagger, were the familiar instruments of warfare. The country from its beauty, its wealth, and its factious state, was an alluring prize to foreign invaders. THE OTTOMAN TURKS. 379 VI. THE OTTOMAN TURKS. Their Conquests. — The empire of Mohammed II. (1451- 14S1) extended from the walls oi Belgrade, on the Danube, to the middle of Asia Minor. To the east was the Seljukian principality of Caramania in the center of Asia Minor, and, when that was finally overthrown (i486), Persian, \N\\o%t. hostihty was inflamed by differences of sect. The conquest of the Greek Empire was achieved by Mohammed. Matthias Corvinus (145 8- 1493), the successor of Himyady, was the greatest of the kings of Hungary, and defended the line of the Danube against the Turkish assaults. For twenty-three years Scandei'beg, the intrepid Prince of Alba- nia, repulsed all the attacks of the Moslems. It was not until ten years after his death (1467) that his principal stronghold was surrendered to the invaders. The attacks on the Venetians have already been mentioned, as well as the capture of Otranfo. Bajazet II. was more inclined to study than to war : his brother Djem, who tried to supplant him, passed as a prisoner into the hands of Pope Alexander VI. An annual tribute was paid by the Sultan for keeping him from coming back to Turkey ; and when, at last, he was released, he was perfidiously poisoned. Selim I. (15 1 2-1 5 20) entered anew on the path of conquest. He de- feated the Persians, and made the Tigris his eastern boundary. He annexed to his empire Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. The Sultan now became the commander of the faithful, the inheritor of the prophetic as well as military leadership. The conquest of Alexandria by Selim (15 17) inflicted a mortal blow on the commerce of Venice, by intercepting its communication with the Orient. The despotic domination oi Selim stretched from the Dan- ube to the Euphrates, and from the Adriatic to the cataracts of the Nile. Such was the empire which the Ottoman conqueror handed down to his son, Soliman I. the Magnificent (15 20-1566). Mo- hammed II. and Seli7n were the two conquerors by whom the Ottoman Empire was built up. Each of them combined with an iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science and poetry, and the genius of a ruler. They take rank among the most eminent tyrants in Asiatic history. While they were spreading their do- minion far and wide, the popes and the sovereigns of the West did nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of confronting so great a danger. 380 MODERN HISTORY. ■1- ^ 3" £ I— ^ . <1 bii fa E O ^ «.v ..SJ o c c >>« « O (n .CO •a rt = j: « to sc/2 < -S! ^ L s a 5 taC^ RUSSIA. 381 VII. RUSSIA. Russia: Ivan III. — For two centuries Russia paid tribute to the Tartar conquerors in the South, the "Golden Horde" (p. 283). The hberator of his people from this yoke was Ivan III., — Ivan the Great, — (146 2- 1505). In the period when the nations of the West were becoming organized, Russia escaped from its servitude, and made some beginnings of intellectual progress. Ivan was a cold and calculating man, who preferred to negotiate rather than to fight ; but he inflicted savage punishments, and even " his glance caused women to faint." He was able to subdue the rich trading-city of Novgorod (1478), which had been connected with the Hanseatic League, and where a party endeavored to bring to pass a union with Polo.nd. He conquered unknown frozen districts in the North, and smaller princedoms, including Tver, in the interior. The empire of the Horde was so broken up that Ivan achieved an almost bloodless triumph, which made Russia free. In wars with Lithuania, Western Russia was recon- quered up to the Soja. Ivan married Sophia Palceologus, a niece of the last Christian emperor of the East. She taught him " to penetrate the secret of autocracy." Numerous Greek emigrants of different arts and professions came to Moscow. Ivan took for the new arms of Russia the two-headed eagle of the Byzantine Csesars, and thenceforward Russia looked on herself as the heir of the Eastern Empire. The Russian metropolitan, called afterwards Patriarch, was now elected by Russian bishops. Moscow became " the metropolis of orthodoxy," and as such the protector of Greek Christians in the East. Ivan laid out in the city the fortified inclosure styled the Kremlin. He brought into the country Ger- man and Italian mechanics. It was he who founded the greatness of Russia. Vassali Ivanovitch (1505-1533), his son, continued the struggle with Lithuania, and acquired Smolensk (15 14). He exchanged embassies with most of the sovereigns of the West. Ivan IV. (1533-1584). — Ivan IV., Ivan the Terrible, first took the title of Czar, since attached to " the Autocrat of all the Rus- sias." It was the name that was given, in the Slavonian books which he read, to the ancient kings and emperors of the East and of Rome. Moscoiv was now to be a third Rome, the successor of Constantinople. Ivan conquered the Tartar principalities of Kazan and Astrakhan in the South, and extended his dominion to the Caucasus. The Volga, through its entire course, was now a Russian river. He brought German mechanics into Russia, established printing-presses, and made a commercial treaty with Queen Eliza- beth, whom he invited to an alliance against Poland and Swedejt. It was in this reign (1581-1582) that a brigand chief, Irmak by name (a Cossack, in the service of the Czar), crossed the Urals 382 MODERN HISTORY. with a few hundred followers, and made the conquest of the vast region of Siberia, then under the dominion of the Tartars. Ivan sent thither bishops and priests. He had to cede Livo7iia to the Swedes, who, with iheir allies were too strong to be overcome. In Russia, he put down the aristocracy, and crushed all resistance to his personal rule. Whatever tyranny and cruelty this result cost, it prevented Russia from becoming an anarchic kingdom like Poland. Ivan, by forming the national guard of strelisi or strelitz, laid the foundation of a standing army. In his personal conduct, brutal and sensual practices alternated with exercises of piety. In a fit of wrath, he struck his son Ivan a fatal blow, and in conse- quence was overwhelmed with sorrow. After a short reign of his second son, Feodor (1584-159S), who was weak in mind and body, the throne was usurped by one of the aristocracy, the able and ambitious regent, Boris Godounof (159S-1605). The Cossacks. — These were brought into subjection hy Ivan IV. and his successors. They were roljber hordes of mixed origin, partly Tartar and partly Russian. Their abodes were near the rapids of the Dnieper, and on the Don, and at the foot of the Caucasus. They were fierce warriors, and did a great service to Russia in subduing the wild nomad tribes on the north and east of the regions where the Cossacks dwelt. Times of Trouble. — After the death of Boris Godounof, two pretenders, one after the other, each assuming to be Demetrius, the younger son of Ivan, — a son who had been put to death, — seized on power. This was rendered possible by the mutual strife of Russian factions, and by the help afforded to the impostors by the Poles. Sigisnuaid III., king of Poland, openly espoused the cause of the second Demetrius. Moscow was forced to surrender (16 10) ; and the czar whom the nobles had enthroned, Basil V., died in a Polish prison. These events gave rise to a lasting enmity between the two Slavonic nations. In 161 1 the Poles were driven out by a national rising, which led to the elevation to the throne o{ Michael Romanoff (1613-1645), the founder of the present dy- nasty of czars. Peace was concluded with Gustaz'us Adolphus of Sweden, and with the Poles. Commercial treaties were made with foreign nations. In Russia there was a great increase of internal prosperity. Serfdom in Russia. — The lower classes in Russia consisted of three divisions: i. Slaves, captives taken in war, who were bought and sold. 2. The inscribed peasants, who were attached to the soil and became serfs. They belonged to the commune, or village, which held the land, and as a unit paid to the lord his dues. They made uji the bulk of the rural population. The peasant was an arbitrary master, a little czar in his own family. 3. The free laborers, who could change their masters, but who soon fell into the rank of serfs. While the higher classes in Russia advanced, the condition of the rustics for several centuries continued to grow worse. INVASIONS OF ITALY. 383 Russian Society. — The great nobles kept in their castles a host of servants. These were slaves, subject to the caprices of their master. Russian women were kept in seclusion. There was an Asiatic stamp imprinted on civil and social life. " Thanks to the general ignorance, there was no intellectual life in Russia: thanks to the seclusion of women, there was no society." By degrees intercourse with Western Europe was destined to soften, in some particulars, the harsh outlines of this picture. VIII. FRENCH INVASIONS OF ITALY. Effect of Absolute Monarchy. — The establishment of absolute monarchy in Western Europe placed the resources of the nations at the service of their respective kings. The desire of national aggrandizement led to great European wars, which took the place of the feudal conflicts of a former day. These wars began with the invasion of Italy by Charles VIII., king of France. Motives of the Invasion. — To this unwise enterprise Charles VIII. was impelled by a romantic dream of conquest, which was not to be limited to the Italian peninsula. He intended to attack the Turks afterward, and to establish once more, under his pro- tection, a Latin kingdom at Jerusalem. His counselors could not dissuade him from the hazardous undertaking. In order to set his hands free, he made treaties that were disadvantageous to France with Henry VII, Maximilian, and Ferdinand the Cath- olic. He was invited to cross the Alps by Ludovico il Mora (p. 374), by the Neapolitan barons, by all the enemies of Pope Alexander VI. The special ground of the invasion was the claim of the French king, through the house of Anjoit, to the throne of Naples. In 1494 Charles crossed the Alps with a large army, and, with the support of Ludovico, advanced from Milan, through Florence and Rome, to Naples. He caused himself to be crowned King of Naples, Emperor of the East, and King of Jerusalem. The rapid progress of the French power alarmed the Pope and the other princes, including Ludovico himself, who was afraid that the king might cast a covetous eye on his own principality. A formidable league was formed against Charles, including, besides the Italian princes, Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Henry VIII. of England. It was the first European combination against France. Charles left eleven thousand men under Gilbert de Montpensier, at Naples ; and after being exposed to much peril, although he won a victory at Fornuova (1495), ^^ made his way back to France. Ferdinand II., aided by Spanish troops, expelled the French from Naples ; and the remnant of their garrisons, after the death of Montpensier, was led back to France. The con- quests of Charles were lost as speedily as they were gained. His great expedition proved a failure. Death of Savonarola. — Civil strife continued in the Italian states. Savonarola had been excommunicated by Alexander VI. 384 MODERN HISTORY. The combination of parties against him was too strong to be over- come by his supporters, and he was put to death in 1498. Louis XII. (1498-1515): his First Italian War. — On the death of Charles VIII., who left no male children, the crown reverted to his nearest relative, Louis of Orleans. He entered once more on the aggressive enterprise begun by his predecessor. He laid claim not only to the rights of Charles VIII. at Naples, but also claimed Milan through his grandmother Valentine Visconti. In alliance with Venice, and with Florence to which he promised Pisa, then in revolt against the detested Florentine supremacy, and with the support of Ccrsar Borgia, he entered Italy, and defeated Litdovico il Moro 2X Novara (1500). Ludovico had before been driven out of Milan by the French, but had regained the city. He was im- prisoned in France \ and on his release twelve years afterward, he died from joy. Louis bargained with Ferdinand the Catholic to divide with him the Neapolitan kingdom. Ferdinand, the king of Naples, was thus dethroned. But Ferdinand of Spain was as treacherous in his dealing with Louis as he had been in relation to his Neapolitan namesake ; and the kingdom fell into the hands of Go7isalvo de Cordova, the Spanish general. The Second Italian War of Louis. — Anxious for revenge, Louis sent two armies over the Pyrenees, which failed of success, and a third army into Italy under La Tremoille, which was defeated by Gonsalvo, notwithstanding the gallantry of Bayard, the pattern of chivalry, the French knight " without fear and without reproach." The Third Italian War of Louis. — The third Italian war of Louis began in 1507, and lasted eight years. It includes the his- tory of the League of Cambray, and also of the. anti- French League subsequently formed. France was barely saved from great calamities in consequence of foolish treaties, three in number, . made at Blois in 1504. The party of the queen, Anne of Brit- tany, secured the betrothal of Claude, the child of Louis XII., to ' Charles of Austria, afterwards Charles V., the son of Philip, with the promise of Burgundy and Brittany as her dowry. The arrange- ment was repudiated by the estates of France (1506). Claude was betrothed to Francis of Angoulane, the king's nearest male relative, and the heir of the French crown. On the marriage of Ferdinand to Germaine of Foix, Louis agreed to give up his claims on Naples. The sufferings of Italy had redounded to the advantage of Venice. Among her other gains, she had annexed certain towns in the Romagna which fell into anarchy at the ex- pulsion of Ccesar Borgia. Tlie energetic Pope, Julius II., organized a combination, the celebrated League of Cambray (150S), between himself, the Emperor Maximilian, the kings of France and of Aragon : its object was the humbling of Venice, and the division of her mainland possessions among the partners in the League. A TUDORS AND STUARTS. 385 a. Q e Q g so— 1 «H ?• ■ « - Cy< ia > ^ C1.U1 S -i •-^ w v~ ' a D-S a a-a oD 3 era — •-• TO '-I - so ^ tJ* a, a.:^ Of 3-0 » s. K (T"' 3 L^a >5 p 0.^ S >T1. ^ -"3^ og C n ?r ?r-- W H a a o > o CO a > H CA 386 MODERN HISTORY. fine army of Louis, composed of French, I^mbards, and Swiss, crossed the Adda, and routed the Venetians, who abandoned all their towns outside of Venice. Each of the other confederate powers now seized the places which it desired. France, mistress o( Mi/an, was at the height of her power. The Venetians, however, retook Padua from the emperor. The Pope made peace with them, and, fired with the spirit of Italian patriotism, organized a new league for the expulsion of the French — "the barbarians," as he called them — from the country. Old man as he was, he took the field himself in the dead of winter. He was defeated, and went to Rome. Louis convoked a council at Pisa, which was to depose Julius. A Holy League was formed between the Pope, Venice, Fei'dinand of Aragon, and Henry VIII. of England. The arms of the French under Gaston of Foix, the young duke of Nemours, were for a while successful. Raz'eufia was in their hands. But Gaston fell at the moment of victory. The Swiss came down, and established Alaxiinilian Sforza at Milan. Leo X., of the house of Medici, and hostile to France, was chosen Pope (1513). The French troops were defeated by the Swiss near Nozmra, and driven beyond the Alps. France was attacked on the north by the Eng- lish, with 7l/ajr/;///7/^z;/, who had joined the League in 15 13: and Bayard was taken captive. James IV. of Scotland, who had made a diversion in favor of France, was beaten and slain at Flodden Field (15 13). The eastern borders of France were attacked by the S^viss Leagues, who, aided by Austrians, pene- trated as far as Dijon. They were bought off by La Tremoille the French commander, by a large payment of money, and by still more lavish promises. France concluded peace with the Pope, the emperor, and the king of Aragon (15 14), and in the next year with Henry VIII., whose sister, Mary, Louis XIL mar- ried, a few months after the death of Anne of Brittany. He abandoned his pretensions to the Milanese, in favor of his younger daughter Renee, the wife of Hercules II., the duke of Fcrrara. Louis died (15 15), shortly after his marriage. The policy of the belligerent y^ow^X^, Julius 11, had triumphed. The French were expelled from Italy, but the Spaniards were left all the stronger. The events just narrated bring us into the midst of the struggles and ambitions of ruling houses, diplomatic intercourse among states, and international wars. These are distinguishing features of modern times. THE RENAISSANCE. 387 CHAPTER II. INVENTION" AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE. We have glanced at the new Hfe of Europe in its political mani- festations. We have now to view this new Hfe in other relations : we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus to intellectual effort in different directions. The term Renaissance is frequently applied at present not only to the " new- birth " of art and letters, but to all the characteristics, taken together, of the period of transition from the Middle Ages to modern life. The transformation in the structure and policy of states, the passion for discovery, the dawn of a more scientific method of observing man and nature, the movement towards more freedom of intellect and of conscience, are part and parcel of one com- prehensive change, — a change which evf>n now has not reached its goal. It was not so much " the arts and the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became vital at the time of the Renaissance," that created the new epoch : it was " the intellectual energy, the spontaneous outburst of intelligence, which enabled mankind at that moment to make use of them." Inventions : Gunpowder. — In the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies, there were brought into practical use several inventions most important in their results to civilization. Of these the prin- cipal were gunpowder, the niarinei'''s compass, and printing by movable types. Gunpowder was not first made by Schwartz, a monk of JFreiburg, as has often been asserted. We have notices, more or less obscure, of the use of an explosive material re- sembling it, among the Chinese, among the Indians in the East as early as Alexander the Great, and among the Arabs. It was first brought into use in fire-arms in the middle of the fourteenth century. The effect was to make infantry an effective force, and to equalize combatants, since a peasant could handle a gun as well as a knight. Another consequence has been to mitigate the bru- talizing influence of war on the soldiery, by making it less a hand- to-hand encounter, an encounter with swords and spears, attended with bloodshed, and kindHng personal animosity; and by rendering it possible to hold in custody large numbers of captives, whose lives, therefore, can be spared. The Compass. — The properties of the magnetic needle were first applied to navigation, it is thought, by Flavlo Gioja, from the district of Atnalfi, in Italy, in the beginning of the fourteenth cen- tury. The compass came into general use. Navigation was no longer confined to the Mediterranean and to maritime coasts. The sailor could push out into the ocean without losing himself on its boundless waste. Printing. — Printing, which had been done to some extent by wooden blocks, was probably first done with movable types (about 1450) hy John Gutenberg, who was born at Mentz, but who lived 388 MODERN HISTORY. long at Strasburg. He was furnished with capital by an asso- ciate, Faust, and worked in company with a skillful copyist of manuscripts, Schoffer. Gutenberg brought the art to such per- fection, that in 1456 a complete Latin Bible was printed. Within a short time, printing-presses were set up in all the principal cities of Germany and Italy. As an essential concomitant, linen and CO ttoti paper caxne. into vogue in the room of the costly parch- ment. Books were no longer confined to the rich. Despite the censorship of the press, thought traveled from city to city and from land to land. It was a sign of a new era, that Maximilian in Germany and Louis XL in France founded a postal system. New Route to India. — The discovery by the Portuguese of the islands of Porto Santo and Madeira (1419-1420), of the Ca- nary Islands and of the Azores, was followed by their discovery of the coast of Upper Guinea, with its gold-dust, ivory, and gums (1445). The Pope, to whom was accorded the right to dispose of the heathen and of newly discovered lands, granted to the Por- tuguese the possession of these regions, and of whatever discoveries they should make as far as India. From Lower Guinea {Congo), Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern point of Africa (i486), which King Jo/m II. named the Cape of Good Hope. Then, xiXidcx Emanziel the Great (i 495-1521), Vasco da Gama found the way to East India, round the Cape, by sailing over the Indian Ocean to the coast of Malabar, and into the harbor of Calcutta (1498). The Portuguese encountered the resistance of the Mo- hammedans to their settlement ; but by their valor and persistency, especially by the agency of their leaders Almeida and the brave Albuquerque, their trading-posts were established on the coast. Discovery of America. — The grand achievement in maritime exploration in this age was the discovery of America by Christo- pher Columbus, a native of Genoa. The conviction that India could be reached by sailing in a westerly direction took possession of his mind. Having sought in vain for the patronage of John 11. of Portugal, and having sent his brother Bqrtholofnew to apply for aid from Henry VII. of England, he was at length furnished with three ships by Queen Isabella of Castile, to whom Granada had just submitted (1492). Columbus was to have the station of grand admiral and viceroy over the lands to be discovered, with a tenth part of the incomes to be drawn from them, and the rank of a nobleman for himself and his posterity. The story of an open mutiny on his vessels does not rest on sufficient proof : that there were alarm and discontent among the sailors, may well be believed. On the nth of October, Columbus thought that he discovered a light in the distance. At two o'clock in the morning of Oct. 12, a sailor on the Pinta espied the dim outline of the beach, and shouted, "Land, land!" It was an island called VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY, 389 Guanahani, named by Columbus, in honor of Jesus, San Salva- do7'. Its beauty and productiveness excited admiration ; but neither here nor on the large islands of Cuba {Htspanio/a) and Hayti {St. Domingo), which were discovered soon after, were there found the gold and precious stones which the navigators and their patrons at home so eagerly desired. Coluvibus built a fort on the island of Hispaniola, and founded a colony. The name of West Indies was applied to the new lands. Columbus lived and died in the belief that the region which he discovered belonged to India. Of an intermediate continent, and of an ocean beyond it, he did not dream. The Pope granted to Ferdina?id and Isabella all the newly discovered regions of America, from a line stretching one hundred leagues west of the Azores. Afterwards Fe?