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MANUAL OF PHRENOLOGY 
 
 BUNG 
 
 AN ANALYTICAL SUMMARY 
 
 THE SYSTEM OF DOCTOR GALL, 
 
 ON THE 
 
 FACULTIES OF M.AN AND THE FUNCTIONS OF THE 
 BRAIN. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FOURTH FRENCH EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA I 
 
 CAREY, LEA & BLANCHARD 
 1835. 
 
 

 32tttCE£tf > according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1835, 
 by Carey, Lea & Blanchard, in the Clerk's Office of the District 
 Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 
 
 The following work, which is founded on informa- 
 tion communicated to the Author by Dr. Gall himself, 
 met with great success in France, and rapidly passed 
 through several editions. 
 
 In presenting the present translation, the publishers 
 have endeavoured to make it more generally useful, by 
 iking such references to the later works of Spurz- 
 nm as will readily enable the reader to appreciate the 
 fferent views of both of these celebrated phrenologists 
 1 the situation and importance of certain of the or- 
 ms ; and have added several additional plates in fur* 
 ther elucidation of the text. 
 
 1 * 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Preliminary Observations on the Study of Man, - 13 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 preliminary observations. 
 
 1. Object of Cranioscopy — Its Extent — Its Limits and Con- 
 nexions with other Sciences, ... 53 
 
 2. Opinions entertained by the Learned, on the Mind, Under- 
 standing, and seat of the Faculties, at the Epoch when Gall 
 promulgated the principal results of his Researches, - 56 
 
 3. Erroneous opinions on the Brain and Nervous System, 
 entertained by Physiologists and Philosophers before the 
 time of Gall, - 62 
 
 4. Historical View of the Labours and Discoveries of Gall, 
 and the progress of his Ideas on Cranioscopy, - 67 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON CRANIOLOGY, AND THE INTELLECTUAL AND 
 MORAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 
 
 1. Physiological and primary Principles on which Craniology, 
 
 or Physiology of the Brain is based, 72 
 
 2. Conditions essential to the Manifestation of the Intellec- 
 
 tual and Affective Faculties of the Mind, and the Formation 
 
 of Thought, 78 
 
 3. Intellectual and moral Nature of Man, and how far he is 
 endowed with Freedom of Will, ... 83 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AS CONNECTED WITH CRANIOSCOPY. 
 
 Of Life, and the principal Systems of Organs that concur in 
 
 its Production, ----- 89 
 
 2. The Nervous System in General, - - - 92 
 
 3. The Great Sympathetic and its Ganglions, or the Nervous 
 
 System of Internal and Vegetative Life, - - 100 
 
 4. Of the Cerebro-Spinal Axis, or the Nervous System of Exter- 
 
 nal Life, or that of Relation, - - - - 102 
 
 5. Of the Brain, its Hemispheres, its Lobes, and its Convolu- 
 
 tions. Hydrocephalus, - - - - 104 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE PRIMARY FORCES OF THE MIND, AND ON 
 THE DETERMINATION OF THE PARTS OF THE BRAIN IN WHICH THEY ARE 
 SEATED. 
 
 1. Plurality of Organs in the Brain, - - - 120 
 
 2. The Insufficiency of all Attempts, previous to the time of 
 
 Gall, to explain the Nature of Man and Animals, or their 
 Passions and Propensities, - 127 
 
' 
 
 VI 
 
 3. Nature of the Primary Forces, and Determination of their 
 
 Organs, - - - - - - 131 
 
 4. General Considerations on the Mimicry of the Primary 
 
 Forces, or the various Forms in which they manifest them- 
 selves in Man and Animals, .... 140 
 
 5. Reflections on Organology, and the Results of the Action of 
 
 the Primary Forces, .... 147 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 
 ORGANOLOGY, OR A KNOWLEDGE OF THE PRIMARY FORCES, AND DESCRIP- 
 TION OF THEIR ORGANS. 
 
 1. Physical Love, ----- 155 
 
 2. Love of Parents for their Offspring, - - - 158 
 
 3. Organ of Attachment and Friendship, - - 161 
 
 4. Instinct of Defence of Person and Property, - - 165 
 
 5. Carnivorous Instinct, ----- 167 
 
 6. Organ of Cunning, Cheating, and Trickery, - - 170 
 
 7. Instinct for amassing Riches, &c. Love of Property, 172 
 
 8. Instinct presiding over a Choice of Habitation, - 175 
 
 9. Love of Power, ------ 178 
 
 10. Love of Approbation, ... - 180 
 
 11. Circumspection, ------ 182 
 
 12. Sense of Things, 185 
 
 13. Organ of Localities, or of the Relations of Distances, - 188 
 
 14. Faculty of preserving a Recollection of Persons, and of 
 
 readily recognizing those we have previously seen, - 192 
 
 15. Great Faculty in retaining Names and Words, - - 194 
 
 16. Faculty of Speech, and Facility in the Study of Languages, 196 
 
 17. Sense of the Relation of Colours, - . - 199 
 
 18. Sense of the Relations of Sounds, - - 200 
 
 19. Sense of the Relations and Properties of Numbers, - 203 
 
 20. Sense of Mechanics and Construction, - - - 205 
 
 21. Comparative Sagacity, - _ . 208 
 
 22. Depth of Mind, - 210 
 
 23. Talent for Wit and Repartee, 213 
 
 24. Philosophical Talent, 215 
 
 25. Organ of Poetry, - - - - - 217 
 
 26. Moral Sense, 219 
 
 27. Faculty of Imitating the Actions of Others, - - 221 
 
 28. Love of the Marvellous, and of supernatural Objects, - 223 
 
 29. Organ of Theosophy, ... 225 
 
 30. Firmness of Character, - 229 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1. Free-Will, 232 
 
 2. Moral Liberty, 236 
 
 3. Good and Evil, - - - - - 240 
 
 4. Application of Gall's Doctrine to different Subjects, - 243 
 
 5. Biography and Cranioscopy of Dr. Gall, - - 249 
 
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 STUDY OF MAN 
 
 It is impossible to understand or explain the intellectual 
 and moral faculties of man, without having previously- 
 studied his physical organization. 
 
 It is as ridiculous to form systems of phi- 
 losophy to explain the faculties of man, without 
 a proper acquaintance with his internal organi- 
 zation ; or to reason on his actions, without hav- 
 ing previously studied the organs which concur 
 in the production of these actions, as to attempt 
 to explain the motion of the hands of a watch, 
 without having a knowledge of its internal me- 
 chanism. If we were ignorant of the existence 
 of the springs, the number of the wheels, and of 
 their combined action, how should we be able to 
 
 2 
 
14 
 
 demonstrate the cause of the difference of speed 
 with which these hands revolve round the dial 
 plate. By observing their motions, the fact of this 
 difference in the space they traverse in the same 
 interval of time may be incontestably establish- 
 ed, but this is wholly insufficient to explain the 
 internal mechanism on which the phenomenon 
 depends. Nay, more ; a close study of the 
 wheels, and their mutual connexions alone, will 
 not afford the slightest aid in ascertaining their 
 motive power. The ultimate effects of this 
 power may be perfectly comprehended, but to 
 understand its first cause, and to appreciate this 
 properly, the attention of the observer must be 
 directed to the properties and mode of action 
 of the main spring. A disregard of this mode of 
 investigating causes and effects, has occasioned 
 the various errors into which those philosophers 
 have fallen, who have endeavoured to establish 
 systems to explain the faculties of man, without 
 a knowledge of the organization on which these 
 faculties depend. Hence, they have created 
 metaphysical entities to account for effects, 
 which they would have had no difficulty in 
 elucidating, if they had adopted a more rational 
 method. 
 
 The truth of our reasoning depends, in most 
 instances, on the distinctness of the ideas we re- 
 
15 
 
 ceive of the objects under consideration. If, for 
 example, a physician could demonstrate the 
 principle of life as clearly as the geometrician 
 appreciates the value of the lines of his various 
 theorems; if he could follow, throughout its 
 whole course, the medicine he prescribes, and 
 verify the actions and reactions it occasions in 
 the different organs; he would most incontes- 
 tably be enabled to predict, a priori, the neces- 
 sary results of the application of his remedies; 
 but, the obscurity which exists as regards the 
 essence of the vital forces, and the nature of dis- 
 ease, as well as the therapeutic operations <jf 
 medicinal agents, entangles him in an inextri- 
 cable labyrinth of uncertainties. This is also 
 the case with the metaphysician who seeks for 
 the explanation of mental faculties which he 
 does not understand, in the unknown properties 
 of entities, of which he knows still less. If we 
 would avoid errors, which are not always as 
 harmless as might be supposed, we must sedu- 
 lously adhere to well demonstrated facts, and 
 not assume as a fact that which has not been 
 substantiated by -experience. It must now be ad- 
 mitted, after the fruitless attempts during twenty- 
 five centuries to elucidate the subject, that every 
 system on the human understanding is neces- 
 sarily an incomplete hypothesis, and contains 
 
16 
 
 much that is vague and contradictory. To re- 
 duce the sum of our knowledge to what is posi- 
 tive and practically useful, two conditions are 
 indispensable — to renounce all attempts to ex- 
 plain first causes, and to abandon our system of 
 dialectics. 
 
 At the same time, I am far from asserting 
 that the writings of Plato, Descartes, Locke, 
 Condillac, Kant, &c, are not replete with in- 
 struction. On the contrary, I am convinced 
 that they contain many useful truths; but these 
 truths are enveloped in vain theories, equally un- 
 favourable to the progress of sound reason, and 
 the developement of real truths. What advan- 
 tages have mankind derived from the categories 
 of Aristotle, or the scholastic cavillings of St. 
 Thomas Aquinas. We may applaud the inten- 
 tions of Malebranche, in referring everything to 
 God, but what benefit has accrued to science 
 from this method of viewing things? Hence it 
 is important that these modes of reasoning should 
 be abandoned. 
 
17 
 
 ii. 
 
 The ancients had not an adequate knowledge of the nature 
 of man or of things, to reason with any certainty on 
 either; hence the numerous errors contained in all the 
 systems of philosophy erected by them. 
 
 If in endeavouring to appreciate the true 
 state of science among the ancients, and the ex- 
 tent of its applications to the various wants of 
 society, an accurate view be taken of the branches 
 of learning most cultivated, it must be admitted 
 that during the most brilliant epoch of Greece, 
 in the time of Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Hip- 
 pocrates, and Aristotle, that is, three or four hun- 
 dred years before the Christian era, that no one 
 of these philosophers had attained that degree 
 of perfection and certainty which characterizes 
 the sciences of facts, and which alone are fertile 
 in useful results. The complete ignorance 
 which existed of the laws of nature, of the pro- 
 perties of bodies, and the elements composing 
 them, and their mutual actions and reactions, 
 reduces the benefit to be derived from the few 
 truths that had been discovered, to a very small 
 compass, whether they be applied to the study 
 of man, or the improvement of the arts. The 
 knowledge of minerals was confined to a few 
 
 2* 
 
 Mi 
 
18 
 
 practical facts respecting those which were in 
 general use. Botany had not as yet explained 
 either the organization of plants, or any of the 
 phenomena attending their growth and repro- 
 duction. Aristotle, who paid much attention to 
 animals, adopted a multitude of erroneous ideas 
 of their manners, habits, and the functions of 
 their most important organs. Hippocrates, who 
 lived a short time previous, although justly ce- 
 lebrated for his medical acquirements, knew 
 still less of them. It appears certain, from 
 many passages in his works, that he had never 
 seen a human brain, and that he was completely 
 ignorant that the nerves were the mediums of 
 feeling or sensation. The Egyptians, among 
 whom the practice of embalming the dead af- 
 forded daily opportunities of opening bodies, al- 
 though better instructed in anatomy on some 
 points, were as ignorant as the Greeks on others. 
 Thus, at this epoch, the two principal foci of 
 civilization, the two sanctuaries in which the 
 arts and sciences were most worshipped — Greece 
 and Egypt — were plunged in the most profound 
 ignorance of natural causes, and had the most 
 vague notions of the internal organization of 
 man. 
 
 The other natural sciences, as physics, che- 
 mistry, astronomy, &c, were not further ad- 
 
19 
 
 vanced. Geometry, although nearly what is 
 taught at the present day, had furnished so little 
 assistance to those sciences, and more especially 
 to astronomy, that it might almost be asserted 
 that these branches of human knowledge did not 
 then exist; and, in fact, the two first consisted 
 almost entirely of occult qualities and magical 
 operations, which were explained by futile hy- 
 potheses, and the most fanciful theories. As- 
 tronomers filled the heavens with cycles and 
 epicycles, to explain, according to the system of 
 Ptolemy, the stations and retrogressions of the 
 planets; and, with the exception of the golden 
 number or cycle of Meton, and the calculation 
 of eclipses, the remainder of their astronomical 
 knowledge was only a tissue of vain hypotheses, 
 unworthy of being compared with the precision 
 of a true science. 
 
 From this epoch, to the time of Pliny, Seneca, 
 and Galen, the knowledge of the structure of 
 man made some progress, for the latter was a 
 great anatomist when compared with Hippo- 
 crates. He was acquainted with the brain to a 
 certain extent, and regarded it, in opposition to 
 the opinion of Aristotle, as the seat of the mind, 
 the functions of w 7 hich he explained as depend- 
 ing on a certain spiritual essence, which he termed 
 pneuma, and which he supposed was set in ac- 
 
20 
 
 tion by the pulsations of the ventricles of the 
 brain; he also admitted the existence of vital, 
 animal, and natural forces, the first of which he 
 seated in the heart, the second in the brain, and 
 the third in the liver. By aid of these, he ex- 
 plained our propensities, our passions, and the 
 manifestation of the faculties of our mind. 
 However, like Hippocrates, he considered these 
 forces as subject to the general Jaws of nature. 
 Finally, he was perfectly aware that sensation 
 and motion were distributed to all parts of the 
 body, from the brain and through the medium 
 of the nerves. But these ne w r , isolated, and un- 
 supported facts, remained obscured by the host 
 of errors and popular prejudices which were 
 then prevalent. 
 
 From this general ignorance of the physical 
 nature of man, and even of the universe, arose, 
 if I am not greatly mistaken, all those futile sys- 
 tems of philosophy bequeathed to us by the an- 
 cients, which plunged the human mind in an 
 ocean of chimeras and abstractions, and so long 
 retarded the progress of the experimental sci- 
 ences, the only guides to a methodical and use- 
 ful knowledge of man, and his relations to ex- 
 ternal objects. To this source also, may be 
 attributed that propensity of the Greeks to 
 abandon themselves to the illusions of a vivid 
 
21 
 
 and prolific imagination, well calculated to give 
 grace and beauty to all works of their creative 
 fancy, but wholly incompetent to the cultivation 
 of serious studies, like that of moral philosophy r 
 which requires a union of experience, and ma- 
 ture reason ; this is confirmed by the following 
 passage from a work which has enjoyed great 
 celebrity. " Among the sages of antiquity," 
 says the author, " moral philosophy became ab- 
 stract and mysterious; by a fatality, long preju- 
 dicial to the whole of the sciences, it neglected 
 experience and facts, to abandon itself a spirit of 
 systems and sects, always contrary to the true 
 progress of reason. No system is to be found 
 emanating from them, based on a proper study 
 of man. Their ethics are only a collection of 
 vague maxims, having no exact interpretation; 
 of detached principles, which are often contra- 
 dictory, and always enveloped in obscurity. 
 Pythagoras, who was the first to assume the 
 name of philosopher, or friend of wisdom, has 
 left only some obscure and enigmatical precepts, 
 some golden verses, which commentator after 
 commentator, have in vain attempted to render 
 useful. Socrates, who is regarded as the father 
 of moral philosophy, and whose precepts have 
 been recorded by Xenophon and Plato, and em- 
 bellished by these two celebrated writers with 
 
22 
 
 all that the graces of a poetic imagination could 
 add to the beauty and justness of the sentiment, 
 has presented us with nothing but confused 
 theories and ideas, which, although they dazzle 
 by their brilliance, want solidity, and are inca- 
 pable of affording any solid instruction." Aris- 
 totle, though less speculative, has not succeeded 
 better. At the same time, we cannot deny that 
 these distinguished men had just and elevated 
 views of the nature of man, and his relations to 
 the rest of created nature, and entertained pro- 
 found and sublime notions of the Deity. It 
 must also be admitted, notwithstanding his su- 
 perficial knowledge of the internal organization 
 of man, that the Coan sage had a tolerably cor- 
 rect knowledge of the nature of animated beings, 
 as this word appears to have signified in the 
 language in which he wrote, the totality of the 
 radical forces which preside over the phenomena 
 of the living economy, forces which act, accord- 
 ing to him, not under the influence of the will, 
 as they are wholly independent of the mind, but 
 by immutable and necessary laws, fixed by the 
 Creator himself; but, at the same time, they are 
 subject to a certain universal vital force, which is 
 denominated enormon, that is, regulating force. 
 The Romans, occupied by the vast project of 
 subjugating the world, left the sciences at the 
 
23 
 
 point at which they had received them from 
 their predecessors, and only successfully, though 
 partially, cultivated such as appeared most cal- 
 culated to subserve their views. This people, 
 almost as much favoured as the Greeks, as re- 
 garded climate and genius, and, moreover, en- 
 dowed with an indomitable courage, appear to 
 me to have been, on the whole, more preju- 
 dicial than useful to mankind. 
 
 Hitherto, reason had been on the increase; 
 from the epoch of the establishment of the 
 kingdoms of Judah, Nineveh, and Babylon; 
 we do not perceive any decided retrogressions. 
 The Egyptians had considerably increased the 
 knowledge they had received from the Chal- 
 deans. Transported from Memphis to Athens, 
 this knowledge had continued to advance, and 
 when carried from Athens to Rome, if it was 
 not augmented, at least it remained stationary. 
 Pliny, Varro, and some other voluminous 
 writers, detailed all that was known, so that 
 their works may be considered as the first ency- 
 clopedias. But, from this time, we find that all 
 the acquirements and traditions of these distin- 
 guished nations were gradually lost, and a night 
 of mental darkness enveloped the whole world. 
 Immediately after the era of Seneca and Galen, 
 the study of man, both physical and moral, like 
 
24 
 
 that of the other branches of human learning, 
 became extinct. During the ages of barbarism 
 which succeeded, a blind respect for the doc- 
 trines of Aristotle and Hippocrates arrested all 
 progress in these sciences; and what renders 
 this event of still more grievous character, two 
 religions, arising -at different epochs, and far su- 
 perior to those which had preceded them, ap- 
 pear to have specially contributed to this de- 
 plorable state of things. In fact, whilst one 
 became subdivided into sects, continually war- 
 ring against each other, and thus absorbing all 
 the attention of their votaries, the other extin- 
 guished at a blow all the lights accumulated by 
 the perseverance and labour of twenty centu- 
 ries. The scandalous and futile disputes of 
 scholiasts and theologians, replaced the study of 
 the useful sciences, and the human race, a prey 
 to petty cavillings, submitted to the double yoke 
 of feudal and sacerdotal despotism ; calamities 
 owing, there cannot be a doubt, to the slight 
 knowledge then existing in the exact and natu- 
 ral sciences, which are alone capable of afford- 
 ing solid and durable bases to social order and 
 the happiness of the human race. 
 
25 
 
 in. 
 
 Necessity for abandoning the method of the ancients, and 
 the perplexing questions of metaphysics to follow the 
 same method, in the study of man, as is pursued in the 
 natural sciences. 
 
 It is fully proved, I hope, that the example of 
 the ancients, and all systems of philosophy on 
 the essence of our faculties, can lead to no plau- 
 sible and satisfactory explanation of the na- 
 ture of man ; that the appetitive faculty, instinct 
 in general, the intellectual faculty, reason, free 
 will, &c, as described by philosophers, are only 
 occult faculties, resembling those spoken of by 
 the ancient writers, and must tend to arrest the 
 progress of civilization, and induce a multitude 
 of errors as regards the source from which they 
 are derived. In fact, what has been the result 
 of all the doctrines emanating from the sages 
 of Greece, and of those which Descartes, Male- 
 branche, Leibnitz, Condillac, Kant, &c, have 
 successively added to the entelechia of Plato, 
 and the entities of Aristotle ? Are we better ac- 
 quainted with the nature and essence of the 
 mind ? has our knowledge of its attributes and 
 faculties, or of free will, &c, been advanced by 
 them? Are all the difficulties which existed, 
 
 3 
 
26 
 
 fully resolved ? Finally — have we made any pro- 
 gress in self-knowledge? Do we not daily see 
 all the opinions of philosophers and theologians 
 on the metaphysical qualities of mind and soul, 
 reproduced in different forms? All hypotheses 
 of such subjects are necessarily problematical, 
 and at least useless, if not injurious; but, still 
 we find philosophers constantly recurring to 
 them, and unwilling to abandon these futile ab- 
 stractions. Would it not be a wiser and more 
 judicious course to confine ourselves to a con- 
 sideration of the material manifestations of our 
 intellectual faculties and moral qualities, which 
 come under the cognizance of our senses ? This 
 is the great merit of the system of Gall, which 
 was the first that reduced the philosophy of man 
 to these conditions. What useful end, says he, 
 will ever be attained, by these endless discus- 
 sions on the incomprehensible union of two 
 such dissimilar substances as soul and body? 
 Whether their union takes place a little sooner 
 or later — whether their reciprocal action be ef- 
 fected by the intervention of a plastic medium, 
 as was supposed by the ancients, or of an ethe- 
 real fluid, as asserted by others, or by the result 
 of the immediate intervention of the Deity, 
 as is stated by Malebranche, is what we can 
 never verify. What proves the futility of all 
 
27 
 
 these questions, is, that they have not contributed 
 in the slightest degree to advance our know- 
 ledge, and that those who have occupied them- 
 selves with such discussions, have paid more at- 
 tention to words than facts. All that we really 
 require, is, to ascertain the motives of our ac- 
 tions, the forces which are the immediate causes 
 of these actions, and what may modify these 
 causes; in fact, to devote ourselves to the in- 
 vestigation of our instincts, propensities, and all 
 other phenomena which concur in determining 
 the character and properties of individuals or 
 species, and not to lose our time in attempting 
 to elucidate such abstract and metaphysical ge- 
 neralities, as sensation, reflection, judgment, 
 memory, imagination, &c, which being quali- 
 ties common to the whole human race, cannot 
 in any case serve to characterize individuals. 
 Can these latter aid us in explaining our natu- 
 ral propensities, as physical love, friendship, &c, 
 or our special aptitudes, as a talent for music, 
 painting, mathematics, &c? We do not wish it 
 to be understood that we deny the existence of 
 these faculties — all we object to, is their em- 
 ployment as individual characteristics; such a 
 course would be as erroneous as to endeavour 
 to designate any particular substance by the 
 
28 
 
 enumeration of the general attributes of all ma- 
 terial bodies, as weight, impenetrability, &c. 
 
 Man is naturally more inclined to speculation 
 and theory, than to the laborious attainment of 
 facts. To become a distinguished astronomer, 
 nights must be passed in unremitted observa- 
 vations of the heavenly bodies ; to cultivate na- 
 tural history with success, mountains must be 
 scaled, arid deserts traversed, and the severest 
 privations submitted to. Far different is the case 
 with the man of letters; he, without fatigue, 
 can abandon himself to the reveries of his ima- 
 gination, and invent systems of philosophy, 
 whilst surrounded with all the comforts and 
 luxuries of life. Gall, with great reason, has 
 reproached psychologists with having indulged 
 too freely in these speculations, and with thus 
 having embarrassed and retarded the progress of 
 natural history and the exact sciences. It is to 
 them, says he, that must mainly be attributed 
 our ignorance of the true nature of man, and of 
 the phenomena of the sensations. Metaphysi- 
 cal cavillings have for ages retarded the inves- 
 tigations of those who cultivated true science, 
 and have prevented their attainment of satisfac- 
 tory results. 
 
 However, it appears to me that at the present 
 day, a perseverance in such an absurd course is 
 
29 
 
 impossible, and that the points of resemblance 
 which exist between man and the inferior ani- 
 mals, and the advantages resulting from a close 
 study of them, can no longer be overlooked. 
 All the organs of the former are to be found in 
 the latter; at least in those which are most 
 closely allied to him in configuration. Like 
 them, he is composed of muscles, nerves, blood- 
 vessels, &c, which exercise the same functions; 
 and animals, like man, have propensities, in- 
 stincts, and aptitudes, are good or bad, docile or 
 savage, are capable of attachment, &c. These 
 points of resemblance which have been admit- 
 ted by many fathers of the church, fully author- 
 ize the comparisons that have been instituted by 
 the most celebrated naturalists, as Buffon, Bon- 
 net, Dupont de Nemours, Geoffroi St. Hilaire, 
 &c, and prove the necessity of connecting the 
 study of man with that of animals. 
 
 We must therefore renounce the plan hitherto 
 pursued, of considering the faculties of man in 
 an isolated and separate state, and should never 
 attempt to treat of mind, vice, virtue, free will, 
 &c, except as connected with the other propen- 
 sities and attributes. To a true philosopher, the 
 psychology of man is part of his natural history 
 — all that can be understood by us are the phy- 
 siological phenomena ; that is, those manifesta- 
 
 3* 
 
30 
 
 tions of the operations of the mind which are 
 appreciable by the senses. The physical and 
 moral qualities of man form an indivisible whole, 
 and cannot be separated without the destruction 
 of useful links. One of the greatest obstacles 
 ever opposed to a proper knowledge of human 
 nature, says Gall, is, that man has been viewed 
 as isolated from all other beings, and considered 
 as not subject to the same laws that govern 
 them. It is impossible to avoid an eternal con- 
 fusion of w r ords and ideas, and not to fall into 
 the most absurd errors by pursuing such a plan. 
 Anatomy and physiology, as well as compara- 
 tive biozoology, are therefore of the highest im- 
 portance in the study of man. Without them, 
 we should never be able to explain a multitude 
 of interesting facts connected w r ith the history 
 of animated nature. They alone are capable of 
 teaching us, that in individuals manifesting the 
 same faculties, the brain presents the same de- 
 velopements ; that the faculties differ when this 
 organ is dissimilar, and that all intelligence 
 ceases, when this important viscus is replaced 
 by a mere system of nerves. 
 
31 
 
 IV. 
 
 Bases on which the study of man should rest, to arrive at 
 a more precise knowledge of the phenomena he pre- 
 sents, and to lead to institutions of a more equitable cha- 
 racter, and better calculated to promote his happiness. 
 
 I do not intend to dilate on the necessity that 
 exists for improving the study of man, that we 
 may institute laws more consonant to his nature 
 and happiness. This is a self-evident truth that 
 few are disposed to deny. But I have some ob- 
 servations to make on the means by which this 
 may be effected. Man is a great problem? 
 which has attempted to be solved since the first 
 dawn of learning, but of which no satisfactory 
 explanation has yet been discovered. Is there 
 any mode by which more determinate results 
 can be attained ? It will be perceived that this 
 question is partly answered in a preceding sec- 
 tion. And, in fact, by a stricter attention to the 
 wheels and springs of the machine than they re- 
 ceived from the ancients, we will necessarily ar- 
 rive at an explanation more in unison with their 
 visible movements, and thus make one step to- 
 wards the truth. But, man is an exceedingly 
 complicated machine, and his actions are the 
 more difficult to appreciate, from their being the 
 
32 
 
 product of a greater number of causes or forces 
 which are simultaneous and often dissimilar in 
 their operation. 
 
 Another mode of arriving at the desired re- 
 sult in investigating the number, nature, and 
 agency of these forces, is to compare them with 
 analogous phenomena produced by similar, but 
 more simple machines. 
 
 At the present day, it is probable that but 
 few individuals will be found, except such as are 
 wholly ignorant of the laws of nature, and ad- 
 here with pertinacity to antiquated dogmas, 
 who will persist in attributing all human actions 
 to a single and supernatural cause, and in the 
 same breath assert that all analogous phenomena 
 in animals, are the result of mere mechanism. 
 Reason and experience point out that the same 
 causes always produce the same effects ; thus, 
 bile, for instance, is secreted in the liver of the 
 dog and the horse, equally as in that of man, 
 and the brain of the latter, which is more 
 complicated, and has more convolutions, is ca- 
 pable of producing more ideas and intelligence, 
 for the organ of these two faculties is more de- 
 veloped. At an epoch when physiology, em- 
 boldened by its rapid progress, endeavours to 
 explain the functions of life, by the known pro- 
 perties of matter, it is incumbent on sound phi- 
 
33 
 
 losophy to examine if the instincts, the percep- 
 tive and other faculties of animated beings, are 
 in a constant ratio to the different degrees of or- 
 ganization by which they are generated. 
 
 But, on reviewing the animal scale, it will 
 soon be evident that life is not an identical phe- 
 nomenon, and that it does not exist in equal in- 
 tensity in all beings endowed with it, but in va- 
 rious degrees of perfection, from the most sim- 
 ple animal, up to the most complicated, or man ; 
 so that the insensible increase of the faculties, 
 corresponds in all cases to the greater degree of 
 perfection of the corporeal organs. To give an 
 example of this parallel and simultaneous im- 
 provement of the organs and their functions, let 
 us trace the important process of digestion ; we 
 will first find this function performed in the 
 most simple animals, as the zoophytes, in a sort 
 of bag, having but a single opening, and gradu- 
 ally becoming more and more complicated in 
 the insects, crustacege, worms, and molluscse, till 
 it reaches its utmost degree of perfection in the 
 mammiferous quadrupeds, and man, whose more 
 elevated faculties appear to require nutritive 
 materials in a more elaborated form, and hence 
 better fitted to concur in the production of more 
 perfect organs. It is the same with the other 
 functions, as respiration, circulation, the secre- 
 
34 
 
 tions, &c. All these are very simple at the foot 
 of the scale, but acquire a greater develope- 
 ment and power in proportion as they ascend, 
 producing what physiologists have termed dif- 
 ferent degrees of organization. 
 
 In sensibility, we are presented with another 
 example of this gradation of so interesting a 
 character, as to require notice. In the lowest 
 degrees of the scale, we find the nervous matter 
 distributed throughout the animal; as we as- 
 cend, we find it gradually forming small masses 
 of nervous fibre, then nerves, a neurilema, 
 ganglions, a spinal marrow, a cerebellum, and 
 finally, a brain, which, from being of the sim- 
 plest structure in fishes and reptiles, becomes 
 more complicated in birds and quadrupeds, and 
 finally presents in man the highest degree of 
 perfection of which it is susceptible. 
 
 When it is thus proved, that in animals and 
 man, there exists a manifest correspondence be- 
 tween the activity of the faculties and the de- 
 velopement of organs, and that this coincidence 
 is to be found in the whole series of sensible 
 beings, it must be admitted that the study of 
 the inferior animals is capable of shedding much 
 light on that of man — it must be admitted, I 
 again say, that a study of the faculties or inter- 
 nal forces of the former, must afford the greatest 
 
35 
 
 aid in explaining the actions of the latter, as 
 these actions are the products of analogous 
 forces, though more restricted and less compli- 
 cated in animals, and more developed and com- 
 plete in man. 
 
 v. 
 
 Principal internal forces which concur in the developement 
 of man and animals, and the actions which they are ca- 
 pable of performing. 
 
 If it is impossible to enumerate the actionsof 
 man, they may at least be grouped in tolerably 
 distinct orders, according to their nature. Thus, 
 in advancing from the simple to the compound, 
 we discover actions which are the immediate re- 
 sult of the mechanical operations of the organs 
 and tissues of which they are composed ; ope- 
 rations which are not under the influence of the 
 will, and may hence be termed automatic. In 
 this class are included the pulsations of the 
 heart and blood-vessels, the peristaltic action of 
 the intestines, and, in a word, all those func- 
 tions which constitute what is termed vegetable 
 life, or nutrition. 
 
36 
 
 Immediately succeeding to these, is that class 
 of sensations which have been denominated 
 wants, and whose seat is principally in the or- 
 gans of automatic life; as hunger, thirst, the 
 urgency of certain evacuations, respiration, &c. 
 All these internal forces impel us in a more or 
 less imperative manner to enter into relations 
 with external objects. Moreover, another series 
 of influences are connected with these wants, 
 arising from the mode in which they are satis- 
 lied, as digestion, secretion, &c., and of which I 
 shall hereafter speak. 
 
 The third order is composed of the instincts; 
 these are also internal forces, which are uncon- 
 nected with the reflective faculties, but of which 
 we have a greater or less degree of conscious- 
 ness, and which impel us to the performance of 
 certain actions necessary to our existence ; and 
 although they are executed by the organs of vo- 
 luntary motion, are at the same time more or 
 less irresistible. They are very numerous, es- 
 pecially in animals, and are generally manifested 
 from within, outwards. They might perhaps 
 be classed in different genera. Some, in fact, 
 belong to organic life, as, for instance, the im- 
 pulse that urges the scarcely hatched chicken to 
 seek for its appropriate food. Others are in- 
 tended to protect us from certain injuries, and 
 
37 
 
 to enable us to avoid certain accidents. Such is 
 the precipitation with which we retreat from a 
 falling edifice. Others, finally, appear destined 
 to subserve our pleasures. 
 
 The passive functions of the senses, it ap- 
 pears to me, should form a fourth order, and ac- 
 tive functions, a fifth. The impression of light 
 on the eyes, of sound on the ears, of cold or 
 heat on the skin, are examples of the former. 
 It is evident, that we have no greater dominion 
 over these impressions, than over the instincts. 
 But the case is widely different, when I place 
 my hand on any object which I wish to feel, 
 when I direct my eyes on anything that attracts 
 my attention, or when I listen with pleasure to 
 certain sounds; it is clear that this series of ac- 
 tions is the result of my will, and that they may 
 compromit my moral responsibility. 
 
