Jp c /8fO ") PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION, HEATING, AND VENTILATION OP HOT-HOUSES; INCLUDING CONSERVATORIES, GREEN-HOUSES, GRAPERIES, AND OTHER KINDS OF HOKTICULTURAL STRUCTURES. WITH PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR MANAGEMENT. IN REGARD TO LIGHT, HEAT, AND AIR. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY ROBERT B. LEUCHARS, QARDBM ABCHITBCT. NEW-YORK ORANGE JUDD & COMPANY, ^4,1 ^ROAD^YAy. BottCttd according to Act ofCongreM, in tha yatt ISK^ By Johk p. Jbwbtt k, Co., to tkt OltfK'a UfAce of the District Court of the Diatrict of l^i ay traosfar frcr Btereetyped bf HO BART & R0BB1N8; naW BNOLAND TYPE AND 8TBRE0TTPB FOOND] BOSTON •ft SEjbis STteattse, miOHKD Ta PROMOTE THE ADVANCEJIENT OF EXOTIC BuitflCVLIVSUi, U» WHICH HE IS A ZEALOUS PATRON AND AimiR«R, • T BIB OBLIGED AND OBEDIENT 3ER71MT THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. Having for many years past devoted my attention to the subjects treated of in this work, and from the general call for appliable information thereon, I have been induced to give it to the public, in the full persuasion that it will be acceptable to horticultur- ists, gardeners, and others engaged in this depart- ment of horticulture. From the numerous inquiries which I have received, there appears to be a great want of practical knowledge on these subjects ; and though much information may be gleaned from vari- ous English works, they are either unobtainable, or the information is inapplicable to the wants of this country. When I commenced this treatise, I intended it as a series of articles for periodical publication ; but the development of the subjects, and the accumula- tion of facts, swelled it to such a size as to render its publication in that form impossible. In prepar- ing it for the press, in its present form, I have been desirous to add nothing but what is necessary to a full understanding of the subject in hand, and have given figures and diagrams where illustration is required. The changes wliich have occurred, during the last twenty years, in the method of constructing and VI PREFACE. managing horticultural structures, render the worka of that period of little value to gardeners at the present day. I have here given all the latest im- provements and most approved methods at present in use, with plans and suggestions for their further improvement. From what has been said, I hope no one will sup- pose that this treatise is given as a complete work on Exotic Horticulture. Much has yet to be learned, on many points connected with hot-houses, which futurity will, no doubt, unfold. My warmest expressions of thanks are due to Professor Dana, of Yale College, for the generous manner in which he has favored me with his opinions. The readiness with which that gentleman has replied to my inquiries, on matters of science relating to my subject, even in the midst of his laborious literary pursuits, shows how willing he is to aid the most humble inquii*er. This expression of thanks is due from me here, as the only way in which I can suf- ficiently show the high value at which I estimate his kindness and liberality. E. B L. Boston, Oct 3, 1850. INTRODUCTION. The object of the following treatise is chiefly to lay befow its readers a series of facts and observations relating to the con- struction and general management of all kinds of horticultural structures, drawn from the developments of science, and an extended experience, with the view of leading those who are interested in this delightful pursuit to a more practical inquiry regarding the comparative cost and economy of the various methods now commonly adopted, as well as to draw the atten- tion of practical gardeners to the utility of studying the theory as well as the practice of those manifold operations on which the success of exotic horticulture depends. In a short treatise, on such comprehensive and varied subjects, it is impossible to be strictly scientific ; but we have endeavored to show the rationale of those methods and operations which we have here recommended, and which have been successfully car- ried out by us in practice. The treatise is avowedly a practical one, and intended chiefly for the use of practical gardeners, and those desirous of obtaining that knowledge which is necessary to enable them to superintend the erection and future management of their own garden structures. In the management of hot- houses, there is a systematic regularity required in all the oper- itions, a neglect of which is generally attended with disorder tnd confusion. In fact, there is a system, the details of which mcceed each other like the links of a chain, each operation being essentially connected with the one immediately following and preceding it ; and here we have a most encouraging truth, that the more scientific our principles of working, the more simple and easily performed are our operations, and the more reliable are the results. 