-dmand al- lowed to the king of Portugal that the line should run three hundred and seventy, instead of one hundred, leagues west of these islands. In two subsequent voyages (1493-1496, 1498-1500), Columbus discovtYtd Jaffiaica and the Little Antilles, the Caribbeati Islands, and finally the mainland at the mouths of the Orinoco (1498). In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian captain living in England, while in quest of a north-west passage to India, touched at Cape Breton, and followed the coast of North America southward for a distance of nine hundred miles. Shortly after, Ainerigo Vespucci, a Floren- tine, employed first by Spain and then by Portugal, explored in several voyages the coast of South America. The circumstaiice that his full descriptions were published (1504) caused the name of Afnerica, first at the suggestion of the printer, to be attached to the new world. Later Voyages of Columbus. — On his return from his first voyage, Columbus was received with distinguished honors by the Spanish sovereigns. But he suffered from plots caused by envy, both on the islands and at court. Once he was sent home in fetters by Bobadilla, a commissioner appointed by Fei-diiiand. He was exonerated from blame, but the promises which had been made to him were not fulfilled. A fourth voyage was not attended by the success in discovery which he had hoped for, and the last two years of his life were weary and sad. Isabella had died ; and in 1506 the great explorer, who with all his other virtues combined a sincere piety, followed her to the tomb. The Pacific. — The spirit of adventure, the hunger for wealth and especially for the precious metals, and zeal for the conversion of the heathen, were the motives which combined in different pro- portions to set on foot exploring and conquering expeditions to the unknown regions of the West. The exploration of the North- American coast, begun hy John Cabot, Sebastian Cabot (1498), and the Portuguese Cortereal (1501), continued from Labrador to Florida, In 15 13 Balboa, a Spaniard at Darien, fought his way 390 MODERN HISTORY. to a height on the Isthmus of Panama, whence he descried the Pacific Ocean. Descending to the shore, and riding into the water up to his thighs, in the name of the king he took possession of the sea. In 1520 Magellan, a Portuguese captain, sailed round the southern cape of Ame7'ica, and over the ocean to which he gave the name of Pacific. He made his way to tlie East Indies, but was killed on one of the Philippine Islands, leaving it to his com- panions to iinish the voyage around the globe, A little later the Spaniards added first Mexico, and then Peru, to their dominions. Conquest of Mexico. — The Spanish conqueror of Mexico, the land of the Aztecs, was Hernando Cortes (1485-1547). The principal king in that country was Montezuma, whose empire was extensive, with numerous cities, and with no inconsiderable ad- vancement in arts and industry. From Santiago, in 15 19, Cortes conducted an expedition composed of seven hundred Spaniards, founded Vera Cruz, where he left a small garrison, subdued the tribe of Tlascalans who joined him, and was received by Monte- zuma into the city of Mexico. Cortes made him a prisoner in his own palace, and seized his capital. The fire-arms and the horses of the Spaniards struck the natives with dismay. Never- theless, they made a stout resistance. To add to the difficulties of the shrewd and valiant leader, a Spanish force was sent from the West Indies, under Narvaez, to supplant him. This force he defeated, and captured their chief In 1520 Cortes gained over the Mexicans, at Otuinba, a victory which was decisive in its consequences. The city of Mexico was recaptured (1521) ; for Montezuma had been slain by his own people, and the Spaniards driven out. Guatimozin, the new king, was taken prisoner and put to death, and the country was subdued. Cortes put an end to the horrid religious rites of the Mexicans, which included human sacrifices. Becoming an object of jealousy and dread at home, he was recalled (1528). Afterwards he visited the peninsula of California, and ruled for a time in Mexico, but with diminished authority. Conquest of Peru. — The conquest of Peric was effected by Francisco Pizarro, and Ahnagro, both illiterate adventurers, equally daring with Cortes, but more cruel and unscrupulous. The Peru- vians were of a mild character, prosperous, and not uncivilized, and without the savage religious system of the Mexicans. They had their walled cities and their spacious temples. The empire of the Incas, as the rulers were called, was distracted by a civil war between two brothers, who shared the kingdom. Pizarro captured one of them, Atahualpa, and basely put him to death after he had provided the ransom agreed upon, amounting to more than ^17,500,000 in gold (1533). Pizarro founded Lima, near the sea-coast (1535). Ahnagro dsidi. Pizarro fell out with each I REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 39 1 Other, and the former was defeated and beheaded. The land and its inhabitants were allotted among the conquerors as the spoils of victory. The horrible oppression of the people excited insurrec- tions. At length Charles V. sent out Pedro de la Gasca as viceroy (1541), at a time when Gonzalo Pizarro, the last of the family, held sway. Gonzalo perished on the gallows. Gasca reduced the government to an orderly system. The Amazon. — Orellena, an officer of Pizarro, in 1541 first descended the river Amazon to the Atlantic. His fabulous de- scriptions of an imaginary El Dorado, whose capital with its dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen, inflamed other explorers, and prompted to new enterprises. The cupidity of the Spaniards, and their eagerness for knightly warfare, made the New World, with its floral beauty and mineral riches, a most enticing field for adventure. To devout missionaries, to the monastic orders especially, the new regions were not less inviting. They followed in the wake of the Spanish conquerors and viceroys. Revival of Learning. — The stirring period of invention and of maritime discovery was also the period of " the revival of learn- ing." Italy was the main center and source of this intellectual movement, which gradually spread over the other countries of Western Europe. There was a thirst for a wider range of study and of culture than the predominantly theological writings and training of the Middle Ages afforded. The minds of men turned for stimulus and nutriment to the ancient classical authors. Pe- trarch, the Italian poet (1304-13 74), did much to foster this new spirit. In the fifteenth century the more active intercourse with the Greek Church, and the efforts at union with it, helped to bring into Italy learned Greeks, like Chiysoloras and Bessa7'ion, and numerous manuscripts of Greek authors. The fall of Consta7iti- nople increased this . influx of Greek learning. The new studies were fostered by the Italian princes, who vied with one another in their zeal for collecting the precious literary treasures of antiquity, and in the liberal patronage of the students of classical literature. The manuscripts of the Latin writers, preserved in the monasteries of the West, were likewise eagerly sought for. The most eminent of the patrons of learning were the Medici of Florence. Costno founded a library and a Platonic academy. All the writings of Plato were translated by one of that philosopher's admiring dis- ciples, Ma?'silitis Fici?ius. Dictionaries and grammars, versions and commentaries, for instruction in classical learning, were multi- plied. These, with the ancient poets, philosophers, and orators themselves, were diffused far and wide by means of the new art of printing, and from presses, of which the Aldine — that of Aldus Minutius — at Venice was the most famous. " By the side of the Church, which had hitherto held the countries of the West together 392 MODERN HISTORY. (though it was unable to do so much longer) there arose a new spiritual influence, which, spreading itself abroad from Italy, be- came the breath of life for all the more instructed minds in Europe." Contest of the New and the Old Culture. — In Germany, the new learning gained a firm foothold. But there, as elsewhere, the Hu7nanists, as its devotees were called, had a battle to fight with the votaries of the mediaeval type of culture, who, largely on theological grounds, objected to the new culture, and were stig- matized as " obscurantists." In Italy, the study of the ancient heathen writers had engendered, or at least been accompanied by, much religious skepticism and indifference. This, however, was not the case in Germany. But the champions of the scholastic method and system, in which logic and divinity, as handled by the schoolmen, were the principal thing, were strenuously averse to the linguistic and literary studies which threatened to supplant them. The advocates of the new studies derided the lack of learn- ing, the barbarous style, and fine-spun distinctions of the school- men, who had once been the intellectual masters. The disciples of Aristotle and of the schoolmen still had a strong hold in Paris, Cologne, and other universities. But certain universities, like Tubingen and Heidelberg, let in the humanistic studies. In 1502 Fi'ederick, the elector of Saxony, founded a university at Witten- berg, in which from the outset they were prominent. In England, the cause of learning found ardent encouragement, and had able representatives in such men as Colet, dean of St. Paul's, who founded St. Paul's School at his own expense ; and in Thomas More, the author of Utopia, afterwards lord chancelor under Benry VIII. Reuchlin: Ulrich von Hutten. — A leader of humanism in Germany was John Reuchlin (1455-1522), an erudite scholar, who studied Greek at Paris and Basel, mingled with Politian, Pico de Mirandola, and other famous scholars at Florence, and wrote a Hebrew as well as a Greek grammar. This distinguished humanist became involved in a controversy with the Dominicans of Cologne, who wished to bum all the Hebrew literature except the Old Testament. The Humanists all rallied in support of their chief, to whom heresy was imputed, and their success in this wide-spread conflict helped forward their cause. Ulrich von Hutten, one of the young knights who belonged to the literary school, and others of the same class, made effective use, against their illiterate antagonists, of the weapons of satire and ridicule. Erasmus. — The prince of the Humanists was Desiderius Eras- mus (145 7-1536). No literary man has ever enjoyed a wider fame during his own lifetime. He was not less resplendent for his wit than for his learning. Latin was then the vehicle of intercourse REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 393 among the educated. In that tongue the books of Erasmus were written, and they were eagerly read in all the civilized countries. He studied theology in Paris ; lived for a number of years in England, where, in company with More and Colet, he fostered the new studies ; and finally took up his abode at Basel. In eai-ly youth, against his will, he had been for a while an inmate of a cloister. The idleness, ignorance, self-indulgence, and artificial austerities, which frequently belonged to the degenerate monasti- cism of the day, furnished him with engaging themes of satire. But in his Praise of Folly, and in his Colloquies, the two most diverting of his productions, he lashes the foibles and sins of many other classes, among whom kings and popes are not spared. By such works as his editions of the Church Fathers, and his edition of the Greek Testament, as well as by his multifarious correspond- ence, he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of culture. If he incurred the hostility of the conservative Churchmen, he still ad- hered to the Roman communion, and won unbounded applause from the advocates of liberal studies and of practical religious reforms. Literature in Italy. — The first effect of the revival of letters in Italy was to check original production in literature. The charm of the ancient authors who were brought out of their tombs, the belles-lettres studies, and the criticism awakened by them, natur- ally had this effect for a time. Italy had two great authors in the vernacular, the poet Ariosto (1474-1533), and Machiavelli : it had, besides, one famous historian, Guicciardini (14S2-1540). Renaissance of Art. — This period was not simply an era of grand exploration and discovery, and of the new birth of letters : it was the brilliant dawn of a new era in art. Sculpture and paint- ing broke loose from their subordination to Church architecture. Painting, especially, attained to a far richer development. Architecture and Sculpture. — In architecture and sculpture, the influence of the antique styles was potent. Under the auspices of Brunel- leschi (1377-1446), the Pitti Palace and other edifices of a like kind had been erected at Florence. At Rome, Brainante (who died in 151 5), and, in par- ticular, Allchael Angela (1475-1564), who was a master in the three arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and a poet as well, were most influ- ential. The great Florentine artist Ghiberti (1378-1455), in the bronze gates of the Baptistery, exhibited the perfection of bas-relief. The highest power of Michael Angela, as a sculptor, is seen in his statue of Moses at Rome, and in the sepulchers of Julian and Lorenzo de Medici at Florence. A student of his works, Cellini (i 500-1 572) is one of the men of genius of that day, who, like his master, was eminently successful in different branches of art. In the same period, there were sculptors of high talent in German}', especially at Alitretnberg, where Adam Kraft (1429-1507), and Peter Vischcr (1435-1529), whose skill is seen in the bronze tomb of Sebaldus, in the church of that saint, are the most eminent. After the death of Michael Angela, in Italy theie was a decline in the style of sculpture, which became less noble and more affected. 394 MODERN HISTORY. Painting in Italy. — The ancients had less influence on the schools of painting than on sculpture. In painting, as we have seen (p. 308), Giotto (1266-1337), a contemporary of the poet Dante, and Cimahue (who died about 1302), had led the way. The art of perspective was mastered; and real life, more or less idealized, was the subject of delineation. In Italy, there arose various distinct styles or schools. The Flo7-enti7ie school reached its height of attainment in the majestic works of Michael Angela, the frescos of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. The Foniaji school is best seen in the stanzas of the Vatican, by Raphael (148 3-1 520), and in the ideal harmony and beauty of his Madonnas. Prior to Michael Angelo and Raphael, there was! the symbolic religious art of the Unibria7t painters. Of these, the chief i was Fra Angelica (1387-1455), the devout monk who transferred to the canvas the tenderness and fervor of his own gentle spirit. The Venetian school, with its richness of color, has left splendid examples of its power in the portraits of Titian (1477-1576), the works of Patil Veronese (who died in 1588), and the more passionate products of the pencil of Tintoretto (vi'ho died in 1594). The Lombard school has for its representatives the older contemporary of Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452-1 519), who combines perfection of outward form with deep spirituality, and by whom 77/1? Last Supper was painted on the wall of the cloister at Milan ; and Correggio (1494-1534), whose play of tender sensibility, and skill in the contrasts of light and shade in color, are exhibited in The Night, or Worship of the Magi (at Dresden), and in his frescos at Parma. The school of Bologna, founded by the three Caracci, numbers in its ranks Guido Reni (1575-1642), gifted with imagination and sensibility, and Salvator Rosa (1615-1673), who depicted the more wild and somber aspects of nature and of life. Michael Angelo and Raphael. — The two foremost names in the history of Italian art are Michael Angelo and Raphael. " If there is one man who is a more striking representative of the Renaissance than any of his contemporaries, it is Michael Angelo. In him character is on a par with genius. His life of almost a century, and marvelously active, is spotless. As an artist, we can not believe that he can be surpassed. He unites in his wondrous individuality the two master faculties, which are, so to speak, the poles of human nature, whose combination in the same individual creates the sovereign greatness of the Tuscan school, — invention and judgment, — a vast and fiery imagination, directed by a method precise, firm, and safe." Raphael lacks the grandeur and the many-sided capacity of the great master by whom he was much influenced. Raphael " had a nature which converted every thing to beauty." He produced in a short life an astonishing number of works of unequal merit; but to all of them he imparted a peculiar charm, derived from "an instinct for beauty, which was his true genius." Painting in the Netherlands. — In the Netherlands, a school of paint- ing arose under the brothers V\in Eyck (1366-1426, 13S6-1440). One of them, yohn, was the first artist to paint in oil. At a later day, a class of painters, of whom Rubens (1577-1640) is the most distinguished, followed more the track of the ancients and of the Italian school. These belonged to Flanders and Brabant ; while in Holland a school sprang up of a more original and independent cast, in which genius of the highest order was manifested in the person of Rembrandt (1607-1669), its most eminent master. Painting in Germany and France. — In Germany, a school marked by peculiarities of its own was represented by Hans Holbein (who died in 1543), and by Albert Diirer the Nuremberg artist (1471-1528). In Spain, Murillo (1617-1682) combined inspiration with technical skill, and stands on a level with the renowned Italians. Velasquez (1599-1660), an artist of ex- traordinary power, is most distinguished for his portraits. The French artists mostly followed the Italian styles. Claude Lorraine (1600-1682) was the painter of landscapes that are luminous in sunlight and atmosphere. In England, the humorous Hogarth (1697-1764) was much later. REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 395 Music. — Music shared in the prosperity of the sister arts. The interest awakened in its improvement paved the way in Italy iox Palestrina (1514-1594), whose genius and labors constitute an epoch. In Germany, Luther became one of the most efficient promoters of musical culture in connection with public worship. The great German composers, Bach (1685-1750) and Handel (1685-1759), belong to a subsequent period: they are, however, in some degree the fruit of seed sown earlier. Literature. — For works on general history, see p. i6. For general histories of particular countries, see p. 359. On Modern Times. Dyer's History of Modern Europe ; Duruy's Histoire des Temps Modernes [1453-1789] : Heeren's Vcrmisckte historisch. Schri/ieii. (3 vols., 1821-24); Manual of the History of the Political System of Etirope and its Colonies [to the fall of Napoleon] (2 vols.) ; Historical Treatises (i vol.) ; Heeren u. Ukert, Geschichte der europ'disch. Staaten (76 vols. 1829-75); T. Arnold's Lectures on Moderji History; Michelet's Modern History (i vol.) ; Yonge's Three Cent7iries of Modern History. On the Age of the Renaissance. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy (5 vols.) ; Burckhardt's The Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance in Italy (2 vols.) ; Reumont's Lorenzo de' Medici (2 vols.) ; Roscoe's Life of Lorejizo de' Medici ; Villari's Machiai'elli end his Times; yiachiayeiW, History of Florence ; Oliphanl, Mahers of Florence : Dante, Giotto, Savonarola, ajid their city (i vol.) ; Voigt, Die Wiederbelehaig des classischejt Alterthums (1859); ^a^'2-i. History of Painting (3 vols.); Vasari, Zz7<^.r of Paititers, Sculptors, and Architects; Crowe and Ca.va\c?isse\\e^, History of Pai^ziing in. North Italy [1300-1500] (2 vols. 1871); Crowe, Ha^idbook of Painting : the Gervian, Flemish, and Dutch Schools (2 parts, 1874); ^astXaS^e, Ha7idhook of Painting, the Italian Schools (based on Kuglcr, 2 parts, 1874) ; Crowe and Cavalcasselle, Life of Titian (2 vols.) ; Illustrated Biographies of the Great Artists (14 vols.); Mrs. Jameson, Lives of Italiaji Paititers; Grimm, Life of Michael Angelo (2 vols.); Crowe and Cavalcasselle, Life and Works of Raphael ; Fergusson, History of Modern Styles of Architecture ; Ruge's Geschichte d. Zeitalters d. Entdeckuiigen (i vol. in Oncken's Series) ; Geiger's Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland (i vol. in Oncken's Series) ; Lives of Erasmus, by Le Clerc, Jortin, Knight, Burigny (2 vols.), A. Miiller, Milman (1870), Drummond (2 vols.) ; Lives of Colum- bus, by Irving, Major (1847), Helps (1868), Crompton (1859), St. John (1850); Prescott's History of Ferdinand and Isabella, History of the Conquest of Mexico, and History of the Conquest of Peru ; Robertson, History of America. Period II. THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION. {1517-1648.) INTRODUCTION. The general stir in men's minds, as indicated in the revival of learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries, was equally manifest in great debates and changes in religion. One important element and fruit of the Renaissance is here seen. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the nations of Western Europe were all united in one Church, of which the Pope was the acknowledged head. There were differences as to the extent of his proper authority ; sects had sprung up at different times ; and there had arisen leaders, like Wickliffe and Huss, at war with the prevailing system. Ecclesiastical sedition, however, had been mostly quelled. Yet there existed a great amount of outspoken and latent discontent. First, complaints were loud against mal- administration in Church affairs. There were extortions and other abuses that excited disaffection. Secondly, the authority exercised by the Pope was charged with being inconsistent with the rights of civil rulers and of national churches. Thirdly, disputes sprang up, both in regard to various practices deemed objectionable, hke prayers for the dead, and the invocation of saints, and also con- cerning important doctrines, like the doctrine of the 7?iass or the Lord's Supper, and the part that belongs to faith in the Christian method of salvation. Out of this ferment arose what is called the Protestant Reformation. The Teutonic nations generally broke off from the Church of Rome, and renounced their allegiance to the Pope. The Latin or Romanic nations, for the most part, still adhered to him. As the common idea was that there should be uniformity of belief and worship in a state, civil wars arose on the question which form of belief should dominate. Germany was desolated for thirty years by a terrible struggle. Yet, in all the conflicts between kingdoms and states in this period, it was plain that political motives, or the desire of national aggrandizement, were commonly strong enough to override religious differences. 