 After the active functions of the senses, may 
 be placed the acts of voluntary motion, as the 
 movements of the legs, arms, &c, by which we 
 transport ourselves from one place to another, 
 provide for all our wants, exercise our trade or 
 profession; in short, by which we act on the 
 external world, and which are the product of 
 muscles under the immediate influence of the 
 brain. It is to be understood, however, that we 
 do not include in this category those movements 
 
38 
 
 which occur during sleep, or in a fit of insanity, 
 or in certain diseases, and of which we have no 
 consciousness. 
 
 The seventh order includes the propensities. 
 These internal forces, which impel us more or 
 less imperatively towards certain objects, or dis- 
 pose us to view things iri a certain manner, have 
 the greatest influence both on man and the in- 
 ferior animals; they ajr§, however, powerfully 
 modified by the superior faculties, by education, 
 &c, and may be kept in strict subjection in 
 man. In this order I place love, attachment, 
 love of offspring, temper, &c. &c. 
 
 In the eighth order I include what Gall terms 
 the mechanical aptitudes; as the skill with which 
 the spider weaves the web that is to procure 
 him food, that of the beaver in the construction 
 of his hut, of the oriole in the form of her nest, 
 &c. These kinds of aptitudes appear to me to 
 be separated from the instincts, properly speak- 
 ing, as they require a degree of intelligence 
 which renders them, especially in man, suscep- 
 tible of a certain degree of perfection. The 
 bird that for the first time tries the power of its 
 wings, flies awkwardly, and often misses the 
 branch on which it wishes to perch ; the old fox 
 is much more adroit and cunning than the cub, &c. 
 
 In the ninth order are found all the intellec- 
 
39 
 
 tual dispositions, or the faculties of mind. By 
 them we acquire notions and ideas of things, 
 or reflective knowledge. They are susceptible 
 in man of a very high degree of developement. 
 They constitute that peculiar faculty which is 
 denominated reason. To these succeed the 
 moral qualities, which result from the application 
 of intellectual faculties of a superior order to 
 those which regulate the propensities included 
 in the seventh order. 
 
 Finally — not to omit any of the internal forces 
 which might influence the actions of man, the 
 preponderance of certain systems of organs over 
 others, or temperaments, must be included, as 
 well as those derangements which occur in the 
 functions of both automatic life, and in that of 
 relation; constituting two additional orders of 
 causes, which are powerful in proportion to the 
 immediate and general influence they exert over 
 the others. 
 
 Such are the principal internal causes that 
 concur in the production of our thoughts and 
 actions, and to which may be referred the dif- 
 ference of temper, character, &c, so remarkable 
 in the human race. Without a correct know- 
 ledge of each of these causes, and of their influ- 
 ence on our actions, what hope is there of ever 
 arriving at a solution of the great question under 
 
40 
 
 consideration ? How, in fact, if deprived of 
 these data, can we proceed with any certainty in 
 the education of man, or bestow on him insti- 
 tutions suited to his nature, and which insure 
 his happiness, and a fulfilment of those high des- 
 tinies to which he is called ? Without these data, 
 I repeat, which no hypothesis can replace, are 
 we not continually in danger of chastising chil- 
 dren for involuntary offences, of being irritated 
 against an individual who merits our commisera- 
 tion, in short, of punishing faults whose existence 
 is owing to our own ignorance and prejudices, 
 or of tolerating abuses that ought to be corrected ? 
 Without them, how are we to distinguish the 
 essential dispositions of children, and the differ- 
 ent aptitudes with which they may be endowed? 
 How are we to avoid the commission of the 
 grossest errors in the education of a young man, 
 by striving to communicate to him talents for 
 which he has not the proper organization, and 
 neglecting the cultivation of those which nature 
 has bestowed upon him ? How are we to avoid 
 the serious misfortune of being a source of tor- 
 ment to our family and friends, without being of 
 advantage to them, to ourselves, or to society? 
 Deprived of them, how can any one flatter him- 
 self that he could become an equitable parent, a 
 skilful teacher, an enlightened judge, or a pro- 
 
41 
 
 found legislator? Without them, finally, would 
 we be more happy in the choice of our friends, 
 or less exposed to the snares of the vicious ? 
 
 VI. 
 
 Principal external causes which concur in the develc^emient 
 of man, and which exercise a more or less powerful influ- 
 ence over the internal forces, already spoken of. 
 
 To the internal and fundamental forces just 
 spoken of, with which man is endowed by his 
 Creator, to subserve his various wants and to 
 preside over his determinations, are added cer- 
 tain external forces, which modify them in a 
 greater or less degree, and which it is of import- 
 ance should be known. It is therefore necessary 
 to consider these new forces. I will first divide 
 them into primary or natural, and into secondary 
 or circumstantial, causes; these latter depending 
 on circumstances. Soil, climate, and food, con- 
 stitute the first, whilst to the second may be re- 
 ferred government, religion, and philosophy. 
 
 Soil, climate, and food, says Voltaire, impress 
 characters on man, animals, and plants, that are 
 unchangeable. I cannot now enter into a de- 
 
 4* 
 
42 
 
 tail of facts in support of this assertion, which 
 was made by Montesquieu, before Voltaire, and 
 which they both derived from Hippocrates. 
 This influence, although indirect, since it affects 
 the mind through the medium of the body, is 
 not the less prompt and powerful. In fact, who 
 has not observed numberless instances in which 
 food and drink excite or depress us, according 
 to the nature of the soil from whence they were 
 derived, the influence exercised on them by the 
 season, and finally, their mode of preparation; 
 and that these effects, which cannot be denied, 
 when permanent, produce particular diatheses, 
 which may be common to all individuals resid- 
 ing in the same district or country. Gall goes 
 much further, and pretends that even the milk of 
 our nurse, although in itself incapable of adding 
 any additional faculty to those with which we 
 are endowed by nature, may, nevertheless, sen- 
 sibly alter the texture of our organs, and thus 
 modify the developement of our primitive dispo- 
 sitions. He thinks that soil and climate are not 
 only capable of changing the constitution, but 
 may also alter, to a considerable extent, the de- 
 velopement and form of portions of the brain, and 
 thus modify in a determinate and durable man- 
 ner, the intellectual and moral attributes of indi- 
 viduals. %No one now denies the changes pro- 
 
43 
 
 duced by long continued customs and usages. 
 All authors admit that the idiocy and defor- 
 mity so remarkable among the inhabitants of 
 some countries, as the Cretins, Albinos, &c, 
 are the result of the permanent influence of cer- 
 tain local causes peculiar to these countries. 
 Let us now pass to another division of these 
 causes. 
 
 The same authors affirm that they also pro- 
 duce, in time, strong evidences of their action, 
 which are less durable and unalterable than 
 those above alluded to, because, from their very 
 nature, they are liable to experience modifica- 
 tions which militate against their permanency. 
 They, however, act in an immediate manner on 
 the intellectual and moral qualities, and hence 
 produce astonishing effects. From the earliest 
 ages, history presents mankind as under the in- 
 fluence of two very different, and often opposite 
 systems of ideas, and advancing with various 
 degrees of success towards a common goal. One 
 based on reason, is supported by experience and 
 the observation of visible objects. The other, 
 founded on revelation, is occupied with what is 
 supernatural and ideal. The first, which has 
 received the name of philosophy, is occupied 
 with the study of nature, and admits nothing 
 that is not appreciable by our faculties. The 
 
44 
 
 second, on which is founded all the doctrines of 
 religion, is devoted to incomprehensible beings, 
 whose attributes can never be fully appreciated 
 by the limited powers of our mind. The former, 
 that is, philosophy, owes its origin to the sages 
 of Greece, and more especially to Plato and 
 Aristotle, and endeavours to explain everything 
 by mere reasoning. The latter is derived from 
 ancient traditions, and includes all religions, from 
 the pantheism of the heroic ages, to the purer 
 doctrines of the present day. According to phi- 
 losophy, reason is the first authority we are to 
 consult, not only as respects nature and man, 
 but also as regards the Deity, allowing to au- 
 thority and tradition only a secondary rank. 
 According to religion, we are to rest on the evi- 
 dence of things unseen. There is not a shadow 
 of doubt of its vast importance to the welfare of 
 the human race, but unfortunately, it has been 
 so corrupted by the evil passions of man, that it 
 has lost much of its sublimity and inherent 
 holiness. 
 
 Such is the character of the two secondary 
 causes that have had the most influence on the 
 destinies of mankind. For a long time united 
 and directed by a single head, they gave rise 
 to the theocratic and patriarchal government of 
 the first human communities. But, the succes- 
 
45 
 
 sive developement of ideas, and the improve- 
 ment of institutions, finally separated doctrines 
 apparently so opposed to each other; they then 
 became rivals, and a third power arose, and so- 
 ciety became subject to three influences; rea- 
 son, the laws, and revelation ; or, in other words, 
 philosophy, civil government, and religion. But, 
 these three powers, although seeking the same 
 end, are far from having pursued the same 
 means of attaining them, and have not always 
 maintained a salutary equilibrium. In almost 
 all cases, civil government, less enlightened than 
 its two rivals, has been subjected to the influ- 
 ence of one or the other, and has been made an 
 instrument to subserve their purposes. It has 
 rarely been enabled to pursue a middle course, 
 and, too often, has become united to one of 
 these powers, for the purpose of crushing the 
 other. In general, nations have been most 
 happy, and political convulsions least frequent, 
 when these three causes have enjoyed an equal 
 influence. 
 
46 
 
 VII. 
 
 General view of the forces which act on man, and reflec- 
 tions on the nature of the progress of the human mind, 
 and the state of civilization we have attained. 
 
 If the reader makes a systematic analysis of 
 the various topics I have presented in the last 
 section, he will find that the view I have taken, 
 is far from being as perfect as might be desired, 
 and I must therefore beg that he will regard it 
 merely as an essay susceptible of much im- 
 provement, but which can take place only when 
 further researches shall have furnished more pre- 
 cise data on the objects under consideration. It 
 would therefore be superfluous to enter into long 
 details respecting the motives that determined 
 me to give it in its present form. I will restrict 
 myself to some reflections calculated to remove 
 difficulties, and to justify certain assertions. 
 
 If I am not greatly mistaken, it possesses this 
 advantage over all the metaphysical classifica- 
 tions hitherto devised, as the categories of Aris- 
 totle, Kant, and even of Locke, in its presenting 
 real objects as the evident and proximate cause 
 of all our actions, and not fanciful divisions of 
 abstract ideas, which have no existence except 
 
47 
 
 in the caprice of those who promulgated them* 
 In fact, the automatic movements, wants, in- 
 stincts, and other faculties, as I have described 
 them, are forces inherent to human nature, and 
 are subject to no changes that do not first ope- 
 rate on it. They have nothing that is arbitrary 
 or speculative; they may be understood at a 
 glance, whilst it is impossible to comprehend 
 the pure conceptions, the innate ideas, the forms 
 of sensibility, and other subtilties of Aristotle 
 and Kant. All the causes admitted in this 
 sketch, really concur in the production of our 
 actions, and have certain limits, which are, in 
 most cases, in exact proportion to the exigencies 
 of the case; thus, Gall admits five modes of ac- 
 tion for most of the forces he describes, and 
 which gradually become increased from their 
 lowest limit, till they reach the maximum of in- 
 tensity they are capable of acquiring; he di- 
 vides physical love, for instance, into the nega- 
 tive, moderate, and ordinary states; desire, and 
 finally, passion. 
 
 It may, moreover, be established, that in all 
 cases where these forces are the product of a 
 single organ, their intensity is always in propor- 
 tion to the developement of this organ, and that 
 those which result from the combined efforts of 
 many organs, are in a direct ratio to those 
 
48 
 
 organs which tend to produce a positive effect, 
 and in an inverse ratio to those which act in an 
 opposite manner; and that the resulting action 
 is powerful in proportion to the predominance of 
 the former. Moreover, as the question here re- 
 lates to geometrical ratio, in which the terms 
 never descend to zero, so in every animal where 
 there is a cerebral influence, none of the organs 
 subjected to this influence, are absolutely inde- 
 pendent of the will, permitting the animal to 
 suspend, for a time, the fulfilment of their pur- 
 poses, even when they belong to the system of 
 organic life. 
 
 I will here insert an observation which will 
 throw some light on what will hereafter be said 
 on liberty. According to Gall, the brain pre- 
 sents no point that can be regarded as the sole 
 centre of all the faculties of man. Gall always 
 ridiculed one of his pupils, who wished to de- 
 monstrate an organ of self, (moi) which he pre- 
 tended that he had discovered. The unity of 
 the power which constitutes despotism in human 
 communities, and which would be necessary to 
 establish a boundless power, as is feared by the 
 partisans of absolute freedom, does not exist. 
 The legislative power of man results from the 
 simultaneous action of all the organs which con- 
 cur in the production of his disposition. Each 
 
49 
 
 force and faculty always acts in the plenitude of 
 its activity. It may be balanced or overpowered 
 by the action of others, but is never destroyed* 
 This doctrine is not more contrary to a free 
 will, than a parliament to the royal prerogative; 
 metaphysicians have erected this faculty into a 
 special being, which has its consciousness, its 
 judgment, its will, &c; it is in reality nothing 
 more than the result of the changes which have 
 taken place in certain forces. According to 
 Spurzheim, the lower propensities act in man as 
 in animals. If they are more delicate and mo- 
 ral in him, it is not because they are less impe- 
 rious, but because the superior faculties soften 
 their violence and brutality. 
 
 I will terminate this section with some reflec- 
 tions on circumstantial, secondary causes. It 
 might be supposed, from what I have said, that 
 I regard civil government as a power subordi- 
 nate, and of later origin than the two others ; 
 but this is not the case. All three must neces- 
 sarily have arisen about the same time, but in 
 their successive developement, they have not 
 advanced with equal steps. There have been 
 epochs when civil government had more power 
 than religion, and others when it had much 
 less. They are both alike in prescribing duties 
 and rules of conduct, and in employing praise 
 
 5 
 
50 
 
 and censure; but whilst the one is supported by 
 a physical power that is obvious to all, and in- 
 stantly punishes any infraction of its precepts, 
 the other is founded on a moral force, subject 
 to great vicissitudes, and defers the execution of 
 its rewards and punishments to a distant period. 
 Such, it appears to me, is the cause of this al- 
 ternate predominance. Moreover, both testify 
 but little deference to reason; this power it is 
 considered should be silent at the command of 
 the one, and reverentially bow to the myste- 
 ries of the other. Philosophy, on the contrary, 
 looks upon this faculty as the most sublime of 
 man's attributes, and as the supreme and imme- 
 diate regulator of all his actions. She considers 
 reason as the principle on which she establishes 
 her empire, and as the means of exciting man to 
 noble and generous actions, without any other 
 reward than self-approbation, and of defending 
 him from vice, without any other punishment 
 than remorse. Always elevated in her thoughts, 
 and sublime in her views, she insists that man 
 should devote himself to the furtherance of the 
 happiness of his kind, and all his actions should 
 be free, generous, and disinterested, but founded 
 on the purest principles of virtue. 
 
 With these views, I admit three kinds, or 
 epochs of civilization. In the first, men having 
 
51 
 
 united in communities for some time, at first oc- 
 cupy themselves with those faculties of mind 
 whose culture is easy, and with such objects as 
 neither require experience, or a high degree of 
 developement in the mechanic arts. This is the 
 epoch of literature, of the arts of imitation, and 
 of all that appertains to the imagination, and de- 
 pends on taste; as painting, sculpture, architec- 
 ture, the first rudiments of geometry, and some 
 erroneous ideas on natural history. Such w r as 
 civilization among the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 The second epoch supposes a more developed 
 reason, and a greater maturity of genius. More 
 profound researches in literature, ethics, and 
 philosophy, induce a greater developement of 
 the natural sciences. Physics, chemistry, ana- 
 tomy, physiology, &c, are greatly improved, 
 and acquire more precision and importance. 
 Geometry, mechanics, and navigation, become 
 the instruments of the deepest research, and af- 
 ford a thousand resources to man, which could 
 scarcely have been hoped for. Finally — the so- 
 cial relations, agriculture, commerce, and indus- 
 try, are affected by the general impulse, and as- 
 sume a more elevated character, and thus com- 
 plete all those elements of prosperity which 
 characterize this second epoch of civilization, 
 
52 
 
 which is now enjoyed by most of the govern- 
 ments of Europe, the United States, &c. 
 
 After having paused for a moment to contem- 
 plate this scientific wealth, man soon begins to 
 apply them to new wants, and to endeavour to 
 perfect what he discerns to be defective. He 
 has ascertained that his acquisitions have in- 
 creased his power in a tenfold degree, and, 
 struck by the imperfections of existing in- 
 stitutions, which are apparent to a judgment 
 strengthened by the culture of the exact sciences, 
 he endeavours to base them on more reasonable 
 motives. Political economy and legislation now 
 gradually assume the rank of true sciences; free 
 discussions replace a restricted expression of 
 opinion; prejudices insensibly disappear; the 
 law offers a guarantee against arbitrary acts ; re- 
 ligion and public morals become free from the 
 fetters that now embarrass them; overgrown 
 fortunes disappear wilh the privileged classes, 
 and all ranks of society acquire such instruction 
 as enobles them, and renders the practice of vir- 
 tue easy and general ; man, in short, becomes 
 what he ought to be, a free, generous, and rea- 
 sonable being. This is the reign of philosophy. 
 May we attain this happy period, of which his- 
 tory, as yet, affords no example. 
 
CRANIOSCOPY. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. 
 
 Object of cranioscopy. — Its extent. — Its limits and con- 
 nexions with other sciences. 
 
 Dr. Gall is, as is well known, the author of 
 a system on the functions of the brain, and the 
 faculties of man. In endeavouring to render a 
 knowledge of this system more general, I have 
 employed the common term cranioscopy, or era- 
 noscopy; by which it is so often designated, 
 and which is, in some degree, consecrated by 
 use ; but to correct the erroneous idea it gives 
 of the discoveries of this celebrated man, by 
 presenting them as appertaining to a science of 
 mystery and divination, it becomes necessary for 
 me to state the objects of this science, and to 
 
 5* 
 
54 
 
 enter into some details on the signification of 
 the various appellations it has received. 
 
 Cranioscopy, or cranoscopy, which some also 
 term cephalology, (from x 6( P aX ^ brain,) and for 
 which I prefer the denomination cranognomony ; 
 that is: knowledge of the laws of the cranium, 
 is, like all the other natural sciences, founded on 
 facts verified by observation, and connected to- 
 gether by a chain of reasoning which renders 
 them readily understood. This science, which 
 Dr. Gall has often spoken of, under the name of 
 organology, or craniology, from its taking cog- 
 nizance of the organs, or parts of the cranium 
 and brain, which are the seat of the faculties in 
 man and animals; when considered in its fullest 
 extent, endeavours to explain, by the organs, 
 the manifestations of the primary or fundamen- 
 tal forces of sensible and locomotive living 
 beings. Our intention is, to restrict it more par- 
 ticularly to the study of man, and not to speak 
 of that of animals, except to elucidate difficul- 
 ties, or to give a more authentic and universal 
 character to certain truths. 
 
 These few words are sufficient, if I am not 
 greatly mistaken, to show that cranioscopy is 
 intimately united with all the natural sciences, 
 and consequently, like them, having more or 
 less immediate relations with our wants, and our 
 
55 
 
 civil, moral, and religious institutions. Its con- 
 nexion with natural history, is evident; its ob- 
 ject in common with that science, is the study 
 of created beings ; but less as respects their form 
 and classification, than their faculties and wants. 
 Its relations with physics and chemistry, al- 
 though not so intimate, are fully substantiated. 
 It is impossible, at the present day, to pretend 
 to any knowledge of the nature of bodies and 
 their properties, without a previous acquaintance 
 with the elements of these two sciences, and an 
 insight into the principal laws of nature, of 
 which they may be considered to be the key; 
 they have become still more indispensable, since 
 physiology has been enabled to explain the prin- 
 cipal functions of living bodies, by the simple 
 properties of their tissues, by their hygrometric 
 qualities, and by the elective affinities of che- 
 mistry. The different divisions of medical sci- 
 ence, have also many points of inosculation with 
 craniology. Pathology, for instance, daily fur- 
 nishes facts of the highest importance, on the 
 functions of the cerebral organs, and with which 
 the cranioscopist must become acquainted. Fi- 
 nally — anatomy and philosophy have become 
 more and more indispensable to the philosopher, 
 and to the proper cultivation of the exact sci- 
 ences, more especially to that of craniology, 
 
56 
 
 which is wholly based upon them. The cranio- 
 logist cannot neglect them, without compromis- 
 ing the justness of his views, and the truth of 
 his opinions. 
 
 But, besides the connexion of craniology with 
 the sciences to which I have just alluded, and 
 the advantages it derives from them, it, in turn, 
 influences them in no slight degree, and fur- 
 nishes the most important light to medicine, in 
 its application to mental diseases. Moreover, it 
 has enriched moral and intellectual philosophy; 
 that is, psychology, ideology, education, and ju- 
 risprudence, with truths that can never be over- 
 looked. 
 
 ii. 
 
 Opinions entertained by the learned, on the mind, under- 
 standing, and seat of the faculties, at the epoch when 
 Gall promulgated the principal results of his researches. 
 
 To fully appreciate the discoveries of Gall, it 
 becomes necessary to notice the state of science 
 previous to the announcement of his discove- 
 ries. Those philosophers who have made the 
 closest study of man, have differed widely as to 
 
57 
 
 the principle and cause of his actions. They 
 have been greatly at variance as to the number 
 of faculties which they regarded as fundamental, 
 and in the explanations which they have given 
 of these faculties. 
 
 None of the sages of antiquity, until the time 
 of Plato, appear to have had any definite ideas on 
 the nature of the mind. This inexplicable es- 
 sence was regarded as both the principle of life, 
 and the source of all our faculties. It was a 
 kind of entity, which was denominated pneuma, 
 by some, and psyche, by others, but which was 
 considered by all as an exceedingly subtle sub- 
 stance, and embued with very elevated metaphy- 
 sical properties. Plato, who was endowed with 
 a highly poetic imagination, has spoken so mys- 
 teriously of it, that it is not known even yet, 
 whether he considered it as partly material, or 
 as a peculiar and purely spiritual being, that is. 
 wholly destitute of all the properties of matter. 
 
 Aristotle, the most celebrated of the disciples 
 of Plato, in adopting the ideas of his master on 
 the nature of the mind, at the same time thought 
 that it had some faculties in common with ani- 
 mals, and others which were inherent and ex- 
 clusive. 
 
 The fathers of the church, in assuming the 
 spirituality of the mind, also regarded it as an 
 
58 
 
 immediate emanation from the Deity, and con- 
 sequently immutable in nature, and eternal in 
 principle. From this time, the belief that this 
 mysterious being was an immaterial and immor- 
 tal substance, endowed with the faculties of 
 knowledge and will, became dominant. Man 
 was regarded as the great end of creation, and 
 as the only being capable of discernment, and of 
 free will. Animals were considered as complete 
 machines, incapable of self-action, and regulated 
 by an immutable destiny. These ideas have 
 existed for near two thousand years, among the 
 most civilized nations of the w r orld, though some 
 philosophers have persisted in attributing the 
 qualities of living beings to certain arrange- 
 ments and combinations of matter. 
 
 Bacon, one of the most illustrious of those 
 sages, who presided over the revival of letters in 
 Europe, came to the conclusion that there were 
 two minds, the one sensitive, and the principle 
 of sensibility and voluntary motion; the other 
 reasonable, giving rise to reason, imagination, 
 memory, &c. 
 
 Descartes, the most celebrated of the philoso- 
 phers who immediately succeeded to Bacon, 
 without explicitly admitting or rejecting the ex- 
 istence of two essences, admits that man is en- 
 dowed with a mind having four faculties; sen- 
 
59 
 
 sibility, imagination, understanding, and will, 
 but considers animals as mere machines. 
 
 Locke, whose rigid and methodical reasoning 
 exercised so powerful an influence during the 
 18th century, reduced the mind to two faculties, 
 understanding, and will; thus differing little 
 from the opinion previously promulgated by 
 Hobbes, that this substance was endowed with 
 the faculties of knowing and willing. 
 
 Condillac, the most remarkable of the disci- 
 ples of Locke, reduced all the faculties of mind 
 to sensation, and considered attention, compa- 
 rison, judgment, reflection, imagination, and 
 reasoning, as altered sensations. 
 
 Finally — Bonnet, celebrated for his profound 
 researches in natural history, and metaphysics, 
 added to the faculties admitted by Locke, 
 thought, free will, and action, and was of opi- 
 nion that animals had an immortal soul. 
 
 All these systems on the faculties of the mind, 
 may be traced to Aristotle, and are founded on 
 the principle admitted by him, that all our ideas 
 are derived through the medium of the senses. 
 All admit, as has been explained by Romi- 
 guiere, the action of an object on the senses, that 
 of the senses on the brain, and of the brain on 
 the mind. But some metaphysicians, at the 
 head of whom must be placed Leibnitz, Po- 
 
60 
 
 shaska, and Cabanis, having discovered a series 
 of conscious perceptions in the understanding, 
 which were not derived through the medium of 
 the senses, pointed out the error of the Mace- 
 donian philosopher, and admitted instinctive ten- 
 dencies, by which man and animals are impelled 
 to certain acts. Gall, as will be seen, has gone 
 much further, and asserts that the external 
 world is only known to us from the fact of the 
 existence of certain fundamental forces, fitted 
 not only to perceive and judge of impressions 
 made on the senses, but w 7 hich are also the 
 source of a multitude of internal emotions, 
 which have the greatest influence over our ac- 
 tions. They impress a special character on 
 every individual, by which he may be distin- 
 guished from all others of his species. 
 
 Finally, two new systems of philosophy, 
 which have recently arisen, one in Germany, 
 and the other in Scotland, have made many 
 proselytes, and dispute the empire of public opi- 
 nion. The first of these, known under the 
 name of Kantism, from the name of its author, 
 Kant, is based on pure conceptions of mind, in- 
 nate ideas and entities analogous to the catego- 
 ries of Aristotle. The second, which is termed 
 the Scottish philosophy, or electism, as deno- 
 minated by those who profess it, is made up of 
 
61 
 
 principles derived from the most celebrated 
 spiritualists, from Plato, to Descartes and 
 Leibnitz. 
 
 If we review the various opinions on the seat 
 of the mind, they will be found still more dissi- 
 milar than those on its attributes. Pythagoras, 
 Hippocrates, Plato, and Galen, placed it in the 
 brain. Aristotle, and the stoics, in the heart; 
 Descartes, in the pineal gland; Lapeyronnie, 
 in the corpus callosum, &c. Others, having re- 
 marked that all these parts may be diseased or 
 destroyed, without any alteration being percep- 
 tible in the faculties of the mind, have denied 
 that they are its seat, and have consequently 
 placed it in the whole body. Dumas endea- 
 vours to sustain this opinion, by observing, that 
 as the brain is insensible, it cannot be the seat of 
 sensibility. Stahl, and his disciples, thought 
 that the substance of the mind (svopuwv, of Hippo- 
 crates,) was expanded over all the nerves, thus 
 making this divine emanation a kind of cerebro- 
 spinal fluid, after the manner of Majendie. Fi- 
 nally, a fourth class of philosophers, taking the 
 immateriality of the mind as the basis of their 
 reasoning, have considered it highly contra- 
 dictory to assign any particular seat to it, and 
 have abstained from pronouncing on this truly 
 inexplicable subject. Philosophers, moreover, 
 
 6 
 
62 
 
 have not agreed better on the union of these two 
 substances ; some have had recourse to a plastic 
 medium, others to very subtile emanations, and 
 Malebranche has come to the conclusion, that 
 the Deity himself presides over all our actions, 
 thus making the divinity a sort of subaltern 
 agent, subject to the orders of each individual. 
 
 This short sketch of the differences of the 
 opinions of philosophers, as regards the mind, 
 its attributes, and seat, fully demonstrates the 
 inutility of attempting to solve these questions, 
 and the necessity for restricting ourselves to 
 those material conditions connected with the 
 manifestation of our faculties. 
 
 in. 
 
 Erroneous opinions on the brain and nervous system, en- 
 tertained by physiologists and philosophers, before the 
 time of Gall. 
 
 Until the time of Gall, anatomists dissected 
 the brain by slicing it in all directions, not with 
 the intention of arriving at a knowledge of the 
 materials of which it is composed, but merely 
 to ascertain the peculiarities and conformation 
 
63 
 
 of the different parts thus exposed, without pay- 
 ing the slightest attention to the tissue itself, or 
 to the nature and direction of the fasciculi of 
 fibres of which it is composed. The most skil- 
 ful, from Varolius and Vieussens, to Bichat and 
 Vic d'Azir, blindly followed this method, and 
 this latter strongly recommends it as the only 
 one capable of leading to a true knowledge of 
 the form of the parts, conclusively showing that 
 this was the only object of anatomists. The 
 celebrated Francke, observed to Gall himself, 
 that it was a ridiculous presumption to entertain 
 any hopes of finding anything new in the brain ; 
 at the same time, this mode of dissection was a 
 natural consequence of the false ideas entertain- 
 ed respecting this most important organ. At 
 that time, and for a long time previous, the most 
 prevalent opinion was, that the brain was an al- 
 most inorganic mass, a sort of pulp, or peculiar 
 parenchyma, composed of four substances, dis- 
 tinguishable by their colour; and of different 
 parts of which the functions were not even sus- 
 pected. The absurd and ridiculous names by 
 which these parts were, and indeed still are, 
 designated, afford irrefragable proofs of the 
 complete ignorance that existed as to the nature 
 and functions of this organ. But, says Gall, 
 this ignorance is not astonishing; instead of 
 
64 
 
 paying attention to natural phenomena, physio- 
 logists involved themselves in metaphysical dis- 
 putes, and endless speculations on the seat of the 
 mind; they dissected caterpillars and mites, but 
 neglected the anatomy of the brain. 
 
 As to the nerves, says Dr. Demangeon, one 
 of the most zealous disciples of Gall, they were 
 universally regarded as arising from the brain. 
 It was thought, that nature had (if we may be 
 allowed the expression,) spun them from this 
 organ, without its ever having perceived how 
 contradictory it was that very large nerves 
 should, in some cases, be spun from a small dis- 
 taff, and vice versa. Thus, the large spinal 
 marrow, and voluminous nerves of quadrupeds, 
 were considered to be furnished from their rela- 
 tively small brain, whilst at the same time it 
 was evident that in man, in whom the brain is 
 very large, that these parts were comparatively 
 small, and that in the acephalous animals, there 
 was no brain for them to be derived from. 
 
 On reviewing the doctrines antecedent to 
 that of Gall, it will be found that Hippocrates, 
 regarded the brain as a sponge, which imbibed 
 the moisture of the body. Aristotle, on the con- 
 trary, viewed it as a humid mass, intended to 
 temper the heat of the body. Bichat, thought 
 that it was merely an envelope for the protec- 
 
65 
 
 tion of the parts situated at its base; others, 
 again, asserted that it was an organ of secre- 
 tion. Some contended that it was merely the 
 common origin of the nerves, whilst some again 
 were of opinion that it was the organ of sensa- 
 tion and ideas. 
 
 Finally — Buffon affirmed, that there was no 
 perceptible difference between the brain of a 
 man, and that of an ape ; and others went so far 
 as to sustain the perfect identity of this viscus 
 in all animals. 
 
 If from the brain, we pass to the reigning 
 opinions as to the seat of most of our faculties, 
 propensities, and instincts, at the epoch when 
 Gall began to teach his new doctrine, w r e will 
 find the same contradictions, and the same er- 
 rors; because Aristotle had asserted that the 
 heart was the seat of the soul; the blood was 
 regarded by many, as the channel by which the 
 mind received the impressions of external ob- 
 jects. Richerand, like Galen, taught that the 
 heart was the organ of courage and energy, 
 whilst some asserted that it was the seat of love 
 and the sympathies, or of cruelty, and the pas- 
 sions; though others, again, located these latter 
 in the abdomen, the hypochondria, the solar 
 plexus, or the stomach. Even St. Matthew 
 says, that out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, 
 
 6* 
 
66 
 
 murders, adultery, thefts, &c. The liver has 
 been looked upon as the seat of anger by some, 
 and of sensuality, by others. The tempera- 
 ments are still considered, by many, as the sole 
 cause of the differences of character and dispo- 
 sition in man. Bichat entertained the opinion 
 that folly and imbecility of mind, were owing to 
 a want of symmetry between the hemispheres 
 of the brain, and thought that considerable por- 
 tions of the upper convolutions might be re- 
 moved, without altering the intellectual facul- 
 ties. Buffon and Bonnet, pretended that a 
 single organ might be so skilfully constructed as 
 to be the source of the most diversified faculties, 
 and regarded the hand of man, the trunk of the 
 elephant, the tail of the beaver, &c, as the 
 cause of their superiority over other animals. 
 Cabanis, Bichat, Broussais, and many other dis- 
 tinguished physiologists, whilst recognizing the 
 brain as the organ of consciousness of our pro- 
 pensities, attribute the origin of these to the or- 
 gans of vegetative life. Esquirol and Pinel, 
 consider a deranged condition of the splanch- 
 nic viscera, as the cause of mania, insanity, and 
 idiocy. Fodere asserts that it is the blood, &c. 
 Thus, instead of having gone at once to the 
 common centre of our faculties, philosophers 
 of greatest eminence, have been contented to 
 
67 
 
 traverse the circumference, and have fallen from 
 one error into another. In the elephant, the 
 cause of his intelligence resided in his trunk ; in 
 the beaver, in his tail. Some naturalists revived 
 the opinion of Anaxagoras, that the hand of 
 man was the principal cause of the superiority 
 of his faculties over those of animals, and espe- 
 cially the monkey tribe; and Vic d'Azir, ex- 
 plained this superiority on the difference of the 
 muscles, making human reason to depend on the 
 power of flexing the fingers, and of opposing the 
 thumb to each of them. Another class of philoso- 
 phers, attributed this superiority to the delicacy 
 and perfection of his senses. Buffon maintained 
 that the touch was the only sense which fur- 
 nished us with full and complete ideas of things, 
 and that it was endowed with the power of re- 
 gulating all the rest. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Historical view of the labours and discoveries of Gall, and 
 the progress of his ideas on cranioscopy. 
 