8 INTRODUCTION. It is doubtful if any branch of horticulture has received less aid from science than that which forms the subject of the present work. Science has indeed been brought to bear upon horticul- tural generalities, but, as far as regards its application to exotic horticultural details, it is little better than a sealed book ; and hence it is that we find cultivators clinging to antiquated sys- tems, which the plain demonstrations of science and practice are daily proving to be absurd. Amateurs, who adopt exotic horti- culture as an amusement, and pursue it with enthusiasm, are very apt to be misled by the advice of those who are more igno- rant than themselves. They are easily led into extremes ; and nothing is more common than for such persons, in their zeal, to adopt one error, under the plausible pretext of avoiding another. From the importance of Light, Heat, and Am, in the econo- my of vegetable life, it is obvious why an architect is profession- ally incapable of constructing a house for the growth of plants or exotic fruits, without possessing a knowledge of the require- ments and functions to be performed by the silent inhabitants ; and hence it is, that, by studying these principles in connection with other branches of science, we arrive at the end more rapidly and successfully. In other words, cultivation becomes more cer- tain as it becomes more scientific. Practical illustrations will hereafter be given, to show that horticultural structures, instead of being subordinate to architectural arrangements, as they gen- erally are, must be accommodated to the necessities and require- ments of vegetable life, before satisfaction can be afforded to the possessor, or cultivation carried on in perfection. If we take a glance at the progress of horticulture in Europe duAig the last twenty years, we cannot fail to perceive that its advancement has been parallel with the developments of chemi- cal and physiological science. Almost every succeeding year has brought with it some new and important improvement in practice, and thrown additional light upon some hitherto disputed question. Although gardening has, in some solitary instances, been remaining stationary, the cause is by no means obscure. Gardening is encouraged just in proportion to the satisfaction It affords. It gives satisfaction according to its success, and INTRODnCTION. 9 success is in proportion to the amount of practical experience founded upon a scientific basis. Whatever causes exist to prevent the operations of gardening from being carried out on scientific principles, it is nevertheless- true, that no methods can be generally applicable, or universal in their results, that have not such principles for their bases To be guided by them, it is not necessary that the gardener should be a mere reader of books, a studier of theories, or a contmuai performer of experiments ; he must add to the precepts of others the acquisitions of his own experience, and aim constantly at progress, by learning practically the principles upon which his operations rest for their success. It is not the lot of every one to discover truths hitherto unknown, but almost every one en- gaged in the practice of horticulture can do something towards improvement, by enforcing those already known by stronger evidence, facilitating them by a clearer method, and elucidating them by brighter illustrations. There is a wide-spread antipathy to all kinds of book instruc- tion, and book gardening is ridiculed by many who call them- selves gardeners. It is, nevertheless, a well ascertained fact, that those who rail at book practice are not only the worst prac- tical, but also the worst theorists, and the worst reasoners upon matters of practical import. Indeed, there are few who are more slow to recognize the benefits of the valuable knowledge to be found in the works of the eminent horticulturists of this country, than those by whom it is most required. Notw^ithstanding the valuable works which have lately been given to the world, on horticulture and the kindred arts, by eminent writers, little or nothing has been done in the depart- ment embraced by this treatise. Horticultural structures of all kinds continue to be made, and managed, with the same disre- gard to the actual habits and requirements of plants, as they were a century ago. And, though some structures of this kind have been constructed upon plans and principles in accordance with modern knowledge, yet these are a very small exceptioru Many apparently fine structures cculd be pointed to, which are rendered comparatively useless for the purposes for which they 10 INTRODUCTION. were built, on account of a deficiency of knowledge on the part of those who superintended their erection. It is a common error for gardeners, and others, who erect glazed structures, to suppose that the kind of house perfectly suitable in one place will be equally so in another ; or that the same arrangement answerable for one purpose will answer equally well for all purposes to which a glazed structure may be applied. Some of the consequences of these errors will be more particularly specified in a subsequent part of this work ; as also the external forms and internal arrangements which we have found most suitable to the different purposes. The influ- ence which a servile adherence to old methods has upon the progress of horticulture, is chiefly manifest to those who are most liable to be censured for innovations. Yet it is doubtful whether the odium incurred is not more than compensated by the pleasure which arises from the rewards of perseverance, by which we are enabled to abandon bad systems, as we gain more confidence in those that are better. It is said that practice is the best of all