396 THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 39/ When there was some great interest of a political or dynastic sort at stake, those that differed in religion most widely would frequently assist one another. It is in this period that we see Spain, under Charles V. and Philip 11. , reach the acme of its power, and then sink into comparative weakness. CHAPTER I. THE EEFOKMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG (1517-1532). Beginning of the Reformation. — The Reformation began in Germany, where there was a great deal of discontent with the way in which the Church was governed and managed, and on account of the large amounts of money carried out of the country on various grounds for ecclesiastical uses at Rome. The leader of the move- ment, Martin Luther, was the son of a poor miner, and was born at Eisleben in 1483. He was an Augustinian monk, and had been made professor of theology, and preacher at Wittenberg, by the Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise (1508). Luther was a man of extraordinary intellectual powers, and a hard student, of a genial and joyous nature, yet not without a deep vein of reflection, tending even to melancholy. He had a strong will, and was vigor- ous and vehement in controversy. He had been afflicted with profound religious anxieties ; but in the study of St. Paul and St. Augustine, and after much inward wrestling, he emerged from them into a state of mental peace. The immediate occasion of disturbance, the spark that kindled the flame, was the sale of in- dulgences in Saxony by a Dominican monk named Teizel. Indul- gences were the remission, total or partial, of penances, and, in theory, always presupposed repentance ; but, as the business was managed in Germany at that time, it amounted in the popular apprehension to a sale of absolution from guilt, or to the ransom of deceased friends from purgatory for money. These gross abuses were painful to sincere friends of religion. In 1 5 1 7 Luther posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg his celebrated ninety-five theses. It was customary in those days for public debates to take place in universities, where, as in jousts and tournaments among knights, scholars offered to defend propositions in theology and philosophy against all comers. Such were the " theses " of Luther on indulgences. The public mind was in such a state that a great commotion was kindled by them. Conflict spread ; and the name of Luther became famous as a stanch antagonist of ecclesiastical abuses, and a fearless champion of reform. The Elector, a religious 398 MODERN HISTORY. man, calm and cautious in his temper, was friendly to Luther, often sought to curb him, but stretched over him the shield of his protection. Luther and Leo X. — Pope Leo X. was of the house of Medici, the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He had been made nomi- nally a cardinal at the age of thirteen, and had advanced to the highest station in the Church. He was much absorbed in matters pertaining to learning and art, and in political affairs, and at first looked upon this Saxon disturbance as a mere squabble of monks. He attempted ineffectually to bring Luther to submission and quietness, first through his legate Cajetan, a scholarly Italian, who met him at Augsburg (15 18), and then by a second messenger, Miltitz (15 19), a Saxon by birth. A turning-point in Luther's course was a public disputation at Leipsic, before Duke George ; for ducal Saxony was hostile to him. With Luther, on that occa- sion, was Philip Melanchthon, the young professor of Greek at Wittefiberg, who was a great scholar, and a man of mild and amiable spirit. He became a very effective and noted auxihary of the reformer, and acquired the honorary title of " preceptor of Germany." In the Leipsic debate, when Luther was opposed by the Catholic champion Eck, and by others, his o\vn views in oppo- sition to the papacy became more distinct and decided. He soon disputed the right of the Pope to make laws, to canonize, etc., denied the doctrine of purgatory, and avowed his sympathy with Huss. He issued a stirring Address to the Christian Nobles of the German Nation. In 1520 he was excommunicated by the Pope, but the elector paid no regard to the papal bull. Luther himself went so far as publicly to burn it at the gates of the town, in the presence of an assembly of students and others gathered to witness the scene. Both parties had now taken the extreme step : there was now open war between them. Jurists, who were aggrieved by the interference of ecclesiastical with civil courts, supported Luther. So the Humanists who had defended Reuch- lin, among whom were the youthful literary class of which Ulrich von Liutten was one, became his allies. Many among the inferior clergy and the monastic orders sympathized with him. Condition of Germany. — It was now for the JSfnpire to decide between Luther and the Pope. The efforts to create a better politi- cal system under Maximilian had proved in the main abortive. There was strife between the princes and the knights, as well as between princes and bishops. The cities complained bitterly of oppressive taxation and of lawless depredations. There was wide- spread disaffection, threatening open revolt, among the peasants. Maximilian had been thwarted politically by the popes. At first he was glad to hear of Luther's rebellion. He said to Frederick the Wise, "Let the Wittenberg monk be taken good care of: we THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 399 may some day want him." In the latter part of his reign his interests drew him nearer to Rome. Election of Charles V. — On the death oi Maxi?nilian (15 19), as the Elector Frederick would not take the imperial crown, there were two rival candidates, — Francis I., the king of France, and Charles I. of Spain, the grandson of Maximilian. Francis was a gallant and showy personage, but it was feared that he would be despotic ; and the electors made choice of Charles. The extent of Charles's hereditary dominions in Germany, and the greatness of his power, would make him, it was thought, the best defender of the empire against the Turks. The electors, at his choice, bound him in a " capitulation " to respect the authority of the Diet, and not to bring foreign troops into the country. Charles was the inheritor of Austria and the Low Countries, the crowns of Castile and Aragon, of Navaj're, of Naples and Sicily, together with the territories of Spain in the New World; and now he was at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. The concentration of so much power in a single hand could not but provoke alarm in all other poten- tates. The great rival of Charles was Francis /., and the main prize in the contest was dominion in Italy. Charles was a saga- cious prince ; from his- Spanish education, strongly attached to the Roman-Catholic system, and, in virtue of the imperial office, the protector of the Church. Yet with him political considerations, during most of his life, were uppermost. He made the mistake of not appreciating the strength that lay in the convictions at the root of the Protestant movement. He over-estimated the power of political combinations. Diet of Worms. — Charles V. first came into Germany in 152 1, and met the Diet of the empire at Worms. There Z2///?^r appeared under the protection of a safe-conduct. He manifested his wonted courage ; and in the presence of the emperor, and of the august assembly, he refused to retract his opinions, planting himself on the authority of the Scriptures, and declining to submit to the verdicts of Pope or council. After he had left Worms, a sentence of outlawry was passed against him. Charles at that moment was bent on the re-conquest of Milan, which the French had taken ; and the Pope was friendly to his undertaking, although Leo X. had been opposed to Charleses election. Francis I. — Francis I. (15 15-1547) aimed to complete the work begun by his predecessors, and to make the French mon- archy absolute. By a concordat wf'iih. the Pope (15 16), the choice of bishops and abbots was given into the king's hand, while the Pope was to receive the annates, or the first year's revenue of all such benefices. Francis established the practice of selling judi- cial places and offices of every sort. He was bent on maintaining the unity of France, and, as a condition, the Catholic system. 400 MODERN HISTORY. But he was always ready to help the Protestants in Germany when he could thereby weaken Charles. For the same end, he was even ready to join hands with the Turk. Rivalry of Charles and Francis. — Charles claimed the old imperial territories of Milaji and Genoa. He claimed, also, a portion of Southern France, — the duchy of Burgundy, which he did not allow that Louis XL had the right to confiscate. Francis claimed Naples in virtue of the rights of the house of Anjou ; also Spanish Navarre, which Ferdinand of Aragon had seized, and the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois. He had gained a brilliant victory over the Swiss at the battle of Marignano, in 1 5 15, and reconquered Milan. He concluded a treaty of peace with the Swiss, — the treaty of Freiburg (15 16), which gave to the king, in return for a yearly pension, the hberty to levy troops in Switzerland. This treaty continued until the French Revolution. First "War of Charles and Francis (1521-1526). — Hostilities between i^ra/zm and C-^airZfj- commenced in //a/i' in 1 5 2 1 . The French were driven from Milan in 1 5 2 2, which was again placed in the hands of Francesco Sforza; and the emperor was soon master of all Northern Italy. England and the Pope sided with Charles ; and on the death of Leo X., a former tutor of the emperor was made his successor, under the name Adrian VL. (1522). The most eminent and. the richest man in France, next to the king, Charles of Bourbon, constable of the kingdom, joined the enemies of Frajicis. He complained of grievances conse- quent on the enmity of Louisa of Savoy, the mother of the king, and attempted, with the aid of the emperor and Henry VLLL., to create a kingdom for himself in South-eastern France. But the national spirit in France was too strong for such a scheme of dismemberment and foreign conquest to succeed, and all that Charles gained in the end was one brave general. In the winter of 1524-25 Francis crossed the Alps at the head of a brilliant army, and recaptured Milan; but he was defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, and the French army was almost destroyed. Charles was able to dictate terms to his captive. It was stipu- lated in the Peace of Madiid (1526), that Francis should renounce all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, and to the suzerainty of Flanders and Artois, cede the duchy of Burgundy, and deliver his sons as hostages. Luther at the "Wartburg. — We have now to glance at the events in, Germany during the absence of Charles V. Luther, although under the ban of the empire, was in no immediate peril while he staid in Saxony. The elector, however, thought it pru- dent to place him in the castle of the Wartburg, where he could have a safe and quiet asylum. There he began his translation of the Bible, which, apart from its religious influence, from the THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY. 40I vigor and racy quality of its style made an epoch in the literary history of the German people. It was a work of great labor. " The language used by Luther in both the Old and New Testa- ments did not exist before in so pure, powerful, and genuine a form." While Luther was engaged in this work, a radical move- ment broke out at Wittenberg, of which Carlstadt, one of his supporters, was the principal leader. He was for carrying changes in worship to such an extreme, and for introducing them so ab- ruptly, that the greatest disorder was threatened. Against the wish of the elector, Luther left his retreat, and by his discourses and personal presence quieted the disturbance. Progress and Reaction. — No attempt was made to carry out the Worms decree. The reason was that the influential classes were so much in sympathy with Luther's cause. The Imperial Chamber, which ruled in the emperor's absence, would do nothing against him. Its committee refused to carry out the decree ; and a list of " one hundred grievances " was sent to Pope Adriati VI., of which the German nation had reason to complain (1523). Events, however, soon occurred that were unfavorable in their effect on the Lutheran movement. The knights banded together in large numbers, under Franz vo?i Sickingen, and tried by force of arms to reduce the power of the princes. Luther showed no favor to their plans and doings ; but, as their leaders had applauded him, a reaction against innovations, including changes in doctrine, was the natural consequence. Pope Adrian VI was earnestly desirous of practical reforms ; but his successor, Clement VII (15 23-1534), was of the house of Medici, and a man of the world, like Leo X. An alliance was made by the Catholic princes and bishops of South Germany at Ratisbon in 1524, to do away with certain abuses, but to prevent the spread of the new doctrine. The Peasants' War. — In 1524 a great revolt of the peasants broke out, and the next year it became general. They were groaning under intolerable burdens of taxation, and other forms of oppression. They demanded liberty in church affairs, and for the preaching of the new doctrine, and release from feudal tyranny. Luther felt and said that they were wronged grievously ; but when they took up arms, he, and with him the great middle class which he led, took sides strongly against them. The revolt was put down, and its authors inhumanly punished. For a time the peasants had wonderful success. Napoleon wondered that Charles V. did not seize the occasion to make Germany a united empire. Then seemed to be a time when the princes could have been stripped of their power. One of the foremost leaders of the rebellion was Thomas Miinzer. On the defeat of the peasants, he was captured and beheaded. Second War between Charles and Francis (1527-1529). — In the Peace of Madrid, Charles and Francis had agreed to proceed 402 MODERN HISTORY. against the Turks and against the heretics. But, after the release of Francis, he repudiated the concessions before mentioned (p. 400), which were made, he alleged, under coercion; and with Clement VII. he formed a conspiracy against the emperor. The Diet of Spires, in 1526, decided to leave each of the component parts of the empire, until the meeting of a general council, to de- cide for itself as to the course to be taken in the matter of religion and in respect to the edict of Worms. In 1527 a German army, largely composed of Lutherans, led by Constable Bourbon and George Friindsberg, stormed and captured Rome. The Pope made an alliance with Henry VIII. A French army under Laut7-ec ap- peared at Naples, but it was so weakened by a fearful pestilence that it was easily destroyed. The Pope concluded peace with Charles in 1529. The emperor promised to exterminate heresy. In the Peace of Cambray, Francis renounced his claims on Italy, Flanders, and Artois : Charles engaged for the present not to press his claims upon Burgundy, and set free the French princes. To the Peace of Nuremberg (1532). — The Diet of Spires in 1529 reversed the policy of tacit toleration. It passed an edict forbidding the progress of the Reformation in the states which had not accepted it, and allowing in the reformed states full liberty of worship to the adherents of the old confession. The protest by the Lutheran princes and cities, against the decree of the Diet, gave the name of Protestants to their party. The successful defense of Vientia against an immense army of the Turks under Soliman delivered Charles for the moment from anxiety in that quarter. A theological controversy between the lutheran and the Swiss reformers, on the Lord's Supper, made a division of feeling between them. A conference of the two parties at Marburg, in which Luther and Melatuhthon met Zwingli and his associates, brought no agreement. Every thing was propitious for an effort at coercion ; and this was resolved upon at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where the emperor was present in person, and where Melanchthon presented the celebrated Protestant Confession of Faith. The threats against the Protestant princes induced them to form the League of S?nalcald for mutual defense. But it was found impracticable tg carry out the measures of repression against the Lutherans. Bavaria was jealous of the house of Hapsburg, and opposed to the plan of the emperor to make his brother, Ferdinand of Austria, his successor. The Turks under Soliman were threatening. France and Denmark were ready to help the Protestants. Accordingly the Peace of Nuremberg was concluded in 1532, in which rehgious affairs were to be left as they were, and both parties were to combine against the common enemy of Christendom. THE SWISS REFORMATION. 403 CHAPTER II. THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZER- LAND, DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND. The Swiss Reformation: Zwingli. — The founder of Protestant- ism in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwwgli. He was bom in 1484. His father was the leading man in a mountain village. The son, at Vienna and afe Basel, became a proficient in the humanist studies. He read the Greek authors and the Bible in the original. A curate first at Glarus, and then at Einsiedeln, he became pastor at Zurich. As early as 15 18 he preached against the sale of indulgences. He was a scholarly man, bluff and kindly in his ways, and an impres- sive orator. The Swiss were corrupted by their employment as mer- cenary soldiers, hired by France, by the Pope, or by the emperor. Of the demoralizing influence of this practice, Zwingli became deeply convinced ; and his exertions as a Church reformer were mingled with a patriotic zeal for the moral and political regenera- tion of Switzerland. Mainly by his influence, Zuiich separated from the jurisdiction of the bishop of Constance, and became Protestant in 1524. The example of Zurich was followed by Berne (1528) and hy Basel (1529). Zwingli agreed with Luther on the two main points of the sole authority of the Scriptures, and the doctrine of salvation by faith alone ; but on the sacrament of the Lord's Supper he went farther in his dissent from the Chtirch of Rome. This made Luther and his followers stand aloof when cordial fellowship was proposed between the two parties. Civil Strife : Death of Zwingli. — The aim of Zwingli was to establish a republican constitution in the several cantons, and also in the confederation as a body, where the five Forest Cantons had an undue share of power. These adhered to the old Church. In Berne the oligarchic party was supplanted by the republican, re- forming party, — an event of decisive importance. As> the irrita- tion increased between the Forest Cantons and the cities, the former entered into a league with Ferdinand of Austria, and the cities leaned for support on the German states in sympathy with their opinions. A treaty was made (1529), but each side accused the other of breaking it. At length war began : Berne failed to come to the help of Zurich. Each city wished to be the metrop- olis of the reformed confederation. The forces of Zurich were vanquished at Cappel, where Zwingli himself, who was on the field in the capacity of a chaplain, was slain (1531). By the peace of Cappel in 1531, Protestantism was not coerced, but a check was put upon its progress. Neither party was strong enough to subdue the other. ■Protestantism in Scandinavia. — In the Scandinavian countries, monarchical power was built up by means of the Reformation, 404 MODERN HISTORY. The union of Calmar (1397) under Queen Margaret, between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, had been a dynastic union. The several peoples were not united in feeling. The sovereign, more- over, had his power limited by a strong feudal nobility, and by a rich Church impatient of control. First the Church was over- come by means of Protestantism, and then the nobles. The Reformation in Denmark. — On the accession of Chris- tian I. of Oldenburg (1448-1481), the duchies oi' Holstein and Schleswig became connected with Denmark in a personal union. His grandson, Chrisiiati II. (15 13-15 23), did not rule the duchies, which were governed by I^rederic I., who afterwards succeeded Owistian II. as king of Denmark. Christian II. was bent on putting down the aristocracy, lay and clerical, but lacked the moral qualities necessary to success in so difficult a task. He at first favored Protestantism from political motives. He hoped to bring the Swedes into subjection by the aid of the Danes, and then to subdue the Danish nobility. In Sweden the nobles practically ruled ; and the regency was in the hands of the Stures, who be- friended the common people, and were opposed by the other nobles and the clergy. Chrisfiati made use of these divisions, and of the help of German and French troops, to get possession of Stockholm (1520). He took the Catholic side. But his per- fidy, and the massacre of eminent Swedes, — known as the Mas- sacre of Stockholm, — excited an inextinguishable hatred against Denmark. The Danish nobles feared the same sort of treatment. The king's attempts at reform offended them without pleasing the peasants, and a revolution took place which dethroned him. Duke Frederic of Schleswig was made king (1523) : the duchies and Denmark were again together. Fredei-ic swore not to intro- duce the Reformation, nor to attack Catholicism. But he was an ardent Lutheran. The new doctrine had come into the land, and was spreading. The nobles, who coveted the possessions of the Church, espoused it. At the Diet of Ode?ise, in 1527, toleration was granted to Lutheranism. On Frederic's death, in 1533, an effort of the bishops to restore the exclusive domination of the old sys- tem of religion was defeated. Christian III. was made king ; and at a Diet at Copenhagen in 1536, the Reformation was legalized, and the Lutheran system, with bishops or superintendents, was established. The Reformation in Sweden. — After the massacre of Stock- holm, Denmark was detested by the Swedes. A great political revolution occurred, which involved also a religious revolution. The author of the change, and the real founder of the Swedish monarchy, was Gustaviis Vasa, a young Swede of noble family, who had been held as a captive in Copenhageji, but had escaped and returned to his country. He was of imposing presence, prudent THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 405 yet daring, and with a natural gift of eloquence. Amid great dangers and sufferings, such as tradition ascribed to King Alfred of England, he succeeded, at the head of a force gathered to him in the province of Dalecarlia, in gaining the most important places in the country, and was proclaimed king in 1523. He was not deeply interested in the religious controversy, although he favored Lutheranism ; but he made it his steady aim to break down the clerical aristocracy, to weaken the nobles, and to organize a strong and prosperous monarchy. He proceeded carefully : but the peasants, who had been his warmest supporters, were strongly attached to the old Church ; and the opposition to his measures from all quarters was such that at the Diet of Westeras, in 1527, he took the bold step of offering to lay down the crown. At this Diet he had assembled representatives of the citizens and peasants, as well as the clergy and nobles. He proposed to pay an enor- mous debt which was due to Liibeck, by using the colossal wealth of the Church for this purpose, and to shake off the monopoly of trade which the Hanse towns enjoyed. Finding himself withstood, he renounced the throne. The distraction and tumults which fol- lowed his act of relinquishing the crown were such that a great party of the nobles joined him. Three days after his abdication, he was recalled to the throne : the clergy submitted abjectly, and the Church was no longer a power in the state, or possessed of wealth. Trade was released from its bondage to Liibeck arid the other towns ; commerce was opened with foreign countries ; and a market was provided for iron, the main product of the country. The nobles were held in subjection. The Lutheran doctrine made very rapid progress, and became dominant. England: Henry VIII. and Luther. — Three great things had been gained in the progress of English constitutional history, — that the king can make no law without the consent of parliament ; that he can lay no tax without their consent ; that he must govern according to the laws, and that, if he fails to do so, his ministers are to be held responsible. But all the Tudor princes had a strong love of personal power. Of these, none had a more obsti- nate and tyrannical will than Llenij VILL. The advantages de- rived from the effect of the civil wars, which had reduced the strength and numbers of the nobility, and the natural English jealousy, always shown, of foreign and papal supremacy, enabled Llenry to break off the connection of England with Rome ; while, at the same time, he resisted Protestantism and persecuted its adherents. He had been trained in the humanistic studies, and was proud of his theological acquirements. He took the field, in 1522, as an author against Luther, in a book in defense of the Seven Sacraments, for which he received from the Pope the title of Defender of the Faith. The vituperative character of Luther's 406 MODERN HISTORY. answer confirmed him in his hatred of the new doctrine. "When God," said the blunt Saxon reformer, " wants a fool, he turns a king into a theological writer." The Divorce Question. — What made the breach between Henry VIII. and the papacy was the question of the king's di- vorce. He had been married in his twelfth year to Catherine of Aragon, the aunt of Charles V. and the widow of Henry's de- ceased brother Arthur (who had been married to her in 1501, when he was fifteen years old, and had died the next year). A dis- pensation permitting the marriage of Henry had been granted by Vo^Q. Julius II. How far Henty's passion for Anne Boleyn, whom he desired to wed, was at the root of his scruples respecting the validity of his marriage, it may not be easy to decide. His appli- cation to Clement VII. for a separation reached the Pope after the Peace of Madrid, when there was a desire to lessen the power of the emperor. Cardinal Wolsey, the favorite counselor of Henry, who himself aspired to the papal office, was obliged to help on the cause of his imperious master. But whatever disposition there was at Rome to gratify Henry, there was no inclination to hurry the proceedings. There were long delays in England, whither a papal legate, Campeggio, had been sent to