 The obstacles with which Dr. Gall had to con- 
 tend in the establishment of his doctrine, as well 
 
68 
 
 as the prejudices with which he himself w T as em- 
 bued, and which he was obliged to overcome 
 before he could give a free scope to his ideas, 
 can now be appreciated. The latter obstacle, 
 says he, was by no means the least formidable 
 to be surmounted. A remarkable circumstance 
 attending the progress of his researches, was, 
 that he has gone from the known to the un- 
 known, and that he has been indebted in no de- 
 gree to chance. A knowledge of the functions, 
 has preceded that of the parts of which they are 
 the seat. He never attempted to designate the 
 organ of a faculty, until he had observed this 
 faculty in several individuals. Two distinct pe- 
 culiarities of mind had been the source of all his 
 discoveries— a decided taste for the study of na- 
 ture, and the habit of reflecting on what passed 
 around, to discover the causes. During his 
 youthful days, he took much pleasure in natural 
 history, especially in that of birds. Even before 
 he went to college, he had remarked that his 
 brothers, sisters, and comrades, were each distin- 
 guished by some peculiarity, or some aptitude or 
 propensity, which served to characterize them. 
 He observed, he says, that one was modest, 
 another haughty; this one frank and open, that 
 deceitful; this one peaceable, that quarrelsome. 
 A fouxth excelled in writing, whilst another had 
 
69 
 
 a decided talent for numbers. One was the 
 carpenter of the house, and was always seen 
 with tools in his hand ; and the greatest plea- 
 sure of another, on the contrary, was to assist 
 at the service of the mass, and to ring the church 
 bells, &c. 
 
 During the course of his studies, he perceived 
 that such of his companions as were most dis- 
 tinguished at the public examinations, were cha- 
 racterized by the excellence of their memory, 
 and in all cases had very prominent eyes. The 
 coincidence of these two circumstances, so well 
 calculated to strike a mind like his, was not lost 
 upon him. He soon came to the conclusion 
 that it could not be the effect of chance, and 
 after reflecting maturely upon it, he came to the 
 conclusion, that if memory was always an- 
 nounced by large, prominent eyes, that our other 
 faculties must be connected with other external 
 conformations. " From this moment," says he, 
 4 ' every individual distinguished for any pecu- 
 liar quality or propensity, became the object of 
 his attention, and of a close study of their 
 heads." Great musicians, great painters, great 
 poets, great mathematicians, &c, were succes- 
 sively the objects of his investigations. Finally, 
 he indulged the hope of one day being able to 
 establish a new and true physiology of the brain. 
 
70 
 
 Such was the state of Gall's opinions, when 
 the occurrence of a pathological phenomenon af- 
 forded him well grounded hopes of perfecting 
 his system. Physicians, generally considered 
 that the disease termed hydrocephalus, or dropsy 
 in the head, resulted in a solution and destruc- 
 tion of the substance of the brain; an organ 
 which was, at the same time, regarded by phi- 
 losophers as the seat of the mind. Gall, not 
 being able to reconcile these two ideas with 
 what he had himself observed — that this affec- 
 tion was not always attended with a loss of the 
 intellectual faculties, was convinced that either 
 philosophers or physicians were in error, and 
 strove to verify the fact. 
 
 A hydrocephalic female under his care, and 
 who bequeathed her head to him, enabled him 
 to test the validity of his doubts, and to demon- 
 strate that the white portion of the brain is of a 
 fibrous texture, and not a mere conglomeration 
 of globules, as had been supposed. In the head 
 of this woman, who had preserved the entire 
 use of her faculties during her illness, about four 
 pounds of w 7 ater were found, and the kind of 
 maceration which the brain had undergone, per- 
 mitted Gall to affect an unravelment of the con- 
 volutions, and also to demonstrate the fibrous 
 texture of its parenchyma, to his pupils. From 
 
71 
 
 this moment, Gall advanced with redoubled 
 vigour on his new route, and in a short time he 
 was enabled to collect a sufficient number of 
 facts, to guarantee the truth of his doctrine. 
 
PART SECOND. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON CRANIOLOGY, AND THE IN- 
 TELLECTUAL AND MORAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN. 
 
 Physiological and primary principles on which craniology, 
 or physiology of the brain, is based. 
 
 After having proved that the senses, the sen- 
 sations, the wants, attention, pleasure, pain, the 
 desires, the passions, climate, and social rela- 
 tions, cannot give rise to any instinct, propen- 
 sity, sentiment, or talent, or to any mechanical, 
 intellectual, or moral aptitude; that education is 
 capable of perfecting or deteriorating, repress- 
 ing or directing those faculties which both man 
 and animals have received from nature, but that 
 it has not the power of either destroying those 
 which they have, or of imparting any with 
 which they have not, been naturally endowed; 
 Gall remarks, in the first place, that all animals, 
 immediately after birth, perform certain compli- 
 cated actions, without any previous instruction, 
 and before they can possibly appreciate the re- 
 
73 
 
 suit of these actions; that, for example, the 
 spider just escaped from the egg, begins to 
 weave a web; the ant-lion, to construct his 
 treacherous trap; the chicken, to run after in- 
 sects and worms; the tortoise, to seek the near- 
 est pond, dragging with him the remains of the 
 egg that contained him; that the young puppy, 
 the kitten, the calf, the lamb, and the colt, are 
 scarcely ushered into the world, before they 
 search for the teat from which they are to derive 
 their nourishment; that the infant presses the 
 breast of its nurse with its feeble hand, to force 
 out the milk it, contains; that it cannot be to 
 any previous education received from its mother, 
 that the mason wasp owes the skill with which 
 it constructs its nest; that birds have received 
 no instructions either on the manner of con- 
 structing their nests, on the materials to be em- 
 ployed, or on the route to be pursued in their 
 migrations; that it is not to the instructions of 
 its parents, that the cub fox is indebted for the 
 skill and address he displays in pursuit of his 
 prey, &c. 
 
 In the second place, that his brothers, sisters, 
 and comrades, although they had all received 
 the same education, had grown up under the in- 
 fluence of the same circumstances, and had 
 been, as it were, nourished with analogous im- 
 
 7 
 
74 
 
 pressions, were far from having acquired the 
 same sum of knowledge, or of having attained 
 the same maturity of intellect ; that among those 
 whose education had been the most carefully at- 
 tended to, some, notwithstanding their best and 
 most strenuous exertions, were far surpassed by 
 others in the number and depth of their acquire- 
 ments; that some never attained even medioc- 
 rity, whilst others, almost without effort, had 
 met with the greatest success. 
 
 Finally, observing that animals, both in a 
 wild and domesticated state, presented differ- 
 ences in their faculties and manners, analogous 
 to those remarked in the human race ; and that, 
 not being able to attribute the cause of these 
 differences either to education or unwillingness, 
 or to the impressions made by external objects 
 on the senses, he thought himself authorized to 
 conclude that the propensities and faculties of 
 man and animals > are innate. Such is one of 
 the primordial ideas of Gall, and such are the 
 considerations that led him to adopt it as the 
 first of the four principles which serve as the 
 foundation of his doctrine. 
 
 Gall, afterwards observing that the aptitudes. 
 and the intellectual and moral qualities, differ in 
 all animals, as in man, according to the consti- 
 tution, the sex, and a number of material cir- 
 
75 
 
 cumstances, which it is impossible to overlook; 
 that they undergo the greatest changes in in- 
 fancy, youth, manhood, and old age; that they 
 even differ according to the quantity and quality 
 of the food, or the ease or difficulty of digestion : 
 that sleep, intoxication, disease, especially apo- 
 plexy, acute fevers, effusions, tumours, inflam- 
 mations, and ulcers of the brain and its mem- 
 branes, derangements in the functions of the 
 liver, the stomach, and other gastric organs, are 
 all causes which debilitate, repress, increase, or 
 alter the intellectual functions in a thousand dif- 
 ferent ways; adopted as the second principle of 
 his doctrine, that the exercise of our instincts, our 
 propensities, our intellectual faculties, and our 
 moral qualities, whatever may be the principle 
 from tohich they are derived, is subject to the in- 
 fluence of material and organic conditions. 
 
 Continuing, with the same perseverance and 
 sagacity, his strict examination of the functions 
 attached to different organs, Gall proved that no 
 one of the organs of internal life, as the heart, 
 stomach, lungs, liver, diaphragm, intestines, kid- 
 neys, the plexuses, ganglions, great sympathetic 
 nerves, &c, could be either the cause or seat of 
 any affection, instinct, aptitude, intellectual fa- 
 culty, or moral quality ; that no part of the or- 
 gans of sense, or of voluntary motion, as the 
 
76 
 
 eyes, ears, mouth, nose, cheeks, hands, fingers, 
 reproductive organs, &c, could, in like manner, 
 be the source of any instinctive, intellectual, or 
 moral faculty; and also that these forces cannot 
 be attributed to the whole organization, or to 
 the temperaments, since each one of all these 
 parts has its peculiar and well known functions, 
 and which are of a contradictory nature with 
 those under consideration. Collecting together, 
 moreover, numerous facts in human and com- 
 parative anatomy, physiology, and pathology, 
 which demonstrated that a greater developement 
 of the cerebral organs aids and augments the in- 
 tellectual and moral functions, and causes a 
 more energetic manifestation of the properties of 
 other organs, he concluded, and admitted as the 
 third principle of his doctrine, that the brain is 
 the organ of all our instincts, propensities, senti- 
 ments, aptitudes, intellectual faculties, and moral 
 qualities. But, instead of stopping, like his 
 predecessors, at this acknowledged truth, he 
 pushed his observations to a greater length, and 
 maintains that it is proved: that each of our in- 
 stincts, propensities, sentiments, talents, intellec- 
 tual and moral faculties, has a portion of the 
 brain which is specially appropriated to it; a de- 
 terminate seat, and that the developement of 
 these different parts, which form so many small 
 
77 
 
 brains, or particular organs, is manifested on 
 the external surface of the cranium, by visible 
 and palpable signs or protuberances, so that, by 
 the examination of these protuberances, or era- 
 nioscopic elevations, the dispositions, and intel- 
 lectual and moral qualities peculiar to every in- 
 dividual may be ascertained. But, it must be 
 admitted, that this fourth and last fundamental 
 principle of GalFs doctrines has met the most 
 opposition and incredulity. Nevertheless, con- 
 vinced of the importance of his labours, and of 
 the happy influence they must exert on our in- 
 stitutions, and on the treatment of cerebral dis- 
 eases; moreover, satisfied of the purity of his 
 intentions, and strengthened by the numerous 
 facts that he had collected in favour of this 
 principle, he did not hesitate to regard it as one 
 of the essential bases of his new doctrine; which, 
 according to him, is the only one that explains, 
 in a satisfactory manner, the whole of the intel- 
 lectual and moral phenomena of man, during 
 the various stages of his existence. Eminently 
 fruitful in its applications to human affairs, it is 
 above all, says he, of the highest importance to 
 education, the arts and sciences, the study of 
 history, of morals, of medicine, and of legis- 
 lation. 
 
 The above may be considered as an histori- 
 
 7 * 
 
78 
 
 cal sketch of the fundamental principles of the 
 system of Dr. Gall. It is now incumbent on us 
 to explain the essential peculiarities and means 
 on which he was enabled to found a doctrine 
 that has attained such celebrity. 
 
 ii. 
 
 Conditions essential to the manifestation of the intellectual 
 and affective faculties of the mind, and the formation of 
 thought. 
 
 To confine the study of man to an observa- 
 tion of facts, and to found a system of true phi- 
 losophy on the whole of his faculties, it is of im- 
 portance to ascertain whether these latter can 
 be manifested without the intervention of cer- 
 tain organs with which they appear to enjoy in- 
 timate relations, or whether their manifestation 
 is necessarily subjected to observable material 
 conditions. To answer this question, Gall ob- 
 serves, that our faculties, like those of animals, 
 augment or diminish in proportion as the organs 
 in which he supposes them to be seated are de- 
 veloped, strengthened, or weakened; that they 
 are most active and vigorous, when these same 
 
79 
 
 organs are most energetic and perfect; and that, 
 in short, they present aberrations or derange- 
 ments in their manifestations, perfectly analo- 
 gous to those to be remarked in their organs. 
 Let us examine this in detail: if we trace man 
 from his cradle to his grave, we first see him, 
 feeble, incapable of performing the simplest ac- 
 tion, and only manifesting his existence by irre- 
 gular movements, and the desire for food. 
 Soon, however, he becomes sensible to the im- 
 pressions of surrounding objects, experiences 
 faint emotions of pleasure and pain, desires and 
 aversions; testifies various inclinations; mani- 
 fests aptitudes, talents, love, ambition, and, suc- 
 cessively, all the other intellectual and moral 
 forces with which he is endowed, become de- 
 veloped; and, finally, acquire a maximum of 
 energy, which they preserve for some time, but 
 which afterwards decreases, till these faculties 
 insensibly lose all their activity, and are finally 
 totally destroyed; in some cases, long before 
 death. 
 
 But this gradual progress of our instincts, ap- 
 titudes, intellectual faculties, and moral quali- 
 ties, corresponds in the most constant and per- 
 fect manner with the developement and the de- 
 cay of the cerebral organs. In fact, we see this 
 viscus, in the first instance, almost fluid, gradu- 
 
80 
 
 ally acquiring more consistence, assuming a 
 fibrous structure, and insensibly increasing in 
 size till about the fortieth or forty-fifth year of 
 the age, when it appears to have gained its full 
 develcpement, remaining stationary in this per- 
 fect state for some time, then gradually becom- 
 ing diminished in its convolutions, insensibly 
 losing its volume and elasticity, in exact ratio to 
 the diminution in the intensity and vigour of the 
 faculties of which it is the seat. It is, more- 
 over, a fact which Gall has verified by a great 
 number of observations, that all men who are 
 distinguished by their energetic faculties, or 
 eminent talents, have the forehead, or some 
 other part of the head, much developed ; whilst 
 all those, in whom the cranium is small and con- 
 tracted in its dimensions, are equally deficient in 
 intellectual and moral faculties. Gall saw a 
 young man, in whom the forehead was scarcely 
 an inch in height above the root of the nose, 
 who manifested those faculties only, the seat of 
 which is near the eyes; and was incapable of 
 exercising any of those which appertain to the 
 organs which are situated in the upper region of 
 the forehead; that is, of comparison, causality, 
 &c, being in fact a kind of idiot, who could 
 be employed in no business requiring an exer- 
 cise of the reflective faculties. On the con- 
 
81 
 
 trary, he observes, that in rickets, the usual ef- 
 fect of which is to produce considerable irrita- 
 tion and developement of the brain, the intellec- 
 tual faculties of children are frequently more 
 vigorous and expanded than comports with their 
 age. It is therefore certain that our faculties 
 are enlarged in proportion to the greater de- 
 velopement and perfection of the structure and 
 organization of the brain, and they are di- 
 minished in an exact ratio to the deterioration 
 or deficiency of this organization, whence it evi- 
 dently follows that their manifestation depends 
 on this organ. 
 
 Gall also observes, that if in infancy the faculty 
 of reflection is deficient, owing to the weakness 
 of the brain, this is still capable of perceiving a 
 simple sensation, of experiencing certain desires, 
 and feeling certain wants; in short, of gradually 
 acquiring the necessary powers. The want of 
 reflection in an infant, however, is not exactly 
 on account of the weakness of its brain, but be- 
 cause the exercise of thought requires a certain 
 number of materials, which he has not as yet ac- 
 quired. Another proof that the convolutions of 
 the brain are the material organs of the faculties 
 of the mind, is, that we find that they increase 
 in size, in proportion to the manifestation of 
 these faculties, and that the developement of 
 
82 
 
 each is independent of that of all the others; 
 that wherever a similar developement of these 
 parts is found, similar aptitudes and qualities are 
 to be recognized ; that wherever the develope- 
 ments differ, the qualities of mind also differ. 
 Moreover, as the stomach, for instance, is not 
 always in action, so our propensities are not 
 permanent. The nightingale sings only in the 
 spring; the linnet and swallow migrate in the 
 autumn, &c. It may readily be supposed, for 
 reasons which wall occur to every one, that 
 these same propensities may sometimes acquire 
 an astonishing energy, always attributable to an 
 increased action in the convolutions of the brain, 
 in which they are seated ; thus, some men fall 
 into a brutal sensuality that is revolting, and 
 others into a despair, that refuses all consola- 
 tion. Finally — how can the succession of cer- 
 tain intellectual faculties, certain moral quali- 
 ties, and certain vices which descend in fami- 
 lies, be explained, except by this doctrine ? A 
 multitude of corroborating circumstances, there- 
 fore, tend to prove that the convolutions of the 
 brain are the seat of our instincts, and our intel- 
 lectual and moral qualities, as well as the instru- 
 ments of their manifestation. 
 
83 
 
 in. 
 
 Intellectual and moral nature of man, and how far he is en- 
 dowed with freedom of will. 
 
 Dr. Gall, having been accused of material- 
 ism, and of having denied the existence of free 
 will, undertook the defence of his doctrine from 
 these charges. The researches he made with 
 this intention, do not constitute the least curious 
 part of his work. He has more especially 
 availed himself of the writings of the fathers of 
 the church, and of those of the Platonists, and 
 the result of his inquiries has shown, that his 
 opinions were similar to those of the most cele- 
 brated and erudite of these sages. His replies 
 to the first accusation appear to me to be tri- 
 umphant, and maybe reduced to the following: 
 you accuse me, says he, of materialism, when I 
 have declared that I have attempted nothing be- 
 yond physiological inquiries, without even enter- 
 ing into the controversies of the psychologists, 
 respecting the nature and properties of the soul, 
 of the existence of which I do not entertain a 
 doubt. You accuse me of materialism, because 
 I teach that our intellectual and moral disposi- 
 tions are innate, and that their exercise depends 
 
84 
 
 on material organs in the brain. But, this opi- 
 nion is precisely what you yourselves profess, 
 (since you admit, with all the world, that the 
 brain is the seat of the mind,) and which has 
 also been held, during all ages, by those best 
 fitted to judge. Solomon, St. Paul, St. Au- 
 gustin, and most philosophers, have openly de- 
 clared that the mind is regulated by the condi- 
 tion of the body, that its faculties depend on or- 
 ganization and health, and that well constituted 
 corporeal organs are always accompanied with 
 the highest intellectual faculties. All physi- 
 cians, from the time of Hippocrates, have also 
 referred our thoughts, desires, passions, disposi- 
 tions, and moral character, to corporeal condi- 
 tions; some to the organs of automatic life, 
 others to certain ganglions, or plexuses of nerves. 
 Hence, says he, to accuse me of materialism, is 
 to include all the fathers of the church, all phi- 
 losophers, and all physicians, in the same cate- 
 gory. 
 
 Finally — you pretend that I am a materialist, 
 because you confound the principles of our fa- 
 culties with the corporeal organs, which are but 
 its instruments; but in this you have committed 
 the grossest error; in fact, it is precisely as if 
 you should maintain that the organ of sight, and 
 the faculty of seeing, are one and the same 
 
85 
 
 thing. Such an error is the more unpardonable, 
 from its having been so often pointed out, and 
 more especially by St. Thomas, and St. Gre- 
 gory of Nyssa. This latter, in comparing the 
 human body to an instrument of music, observes, 
 that, " as many very eminent musicians are often 
 unable to give proofs of their talent, from the 
 badness of their instruments; so, in like man- 
 ner, the mind cannot exercise its functions, 
 when the corporeal organs are in a deranged 
 state." 
 
 The plurality of organs, described by Gall as 
 existing in the brain, ought not to give rise to an 
 imputation of materialism, for the fingers are 
 not more material than the hand; and those 
 who admit the whole brain as the organ of 
 the mind, are as much materialists as those who 
 attribute each of its faculties to a particular or- 
 gan. But this plurality of organs, it is said, 
 destroys the unity of consciousness. This rea- 
 soning is fallacious, as it is sufficient to have 
 seen a brain, to be convinced that this viscus is 
 not a single organ, a unit, but an organ com- 
 posed of two hemispheres, of several lobes, and 
 of an indeterminate number of convolutions, as 
 we have before said; and that a plurality of 
 organs can have no greater effect in destroying 
 the unity of consciousness, than this multiplica- 
 
 8 
 
86 
 
 tion of parts. Moreover, in what way are the 
 forces described by Gall, as physical love, at- 
 tachment, &c, more destructive of this unity, 
 than the qualities admitted by metaphysicians, 
 as attention, judgment, &c. Finally, if it be 
 pretended that all these faculties are only modi- 
 fications of mind, he cannot be refused the right 
 of considering those designated by him in the 
 same point of view, and this is precisely what 
 he has done. "lam of opinion " says he, " it is 
 a single principle only, w T hich wills, smells, tastes, 
 listens, which thinks, and reflects ; but, to ena- 
 ble this solitary principle to acquire a conscious- 
 ness of light and sound, to enable it to smell, 
 taste, and touch; finally, to enable it to mani- 
 fest its faculties, it requires the aid of various 
 material instruments, without which, the exer- 
 cise of all these faculties would be impossible." 
 Such is the whole basis of the doctrine of 
 Gall. 
 
 I shall forbear to speak of freedom of action, 
 until I treat of free will, and will merely ob- 
 serve, at the present time, that from the laws of 
 our organization, we cannot see magnitude in 
 diminutive objects, find that pleasant which is 
 nauseous, feel hot whilst we are cold, &c, so 
 that, in fact, our impressions and their conse- 
 quences, are as inevitable as our contact with 
 
87 
 
 the material bodies by which we are surround- 
 ed. This, with what I have previously said on 
 the primary forces, is sufficient to demonstrate 
 the errors into which the partisans of unre- 
 strained freedom of action have fallen, and the 
 fallaciousness of a doctrine which for some time 
 past has enlisted many adherents; I allude to 
 that new hypothesis which supposes that we 
 view everything according to a certain system 
 of preconceived ideas; a theory which totally 
 destroys both reasoning and all liberty of action, 
 and consequently all moral responsibility, at 
 least in individuals, and reduces man and com- 
 munities to mere machines. 
 
 This specious mode of reasoning, which is 
 true in some of its applications, is evidently 
 false in its principle, and at variance with most 
 of its results. There is a wide difference be- 
 tween viewing everything through the medium 
 of ideas dependent on circumstances, and de- 
 rived from a course of education based on cer- 
 tain and determinate views, or through the in- 
 fluence of organs capable of a certain latitude of 
 action, and from impressions made by the hand 
 of nature, which cannot be the result of any pre- 
 judice. By the first, a nation becomes fanatical, 
 sanguinary, enslaved, or free, according to the 
 nature of the education it has received; by the 
 
88 
 
 latter, a nation, like an individual, is always 
 tending towards a determinate object, suited to 
 its nature and happiness. History, in fact, 
 shows that a prevalence of the influence of the 
 first has always been attended with changes, 
 which were more or less modified by the differ- 
 ences existing at certain epochs. On the con- 
 trary, a system of immutable forces like the or- 
 ganization from which they are derived, when 
 left uncontrolled, will always arrive at the de- 
 sired results, with a minimum of efforts and 
 time. 
 
PART THIRD. 
 
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY AS CONNECTED WITH 
 CRANIOSCOPY. 
 
 Of life, and the principal systems of organs that concur in 
 its production. 
 
 Life is not a substance that can be seen, 
 heard, or touched ; but is a result produced in 
 certain bodies, by the mutual and simultaneous 
 action of the parts or organs of which they are 
 composed. It is impossible to form an idea of 
 this phenomenon, without numberless observa- 
 tions, and much reflection on the series of beings 
 possessing this attribute. Nevertheless, the 
 slightest attention on our part, to the bodies by 
 which we are surrounded, will enable us to per- 
 ceive the striking differences that exist between 
 them. Thus, to the general properties of mat- 
 ter, as weight, impenetrability, #•£., to be recog- 
 nized in minerals, are superadded in vegetables, 
 nutrition, reproduction, the secretions, and cer- 
 tain internal forces by which they turn to the 
 
 8* 
 
90 
 
 light j attach themselves to other bodies, select and 
 assimilate such substances as are fitted for their 
 sustenance, &c. It is by the presence of this 
 second class of phenomena, that plants are dis- 
 tinguished from unorganized bodies, and to 
 which the term life has been applied. But, as 
 all the functions of which this kind of life is 
 composed are merely the results of a blind ne- 
 cessity and of automatic actions, attributable to 
 affinities arising from the general properties of 
 matter, it has been called vegetative, organic, 
 automatic, internal, or nutritive life. 
 
 In animals, all the phenomena of this auto- 
 matic life are present, but more or less modified 
 by their more perfect organization; and, in ad- 
 dition, they are endowed with properties of ano- 
 ther order, as locomotion, sensibility, volition, 
 and intelligence, qualities of a much higher order 
 than those found in the other classes, and the 
 union of which has been denominated sensi- 
 tive life, life of relation, or animal life, because 
 it is the principle of the relations that exist be- 
 tween sentient beings, and the bodies by which 
 they are surrounded. In fact, whilst plants are 
 fixed in the earth, and destitute of sensation and 
 motion, animals, and above all, men, move, act, 
 seek, avoid, and choose, with different degrees 
 of free will. Thus, in the common acceptation 
 
91 
 
 of the word, life, in animals, is the complicated 
 result of two very distinct orders of functions. 
 One fitted for the developement, growth, and nu- 
 trition of the individual; the other, connected 
 with sensibility, and all the intellectual and 
 moral consequences which may arise from this 
 property; the most elevated and mysterious of 
 the animal qualities, as being the immediate 
 constituent of animality. 
 
 These functions, which are more or less es- 
 sential, are performed by organs, or systems of 
 organs, with which the cranioscopist should be 
 familiar. I would indicate the digestive system 
 as the most special object of his researches ; these 
 organs consist of the mouth, teeth, stomach, and 
 intestines, and are fitted for triturating the food, 
 and for extracting all the nutritive materials con- 
 tained in it; the circulatory system, the most 
 important parts of which are the heart, which 
 propels the blood into the arteries ; the arteries, 
 which convey it to different parts of the body, 
 and the veins, which convey it back again to the 
 heart; the respiratory system, of which the 
 lungs are the principal organs; the secretory, in- 
 cluding the kidneys, which separate the urine 
 from the blood; the liver, which extracts the 
 bile; the glands, which elaborate various fluids, 
 
92 
 
 &c; and finally, the locomotive, the principal 
 agents of which are the bones and muscles. 
 
 ii. 
 
 The nervous system in general. 
 
 But, of all these systems, the most important 
 to the cranioscopist, is the nervous, as it is the 
 principle of all our emotions, our sensations, and 
 our thoughts; it vivifies all the others, and en- 
 dows them with sensibility, or that faculty by 
 means of which they become susceptible of cer- 
 tain impressions. To it, also belong those 
 functions of the senses by which we maintain a 
 relation with the external world ; it is, in short, 
 as is observed by Gall, the source of all the phe- 
 nomena, of animality and humanity, from the 
 simplest sensation, to the most elevated of the 
 moral and intellectual faculties. For, as secre- 
 tion or digestion cannot exist without a liver, 
 kidneys, and stomach, so there will be a total 
 absence of emotions, sensations, instincts, apti- 
 tudes, moral and intellectual qualities, &c; in 
 short, of all reason and will, if a nervous system 
 
93 
 
 be wanting. Man and animals, being incapable 
 of affections and spontaneity, would, like plants, 
 be reduced to three conditions of existence, 
 birth, growth, and death. It is, therefore, ne- 
 cessary to treat this subject in some detail. In 
 the superior animals, and in man, (we use the 
 term superior animals, to denote those having 
 the most perfect organization,) the nervous sys- 
 tem is, in general, composed of elastic cords of 
 different dimensions, which are distributed to all 
 parts of the body, and gradually divide off into 
 extremely slender filaments. For a long time 
 past, physiologists have regarded these cords, 
 which are enlarged in various parts into vari- 
 ously formed ganglions, or tumours, as arising 
 from two very distinct sources; that is, they 
 have admitted two different nervous systems, 
 one composed of the cerebrospinal axis, having 
 under its control all the organs which consti- 
 tute the life of relation, and under the empire 
 the will ; the other, formed of the great sympa- 
 thetic, and its ganglions, presiding over all the 
 actions of automatic life, the functions of which 
 are independent of the will. Gall appears to 
 admit as many nervous systems, as there are 
 systems of organs; one for the digestive func- 
 tions, one for each of the principal secretions, 
 one for respiration, one for the circulation, one 
 
94 
 
 for the organs of voluntary motion, one for the 
 functions dependent on the senses, and finally, 
 one that presides over all the instincts, all the 
 propensities, the intellectual and moral quali- 
 ties, and is the seat of the mind. 
 
 The principal points in support of this doc- 
 trine may be reduced to the following: in the 
 animals, which are lowest in the scale, and have 
 but one single viscus, there exists but one gan- 
 glion, and its nervous filaments. But, where 
 organization becomes more complex, and the 
 viscera and functions increase in number, the 
 ganglions and nerves, or small nervous systems, 
 increase in like proportion, and finally, as many 
 of these systems may be recognized, as there 
 are distinct functions. In the second place, this 
 law of increments, which we have just seen as 
 applicable to the ganglionic system, holds equal- 
 ly good as respects the brain, which, quite sim- 
 ple in the lower animals, becomes complex in 
 proportion to the increase of the faculties, and it 
 will be found that the convolutions are better 
 defined, and more numerous, as these faculties 
 are more numerous and striking. 
 
 This doctrine receives additional confirma- 
 tion, from the fact that each viscus is endowed 
 with a special sensibility, of course indicating 
 that there is a nervous system peculiar to each. 
 
95 
 
 Finally, another proof that there is a nervous 
 system appropriated to each class of the auto- 
 matic or animal functions, may be assumed, 
 from its having been shown that these systems 
 are not developed simultaneously, but appear 
 with the faculties over which they preside; or, 
 in other terms, in exact ratio to the develope- 
 ment of the organs of these faculties. The 
 same thing occurs with the different organs of 
 the brain, these also being wholly independent 
 of each other in their growth and decrease. 
 
 It might be supposed that these various ner- 
 vous systems are inimical to that unity of action 
 which ought to exist, and which is observable 
 in every animal. But this objection falls to the 
 ground, when the false ideas now entertained 
 with respect to the nature of life, are abandon- 
 ed, together with the prevalent custom of refer- 
 ring all that passes within us to a common cen- 
 tre, which exists only in our imagination, and 
 which anatomists have in vain endeavoured to 
 discover in certain important organs. Have 
 those philosophers, who, wishing to revive long 
 exploded ideas, have laid such stress on the me 
 (le mot,) and its unity, given a clear definition 
 of the one, or assigned a special seat to the 
 other? Is this new entity, which they suppose 
 to enjoy an independent existence, anything 
 
96 
 
 more than a purely metaphysical creation, a 
 word that has been imagined to serve certain 
 ends? Let us boldly seek for truth, by re- 
 nouncing, on the one hand, erroneous ideas, and 
 not endeavouring to explain things which are 
 beyond all human cognizance; and on the other, 
 by admitting those conclusions which are the 
 natural result of a close study of such pheno- 
 mena as are appreciable to our senses. Let us 
 avoid touching on the soul and its attributes, 
 but at the same time also, let us not condemn 
 those physiologists who are of opinion that the 
 material conditions by which its faculties are 
 manifested, are discoverable in the organization. 
 
 If the various nervous systems have different 
 functions, and are each fitted to preside over a 
 particular order of organs, they are not, on that 
 account, unconnected with each other. Nature 
 has established such relations between them, as 
 are necessary to produce that consentaneous ac- 
 tion, so remarkable in their functions. In fact, 
 all these systems have numerous inosculations 
 and points of contact, thus uniting into one 
 beautiful whole, all the multiplied actions, con- 
 stituting what is termed life. 
 
 But can we, or ought we regard the brain as 
 the exclusive organ, the sole source of all our 
 faculties, and of all the functions of animal life ? 
 
97 
 
 This is a most important question. Although 
 Gall adopted the affirmative, as the third princi- 
 ple of his doctrine, still this point cannot be con- 
 sidered as completely settled. It is true, that 
 numerous facts may be adduced in its favour; 
 but, on the other hand, there are many which 
 appear wholly adverse to it. After having 
 strictly weighed, not only the opinions of Gall, 
 but also those of the most eminent physiolo- 
 gists entertaining opposite views, it has appeared 
 to me that subsequent researches can produce 
 but slight modifications in the general principles 
 I have laid down ; and that in the lower ani- 
 mals, we must admit the existence of different 
 nervous systems, fitted for various degrees of 
 intelligence; but that in the superior animals, 
 no impression with consciousness, no perception 
 with reasoning, no intellectual manifestation, no 
 moral quality, can take place without a brain. 
 