teachers ; that as our practice is lengthened, our experience is increased. However this axiom may hold good in the common aflTairs of life, it is frequently reversed among practical men, and years pass away without any enlargement of knowledge, or rectification of judgment. There are, indeed, many who never endeavor to improve, notwithstanding the opportunities which may be afibrded them. The opinions they have received, and the practice they have learned, are seldom recalled for examination, and, having once supposed them to be right, they can never discover them to be erroneous. From this preconceived acqui- escence, few are entirely free ; from a dislike to apparently super- fluous labor, and from a fear of uncertain results, many stand Gtill when they might go forward. Some may say, that if a practical man performs the operations which others have taught him, and succeeds as well as others have done, he does all that can be expected frorr him. But this is doing nothing for improvement, and very li.tlc for him.self. It is every man's duty to endeavor to excel, both on account of his profession and of himself, as well as those who employ I^'TRODUCTION. ).l him. It is easy to perceive that a gardener must not on.y know how X\i io, but have his reasons for doing. A man who continues to do his annual operations by mere routine, without knowing the foundation or reasons, cannot deviate from the narrow path in which he is confined, when any unexpected accident occurs. In the following treatise, we have endeavored to explain these- principles, as far as they have been connected with the subjects upon which it treats, and to illustrate them in such a manner as to be easily understood by the general reader. The first part of the work we have devoted to the construction of Conservatories, Graperies, Green-houses, Pits, Frames, and every kind of horticultural buildings, giving the different posi- tions and aspects most suitable to each, and the various purposes for which particular structures are best adapted. We have also fully considered the diflferent kinds of materials generally used in the erection of these buildings, and the respective merits of each. Glass, and its influences on vegetation, are also fully con- sidered and discussed in this part, — a subject which has hith- erto received very little attention from horticultural writers, but is nevertheless one of the most important items connected with exotic gardening. We have given the useful experiments of Mr. Hunt, on Light, and its effects on vegetation and germina- tion, and all other information which we have considered use- ful on this part of our subject. The second part embraces the most approved methods of heating horticultural structures, giving the principles of com- bustion and consumption of fuel, the prevention of smoke, and the various volatile products of the coal ; the construction of flues and furnaces ; the different sizes and heating powers of pipes and boilers ; the circulation of water, and the pecu- liar modifications of apparatus suitable for particular struc- tures. We have given a considerable number of illustrations in this part, showing various methods of heating, with all of which we have had extensive practice, and some of them on entirely new principles. The various merits of hot air and hot water are considered on scientific as well as on practical grounds, and each acknowledged for what it is worth. The third part may be called the theory and practice of 2 12 INTRODUCTION. ventilation, including some valuable investigations of the piyii* iological effects of the atmosphere, under different circumstance.*, and at different temperatures. Many of our remarks nave assumed a greater length than we originally intended, and if some appear repetitionary, this is in order to avoid, as much as possible, all strictly scientific technicalities and abstruse reasoning, whereby the minds of practical men are frequently unable to understand fully the end to which you direct them. We have added a section on the protection of horticultural structures in severe weather, — a subject which is worthy of much consideration. I may observe, that, in pointing out and freely comment- ing on principles and practices which are erroneous, but which have been practised and promulgated by others, it is under the impression that such errors, carrying with them, in general, some plausibility, have led, and may still lead, others to fall into similar mistakes. However invidious, therefore, be the task of pointing out these errors, it would be manifestly impossible to write on this subject without noticing them, and, if possible, pointing out the difference between right and wrong. This is the only apology which can be offered for the freedom with which some of the opinions and methods of others have been com- mented on in the various parts of this treatise. We have, how- ever, expatiated on them candidly, and in the true spirit of inquiry, pointing out the applicability of their principles and the utility of their practice. The different parts of the subject have been arranged under different heads, as far as has been practicable, in order that any of the different parts may be pursued intelligibly and clearly. In extenuation of any errors which may be found, we hope it will be considered that many of the points treate I on are entirely new, and as yet undeveloped ; that no comprehensive view of the principles of exotic culture has yet been given But we must not be understood to offer excuses for any errors other than those that are embraced by this extenuating clause which will be acknowledged if rectified in the true spirit oi philosophical inquiry. PART 1. CONSTRUCTION OP HOT-HOUSES. SECTION I. SITUATION. 