investigate and deter- mine the cause. In 1529 the legates decided that the case must be determined at Rome. This the queen had before demanded in vain. Aside from other objections to the divorce, Clement VII. was now at peace with Charles V., whom it was undesirable to offend. The incensed king took the matter into his own hands. Wolsey, having been one of the legates, was deprived of all his dignities : he was charged with treason, his strength melted away on his fall from the heights of power, and he died a broken-spirited man. Separation of England from Rome. — Henry now gave free rein to the spirit of opposition in Parliament to Rome. He took for his principal minister, who became vicegerent in ecclesiastical affairs, Thomas Cromwell. Cromwell, unlike Wolsey, was hostile to the temporal power of Rome. He made Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury, who was at heart a Protestant in doc- trine, but, though sincere in his beliefs, was a man of pliant tem- per, indisposed to resist the king's will, preferring to bow to a storm, and to wait for it to pass by. By Cranmer the divorce was decreed, but this was after the marriage with Anne Boleyn had taken place, i^w/^' was excommunicated by the Pope. Acts of Parliament abolished the Pope's, and established the king's, su- premacy in the Church of England. In 1536 the cloisters were abolished. Their property was confiscated, and fell to a large extent into the hands of the nobles and the gentry. This measure bound them to the policy of the sovereign. The mitered abbots THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 407 were expelled from the House of Lords, which left the preponder- ance of power with the lay nobles. The hierarchy bowed to the will of the king. The Two Parties. — There were two parties in England among the upholders of the king's supremacy. There were the Protestants by conviction, who were for spreading the new doctrine. This had already taken root and spread in the universities, and in some other places in the country. The new literary culture had paved the way for it. In the North, there were still left many Lollards, disciples of Wickliffe. Cromwell, Cranmer, and one of the bish- ops, Latimer, were prominent leaders of this party. Against them were the adherents of the Catholic theology, such as Garditier, Tunstal of Durham, and other bishops. At first the king inclined towards the first of these two parties. One of his most important acts was the ordering of a translation of the Bible into English, a copy of which was to be placed in every church. But a popular rebellion in 1536 was followed by a change of ecclesiastical policy. The Six Articles were passed, asserting the Roman Catholic doc- trines, and punishing those who denied transubstantiation with death. The queen, Anne Boleyn, who was an adherent of the Protestant side, was executed on the charge of infidelity to her marriage vows (1536). A few years later Cromivell was sent to the scaffold for the part which he took in the negotiation of a marriage of the king with a German Protestant princess (1540). Lutheran bishops were thrown into the Tower : Cra7imer alone was shielded by the king's personal favor, and by his own prudence. This system of a national church, of which the king, and not the Pope, was the head, where the doctrine was Roman Catholic, and the great ecclesiastical officers were appointed, like . civil officers, by the monarch, was the creation of Henry VIIL His strong will was able to keep down the conflicting parties. Despite his sensuality and cruelty, he was a popular sovereign. One of his principal crimes was the execution of Sir Thomas More for refusing to assert the invalidity of his marriage with Catherine. More ^da one. of the noblest men in England, a man who com- bined vigor with gentleness. He was willing to swear that the children of Anne were lawful heirs to the throne, because Parlia- ment, he believed, could regulate the succession ; but this did not satisfy the tyrannical monarch. In the latter portion of his reign, he grew more suspicious, willful, and cruel. 408 MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER III. THE REFORMATIOIir IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555). The Parties in Germany, 1532-1542. — For ten years after the Peace of Nuremberg, the Protestants in Germany were left unmo- lested. The menacing attitude of the Turks, and the occupations of the emperor m Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible to interfere with them. Philip, the Landgrave of Hesse, a chival- rous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of Duke Ulrich of Wih'temberg, who had been driven out of his dominion. Thus a Protestant prince was established in the heart of Southern Germany (1534). In Westphalia, a fanatical branch of the Ana- baptist sect at Mmister, with whom the Lutherans did not sympa- thize, was broken up by the neighboring Catholic princes. The overthrow of the power- of Liibeck and of the Hanseatic League did not check the advance of Lutheranism. It continued to make great progress in different directions. The Smalcald League was extended. A league of the Catholic states was formed at Nurem- berg m 1538. During three years (1538-1541) efforts were made by the emperor to secure peace and union. Of these the Confer- ence and Diet of Ratisbon in 1541 is the most remarkable. The Protestants and Catholics could not agree upon statements of doctrine ; but the necessity of getting Protestant help against the Turks compelled Charles to sanction the Peace of Nuremberg, and to make to the Lutherans other important concessions. This arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce. Among the conquests of Protestantism after the Peace of Nurein- berg, and prior to 1544, were B?-andenburg and Ducal Saxony, whose rulers adopted the new doctrine. It was spreading in Austria, in Bavaria, and in other states. Duke Henry of Bruns- wick fell into conflict with the Smalcaldic League, and was con- quered, so that his principality became Protestant. Even the ecclesiastical elector of Cologne was taking steps towards joining the Protestant side. This would have given to the Lutherans a majority in the electoral college. The bishoprics with temporal power were numerous in Germany. If they were secularized, the old religious system would be deprived of a principal support. The Smalcaldic War. — Charles V. was now secretly resolved to coerce the Protestants in Germany, and silently made his prepa- rations for war. Before hostilities commenced, Z////z <; f^^ t rt "§ S •^t3 . C g c a ■£.S cT a-o J;^ 3 ~ o 09 o « 00 s O Vh c: o-o •;> bJD 00 c 3 - o o H n o 1 -a _ a 1-^ 3 « a B o S 3 _u 1-1 a. - 1^ .2 M -C 'n 11 U o< »; 1^ a *^ T H 1 M M s > i^ ^a H 3 T^ "^■<1 U _--^ 3 H-I .5 " Ic'C ^ "o tl " «r = T3 1; w, Ofe i.st « u S grew 3 g°2 ^S ° THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 42/ THIRD STAGE IN THE WAR ( 1 63 2-1 648), France after Henry IV. — After the death of Gustavns, in the new phase of the war, the influence of Richelieu, the great minister of France, becomes more and more dominant. Germany was in the end doomed to eat the bitter fruits of civil war, such as spring from foreign interference, even when it comes in the form of help. Henry IV. had died when he was on the point of directing the power of France, as of old, against the house of Hapsburg. The country now fell back for a series of years to a state akin to that under the kings who preceded him, although it was saved from a long civil war. Louis XIII. (16 10-1643) was a child; and the queen, Mary of Medici, who was the regent, an Italian woman, with no earnest principles, deprived of the counsels of Sully, lav- ished the resources of the crown upon nobles, who were greedy of place and pelf. At the assembly of the States-general in 16 14, nobles, clergy, and the third estate were loud in reciprocal accusa- tions. The queen fell under the influence of the Concinis, an Italian waiting-maid, and her husband, the latter of whom she made a marquis and a marshal of France. She leagued herself in various ways with Spain. As the king grew older, a party rallied about him, and the marshal was assassinated (161 7). From that time Louis was under the influence of a favorite, the Dzike de Luynes, a native Frenchman, with whom the nobles were in sympathy. The duke died in 1621. Then Richelieu, Bishop of Lugon (made a cardinal in 1622), a statesman of extraordinary genius, began his active career in politics, and after 1624 guided the policy of France, as a sort of Mayor of the Palace. Louis XIII. was not personally fond of him, but felt the need of him. Richelieu'' s aim, as regards the government of France, was to consolidate the monarchy by bringing the aristocracy into subjection to the king. Under him began the process of centralization, the system of officers appointed and paid by the government, which was fully developed after the great revolution. He accomplished the overthrow of the Hugue- nots as a political organization, a state within the state. In 1628 Rochelle, the last of their towns, fell into his hands. He was determined to make the civil authority supreme. He resisted interference with its rights on the part of the Church. The nobles were reduced to obedience by the infliction of severe punish- ments. The common people were kept under. But the domes- tic government of Richelieu made it possible for the selfish and ruinous policy of Louis XIV. to arise. The key of his foreign policy was hostility to Austria and Spain, to both branches of the Hapsburgs. Before he took active measures against them, he had to procure quiet in France, and to provide himself with money and troops. 428 MODERN HISTORY. Intervention of Richelieu. — The pretext of Richelieu for taking part in the German war was the alleged ambitious aim of the Hapsburgs to destroy the independence of other nations. He helped Gustavus with money ; but the Swedish king would neither allow him to take territory, nor to dictate the method of pros- ecuting the contest. It was agreed that the Catholic religion as such should not be attacked. Oxenstiern, the Swedish chancel- cr, in the Heilbronn T?-eaty (1633) adhered to the same policy. Death of "Wallenstein. — Wallenstein formed a plan to make himself an independent prince. He designed to make peace with France, Sweden, and the Protestants, and probably expected to reign in Bohemia. In obedience to an imperial direction, as the only way of averting the threatened danger, he was murdered in his camp (1634). End of the War. — The imperial victory of Nordlingen (1634) made the active assistance of France necessary. But it was not until the death of Bernard of Weimar, the foremost general of the Germans (1639), that Richelieii found himself at the goal of his efforts. The armies opposed to the emperor were now under the control of the French. The character of the war had changed. Protestant states were fighting on the imperial side : the old theo- logical issues were largely forgotten. Yet the Court of Vienna still clung to the Edict of Restitution (p. 424) for eight long years, during which the confused, frightful warfare was kept up. At last the mihtary reverses of the Qxw'gerox, Ferdinand III. (1637-165 7), who, unlike his father, was not indisposed to peace, wrung from him a consent to the necessary conditions. Effects of the War. — The barbarities of this long war are indescribable. The unarmed people were treated with brutal ferocity. The population of Germany is said to have diminished in thirty years from twenty to fifty per cent. The population of one city, Augsburg, fell from eighty to eighteen thousand. There were four hundred thousand people in Wilrternberg in 1641 : only forty-eight thousand were left. In fertile districts, the destruc- tion of the crops had caused great numbers to perish by famine. It is only in recent years that the number of horned cattle in Ger- many has come to equal what it was in 1618. Cities, villages, castles, and dwellings innumerable, had been burned to the ground. The Peace of Westphalia. — The Peace of Westphalia, con- cluded in 1648, was a great European settlement. It was agreed, that in Germany, whatever might be the faith of the prince, the religion of each state was to be Catholic or Protestant, according to its position in 1624, which was fixed upon as the "normal year." In the imperial administration, the two religions were to be sub- stantially equal. Religious freedom and civil equality were ex- tended to the Calvinists. The etnpire was reduced to a shadow THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 429 by giving to the Diet the power to decide in all important matters, and by the permission given to its members to make alliances with one another and with foreign powers, with the futile proviso that no prejudice should come thereby to the empire or the emperor. The independence of HoUaiid and Switzerland was acknowledged. Sweden obtained the territory about the Baltic, in addition to other important places, and became a member of the German Diet. Among the acquisitions of France were the three bishop- rics, Metz, Tout, and Verdun, and the landgraviate of Upper and Lower Alsace. Thus iv^z/zri? gained access to the Rhine. Sweden and France, by becoming guarantors of the peace, obtained the right to interfere in the internal affairs of Germany. Consequences of the Treaty. — By this treaty, what was left of central authority in Germany was destroyed : the empire ex- isted only in name ; the mediaeval union of empire and papacy was at an end. Valuable German territories were given up to ambitious neighbors. France had extended her bounds, and dis- ciplined her troops. Sweden had gained what Gustavus had coveted, and, for the time, was a power of the first class. Spain and Austria were both disabled, and reduced in rank. CHAPTER VIII. SECOND STAGE OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH (1547-1603). Reign of Edward VI. (1547-1553). — Henry VIII. , with Par- liament, had determined the order of succession, giving precedence to Edward, his son by Jane Seymour, over the two princesses, Mary, the daughter of Catherine, and Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Edward VI., who was but ten years old at his accession, was weak in body, but was a most remarkable instance of intellectual precocity. The government now espoused the Protestant side. Somerset, the king's uncle, was at the head of the regency. Tht Six Ai'ticles (p. 407) were repealed. Protes- tant theologians from the Continent were taken into the counsels of the English prelates, Cranitier and Ridley. Under the leader- ship of Cranmer, the Book of Common Prayer was framed, and the Articles, or creed, composed. The clergy were allowed to marry. The Anglican Protestant Church was fully organized, but the progress in the Protestant direction was rather too rapid for the sense of the nation. Somerset, who was fertile in schemes and a good soldier, invaded Scotland in order to enforce the ful- filling of the treaty which had promised the young Princess Mary 430 MODERN HISTORY. of Scotland to Edward in marriage. He defeated the Scots at Pinkie, near Eldinburgh ; but the project as to the marriage failed. Mary was sent by the Scots to France, there to become the wife of Francis II. Land belonging to the Church was seized by Somerset to make room for Somerset House. A Catholic rebellion in Cornwall and Devonshire, provoked by the Protector's course, was suppressed with difficulty. The opposition to him on various grounds, which was led by the Duke of Northumberland , finally brought the Protector to the scaffold. But Northiimbe rland proved to be less worthy to hold the protectorate than he, and labored to aggrandize his relatives. He was one of the nobles who made use of Protestantism as a means of enriching themselves. He persuaded the young king, when he was near his end, to settle che crown, contrary to what Parliament had determined, on Lady Jane Grey, Northumberland's daughter-in-law, a descendant of Henry ^s sister. The Reign of Mary. — Notwithstanding the Protector's selfish scheme, Mary succeeded to the throne without serious difficulty. Northumberland was beheaded as a traitor. An insurrection under Wyat was put down, and led to the execution of the un- fortunate and innocent Lady Jane Grey. From her birth and all the circumstances of her life, Mary was in cordial sympathy with the Church of Rome and with Spain. She proceeded as rapidly as her more prudent advisers, including her kinsman Philip II., would allow, to restore the Catholic system. The married clergy were excluded from their places, and the Prayer-Book was abol- ished. The point where Parliament showed most hesitation was in reference to the royal supremacy. The nobles were afraid of losing their fields and houses, which had belonged to the Church. It was stipulated that the abbey lands, which were now held by the nobles and gentry as well as by the crown, should not be given up. Personally, Mary was inclined to any measure which obliga- tion to the Catholic religion might dictate. Contrary to the general wish of her subjects, she married Philip II. Rigorous measures of repression were adopted against the Protestants. A large number of persons, eminent for talents and learning, were put to death on the charge of heresy. Among them were the three bishops, Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, who were burned at the stake at Oxford (1556). Gardiner, Bonner, and the rigid advocates of persecution, had full sway. These severe measures were not popular ; and, although the queen was not in her natural temper cruel, they have given her the name of the " Bloody Mary." Each party used coercion when it had the upper hand. A great number of the Protestant clergy fled to the Continent. Mary sided with Spain against France, and, gready to the disgust of the English, lost Calais (1558). Pope Paul IV. was disposed REIGN OF ELIZABETH. ' 43 1 to press upon England the extreme demands of the Catholic Reaction. He was, moreover, hostile to the Spanish-Austrian house. There was great fear respecting the confiscated Church property : her own share in it, the queen persuaded Parliament to allow her to surrender. Cardinal Pole, a moderate man, no longer guided her policy. He was deprived of the office of papal legate. General discontent prevailed in the kingdom. The queen herself was dispirited, and her life ended in anxiety and sorrow. Character of Elizabeth (1558-1603). — The nation welcomed Elizabeth to the throne. Her will was as imperious as that of her father. Her character was not without marked faults and foibles. She was vain, unwisely parsimonious, petulant, and overbearing, and evinced that want of truthfulness which was too common among rulers and statesmen at that period. But she had regal virtues, — high courage, devotion to the public good, for which she had the strength to sacrifice personal inclinations, together with the wisdom to choose astute counselors and to adhere to them. Her title to the throne was disputed. She had to contend against powerful and subtle adversaries. Her defense lay in the mutual jealousy of France and Spain, and in the determination of Englishmen not to be ruled by foreigners. Her reign was long and glorious. Her Religious Position. — In her doctrine, Elizabeth was a moderate Lutheran, not bitterly averse to the Church of Rome, but, in accordance with the prevalent English feeling which Henry VIII. represented, clinging to the royal supremacy. The Protes- tant system, with the Prayer-Book, and the hierarchy dependent on the sovereign, was now restored. Protestantism in Scotland. — In case Elizabeth'' s claim to the crown were overthrown, the next heir would be Mary, Queen of- Scots. Her grandmother was the eldest sister of Henry VIII. Her claim to the English crown was a standing menace to Eliza- beth. When Mary's father, ycz/;/j>e (1S30-1S48). LOUIS XIV.: THE GRAND ALLIANCE. 463 Another reason that Louis had for war was his determination to secure the archbishopric of Cologne for the bishop of Strasburg, a candidate of his own. In 1686 the League of Augsburg had been formed by the emperor with Sweden, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and the Palatinate, for defense against France. The Grand Alli- ance, in which England and Holland were included, was now made (1689). In the year before, by the advice of Louvois, the French had deliberately devastated the Palatinate, demolishing buildings, and burning cities and villages without mercy. The ruins of the Castle of Lieidelbe7g are a monument of this worse than vandal incursion, the pretext for which was a desire to pre- vent the invasion of France. In the war the English and Dutch fleets, under Admiral Russell, defeated the French, and burned their ships, at the battle of La Liogue (1692). This battle was a turning-point in naval history : " as at Lepanto," says Ranke, where the Turks were defeated (15 71), "so at La Hogue, the mastery of the sea passed from one side to the other." But in the Netherlands, where William III., the soul of the League, steadfastly kept the field, after being defeated by Luxemburg ; in Italy, where the Duke of Savoy was opposed by the Marshal Catinat ; and in a naval battle between the English and French zX. Lagos Bay, — the French commanders were successful. In 1695 William'' s troops besieged and captured the town of Namur. At length Louis was moved by the exhaustion of his treasury, and the stagnation of industry in France, to conclude the Peace of Ryswick with England, Spain, and Holland (1697). The Duke of Savoy had been detached from the alliance. Most of the conquests on both sides were restored. William III. was acknowledged to be king of England. In the treaty with the emperor, France retained Strasburg. William was a man of sterling worth, but he was a Dutchman, and was cold in his manners. The plots of the Jacob- ites, as the adherents of James were called, did more than any thing else to make him popular with his subjects. CHAPTER IL WAE, OP THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF UTKECHT, 1713); DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE: POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF ENGLAND. Occasion of the "War. — The death of Charles IL of Spain (1700) was followed by the War of the Spanish Succession. The desire of Louis to have his hands free in the event of Charles'' s death had influenced him in making the Treaty of 464 MODERN HISTORY. Ryswick. Charles had no children. It had been agreed in treaties, to which France was a party, that the Spanish monarchy should not be united either to Austria or to France ; and that Archduke Charles, second son of the Emperor Leopold I., should have Spain and the Indies. But Charles II. of Spain left a will making Louis's second grandson, Philip Duke of Anjou, the heir of all his domin- ions, with the condition annexed that the crowns of France and Spain should not be united. Instigated by dynastic ambition, Louis made up his mind to break the previous agreements, and seize the inheritance for Philip. Philip V. thus became king of Spain. On the death oi James II. (1701), Louis recognized his ^ox\. James, called "the Pretender," as king of Great Britain. This act, as a violation of the Treaty of Ryswick, and as an arrogant intermeddling on the part of a foreign ruler, excited the wrath of the English people, and inclined them to war. The Grand Alliance against France (1701) included the Empire, England, Holland, Brandenburg (or Prussia), and afterwards Portugal and Savoy (1703). France was supported by the electors of Bavaria and Cologne, and at first by Savoy. Williajn III. died in 1 702, and was succeeded by Anne, the sister of his deceased wife, and the second daughter oi Janies II. The following table will help to make clear the several claims to the Spanish succession : — Philip HI, King of Spain, 1598-1611. Louis XIII of France, ut. Anne. Fliilip IV, 1621-1655, Maria, jn. Emperor Ferdinand III. m. (2) Maria. Louis XIV, m. (x) Maria Charles II, Margaret Theresa, m. Emperor Leopold I, til. (3) Eleanor, daughter of Theresa. 