 That I may omit nothing of importance ap- 
 pertaining to the nervous system in general, I 
 must now explain some phenomena of another 
 character. I have said that the organs of nutri- 
 tion are under the influence of the great sym- 
 pathetic nerves. But, in stating this fact, I did 
 not intend to say that these organs were unpro- 
 vided with any nerves arising from the brain, 
 but merely that these were few in number, as 
 
 9 
 
98 
 
 compared to the others. The same observation 
 is applicable to the organs of relation, that is to 
 say, these organs are furnished with many more 
 nerves from the brain and spinal marrow, than 
 from the great sympathetic. This double dis- 
 position explains many facts of the highest im- 
 portance. The slight influence of the will on 
 the organs of automatic life, and its absolute do- 
 minion over those of animal life, is one of these. 
 After the details already given, it is useless 
 to say more on this subject. I will merely 
 observe, that this arrangement displays one of 
 the w r isest provisions of nature. For it must be 
 evident, that life would be greatly compromised, 
 if the permanence of its most important func- 
 tions were dependent on the will, and also that 
 all liberty of action would disappear, if the or- 
 gans of external life were under the automatic 
 and perpetual influence of the ganglionic nerves; 
 were this the case, man would neither be mas- 
 ter of his actions, nor capable of watching over 
 functions necessary to his existence. 
 
 A second phenomenon of this unequal distri- 
 bution of the different orders of nerves to the 
 various organs, consists in filaments of the great 
 sympathetic being furnished to the organs of re- 
 lation, in such proportion as to fulfil the func- 
 tions of nutritive life, but not to interfere with 
 
99 
 
 the action of those that depend on the will ; and 
 the same is true with regard to the distribution 
 of cerebral nerves to the organs of automatic 
 life. This is always sufficient to enable the 
 brain to perceive the effects of any stimulant 
 applied to them, but at the same time not to 
 produce such changes in their functions, as 
 might be detrimental. This explains the mode 
 in which we become conscious of certain wants, 
 as hunger and thirst, of certain evacuations, of 
 the pleasure or pain experienced in these organs, 
 and of the feelings of suffocation we experience 
 in the phrenic region, when we are under the 
 influence of deep grief, or violent passion. 
 
 Finally — a third order of phenomena is fur- 
 nished by those organs which receive an equal 
 proportion of both ganglionic and cerebral 
 nerves, and which, consequently, are under the 
 simultaneous or alternate influence of both sys- 
 tems. The respiratory functions, which in a 
 natural state execute their functions without 
 any intervention on the part of the will, but 
 which this power can nevertheless suspend for 
 a certain time, are an example of this kind of 
 double influence; the reproductive organs are 
 another, &c. 
 
100 
 
 III. 
 
 The great sympathetic and its ganglions, or the nervous 
 system of internal and vegetative life. 
 
 Man being the principal object of our re- 
 searches, I shall confine myself in what I have 
 still to say on this subject, to a few general re- 
 flections on the two great divisions of the ner- 
 vous system; one, as has already been stated, 
 under the influence of the will, and the other, 
 wholly independent of it. This latter is com- 
 posed of two distinct parts, one peripheral, com- 
 posed of two chains of ganglions, which descend 
 in a curved line from the head, through the 
 neck, breast, and abdomen, to the lower part of 
 the pelvis, and which, approaching each other 
 at their extremities, form a kind of lengthened 
 ellipse, of which the spinal column forms the 
 axis; the other, central and much more irregu- 
 lar, is formed of several ganglions, or nervous 
 plexuses, which are situated in the splanchnic 
 and precordial cavities. In both these divisions 
 of the great sympathetic, the number of gan- 
 glions is by no means constant, and varies be- 
 tween certain limits; but each ganglion, or 
 plexus, appears to be a centre, in which the 
 
101 
 
 nervous branches, formed by a union of all the 
 filaments arising from the tissue of the organs, 
 terminate; so that the size of each ganglion is, 
 in most cases, in an exact ratio to the number 
 and size of the organs from which it receives 
 nervous irradiations. Those of the elliptical 
 portion have frequent communications or inos- 
 culations with the cerebral nerves distributed to 
 the different organs. Those of the centre are 
 confined to the cardiac circulation, to the diges- 
 tive, and to the urino-genital organs, and have 
 but little connexion with the cerebral nerves; 
 which explains, in a satisfactory manner, why 
 we are unable to control the motions of the heart 
 or intestines. 
 
 In general, this portion of the human nervous 
 system is most abundant in the pelvis, where 
 the organs of vegetative life are the most nu- 
 merous; it diminishes as it ascends, and is lost 
 in imperceptible filaments in the cranium; thus 
 following an opposite course to the other part, 
 which is most voluminous in the head, and in- 
 sensibly diminishes as it descends. 
 
 Finally — the principal ganglions belonging 
 to the ellipse, are: the ophthalmic, the three cer- 
 vical, those of the thorax, to the number of ten 
 or twelve, and those of the abdomen. Those 
 of the central part, are: the semi-lunar and 
 
 9* 
 
102 
 
 solar plexuses, placed near the diaphragm, or 
 phrenic centre; the caeliac, hepatic, splenic, co- 
 ronary, mesenteric, renal, spermatic, &c. I 
 cannot speak at greater length of the various 
 functions of these plexuses, without entering 
 into anatomical details, incompatible with the 
 nature of this work. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Of the cerebro-spinal axis, or the nervous system of exter- 
 nal life, or that of relation. 
 
 This second division of the human nervous 
 system comprehends, — 1st. all the nerves by 
 which we have a consciousness of impressions 
 made on different parts of our body, by the va- 
 rious external objects by which we are sur- 
 rounded; — 2d. those by which we react on these 
 same objects at will. It presents four very dis- 
 tinct parts: a cerebrum, a cerebellum, a spi- 
 nal marrow; these three forming what we have 
 called the cerebro-spinal axis, and eighty-six 
 nervous cords, disposed in forty pairs, which ex- 
 tend from the axis to the various organs, in 
 the tissue of which they are finally lost. In an 
 
103 
 
 anatomical point of view, these nerves are of 
 two kinds: those which issue from the cranium, 
 and are given off at the lower part of the brain, 
 are termed cranial, or cerebral, whilst those 
 which arise along the spine, are called spinal; 
 these are subdivided into cervical, dorsal, lum- 
 bar, or sacral, according to the part of the spine 
 at which they are given off. In physiology, 
 these nerves are divided into nerves of sensation, 
 ^and nerves of motion. The first are those ap- 
 propriated to the senses, and by virtue of a pe- 
 culiar property, are fitted to receive the impres- 
 sion of external objects, as light, sound, odours, 
 &c, and to transmit these impressions to the 
 brain ; the latter are denominated nerves of mo- 
 tion, because, under the guidance of the will, they 
 communicate motion to the different parts of the 
 body by which we act, breathe, articulate, and 
 express the internal emotions that we expe- 
 rience. 
 
104 
 
 v. 
 
 Of the brain, its hemispheres, its lobes, and its convolu- 
 tions. Hydrocephalus. 
 
 Until the time of Gall, anatomists treated 
 the brain as if it had been the most unimportant 
 organ in the body, and contented themselves 
 with slicing it in all directions, without any other 
 view, as I have before said, than that of de- 
 scribing the different forms thus produced. All 
 the peculiarities of structure presented by this 
 organ, never led to a suspicion that they were 
 intended to fulfil wise purposes. They were 
 perfectly acquainted with the utility of the dif- 
 ferent stomachs in ruminating animals, and with 
 the folds with which they were furnished ; but 
 they had no idea of the functions of the hemi- 
 spheres, the lobes, and the convolutions of the 
 brain. They were, in like manner, ignorant of 
 the purposes of the two substances composing 
 this organ, the cortical and medullary ; but such 
 is the empire of truth, when enforced in the 
 language of conviction, that many points of doc- 
 trine which were at first contested, are now ge- 
 nerally admitted. Thus, all physiologists agree 
 in opinion, that the brain is the organ of the 
 
105 
 
 highest functions in man and animals, that the 
 cortical or gray substance is of a gelatinous na- 
 ture, but that the medullary, or white, is com- 
 posed of very delicate fibres, and forms a sort 
 of skin, or membrane, thrown into numerous 
 folds, constituting the convolutions to be re- 
 marked on the exterior of the brain ; that these 
 convolutions are the seat of the higher facul- 
 ties, by means of which man compares, corn- 
 bines, and distinguishes the various impressions 
 made on him, and thus arrives at a know- 
 ledge of their consequences and results. If on 
 a perusal of Dr. Gall's works, we are asto- 
 nished that so much remained unknown after 
 the researches of so many anatomists, by whom 
 the brain had been divided and inspected in 
 all its parts, we are not less struck with the 
 progress of science in this branch, since the pub- 
 lication of his investigations on this organ. And 
 it is a matter of no slight congratulation to 
 philanthropists, that his anatomical discoveries 
 have tended so greatly to the amelioration of 
 our institutions, and the treatment of our most 
 afflicting diseases. It is thus that genius, guided 
 by a philosophical study of things, sheds light 
 on all it approaches. 
 
 If I had the time to follow the path of this 
 discriminating observer, who was as methodical 
 
106 
 
 in his advances, as fruitful in his resources, we 
 should always find him attacking the most in- 
 veterate prejudices; at one time combating in 
 favour of the unhappy victims of insanity, con- 
 signed to unwholesome and loathsome cells, and 
 subjected to a treatment, the brutality and error 
 of which are a dishonour both to medicine and 
 humanity ; at another, acting as the advocate of 
 individuals who, although suffering under the 
 severest penalties of the law, merit our compas- 
 sion, or perhaps our esteem, rather than our cen- 
 sure and our punishments; now protesting 
 against those exclusive spiritualists, who, with 
 their obscure metaphysics, extinguish all light, 
 and arrest the progress of all true science; again, 
 ridiculing those dissectors of the brain, who, al- 
 though possessing good instruments, and some 
 skill in using them, but despising his researches 
 and discoveries, have never been able to disco- 
 ver, even after the most minute investigation, 
 anything more than had been seen by others 
 long before; and who have never been able to 
 perceive that such a variety of parts, of so de- 
 licate and admirable a structure, must necessa- 
 rily be designed for the performance of functions 
 of a higher grade, than those of less elaborate 
 organs. Always zealous for the interests of 
 true science, and devoted to the advancement of 
 
107 
 
 truth, I rejoice, says he, to have been the first to 
 have dared to attack the errors of our most ve- 
 nerated authorities, and to have occasioned the 
 happiest changes, not only in the nature and 
 treatment of mental diseases, but also in philo- 
 sophy, and other subjects having an immediate 
 relation with the happiness of man. 
 
 Let this doctrine be compared with those of 
 metaphysical reasoners, or with the articles 
 mental alienation, insanity, mania, delirium, 
 &c., in the Dictionary of Medical Sciences, and 
 other works, and the striking differences that 
 will be remarked, will prove, in my opinion, that 
 positive knowledge, promulgated with frank- 
 ness and confidence, will always triumph. 
 
 But, to return : I stated in the second part of 
 this w T ork, that the brain is composed of as 
 many organs as there are propensities, aptitudes, 
 or distinct fundamental forces, and that these 
 forces act with an energy proportionate to the 
 developement of the organ, or convolution ap- 
 propriated to it; finally, that this developement 
 took place from the centre to the circumference, 
 and is at last manifested at the surface of the 
 brain by a protuberance. But, it is necessary 
 to add some further explanations on this point. 
 According to Dr. Gall, it is a general law of 
 the nervous system, that each nerve, after hav- 
 
108 
 
 ing received certain additions in its course, 
 ramifies, and is lost in the organ or spot where 
 its action is to be exercised ; thus, says he, the 
 nerves of touch are lost in the skin; those of 
 voluntary motion, in the muscles; those of the 
 senses, in the appropriate organ. Now, this is 
 precisely what takes place, he continues, with 
 regard to the brain, which he considers as a 
 great nerve added to the spinal marrow. The 
 different ramifications of this nerve are the con- 
 volutions, or organs composing the hemispheres, 
 and which, receiving additions from the centre 
 to the circumference, form a sort of nervous 
 membrane, of about one or two lines in thick- 
 ness, and having its whole surface formed of the 
 ramification of the nervous fibres, or filaments. 
 Some idea of this may be formed by the folds 
 in a ruffle, or flounce; the folds represent the 
 convolutions, and the hollows between them, 
 the infractuosities spoken of by anatomists. 
 The expansion of the olfactory nerve on the 
 turbinated bones of the nose also forms plaits, 
 or small convolutions, perfectly analogous to 
 those of the brain, except that the latter are 
 much the larger. It is, moreover, well known, 
 that a brain in which the convolutions are un- 
 equally developed, presents hollows and pro- 
 tuberances of various forms and sizes on its sur- 
 
109 
 
 face. It must also be borne steadily in mind, 
 that these convolutions differ exceedingly in 
 form and size; thus, in one organ, the ner- 
 vous expansion forms but a single convolu- 
 tion, whilst in another, it is thrown into se- 
 veral; finally, that the fundamental forms of 
 these convolutions are, with very slight varia- 
 tions, the same in all human brains, and are al- 
 ways congruent in the hemispheres of the same 
 brain. 
 
 It evidently results from this doctrine, that 
 the object of nature was to multiply the sur- 
 faces of the brain, and that the convolutions 
 may be regarded as analogous to the rolls com- 
 posing the books of the ancients; the brain 
 being a volume, of which the convolutions are 
 the leaves, each of which is devoted to a differ- 
 ent subject; it must, however, be observed, that 
 they are not limited to this single passive func- 
 tion, but are at the same time the seat of active 
 forces, which excite us to certain actions, and 
 impel us to certain determinate objects. 
 
 To be fully enabled to appreciate the degree 
 of developement which any part of the cranium 
 may acquire, it is necessary to have an idea 
 of its general conformation. Anatomists dis- 
 tinguish two orders of bones in the head; those 
 of the face, and those of the cranium. The 
 
 10 
 
110 
 
 first are seven in number, but as they only con- 
 cur in forming the cavity of the mouth and of 
 the nostrils, I will pass them over. As to those 
 which compose the walls of the cranium, or 
 that osseous box containing the brain, they are 
 eight in number; a frontal, two parietal, two 
 temporal, an occipital, a sphenoid, and an eth- 
 moid. But the two latter are so unimportant 
 to the cranioscopist, that I shall confine my ob- 
 servations to the six others. 
 
 The os frontiS) or frontal bone, is a segment 
 of a sphere, the lower part of which touches the 
 root of the nose, and extends on each side be- 
 yond the eyebrows; it forms, also, the superior 
 portion of the orbits of the eyes, and comprises 
 the whole forehead, reaching to about the mid- 
 dle of the crown of the head, where it is joined 
 to the parietal bones. These parietal bones are 
 concave, and almost quadrangular; they are 
 united together at the median line, and form 
 the largest portion of the cavity of the cranium ; 
 they extend from the frontal to the occipital 
 bone, and descend at the side to join the tem- 
 poral bones, which form the lateral parts of the 
 head around the ears ; finally, the occipital bone 
 occupies all the lower part of the back of the 
 head. 
 
To render the above description more intelligible 
 to those who are not anatomists, we subjoin the follow- 
 ing representations of the bones of the head, from 
 Chitty's Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence. 
 
112 
 
113 
 
 1. Frontal bone. The division shown in the 
 plate, does not generally exist in adult age, 
 though traces of it are always visible, a a, flat 
 processes, extending inwards, forming the roofs 
 of the orbits. 
 
 2. Left parietal bone, connected to the frontal 
 bone by the coronal suture, and to its fellow 
 along the median line, by the sagittal suture. 
 
 3. Occipital bone, connected to the two pa- 
 rietal bones, by the lamboidal suture. 
 
 4. Temporal bone, containing the internal 
 ear, connected to the parietal and sphenoid 
 bones, by the squamous suture. It has a long 
 process, a, which joins the malar bone, 8. 
 
 5. Ethmoid bone. 
 
 6. Sphenoid bone. 
 
 7. Superior maxillary. 
 
 8. Malar, or cheek bone, 
 
 9. Palate bone. 
 
 10. Os unguis. 
 
 11. Two nasal bones. 
 
 12. Inferior maxillary. 
 
 10* 
 
114 
 
115 
 
 1. Bony cavity of nose. 
 
 2. Bony palate, or roof of the mouth. 
 
 3. Two incisor teeth of right side. 
 
 4. Canine tooth. 
 
 5. Two bicuspid teeth. 
 
 6. Three molar teeth. 
 
 7. End of bony palate. 
 
 8. Zygomatic process. 
 
 9. Openings of the nose into the throat. 
 
 10. Cavity for head of lower jaw. 
 
 11. Carotid canal. 
 
 12. Orifice of the ear. 
 
 13. Canal for jugular vein. 
 
 14. Canal for passage of spinal marrow. 
 
 15. Mastoid process of temporal bone. 
 
 16. Styloid process. 
 
 17. Occipital bone. 
 
 18. Condyles of Occipital bone. 
 
 19. Median line. 
 
116 
 
 But these bones, although described by ana- 
 tomists as always presenting the same form and 
 the same peculiarities of structure, differ con- 
 siderably in the eyes of the craniologist, who 
 perceives, in the different configurations they 
 assume, and in their more or less arched form, 
 an index to the intellectual and moral differences 
 he observes in individuals. At the same time, 
 to acquire an idea of the general form of the 
 head, and of these accidental forms, it is indis- 
 pensable to examine a great number of skulls, 
 or busts. 
 
 An important question naturally arises at this 
 stage of our inquiry, whether the brain invaria- 
 bly fills the cavity of the cranium so completely, 
 that its form may be inferred from the external 
 form or respective developement of its bony 
 covering? It must be evident, that if this were 
 not the case, there can be no truth in craniology ; 
 that is, if the external surface of the cranium 
 did not present an exact model of the elevations 
 and depressions of the external surface of the 
 brain. Gall, convinced of the necessity of this 
 coincidence, has endeavoured to prove: 1st. 
 that the form of the cranium is owing to the 
 centrifugal action exercised by the brain on it ; 
 2d. that under usual circumstances, that is, 
 when the brain is in a sound state, and the in- 
 
 
117 
 
 dividual in good health, the brain so completely 
 fills the cavity of the cranium, that the form of 
 this latter is always an exact impression of the 
 surface of the former; 3d. that no external cir- 
 cumstance, as the compression suffered by the 
 head of an infant from the bones of the pelvis of 
 the mother, at the time of its birth, or those 
 produced among certain races of people carry- 
 ing heavy burdens on their head, &c, are capa- 
 ble of altering the form of the cranium, as these 
 accidental circumstances are insufficient to coun- 
 terbalance the permanent and centrifugal action 
 of the brain. Nothing but a constant pressure, 
 is capable of producing an effect analogous to 
 the deformity so remarkable in the craniums of 
 the Caribs, and some other people. 
 
 According to Gall, the shape of the cranium, 
 like the features, and the form of other parts of 
 the body, is determined at the moment of con- 
 ception, and the infant is born with a greater or 
 less tendency to assume the peculiarities of its 
 parents. It is, however, difficult to indicate the 
 precise time at which the definitive develope- 
 ment of the brain takes place; it does not ap- 
 pear possible to fix it before the thirtieth year; 
 perhaps, in most cases, it does not occur before 
 the fortieth or forty-fifth; it is still more diffi- 
 cult to designate the commencement of its de- 
 
118 
 
 dine. At seventy years, Gall proved, by his 
 writings and conversation, that his intellectual 
 faculties were still unimpaired ; he spoke and 
 wrote with the same force and vigour of mind, 
 as at thirty years of age; and it was not until 
 about eighteen months before his death, and 
 during his last course of lectures, that any fail- 
 ure in his mental faculties was perceptible. 
 
 At the approach of old age, the nervous sys- 
 tem gradually loses its plenitude, and conse- 
 quently its activity. " In all parts of the body, 
 the nerves begin to shrink, the convolutions of 
 the brain contract and diminish, forming pits 
 and hollows ; they become more widely sepa- 
 rated, thus increasing the size of the infractuo- 
 skies; in short, the whole brain become sdi- 
 minished in size." But it would be erroneous 
 to suppose that any vacancy takes place be- 
 tween the brain and the cranium. The inter- 
 nal table of the latter is also altered in form, ajid 
 continues to adapt itself exactly to the convo- 
 lutions, and as the external table undergoes no 
 change, a spongy substance is deposited be- 
 tween these two tables, so that the bones of the 
 cranium, in extreme old age, are thicker and 
 more spongy than at other stages of life. This, 
 adds Gall, is a fact which cannot now be denied, 
 although at first, many physiologists reproached 
 
119 
 
 me for my hardihood in daring to maintain such 
 an absurdity in the presence of enlightened phy- 
 sicians and anatomists. 
 
 Gall has also ascertained by observation in 
 the human species, and by direct experiments 
 made on animals, that misery, famine, priva- 
 tions, and especially food of bad quality, or 
 given in very small quantities, produce the same 
 effects as old age ; that is, a drying up or shrink- 
 ing of the nervous system, and a diminution of 
 the brain, which in turn produces a diminution 
 of the corporeal powers, and of the intellectual 
 and moral qualities, thus explaining the de- 
 graded state of certain nations. 
 
PART FOURTH. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE PRIMARY FORCES OF THE 
 MIND, AND ON THE DETERMINATION OF THE PARTS OF 
 THE BRAIN IN WHICH THEY ARE SEATED. 
 
 It 
 
 Plurality of organs in the brain. 
 
 In the preceding sections, I have attended to 
 the principal phenomena of organization, which 
 may be regarded as forming the basis of intel- 
 lectual physiology. I will now attempt to de- 
 termine the number of the primary forces, and 
 the seat of their organs. I have already ob- 
 served that this part of Gall's system is consi- 
 dered as the least supported by facts. Many 
 persons have even asserted that it is absurd and 
 extravagant, and that it savours of folly and 
 charlatanism, to endeavour to teach it; never- 
 theless, if this special determination of the facul- 
 ties of mind, and their respective seats, be aban- 
 doned, the physiology of the brain loses all its 
 
121 
 
 interest, and the influence it would otherwise 
 exert on the amelioration of our institutions, is 
 utterly destroyed. Like all other psychological 
 hypotheses, it becomes a useless doctrine, wholly 
 incapable of affording any aid in our study of 
 man, and of that labyrinth of passions, propen- 
 sities, &c, which alternately exercise an unlimit- 
 ed sway over his actions. 
 
 These reasons, says Gall, have induced me to 
 support this part of my doctrine by a mass of 
 the most incontestible evidence. I am not ig- 
 norant, continues he, that the idea of submitting 
 the manifestations of mind to anatomical inves- 
 tigation, is highly revolting to those who refer 
 everything to sensation, or who reduce the facul- 
 ties of mankind to a few, wholly independent of 
 organization. I am also sensible, that those 
 philosophers who delight in such abstractions as 
 the unity of consciousness, the simplicity of 
 thought, and the grossness of matter, as well as 
 those who consider that the mind at birth is a 
 tabula rasa, in order that they may, at their 
 good will and pleasure, inscribe on it any folly 
 that suits them, are far from having correct 
 ideas on the moral and intellectual condition of 
 man. I feel the extreme difficulty of bringing 
 before these profound metaphysicians, an expe- 
 rimental doctrine of such simplicity, one which 
 
 11 
 
122 
 
 slowly advances by means of reiterated observa- 
 tions, and which is so well calculated to restrain 
 the lofty flights of their genius, that they have 
 openly declared that they do not wish to become 
 acquainted with it. But truth and philanthropy 
 urge me to proceed in the path I have hitherto 
 pursued. 
 
 I think that I have proved that the brain is 
 the exclusive organ of the instincts, the propen- 
 sities, the sentiments, the talents, the intellectual 
 faculties, and the moral qualities of man and 
 animals, at least of those in which the brain 
 differs little from that of man ; and also that 
 none of these manifestations should be regarded 
 as the product of sensorial impressions, com- 
 bined with education. But, to return to the 
 summary of the facts collected by Gall, in sup- 
 port of the plurality of the cerebral organs. 
 This plurality is not, by his own confession, a 
 new idea, or peculiar to him; the ancients ad- 
 mitted three kinds of mind, each having a par- 
 ticular seat. The cerebrum had long been re- 
 garded as the organ of the perception or atten- 
 tion, and the cerebellum as that of memory. 
 " St. Gregory of Nice, says Gall, compared the 
 brain to a city, in which the going and coming 
 of the inhabitants caused no confusion, because 
 each set out from a fixed point, or arrived at a 
 
123 
 
 determinate spot." The Arabs also considered 
 the first anterior ventricle of the brain, as the 
 seat of common sense; the second, as that of 
 imagination; the third, as that of judgment; the 
 fourth, as that of memory. A sketch of a head 
 by Albert the Great, in the thirteenth century, 
 has reached us, which gives nearly the same lo- 
 cation to the faculties, &c, as the above. 
 
 In the succeeding centuries, many authors 
 treated on the same subject, and one of them 
 published an engraving in which were repre- 
 
124 
 
 sented the seat of common sense, of imagina- 
 tion, of reason, of memory, &c. 
 
 After the revival of letters, many of the most 
 learned anatomists and naturalists entertained 
 ideas similar to those of Gall, on the plurality 
 of the organs of mind. Among these, were 
 Willis, Vieussens, Haller, Van Swieten, Bonnet, 
 Mayer, &c. Hence, some writers who wished 
 to deprive Gall of all credit, have made use of 
 these facts, to deprive him of the honour of his 
 discoveries; but, he was always more solicitous 
 to establish his system on solid foundations, 
 than to defend its priority, and therefore wisely 
 endeavoured to accumulate proofs which were 
 
125 
 
 far more conclusive than the opinions of the 
 learned men just alluded to. 
 
 The limits I have assigned to this work not 
 permitting me to follow him into the details he 
 has given, I will conclude with the following 
 summary of them: that wherever the cerebral 
 faculties differ, there is also a difference in the 
 structure of the brain, and in all cases where 
 they are similar, all the differences that exist 
 arise merely from the intensity of the propen- 
 sities, &c. ; that the number of the faculties is 
 always proportionate to the number of the con- 
 volutions, and that the energy of the latter al- 
 ways corresponds to the developement of the 
 former. 
 
 That the convolutions situated beneath the 
 frontal bone in man, and in which are evidently 
 seated his characteristic faculties, are wanting in 
 animals, or exist in a rudimental form in exact 
 proportion to the feebleness of these faculties in 
 them; whilst those situated on the lateral and 
 posterior parts of the head, and which are the 
 seat of the animal faculties, appear analogous to 
 those found in the same situations in animals; 
 that the epoch when each faculty begins to ap- 
 pear, always corresponds to the developement 
 of the convolution shown to be the organ of this 
 faculty ; that the over exercise of a single faculty 
 
 11* 
 
126 
 
 of the mind does not fatigue the whole brain, 
 but that the sense of weariness is felt in one 
 spot only ; that the hypothesis of the identity of 
 brains is opposed to the evidence of facts, and to 
 all intellectual physiology, supported as this lat- 
 ter, by the most unanswerable results. Finally 
 — Gall has deduced a series of facts of another 
 character, from the numerous pathological ob- 
 servations on lesions of the brain collected by 
 him, and which may be regarded as additional 
 proofs, as most of these facts are only to be ex- 
 plained by a plurality of organs, but are wholly 
 inexplicable, if the brain be considered as a 
 unit. 
 
 In addition to this, it should be borne in 
 mind, that in all other parts of the body, each 
 function is provided with its peculiar and ap- 
 propriate organ; why, therefore, should the 
 brain form an exception to this general law? It 
 is repugnant to reason, to suppose that an apti- 
 tude for the arts, a talent for music, and for 
 calculation, an instinct for the perpetuation of 
 the species, a propensity to accumulate, a love 
 of destruction, benevolence, veneration, &c, all 
 emanate, pell-mell, from a part of the organiza- 
 tion that nature has carefully enclosed in a solid 
 case, with the evident intention of protecting it 
 from everything that might be inimical to its 
 
127 
 
 functions; and it is equally absurd to assert 
 that an organ whose external structure is so de- 
 licate and admirable is a mere unformed and 
 chaotic mass. 
 
 ii. 
 
 The insufficiency of all attempts, previous to the time of 
 Gall, to explain the nature of man and animals, or their 
 passions and propensities. 
 
 It is now generally acknowledged, that nei- 
 ther the absolute size of the head, its relative 
 dimensions as compared to other parts of the 
 body, the facial angle of Camper, the occipital 
 line of Daubenton, nor several other peculiari- 
 ties of conformation which have been succes- 
 sively proposed, as the relative size of the head 
 and face, the length or shortness of the neck, 
 &c, are sufficient to explain the various apti- 
 tudes of man or of animals, or to afford a cor- 
 rect mode of estimating the powers of mind, or 
 the intensity of the passions ; and that a recur- 
 rence must be had to other means, to arrive at 
 a plausible explanation of these phenomena. 
 But what I have said in the preceding pages 
 
128 
 
 demonstrates, if I am not greatly mistaken, that 
 no doctrine unites so many proofs in its favour, 
 as that of a plurality of organs in the brain; 
 much, however, remains to be discovered, be- 
 fore the problem can be fully solved; two dif- 
 ficult questions are yet to be determined — the 
 number of the primary forces, and the parts of 
 the brain in which they are seated. 
 
 I will in the first place show, that as a ge- 
 neral rule, a mere knowledge of anatomy can 
 never lead to a discovery of the intellectual 
 forces, nor of their organs; for, as is observed 
 by Gall, an acquaintance with the anatomy of 
 the heart did not induce the discovery of the 
 circulation of the blood ; neither did the dissec- 
 tion of the liver demonstrate the secretion and 
 nature of the bile. 
 
 A second principle laid down by Gall, in this 
 kind of investigation, is, that to proceed with 
 any certainty, a knowledge of the functions 
 should always precede a study of the organs on 
 which they are dependent; this is the method 
 he scrupulously adhered to in his researches; he 
 studied the characters of persons who displayed 
 a marked talent or propensity, and afterwards 
 sought on their heads what protuberances were 
 the most evident, and likely to be the seat of 
 these peculiarities. Thus, having found that in 
 
129 
 
 all great mathematicians, the outer angle of the 
 super-orbital ridge was very much arched or 
 elevated, he was led to conclude that a certain 
 relation existed between this conformation and 
 a talent for numbers. 
 
 A third principle inculcated by Gall, is, that 
 pathology and physiology are of great import- 
 ance in the discovery of the primary forces, 
 when a proper use is made of them, and when 
 the mind of the observer is not unduly biassed 
 by prejudices. But, at the same time, Pinel, 
 Esquirol, and many other distinguished physi- 
 cians and physiologists, had been witnesses of a 
 multitude of the most conclusive pathological 
 facts, without deducing anything from their ob- 
 servations in favour of organology. 
 
 Gall absolutely condemns the dissections and 
 mutilations practised on living animals, with the 
 intention of ascertaining their radical faculties. 
 In these cruel experiments, the animal suffering 
 the most agonizing torments, and the most 
 frightful convulsions, cannot manifest any of its 
 natural instincts or propensities, and it is impos- 
 sible to draw any conclusions from the groans 
 and struggles that are induced by the knife of 
 the operator, added to which the haemorrhage, 
 irritation, inflammation, and other results which 
 
130 
 
 are the consequence of these mutilations, are 
 fertile sources of errors and misconceptions. 
 
 The employment of comparative anatomy and 
 physiology, in the determination of the primary 
 forces, requires much circumspection and know- 
 ledge; for, as animals descend on the scale, the 
 difficulty of interpreting their cerebral organs in- 
 creases. Their faculties, instincts, propensities, 
 and organs, being wholly different from those 
 of man, we have no common feelings with 
 them, and are consequently incapable of appre- 
 ciating and explaining their sensations, propen- 
 sities, and desires. 
 
 Finally — if to all these difficulties, and the 
 insufficiency of the means employed to sur- 
 mount them, be added the ignorance that ex- 
 isted as to the properties of the nervous system, 
 the habit of considering the brain as an organ 
 whose functions were performed differently from 
 those of the other organs; if the prejudices of 
 philosophers, and the custom of theologians, to 
 cry anathema to all who sought analogies be- 
 tween the propensities of man and those of ani- 
 mals, be taken into the account; if the decided 
 tone be considered, with which these learned 
 psychologists maintained, and still maintain, 
 that the love of children in woman has no ana- 
 logy to the attachment of mothers to their off- 
 
131 
 
 spring ; that man loves, merely because he 
 wished to love ; that he murders, because he 
 wishes to murder; that he sings, because he 
 wishes to sing; that he eats, because he wishes 
 to eat; that he learns to read, to write, &c, be- 
 cause he wishes to do so; if it be recollected 
 that they have erected instinct in animals into a 
 special entity, and attributed every animal fa- 
 culty to it ; that they deem all animal actions 
 as fixed and irrevocable, whilst in man they 
 are wholly under the dominion of his will; 
 we shall not be astonished that many learned 
 physiologists have become bewildered amidst so 
 many errors and vain hypotheses, notwithstand- 
 ing the numerous facts that were daily present- 
 ed to them. 
 
 in. 
 
 Nature of the primary forces, and determination of their 
 organs. 
 
 By what characters are we to ascertain whe- 
 ther a propensity, an instinct, an aptitude, or a 
 quality, is primary? How are we to determine 
 
132 
 
 the portion of the brain that is the organ or seat 
 of this quality ? I have found much more dif- 
 ficulty, says Gall, to solve the first of these 
 problems, than the second. I have, however, 
 continues he, met with obstacles even in the 
 former, which I have not been able to remove ; 
 but I have also ascertained several manifesta- 
 tions of mind, and the organs on which they 
 depend, but which I am unable to reducS to 
 their primary forces. Qualities and faculties 
 also exist, of which it is difficult to ascer- 
 tain, whether they are real primary forces, (sui 
 generis,) or simple modifications of certain qua- 
 lities or primary faculties, or a mixed result of 
 the simultaneous influence of several fundamen- 
 tal forces. Whenever I apply to others to ob- 
 tain greater light and more information respect- 
 ing them, I am asked, what need is there to 
 seek for other faculties of mind, than intelli- 
 gence and will ? Man is an architect, a mathe- 
 matician, a poet, a musician, solely because he 
 has applied the powers of his mind to architec- 
 ture, mathematics, poetry, or music ; he is fond 
 of children, he is a robber, he is ambitious, be- 
 cause such is his will and pleasure. I may in 
 vain ask why such a one has applied himself 
 to architecture from preference ? why ano- 
 ther finds pleasure in theft, a third in political 
 
133 
 
 life, &c. ? If I show that one animal constructs its 
 habitation with great skill, that another displays 
 wonderful foresight, the reply is always the 
 same; it is instinct, and with this word it is ex- 
 pected that everything can be explained. Thus, 
 intelligence, will, and instinct, are the three 
 pivots on which the study of man and animals 
 revolves. The three forces by which philoso- 
 phers explain all the faculties and aptitudes of 
 the one, and all the actions of the other. But, 
 if some details respecting their essence be de- 
 manded, all becomes vague and unintelligible? 
 