1655-1700. Louis, the Dauphin. Elector Palatine. Philip of Anjou 2 Maximilian of Bavaria, w/. Maria Antonia. Joseph I, Charles VI. ^ (Philip V of Spain), | d. 1711. d. 1746. Joseph Ferdinand,' Electoral Prince of Bavaria. ' Recognized as heir of Charles II of Spain until his death. ~ Rival claimants for the Spanish crown after Charles II, the elder brother of each having resigned his pretensions. Events of the War. — In this war, there were displayed the military talents of two great generals, — the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy. Marlborough had two glaring faults. He was avaricious, and, like other prominent public men in Eng- land at that day, was double-faced. After deserting the service of James for that of William, he still kept up at times a corre- spondence with the exiled house. He was a man of stately and winning presence, a careful commander, in battle cool and self- WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 465 possessed. At the council board, he had the art of quietly com- posing differences by winning all to an adhesion to his own views. It is said of him, that he " never committed a rash act, and never missed an opportunity for striking an effective blow." Eugene, on his father's side, sprang from the house of Savoy. His mother was a niece of Mazaiin. He was brought up at the court of Louis XIV. ; but when the king repeatedly refused him a commission in the army, he entered the service of Austria, was employed in campaigns against the Turks, and rose to the highest distinction. Flattering offers from Louis XIV. he indignantly rejected. His career as a soldier was long and brilliant. The personal sympathy of Eugene and Marlbor-ough with each other was one important cause of their success. Eugene was first sent to Italy. There he drove Catinat, the French general, back on Milan, and cap- tured his successor in command, Villeroi (1702). After a drawn battle between Eugene and Vendonie (1702), a commander of much more skill than his predecessor, the French had the advan- tage in Italy. In 1703, Eugene czxa& to Germany, and Marlbor- ough invaded the Spanish Netherlands. In 1704 Marlborough carried out the plan of a grand campaign which he had devised. He crossed the Rhine at Cologne, moved southward, captured Donauworth, and drove the Bavarians across the Danube. The united forces of Marlborough and Eugene defeated the French and Bavarian armies at Blenheim (or Hochstadf), on the left bank of the river, with great slaughter. There were captured fifteen thousand French soldiers, with their general Tallard. This victory raised Marlborough'' s reputation, already great on account of his masterly conduct of his army, to the highest point. He was made a duke by Queen Anne, and a prince of the Empire by Leopold. In Spain, the English captured Gibraltar. Charles of Austria (who had assumed the title of Charles III, of Spain) conquered Madrid (i 706), but held it for only a short time. The country generally favored Philip; the arms of Vendome \vQxe \xi- umphant ; and Anj'ou, Catalonia, and Valencia had to submit to Castilian laws as the penalty of their adhesion to the Austrian cause. In 1706 Marlborough vanquished Villeroi at Ramillies, a village in the Netherlands, in a great battle in which the French army was routed, and their banners and war material captured. Netherlands now submitted to Austria. At Turin, Eugene gained a victory over an army of eighty thousand men ; and the fame of this modest and unpretending, but brave and skillful leader was now on a level with that of the English general. Lombardy sub- mitted to Charles III., and the French were excluded from Italy. Another victory of the two commanders at Oudenarde (1708) over Vendome and the Duke of Burgundy, broke down the hopes of Louis, and moved him to offer the largest concessions, which 466 MODERN HISTORY. embraced the giving up of Sti-ashui-g and of Spain. But the allies, flushed with success, went so far as to demand that he should aid in driving his grandson out of Spain. This roused France, as well as Loins himself, to another grand effort. At Malplaquet, in a bloody conflict, the French were again defeated by Marlborough and Eugene. To the Peace of Utrecht. — Circumstances now favored the vanquished and humbled king of France. The Whig ministry in England, which the victories of Marlborough had kept in office, fell from power (1710) ; and its enemies, and the enemies of Marlborough, were anxious to weaken him. Anne dismissed from her service the Duchess of Marlborough, a haughty woman of a violent temper. Harley, Earl of Oxford, and St. John, after- wards Viscount Bolingbroke, became the queen's principal minis- ters. They wished to end the war. The Y.\~n^tror Joseph (1705- 1711), who had succeeded Leopold /., died; so that Charles, if he had acquired Spain, would have restored the vast monarchy of Charles V., and brought in a new source of jealousy and alarm. Negotiations for peace began. Marlborough, who had been guilty of traitorous conduct, was removed from his com- mand, and deprived of all his offices (1712). In 1713 the Peace of Utrecht was concluded between England and France, in which Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal soon joined. It was fol- lowed by the Peace of Rastadt and Baden with the emperor (1714). Spain and Spanish America were left to Philip V., the Bourbon king, with the proviso that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. France ceded to England New- foundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay Territory. Spain ceded to England Gibraltar and Minorca. The Elector of Bran- denburg was recognized as King of Prussia. Savoy received the island of Sicily, which was exchanged seven years later for Sar- dinia, and for the title of king for the duke. Holland gained certain " barrier " fortresses on its border. Austria received the appanages of the Spanish monarchy, — the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Sa?'dinia, and Milan, but not Sicily. The emperor did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain. Last Days of Louis XIV. — In the next year after the peace, Louis XIV. died. Within two years (i 710-1 71 2) he had lost his son, his grandson the Duke of Burgundy (whom the pious Fene- lon had trained), his wife, and his eldest great-grandson, and, two years later (1714), his third grandson, the Duke of Berry. He left France overwhelmed with debt, its resources exhausted, its credit gone, its maritime power prostrate ; a land covered with poverty and wretchedness. This was the reward of lawless pride and ambition in a monarch who owed his strength, however, to the s)'^mpathy and subservience of the nation. FRANCE: ITALY. 467 Law's Bank. — During the minority of Louis XV. (1715-17 74) , Philip, Duke of Orleans, was regent, a man of extraordinary talents, but addicted to shameful debauchery. He led the king into the same evil courses. Influential with both was Cardinal Dubois, likewise a man of unprincipled character. The state was really bankrupt, when a Scottish adventurer and gambler, John Law, possessed of unusual financial talents, but infected with the econ- omical errors of the time, offered to rescue the national finances by means of a bank, which he was allowed to found, the notes of which were to serve as currency. Almost all the coined money flowed into its coffers ; its notes went everywhere in the kingdom, and were taken for government dues ; it combined with its busi- ness " the Mississippi scheme," or the control of the trade, and almost the sovereignty, in the Mississippi region \ it absorbed the privileges of the different companies for trading with the East ; finally it took charge of the national mint and the issue of coin, and of the taxation of the kingdom, and it assumed the national debt. The temporary success of the gigantic financial scheme turned the heads of the people, and a fever of speculation ran through all ranks. The crash came, the shares in the bank sunk in value, the notes depreciated ; and, in the wrath which ensued upon the gen- eral bankruptcy, Law, who had been honored and courted by the high and the low, fled from the kingdom. He died in poverty at Venice. The state alone was a gainer by having escaped from a great part of its indebtedness. Italy. — Before the middle of the eighteenth century, the Span- ish Bourbons again had possession of Naples and Sicily, besides other smaller Itahan states. Austria, besides holding Milan, was the virtual ruler of Ttiscany. Spain in Italy. — Philip V. was afflicted with a mental derangement peculiar to his family. The government was managed by the ambitious queen, Elizabeth of Parma, and the intriguing Italian, Alheroni, the minister in whom she confided. He sought to get back the Italian states lost by the Peace of Utrecht. But Sardinia and Sicily were restored when he was over- thrown, through the fear excited by the Quadrtcple Alliance of France, Eng- land, Austria, and Holland (17 18). Later, the queen succeeded in obtaining the kingdom oi Naples and Sicily for her oldest son, Don Carlos, under the name of Charles III. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, she gained for her second son, Philip (1735). When Charles succeeded to the Spanish throne (1759-1788), he left Naples and Sicily to his third son, Ferdina7zd. Austria in Italy. — The house of Savoy steadily advanced in power. By the Peace of Ryswick, Victor Amadeiis II. (167 5-1 730), among other gains, obtained the Duchy of Milan. He became " King of Sardinia " (1720). By him the University of Turin was founded, and the administration of jus- tice much improved. His next two successors carried forward this good work. Venice lost Morea to the Turks, but retained Corfu and her conquests in Dalmatia (17 18). Liberty was gone, and there were decay and conscious weakness in the once powerful republic. Genoa was coveted by Savoy, Austria, and France. The consequent struggles are the material of Genoese history for a long period. Corsica was oppressed, and Genoa called on France 468 MODERN HISTORY. to lend help in suppressing its revolt (1736). The Corsicans especially, under Paoli, defended themselves with such energy that France found its work of subjugation hard and slow (1755). The island was ceded to France by Genoa (1768). Milan, \i\xS\ Mantua, was Austrian, after the Peace of Utrecht (1713). Tuscany nVidi&x Ferdina7id II. (1628-1670) bestowed its treasure on Austria and Spain, and fell under the sway of ecclesiastics. Under Cosmo III. (1670-1723), the process of decline went on. After the death of the last of the Medici, John Gasto (1737), Tuscany was practically under the power of Austria, notwithstanding the stipulation that both states should not have the same ruler. It was governed by Francis Stephen (1738-1765), Duke of Lorraine, husband of the Empress Maria Theresa; and, when he became emperor {Francis I.), by his second son, Leopold (1765-1790). At Rome, Pope BtJtocent XI. (1679-1689) had many conflicts with Louis XVI, which came to an end under the well-meaning Innocent XII. (1691-1700). Contests arose on the part of Rome against the Bourbon courts respecting the Jesuit order, and with the forces adverse to the Church and the Papacy, in the clos- ing part of the eighteenth century. In 1735, the Emperor Charles VI. allowed that Naples and Sicily should be handed over, as a kingdom, to Don Carlos, the son of the Spanish Bourbon king, under the name of Charles III, by whom it was granted to his son Ferdinand IV. (1759). Close of Anne's Reign. — Anne's husband, Prince George of Denmark, had no influence, and deserved none. One of the im- portant events of her reign was the Union of England and Scotland in 1 707 (p. 46 1 ) . After the Tories came into power, the two leaders, Oxford and Bolingbroke, were rivals. An angry dispute between them hastened the queen's death (1714). One of the Tory measures, prompted by hostility to Dissenters, was a law forbidding any one to keep a school without a license from a bishop. ENGLAND. — HOUSE OF HANOVER. George I, 1714-1727, wz. Sophia Dorothea of Zell. George II, 1727-1760, m. Caroline, daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Anspach. I Frederick, Prince of Wales, d. 1751, in. Augusta of Saxe Gotha. L-, , Augusta, George III, 1760-1820, ■ni. Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick. vt. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Caroline tn, George IV, 1820-1830. William IV, Edward, Duke of Kent, d. 1820, 1830-1837. m. Victoria of Saxe Coburg. Victoria, succeeded 1837, m. Albert of Saxe Coburg. Reign of George I. — George J., the first king of the house of Hanover, could not speak English. His private life was immoral. His first ministers were Whigs. Bolingbroke and Oxford were im- peached, and fled the country. The " Fretetider,'" Ja?nes Edward (son oi Jajnes II.), with the aid of Tory partisans, endeavored to REIGN OF GEORGE 11. 469 recover the English crown. His standard was raised in the High- lands and in North England (1715), but this Jacobite rebellion was crushed. After the rebellion of 1715, a law was passed, which is still in force, allowing a Parliament to continue for the term of seven years. A second conspiracy in 1 7 1 7 had the same fate. England had an experience analogous to that of France with Law, with the South Sea Company, which had a monopoly of trade with the Spanish coasts of South America. A rage for specula- tion was followed by a panic. The estates of the directors of the company were confiscated by Parliament for the benefit of the losers. Robert Walpole was made first minister, a place which he held under George I. and George II. for twenty-one years. William and Anne had attended the meetings of the Cabinet. Geo7'ge /., who could not speak English, staid away. From this time, one of the ministers was called the " prime minister." The Reign of George II. — George H. was systematic in his ways, frugal, willful, and fond of war. In his private life, he followed the evil ways of his father. Walpole^ s influence was predominiint. The clever Queen Caroline lent him her support. Walpole re- luctantly entered into war with Spain (1739), on account of the measures adopted by that power to prevent English ships from carrying goods, in violation of the treaty of Utrecht, to her South American colonies. The principal success of England was the taking of Porto Bello by Admiral Vernon. When the war was declared, the people expressed their joy by the ringing of bells. " They are ringing the bells now," said Walpole : " they will be wringing their hands soon." The blame for the want of better success in the war was laid on the prime minister, and he was driven to resign. Then followed the ministry of the Pel/iams, Henry Pelham and the Duke of New- castle, who, like Walpole, managed Parliament by bribing the members through the gift of offices. In the war of the Austrian succession (1741), England took part with Austria, and the king in person fought in Germany. In I 745 Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the young Pretender (whose father, the old Pretender, styled Mvm&oM James III), landed in the Highlands. The Highlanders defeated the English at Preston Pans, near Edinburgh. The Pretender marched into England as far as Derby, at the head of the Jacobite force, but had to turn back and retreat to Scotland. The contest was decided by the victory of the English under the Duke of Cumberland, at Culloden (1746), which was attended by an atrocious slaughter of the wounded. Culloden was the last battle fought in behalf of the Stuarts. Nearly eighty Jacobite conspirators, one of whom was an octogenarian, Lord Lovat, were executed as traitors. These Jacobites were the last persons who were beheaded in England. The Pretender wandered in the Highlands and Western Islands for 470 MODERN HISTORY. five months, under different disguises. He was concealed and aided by a Scottish lady, Flora Macdonald. Then he escaped to the Continent, where he led a miserable and dissipated life, and died in 1 788. His brother Henry, Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts in the male line, died in 1807. CHAPTER III. THE GEEAT NORTHERN W^AR: THE PALL OP SWEDEN: GROWTH OP THE POW^ER OF RUSSIA, Sweden. — The eventful epoch in the history of Sweden, in this period, is the reign of Charles XII. (169 7-1 718). At his acces- sion, when he was only sixteen years old, Sweden ruled the Baltic. Its army was strong and well disciplined. What is now Si. Petei's- burg was a patch of swampy ground in Swedish territory, where a few fishermen lived in their huts. The youth of Charles was pro- phetic of his career. In doors, he read the exploits of Alexander the Great ; out of doors, gymnastic sports and the hunting of the bear were his favorite diversions. He became an adventurous warrior after the type of Alexander. His rashness and obstinacy occasioned at last the downfall of his country. Three great powers, Russia, Poland, and Denmark, with the support of Patkitl, a dis- affected Livonian subject of Sweden, joined in an attack on the youthful monarch (1699). Patkul,vf)\o was a patriot, unable to secure the rights of Livonia, and condemned as a rebel, had entered the service of the Elector Augustus of Saxony, v/ho was king of Poland. There were territories belonging to Sweden which each of the confederates coveted. Frederick IV. of Den- mark expected to incorporate Sweden itself in his dominions. Russia : Peter the Great. — The first ruler of the house of Roi7ianoff, which has raised Russia to its present rank, was Michael (1613-1645). Under Alexis, his son (1645-1676), important conquests were made from the Poles, and the Cossacks acknowl- edged the sovereignty of the Czar. The principal founder of Russian civilization was Peter the Great (1682-1725). Through the machinations of his half-sister Sophia, who contrived to get the armed aid of the streltzi, — the native militia, — he had to share the throne with a half-brother, Ivan, who was older than himself, and lived until 1696. Sophia pushed aside Peter's mother, and grasped the reins of power. Peter learned Latin, German, and Dutch, and acquired much knowledge of various sorts. As he grew older, his life was in danger ; but at the age of seventeen, he was able to crush his enemies (1689). Sophia, who was at THE NORTHERN WAR. 47 1 their head, he shut up in a monastery for the remainder of her days. From Lefort, a Swiss, and other foreigners, Peter derived information about foreign lands, and was led to visit them in order to instruct himself, and to introduce into his own country the arts and inventions of civilized peoples. He invited into Russia artisans, seamen, and officers from abroad. He traveled through Germany and Holland to England, and with his own hands worked at ship-building at the dock-yards of Zaandam (near Amsterdam) and Deptford. On his way to Venice, he was called home by a revolt of the streltzi, which he put down. He was unsparing in his vengeance, and, despite his veneer of cul- ture, never got rid of his innate barbarism. Azoffhe conquered, and it was ceded to him by the Turks in the Peace of Carlowitz (1699). Then his ambitious thoughts turned to the Baltic, for he was bent on making Russia a naval power. He formed a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland against Sweden. Condition of Poland. — In 1697 Frederick Augustus 11. , — Augustus the Strong, — Duke of Saxony, was elected king of Poland : he became a Roman Catholic that he might get the crown. But the Polish nobles took care to increase their power, which was already far too great to be compatible with unity or order. Under the anarchical but despotic nobility and higher clergy, stood the serfs, embracing nine-tenths of the whole popu- lation, who were without protection against the greed and tyranny of their lords. Events of the Northern "War. — The Danes first attacked the territory of Holstein Gottorp, whose duke had married the sister of Charles XII. William III. of England supported Sweden. The Anglo-Dutch fleet came to Charles's assistance. He landed his troops in Zealand. The Danes gave up their alliance, and sued for peace. Europe was now astonished to discover that the Swedish king was an antagonist to be feared. In the field he shared the hardships of the common soldier, and was as brave as a lion. Chai'les now attacked the Russian army before Narva, in Livonia. With the Swedish infantry he stormed the camp of the Russians, and routed their army, which was much larger in num- bers than his own (1700). He then raised the siege oi Riga, which the Poles and Saxons were besieging, having first defeated their troops on the Dwina. These brilliant successes might have enabled Charles to conclude peace on very advantageous terms. But he lacked moderation. He was as passionate in his public conduct as Peter the Gtrat was in his private life. He was re- solved to dethrone Augustus in Poland. After the battle of Clis- son (1703), he occupied that country, and made the Diet give the crown to Stanislas Lesczitiski, the Palatine of Posen. To prevent Russia and Saxony from uniting against the new king, Charles 472 MODERN HISTORY, carried the war into Saxony, and forced Augustus, in the Peace of Altranstddt, to renounce his claim to the Polish crown, and to surrender Patkul, the rebel, who had become a subject of Russia, whom he put to death with circumstances of cruelty. In 1 703 Peter laid the foundations of the new city of St. Petersburg. But, a few years later, Russia was invaded by Charles, who in 1 708 almost captured the Czar at Grodno, defeated his army near Smo- lensk, and was expected to advance to Moscow. But the impru- dent Swede turned southward into the district of the Ukraine, there to be joined by Mazeppa, the " hetman " of the Cossacks, who led them in revolt against Peter. Mazeppa was able, however, to bring him but few auxiliaries. The harshness of the winter, and other untoward events, weakened the Swedish force. The battle oi Pultowa (1709) was a great victory for the Czar. Charles escaped with difficulty to Turkey. There he remained for three years, supported with his retinue, at Bender, by the Sultan. His object was to bring about a war between the Sultan and the Czar. He so far succeeded that Peter, when surrounded on the Pruth by Turkish troops, was rescued only by the courage and energy of Catherine, the mistress whom he afterwards married. Charles was finally obliged to leave Turkey, after being exposed to immi- nent peril in an attack by the janizaries, who stormed his camp and took him captive. With a few attendants, riding by day and sleeping in a cart or carriage by night, he journeyed back to Swe- den, and arrived at Stralsund ( 1 714) . The hostile allies, together with Hanover and P?'ussia, were once more in array against him. Baron von Gortz, a German, became his principal adviser. He negotiated a peace with Peter, of whom the other allies were be- ginning to be jealous. Charles'" s plan was to invade Nonvay, then' to land in Scotland, and, with the help of Spain and of the Jacob- ites, to restore the Stuarts to the English throne. While besie- ging Fi'iedrichshall, a fortress in Norway, he exposed himself near the trenches, and was killed by a bullet (1718). It was long a question whether the fatal shot was fired from the enemy or by an assassin. Not until 1859 was it settled, by an examination of the skull, that the gun was discharged from the fortress. Results of the "War. — One result of the Northern war was the execution of Gortz, to whom the Swedish aristocracy were inimi- cal, and a reduction of the king's authority. Hanover received Bremen and Verden ; Prussia, the largest part of Pomerania ; Sweden gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound. Augustus was recognized as king of Poland. Russia, by the Peace of Nystadt (1721), obtained Livonia, Esthonia, Inger- mannland, and a part of Carelia, but restored Finlatid. Sweden no longer had a place among the great powers. The place that Sweden had held was now taken by Russia. RUSSIA. 