 In the midst of this uncertainty and igno- 
 rance, says Gall, I devoted myself exclusively 
 to observation, waiting with patience and resig- 
 nation for the results I might obtain; I con- 
 fined myself to the collection of facts, and the 
 recording of the circumstances under which I 
 observed them. I did not attempt to explain 
 them, for fear of losing sight of the reality, and 
 of permitting my judgment to become the dupe 
 of my imagination. 
 
 After these avowals made by Dr. Gall, and 
 which indicate both frankness and modesty, the 
 reader must not expect details at this time, 
 which belong to another era of the science. I 
 will confine myself, therefore, at present, to 
 
 12 
 
134 
 
 some considerations calculated to explain, in 
 some degree, the nature of the primary forces. 
 
 In every age, philosophers admitted general 
 faculties, as attention, reflection, judgment, me- 
 mory, and imagination, as primary forces of the 
 mind; but, these being common to all mankind, 
 cannot serve as distinguishing characteristics of 
 individuals, nor explain their aptitudes; for, as 
 they only differ in the degree of their power or 
 intensity, it is almost impossible to appreciate 
 these slight variations. Naturalists, on the 
 contrary, in their designation of species, have 
 paid attention to the most striking instincts and 
 aptitudes, and have considered as primary qua- 
 lities, such only, as had a marked influence on 
 their habits and manners; thus, they say that 
 the wolf is ravenous, the fox crafty, the weasel 
 sanguinary, the beaver industrious, the dove 
 timid , &c. 
 
 Gall, being desirous of treating of the study of 
 man and that of animals on the same plan, as- 
 serts that we ought not to admit any as primary 
 forces, except such as are constantly present, and 
 predominate over all others; and in support of 
 this opinion, adduces the example of biogra- 
 phers, and of common usage, in distinguishing 
 every individual by the talent or propensity that 
 is most marked and characteristic in him; thus, 
 
135 
 
 observes he, this man is said to have been born a 
 musician; that one, a poet; one to have an in- 
 nate talent for mathematics; another for draw- 
 ing; this to have a passion for building; that 
 one for travelling, &c. This method, it is evi- 
 dent, supposes that the qualification mentioned, 
 designates with precision, the most striking 
 point of the character. We must therefore con- 
 sider them as true primary forces in man and 
 animals, and look upon attention, memory, 
 judgment, imagination, &c, merely as the com- 
 mon attributes of these forces, and not as the 
 primary forces themselves. 
 
 It is thus, adds our author, that natural phi- 
 losophers do not employ the general properties 
 of bodies, as size, divisibility, weight, &c, to 
 designate each particular substance, but resort 
 to special qualities for this purpose; or, in other 
 words, those which are peculiar to the body 
 they wish to describe. Thus, to designate gold, 
 they do not say that it is an impenetrable, divisi- 
 ble, heavy substance, but that it is a ductile, mal- 
 leable, sonorous metal, of a yellow colour, &c. 
 
 To these elucidations of the nature of the 
 primary forces, I have a few words to add on 
 the different modes in which they are generally 
 presented to the observation of the craniologist, 
 and on the means of discovering their seat. In 
 
136 
 
 the first place, there are many errors to be 
 avoided: thus, 'we should be deceived, if we 
 took for granted that the profession of an in- 
 dividual always indicated his most striking pro- 
 pensity. In a majority of instances, as was ob- 
 served by Horace, eighteen centuries ago, we 
 find ourselves embarked in a profession, from 
 the effect of accident, and even against our in- 
 clinations. Prejudices of parents have made 
 lawyers and physicians, says Gall, as the ca- 
 prices of sovereigns have made generals and 
 ministers; nature and inclination being allowed 
 no weight in these appointments. It is a mis- 
 take, to suppose that all the primary forces are 
 manifested in so open a manner as to be clearly 
 evident; they often remain in a dormant state, 
 from their never having been called into action ; 
 but, still more frequently they remain unnoticed, 
 although existing in full energy, from the pos- 
 sessors of them having never fallen under the 
 observation of those who were capable of appre- 
 ciating and detecting them. Finally, it is also 
 erroneous to suppose that every person has a 
 knowledge of his own peculiarities of mind, 
 &c, and to place reliance on his statements re- 
 specting them. Neither must we be deceived 
 by individuals who believe that they are en- 
 dowed with qualities, and yet who present no 
 
137 
 
 developement of the organs of those qualities. 
 But, we may be certain that an inclination or 
 talent is primary, when, notwithstanding all ob- 
 stacles, an individual succeeds in demonstrating 
 or exercising it; thus, the spirit of calculation 
 was innate with Pascal ; that of poetry, with 
 Regnard, &c. We may also assume that the 
 occupations to which we resort with pleasure, 
 and devote our leisure moments, are, in a gene- 
 rality of instances, in unison with our innate 
 propensities. Usually, we attach but little im- 
 portance to what does not interest our real dis- 
 position ; but when any topic is touched upon 
 that tallies with our favourite inclinations, we 
 experience the most vivid interest. 
 
 If attention be paid to the manner in which 
 an individual condemns or approves, praises or 
 deprecates the usual topics of conversation ; 
 what are the events that interest him the most, 
 the kind of society he prefers, his conduct in 
 difficult and delicate situations; if he be an au- 
 thor, the manner in which he expresses his 
 thoughts, the nature of his ideas, &x. ; we shall 
 rarely be mistaken with respect to his primary 
 dispositions or forces. 
 
 If you wish to ascertain the character of a 
 person without any risk of mistake, even, says 
 Gall, if the individual is aware of your intention, 
 
 12* 
 
138 
 
 and therefore on his guard, induce him to con- 
 verse on his infancy and boyhood; to relate his 
 school tricks, his conduct towards his parents, 
 his brothers, sisters, and comrades; the subjects 
 of his emulation, friendship, or hatred; his 
 amusements, &c. The objects of his tastes and 
 pleasures have changed, it is true, with the dif- 
 ference of years; polished manners, a refined 
 language, and dissimulation, may mask the cha- 
 racter, but, rest assured, it remains the same. 
 
 Having thus ascertained the propensity or do- 
 minant faculty, examine the head of the indivi- 
 dual, and remark the peculiarities of conforma- 
 tion it may present. Multiply your observa- 
 tions on the same force or faculty, and ascertain 
 if it always corresponds to the same part of the 
 cranium, and if its organ is always developed in 
 the same form. It should be observed, that the 
 satisfactoriness of your results will be increased, 
 by pursuing your observations on persons in 
 whom this faculty of force is strongly marked 
 and predominant. 
 
 But beware of being imposed upon by the 
 dictatorial assertions of those speculative and 
 transcendental philosophers, who maintain that 
 particular facts, however numerous they may be, 
 have a subjective value only, and can never au- 
 thorize the establishment of general laws, he- 
 
139 
 
 cause there is no certainty that in all cases not 
 examined by you, the exceptions to the rules you 
 may have established, are not the most nu- 
 merous. It is not enough, they say, to have 
 remarked a deficiency in the organ of philopro- 
 genitiveness in twenty women who had com- 
 mitted infanticide, to conclude that there must 
 be some connexion between the crime and the 
 organic deficiency. I have often seen Dr. Gall 
 place his hand on the organ of firmness and 
 perseverance, and observe; without this organ, 
 I should long since have abandoned my re- 
 searches. Besides this, never neglect (such is 
 the recommendation of Gall,) to consult collec- 
 tions of skulls, wherever the opportunity for so 
 doing presents itself. The craniums of known 
 individuals are the most instructive ; plaster 
 casts are also very useful ; but busts and medals 
 are oftentimes very defective, and portraits still 
 more so. You must be exceedingly cautious in 
 deciding on the conformations they may present 
 to you, and place no confidence in them, until 
 you have verified their truth in the most satis- 
 factory manner. Finally, you are not to ne- 
 glect counter proofs ; that is, after having exa- 
 mined an organ in many individuals in whom a 
 certain faculty was strongly marked, you should 
 examine this faculty in other persons in whom 
 
140 
 
 it was at the zero of developement. If, instead 
 of a protuberance, you always find, in the latter 
 case, the same part flattened or depressed, it is 
 evident that your motives for a belief in the 
 doctrine are much strengthened. 
 
 IV. 
 
 General considerations on the mimicry of the primary 
 forces, or the various forms in which they manifest 
 themselves in man and animals. 
 
 1 have several times spoken of the manifesta- 
 tions of mind, and shall now continue my obser- 
 vations by establishing some general principles 
 on the various modes of expression they assume 
 in particular circumstances. I have already 
 stated that there are certain actions, as those of 
 the heart, the blood, and the intestines, which 
 are immediately dependent on organization^ and 
 over which we have no control; those which 
 result from the impulse of a primary force, are 
 of the same character, in some respects; that is, 
 they are produced by a kind of automatic spon- 
 taneity, and take place without any conscious- 
 ness or intention ; in fact, when we experience 
 
141 
 
 an emotion, a sentiment, an idea, a desire, or a 
 passion, do we reason on the gestures which al- 
 ways accompany their expression? Do not 
 these gestures take place instantly, and are not 
 their significations understood by all ? Certainly 
 they are : for they are the result of laws as de- 
 terminate and invariable as the organization on 
 which they are dependent. This force of the or- 
 ganization which connects each sentiment, &c, 
 with certain determinate movements or actions, 
 and thus subjects the manifestation of all our 
 affections and thoughts to immutable and uni- 
 versal laws, is at the same time the principle on 
 which all the relations that exist between ani- 
 mate beings reposes, and the basis of that na- 
 tural language by which all individuals of the 
 same, or even of different species, mutually 
 communicate their wants, fears, or desires. To 
 how r many dangers and mistakes would we not 
 be exposed, if a constant and necessary har- 
 mony did not exist between our internal ac- 
 tions, and those of our fellow-beings of which 
 we are unconscious, and those which are exter- 
 nal and under the cognizance of our senses. 
 
 If the same expression appertained equally to 
 hatred and friendship, or to grief and joy, how 
 should we be enabled to ascertain what we have 
 to fear or to hope from the actual disposition of 
 
142 
 
 
 an individual, or whether it would be prudent 
 to greet or avoid him ? 
 
 This law is, therefore, a double boon of na- 
 ture to all animated beings ; a bond by which 
 we are in communication with every people 
 and with all ages, and a useful monitor by 
 which we are enabled to avoid those accidents 
 and dangers which environ us at every step. 
 Without it, how would we be able to explain 
 the expression of the dying gladiator, or the 
 agonized countenance of Laocoon, sinking un- 
 der the weight of the reptile that is crushing 
 him in its murderous folds? Without it, how 
 should we distinguish the voluptuary from the 
 ascetic, the bully from the peaceful, the ambi- 
 tious from the modest, despair from hope, jea- 
 lousy from generosity, irony from frankness, 
 hypocrisy from piety, &c. 
 
 Gall, under the name of mimicry, has in- 
 cluded those gestures and natural movements 
 which accompany the action of a radical force; 
 but, I have already observed, that these vital 
 phenomena must not be confounded with panto- 
 mime, the object of which is to reduce all the 
 events of nature to regular rules of imitation. 
 Mimicry, in the sense in which Gall uses it, in- 
 cludes those movements or actions which are 
 the immediate product of the intimate con- 
 
143 
 
 nexion that exists between our aptitudes, and 
 the play of the instruments destined to manifest 
 them; pantomime is an art on which dancing, 
 drawing, painting, sculpture, theatrical decla- 
 mation, fee. depend. 
 
 To fully comprehend the extent and perma- 
 nency of the effects of this law, by which the 
 humble in every country may be recognized by 
 their bent back, and downcast looks; whilst the 
 proud, says Gall, are to be known by the eleva- 
 tion of their head, and dignified carriage; it 
 must be recollected that all our perceptions are 
 referable to the brain, and that this organ is 
 also the source of all voluntary motion; it must 
 likewise be remembered, that all individuals of 
 the same species, being endowed with the same 
 organs, receive the same impressions or ideas 
 from external objects, and from their being 
 obliged to manifest them with the same instru- 
 ments, they are necessarily subjected to an uni- 
 form and invariable mode of doing this, and 
 which may be reduced to the following con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The organs of the primary forces act in va- 
 rious modes on the head, and communicate 
 movements to it, which are in a compound ratio 
 to the position they occupy in the brain, and 
 their distance from the axis of this mass. To 
 
144 
 
 fully appreciate the mechanism of these move- 
 ments, it must be recollected that the head is 
 placed on the neck as on a pivot, and that the 
 motions of which it is susceptible, take place on 
 the side on which the organ that excites them is 
 situated ; so that the organs placed in the occi- 
 pital region, or the inferior posterior part of the 
 head, raise it or draw it backwards; whilst 
 those which are located in the frontal region, 
 or the anterior superior part of the face, tend to 
 incline it forwards, and depress it towards the 
 breast. For the same reason, those which are 
 situated at the sides of the head, draw it alter- 
 nately towards each shoulder, and those which 
 are at the apex, fix it in a vertical position, or 
 direct it towards heaven. It is also to be re- 
 marked, that in these various movements the 
 impulse is single when the organ is situated in 
 the median line, and hence the motion takes 
 place but in one direction, whilst in all cases 
 where twin organs of the same force are placed 
 on each side, and at a distance from this line, 
 the motions are alternately from right to left, or 
 vice versa, according to the predominance of one 
 of the organs. 
 
 These principles being well understood, all 
 movements that can possibly occur, can be rea- 
 dily explained, either by the exercise of a single 
 
145 
 
 force, or the combined action of several. Thus, 
 for example, in the generative act, all animals 
 throw their head backwards, because the cere- 
 bellum with which this act has relation, being 
 placed at the back of the head where it is 
 connected with the neck, evidently must pro- 
 duce this effect. On the contrary, in acts 
 of kindness the body is thrown forward, and 
 friendly greetings are performed by motions 
 which alternately depress and elevate the head, 
 because the organ of this force is placed in the 
 middle and upper part of the forehead. In va- 
 nity, the organs being placed on each side, and 
 at a distance from the medial line, the head is 
 successively turned from side to side. 
 
 Although these principles are not voluntary, 
 though invariable in their application, it must 
 not be overlooked that they may be powerfully 
 modified by three essential circumstances, and 
 that in such case it is extremely difficult to dis- 
 tinguish, in the movements that take place, the 
 species and the intensity of the various emotions 
 that tend to produce them. The first of these 
 arises from the degree of sensibility of the indi- 
 vidual: thus, in one, all the sensations are ob- 
 tuse, and the passions are never violent, but are 
 exercised with a certain sang-froid and calm- 
 ness; in another, on the contrary, excitement 
 
 13 
 
146 
 
 may be extreme, and the slightest spark is fol- 
 lowed by an inextinguishable flame. The se- 
 cond results from the complication that always 
 occurs in the manifestation of our desires and 
 affections; it is seldom, in fact, that one feeling 
 alone predominates; it is almost always compli- 
 cated with a number of secondary excitations, 
 that modify it in a greater or less degree. 
 Pride, for example, is differently manifested 
 when it is excited by contempt or irony, shame 
 or vengeance, hope or jealousy, &c. 
 
 Finally, as I have before observed; the burn- 
 ing heat of the tropics exercises a very different 
 influence over the primary forces, than the 
 freezing temperature of the polar circles. The 
 music of the south is totally dissimilar to the 
 melancholy chants of Ossian, and the burning 
 passion that exists in the harems of the torrid 
 zone, insensibly declines and degenerates as we 
 approach the cabin of the Laplander or the Es- 
 quimaux, where it becomes a mere propensity, 
 scarcely differing in force from other domestic 
 feelings. It is in the temperate zone, says Gall, 
 that man has always attained the highest de- 
 gree of perfection of which he is susceptible; 
 under the extremes of heat and cold, his powers 
 are always diminished. In the first case, he is 
 violent in his affections, feeble in judgment, and 
 
147 
 
 devoted to animal pleasures; in the latter he is 
 dull and stupid, moderate in his desires, and 
 in both he is mercenary. 
 
 v. 
 
 Reflections on organology, and the results of the action of 
 the primary forces. 
 
 If what has been said, is clearly understood, 
 the exact meaning of the expression fundamental 
 or primary faculties, will readily be perceived. 
 It has been shown that they are forces inherent 
 to sensibility, which induce certain actions, 
 without any determinate predilection for any 
 particular object. It is important to bear in 
 mind, that these forces cannot be derived from 
 the same source, nor be the product of a single 
 organ, for they are not developed simultane- 
 ously, and they act separately and independently 
 of each other, and finally, that they decline and 
 disappear at different periods. Moreover, like 
 all the other functions of the life of relation, 
 they are subject to alternations of activity and re- 
 pose, to anomalies and alienations which depend 
 
148 
 
 on causes analogous to those which derange the 
 other powers of life. Finally, notwithstanding 
 our ignorance of the number of these forces, it 
 cannot be doubted that every species of ani- 
 mate beings is furnished with a certain number 
 of them, which are the same in all individuals 
 of the species, with the exception that there 
 may be a predominance of one or more of them. 
 It is also important that we should be able to 
 distinguish in a primary force, what is funda- 
 mental and natural, from what is accessory and 
 injurious, and what is owing either to acci- 
 dental causes, or social circumstances, as educa- 
 tion, prejudices, &c. The qualities of animated 
 beings, like the properties of inorganic bodies, 
 have their advantages and their disadvantages; 
 what good is there, for instance, in the unsup- 
 portable noise produced by the coppersmith in 
 moulding the objects of his trade ? Nevertheless, 
 the elasticity that gives rise to this noise, is a 
 valuable property of the metal ; so also the cen- 
 trifugal force with which the wheels of a car- 
 riage shower water or mud over a by-stander, is 
 certainly a nuisance, although this same force 
 regulates the motions of the planets; so also in 
 animals, courage is very useful in variety of cir- 
 cumstances, and yet is the cause of death to the 
 bully who quarrels with all the world; so, ii\ 
 
149 
 
 like manner, the propensity of acquisitiveness, 
 which, when properly regulated, produces a wise 
 and prudent economy; becomes, when unre- 
 strained, an inexorable tyrant, without pity or 
 remorse. 
 
 It is therefore with the primary forces, as it 
 is with everything that exists, in their exercise 
 it is impossible to avoid inconveniences and 
 abuses which result from the very qualities that 
 render them most valuable. It is a general law 
 of nature, against which resistance is of no 
 avail; but, at the same time, I maintain that the 
 legislator may, by wise enactments, considera- 
 bly diminish, and even almost annihilate the 
 evils under which society has so long suffered. 
 And in proportion as they become better under- 
 stood, it will be easy to combat and regulate 
 them. 
 
 Another general law, which I have likewise 
 already indicated, is, that whenever nature 
 wishes to produce great effects, she employs 
 great means. Thus, if she wishes to develope 
 great strength, she forms large muscular masses. 
 If she intends to render a part more sensible, 
 she provides it with a greater number of ner- 
 vous fibres. Thus, also, where she has created 
 a great painter, a great mathematician, &c, the 
 convolutions which are the seat of the faculties 
 
 13* 
 
150 
 
 which concur in producing this result, are pro- 
 portionally large. But, it must be remarked, 
 that nature is not thus limited in her operations, 
 but is capable of choosing the mode of action 
 most favourable to her views. To comprehend 
 this, it must be borne in mind, that natural phe- 
 nomena, considered in relation to their causes, 
 are of two kinds; the one take place between 
 bodies, and are always in an exact ratio to the 
 size of the mass. Thus, an elephant is stronger 
 than a horse; a block of stone is not as readily 
 moved as a brick, &c. The others are depen- 
 dent on the actions which take place between 
 the principles of bodies, and bestow an astonish- 
 ing energy on apparently trivial causes, such, 
 for example, as the violent explosion caused by 
 the vaporization of a few drops of water, the ef- 
 fects of lightning, &c. 
 
 Such, also, are a majority of the effects of 
 life, and especially those of the nervous system, 
 which is the principle of it, and in which we re- 
 mark no proportion between the effect pro- 
 duced, and the cause to which it was owing. 
 The brain, therefore, is not limited to simple 
 mechanical movements, but acts like the fluids, 
 and more especially like electricity. You whis- 
 per, for instance, in the ear of an individual, 
 that he is about to be arrested, an electrical 
 
151 
 
 shock, as it were, instantly pervades his whole 
 system, and the effect is far greater than could 
 have been produced by the percussion of a few 
 molecules of air on the tympanum. Newton 
 has proved that attraction is in an inverse ratio 
 to the square of the distance. What power of 
 numbers can express the effects of electricity, or 
 of the nervous fluid which appears to be a mo- 
 dification of it? But, my business is only to 
 speak of the material conditions by which the 
 manifestations of the faculties of the mind ope- 
 rate, I therefore shall say nothing more of this 
 sacred and unintelligible principle, except that 
 the above ideas were suggested by the following 
 passage in the works of Cuvier. " There is 
 every appearance that nerves act on the muscu- 
 lar fibre by means of an imponderable fluid, as 
 it has been demonstrated that they do not act 
 mechanically, &c." 
 
 It is now fully understood that, according 
 to the principles of Gall, two sets of organs 
 are necessary to the operation of each of our 
 faculties, and that the intensity of these fa- 
 culties is in a compound ratio to the size of 
 these organs, and of the energy of the fluid 
 by which they are stimulated. In fact, legis- 
 lative organs are requisite, each possessed of 
 consciousness, and of experiencing and com- 
 
152 
 
 municating the impulse which they are capable 
 of producing, and also organs fitted for the ex- 
 ternal manifestation of these impulses, or which 
 reduce them to action. We require, says Gall, 
 organs which are the principle, and others which 
 are agents or instruments. The convolutions of 
 the brain, are the first; the senses, the limbs, 
 the mouth, &c, the second of these sets of 
 organs. Thus, the cerebellum is the legislative 
 organ of amativeness, and the various parts of 
 the erectile system are the agents. The pos- 
 terior convolutions of the cerebrum, are the 
 organs of friendship, and of love of offspring. 
 The arms, the eyes, and the voice by which these 
 sentiments are manifested, are the instruments; 
 and it is the same with our other faculties. 
 None of them can be exercised without the 
 concurrence of these two kinds of organs. In 
 vain is the idiot furnished with hands equal to 
 those of Michael Angelo, or Raphael ; they are 
 useless, and can accomplish nothing of them- 
 selves; a force is requisite to communicate an 
 impulse to them, an intelligence to direct them, 
 or, to speak more phrenologically, the organs of 
 colouring and construction must exist, before 
 these instruments can be successfully employed 
 in the arts. So, in like manner, these organs 
 would be useless without the aid of the hands. 
 
153 
 
 I will terminate this chapter with a few re- 
 flections on the following questions, which have 
 oftentimes been asked of Gall, and his pupils. 
 Does a form of the head exist, which may be 
 considered as a type of all others? What is the 
 most perfect form of this part? Can the culti- 
 vation of any particular faculty and education, 
 change the form of the head ; that is, cause the 
 developement of any particular organ ? The 
 first of these questions evidently demands, if 
 there is any human being who can be consider- 
 ed as the model of the race? And the second 
 requires to know, if there are qualities which 
 are superior to others ? It is evident that man- 
 kind will always be at variance as to the proper 
 solutions of these questions. One person pre- 
 fers courage, another science, a third benevo- 
 lence, a fourth generosity, &c. I will content 
 myself in answering them by the following ob- 
 servations of d'Alembert. " He that had to 
 choose between Corneille and Newton, and 
 should feel no embarrassment in making his 
 choice, would not merit the privilege of choos- 
 ing." As regards the third question, Gall en- 
 tertained no doubt but that the organs of the 
 brain, like those of the body, were capable of 
 developement by proper exercise. 
 
154 
 
 I now proceed to a description of the primary 
 forces. It will present no difficulty or ambi- 
 guity to such of my readers as shall have fully 
 comprehended the explanations in the foregoing 
 chapters- 
 
PART FIFTH. 
 
 ORGANOLOGY, OR A KNOWLEDGE OF THE PRIMARY FORCES, 
 AND DESCRIPTION OF THEIR ORGANS, 
 
 I. 
 
 Physical love. 
 
 Synonymy. Organ of reproduction. Instinct 
 of generation. Venereal propensity. Generative 
 energy. By abuse, the source of incontinence 
 and libertinism. 
 
 (Amativeness. Order 1st. Effective faculties. 
 Genus 1st. Propensities. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation and description. The cerebellum 
 is the seat of this organ, which, when much de- 
 veloped, forms two prominences, one on each 
 side, above the hollow of the neck. The nape 
 of the neck is then large and thick, and the ears 
 widely separated from each other. 
 
 Natural history. Gall was led to the disco- 
 very of this organ, by observations made on a 
 
156 
 
 young widow under his care, and who suffered 
 much from the state of continence in which she 
 lived. He remarked, that before the attacks of 
 nymphomania to which she was subject, she al- 
 ways complained of a feeling of extreme tension 
 in the region of the cerebellum, which caused 
 her to throw her head backwards. Gall, who 
 one day attempted to relieve this by sustaining 
 her head with his hand, was struck with the 
 heat and size of this part, and hence suspected, 
 as several authors had previously done, that 
 there was some unknown relation between the 
 cerebellum and the propensity. In the present 
 state of the science, it is impossible for any truth 
 to unite more proofs in its favour, than that this 
 part of the brain influences the sexual passion; 
 but, to understand the full force of these proofs, 
 several circumstances that may modify the de- 
 velopement or expression of this propensity, 
 must be taken into the account. In the first 
 place, different degrees of intensity must be ad- 
 mitted. Thus, it is said that certain individuals, 
 as was the case with Newton and Kant, testify 
 a marked repugnance to the female sex. Other 
 persons possess this propensity in a moderate 
 degree, as is generally the case among the la- 
 bouring class, when the man, exhausted by his 
 daily exertion, thinks only of satisfying his 
 
157 
 
 hunger, and repairing his exhausted energies by 
 repose. Finally, in some individuals this pro- 
 pensity produces an excitement and species of 
 madness, which it is very difficult to moderate. 
 Gall mentions a German bishop, in whom a 
 cure could be procured only by castration. In 
 these different circumstances, the size of the ce- 
 rebellum is always in proportion to the propen- 
 sity. When this is but slight, the cerebellum is 
 very small, or almost wanting, as in children. 
 
 It is increased in size if the propensity is 
 marked, and finally, in the third case, is very 
 voluminous. 
 
 As to that class of voluptuaries who reside in 
 large cities, immersed in the luxuries and vices 
 of the day, and whose habits tend to produce a 
 permanent excitement of the nervous system, it 
 must be evident that they form an exception to 
 any general rule. In them, salacity and devo- 
 tion to pleasure are the result of an artificial 
 stimulation of the cerebellum, and even of the 
 whole brain, and not of its developement. 
 
 We must also except those individuals who 
 are tormented with a singular predilection for 
 their own sex, whilst at the same time they 
 entertain the strongest aversion to the other. 
 Gall observes, that men who are afflicted with 
 this species of alienation, as Nero, for instance, 
 
 14 
 
158 
 
 have in general a small head, delicate features, 
 dimpled hands, and developed breasts; whilst fe- 
 males, on the contrary, are masculine in appear- 
 ance and manners. Finally, Gall is of opinion, 
 that example, or even association with women 
 of easy virtue, are not sufficient to corrupt 
 young persons, if the propensity does not exist; 
 and that, on the contrary, when it does exist, 
 every precaution is useless. He also states, that 
 he has seen a young female, in whom the cere- 
 bellum was exceedingly small, who, as is the 
 case with infants, experienced no shame when 
 naked. 
 
 Mimicry. When this organ acts with energy, 
 the head and body are thrown backwards, the 
 whole erectile system, as well as the attributes 
 and actions, announce the species of delirium 
 with which the individual is affected. 
 
 ii. ._ 
 
 Love of parents for their offspring. 
 
 Synon. Love of offspring. Organ of mater- 
 nity. Philogenesis. Maternal love. Maternal 
 and filial piety. 
 
159 
 
 (Philoprogenitive?iess. Propensities. Spurz- 
 heim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ is placed immediately 
 above the preceding, on each side of the median 
 line. When it is much developed, it forms a 
 large prominence above the centre of the neck. 
 
 Natural history. Gall had long remarked 
 that the posterior portion of the head was more 
 prominent in females, children, and monkeys, 
 than in men, but was unable to account for this 
 conformation. At last, a clergyman who at- 
 tended his lectures, led him to the true solution 
 by observing to him that love of their offspring, 
 was very striking in women and female mon- 
 keys; and having afterwards verified the pre- 
 sence of the prominence in all animals, and in 
 every individual of the human race in whom 
 the propensity was marked, this organ appeared 
 to him as conclusively established, as that of 
 amativeness. It is not possible, says he, to re- 
 fer the mutual attachment of mothers and chil- 
 dren to the mere phenomenon of suckling, as it 
 is met with in males, and in the females of many 
 species of animals which do not suckle their 
 young. Neither can it be attributed to certain 
 moral qualities, as in animals in whom these 
 qualities are very feeble, the propensity is often 
 manifested in a much higher degree than in the 
 
160 
 
 most intellectual women; moreover, whenever 
 it is wanting, a depression will be found, in- 
 stead of a prominence on the cranium. 
 
 Of thirty women I have seen, says Spurz- 
 heim, who had committed infanticide, twenty- 
 five had the organ very slightly developed, and 
 the others had been led to the commission of 
 the crime, from the urgency of circumstances; 
 finally, adds he, I have always found the organ 
 very much developed in all women who mani- 
 fested extreme love for their children. This 
 organ, like all others, sometimes presents strange 
 anomalies. To those already mentioned, may 
 be added several varieties of monomania; among 
 others, that of a woman in whom the organ 
 was excessively developed, and who believed 
 she was always pregnant with six foetuses; that 
 of women of very cold temperaments, and who 
 are very fond of children; that again of women 
 of the most ardent temperaments, who detest 
 them, &c. ; finally, although society is but little 
 benefited by the results of this propensity, it is 
 a fact, that all animals in whom it is wanting, 
 are generally more savage and voracious than 
 those in whom it is found; it is this propensity 
 that induces young girls to play with dolls, and 
 renders them so solicitous to be employed about 
 infants. 
 
161 
 
 Mimicry. The mimicry of this organ is 
 calmer than that of the preceding. It gene- 
 rally consists in attention to the wants of chil- 
 dren, in tender caresses, &c. 
 
 in. 
 
 Organ of attachment and friendship. 
 
 Syn. Sense of the sympathies. Disposition 
 to become attached to certain objects, to con- 
 tract certain habits, and to follow certain pur- 
 suits. Principle of affection and sociability. 
 
 {Adhesiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The seat of this organ is above 
 and outside of that of maternity. Like it and 
 that of amativeness, it is double, and forms a 
 protuberance on each side of the head. 
 
 Natural history. Friendship is usually con- 
 sidered to be the result of a conformity in cer- 
 tain tastes, propensities, or dispositions of mind. 
 Some even found it on motives of self-inter- 
 est; but as it evidently exists between beings in 
 whom these causes cannot be suspected of giv- 
 iag rise to it, this explanation must be abandon- 
 
 14* 
 
162 
 
 ed, and it must be regarded as a primary, na- 
 tural, and somewhat involuntary propensity, and 
 as the origin not only of our love for our fellow- 
 beings, but also of our attachment to all that is 
 animate or inanimate, as well as the universal 
 principle of all our sympathies. 
 
 But it must be observed, that this propensity 
 amounts only to a general disposition to con- 
 tract certain habits, and that the special attach- 
 ment we may feel for any particular object, is 
 connected with considerations dependent on 
 other organs. This restriction, which, as I have 
 before stated, is applicable to almost all the or- 
 gans, prevents some very embarrassing contra- 
 dictions, as the blind predilection of mothers for 
 some of their children, and their dislike of 
 others ; the friendship of certain men, and their 
 hatred of others, &c. 
 
 As the limits of this work will not permit me 
 to enter into details on particular cases, I will 
 merely observe that the various forms in which 
 this propensity manifests itself in animals, may 
 be reduced to the following: those animals, as 
 crocodiles, panthers* &c, that live isolated and 
 solitary, have no other attachment to each other 
 than that induced by the instinct of reproduc- 
 tion; others, as doves, pigeons* &c*, live in 
 pairs, and are united for life, or merely during 
 
163 
 
 the season of love, and the education of their 
 young. There are others that live in societies, 
 all the members of which have a reciprocal af- 
 fection for each other, but manifest no particular 
 or individual attachment, as for example, horses, 
 cattle, sheep, starlings, &c. ; finally, there are 
 others, as pigeons, crows, &c, which live in so- 
 cieties, but at the same time have strong indivi- 
 dual attachments. Man belongs to this class, 
 and hence forms communities connected bv the 
 most intimate relations, that are capable of ex- 
 isting between beings endowed with determinate 
 propensities; and, if we advert to the bonds es- 
 tablished by the joint influence of his intelli- 
 gence and his natural impulses, we may obtain 
 a just idea of the pow r er that presides over the 
 formation of human societies, and prevents their 
 dissolution. 
 