473 Changes in Russia. — The Czar, Peter, took the title of em- peror. He transferred the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg. By constructing canals, roads, and harbors, he promoted trade and commerce. By fostering manufactures and the mechanic arts, and by opening the mines, he increased the wealth of the country. He altered the method of government, making the ukases, or edicts, emanate from the sole will of the emperor. He abolished the dignity of Patriarch, making the Holy Synod, of which the Czar is president, the supreme ecclesiastical authority. Peter made a second journey through Germany, Holland, and France (1716). His son Alexis, who allied himself with a reactionary party that aimed to reverse the Czar's policy, he finally caused to be tried for treason. He was condemned, but died either from the bodily torture inflicted on him to extort confession, or, as many have believed, by poison, or other means, used by the direction of his father. His friends, after being barbarously tortured, were put to death. Great as was the work of Peter, " he brought Russia prematurely into the circle of European politics. The result has been to turn the rulers of Russia away from home affairs, and the regular development of internal institutions, to foreign politics and the creation of a great military power." In his last years, the frugality of his own way of living in his new capital was in striking contrast with the splendor with which his queen, Cat/ieritie, preferred to surround herself. He died at the age of fifty-three, in consequence of plun- ging into icy water to save a boat in distress. The document called " The Testament of Peter the Great," which explains what has to be done in order that Russia may conquer all Europe, is not genuine. It is first heard of in 1812, in a book published by Lesur, probably by direction of Napoleon I. " Lesur's book," says Mr. E. Schuyler, " was merely a pamphlet to justify the invasion of Russia by Napoleon." (Schuyler's LiXe of Peter the Great, vol. ii. p. 512.) 474 MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER IV. "WAR OP THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION; GROWTH OP THE POWER OP PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OP POLAND. The Pragmatic Sanction. — On the death of Augustus II., there were two competitors for the Pohsh crown, — his son, Augustus III. of Saxony, and Stanislaus Lesczinski whom France supported. After a contest, by the consent of the Emperor Charles VI. , Lesczinski, whose daughter had married Louis XV., obtained the duchy of Lorraine, which thus became a possession of France (1735). In return, the emperor's son-in-law, Francis Stephen (afterwards Francis /.), was to have Tuscany; and France, in connection with the other powers, assented to the Pragmatic Sanction, according to which the hereditary possessions of Austria were to descend intact in the female line. It was expected that the empire would pass along with them. Prussia: Frederick William I. — In 161 1 the duchy of Prussia and the mark or electorate of Brandetiburg were joined together. The duchy was then a fief of Poland. But under the Great Elect- or, ivrc/ifr/V/e William (i 640-1 688), this relation of the duchy to Poland ended. By him the military strength of the electorate was increased. Frederick, his son (1688-1713), with the emperor's license, took the title of King of Prussia {Frederick /.). He built up the city of Berlin, and encouraged art and learning. King Frederick William I. (i 713-1740), unlike his predecessor, was exceedingly frugal in his court. He was upright and just in his principles, but extremely rough in his ways, and governed his own household, as well as his subjects generally, with a Spartan rigor. Individuals whom he met in the street, whose conduct or dress he thought unbecoming, he did not hesitate to scold, and he even used his cane to chastise them on the spot. He cared nothing for literature : artists and players were his abomination. He favored industry, and was a friend of the working-class. Every thing was done with despotic energy. He disciplined the military force of Prussia, and gathered at Potsdam a regiment of tall guards, made up of men of gigantic height, who were brought together from all quarters. He left to his son, Frederick II. (i 740-1 786), a strong army and a full treasury. Character of Frederick the Great. — Young Frederick had no sympathy with his father's austere ways. The strict system of training arranged for him, in which he was cut oif from Latin and from other studies for which he had a taste, his time all par- celed out, and a succession of tasks rigorously ordained for him, he found a yoke too heavy to bear. Once he attempted to escape to the court of his uncle, George II. of England ; but the scheme WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 475 was discovered, and the incensed father was strongly inclined to execute the decree of a court-martial, which pronounced him worthy of death. Frederick, from the window of the place where he was confined, saw Katte, his favorite tutor, who had helped him in his attempt at flight, led to the scaffold, where he was hanged. In the later years of the old king, the relations of father and son were improved. The prince had for his abode the little town of Rheinsberg, where he could indulge, with a circle of con- genial friends, in the studies and amusements to which he was par- tial. He grew up with a strong predilection for French literature, and for the French habits and fashions — free-thinking in reli- gion included — which were now spreading over Europe. On his accession to the throne, Fr'ede7-ick broke up the Potsdam regiment of giants, and called back to Halle the philosopher Wolf, whom his father had banished. Frederick was visited by Voltaire, who at a later day took up his abode for a time with him in Berlin. But the king was fond of banter, and the foibles of each of these com- panions were a target for the unsparing wit of the other ; so that eventually they parted company with mutual disgust. Later they resumed their correspondence, and never wholly lost their intel- lectual sympathy with each other. As a soldier, Frederick had not the military genius of the greatest captains. He applied supe- rior talents to the discharge of the duties of a king, and to the business of war. He was cool, knew how to profit by his errors and to repair his losses, and to press forward in the darkest hour. Napoleon said of him that " he was great, especially at critical moments." War of the Austrian Succession. — Charles VI. was succeeded, in 1740, by his daughter Maria Theresa, who united in her char- acter many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a sovereign. Notwithstanding the pragmatic sanction by which all the Austrian lands were to be hers, different princes deemed the occasion favor- able for seizing on the whole, or on portions, of her inheritance. Chai'les, elector of Bavaria, claimed to be the lawful heir, and was aided by France, which was afraid of losing Lorraine if Maria Theresa's husband, Francis Stephen, should become emperor. Augustus III. of Poland was a participant in the plot. Frederick II. of Prussia claimed Silesia, and, after defeating the Austrians at Mohoitz (1741), seized the greater part of that district. Soon after, the French and Bavarians overran Austria. The Bavarian elector was chosen emperor. Even the elector of Hanover {George II. of England) engaged not to assist the empress. The claims to Austria were as follows : — Atigustiis III., king of Saxony, and Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, had married daughters of the Emperor Joseph [ (the brother and predecessor of Charles VI.). The wife of Charles Albert was the yoitiiger daughter; but he appealed to an alleged provision in the will of the Emperor Ferdinand /., according to which the posterity of his daughter Anna 4/6 MODERN HISTORY. (who married a Bavarian duke) was to inherit the duchy of Austria and Bohemia, in case his ■male descendants should die out. It was not to tlie inale descendants, but to the legitimate descendants, however, that the will referred. The Bojirbojis in France and Spain seized the occasion to regain the possessions of Spain lost in the Peace of Utrecht (p. 466). Francis Joseph, the husband of Maria Theresa, it was feared, might seek to gel back Lorraine from France (p. 474). Spain was anxious to recover Milan. Philip V. of Spain claimed the Aus- trian possessions on the basis of certain stipulations of Charles V. and Philip III. in the cession of them. To weaken the Austrian house in Germany, was an aim of France. The courts of France and Spain were ready, on all these grounds, to support Charles of Bavaria. They were ready, also, to support Frederick II. in legal claims which he set up to a portion of Silesia. The empress rejected the offer of Frederick to defend Austria if she would give up this territory. Spirit of the Empress : Cession of Silesia. — Maria Thefesa proved herself a Minerva. She threw herself for support on her Hungarian subjects, who responded with loyal enthusiasm to her appeal made at the Diet of Presburg. Her forces drove the Ba- varian and French troops before them in Austria, entered Bavaria, and captured Munich. Reluctantly the queen, in the Peace of Breslau (1742), ceded Silesia to Frederick, in order to lessen the number of her antagonists. She was crowned (1743) in Prague, and at length gained an ally in Geoige 11. of England. The " Pragmatic Army," as it was called, defeated the French under Marshal Noailles at Dcttingen. Sardinia and Saxony \ovi\t^ the Austrian alliance. To the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. — These events widened the dimensions of the contest. France declared war directly against England and Austria. Frederick II. of Prussia was now the ally of France, and began the second Silesian war. He took Prague, but, being deserted by the French, was driven back into Saxony. The son of Charles Albert of Bavaria, Afaximilian Joseph, made peace with Austria, — the Peace of Filssen, — promising to give his vote to Francis, the husband of Maria Theresa, for the office of emperor. Francis (i 745-1 765) was crowned at Frankfort. Victories in Saxony on the side of Frederick led to the Treaty of Dresden, which left Silesia in his hands ( 1 745 ) . The most of the English army went back to England to fight the Pretender. The war went on in the Netherlands and in Italy, and between France and England ; the English being victors on the sea under Afison (1747), while the French were generally successful on the land. The peace oi Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) provided for a reciprocal restoration of all conquests : Silesia was given to Prussia, and the Pragmatic Saiiction was sustained in Austria. Alliance against Frederick. — Frederick the Great used the next eight years in doing what he could to encourage industry and to increase the prosperity and resources of Prussia, at the same time that he strengthened his military force. Prussia had evinced so much power in the late conflicts as to be an object of envy and apprehension. Maria Theresa was anxious to recover Silesia. Frederick had a foe in Elizabeth, empress of Russia, whose per- sonal vices he made a subject of sarcastic remark, and who, be- THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 477 sides, coveted Prussian provinces on the Baltic. An alliance was formed between Rjissia and Austria. This was joined by Saxony, and by Frajice ; since Louis XV. was induced by the Marchioness of Pompadour, his mistress, whom Frederick's plainness of speech had offended, to depart from the French traditional policy, and to unite with Austria. The only ally of Frederick was George II. of England, which was then engaged in a contest with France respect- ing the American colonies (1756). The Seven Years' War. — Thus arose the Seven Years' War. Frederick, secretly informed of the plans of his enemies, anticipated their action by invading Saxony and capturing Dresden (1756). At Lobositz he defeated the Austrians, and captured eighteen thousand Saxon troops. He had now to encounter the military strength of the various nations opposed to him. With the bulk of his forces he marched into Bohemia, and gained a great but costly victory at /'/'(2^//^ (i757)' For the next six months, suc- cesses and reverses alternated ; but before the end of the year (1757) Frederick won two of his most famous triumphs, — one at Rossbach, over the French and the Imperialists ; and the other over the Austrians, at Leuthen. Frederick was now admired as a hero in England, and was furnished by the elder William Pitt, who had succeeded Newcastle, with money and troops. In 1758 the Prussians vanquished the Russians at Zor^idorf, but were, in turn, a few months later, defeated by them at Hochkirch. Of the numerous battles in this prolonged war, in which the mihtary talents of Frederick were so strikingly shown, it is possible to refer only to a few of the most important. He was defeated by the united Austrians and Russians at Ku?iersdorf; and so completely that he was for the moment thrown into despair, and wrote to his minister, Fi?ikenstei?i, "All is lost." In 1760 Berlin was surprised and burned by the Russians ; but Frederick soon defeated the Austrians at Liegnitz and Toigau. In 1761, however, his situation was in the highest degree perilous. His resources were apparently exhausted. Spain joined the ranks of his enemies. He faced them all with determined resolution, but he confessed in his private letters that his hopes were gone. End of the "War. — At this time there was a turn of events in his favor. In Russia, Peter III, who succeeded Elizabeth, was an admirer of Frederick, — so much so that he wore a Prussian uni- form, — and hastened to conclude a peace and alliance with him (1762). Peter was soon dethroned and killed by Russian nobles ; and his queen and successor, Catherine II., recalled the troops sent to Frede?'ick's aid. Nevertheless, they helped him to a victory over the Austrians, under the command of Daun, at Burkersdorf (1762). Austria, too, was exhausted and ready for peace. The negotiations between England and France, which ended in the 478 MODERN HISTORY. Peace of Paris (1763), made it certain that the French armies would evacuate Germany. Prussia and Austria agreed to the Peace of Hitbertshurg, by which Prussia retained Silesia, and promised her vote for the Archduke Joseph, son of Maria Theresa, as king of Rome and successor to the empire (1763). Position of Prussia. — Joseph II. succeeded his father as em- peror in 1765, and was associated by his mother, Maria Theresa, in the government of her hereditary dominions. From the con- clusion of the Seven Years' War, Prussia took her place as one of the five great powers of Europe. The British Indian Empire. — It was during this period that the empire of the British in India grew up out of the mercantile settlements of a trading corporation, the East India Cot?ipany. The result was effected after a severe struggle with the French. After the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Mughal empire at Delhi declined. Insubordinate native princes admitted only a nominal control over them. The effect of successive Mahratta and Afghan invasions was such, that when England and France went to war in Europe, in 1745, India was broken up into different sovereignties, to say nothing of the great number of petty chief- tains who were practically independent. Pondicherry was the chief French settlement. There was a perpetual struggle between the French and English, even when the two nations at home were at peace. In 1756 Calcutta was taken from the English by the Nabob of Bengal, and many Englishmen died in the close room of the military prison in which they were shut up, — " the Black Hole." In 1757 Clive defeated a great army of the natives, with whom were a few French, in the decisive battle of Plassey. He had previously shown his indomitable courage in the seizure of Arcot, and in its defense against a host of besiegers. The victory at Plassey secured the British supremacy, which gradually extended itself over the country. The various local sovereignties became like Roman provinces. On the death of Clive, Warren Hastings was made governor-general (1772). After his recall, he was im- peached (1788), on charges of cruelty and oppression in India, and his trial by the House of Lords did not end until seven years after it began. He was then acquitted. Among the conductors of the impeachment on the part of the House of Commons, were the celebrated orators Ed^nund Burke and Richa^'d Brinsley Sheridan. In 1784 the power of the East-India Company had been restricted by the establishment of the Board of Control. Up to that time the Indian Empire, made up of dependent and subject states, had been governed by the sole authority of the company. Catherine II. of Russia. — Catheriiie II. (i 762-1 796) in her private life was notoriously dissolute. If she did not connive at the assassination of her husband, Peter III., she heaped gifts upon PARTITION OF POLAND. 479 his murderers. In her policy, she aimed to strengthen Russia, especially towards the sea. This occasioned successful conflicts with the Turks. The Partition of Poland. — At first inimical to Frederick the Great, Catherine afterwards made an alliance with him. She com- pelled the election of one of her lovers, Poniatowski, to the throne of Poland. Poland was mainly Catholic ; and the Confederation of Bar (1768), made by the Poles to prevent the toleration of Greek Christians and Protestants, was defeated by a Russian army, and broken up. The Turks were worsted in the war which they made in defense of the confederacy. As one result, Russia gained a firm footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea (1774). The "free veto," oppression of the peasantry, their distress, and the general want of union and public spirit, had reduced Poland to a miserable condition. Catherine, however, favored no reforms there looking to an improvement in the constitution. She preferred to prolong the anarchy and confusion. She wished to make the death of Poland in part a suicide. At length she invited Prussia and Austria to take part with her in the first seizure and partition of Pohsh territory (1772). Each took certain provinces. In 1792 the second, and in 1795 the final partition of Poland, was made by its three neighbors. The capture of Warsaw, and the defeat of the national rising under Kosciusko, obliterated that ancient kingdom from the map of Europe. It should be said tliat a large part of the territory that Russia acquired had once been Russian, and was inhabited by Greek Christians. By the division of Poland, Russia was brought into close contact with the Western powers. The Crimea was incorporated with Russia in 1 783. After a second war, provoked by her, with the Turks, who now had the Austrians to help them, the Russian boundaries through the Treaty of Jassy (1792) were carried to the Dniester. CHAPTER V. CONTEST OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA: "WAR OP AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. In this period the United States of America achieved their independence, and began their existence as a distinct nation. The English Colonies. — The English colonies south of Canada had become thirteen in number. In the southern part of what was called Carohna, Charleston was settled in 16S0. More than a century before (1562), a band of Huguenots under Ribault had .go MODERN HISTORY. entered the harbor of Port Royal, and given this name to it, and had built a fort on the river May, which they called Charlesfort the Carolina — in honor of King Charles IX. of France. In 1663 the territory thus called, south of Virginia, was granted to the Earl of Clarendon. In it were two distinct settlements in the northern part. The English philosopher /(7/^« Locke drew up a constitution for Carolina, which was abandoned in 1693. The riirhts of the proprietors were purchased by George II. ; and the region was divided (1729) into two royal provinces, TV,?;-//? and South Carolina, each province having a governor appointed by the king, and an assembly elected by the people. Besides the Eno-lish, Huguenots and emigrants from the North of Ireland, as welt as from Scodand, planted themselves in South Carolina. Georgia was settled hy James Oglethorpe, who made his setdement at Savannah. He had a charter from George II., in whose honor the region was named ( 1 733) • Soon the " trustees " gave up their charter, and the government was shaped like that of the other colonies (i 754)- John Wesley, afterwards the founder of Method- ism, sojourned for a time in Georgia. The setdement of New Jersey was first made by members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, sent over by William Pcnn, the son of an English ad- rrilral, and familiar at court. The Quakers gave up the government to the crown, and from 1 702 to 1 738 it formed one province with New York. Pennsylvania was granted to Penn himself, by the king, in discharge of a claim against the crown. Penn procured also a title to Delaware. He sent out emigrants in 1681, and the next year came himself. By him Philadelphia was founded. He dealt kindly with all the settlers, and made a treaty of peace and amity with the Indians. The government organized by Penn was just and liberal. In 1 703 the inhabitants of Delaware began to have a governing assembly of their own. The French Colonies. — Among the French explorers in Amer- ica, La Salle is one of the most famous. Having traversed the region of the upper lakes, he reached the Mississippi, and floated in his boats down to its mouth (1681). The region of the great river and of its tributaries, he named Louisiana, in honor of his king, Louis XIV. This name was applied to the whole region from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. On his return. La Salle built Fort St. Louis. Afterwards (1687) he took part in an expedidon from France which had for its purpose the build- ing of a fort at the mouth of the Mississippi, but which was so wrongly guided as to land on the coast of Texas. La Salle himself perished, while seeking to find his way to Canada. But a French settlement was made near the mouth of the river (1699), and a connection established by a series of forts with Canada. ENGLISH AND FRENCH WAR IN AMERICA. 48 1 On the orinciple that the country belonged to the explorer, Spain claimed „?u cwhern part of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. ^'L Frei^ch claim stretched from the coast of Nova Scotia westward to the A ,; rTkes and embraced the valley of the Mississippi to its mouth. Eng- , / Haimed the country from Labrador as far south as Florida, and west- d to the Pacific. This region included within it the claims of the Dutch, founded on the discoveries of Henry Hudson. War between England and France, whenever it occurred, was attended with conflicts bet^veen the EngHsh and the French settle- ments in America. The Indians were most of them on the side of the French. But the fierce L-oquois in central New York, who wished to monopolize the fur-trade, were hostile to them. A mas- sacre perpetrated by these at La Chine, nezx Montreal {i6?>()), provoked a murderous attack of French and Indians upon the settlement at Schenectady, the most northern post of the English. Two wars followed, — X/«^ William's War {iGg-j), and Queen Anne's War (1702-17 13). Deerfield in Massachusetts was cap- tured and destroyed by French and Indians (1704). By an expedition fitted out in Massachusetts, and commanded by Sir William Phipps, Port Royal'm. Nova Scotia was captured (1710). The colonies incurred great expense in fitting out expeditions (1709 and 171 1 ) against Canada, which were abandoned. The contest between France and England for supremacy in America was further continued in a series of conflicts lasting from 1 744 for nearly twenty years. An early event of much consequence in the contest known as Ki7ig George's PKar, — a part of the war of the Austrian succession (p. 476), — was the capture oi Lcuisburg, an important fortified place on Cape Breton, by an expedition from Boston ( 1 745 ) . The colonists, who were with reason proud of their achievement, had the mortification to see this place re- stored to the French in the treaty of peace (1748). In these contests the French had the help of their Indian allies, who fell upon defenseless villages. The English were sometimes aided by the Iroquois. The English founded Halifax (1749). The "Old French War" (1756-1763). — The " Old French and Indian War " in America was a part of the Seven Years' War in Europe. A British officer, Gen. Braddock, led a force which departed from Fort Cumberland in Maryland, against Fort Du Quesne at the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers. Disregarding the advice of George Washington, who was on his staff, he allowed himself to be surprised by the Indians and the French, and was mortally wounded. The remains of his army were led by Wasliington, whose courage and presence of mind had been conspicuous, to Philadelphia (1755). Prior to the ex- pedition, Washington had made a perilous journey as envoy, to demand of the French commander his reasons for invading the Ohio valley. The English held Nova Scotia, and expelled from 482 MODERN HISTORY. their homes the French Acadians, seven thousand in number, in a way that involved severe hardships, including the separation of families (1755). They were carried off in ships, and scattered among the colonies along the Atlantic shore. The English also took the forts in Acadia. There were two battles near Lake George (1755), ^'^ ^^ fi'^st of which the French were victors, but in the second they were routed. Montcalm, the French com- mander, captured the English fort near Oswego, from which an expedition was to have been sent against the French fort at Niagara (1756). In 1757 he took Fort William He my on. Lake George. The Campaigns of 1758 and 1759. — The English were dissat- isfied at their want of success on the Continent and in America. But they had advantages for prosecuting the conflict. The French, who had been successful at the outset, .had to bring their troops and supplies from Europe. They were, to be sure, disciplined troops ; but the English had the substantial strength which was derived from the prosperous agriculture, and still more from the brave and self-respecting spirit, of their American colonies. The elder William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, again entered the cabinet, and began to manage the contest (1757). The French held posts at important points, — Fort Du Quesne, where Pitts- burg now stands, for the defense of the West ; Crown Point and Ti- conderoga on Lake Champlain, guarding the approach to Canada ; Niagara, near the Great Lakes and the region of the fur- trade ; and Louisburg, on the coast of Nova Scotia, which protected the fish- eries, and was a menace to New England. To seize these posts, and to break down the French power in America, was now the aim of the English. In 1758 an expedition of Gen. Abercrom- bie, at the head of sixteen thousand men, against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, was repulsed ; Lord Howe was killed, and the army retreated. Loz/isburg, to the joy of the colonies, was cap- tured anew by Lord Amherst (1758). Fort Du Quesne was taken (1758), and named Fort Pitt ; Fo7't Fronfetiac on Lake Ontario was destroyed. The object of the campaign of 1759 was the conquest of Canada. Fort Niagara was captured by Sir Wil- liam Johnston (1759). Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken, and the French driven into Canada. Then came the great expe- dition under Major-Gen. Wolfe, a most worthy and high-spirited young officer, which left Louisburg for the capture of Quebec, " the Gibraltar of America." The attempt of Wolfe to storm the heights in front of the city, which were defended by the army of Montcalm, failed of success. From a point far up the river, he embarked a portion of his troops in the night, and, silently de- scending the stream, climbed the heights in the rear of the city, and intrenched himself on the " Plains of Abraham." In the THE AMERICAN COLONIES. 483 battle which took place in the morning, both commanders, Wolfe and Montcalm, were mortally wounded. Wolfe lived just long enough to be assured of victory ; Montcalm died the next day. Five days after the battle the town surrendered (1759). An incident connected with Wolfe's approach by night to Quebec is thus given by Mr. Parktnan: "For full two hours the procession of boats, borne on the current, steered silently down the St. Lawrence. The stars were visible, but the night was moonless and sufficiently dark. The gen- eral was in one of the foremost boats ; and near him was a young midship- man, John Robison, afterwards professor of natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. He used to tell in his later life how Wolfe, with a low voice, repeated Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard to the officers about him. Among the rest, was the verse which his fate was soon to illustrate, — ' The paths of glory lead but to the grave.' " 'Gentlemen,' he said, as his recital ended, ' I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec' None were there to tell him that the hero is greater than^the poet." (Afontcalm and Wolfe, p. 287.) In the following year Montreal and all Catiada were in the hands of the English. The English coloiiies were safe. It was decided that English, not French, should be spoken in aftertimes on the banks of the Ohio. In the Peace of Paris (1763), France kept Louisiana, but had already ceded it to Spain (1762). Conspiracy of Pontiac. — The Indians in the West were dis- satisfied with the transference of Canada and the region of the Lakes to England. Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, combined a large number of tribes, and kindled a war against the English, which spread from the Mississippi to Canada ( 1 763) . He captured eight forts, but failed to take Detroit and Fort Pitt. Three years passed before the Indians were completely beaten, and a treaty of peace concluded with their leader (1766). State of the Colonies : Population. — At the close of the French war, the population of the thirteen colonies probably exceeded two millions, of whom not far from one fourth were negro slaves. The number of slaves in New England was small. They were proportionately much more numerous in New York, but they were found principally in the Southern colonies. Quakers were always averse to slavery. The slave-trade was still kept up. Newport in Rhode Island was one of the ports where slave-ships frequently discharged their cargoes. Government. — The forms of government in the different colo- nies varied. All of them had their own legislative assemblies, and regarded them as essential to their freedom. Under Charles II., the charter Avhich secured to Massachusetts its civil rights was annulled (1684). X^wAtx James II., the attempt was made to revoke all the New-England charters. Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of New England, and by him the new system 484 MODERN HISTORY. began to be enforced. The revolution of 1688 restored to the colonies their privileges ; but Massachusetts (with which Plymouth was now united), under its new charter (1702), no longer elected its governor. Prior to the Revolution, there were three forms of government among the colonies. Proprietary governments (that is, government by owners or proprietors) still remained in Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Maryland. In these the king appointed no officers except in the customs and admiralty courts. In Rhode Island and Connecticut, which like Massachusetts retained their charters, the governors were chosen by the people. New Hamp- shire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and South Carolina, had royal or provincial governments : the governor and council were appointed by the king. Occupations. — The chief occupation of the colonists was agri- culture. In the North, wheat and corn were raised. From Virginia and Maryland, great crops of tobacco were exported from the plantations, in English ships which came up the Potomac and the James. Rice was cultivated in the Carolinas. Indigo was also raised. Cotton was grown in the South. Labor in the fields in the Southern colonies was performed by the negroes. Building of ships was a profitable occupation on the coast of New England. The cod and other fisheries also gave employment to many, and proved a school for the training of seamen. The colonists were industrious and prosperous, but generally frugal and plain in their style of living. Education and Religion. — Common schools were early estab- lished by law in New England, and by the Dutch in New York. As Mr. Bancroft well observes, " He that will understand the po- litical character of New England in the eighteenth century must study the constitution of its towns, its congregations, its schools, and its militia." Harvard College was founded in 1636 ; William and Mary, in 1693 ; Yale, in 1700. Eighteen years after the land- ing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, a printing-press was set up at Cambridge. In 1 704 the first American newspaper, " The Boston News Letter," was established. In the Puritan colonies, the minds of the people were quickened intellectually as well as religiously, by the character of the pulpit discourses. Theology was an absorbing theme of inquiry and discussion. In the town-meetings, especially in the closing part of the colonial period, political affairs became a subject of earnest debate. In all the colonies, the representative assemblies furnished a practical training in political life. In the Eastern colonies, the people were mostly Congrega- tionalists and Calvinists : Presbyterians were numerous in the Middle States. In Virginia the Episcopal Church was supported by legislative authority ; and it was favored, though not established by law, in New York. In Pennsylvania, while there was freedom REVOLT AGAINST TAXATION. 485 in religion, the Quakers " still swayed legislation and public opinion." Philadelphia, with its population of thirty thousand, was the largest city in America, and was held in high esteem for its intelligence and refinement. Complaints of the Colonies. — The colonists all acknowledged the authority of king and parliament, but they felt that they had brought with them across the ocean the rights of Englishmen. One thing that was more and more complained of was the laws compelling the colonies to trade with the " mother country " ex- clusively, and the enactments laying restraint on their manufac- tures. In the conflicts with the Indians from time to time, the necessity had arisen for leagues ; and, more than once, congresses of delegates had met. One of these was held at Albany in 1754, where Benjamin Fra7iklin was present. In the Old French War, there had been a call for concert of action, and a deepening of the sense of common interests and of being really one people. New Grounds of Disaffection. — The colonies had taxed them- selves in the French War ; but the condition of the finances in Eng- land at the close of it inspired the wish there to enforce the laws of trade more rigidly in America, and to levy additional taxes upon the provinces. These English laws were so odious that they were often evaded. The writs of assistance in Massachusetts authorized custom-house officers to search houses for smuggled goods (1761). In the legal resistance to this measure, a sentence was uttered by a Boston patriot, James Otis, which became a watchword. " Taxa- tion," he said, "without representation is tyranny." Taxation, it was contended, must be ordained by the local colonial assemblies in which the tax-payers are represented. But the Stamp Act ( 1 765), requiring for legal and other documents the use of stamped paper, was a form of taxation. It excited indignation in all the colonies, especially in Virginia and in New England. In all the measures of resistance, Virginia and Massachusetts were foremost. Patrick He?iry, an impassioned, patriotic orator, in the Virginia Legislature, was very bold in denouncing the obnoxious Act, and the alleged right to tax the colonies which it implied. This right was denied in a Congress where nine colonies were represented, which met in New York in 1765. They called for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and declared against the importation of English goods until the repeal should be granted. William Pitt, in the House of Commons, eulogized the spirit of the colonies. The Stamp Act was repealed. The discussions which it had provoked in America had awakened the whole people, and made them watchful against this sort of aggression. Political topics engrossed attention. When Parliament ordered that the colonies should support the troops quartered on them, and that the royal officers should have fixed salaries, to be obtained, not by the voluntary 486 MODERN HISTORY. grants of colonial legislatures, but by the levy of new duties, there was a renewed outburst of disaffection, especially in New York and Boston (1768). By way of response to a petition tliat was sent to the king against these Acts of Parliament, four regiments of troops were sent to Boston. Their presence was a bitter griev- ance. In one case, there was bloodshed in a broil in the street between the populace and the soldiers, which was called "The Boston Massacre" (1770). An influential leader of the popular party in Boston was the stanch Puritan patriot, Samuel Adams, Progress of the Controversy. — After the other taxes were repealed, the tax on tea remained in force. A mob of young men, disguised as Indians, went on board three vessels in Boston Harbor, and threw overboard their freight of tea (1773). Before, there had been outbreakings of popular wrath against the stamp- ofificers. Their houses had been sometimes attacked : they had been burnt in effigy, and in some cases driven to resign. In general, however, the methods of resistance had been legal and orderly. When the news of the destruction of the tea reached England, Parliament retaliated by passing the Bostoti Port Bill (1774), which closed that port to the exportation or importation of goods, except food or fuel. The courts, moreover, were given the power to send persons charged with high crimes to England, or to another colony, for trial. To crown all. General Gage, the commander of the British troops, was made Governor of Massa- chusetts. The First Continental Congress. — In order to produce con- cert of action, committees of correspondence between the several colonies were established. The First Continental Congress, com- posed of delegates from the colonies, was convened in Philadelphia (1774). The remedies to which they resorted were, addresses to the king and to the people of Great Britain ; an appeal for support to Canada \ and a resolve not to trade with Great Britain until there should be a redress of grievances. Concord and Bunker Hill. — The Legislature in Massachusetts, which Gage would not recognize, formed itself into the " Provin- cial Congress." I'he first armed collision took place at Concord (April 19), where a detachment of British troops was sent to destroy the military stores gathered by this body. On Lexington Green, the British troops fired on the militia, and killed seven men. Arriving at Cottcord, they encountered resistance. There the first shot was fired by America in the momentous struggle, — " the shot heard round the world." A number were killed on both sides, and the attacking force was harassed all the way on its return to Boston. The people everywhere rose in arms. Men flocked from their farms and workshops to the camp which was formed near Boston. Israel Putnam, who had been an officer in the French DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 48/ War, left his plow in the field at his home in Connecticut, and rode to that place, a distance of sixty-eight miles, in one day. Stark from New Hampshire, and Greene from Rhode Island, soon arrived. The Second Continental Congress, in session at Philadelphia, assumed control of military operations in all the colonies. At the suggestion first made by John Adams of Massachusetts, Colonel George Washington of Virginia was unanimously appointed com- mander-in-chief. His mingled courage and prudence, his lofty and unselfish patriotism, his admirable sobriety of judgment, and his rare power of self-control, connected as it was with a not less rare power of command, and with a firmness which no disaster could shake, made him one of the noblest of men. Before he reached Cambj'idge, where he assumed command of the gathering forces (July 3, 1775), he received the news of the battle oi Bunker Hill, in which the provincial soldiers, under Putnam and Prescott, made a stand against the " regulars," as the British troops were called, and retreated only on the third assault, and when their ammuni- tion had given out. Dr. Joseph Warren, a leading Boston patriot, was slain in the battle. Before this time. Fort Ticonderoga had been captured by Ethan Allen, and cannon been sent from it to aid in the siege of Boston (1775). But an attack on Quebec by Arfiold and Montgomery, who entered Canada by different routes, failed of its object. Before British reinforcements arrived, the American troops abandoned Canada. In the attack on Quebec, Montgoj7iery fell, and Ar7iol,d\ids severely wounded ( Dec. 31, 1775). Independence. — Only a brief sketch can here be given of the seven years' struggle of the United Colonies. On the 4th of July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence, drawn up in the main by Thomas Jefferson, and of which John Adams was the most eloquent advocate on the floor of Congress, passed that body. It was signed by the President, John Hancock, and fifty-five members. The colonies easily converted themselves into States, nearly all of them framing new constitutions. Thirteen Articles of Confederation made them into a league, under the name of the United States of America, each State retaining its sovereignty (1777). Franklin, an old man, and respected in Europe as well as at home for his scientific attainments as well as for his sturdy sagacity, went to France as their envoy. Among the sol- diers who came from Europe to join the Americans were La Fayette, — a young French nobleman, who Avas inspired with a zeal for liberty, and was not without a thirst for fame, which, however, he desired to merit, — and Steuben, an officer trained under Fred- erick the Great. In Parliament, the Whig orators spoke out man- fully for the American cause. The king hired German troops for the subjugation of its defenders. 488 MODERN HISTORY. The Events of the "War. — The maneuvers of Washington forced Gage to evacuate Boston. The American general then undertook the defense of New York. The British forces, to the number of thirty thousand, under Gen. Howe, and Admiral Howe his brother, were collected on Staten Island. The Americans were defeated in a battle on Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776), and could not hold the city. It remained in the hands of the British to the end of the war. Washi?igton withdrew his troops to White Plains, Fort Washington and Fort Lee were lost. The American com- mander, followed by Lord Cornwallis, retreated slowly through New Jersey (1776). These were serious reverses. By bold and successful attacks at Trenton and Princeton, the depressed spirits of the army and the country were revived. In the spring of 1777 Howe sought to capture Philadelphia, and landed his forces at the head of Chesapeake Bay. The Americans were defeated at Brandywine (Sept. 10) ; and Philadelphia, which had been the seat of Congress, was, Hke New York, in the possession of the British. Their policy was to isolate New England. To this end, Gen. Burgoyne, with a large army of French and Indians, came down from the north of Lake Champlain. A detachment of his forces was defeated by Stark at Bennington. Burgoyne himself was obliged to surrender, with six thousand men, to Gates, at Saratoga (Oct. 17). This event made its due impression abroad. France recognized the independence of the United States, and entered into an alliance with them. This alliance was a turning- point in the struggle. Washington's army, ill-clad and ill-fed, suf- fered terribly in the winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge ; but he shared in their rough fare, and their discipline was much improved by the drill which they received there from Steuben. Sir Henry Clinton left Philadelphia in order that the British forces might be concentrated in New York. He was overtaken by Washington, and the battle of Monmouth took place, which was, on the whole, a success for the Americans. The design of the British to separate New England from the rest of the States had failed. Washington was again at White Plains. They now began operations in the Southern States. Among the occurrences in this period of the war were the massacre of the settlements in the valley of the Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, by the Indian auxiliaries of the British ; the sur- render of Savannah, and with it Georgia and Charleston, by the Americans ; the gallant storming of Stotiy Point, on the Hudson, by Wayne (July 15, 1779), and a brilliant naval victory of Paid Jones in a desperate engagement with two British frigates near the south-eastern coast of England (Sept. 1779). The American " partisan leaders," Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, carried forward an irregular but harassing warfare in South Carolina. At Camden, Gates was defeated by Cornwallis ; and Baron de Kalb, a brave CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 489 French officer, of German extraction, in the American service, fell (Aug. 16, 1780). In this year (1780) Benedict Arnold's treason was detected ; and Major Andre, a British officer through whom Arnold had made arrangements for giving up the fortress of West Point to the enemy, was taken captive, and executed as a spy. In the next year Gen. Nathanael Greene conducted military opera- tions in Georgia and the Carolinas with much skill, and succeeded in pressing the army of Lord Cornwallis into the peninsula formed by the York and James Rivers in Virginia. Thither the French fleet sailed under Count Rochanibeau ; and Washington, by forced marches, was enabled to join with the French in surrounding the British works at Yorktown. On the day when Clinton left New York, at the head of his forces, to unite with Cornwallis, that officer surrendered, with his entire army of seven thousand men, to Washington (1781). This blow was fatal to the British cause. The independence of the United States was recognized by Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia (1782). The war had been prolonged by the personal obstinacy of George III., against the wishes of his minister. Lord North. The surrender of Cornwallis made it plain that further effort to conquer America was hopeless. By the treaty of peace, signed at Pa7Hs and Versailles (1783), England recognized the independence of her former colonies. Washington bade farewell to his array, laid down his commission, and retired to his farm at Mount Vernon. America at the Close of the "War. — The Congress during the war had issued paper money to the amount of twenty miUions of dollars. It had no power to lay taxes, or to compel the States to pay their several portions of the pubhc indebtedness. The States themselves were poor, and largely in debt. They surrendered, however, their unoccupied public lands to the United States. In 1787 Congress made one territory of the district north-west of the Ohio River, which Virginia had ceded, and by an ordinance excluded slavery from it for ever. The Constitution. — The lack of one system of law for the different States in reference to duties on imports, and on various other matters of common concern, and disorders springing up in different places, inspired an anxious desire for a stronger central government. A convention, over which Washington presided, met in Philadelphia in 1787, and formed the new Constitution. Hamilton of New York and Madison of Virginia were leading members. There was much opposition to the new plan of gov- ernment which they agreed upon, but it was' finally adopted by all the States. It supplied the defects of the old confederation by uniting national with federal elements. To the Senate, made up of two delegates from each State, it added a House of Representa- tives, where the number of members from each State was made 490 MODERN HISTORY. proportionate to the population. It put the general government, within the limit of its defined functions, into a direct relation to the citizens, and gave to it judicial and executive departments to carry out and enforce its legislation. It committed to the central authority the management of foreign affairs, and various other powers necessary for the preservation of peace and unity in the land, and for the securing of the common weal of the whole coun- try. Washington was unanimously chosen as the first president of the Republic, axid John Adams was chosen vice-president. The first Congress met in New York on March 4, 1789. CHAPTER VI. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION. LITERATURE. I. FRANCE. Poetry and the Drama. — The literature of France in the age of Loitis XIV. was classical in its spirit. The ancient Greek and Roman writers were admired and imitated. The Renaissance was now to run its course. The French Academy, founded by Richelieu, undertook to regulate and improve the French language. Measure, finish, elegance, were demanded by the reign- ing taste, in all literary productions. Coriieille (1606-1684), the father of French tragedy, was the most virile of the French dramatists. Racine (1639-1699), who followed, if less grand, was more pathetic. We find, how- ever, in writers of genius, — even in the great preachers, as Bourdalmie and Alassillon, who formed a type of pulpit eloquence peculiar to France, — a tend- ency to what seems now a stilted style. The master in comedy was Moliere (1622-1673), an actor, as well as an author of inimitable humor. One of the most popular of French authors has been La Fontai?ie (1621-1695), whose fables have charmed multitudes by their smooth versification, as well as by their contents. Boileau (1636-1711), the Horace of France, prescribed, as a lawgiver, rules upon the " Art of Poetry," and himself wrote satires and other poems of high merit. Prose Literature. — Bossuet (1627-1704) was an eloquent preacher and historical writer, and an expert theological polemic of the liberal Catholic school. Of a very different tone is Rochefoucauld, whose Maxims, expressed in pithy language, seek to trace all virtuous action to self-seeking. The French fondness for epigram — for terse, paradoxical statement — is exem- plified even in the best writers, as, for example, Blaise Pascal. La Briiyere (1639-1696), a genial philosopher, wrote in a most attractive style a work entitled The Characters of Our Af^e. The metaphysician Malebranche (1613- 1645) taught that we know through our spiritual union with God, or that we see all things in God. A disciple of Des Cartes, he did not strictly follow his master. Fenelon (1651-1715), illustrious for his piety as well as for his versatile authorship, wrote on religious topics and on education. Of all his writings, his Telemachus, composed for the young Duke of Burgundy, his pupil, has been the most read. The letters of Madame de Sevigne, addressed to her daughter, and not meant for publication, present most graphic descrip- tions of the characters and occurrences of the day. LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 49 1 The Eighteenth Century. — When we cross the limit of the eigh- teenth century, we meet with growing signs of skepticism in religion, and of innovation in political thought. Criticism of the past, of traditional creeds and established institutions, is spreading. The Historical mid Critical Dic- tionary of Bayle, a storehouse of chronicle and anecdote, is leavened with the spirit of doubt. Three great writers deserve special attention. Montesquieu {1689-T755) satirized all dogma in his /'^rj/a;; Z^//f;-j-. His celebrated work on the Spirit of Laws is just and humane in its tone, and full of original and inspiring views on history and government. He is one of the founders of modern political science. Voltaire (1694-1778), the most popular of all the writers of his age, was the incarnation of its critical and skeptical spirit, the highest example of its wit as of its levity, and of the artificial character of its literary ideals. He was play-writer, poet, historian, critic, and brilliant con- verser, all in one. In religion, a scoffer not only at superstition, but at all beliefs and rites which imply revelation, he still clung to the belief in a personal God. His creed was deism. Jean yacqites Rousseau (1712-1778) was, like Voltaire, a deist in his creed; but in religion, as in all his mental action, there was a vein of sentiment. By the fascination of his style, he was able, in his various writings, including his autobiographical Confessions, to interest profoundly multitudes of readers of both sexes, and even to move them to sympathy with himself in a career which deserves not less abhor- rence than commiseration. He was, perhaps, the first author to evoke in others a genuine relish, which he felt himself, for the wild scenery of nature. In his Social Contract he maintained that government grows out of a con- tract of individuals with one another, all of whom in the state of nature are free and independent. He carried to a great extreme an idea which in Eng- land had been held by Hooker, and more explicitly expounded by Locke. His doctrine furnished a theory for the political revolution in France. The " Encyclopaedists " went much beyond Voltaire and Rousseau. D' Alembert, Helvetius, Holbach, advocated atheism and materialism. Condillac (1715- 1780) sought to reduce this species of infidelity to an exact philosophical sys- tem by tracing even conscience to sensation and self-interest. All religious sentiment was condemned as morbid illusion. n. GERMANY. In Germany, the great name in philosophy is that of Leibnitz (1646-1716), a rival of Newton in mathematics and natural science, and an eminent thinker in metaphysics, theology, and in jurisprudence. In intellect and in variety of attainments, he is almost the peer of Aristotle. fVolf (i6yg-ij ^4) his disciple, systemized and modified his philosophical views. Klofstock (1724-1803), the author of Messiah, written somewhat after the manner of the Paradise Lost of Milton, excelled the other German poets of his day. Frederick the Great treated with disrespect the native literary products of his country. Yet a new era in German letters and criticism was opened by Les- sing (1729-1781), a poet, and a critic of admirable insight, whose influence in this direction in Germany has been likened in its power to that of Luther in religion. III. ITALY. In the eighteenth century, there was a new revival of literature in Italy. Vico (1668-1744) almost made an epoch in the scientific treatment of history and mythology; in political economy and in archeology, there were numerous explorers; Florence became once more a seat of learning. Beccaria (1738- 1794) by his writings introduced more humane views in criminal jurispru- dence. Volta (1745-1S27), an electrician, constructed the instrument called the voltaic pile. Metastasio (1698-1782) fostered the melodrama, or Italian opera, by his dramatic writings. Goldoni (1707-1792), a Venetian, was the most eminent writer of comedies. Tragedy reached its acme in the works of Alfieri (1749-1803), the founder of a new school. 492 MODERN HISTORY. IV. ENGLAND. In England, after the Restoration, the influence of French standards in literature is obvious. The drama declined, partly from the earlier antagonism of the Puritans, and partly from the rage for indecency which infected the dramatic writers, — even those of much ability, as Coiigreve, — and defiled the stage. The Pilgrim'' s Progress of Bicnyaii (1628-88) is written in a plain, unaffected style, and is the most popular work of that age. In sharp con- trast with Biniyan is Biitler''s Hicdibras, a witty satire, in doggerel verse, upon Puritanism. The principal writer, prior to Queen Anne, is Drvden (1631-1700). We have passed now from the Rotnantie school of poetry, in which Shakspeare is the most exalted name, to the Classical school. In the age of Queen Anne, Pope (16S8-1744), with his vigor, without elevation, of thought, his smooth versification and bright wit, is the principal figure. The same period produced the labored novels of Richardson (1689-1761), and the vigorous and lifelike fictions of Fielding (1707-17 57), which are, unhappily, disfigured by coarse and licentious passages. In the early part of the century, Addison ,(\6y2-iji<)) and Steele (1676-1719) were the most dis- tinguished essayists. In them, as in the novels of Defoe (1661-1731), the author of Robinson Crtisoe, and in the prose writings of Swift (1667-1774), the richness and idiomatic force of the English tongue are seen; while in Samicel Johnson, the literary dictator in the latter part of the century, the author of the English Dictionaiy, of The Ra7nbler^ the Lives of the Poets, and Rasselas, we have a striking and contagious example of a stately, sounding. Latinized diction. In pleasing contrast, as regards style, which charms from its simplicity, are the writings of Goldsmith (1728-74). In poetry. Gray (1716-71), the author of the Elegy in a Coitfitry Chw-chyard, and Colli?is (1720-59), wrote little, but wrote well. The triumvirate of great English historians of the century are Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Ro?jian Empire is a monument of masterly ability and of vast research ; a work, however, marred by a want of naturalness in style, and, still more, by a lack of religious faith and reverence, and by impurity of tone and allusion. Hume's style is one of his chief claims to esteem as an historian ; for he was indolent in his researches, and prejudiced in his views. He merited distinction chiefly as an economist and a metaphysician. Philosophy. — In English philosophy, there are several writers of ex- traordinary talents and influence. John Zcr/Cv (1632-17 04), an upright man and a lover of freedom, wrote the celebrated Essay on the Understanding, besides other important works in political science and theology. He traced all our knowledge to two sources, sensation and reflection, ultimately to the first of these. Berkeley (1684-17 53) advocated with rare genius an ideal theory of matter, and defended theism. Hitme (1711-76) indirectly gave rise to much of the later philosophy, by his acute speculations in behalf of skepticism as to the reality of human knowledge and the foundation of accepted beliefs. Reid (1710-96) rescued philosophy from the attacks of Hume by the doctrine of " common sense," and thus founded the Scottish school of metaphysicians. Among the numerous authors who cultivated both philosophy and theology, particular distinction belongs to Dr. Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), and to Bishop foseph Butler (1692-1752) who wrote briefly, but with marked power, on the nature of conscience, and on the Analogy between religion and what we know of the constitution and course of nature. Newton: Adam Smith. — Sir Isaac Nezoton (1642-1727), the discoverer of the law of gravitation, made, through his Principia, one of the most important contributions ever made to the advancement of physical science. In 1776 Adam Smith, a Scotchman, who had previously written on meta- physics and politics, published his treatise on The Wealth of Nations, the RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. 493 first complete system of political economy. He showed that money is not wealth, but simply one product serving as a means of exchange. He made it clear, that, for one nation to gain in trade, it is not requisite that another should lose. Much light was thrown on political economy by essays of Hw7ie. V. AMERICA. The most notable American writers before the War of Independence were yonathan Edzuards (1703-58), a great metaphysical genius, and the founder of a school in theology; and Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), whose writings, in excellent English, related mainly to ethical and economical topics. As the Revolution approached, there sprung up authors of ability on the political questions of the day. 77/,? Federalist, written after the war, by Hamilton, Madison, and yay, in favor of the proposed Constitution, is a work of high merit, as regards both matter and style. NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. The inductive method, or the " Baconian " method of observation and experiment, began to bear rich fruits. Sir Isaac Newton (i 642-1 727) not only discovered the law of gravitation : other discoveries by him in mechan- ics and optics were of great moment in the progress of those sciences. Fluxions, or the differential calculus, was discovered independently by both Newtott and Leibnitz. Enter, a Swiss mathematician of the highest ability ( 1 707-1 783), contributed essentially to the advancement of mechanics. Napier invented logarithms, to shorten mathematical calculations. Huygens, a Dutch philosopher (1629-1695), invented the pendulum clock. Gregory (1633-1675) invented the reflectmg telescope. Halley, an Plnglish astronomer (1656- 1742), gave his name to a comet whose return he predicted. Giiericke \w- \Qr\XtA {\6'&o),2L\\di. Robert Boyle (1626-1691) perfected, the air-pump. Boyle was active in founding the Royal Society (1660). Volta, by the invention of the pile called by his name, and Franklin, signally advanced the study of electricity. In the history of zoology, Biiffoii. is a great name, as is that of Lavoisier in chemistry. Linnceiis, a Swede, born in the same year with Buffon (1707), attained to the highest distinction by reducing botany to a system. The lives of the eminent astronomers Z^ori?;?^^ (1736-1813), Laplace ( 1 749-1827), and Sir William Herschel (i 738-1822), outlasted the eighteenth century. The radical improvement of the steam-engine by yatiies Waft, a Scotch- man (1736-1819), — who obtained his first patent in 1769, — and the invention of the spinning-jenny by Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), are indicative of a new era of progress in the application of science to practical arts and uses. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY. English Deism., — The religious debates and the religious wars of the seventeenth century were followed by much indifference and disbelief in the eighteenth. Weariness with sectarian struggles, and revolt against the yoke of creeds, were pushed to the extreme of a denial of revealed religion, — finally, in France, to a denial of the truths of natural religion also. In Eng- land, there appeard a school of deistical writers, beginning earlier with Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648), and continued through Tindal, Motgan, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbicry, Collins, and others. On the other side, Bntler, Lardner (1684-1768), Bentley, the best of England's classical scholars and critics (1662-1742), and, later, Paley (1743-1805), were among the authors who defended the divine origin of Christianity on rational and historical grounds. Of these writers, Bntler was the most profound, Lardner and Bentley the most learned, and Paley the most lucid. 494 MODERN HISTORY. The "Quakers." — During this period, the Society of Friends, "Qn.i- kers," was founded in England by George Fox (1624-1691), who in 1647, im- pelled by what he considered a divine call, began the life of an itinerant preacher. He and his followers were subjected frequently to cruel persecu- tion, both in England and America. In exceptional cases, they fell into ex- travagances of enthusiasm, interrupted public worship, walked in the streets clothed in sackcloth, or in some instances naked. They condemned war, practiced non-resistance, objected to oaths and to a paid ministry, and set an example of the utmost plainness and simplicity in speech and dress. Among their many converts were Willia^n Penn, and their able and learned theo- logian, Robe7-t Barclay (1648-1690). The Friends, by their Christian forbear- ance and patience, their purity of conduct and their philanthropy, and their tranquil piety, gradually won the respect of the other religious bodies, who were at first offended by their novel tenets and manners, and by the occa- sional occurrence of revolting manifestations of a half-insane enthusiasm. Methodism. — Of the religious movements in Protestant countries, Meth- odism is the most noteworthy. This movement was originated by a little group of students at Oxford, of whom John Wesley., his brother Charles, and George Whitejield were the chief. Of these, yi?//;^ Wesley (1703-1791) united with intellectual ability and cultivation, and religious fervor, a remark- able organizing capacity. Whitejield was an orator in the pulpit, of un- rivaled eloquence. He was a Calvinist in his theology, and separated from Wesley on account of Wesley's Arminian views. They were nicknamed " Methodists," from their strictness of life in the University, and their sys- tematic ways. Wesley and his associates preached to the common people in England, including the poor colliers and miners, with untiring ardor and surprising effect. Their converts were very numerous, and were formed into societies under a definite polity and discipline. The Wesleyan movement was much opposed in the Church of England by those who stood in dread of enthusiasm. By ordaining lay preachers and superintendents for America, and by putting its chapels under the protection of the Toleration Act, — measures which Wesley deemed necessary, — Methodism became separate from the Anglican Established Church. As a distinct body, it gained a multitude of adherents in England and America. Moravianism. — In 1722 a company of persecuted Moravian Christians was received by Count Zinzendorf (\(i']0-\i\o) on his estate, situated on the borders of Bohemia. They founded a town called Herrnhut. Zinzendorf became their bishop. The new community was distinguished for sincere piety and for missionary zeal. They did not formally separate from the Lutheran churches, yet had an organization of their own. Some of them settled in America. The Moravians never became a very numerous body ; but their influence in promoting spiritual religion and education, and in carrying Christianity to the heathen, has been more potent than that of many larger bodies of Christians. It was specially wholesome in Germany, at a time when, under the auspices of Frederick the Great, the French type of unbelief prevailed in the higher classes of society. Pietism. — Prior to Zinzendorf, Spener (1635-1705), a man of devout feeling, had given rise to the " Pietists," as the promoters of a warmer type of religious experience than was approved by the current opinion were derisively named. Swedenborg. — Sioedenbo!'g {iG^c^-iyjz), a Swedish noble, a mathema- tician and naturalist of large attainments, communicated, in copious writings, what he smcerely professed to consider special revelations made to him respecting God, the unseen world, and the sense of the Scriptures. His adherents are called "The New Church," or Swedenborgians. The Jesuit Order. — Under the influences that had sway in the eigh- teenth century, the authority of the popes sank in the Catholic countries. The spirit of innovation was rife. One of the remarkable incidents of the POLITICAL REFORM. — EUROPE. 495 time, characteristic of its tendency, was the conflict of Portugal and the Bour- bon courts of France and Spain, with the Society of Jesuits. The Jesuits had secretly established, unobserved, a state under their own exclusive con- trol in Paraguay, a part of which, by a treaty of Portugal with Spain, fell to Portugal. Other charges, some relating to interference in political affairs, and some to other and different grounds of complaint, led to the expulsion of the order from all Portuguese territory (1757); and soon after, it was suppressed in France and in Spain, and in several of the Italian states. The Jesuit order was formally abolished by Pope Clemejit XIV. in 1773, to be again restored by papal authority in 1S14. ESSAYS AT POLITICAL REFORM. Russia : Germany. — The minds of men were unsettled, not only by the prevalent tone of literature and speculation, but by governmental changes and reforms. The disposition was to in- troduce French methods of administration. Catherine II. of Russia (i 762-1 796) tried the experiment of various judicial and educational reforms. Frederick the Great, with more wisdom and consistency, introduced many changes for the benefit of the in- dustrial class. The most sweeping reforms were undertaken by the Emperor Joseph II. (i 780-1 790), after the death of his mother, Maria Theresa. His measures for the reduction of the power of the clergy and of the nobility, the closing of monasteries, and the weakening of the connection of the Austrian Church with Rome, were of a very radical character. He himself finally be- came convinced that they were too radical to be completely real- ized, in the existing state of opinion among his subjects. Two of his reforms — the abolition of serfdom, and the edict of religious toleration — remained in force. The other changes did not sur- vive him. The attempts to impose his reforms in the Austrian Netherlands provoked an insurrection. Leopold II. (1790— 1792), Joseph's successor, suppressed the Belgian revolt, but repealed the ordinances of his brother which had occasioned it. Tuscany. — In Tuscany, the brother of Joseph II., Leopold, prior to his becoming emperor, undertook likewise a great plan of ecclesiastical reform in the same fine as that oi Joseph (1786) ; but there the opposition of the bishops prevented him from prac- tically carrying out his scheme. Portugal. — In Portugal, the house of Braganza had ascended the throne in 1640. Joseph Emanuel {iTS^'^^TTl) ^^^^ the man- agement of the government to his minister, Potnbal. His measures were contrived to weaken the power of the nobles and the clergy. By him the warfare against the Jesuits was carried forward. The fall of Pombal, which followed the death of the king, led to the abolition of all his reforms, which had the same fate as those undertaken later in Austria hy Joseph II. Literature. — See the lists of works on pp. 16, 39s, 450, and Adams's Manual of Historical Literature; &CHi.oss^v.'s History o/ the Eighteenth Century {& \o\i.) ; Noorden's £'ar-o- paische Gesch. im iStn. Jahr. : Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg (a vols.) ; Lord John 496 MODERN HISTORY. Russell, History of the Principal States, etc. [1713-23] ; Mahon's War of the Succession ; Pardee's Louis XIV. and the Court of Fra7ice, etc.; St. Simon, The Met>ioirs of the Reign of Louis XIV. and the Regency [an abridgment, 3 vols.] ; Voltaire, Age of Louis XIV. ; Philippson (in Oncken's Series), Das Zcitalter Lud-wigs d. Vierzehten ; A. de Broglie, Louis XV. : The Kiiig's Secret Correspotide7ice with his Agents, etc. (2 vols.) ; A. Thiers, The Mississippi Bubble ; Morley's Life of Voltaire, and Life of Rousseau. A. V. Ameth, Geschichte Maria Theresas (10 vols., 1863-79) • DuiNCKer, Aits der Zeit Friedrichs d. Grosser!, elc; Ranke, Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg, and His- tory of Prussia during the Seveiiteenth and Eighteeitth Centiiries (3 vols.) ; Carlyle's History of Frederick the Secoid {tvol^.); Preuss, Friedrich d. Grosse (5 vols.); Von Rauraer, Frederick the Second and his Times ; A. de Broglie, Frederick the Great ajid Maria Theresa (2 vols.) ; Oncken, Das Zeitalter Friedrich d. Grossen (2 vols.). The Diaries of Pepys and Evelyn; R. Vaughan, Protectorate of Oliver Croinivell ; Macaulay's History of Ejigland from the Accessimt of James II. (4 vols.); Mahon's History of Engla7id (1701-13), also History of Etigland (1713 to 17S3) (7 vols.) ; Burton, History of the Reign of Queen An7ie ; E. E. Morris, The Age of Anne ; AWson, 3'IHitary Life of the Duke of Marlborotigh ; Life of Marlborojigh, by Gleig, by Coxe (3 vols.); Lecky's History of England in the Eighteenth Cenittry (2 vols ) ; Froude, The English in Irelajid in the Eightcetith Century (2 vols.) ; W. HL D. Adams, English Party Lead- ers and English Parties; J. C. Earle, Eiiglish Premiers [Walpole to Peel] (2 vols.); Massey, History of Englajid durijig the Reign of George III. (4 vols.) ; H. Walpole, lile- 7noirs of the Reigfi of George II. (3 vols.), and of George HI. (4 vols.); J. G. Phillimore, History of Eitglatid during the Reign of George HI. ; J. Adolphus, History of Etigland [1760-83] (3 vols.); Wraxall {jj^i-iZ'^j'), Historical Memoirs of his o-wn Ti?ne (4 vols.), and Posthumous Mevtoirs of his omni Time (3 vols.) ; May, Cofistittitional History of Eng- land [1760-1860] (2 vols.) ; Stoughton, History of Religioji i>i England from the opening of the Long Parliametit to the End of the Eighteenth Century (6 vols.) ; Tyerman's Life of Wesley; Southey's Life of Wesley ; Tyerman's Z-z/^ of Whitefeld ; Tyler's History of Anierica7i Literattire ; Van Laun, History of Fre?ich Literature (3 vols.); Morley's Series of Efiglish Men of Letters ; Taine's History of English Literature. SchuyXsr 5 Life of Peter the Great ; Catherine W., Memoirs written by herself ; Ram- baud's History of Russia. Histories of the United States by Bancroft, Hildreth, McMasters, Bryant and Howard, Doyle, S. Eliot, Laboulaye, Neumann, Willard, Schouler, J. H. Patton; School histories by SciTODER and Anderson: Grahame's History of the United States to the Declaration of Independence ; A. Moi-m^s's History of the United States (1492-1826); Higginson, Young Folks' History of the United States; NeiW's Eiiglish Colonization of Atnerica ; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America ; Parkman's Series of Histories of the French in America; Frothingham, Rise of the Republic [to 1790]; 'K. '^, (2. "^o-^" S 5 Id vo -2 "-1 s S? « 'T! .S -c o K ^6 - ■—1 -K s' 1 n s > o W % 'King 8is. arnais. Victor U a. J 2 ^ "3 o ^ arol Mu: she Bea ,d. ir,'j= O. S - o rt c O A^ cS S sT ^r ^ ^ .5 OoO^. 1} s " o « F4 4> n" "^ S "T "^ «>_ u Loui: hter o peror cis II. — 5 •2 SfS S g-O f^ G o" U '0 c'S . 3 Lucie of C: . 1840 .«^3 _ "g ^ ?! t^ 'u