 Gall was long uncertain respecting the organ 
 of friendship; the manifestations of this quality 
 are in fact so often equivocal, that it is difficult 
 to pronounce on the reality of the sentiments 
 which give rise to them. He, however, was 
 witness of so many sacrifices made by indivi- 
 duals to serve their friends, and of so many 
 proofs of disinterested friendship, that he was 
 forced to admit the existence of this propensity. 
 He often alluded to General Wurmser, who 
 
164 
 
 throughout life was a perfect model of friend- 
 ship, and on whose cranium there was a re- 
 markable developement of the organ in question. 
 He also exhibited the cranium of a robber, who 
 committed suicide, that he might screen his 
 comrades from detection. The perseverance 
 with which some dogs will follow their master, 
 in spite of the most cruel usage, is also a strik- 
 ing proof of the force of this sentiment. Final- 
 ly, every one must have felt or witnessed the 
 severest struggles between the impulses of this 
 propensity, and the necessity that often exists 
 for not giving way to them. 
 
 Mimicry. When this organ is strongly ex- 
 cited, the head and body are slightly inclined to 
 one side, and backwards ; the ancients appear 
 to have noticed this, as it is to be seen in the 
 beautiful group of Castor and Pollux, which 
 may be regarded as a model of the expression 
 of the most tender friendship. 
 
165 
 
 IV. 
 
 Instinct of defence of person and property* 
 
 Synon. Organ of courage. Propensity for 
 strife and quarrels. Pugnacity. Disposition to 
 cavil, quarrel, to enter into suits at law, &:c. 
 
 (Combativeness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. According to Gall, the heads of all 
 quarrelsome persons are much larger and fuller 
 immediately behind the ears, than in cowards. 
 
 Natural history. Gall was accustomed to 
 state, that he often assembled all kinds of per- 
 sons at his house, as hackney-coachmen, por- 
 ters, &c. Among them, said he, were timid 
 and pacific individuals, w r ho sedulously avoided 
 strifes and disputes, and on the other hand, bul- 
 lies, whose chief pleasure appeared to consist in 
 broils. In these latter, as in professed duellists 
 and bravos, he always remarked the organ in 
 question; he also found it in the bravest and 
 most courageous soldiers, whilst it was con- 
 stantly deficient in the pacific and cowardly. 
 The ancients appear to have been aware of this 
 circumstance, for they have represented all their 
 gladiators with heads strongly developed in the 
 
166 
 
 region of this organ. Restive horses, savage 
 dogs, &c, present the same developement, and 
 differ from timid animals, in having their ears 
 widely separated from each other, instead of 
 being situated close together, as in the rabbit. 
 At the same time, this kind of rash courage 
 must not be confounded with that calm and de- 
 termined bravery which is always allied with 
 justice, which calculates on its powers of de- 
 fence, and which, without seeking danger, never 
 retreats from it. Gall compared, in his lectures, 
 the cranium of General Wurmser, to that of the 
 poet Alxinger, who w T as notoriously timid, and 
 pointed out that the latter was flat, where the 
 former presented a considerable protuberance; 
 this propensity is sometimes much developed in 
 females, and even in children. 
 
 Mimicry. In the action of this organ, the 
 body is firm, the legs a little separated, the arms 
 drawn backwards, the hands closed, and the 
 eyes menacing. The coward, on the contrary* 
 scratches his ear, as if to excite the organ* 
 
167 
 v. 
 
 Carnivorous instinct. 
 
 Synon. Instinct to kill and destroy. Instinct 
 to feed on flesh and blood. Sanguinary propen- 
 sity. Cruelty. Barbarity. Propensity to com- 
 mit murder. Instinct of destruction. 
 
 (Destructiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. In the temporo-parietal region, 
 immediately above and behind the meatus, or 
 opening of the ear, is to be found the protube- 
 rance indicating this organ. 
 
 Natural history. As may be supposed, Gall 
 was extremely unwilling to acknowledge a pro- 
 pensity of this nature, especially in man. He 
 was led to admit it for the following reasons. 
 In comparing the skulls of carnivorous and her- 
 bivorous animals, he remarked, that in drawing 
 a vertical line from the auditory openings, that 
 the posterior portion of the brain was much 
 larger in the former than in the latter. Some 
 time afterwards, having examined the skulls of 
 two assassins, and compared them with the 
 craniums of other individuals, he was struck 
 with the comparatively large size of the pos- 
 
168 
 
 terior portions of these heads, and spoke of an 
 organ of murder; but he was soon convinced 
 that he was in error, that in all probability na- 
 ture had never intended to bestow such a pro- 
 pensity on man, that is, in the sense which we 
 attach to the word murder. This denomina- 
 tion, therefore, appeared faulty, because in a 
 state of nature, an animal kills only because he 
 is formed to be nourished on flesh, and not with 
 an intention to commit murder. It is true, that 
 some species, as the ferret, weasel, &c, kill 
 more than is absolutely necessary for their suste- 
 nance, and that in children an instinct for de- 
 struction is generally very active, although they 
 prefer milk and vegetables to animal food. 
 
 But, these slight exceptions are readily ac- 
 counted for by the circumstances that accom- 
 pany them; and the rule remains true, and con- 
 firms the term carnivorous instinct, which I 
 have adopted as characteristic. Moreover, it is 
 to be remarked, that all animals (except the cat 
 kind,) kill their prey in such a manner as to de- 
 stroy its life in the most speedy manner, as if 
 nature, in admitting this destruction, had wished 
 it to be as prompt and as free from pain as 
 possible. 
 
 But, does this propensity really exist in man, 
 
169 
 
 and can we admit that nature has created him 
 with a bias to crime? 
 
 The number of his teeth, and their form, that 
 of the stomach and intestines, do not permit a 
 doubt that man is partly a carnivorous animal. 
 Moreover, whilst most animals feed on but one 
 kind of food, man satisfies his hunger on all 
 kinds; and every species of animal, from the 
 oyster to the elephant, are in turn sacrificed to 
 satisfy his taste and appetite. Hence, it is 
 clearly evident that man is carnivorous, and that 
 he has a natural propensity to become sangui- 
 nary, and this may exist in all its stages, from 
 a mere indifference to the sufferings of others, 
 to an extreme pleasure in murder and destruc- 
 tion; that is, if I have clearly comprehended 
 the views of Gall, that man may naturally have 
 an aversion to bloodshed, but that this disposi- 
 tion, which corresponds to the minimum of ac- 
 tion in the organ under consideration, increases 
 as the organ is developed, and successively, but 
 insensibly changes into insensibility or indiffer- 
 ence, then into pleasure at the sight of blood, 
 and, finally, in the most unrestrained desire to 
 slay and destroy. Gall and Spurzheim, have 
 given numerous and irrefragable examples in 
 support of these general assertions. At the 
 same time, if this propensity leads to murder, 
 
 15 
 
170 
 
 assassination, and arson, it may also, in many 
 cases, be employed usefully, and become a vir- 
 tue, as there are many objects which are rela- 
 tively injurious, and ought to be destroyed. 
 Spurzheim considers this propensity under the 
 denomination of destructiveness, because it ex- 
 cites us to bite, scratch, break, tear, burn, de- 
 vastate, drown, strangle, poison, assassinate, or, 
 in other words, to destroy. 
 
 Mimicry. The mimicry of this organ closely 
 resembles that of the preceding ; the whole body 
 is in a state of great tension, in unison with the 
 internal sensations experienced by the indivi- 
 dual. All the movements are rapid, and the 
 eyes are sparkling and vivid. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Organ of cunning, cheating, and trickery. 
 
 Synon. Disposition to use unworthy means 
 to discover the truth. Address in concealing 
 the intent or purpose. Spirit of intrigue. Dis- 
 simulation. Falsehood. 
 
 (7. Secretiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
171 
 
 Situation. The organ of cunning is a little in 
 front, and above that of destruction ; it is of an 
 oblong form, and gives a fulness above the 
 temples. 
 
 Natural history. Gall remarked this organ 
 for the first time, and very much developed, in 
 a man overwhelmed with debts, but who was so 
 adroit in his plans, that no one of his creditors 
 knew of his being indebted to others ; he used 
 the greatest cunning in the various expedients 
 he adopted, to prevent a discovery of his con- 
 duct. Spurzheim, on the contrary, is of opinion 
 that cunning is an operation that requires a cer- 
 tain degree of intelligence, and refers the dispo- 
 sition of this individual to a peculiar aptitude to 
 hide or conceal I think that both these views 
 are partially correct, and refer to the same pri- 
 mary instinct, an instinct that is indispensable 
 to every being, as a means of safety and protec- 
 tion against the numerous dangers with which 
 it is environed ; in animals, it is more mechani- 
 cal than in man, principally consisting in con- 
 cealment; in the human race, it becomes an 
 operation complicated with those of other or- 
 gans, and depends, in a great degree, on the 
 powers of the understanding. The dog hides a 
 bone; the cat feigns sleep, to deceive her prey. 
 Some animals also display much cunning and 
 
172 
 
 address in escaping from their pursuers, as the 
 fox, &c. But man, when he wishes to deceive 
 by assuming the guise of loyalty and frankness, 
 also makes use of language calculated to veil 
 his real intentions. 
 
 Mimicry. The actions of a wily man bear 
 the impress of mystery; he moves with the 
 stealthiness of a wolf, vigilantly observing all 
 that passes around him, and designating the 
 dupe he is about to make, by the attention and 
 politeness he lavishes upon him. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Instinct for amassing riches, &c. Love of property. 
 
 Synon. Propensity for taking what does not 
 belong to us. Coveting. Propensity to steal. 
 Usury. 
 
 (8. Acquisitiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ extends from that of 
 cunning, to within a short distance of the outer 
 edge of the super-orbitary ridge. 
 
 Natural history. Robbers are numerous, but 
 what is the cause of the propensity to steal ? Is 
 
173 
 
 it misery, ignorance, bad education, idleness, or 
 absence of moral and religious principles ? But, 
 even among the rich — those who have re- 
 ceived the best education, devotees, counts, 
 countesses, princes — many individuals have ma- 
 nifested this propensity, A young man of an 
 excellent family, not being able to resist a 
 propensity to rob his relations and friends, en- 
 tered the army, hoping that the strictness of 
 military discipline would correct him of a vice 
 he himself held in the greatest detestation, but 
 it was in vain. He then studied theology, and 
 became a capuchin; but it was to no purpose; 
 he robbed in the barrack and in the cell, as he 
 had clone at home and at college ; yet he was 
 highly esteemed for his good qualities. Thou- 
 sands of similar examples might be given, where 
 the most careful education, and the most severe 
 punishments, failed in subduing this propensity. 
 Now, it has been proved that artificial habits do 
 not gain so complete a mastery over the human 
 mind, neither do they resist such active means 
 of cure, as those alluded to above. We must, 
 therefore, admit that a propensity may exist, 
 which excites individuals to the commission of 
 theft. Moreover, this propensity is found in 
 animals also; wolves dispute with each other 
 for the same prey ; dogs hide the food that is 
 
 15* 
 
174 
 
 given them; cats seize every opportunity of 
 stealing food, &c. ; hence, Gall was accustomed 
 to reply to the objections urged against the ex- 
 istence of this organ — " of what avail is reason- 
 ing, in opposition to facts ?" Again — the asser- 
 tion of lawyers, that a propensity to steal can- 
 not depend on a peculiar organization, as proper- 
 ty is only the result of conventional legislation, 
 falls to the ground, for Gall has shown that the 
 assemblage of man in communities, is an in- 
 stitution of nature; and therefore it must be 
 evident, that everything depending on this 
 event, must arise from the physical organization 
 of man. Hence, concludes he, the sentiment of 
 meum, belongs to natural, as well as to artificial 
 societies, but differs by being founded on force 
 in the first, and on laws, in the second. Final- 
 ly, this propensity, considered in the abstract, is 
 a useful faculty, and the greater part of its 
 abuses, as has been observed by Raynal, are 
 the result of the erroneous principles on which 
 the fabric of society is erected. 
 
 Mimicry. This is seen fully exemplified in 
 the miser. In general, the head is inclined for- 
 wards, the arms stretched out, and the hands 
 open, as if to receive, or half closed, as if to re- 
 tain what may be given. 
 
175 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Instinct presiding over a choice of habitation. 
 
 Synon. Instinct of height. Propensity in- 
 ducing certain animals to live on the summit of 
 mountains, certain birds to soar above the 
 clouds, some to build their nests in the loftiest 
 trees, and others in thickets, &c. Instinct of 
 dwelling in particular places. Love of habi- 
 tation. 
 
 (3. Inhabitiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ is placed immediately 
 above that of maternity, on the median line, and 
 in the middle region of the back part of the 
 head. It is the lower part of the organ of 
 pride, as designated by Gall. 
 
 Natural history. The idea that pride, a 
 desire of commanding, and a predilection for 
 mountains, are parts of the same faculty, has al- 
 ways perplexed even the most zealous disciples 
 of Gall. I have therefore determined to sepa- 
 rate these two faculties, and do it the more 
 willingly, since Gall never opposed this view of 
 the subject, which was first taken by Spurz- 
 heim. Hence, I regard the lower part of the 
 
176 
 
 organ admitted by Gall, as the seat of the in- 
 stinct to live on mountains; and upper por- 
 tion, as that of pride. Spurzheim admits, that 
 we have much to learn respecting these organs, 
 from the difficulty that exists of making the 
 proper comparisons between aquatic and ter- 
 restrial animals. 
 
 When the habits and manners of animals are 
 examined, it leaves no doubt that nature has as- 
 signed a peculiar locality to each species. Some 
 are evidently organized to live in plains; others 
 on the margins of rivers; others in the deepest 
 valleys; and others, again, on the summits of 
 mountains. Some fish reside at the bottom of 
 the water, whilst others are always found near 
 the surface. The eagle and the owl, are other 
 examples of the most opposite instincts. It has 
 been pretended that a difference of organization, 
 joined to the circumstance of a more plentiful 
 supply of food in certain spots, would explain 
 the propensity in question. 
 
 But, as I have already observed, neither ex- 
 ternal or internal wants, nor the forms of the 
 organs, are capable of producing permanent and 
 determinate instincts. The sensation of hunger, 
 does nothing more than warn the animal of the 
 want of food; but, there is nothing intellectual 
 in it, and it is incapable of suggesting or pro- 
 
177 
 
 viding means to satisfy this want. Moreover, 
 animals which feed on the same substances, are 
 found in the most dissimilar regions ; thus, one 
 species of rat lives in cellars, and another in 
 granaries; the wild-goat and the chamois de- 
 light in the most lofty peaks, and yet their ap- 
 propriate food occurs, in the greatest abundance, 
 in less elevated situations. The faculty of fly- 
 ing does not explain the propensity of the eagle 
 to soar, nor of the sky-lark to rise to a great 
 height whilst singing ; whilst the owl remains 
 in his hole, and the nightingale pours forth his 
 sweet notes from a low bush. It is therefore 
 evident, that certain animals seek heights from 
 pleasure, and to satisfy a propensity which can 
 have no other seat than one of the convolutions 
 of the brain. However, I shall treat of the 
 organ of heights, as described by Gall. 
 
 Mimicry. Animals that live on heights are 
 generally more active and agile than those liv- 
 ing on plains, and often present marked pecu- 
 liarities in their actions, and in their locomotive 
 organs. 
 
178 
 
 ix. 
 Love of power. 
 
 Synon. Spirit of domination. Propensity to 
 command. Good opinion of self. Love of in- 
 dependence. Pride, haughtiness, arrogance, dis- 
 dain, vanity, presumption, insolence. 
 
 (10. Self-esteem. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The seat of this instinct is on the 
 median line, or middle of the head, a little be- 
 low and behind the top of the head. 
 
 Natural history. Despisers of all authority, 
 of sovereignty, of absolute power; leaders in re- 
 bellions, and revolts, &c, are generally proud 
 and ambitious men. A want of energy or ac- 
 tion in this organ, disposes to submission and 
 slavery. I am fully aware, says Gall, that an 
 inhabitant of a valley may possess as much 
 pride as a mountaineer ; but it is also true, that 
 pride is more frequently met with in the inha- 
 bitants of elevated situations, and that they have 
 a greater propensity to independence. It is also 
 a fact, that proud children endeavour to make 
 themselves appear taller, by rising on their toes, 
 and climbing on chairs ; that some men have the 
 
179 
 
 greatest pleasure in ascending heights; that 
 small women are fond of high head-dresses, and 
 high-heeled shoes. It is also true, that soldiers 
 prefer high caps, and helmets surmounted with 
 long plumes. So, also, the proud man has an 
 erect carriage; kings are seated on thrones; 
 those who wish to command, endeavour to place 
 themselves on some elevated situation ; all the 
 expressions by which the different manifesta- 
 tions of pride are designated are based on those 
 applicable to heights. Thus, we say an ele- 
 vated station, low extraction, &c. These rea- 
 sons, and many others of an analogous charac- 
 ter, induced Gall to consider the love of ele- 
 vated situations, and the feeling of pride, &c, as 
 belonging to the same propensity. 
 
 Mimicry. This is so striking and unequivo- 
 cal, that it cannot be mistaken. An individual 
 under the influence of this passion, carries his 
 head erect, his arms sometimes extended, as if 
 to command ; sometimes elevated, as if to pro- 
 claim his self-sufficiency, and contempt for 
 others. 
 
180 
 x. 
 
 Love of approbation. 
 
 Synon. Love of glory and distinction. Am- 
 bition. Vanity. Coquetry. Ostentation. Emu- 
 lation. Jealousy. Desire to please. 
 
 (11. Love of approbation. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. On each side of the preceding 
 organ, these protuberances, when much deve- 
 loped, cause the head to appear very large 
 behind. 
 
 Natural history. When this propensity is 
 under the guidance of the superior organs, and 
 is strongly manifested; it is ambition, love of 
 glory, and enthusiasm in sublime pursuits. If, 
 on the contrary, the superior organs are but 
 slightly developed, and this propensity is at the 
 same time predominant, it is vanity, ostentation, 
 coquetry, &c. ; in the man who strives to excel 
 in his profession or calling, it is the love of ap- 
 probation, applied to the ordinary pursuits of 
 life ; it is this sentiment of emulation that ex- 
 cites the general to victory; that urges the 
 workman to bestow all possible finish and per- 
 fection on his work. A shoemaker, who has a 
 
181 
 
 pride in making good shoes, is a valuable mem- 
 ber of society. Gall was much pleased that his 
 gardener had vanity, because it excited him to 
 make the greatest efforts to raise the best vege- 
 tables. That country is happy, where the va- 
 nity of women consists in being faithful to their 
 husbands, and in overlooking their households! 
 That government is happy, where the prince 
 strives earnestly to merit the affection of his 
 people ! That nation is happy, where rewards 
 are based on public esteem, and a merited re- 
 putation ! 
 
 Finally, this propensity is the source of a 
 multitude of brilliant actions, and heroic deeds. 
 Parents and instructors, says Gall, cannot em- 
 ploy a more honourable or efficacious stimulus. 
 But, it should be remembered, that its applica- 
 tion to a determinate object, depends on the 
 combination of other faculties with it. 
 
 Mimicry. The vain man turns his eyes from 
 side to side, to see if his figure, and the ele- 
 gance of his dress be admired. He uses many 
 gestures, and always presents himself with an 
 affected and self-sufficient air ; but, this is still 
 more striking in the coquette. 
 
 16 
 
182 
 
 XI. 
 
 Circumspection, 
 
 Synon. Caution. Sedate, deliberate charac- 
 ter. Disposition to calculate chances. Inquie- 
 tude. Fear. Irresolution. Melancholy. 
 
 (12. Cautiousness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ, like all those which 
 are not situated on the median line, presents a 
 double elevation, one on each side of the head, 
 near the middle of the parietal bones, and forms 
 a large protuberance behind that of cunning. 
 
 Natural history. Gall was led to think that 
 irresolution, indecision, and circumspection, 
 might depend on the developement of certain 
 convolutions of the brain, by observations made 
 on two individuals who w r ere very remarkable 
 for these qualities; one was a clergyman, of 
 great sense and much wit, but who was so 
 fearful of committing himself, that his conver- 
 sation became exceedingly tiresome ; he repeat- 
 ed the same thing over and over, as if to assure 
 himself that it expressed his meaning in an ex- 
 act manner. His conduct was in unison with 
 his manner of speaking. The most insignificant 
 
183 
 
 undertaking, was subjected to the severest exa- 
 mination, and the most rigorous calculation. 
 The other was a lawyer, who, by his extreme 
 irresolution, obtained the surname of Cacaclubio. 
 Gall, on examining the heads of these two indi- 
 viduals, who in other respects were of wholly 
 dissimilar characters, was struck with the pro- 
 minence of the centre of each parietal bone. 
 He subsequently found, that in cautious ani- 
 mals, as the stag, the deer, &c, and in those 
 which station sentinels, as the chamois, the wild 
 goose, &c, the head was much developed on 
 each side. Being thus led to consider these 
 dispositions as dependent on a primary propen- 
 sity, he undertook to trace it in the various 
 forms or manifestations in which it might pre- 
 sent itself. He came to the conclusion, that 
 society, viewed in reference to this faculty, pre- 
 sents two classes of individuals, differing widely 
 from each other; the one, frivolous, heedless, 
 rash, and thoughtless; the other, grave, calcu- 
 lating, and of a decided and cautious character. 
 The first, says Gall, live for the present mo- 
 ment, are generally gay, abandon themselves to 
 their feelings, and rush, without reflection, into 
 the most hazardous enterprises, The second, 
 on the contrary, live for the future, are conti- 
 nually on their guard, foresee all dangers, and 
 
184 
 
 seldom undertake anything, the result of which 
 may be doubtful. The former often experience 
 misfortune after misfortune, from their inad- 
 vertence and want of foresight. Thus, an indi- 
 vidual of this character will pass hours in search 
 of a key which he had mislaid or lost through 
 carelessness. Another is thrown from his horse, 
 and breaks a leg or an arm, from having impru- 
 dently attempted to gallop on a slippery pave- 
 ment. The latter, on the contrary, are over-cau- 
 tious, and are always quoting the adage, that in a 
 hundred accidents, ninety-nine might have been 
 avoided. A person thus constituted, trembles 
 at the sight of a tumbler placed near the edge 
 of a table, and never breaks anything. Ano- 
 ther will be employed for days in trimming 
 trees, without cutting himself. 
 
 Nevertheless, cautiousness, when carried too 
 far, becomes the greatest enemy to our comfort 
 and happiness. It is a sort of pathological 
 state, which renders its victim a burden to him- 
 self and his friends; everything becomes a sub- 
 ject of fear and alarm, to such an individual. 
 If he experiences the least reverse of fortune, he 
 becomes a prey to the most overwhelming de- 
 spair. If an epidemic disease makes its appear- 
 ance, he fancies that he must inevitably be at- 
 tacked by it, and suffers the greatest agony of 
 
185 
 
 mind. In short, no event occurs, that by any 
 possibility may affect him unpleasantly, that 
 does not plunge him into a state of anxiety and 
 distress, rendering him at length so morose as 
 to cause his own unhappiness, and that of all 
 around him. 
 
 Mimicry. Circumspection is in general more 
 developed in females than in the other sex, and 
 in feeble and timid animals, than in those that 
 are courageous. A cautious person carries his 
 body erect, turns his head from side to side, and 
 picks his steps with the greatest care. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Sense of things. 
 
 Synon. Memory of facts. Educability. Per- 
 fectibility. Curiosity. Docility. Disposition to 
 perfect the action of the different organs. Ra- 
 pid conception, extreme facility in appreciating 
 things. General desire for instruction, and re- 
 markable aptitude to acquire all branches of 
 human knowledge. Decided talent for teach- 
 ing. Disposition to adopt all reigning opinions, 
 
 16* 
 
186 
 
 all new doctrines, and to model our habits and 
 manners by the fashion of the day. Sense of 
 moral relations. Organ which enables birds to 
 become domesticated, and to receive a certain 
 education. 
 
 (22. Individuality. 30. Eventuality. 25. 
 Weight. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ forms a prominence 
 which, commencing at the root of the nose, ex- 
 tends towards the middle of the forehead, be- 
 coming larger on each side of the median line 
 between the eyebrows. 
 
 Natural history. Gall observes, that care must 
 be taken not to confound, as has been too often 
 the case, this general and indeterminate perfec- 
 tibility, with the particular and determinate 
 perfectibility of each primary faculty. There is 
 no moral or intellectual quality, says he, which 
 may not be exercised, and thus acquire greater 
 power. But, this kind of perfectibility is al- 
 ways limited to a certain range. On the other 
 hand, the educability in question, principally 
 extends to things not comprised in the sphere 
 of action of the particular forces. 
 
 Spurzheim has taken a different view of the 
 subject from his master, and has divided the 
 organ in question into two others, one of which 
 he terms that of individuality, the other that of 
 
187 
 
 eventuality. According to him, ideas relating 
 to the individual existence of external objects, 
 belong to those faculties which are absolutely 
 necessary. The inferior animals are even en- 
 dowed with the power of acquiring them, and 
 in all others, as in children, this faculty, which 
 comprises almost everything which philosophers 
 attribute to the sense of touch, is manifested at 
 a very early period of their existence. When 
 it is too active, it leads to the personification of 
 everything, even phenomena, as motion, life, 
 fever, &c. When too sluggish, it has led some 
 philosophers to deny the existence of the world. 
 The above observations apply to the organ of 
 individuality, which occupies the space between 
 the root of the nose, and the lower part of the 
 organ of eventuality. But, Spurzheim ob- 
 serves, in another place, that we often meet 
 with individuals who have a general acquaint- 
 ance with all branches of human knowledge, 
 who are interested in all that appertains to the 
 sciences and arts, who, though not thoroughly 
 versed in any one subject, know enough to 
 speak with facility upon it, and, in fact, to 
 speak well. In short, the organ of pheno- 
 mena, or of educability, as described by Gall, is 
 much developed in those persons who are the 
 ornaments and delight of society, from their 
 
188 
 
 general acquaintance with every topic that may 
 become the subject of discussion. 
 
 It is generally more developed in boys than 
 in girls; in certain nations, than in others. 
 This faculty takes cognizance of all that passes 
 within and around us, renders us attentive to 
 events and to historical facts, induces us to col- 
 lect anecdotes, &c, and to take pleasure in re- 
 lating them. With individuality, it forms a 
 kind of practical knowledge which might be 
 termed the philosophy of common sense, far su- 
 perior to that aspiring philosophy which is 
 founded on metaphysical subtleties. 
 
 Mimicry. The mimicry of this organ is not 
 very sensible externally, it principally resides in 
 a certain tension of the head, and a particular 
 aptitude to scrutinize all phenomena that pre- 
 sent themselves, and to investigate their results. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Organ of localities, or of the relations of distances. 
 
 Synon. Love of travelling. Cosmopolism. 
 Recollection of places. Emigration, or dispo- 
 
189 
 
 sition to change place of abode, viz. country, 
 city, house, or master. Propensity to vaga- 
 bondry. Taste for foreign missions. Particu- 
 lar disposition to appreciate the properties of 
 space, and to the study of geometry. Organ of 
 cosmogony, or of local relations. Disposition 
 to arrange things with taste, order, symmetry, 
 and neatness. Aversion to disorder, confusion, 
 and uncleanliness. 
 
 (21. Locality. 24. Size. Spurzheim.) 
 Situation. The seat of this disposition is a 
 little above the eyebrows, and on each side of 
 the median line. 
 
 Natural history. My taste for natural history, 
 says Gall, often led me to make excursions for 
 the purpose of procuring specimens; I was ge- 
 nerally successful in these expeditions, from 
 my knowledge of the habits and manners of the 
 different species; but, if I returned to the woods 
 and forests in a few days afterwards to visit my 
 nets, or to obtain the birds' nests I had pre- 
 viously discovered, I almost always lost myself, 
 notwithstanding all the pains I might have taken 
 to mark the spots; this forced me to take one of 
 my companions with me as a guide; this young 
 man, although possessing but slender abilities, 
 could always lead me to the desired place. 
 When I demanded of him how it was that he 
 
190 
 
 never mistook his way, his constant reply was, 
 that he could not understand how any one could 
 lose themselves. I therefore took a cast of his 
 head, and sought for other persons who were 
 distinguished for the same faculty; this led, in 
 a short time, to the discovery of this organ, 
 which, however, must not be confounded with 
 the prominences produced by the frontal sinuses. 
 These are generally horizontal, and situated 
 close to the eyebrows, whilst the two projections 
 of the organ of locality extend in an oblique di- 
 rection from the root of the nose to the middle 
 of the forehead. 
 
 Some of the opponents of Gall have at- 
 tempted to show that this faculty, so useful to 
 man and animals, and especially those that 
 migrate, depends on the sense of smell; but 
 naturalists had long been aware of the impossi- 
 bility of explaining this extraordinary pheno- 
 menon on such grounds, and had established a 
 sixth sense to account for it. Cats, dogs, squir- 
 rels, rabbits, and honey-bees, return to their ac- 
 customed places of abode from great distances, 
 and oftentimes by a different route. In the 
 lemming, the developement of this organ would 
 lead us to suppose that this propensity was irre- 
 sistible, and such is the fact. 
 
 This quality, which has its abuses, like all 
 
191 
 
 others, is of the highest importance in many 
 points of view ; owing to it, we have cosmogra- 
 phers, astronomers, geographers, geometricians, 
 landscape-painters, and navigators; to it, also 
 the able general is indebted for the power of 
 profiting by any advantages afforded by the na- 
 ture of the country. Animals enjoying this fa- 
 culty, appear to regulate their migrations by the 
 rising and setting of the sun, the course of rivers, 
 or the direction of certain periodical winds. 
 Birds, generally rise to a great height in the 
 air, before taking the route of their migration, 
 after having, it is evident, previously settled all 
 the circumstances of the voyage. 
 
 Gall was also led to regard this organ as giv- 
 ing rise to a love of symmetry and order; but, 
 having subsequently remarked it in persons who 
 were insensible to the greatest disorder and 
 want of neatness, he suspended his judgment 
 until he could make further observations. He, 
 moreover, was of opinion that the love of order 
 ought to be referred to a primary faculty, closely 
 allied to the one under consideration. Spurz- 
 heim, without any more decided data, has ad- 
 mitted this faculty, which he thinks is situated 
 between the organ of colours, and that of 
 numbers. 
 
 Mimicry. A man who has lost his way, ge- 
 
192 
 
 nerally places the index finger on the organ, 
 whilst he is considering what road he shall take. 
 The situation of places is indicated by certain 
 motions of the arms and hands. 
 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Faculty of preserving a recollection of persons, and of rea- 
 dily recognizing those we have previously seen. 
 
 Synon. Memory of persons, great facility in 
 recollecting the prominent features and manners 
 of individuals. Particular talent of seizing the 
 forms of things, and a disposition to make col- 
 lections of prints and portraits. Sense of pro- 
 sopognosis. 
 
 (23. Form. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The eyes may be of any shape, 
 but the internal angle being somewhat depress- 
 ed, marks the presence of this faculty. 
 
 Natural history. Some persons have an as- 
 tonishing facility in recollecting individuals 
 whom they have seen but once, even after the 
 lapse of many years; whilst on the other hand, 
 others have scarcely a remembrance of those 
 
193 
 
 they are in the habit of constantly meeting from 
 day to day. Some nations, as the Chinese, are 
 very remarkable for this faculty. It is well 
 known that bees, like all animals living in socie- 
 ties, can distinguish such as belong to their own 
 hive, from those belonging to others. Ele- 
 phants, horses, and dogs, become attached to 
 certain persons, and recognize them after the 
 lapse of long periods of time. Gall states that 
 he himself was absolutely wanting in this faculty, 
 so much so, indeed, as often to make the most 
 embarrassing mistakes; nevertheless, his sight 
 was excellent, and he was able to distinguish, 
 even at a distance, such natural objects as he 
 had studied. What is the basis of this faculty? 
 According to Spurzheim, a facility in recogniz- 
 ing persons and things is not the essence of this 
 force, as these may be distinguished by their 
 size, figure, &c. ; hence, this faculty is found in 
 all individuals having a particular aptitude in 
 seizing the forms of objects, as great painters, 
 sculptors, crystallographers, &c, and leads us 
 to represent even spiritual beings in a material 
 form, but at the same time differs in its opera- 
 tions from individuality. Spurzheim, how- 
 ever, thinks that the two organs are situated 
 close to each other, in the internal angle of the 
 orbit of the eye. 
 
 17 
 
194 
 
 Mimicry. When a person is striving to re- 
 collect the name of a person that he has forgot- 
 ten, his eyes are thrown upwards; a tension is 
 felt in the region of the organ, and in most 
 cases he places his hand over his eyebrows, and 
 rubs the lower part of his forehead, as if to sti- 
 mulate the organ. 
 
 xv. 
 
 Great facility in retaining names and words. 
 
 Synon. Verbal memory. Sense of words. 
 Disposition to talk. Loquacity. Faculty of 
 artificial signs. Disposition to prefer such stu- 
 dies as require the recollection of a great num- 
 ber of names, as mineralogy, entomology, bo- 
 tany, numismatology, genealogy, &c. Organ 
 of onomosophy. 
 
 (33. Language. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. Large and prominent eyes, hav- 
 ing the external commissure of the eyelids, and 
 the ball itself turned somewhat downwards, in- 
 dicate the faculty in question. 
 
 Natural history. The history of this faculty 
 
195 
 
 is interesting, it being the origin of all the dis- 
 coveries made by Gall, and the cause of all his 
 researches. Whilst still very young, and long 
 before he had studied anatomy and physiology, 
 he became convinced of the existence of such a 
 quality; biographers, also, had noticed it in 
 those whom they cited for their astonishing 
 memories ; but Gall was the first to discover that 
 it was not a faculty depending on the action of 
 the whole brain, as it is restrained to definite 
 objects, and is often isolated and unsupported 
 by any other dominant faculty. 
 
 According to Gall, it differs from philology, 
 in being only an aptitude to remember words 
 and names, without any reference to their logi- 
 cal or grammatical connexion. It makes man 
 a walking dictionary, as it were, and is of great 
 utility to the compiler, the actor, and to all 
 those who have anything to do with nomencla- 
 ture and terminology. 
 
 Spurzheim, on the contrary, considers this, 
 and the succeeding organ, to be only portions of 
 a single primary faculty. In his opinion, the 
 aptitude to acquire a language is only a more 
 perfect function of the faculty of verbal me- 
 mory; and even Gall appears inclined to this 
 view of the subject. 
 
 Mimicry. This is not very striking; like that 
 
196 
 
 of most of the intellectual faculties, it is calm, 
 and almost internal. Nevertheless, if we ob- 
 serve an orator whilst speaking, and who is at a 
 loss for a word, an external action w ? ill be evi- 
 dent in the region of this organ. 
 
 XVI, 
 
 Faculty of speech, and facility in the study of languages. 
 
 Synon. Faculty of speaking and articulat- 
 ing vocal sounds or words. Language of na- 
 tural, artificial, conventional, or arbitrary signs, 
 and power of expressing thought with precision 
 and clearness, by means of these signs. Apti- 
 tude to seize the character and genius of lan- 
 guages, and their idiomatic terms and phrases. 
 Faculty of appreciating the principal circum- 
 stances in the life of living beings, and of adopt- 
 ing certain signs to them, that they may be un- 
 derstood by others. Polyglotism. 
 
 (33. Language. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. When the eyes are large and pro- 
 minent, and at the same time pressed as it were 
 towards the lower part of the orbit, it is a mark 
 
197 
 
 of a peculiar aptitude for the study of lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Natural history. All persons eminently en- 
 dowed with this organization, as Baratier, Pic- 
 de-la-Mirandole, Lewis Dufour, &c, have cul- 
 tivated, at the same time, the living and dead 
 languages, grammar, belles-lettres, philosophy, 
 antiquities, history, medicine, jurisprudence, 
 &c, and have, in short, acquired all the learn- 
 ing of their own, as well as of former ages. 
 Leibnitz was the greatest mathematician, phi- 
 losopher, historian, jurist, biographer, and anti- 
 quary of his time. 
 
 Gall came to the conclusion, from a number 
 of pathological observations, that this confor- 
 mation also produced the faculty of speech, or 
 the power of articulating vocal sounds. He ex- 
 hibited the cranium of a lunatic w r ho was un- 
 able to articulate words, although he was not 
 deficient in ideas, in whom the roofs of the orbits 
 were very much arched, and consequently the 
 organ in question very small. Children who 
 are tardy in beginning to speak, appear to be in 
 a like predicament; either the organ is too 
 small, or it has been injured. At the same time, 
 he confessed that there was much to be learnt 
 respecting this organ and its faculties. 
 
 It appears, says Spurzheim, that this organ 
 17* 
 
198 
 
 must be considered as composed of several parts; 
 for some persons evidently have greater diffi- 
 culty than others, in remembering or retaining 
 certain classes of words. He cites several in- 
 dividuals, whose memory was deficient as re- 
 garded proper names, but was perfect with re- 
 spect to adjectives and verbs. Hence, a dis- 
 tinction must be made between the power of 
 forming ideas of things, that of attaching these 
 ideas to natural or artificial signs, and the fa- 
 culty of articulating these signs, or of speaking. 
 The organ under consideration, appears to com- 
 prise in its sphere of action these three essential 
 requisites of language, and to furnish a satis- 
 factory solution of many questions much dis- 
 cussed by philosophers. 
 
 Mimicry. This, like that of the preceding 
 organs, is essentially internal, and consists in a 
 certain immobility of different parts of the body, 
 and great tension of the organ. 
 
199 
 
 XVII. 
 
 Sense of the relation of colours. 
 
 Synon. Faculty of appreciating colours and 
 their shades, and of distinguishing them from 
 each other. Knowledge of colours, and of their 
 effects. Aptitude to judge of their harmony 
 and contrasts. Talent constituting a colourist. 
 Disposition to enjoy fine scenery. Innate taste 
 for pictures, and richly decorated apartments. 
 Sense of the chromatic. 
 
 (26. Colour. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The organ of this talent is situ- 
 ated in the forehead, immediately over the mid- 
 dle of the eye. When much developed, it 
 causes a prominence of the external portion of 
 the eyebrow. 
 
 Natural history. This organ has no con- 
 nexion with the simple faculty of seeing, a sense 
 possessed equally by man and animals, but its ac- 
 tion is confined to much narrower limits — that 
 of the appreciation of colours and their effects. 
 Gall and Spurzheim, were acquainted with se- 
 veral individuals who were unable to distinguish 
 certain colours, whilst on the contrary, there 
 
200 
 
 are others who are capable of appreciating the 
 most delicate shades, and who have a particular 
 tact in combining them in the most pleasing and 
 agreeable manner. The application of this fa- 
 culty to the arts renders certain persons ex- 
 tremely skilfal in the choice and arrangement of 
 colours, and in the decoration of apartments. It 
 also produces great colourists, but does not ne- 
 cessarily make great painters, because the com- 
 position of a picture, and especially a historical 
 one, depends upon other aptitudes, as concep- 
 tion of the subject, character of the figures re- 
 presented, scene, &c. 
 
 Mimicry. The mimicry of this organ appears 
 to be almost wholly referable to admiration. 
 This, in fact, is the dominant feeling in view- 
 ing a beautiful valley, a romantic situation, a 
 highly finished painting, or a richly decorated 
 apartment. 
 
 XVIII. 
 Sense of the relations of sounds. 
 
 Synon. Talent for music, and aptitude to ap- 
 preciate the musical concords and discords. Dis- 
 
201 
 
 position to sing. Memory of tones. Sentiment 
 of melody and harmony. 
 
 (32. Melody. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ is situated immedi- 
 ately above the outer angle of the eye, and 
 when much developed causes a great enlarge- 
 ment of the lateral parts of the head, giving the 
 forehead a square appearance. 
 
 Natural history. The perception of musical 
 sounds is as little dependent on the sense of 
 hearing, as that of colours on the sense of 
 sight. An innate talent for each of these intel- 
 lectual manifestations must therefore be neces- 
 sarily admitted, or, in other words, a faculty 
 that conceives musical tones, a memory that re- 
 tains them, and an instinct that excites us to 
 produce them. This faculty Gall has termed 
 the organ of music. Spurzheim, however, con- 
 siders that this science depends on two different 
 faculties, that of sounds, and that of time; in 
 fact, says he, some musicians play with great 
 taste and feeling, though in very bad time, 
 whilst others, although they execute with asto- 
 nishing precision, are totally deficient in ex- 
 pression ; be this as it may, there are so many 
 proofs in favour of this organ, that it is impos- 
 sible to deny its existence. At the same time, 
 
202 
 
 this faculty does not appear essential to the 
 well being of man or animals, most of the spe- 
 cies of the latter that are endowed with it, using 
 it only whilst young, or during the pairing sea- 
 son ; in man, both sexes have an equal aptitude 
 for it, whilst in animals it is generally confined 
 to the male. 
 
 It has been erroneously supposed that this 
 organ would be found in a more or less deve- 
 loped state, in all persons that cultivate music; 
 but, as this art is as much a part of education 
 as grammar, history, &c, many continue to 
 practise it from habit, and play or sing without 
 any decided predilection for the pursuit. Li- 
 terature, the chase, mathematics, music, &c M 
 are all means of killing time, and occupying 
 idle moments; we can soon distinguish, even 
 among professed musicians, those who are born 
 with a special vocation for this talent, and those 
 who merely exercise it as a trade. It must, 
 however, be admitted that music is always an 
 agreeable occupation, and contributes greatly to 
 the amelioration and civilization of the human 
 race. 
 
 Mimicry. This is referable to measure and 
 cadence ; by it the experienced officer hastens 
 or restrains the march of his troops, and excites 
 
203 
 
 them to the most heroic actions ; by it, also, re- 
 ligion imparts hope and joy to the minds of her 
 followers. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 Sense of the relations and properties of numbers. 
 
 Synon. Love of calculation. Algorism, ta- 
 lent for mathematics. Sense of time, organ 
 of chronology, faculty of retaining dates and 
 epochs. 
 
 (28. Numeration. 29. Order. 31. Time. 
 Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. According to Gall, in all eminent 
 mathematicians, the outer half of the super or- 
 bitary ridge is straight, or the angle of the eye 
 projects beyond the anterior part of the temple. 
 In either case, the eye is covered by the upper 
 lid, near its external angle, and the develope- 
 ment of the organ gives it some obliquity. 
 
 Natural history. Gall had made great pro- 
 gress in his theory of the plurality of organs, 
 when the son of a blacksmith called his atten- 
 tion to the faculty of numbers. This boy, who 
 
204 
 
 was scarcely nine years of age, was able, by 
 mental combinations alone, to solve the most 
 difficult questions in the four rules of arith- 
 metic, much more correctly and rapidly than 
 experienced calculators. Spurzheim states, that 
 he has remarked that this faculty is much more 
 developed in the English, than in the French, 
 and other European nations, and still more than 
 in negroes, who, according to him, use nothing 
 but quinary calculators; that is, they count by 
 fives, as we do by tens. I must here be per- 
 mitted, for the first time, to differ from Gall; I 
 admit, with him, that the faculty in question 
 comprehends within its sphere of activity, every- 
 thing that relates to numbers. But, I cannot 
 bring myself to think that this faculty led Na- 
 pier to the calculation of logarithms, Pythagoras 
 to the demonstration of the square of the hypo- 
 theneuse, and Laplace to his great discoveries. 
 Geometrical truths are independent of the pro- 
 perties of numbers, and the physico-mathema- 
 tical sciences, which form the most fertile fields 
 for the exercise of the human understanding, 
 require at the same time a faculty of calcula- 
 tion ; that of analogy, and a capacity to appre- 
 ciate and combine the properties of space. 
 However, a close examination of a great num- 
 ber of mathematicians, and of young men who 
 
205 
 
 excelled in their mathematical studies, does not 
 permit me to entertain the slightest doubt of the 
 existence of this organ. 
 
 Mimicry. During the action of this faculty, 
 to which Gall also refers that of time, or a fa- 
 cility in retaining dates, all the others are ab- 
 sorbed as it were, and the individual becomes 
 unconscious of what passes around him. 
 
 XX. 
 
 Sense of mechanics and construction. 
 
 Synon. Organ of the arts and industry. Ap- 
 titude to succeed in drawing, sculpture, and ar- 
 chitecture. Talent which tends to great skill 
 and perfection in manipulations of all kinds. 
 Dexterity. 
 
 (9. Constructiveness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The external sign of this organ is 
 a rounded prominence situated in the temporal 
 region, sometimes on a line with the eye, and 
 sometimes a little higher, according to the de- 
 velopement of the neighbouring organs. 
 
 Natural history. It was a long time before 
 18 
 

 206 
 
 Gall could convince himself that our primary 
 faculties depended on the peculiar organization 
 of our brain; he had early remarked, that in 
 able mechanicians, the diameter of the head 
 from one temple to the other, was greater than 
 that drawn between the zigomatic processes, 
 but was at a loss to account for this peculiarity; 
 finally, however, he met with two individuals, in 
 whom the faculty and the organ were so strik- 
 ing, as to convince him of their mutual con- 
 nexion. This discovery shed much light on 
 his theory, and his subsequent researches were 
 conducted in a much more exact manner. He 
 perceived that this instinct was independent of 
 all the others, that it was calculated to fulfil the 
 wants of the animal, and, according to the na- 
 ture of the external objects, proper for this pur- 
 pose; finally, the examination of the various 
 modes of construction practised by animals con- 
 vinced him that their real wants never exceed 
 the forces fitted to satisfy these wants, and that 
 their organization always gives rise to instincts 
 which are useful to them, and provides means 
 to reduce these instincts to actions. He also 
 comprehended why it was that these instincts 
 were so limited, and, as it were, blind in most 
 races of animals. 
 
 Some persons, says Spurzheim, have at- 
 
207 
 
 tempted to ridicule the idea, that the same fa- 
 culty presides over the erection of the palaces 
 and temples of civilized nations, and the ob- 
 scure habitation of the mole, but are not the 
 same instruments employed to produce the slow 
 motions of the sloth, and the rapid bounds of 
 the stag ; to elicit the croak of the frog, and the 
 harmonious notes of a Crescentini? We must 
 therefore admit, that the differences of construc- 
 tion we remark in the nests of birds, &c, as 
 well as the various degrees of perfection and 
 finish in the works of artists, are dependent on 
 different degrees of this faculty, which is equal- 
 ly necessary to the draughtsman, the sculptor, 
 the engraver, the watchmaker, &c. ; in fact, it 
 is indispensable to succeed in the arts. It gives 
 rise to the playthings of children, and the ever 
 varying fashions of the gay world ; to instru- 
 ments of warfare, and the most useful machi- 
 nery; to the evolutions of a ship, and the me- 
 chanism of the universe. 
 
 Mimicry. This is complicated, being both 
 internal and external. Some idea may be form- 
 ed of it by observing a sculptor at work on a 
 statue, or a milliner trimming a bonnet, and 
 imagining a new form or fashion. 
 
208 
 
 XXI, 
 
 Comparative sagacity. 
 
 Synon. Quickness of apprehension, compa- 
 rative perspicuity, particular aptitude to express 
 an idea by an ingenious and striking compari- 
 son. Faculty of making comparisons, of find- 
 ing analogies, of seizing the resemblances or 
 dissimilitudes between objects. Disposition to 
 use sensible images in speaking or writing. 
 Popular eloquence. Tendency to employ me- 
 taphors, parables, and comparisons. Fondness 
 for proverbs, adages, and quotations. Source 
 of mythology, allegory, and apologues. 
 
 (34. Comparison. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. A protuberance commencing at 
 the upper part of the forehead, and descending 
 in a conical form to about the middle of this 
 part, announces the faculty in question. 
 
 Natural history. All the faculties hitherto 
 spoken of, are common to man and animals, 
 with this difference; that in the former some 
 are eminently intellectual, and produce much 
 more striking results. Those that remain to be 
 treated on, appear to constitute, in an essential 
 
209 
 
 manner, his superiority over all other created 
 beings, and are placed in that region of the head 
 termed the forehead ; hence, this part is much 
 developed in him, especially in men of great in- 
 telligence, whilst on the contrary it is depressed, 
 or totally wanting in animals. 
 
 The faculty under consideration commences 
 this new series of organs, and forms the barrier 
 between animality and humanity. Hitherto, 
 we have studied only the animal part of man, 
 and now proceed to the consideration of his 
 more noble and moral attributes. Individuals 
 endowed with the faculty in question, generally 
 judge correctly of the relations of things, cir- 
 cumstances, and events, and are well calculated 
 to lead and govern ; their essential characteris- 
 tic is a particular aptitude to present their ideas 
 in a tangible form, or to embody their thoughts 
 in a series of striking images. In this point of 
 view, the faculty is of the utmost importance 
 to poets, as their object is to paint their thoughts 
 in the most glowing colours; it also leads chil- 
 dren to prefer fables to any other, kind of narra- 
 tion. This is found in all mother languages 
 w 7 hich abound in similes and hieroglyphics. 
 Finally, it must also be regarded as the source 
 of mythology, allegory, and apologue, whence 
 
 18* 
 
210 
 
 it evidently follows that it has greatly contri- 
 buted to the education of the human race. 
 
 Mimicry. Attention is the principal form of 
 mimicry of this organ ; this varies according to 
 the degree of meditation it produces; the arms 
 are often crossed over the breast, the eyes fixed 
 on some object, and the frontal region is in a 
 certain degree of tension. 
 
 XXII. 
 Depth of mind. 
 
 Synon. Metaphysical penetration, reason of 
 things, spirit of observation, desire of knowing 
 things, and the conditions of their existence ; ten- 
 dency to investigate the relation of cause and 
 effect; faculty of abstraction and of generaliza- 
 tion ; mania for explaining everything, and for 
 referring everything to first causes; propensity 
 to idealism. (Metaphysics, ideology.) 
 
 (35. Causality. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This organ is formed of two pro- 
 minences, placed on the same horizontal line, 
 one on each side of the preceding organ, and of 
 
211 
 
 which they sometimes appear to be a continua- 
 tion. 
 
 Natural history. It is certain that nothing in 
 nature is isolated ; that in all the series of phe- 
 nomena she presents, the events succeed each 
 other in an invariable order, and hence we are 
 forced to consider some as causes, and some as 
 effects. It is also certain that all mankind pos- 
 sess a more or less vivid desire to know the rea- 
 son, the why and the wherefore of these phe- 
 nomena: and it is still more certain, that we 
 can only -arrive at this by observation and ex- 
 perience, and by investigating the relations ex- 
 isting between those that present themselves as 
 antecedents, and those we are led to view as 
 consequences; this is precisely the object of the 
 faculty in question; when it has a medium de- 
 gree of developement, it evidently exercises the 
 happiest influence on our education, and contri- 
 butes, in an essential manner, to the certainty 
 and reality of our knowledge. When too ener- 
 getic, it induces aberrations of mind prejudicial 
 to the human race, and which it is requisite 
 should be properly studied. Although the con- 
 catenation just alluded to naturally leads us to 
 the idea of a first cause, it is nevertheless cer- 
 tain, that a knowledge of this cause is beyond 
 the sphere of our intelligence, and that our con- 
 
212 
 
 stitution or organization permits us only by ob- 
 servation and experience, to attain a knowledge 
 of secondary causes ; and this is the point at- 
 tained by those individuals whose efforts and 
 labours were under a wise guidance, and were 
 devoted to the positive sciences, as natural his- 
 tory, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astro- 
 nomy, mechanics, &c, which form the most 
 solid part of the intellectual edifice. 
 
 But, there are other individuals, who, com- 
 mencing with this hypothesis of a first and su- 
 pernatural cause, whose essence is consequently 
 unknown, have dared, as is observed by Spurz- 
 heim, to divine all the consequences, and to 
 construct, as it were, a world of their own, in- 
 stead of endeavouring to understand that which 
 exists. This plan of procedure has created a 
 host of ideal beings, and inundated human learn- 
 ing with the most fatal errors; has given rise to 
 all the absurd systems of cosmogony, theogony, 
 and mythology, as well as the equally vain sci- 
 ences of ontology, theology, psychology, ideo- 
 logy, and, in short, to metaphysics and all its 
 reveries. 
 
 Mimicry. Like that of all the intellectual 
 faculties, it is calm; it consists in an almost 
 perfect immobility of the body and limbs, suc- 
 ceeded by an elevation of the eyes. 
 
213 
 
 XXIII. 
 
 Talent for wit and repartee. 
 
 Synon. Organ of wit, aptitude to view per- 
 sons and things in a pleasant point of view, 
 gaiety of character and love of laughter, dispo- 
 sition to ridicule everything, propensity for sa- 
 tire and epigram. 
 
 (19. Gaiety or wit. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This disposition is indicated by a 
 double prominence, or, as must always be un- 
 derstood, two convolutions, one on each side of 
 the last described organ. 
 
 Natural history. This faculty, which has no 
 appropriate designation in the French language, 
 causes us to view all objects in a pleasant man- 
 ner, and constitutes what is termed humour, 
 cheerfulness, and sometimes that natural repar- 
 tee so peculiar to the French. Its essence is 
 gaiety; it delights in fun and frolic; puns, cari- 
 catures, jests, raillery, irony, ridicule, pleasant- 
 ry, buffoonery, and satire, all appertain to it. 
 In some persons it is accompanied with a cer- 
 tain simplicity or candour, and consists in bon- 
 mots without malice or bitterness, and good- 
 
214 
 
 natured raillery, that never offends ; in others, 
 it is always offensive and pitiless; thus, the 
 caustic Aristophanes, did not spare even his own 
 family. In Horace, the gayest and most witty 
 philosopher at the court of Augustus, it was al- 
 ways exercised with delicacy. Juvenal, on the 
 contrary, attacked both frieud and foe, and may 
 be truly said to have perpetually irritated the 
 wounds inflicted by himself. Henry IV., has 
 been accused of having constantly wounded 
 those around him, by ill-timed and bitter, though 
 witty remarks, in the midst of the reverses of 
 fortune he underwent before he ascended the 
 throne. 
 
 Mimicry. This consists in imitating the ges- 
 tures and attitudes of others, with the intention 
 of making them ridiculous. It appears to be the 
 best corrective of our whims, and to be well 
 adapted to repress an inordinate self-love and 
 vanity. 
 
215 
 
 XXIV. 
 
 Philosophical talent. 
 
 Synon. Organ of inductive observation, spirit 
 of induction, aptitude to perceive the relation of 
 things, disposition to acquire a highly matured 
 mind, faculty of appreciating the general laws 
 of nature, and of deducing their results. Hu- 
 man reason. 
 
 (35. Causality. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. This faculty appears to be rather 
 the result of a simultaneous developement of 
 the whole of the anterior and superior organs, 
 than that of any special one. It is, in other 
 words, a collective organ, which results from a 
 happy concurrence of the superior faculties. 
 
 Natural history. After what I have already 
 said, and the synonymy just given, it is needless 
 to say much respecting this faculty. The or- 
 gans alluded to, though eminently intellectual, 
 and in the highest state of developement, can 
 only afford isolated and partial notions of the 
 different objects coming within the sphere of 
 their action; but w r e sometimes, says Gall, meet 
 with individuals who present a collective and 
 
216 
 
 simultaneous developement of all anterior and 
 superior organs, and hence are endowed with 
 the maximum of intelligence of which human 
 nature is capable. Persons gifted with this 
 happy organization, manifest the faculty of in- 
 duction in an astonishing degree, are capable of 
 generalizing all facts coming under their notice, 
 and can discover the most abstract and hidden 
 relations existing among created beings. Such, 
 according to Gall, must have been the organi- 
 zation of those universal geniuses who have 
 been the true preceptors of the human race, and 
 who have long been designated by the name of 
 sages and philosophers. 
 
 Mimicry. Independent of the immobility of 
 the body and the tension of the head, a sus- 
 pended respiration announces the intellectual 
 effort required to seize the vast chain that con- 
 nects all natural phenomena. 
 
217 
 
 XXV. 
 
 Organ of poetry. 
 
 Synon. Poetic talent, brilliant imagination, 
 faculty inducing a certain excitement or exalta- 
 tion in viewing the beauties of nature, causing 
 a taste for the sublime, and inspiring such a de- 
 gree of enthusiasm as impels us to clothe our 
 thoughts in the most harmonious language, and 
 to paint them in the most glowing colours. 
 Sense of the beau-ideal ; aptitude to view things 
 in a certain manner; correct and delicate ear 
 and talent for expressing ideas and thoughts as if 
 by inspiration, and in the most harmonious 
 manner; talent for reciting poetry with grace 
 and feeling. 
 
 (20. Ideality. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. The organ of this faculty, which 
 is among the most imperious, is placed in the 
 upper and lateral part of the head, a little above 
 the temple. 
 
 Natural history. For a long time, Gall con- 
 sidered this faculty as the result of the action of 
 several of the more energetic organs. Although 
 he was aw 7 are that this talent was not to be ac- 
 
 19 
 
218 
 
 quired by study, he nevertheless was not dis- 
 posed to believe that the excitement or exalta- 
 tion by which it is always manifested, was the 
 product of a particular organ. Like the rest of 
 the world, he thought that a sound judgment, a 
 pure taste, a faculty of using striking and well 
 selected metaphors, an ardent and fruitful ima- 
 gination, great enthusiasm and invention, were 
 the principal elements constituting a poet, and 
 that these elements appeared rather the result of 
 several intellectual faculties, than the product 
 of a single organ. This opinion, says he, must 
 be relinquished, as more ample experience and 
 observation have proved its fallacy. In his great 
 work, he gives many examples in corroboration 
 of this, proving the coincidence of the faculty 
 with the existence of the organ. 
 
 I will merely add, that poetry is so inherent 
 to the human species, that man was a poet, long 
 before he was an historian or a philosopher. In 
 the earlier ages, poetry formed the principal 
 source of pleasure to mankind. The first 
 priests, the first philosophers, and the first legis- 
 lators, delivered all their maxims and laws in 
 verse; the Hebrews added the use of musical 
 instruments, and the Greeks employed it to ce- 
 lebrate the power and deeds of their heroes and 
 gods. In all nations, poetry is one of the first 
 
219 
 
 faculties of mind that arrives at perfection. 
 Gall admits of poems in prose, as the essence of 
 this kind of composition does not depend on 
 either measure or rhythm. No doubt these 
 augment the charm of versification, as a com- 
 pliance with the rules of art contributes to its 
 polish and harmony ; but, true poetic genius is 
 independent of all education or cultivation, is 
 of spontaneous origin, and embraces all nature 
 within its sphere of action. 
 
 Mimicry. If we observe a poet whilst com- 
 posing, he will be seen, when much excited by 
 his subject, sometimes to raise his head towards 
 heaven, as if to invoke its aid, and sometimes 
 to place his hand on the organ under considera- 
 tion, as if to excite its action. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 Moral sense. 
 
 Synon. Notions of justice and injustice; 
 principle of honesty, conscience, goodness, mild- 
 ness, pity, humanity, good nature, benevolence, 
 compassion, sensibility, benignity, hospitality, 
 
220 
 
 beneficence, clemency, equity; disposition lo do 
 good, and to avoid evil. 
 
 (13. Benevolence. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. These dispositions are owing to 
 the developement of the convolutions placed on 
 the median line on the superior anterior part of 
 the head, just above the forehead. 
 
 Natural history. Is man born with a dispo- 
 sition to good or evil ? This question, so often 
 agitated among philosophers, is, as might be 
 supposed, still undecided, because, like all those 
 relating to the constitution of man, it cannot be 
 solved by metaphysical generalities and consi- 
 derations ; it is equally evident, that the histo- 
 rical facts which are so often brought forward, 
 shed no light on the subject, since they equally 
 support both sides of the question. We must, 
 therefore, recur to the organization, and make 
 more precise researches. 
 
 Gall constantly remarked this disposition in 
 such individuals as presented a prominence or 
 enlargement about the middle of the superior 
 anterior part of the forehead. He also remark- 
 ed the same enlargement in all timid and pacific 
 animals, whilst on the other hand, the heads of 
 men remarkable for their cruelty, and ferocious 
 animals, always presented a more or less consi- 
 derable depression at this place. He was ac- 
 
221 
 
 customed, during his lectures, to exhibit a great 
 number of heads of men, dogs, horses, wolves, 
 &c, in support of this assertion. He has re- 
 marked the same differences of organization in 
 all families where there were many children, 
 among whom some had an excellent heart, 
 whilst others were naturally cruel and perfidious. 
 Hence, he entertained no doubt of the existence 
 of this organ. 
 
 Mimicry. We cannot deny that acts of the 
 most atrocious cruelty are too often committed, 
 though those of a contrary character are most 
 common. In general, man is naturally good, 
 and benevolent actions are among the first ma- 
 nifestations of a people that are happy and con- 
 tented. 
 
 XXVII. 
 
 Faculty of imitating the actions of others. 
 
 Synon. Mimicry, pantomime, or faculty of 
 imitating the gestures, manners, appearance, 
 voice, and other characteristics of individuality. 
 Particular disposition to succeed in drawing, in 
 theatrical representations, and to give life and 
 
 19* 
 
222 
 
 expression to the productions of the fine arts. 
 Faculty of personifying ideas and sentiments, 
 and of expressing them by gestures, atti- 
 tudes, &c. 
 
 (21. Imitation. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. A protuberance which is some- 
 times of a rounded form, and at others elon- 
 gated, placed somewhat behind and on one side 
 of that of benevolence, is the external sign of 
 this disposition. 
 
 Natural history. Gall discovered the organi- 
 zation in question in all great actors that came 
 under his notice; he also remarked, that in ge- 
 neral it was more active in children than in 
 adults, and that it was one of the principal 
 means by which they acquired knowledge on a 
 great number of subjects. It is also very mark- 
 ed in several species of animals, and more espe- 
 cially in monkeys and apes; when joined to 
 wit, it contributes in a high degree to the plea- 
 sures and amusements of mankind ; combined 
 with poetry, it renders a poet eminently drama- 
 tic; with eloquence, it gives more expression 
 to the passions of the actor ; finally, it is capa- 
 ble of the greatest perfection and influence, 
 when accompanied with a corresponding deve- 
 lopement of the superior faculties. 
 
 Mimicry, As I before observed, pantomime 
 
223 
 
 must not be confounded with mimicry ; the lat- 
 ter consists in the natural expression of our feel- 
 ings and faculties by various gestures and atti- 
 tudes. Pantomime, on the contrary, is an imi- 
 tation of the gestures and attitudes of others. 
 
 xxviri. 
 Love of the marvellous, and of supernatural objects. 
 
 Synon. Organization that disposes us ,to see 
 visions, and to believe in inspirations, presenti- 
 ments, phantoms, demons, ghosts, magic, sor- 
 cery, enchantments, apparitions, presages, astro- 
 logy, familiar spirits, good and evil genii, super- 
 natural revelations, &c. 
 
 (18. Marvellousness. Sptjrzheim.) 
 
 Situation. A convolution of the brain, situ- 
 ated between those constituting the talent for 
 poetry and propensity to imitation, appears to 
 be the cause of these dispositions. 
 
 Natural history. Savage tribes, like civilized 
 nations, have their traditions and their fables, 
 which they collect and carefully preserve; 
 every people has had its sibyls, its augurs, its 
 
224 
 
 priests, and its soothsayers. One consulted the 
 flight of birds, the other the heart of victims, 
 &c. It is indisputable that many men, even of 
 the highest attainments, have believed in visions 
 and ghosts; others have entertained a conviction 
 that they were inspired, and had a particular 
 mission to fulfil. Socrates, Tasso, and Ignatius 
 Loyola, are examples of this. Can we regard 
 such men as fools or impostors? According to 
 Gall, this disposition, which loves all that is as- 
 tonishing, surprising, mysterious, or miraculous, 
 is the immediate result of a particular organiza- 
 tion; and it would be as unjust to accuse those 
 endowed with it of imposture, as it would to 
 censure poets for embodying and personifying 
 their ideas. Such individuals are slaves of too 
 energetic an action of one part of the brain, as 
 poets are of another. But, what views had 
 nature in the creation of this organ ? Spurz- 
 heim thinks that it contributes to strengthen our 
 faith, and to fortify our belief. At the same 
 time, it cannot be denied, that many persons 
 have abused this disposition, or simulated it to 
 attain certain objects; others have been firmly 
 persuaded that they were selected to be the 
 bearers of revelations of the highest importance 
 to mankind. It has pleased the Lord, says 
 Svvedenborg, to manifest himself to me, and to 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
225 
 
 place me in communication with angels and 
 spirits. Joan of Arc declared that St. Michael 
 appeared to her, surrounded by a brilliant light, 
 and announced to her that God ordered her to 
 undertake the deliverance of the king, &c. 
 
 Mimicry. During the action of this organ, 
 the movements vary according to the subject of 
 the vision. If the object is sacred, the counte- 
 nance of the visionary presents an expression of 
 inspiration and reverence; if it relate to some 
 horrible crime, his expression is that of fear and 
 terror. 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 Organ of theosophy. 
 
 Synon. Belief in the existence of God ; idea 
 of a Supreme Being; propensity towards reli- 
 gious worship; devotion, piety, love of God, 
 worship of God alone ; idolatry, worship of 
 saints; respect for sacred things. 
 
 (Ik. Veneration. 16. Consciousness. 17. Hope. 
 Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. A prominence on the median line 
 
• 226 
 
 occupying the summit of the head, is the organic 
 and innate source of all belief. 
 
 Natural history. It has been asserted, that 
 contemplation of the phenomena of nature 
 would naturally lead mankind to the idea of a 
 supernatural and omnipotent first cause. On 
 the other hand, the existence of such a being 
 has been denied, and considered as a mere arti- 
 fice devised by rulers to govern their subjects. 
 The fact is, that our ideas on all subjects de- 
 pend on our being furnished with organs to ori- 
 ginate, or to give birth to them. We have the 
 idea of a Supreme Being, as we have love of 
 offspring, benevolence, &c, because we have an 
 organ fitted for such a purpose. Without an 
 organ of theosophy, we could have had no com- 
 munication with the Supreme Being, nor should 
 we have had a conception of his powers and at- 
 tributes. That such is the fact, is shown by 
 this idea being totally wanting in all animals, 
 whilst it is found in the most degraded and sa- 
 vage nations, and, as is observed by Plutarch, 
 there is no city or village that has not its god, 
 or in which the inhabitants do not pride them- 
 selves in having had a mysterious or supernatu- 
 ral origin ; this certainly would not be the case, 
 if a sentiment of the existence of the Divinity 
 was not innate, and inherent to our natures; 
 
 
227 
 
 but, at the same time, there is a great difference 
 between this sentiment, and the revelations, 
 dogmas, mysteries, &c, of different religious 
 sects. There is no doubt it leads to a religious 
 belief, but does not afford the means of distin- 
 guishing what is true, from the mass of super- 
 stition, error, and mystery, with which design- 
 ins men have surrounded it. 
 
 One of my brothers, says Gall, who was des- 
 tined by my father for commercial pursuits, ma- 
 nifested a decided propensity for religion, from 
 his earliest years. His playthings were imita- 
 tions of sacred vessels, and clerical dresses ; he 
 prayed, and celebrated mass all day; and, at 
 twenty-three years of age, left his family, and 
 turned hermit. Gall also remarked, in his 
 youth, that some of his companions had no ca- 
 pacity for religious instruction, whilst others re- 
 ceived it with the greatest eagerness. After- 
 wards, like Lavater, he was struck with the 
 circumstance, that persons distinguished for 
 their piety, were almost always bald, and that 
 their head was very prominent at the top; 
 finally, he made a sufficient number of observa- 
 tions to convince himself that religious feelings 
 depended on conformation. He also remarked, 
 that, among the ancients, artists always re- 
 presented their high priests, and other ministers 
 
228 
 
 of religion, with this conformation of head, and 
 that all modern painters have adopted it in their 
 representations of Christ. 
 
 How has it happened that this sublime dispo- 
 sition, evidently inherent to the nature of man, 
 and so consoling to humanity, has been so de« 
 graded in all ages, and among all nations? 
 From the superstitious follies of the Egyptians, 
 to the human sacrifices of the Gauls, it has been 
 the source of every extravagance and atrocity. 
 Has a religion ever existed, that has not been 
 the cause of bloodshed and crime, that has not 
 assumed the utmost arrogance, and maintained 
 the most absurd tenets ? When will mankind 
 be enlightened on the abuse of their faculties ? 
 
 Spurzheim, considering that it has been proved 
 that men may profess the most austere piety 
 to propitiate the Divinity, without, at the same 
 time, possessing any brotherly love or benevo- 
 lence, and even without acting according to the 
 dictates of justice; that nothing is more com- 
 mon than to see devotees who pray from morn- 
 ing to night, and impose the severest penances 
 and mortifications on themselves, and yet who 
 are at the same time egotists, and inclined to 
 deceive their fellow-citizens; thinks that secta- 
 rian faith and practice should not be considered 
 as identical with morality, and a sense of right 
 
229 
 
 and wrong ; he therefore regards veneration as 
 the essence of the organ of theosophy, from 
 which he separates those of conscientiousness 
 and hope. 
 
 Mimicry. As the organ of theosophy is also 
 that of veneration, its mimicry varies according 
 to these two circumstances. In devotion, all 
 parts of the body are directed towards heaven ; 
 in veneration, on the contrary, they are inclined 
 towards the earth. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 Firmness of character. 
 
 Synon. Disposition to bear up against ad- 
 versity, to brave menaces and danger, and to be 
 unalterable in our resolutions. Propensity to 
 independence, constancy, perseverance, firmness 
 of character. Proneness to become obstinate, 
 disobedient, headstrong, seditious, &c. 
 
 (15. Firmness. Spurzheim.) 
 
 Situation. These dispositions depend on a 
 protuberance situated at the top of the head, on 
 a line with and behind that of theosophy. 
 
 20 
 
230 
 
 Natural history. " One person, 5 ' says Gall, 
 "may be vacillating and changeable, another 
 firm and obstinate. This flies from project to 
 project, that steadily pursues the same career. 
 One child may be self-willed and headstrong ; 
 another docile and obedient. Such is the nature 
 of man ; his character and his conduct through 
 life depending more on his feelings than on his 
 reason. Cicero was always vacillating from 
 party to party, and inconsistent in all his opinions 
 and measures ; whilst Cato, on the contrary, 
 even during childhood, manifested the most in- 
 flexible firmness of character. Some individuals 
 are incapable of undertaking or of succeeding 
 in anything ; others will surmount every obsta- 
 cle, and succeed in the most difficult enterprises. 
 To what is this quality owing ? It is evident 
 that it often takes place without study or reflec- 
 tion ; and moreover, its application to different 
 objects depends on other faculties with which it 
 may be combined. With benevolence and jus- 
 tice, it forms an upright judge impervious to 
 every seduction. With pride and ambition it 
 forms bold and designing men, who are impa- 
 tient of all rule, and who are born to com- 
 mand, &c. 
 
 Mimicry, If we observe a man forming a 
 
231 
 
 firm resolution to pursue an object at all 
 hazards, he will be seen to assume a certain 
 rigidity of body, as if to bear up against all 
 opposition. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 I intended to have touched on several philo- 
 sophical questions demonstrating the superiority 
 of the intellectual and moral physiology of man. 
 But the limits I have assigned to this work, 
 oblige me to omit a majority of them. To com- 
 plete what I have said, however, I will make a 
 few observations on free-will, and give short 
 explanations of the plates necessary to eluci- 
 dation of the text of the w r ork. 
 
 Free-will. 
 
 The doctrine of fatalism is as destructive of 
 free-will as that of materialism is of a belief 
 in the spirituality of the soul. By this word 
 is meant, that all events are the effects of 
 
233 
 
 chance. " In this sense/' says Gall, " my doc- 
 trine contains nothing that is obnoxious to cen- 
 sure ; but if it be pretended that the universe 
 is regulated by immutable laws, derived from a 
 supreme intelligence, then the condition of the 
 material organs, over which man has no con- 
 trol, and which are subject to the immutable 
 laws imposed by the Creator on natural and 
 created beings, evidently destroys all pretence to 
 liberty. Our actions, like all other events, 
 would only be the consequences of an absolute 
 necessity, and not the results of a will capable 
 of choice ; hence, the salutary restraints of re- 
 wards and punishments, so necessary in direct- 
 ing and curbing our desires, would become 
 nugatory." But Gall replies with Tracy and 
 other philosophers, that all our motives are 
 under the influence of a multitude of causes 
 w 7 hich are not less contrary to liberty than the 
 condition of our material organs ; that they are 
 the necessary results of our organization ; that 
 we are as unable to avoid feeling the animal 
 passion, anger, jealousy, &c, as of not experien- 
 cing hunger, thirst, &c. ; that we are even in- 
 capable of modifying our perceptions in any 
 way, or of avoiding a perception of the actual 
 relation of objects ; that our thoughts do not 
 depend on our will, since we can hear and see 
 
 20* 
 
234 
 
 only by the material organs bestowed on us for 
 that purpose; that things appear to us large or 
 small, good or bad, true or false, not according 
 to any fancy or will of our own, but from cer- 
 tain fixed and determinate conditions over which 
 we have no control ; and, finally, that all na- 
 tions have been so fully convinced of these 
 truths, and of the decided influence of different 
 causes, as age, sex, soil, climate, &c. on our 
 sensations, ideas, and actions, that is, on our 
 liberty, that they have all mingled a kind of 
 predestination, more or less verging on fatalism, 
 with their law T s and religious tenets. 
 
 What then are we to understand by the free- 
 will recognized by moralists, philosophers, 
 legislators, and fathers of the church ? Very 
 different things. In fact, some have accorded 
 to man an unlimited liberty, which is evidently 
 chimerical, since man has no unlimited power 
 either over himself or over surrounding objects. 
 Others have spoken of an absolute liberty, that 
 is independent of all causes. But as by this 
 hypothesis, the actions of mankind would be 
 without motives, as nothing could act on him, 
 everything would be regulated by caprice, and 
 all certainty and justice would be destroyed ; it 
 is hence evident that such liberty is also chime- 
 rical. A third class of philosophers have at- 
 
235 
 
 tempted to establish free-will on the conscience 
 we have of being able to choose between things; 
 whence has arisen a third sort of liberty, which 
 has been termed illusory, because the satisfac- 
 tion we experience is not the effect of this liberty, 
 but arises from the fulfilment of our desires. 
 We are moreover continually under the domi- 
 nion of a host of prejudices and wants, which 
 induce us to pursue certain steps, and yet we 
 are persuaded that we are acting with perfect 
 freedom, and never discover our error till it is 
 too late. Then we say : we were misled by 
 passion. Hence, the momentary satisfaction 
 we experience is illusory. Finally, during the 
 whole course of our life we attribute the justice 
 of our decisions, the purity of our manners, and 
 the morality of our conduct, to the effects of our 
 will guided by our reason, and hence pride our- 
 selves on our liberty. But let the object, which 
 we have determined to avoid, excite our organs, 
 and the result is that we are no longer masters 
 of our actions. In what does this liberty consist, 
 this liberty so much talked about, and the moral 
 power of which is said to constitute all the dig- 
 nity of human nature. 
 
236 
 ii. 
 
 Moral liberty. 
 
 According to Gall, we ought not and cannot 
 admit any other liberty except such as is in ac- 
 cordance with the general law T s of nature and the 
 constitution of man. By this sort of liberty our 
 actions are the complicated result of all the 
 causes capable of acting upon us, either inter- 
 nally or externally, or in any way influencing our 
 will. Such a liberty does not consist in destroy- 
 ing what is innate in us, but depends on the 
 double faculty of being determined and of deter- 
 mining by certain motives. It is of importance 
 to avoid the great error committed by so many 
 philosophers, of confounding the propensities 
 and desires with the will, and of admitting no 
 difference between willing and desiring ; or, as 
 expressed by others, between the simple ten- 
 dency to act from a stimulus or excitement, and 
 the intellectual act which examines and decides 
 if there is a necessity for action, which wills to 
 act or not to act. €i As the existence of the 
 wants arising from our conformation," says 
 Condillac, " do not depend upon ourselves, so 
 
237 
 
 likewise our actions to supply these wants are 
 independent of our control !" — " It is not 
 here," says Cousin, " that we are to look for 
 liberty." According to Gall, every desire, 
 every propensity, results from the action of a 
 single organ ; "the w 7 ill, on the contrary, is a 
 decision produced by the examination and com- 
 parison of several motives ; that is, as I have 
 already stated, the result of several forces, acting 
 in different ways." It is curious to follow, even 
 in the treatise of the learned doctor, the expla- 
 nation he gives of the different degrees of exten- 
 sion acquired by the will in different species of 
 animals, according as they are endowed with 
 organs appertaining to the more noble and ele- 
 vated faculties. With Cousin, Destut Tracy, 
 and Condillac, he admits that the action of one 
 organ cannot destroy the impression received by 
 another, nor the action which is the necessary 
 result of this impression ; but he pretends that 
 as the number of the organs is increased, the 
 individual becomes susceptible of a greater num- 
 ber of sensations and ideas, — is also endowed 
 with greater power and stronger motives to avoid 
 a blind subjection to his desires or propensities ; 
 hence a struggle takes place between his inferior 
 and superior faculties ; and according to de- 
 
238 
 
 velopement and education of these latter is their 
 dominion over the animal propensities. 
 
 In the inferior animals, in which the number 
 of organs is very restricted, liberty is only a 
 simple spontaneity, caused by the irritation of 
 one of these organs ; in man, on the contrary, 
 with w 7 hom the plurality of organs is at a maxi- 
 mum, the excitation is experienced in several of 
 them at the same moment, and hence a balance 
 or equipoise is established that modifies the 
 awakened propensities, calls the reasoning 
 powers into play, strengthens the will and 
 gives it power to resist. If, for example, the 
 sanguinary instinct impels to murder ; benevo- 
 lence and theosophy, being equally excited, 
 attract the attention of the mind to other ob- 
 jects, and oppose the conversion of this propen- 
 sity into an act. The same is true as regards 
 all the other animal qualities, — their exercise is 
 always modified by the action of the superior 
 faculties. Hence in man these faculties and 
 their cultivation, joined to other causes, derived 
 from education, the laws, religion, &c. consti- 
 tute a dominant force, which scrutinizes, com- 
 pares and weighs the motives of his actions and 
 impresses on them a certain degree of morality ; 
 it is evident, however, from what has been said, 
 that he alone is not responsible for his actions, 
 
 
239 
 
 since the choice of his organs and their develope- 
 ment did not depend on himself; that he was 
 not enabled to cultivate them, or of bestowing 
 such an education on himself as would regulate 
 them ; that he is unable to foresee what influence 
 the laws, religion, or the prejudices of society 
 will exercise on him ; that it did not depend on 
 himself whether he was born intelligent or an 
 idiot, of a mild character or of an impetuous 
 temper ; that he has no mode of combating the 
 general laws of nature, or a multitude of social 
 causes, which impel him to or restrain from 
 certain acts. Finally, as all these causes tend 
 to complicate the exercise of free-will, he can 
 only be responsible for such of his actions, as 
 are really under his control, and not for such 
 as are rendered independent of his will by 
 foreign causes. U Such/ 5 says Gall, "are the 
 conditions and restrictions, under which man 
 may be free in this world/*' and this is the 
 liberty he terms moral liberty. 
 
240 
 
 ill. 
 
 Good and evil. 
 
 The exercise of free-will supposes the ex- 
 istence of good and evil ; for, what would be 
 the service of a faculty of choice, if every- 
 thing was equally good or equally evil, and 
 would conduce to the same end ? It supposes 
 also that the being who is to choose, knows the 
 nature of the things which may or may not 
 conduce to this end ; for otherwise he might 
 make a bad choice, without its being imputed 
 to him as a crime. It may readily be conceived 
 that these circumstances greatly embarrass the 
 celebrated question of free-will; and the solu- 
 tion that a man like Gall should give of it, in a 
 system as original and profound as his, is well 
 calculated to excite our curiosity. " I have been 
 censured," says he, with some bitterness, iC for 
 admitting the existence of innate inclinations to 
 evil, and propensities to crime. But the Lord 
 himself has said: (Gen. chap, vi., verse 5.) 
 c That the wickedness of man was great in the 
 earth, and that every imagination of the 
 thoughts of his heart was only evil continu- 
 
241 
 
 ally/ " This answer ought, undoubtedly, to 
 satisfy his greatest enemies ; but a philosopher 
 may desire something more. 
 
 As it is repugnant to a virtuous man, says 
 Leibnitz, to imagine that a being infinitely 
 good can be the author of evil, of all the crimes 
 and all disorders observable in society, philoso- 
 phers in all ages have endeavoured to explain this 
 contradiction ; some have admitted two princi- 
 ples, the one good, and the other evil, consider- 
 ing them severally, as the origin of good and 
 evil ; others maintain that our qualities were 
 originally good, and our abuse of them is the 
 only cause of all the evils which afflict us ; 
 others again consider, that not understanding 
 the infinite design of creation, we exaggerate 
 the evil which exists, and attribute it improperly 
 to matter; finally, a fourth description of philo- 
 sophers have endeavoured to explain evil by the 
 free-w 7 ilh But as no one of these hypotheses 
 could bear the scrutiny of close reasoning, Gall 
 abandoned them all in order to approach the 
 doctrine upheld by the fathers of the church, 
 viz., that man is naturally inclined to all sorts 
 of perverse actions ; not only because God 
 tolerates them, but because the possibility of 
 such actions really enters into the plan of divine 
 Providence, which appears to admit of no true 
 
 21 
 
242 
 
 virtue without a struggle. He says, that we 
 may well envy the fate of him who does no 
 evil, because nothing excites him to it; but 
 in order to claim the merit of virtue, we must 
 triumph over our propensities. Gall then, on 
 the origin of evil, has no other ideas than those 
 of the founders of Christianity, and of the most 
 celebrated sages of antiquity ; like them, he ad- 
 mits of evil propensities, so inherent to human 
 nature, that neither education, religion, nor the 
 gallows have yet been able to extirpate them 
 from society, although they were not there ori- 
 ginally, but produced by the liberty we enjoy 
 of abusing our faculties. In his system, this 
 abuse is explained, like a great many other dif- 
 ficulties, in the simplest manner, and by the dif- 
 ferent degrees of developement which the organs 
 may acquire ; thus the depression of the propen- 
 sity for reproduction, causes indifference and 
 even aversion to the sex ; a too great develope- 
 ment, on the contrary, leads to vices and horri- 
 ble excesses ; whence may be adduced, that 
 an useful and necessary faculty becomes, by ac- 
 cidental circumstances, a source of pernicious 
 inclination ; in the same manner, however im- 
 portant may be the faculty of philogenesis, if 
 too weak, it predisposes to a certain aversion for 
 children, and even to infanticide ; whilst its ex- 
 
243 
 
 cessive developement leads to that blind indul- 
 gence which produces so many spoiled children, 
 and in after life discontented men. Again, from 
 the same cause, rashness and cowardice, both 
 proceed from the instinct of self-defence. Ac- 
 cording to Gall, we bring into the world with 
 us the germs of an organization which is deve- 
 loped of itself and according to our growth, and 
 from which result organs capable of acting to a 
 certain extent, and liable to a greater or less ex- 
 cess, but which can be modified in some mea- 
 sure by a proper education. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Application of Gall's doctrine to different subjects. 
 
 
 It is evident that a being not completely mas- 
 ter of his own actions, cannot be entirely re* 
 sponsible for them. If it does not depend upon 
 myself to possess certain organs ; if I cannot 
 withdraw myself from the influence of certain 
 causes ; if not allowed to live in a country and 
 under a government and belief which pleases 
 me ; if I cannot obtain the education which 
 
244 
 
 would suit me ; if I cannot resist madness, folly, 
 or the diseases which in a thousand ways affect 
 the reason ; if, in fact, I am not master of all 
 the causes which produce my actions, evidently 
 I cannot be solely and personally responsible for 
 them. Do not let us overlook what I have al- 
 ready established in the preliminary discourse, 
 viz. : that man has propensities common to ani- 
 mals, and peculiar faculties constituting him an 
 intelligent and moral being. It has been proved, 
 that owing to these two circumstances, the moral 
 liberty of individuals is exceedingly different. 
 Gall arranges into six classes the different intel- 
 lectual and moral capacities which result from 
 their combinations : either the proper faculties 
 are very much developed and the animal facul- 
 ties very little, or these last have attained a high 
 degree of activity, and the first still remain very 
 feeble ; circumstances which, at once, constitute 
 two classes evidently very distinct. The two 
 following are not less so ; either all the proper 
 and animal faculties are very much developed, 
 or in a moderate degree ; new circumstances 
 which give rise to the third and fourth classes. 
 Finally, some of the proper faculties alone have 
 acquired a considerable degree of developement, 
 whilst all the others remain moderate ; on the 
 contrary, that as some of the animal faculties 
 
 
245 
 
 are developed, and all the others are moderate, 
 whence arises the fifth and sixth classes. 
 
 These categories give rise to the following 
 facts: men comprised in the first class act up- 
 rightly, with justice and wisdom ; to them virtue 
 is easy. Those comprised in the second, on the 
 contrary, are addicted to sensuality and error, 
 and abandon themselves to vice or acts of vio- 
 lence. Individuals of the third class, being 
 subject both to animal propensities and proper 
 faculties highly developed, are equally capable 
 of great virtues and great vices, perform the 
 most sublime actions and fall into the most de- 
 grading vices : whilst those of the fourth con- 
 stitute that numerous class of men of ordinary 
 capacity, incapable of producing anything re- 
 markable. Finally, the fifth and sixth are 
 composed of individuals exclusively devoted to 
 one pursuit, without aptitude for any other. 
 Those belonging to the former are endowed 
 with one great and marked talent, but are dis- 
 tinguished for nothing beside. The latter are 
 under the dominion of some one passion, which 
 having no counterpoise, irresistibly leads them 
 into great excesses, except when a proper edu- 
 cation acts as a salutary check. It should also 
 be remembered, that in general these circum- 
 stances are influential, in proportion to the un- 
 
 21* 
 
246 
 
 frequency of self-examination, and the want of 
 developement of the superior faculties. We are 
 too generally under the influence of some ob- 
 scure causes, prejudices, habits, or preposses- 
 sions, which militate against the equity of our 
 determinations, and hence we rarely meet with 
 an individual of so perfect an organization and 
 w 7 hose natural dispositions have been so aided by 
 a proper education, as to prevent his falling into 
 errors in his opinion of others, and to endow him 
 with that sense of justice, prudence and wisdom 
 so much required in his progress through life ; 
 whence it follows that we should always look 
 with indulgence on the foibles of our fellow- 
 men. 
 
 From these considerations and others detailed 
 in his work, Gall concludes that our present in- 
 stitutions are indispensable to compel men to 
 legal, virtuous, and generous actions, and that it 
 is absolutely necessary to strengthen and direct 
 the faculties bestowed on us by nature, by edu- 
 cation and exercise. And, in fact, according to 
 the lights acquired by mankind on their nature 
 and destination, will be their capacity to resist 
 their evil propensities, to u rify their manners, 
 and to impress the proper degree of morality on 
 their morals. But let them not deceive them- 
 selves, it is not by substituting for the true 
 
247 
 
 religion and beautiful system of morals of the 
 scriptures, sterile dogmas and ceremonies or the 
 prejudices and charlatanry of bigots and holy 
 impostors, which are calculated rather to make 
 dupes and slaves, as vicious as they are ignorant, 
 than to communicate to man a feeling of his 
 dignity, his rights and his duties, that a people 
 will be elevated to virtue, acquire a love for la- 
 bour, or a horror of vice and crime. It is not 
 by deception, persecution, and an extinction of 
 knowledge, that the prosperity of empires and 
 the happiness of nations are to be ensured. The 
 history of every age proves the madness and 
 folly of those despots who endeavour to arrest 
 the progress of civilization, and to substitute the 
 odious privileges of feudal times for the more 
 enlightened and beneficent institutions of the 
 present day, and thus replunge nations into the 
 gulf of barbarism and superstition from which 
 they have scarce emerged. 
 
 Although Gall appears to be convinced of the 
 impossibility of ever rendering the institutions 
 of society so perfect as to annihilate crime, he 
 still thinks that a general system of education is 
 capable of diminishing, in a great degree, the 
 prevalence of injustice ; that ignorance is a more 
 abundant source of crime than misery, whence 
 he concludes that it is absolutely necessary to 
 
248 
 
 instruct a people, that they may acquire greater 
 purity of manners and more elevation of thought. 
 He is also of opinion that the system of correc- 
 tion and punishment, which society inflicts on 
 its refractory members, is to a certain degree 
 necessary, as whatever may be the state of per- 
 fection at which education may have arrived, it 
 will never be sufficient to enable every individual 
 to do good and avoid evil, and consequently that 
 other checks or correctives must be employed ; 
 but lie maintains that legislators, like moralists, 
 have committed many important errors : 1st, in 
 attributing the actions of every man to his will 
 alone, thus supposing, whenever he commits a 
 crime, that he did so willingly and knowingly: 
 2d, in thinking that coercion and stripes are 
 sufficient of themselves to arrest or change evil 
 habits: 3d, in considering every species of 
 crime in a general point of view, without pay- 
 ing attention to the shades and differences that 
 may result from the moral or internal character 
 of the guilty individual, and which may impress 
 a greater or less degree of culpability on his ac- 
 tions ; 4th, in always proportioning the punish- 
 ment to the mere act, regardless of circum- 
 stances which may render the crime more or 
 less atrocious. According to him, every wise 
 legislation should renounce the exercise of jus- 
 
249 
 
 tice, as it is impossible to appreciate with per- 
 fect equity the influence of the different causes 
 that may have concurred to the production of 
 the criminal action, and that the only reasonable 
 end that can be attained, "is to prevent infrac- 
 tions of the law and crime, to correct malefac- 
 tors, and to prevent such as are incorrigible 
 from invading the rights of society." 
 
 v. 
 
 Biography and cranioscopy of Dr. Gall. 
 
 John Joseph Gall was born in 1758, at 
 Tiesenbrunn, in Wirtemburg, and died at 
 Mont Rouge, near Paris, towards the end of 
 the year 1828. His father, who was a trades- 
 man, placed him whilst he was very young, 
 under the care of one of his uncles, in the 
 Duchy of Baden, that he might begin his edu- 
 cation ; Gall afterwards went to Strasburg to 
 study medicine, and afterwards to Vienna, 
 where he was admitted to the doctorate, and 
 practised as a physician until the year 1805, 
 when he left that capitol to visit his father, who 
 
250 
 
 was desirous of seeing him before his death, and 
 to travel in the north of Germany, where he 
 began to teach his new doctrine. Finally, he 
 arrived in Paris, in 1808, where he continued 
 until his death, the practice of his profession, 
 and taught and published the various results of 
 his researches. 
 
 An attentive examination of the cranium and 
 head of this celebrated man, who was remarka- 
 ble for his great intellectual capacity, has af- 
 forded me the following facts : that amn g the 
 organs most highly developed, w r ere those 
 situated at the anterior and superior part of the 
 forehead, as the faculty of induction, of wit, of 
 abstraction and generalization, but above all, of 
 benevolence. At the summit and sides of the 
 head, the organs of firmness and perseverance, 
 circumspection and cunning, or rather of in- 
 genuity and skill, for although he has been ac- 
 cused of duplicity, I never remarked anything 
 in him that really merited that name, were 
 very prominent. The sexual propensity was 
 also very strongly marked by the great size of 
 the occiput. At the anterior and inferior part 
 of the forehead, those of the memory of facts 
 and philology were moderate. Finally, those 
 of colours, music, mathematics, mechanics, and 
 especially poetry, were very small, this latter so 
 
251 
 
 much so, that -he had a kind of antipathy to 
 versification of all kinds. All the other organs 
 were moderate. The appearance of prominence 
 in that of locality was caused by a corrugation 
 of the skill; produced by his habit of deep 
 thought. 
 
 To this may be added, a strong constitution, 
 some corpulence, and imposing height ; a gravity 
 and energy in his movements, great earnestness 
 and penetration in his look, his forehead often 
 with a troubled expression, and his general ex- 
 pression rather serious than gay ; always calm 
 and circumspect ; never indulging in loud laugh- 
 ter, but sometimes in an ironical smile, mingled 
 with an expression of irony about his mouth 
 and nostrils ; a fine forehead, a somewhat pro- 
 minent chin, a full face ; a clear skin and fresh 
 complexion, large lips, and deep rather than 
 violent passions. The expression of his thoughts 
 was always clear, precise, frequently picturesque, 
 and sometimes authoritative. In his lectures 
 the simple exposition of facts was the ordinary 
 theme of his discourse; but in conversation and 
 discussion, his favourite figures were interro- 
 gation, irony, and pre-supposition ; the motion 
 of his limbs and the attitudes of his body were 
 very awkward, but the tone of voice, the accent 
 and the air of his head and physiognomy were 
 
252 
 
 very expressive. Finally, a certain fund of 
 German good nature redeemed some fits of hu- 
 mour a little overhasty, and certain expressions 
 which were neither sufficiently softened nor 
 innocent not to produce some excitement. 
 
 After death, the cranium being sawed with 
 much precaution, on a line with the eyebrows, 
 it was discovered that the sides were very thick, 
 (nearly 3 lines,) and very solid ; 2 ounces of a 
 bloody fluid was afterwards found between the 
 pia-mater and the dura-mater, and some excres- 
 cences, one of which was of the size of a pea ; 
 the cerebral substance was otherwise firm and 
 in an almost natural state, although during the 
 disease, the brain had been considered as the 
 organ most seriously affected. The cap being 
 taken off, the brain was removed from the bony 
 box which contained it, into the cap, for the 
 purpose of weighing it. The whole together 
 weighed 4 lb. oz. 1^ gr. ; the cap alone when 
 weighed afterwards, 1 lb. 5 oz. 1 gr. : thus the 
 real weight of the brain disengaged from its 
 meninges was 2 lb. 11 oz. J gr., and not 2 lb. 
 10 oz. 7J gr., as was stated before my correc- 
 tion. Such a weight proclaims a brain whose 
 dimensions are very near the maximum they 
 could have attained. 
 
 It is evident from this, that in the sense 
 
253 
 
 which he attached to the word philosophy, Gall 
 had a head in the highest degree philosophic. 
 He was, in fact, ingenious in discovering the 
 signs of eternal truths. He had au astonishing 
 acuteness in penetrating things and seizing them 
 in a point of view fertile in useful results ; but, 
 in my opinion, he was deficient in many facul- 
 ties required to constitute a mind of the order of 
 Descartes, Newton, Leibnitz, Wolf, &c, per- 
 haps even of Bacon. With him, the comparative 
 faculty and causality, were, it is true, strongly 
 marked, but this faculty alone is not sufficient 
 to found a system of severe and positive philo- 
 sophy, which embraces at the same time the 
 whole of man, and the series of wonderful 
 phenomena which constitute the physical and 
 moral order of the universe. Many organs, 
 especially mathematics, arts, localities, &c. were 
 so deficient in him as to prevent his attainment of 
 such standing. But he possessed the organization 
 necessary to fully appreciate human nature, and 
 to lay the foundation of a true philosophy of 
 man. Others with far less claims on our grati- 
 tude have been covered with immortal glory. 
 
 22 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 The different figures on this plate represent the three 
 principal aspects of the head, viz. profile, full face and back, 
 and exhibit the extent, form, and respective situation of the 
 different organs. It should be noticed, that these indica- 
 tions of them must not be assumed as strictly applicable to 
 every individual, as in nature there is sometimes a devia- 
 tion. It may be remarked, that in fig. 2, number 24 is 
 indicated by a kind of brace which includes that part of the 
 forehead which, according to Gall, is the essential indica- 
 tion of a philosophical head. In fig. 1 , the dotted line re- 
 presents the separation between the cranium and the face, 
 &c. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 Fig. 4, exhibits the cranium viewed in front, and fig. 5, 
 in profile. Attention should be paid to the position of the 
 organs number 14, 15, and 16, which are situated imme- 
 diately over the bony vault of the orbit, and the effect of 
 which, when much developed, is to cause a projection of 
 the eyes. The line which passes over numbers 12, 21, 
 
 
255 
 
 and 26, is merely to mark the situation of the median suture, 
 though it is only in young persons that this extends through 
 the os frontis. In iig. 5, the line 6, c, represents the su- 
 ture which unites the frontal to the parietal bones : «, 6, d, 
 that between the temporal with frontal from a to 6, and 
 with the parietal from b to d. Finally, d, e, is a part of 
 the lamdoidal suture, or that uniting the parietal bones to 
 the occipital. The dark shade,/, g, indicates the situation 
 of the occipital foramen or hole for the passage of the spinal 
 marrow ; a little above and before which the opening of 
 the ear is marked by a small or dark spot. 
 
 PLATE III. 
 
 The figures on this plate represent three different views 
 of the brain ; in profile, fig. 6, above, fig. 7, and the base, 
 fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 1, exhibits the cerebellum e, g,f, which in man, as 
 may be seen, is much smaller than the brain a, b, c. Its 
 horizontal position should be noticed to comprehend the 
 manner in which organ number 1, is represented in fig. 3, 
 plate 1. In fig. 6, d marks the situation of the fissure of 
 Sylvius, which separates the anterior lobe of the brain d, a, 
 from the posterior a, b ; and numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. 
 mark the convolutions, regarded as the seat of the organs 
 placed in the lateral parts of the head and corresponding to 
 the Roman numerals, which, in the text, precede the name 
 of each organ. 
 
 In fig. 7, the line «, 6, represents what is termed the 
 longitudinal sinus, which separates the two hemispheres 
 a, rf, b, and a, c, d. The anterior part a corresponds to 
 the base of the forehead, and the part b to the lower portion 
 of the occiput. As in fig. 6, the numbers placed on the 
 
256 
 
 convolutions indicate the situation of the organs situated in 
 the upper and lateral parts of the brain. 
 
 Fig. 8, exhibits the base of the brain ; it represents at 1 
 the two lobes of the cerebellum ; b, the commencement of 
 the spinal marrow ; a, the anterior part of the brain cor- 
 responding to the root of the nose, and the numbers de- 
 signate the organs which rest on the bony roofs of the 
 orbits. 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 This gives a general view of the cerebro-spinal axis, or 
 the nervous system of the life of relation, whose functions 
 are under the influence of the will. It is composed, as may 
 be seen, of the brain and cerebellum contained in the cra- 
 nium, and of the medulla spinalis, or spinal marrow, contain- 
 ed in the vertebral column, which is also an essential part 
 of the osseous system. From these various parts arise 
 43 pairs of perfectly symmetrical nerves, which are distri- 
 buted to various parts of the body, either to receive and 
 forward to the brain the impressions made on them by 
 external objects, or to transmit the determinations of the 
 will to the various instruments by which they are to be re- 
 duced to acts. The first eleven pairs of these nerves arise 
 by various roots from the base of the brain, and leave the 
 cranium by various openings or foramina, to be distributed 
 to the organs of the senses, to other parts of the head, and 
 even to some portions of the body. The first pair is com- 
 posed of the olfactory nerves, and transmits to the brain im- 
 pressions made by odours on the Schneiderian membrane of 
 the nose. The second pair forms the optic nerves, and re- 
 ceives and forwards to the brain impressions made by rays 
 of light on the retina. 
 
257 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 FACULTIES OP MAN ACCORDING TO DR. SPURZHEIM. 
 
 Genus I. 
 Propensities. 
 
 Order L 
 
 Affective Facul- 
 ties. 
 
 Order II. 
 
 Intellectual 
 Faculties. 
 
 Genus II. 
 Sentiments. 
 
 I 
 
 Genus III. 
 
 Perceptive 
 Faculties. 
 
 Genus IV. 
 Reflective Fa- 
 culties. 
 
 1. Amativeness. 
 
 2. Philoprogenitiveness. 
 
 3. Inhabitiveness. 
 
 4. Adhesiveness or Attachment. 
 
 5. Combativeness. 
 
 6. Destructiveness. 
 
 7. Constructiveness. 
 
 8. Acquisitiveness. 
 
 9. Secretiveness. 
 
 10. Self-esteem. 
 
 11. Love of Approbation. 
 
 12. Cautiousness. 
 
 13. Benevolence. 
 
 14. Veneration. 
 
 15. Firmness. 
 
 16. Conscientiousness or Justice. 
 
 17. Hope. 
 
 18. Marvellousness. 
 
 19. Wit. 
 
 20. Ideality. 
 
 21. Imitation. 
 
 22. Individuality. 
 
 23. Form. 
 
 24. Size. 
 
 25. Weight and Resistance. 
 
 26. Colour. 
 
 27. Locality. 
 
 28. Numeration. 
 
 29. Order. 
 
 30. Eventuality. 
 
 31. Time. 
 
 32. Melody or Tune. 
 
 33. Language. 
 
 34. Comparison. 
 
 35. Causality. 
 
 ; 
 
Plate I 
 
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FhiU 3. 
 
PIjlU 4. 
 
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