1. Site ami position. — Before proceeding to details regard- ing the structures themselves, it will be necessary to consider, briefly, the situation on which the structures are to stand. A glazed structure depends for its effect very much upon its posi- tion; and as the position most desirable for effect may very possibly militate against the utility and efficiency of the struc- ture, the question presents a double claim to our consideration. In illustrating the position most desirable for the erection of houses for horticultural purposes, I assume that the paramount object is utility. I will subsequently point out reasons which frequently occur to render the position of green-houses and con- servatories beyond the control of the erector. By site and position I must not be understood to imply merely the aspect upon which a house for horticultural purposes should stand. The aspect of a house may be affected by circumstances which have no relation to its site. In other words, the glazed elevations of a house may be turned in any direction, while the position may be altogether unsuitable whichever aspect may be given to it. The weather, at all seasons of the year, has unde- niably more influence on a house in some situations than it has upon houses in others more favorably placed ; and this influence is aensibly felt by the products which are grown within them 14 SITUATION. The climate, and especially the prevailing winds of the locality should be studied attentively, in order to anticipate their changes, and avoid, as far as possible, their injurious effects. No doubt " it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the precise spot on which to erect hot-houses, with these considerations in view, particularly when the ground is extensive and the choice limited ; yet, in most places, there are some spots preferable to others. A bleak, elevated position should never be chosen, if there be any choice left. If a bare, elevated spot must be chosen, either on account of there being no alternative, or from other adventitious consid- erations, such as to obtain a commandmg view of the surround- ing country, or to present a more imposing appearance from the mansion, or from any other point of sight from which it may be thought desirable to view them, then the background should always be planted up with trees. This is indispensable, for two important reasons : — (1.) For shelter. The northern winds are cold and biting in frosty weather, and air can be admitted when the houses are well sheltered, when it otherwise would be impossible to do so without injury to the plants. Moreover, the north side of a horticultural structure of any kind is the only one that can be appropriately sheltered with tall growing trees. It is, there- fore, the more necessary that trees should be planted close enough to break the wind, but not so close that their overhang- ing branches, when they have attained their full size, may drip upon the glass. This last is an evil which ought, in all cases, to be avoided. Neither ought new houses to be placed so near trees, already standing on the grounds, that these circumstances may occur. (2,; For beauty and effect. I do not mean, in this paragraph, to allude to hot-houses in general as handsome architectural objects in the grounds of a country residence, — to which consider- ation I will subsequently allude, — but merely to the effect which hot-houses of the cheapest and plainest description may be easily made to produce, without much trouble or expense, or without adding one cent to the cost of the structure itself. Let any pert son take a glance at a structure of glass, or range of such struc« tures. having nothing but the distant sky for a background, and SITUATION. 15 compare it with another, resting upon the green, glossy foHnge of luxuriant trees towering above them, and these again reflect- ing their irregular outlines against the cloudless horizon behind them, and he cannot fail to be struck with the tame and spirit- less appearance of the former, and equally, also, by the pictur- esque and pleasing effect produced by the latter. A conservatory, or green-house, avowedly ornamental, and intended as an object of architectural beauty, or of individual elegance, requires the most exquisite taste and skill in harmo- nizing the objects around it. These surrounding objects, whether for utility or embellishment, may be so arranged as to heighten the effect of the whole, without impairing the individ- ual effect of the structure, or hiding any of its beauties. The various features of the structure should be presented to view from different points ; and if, from any walk or portion of the grounds, the structure present rather an unfavorable aspect, then some object should be interposed to obstruct the view from this particular point. When a walk is led along the skirt of a wood or plantation, where a glimmering of the structure is continu- ously visible- from among the trees, the effect is bad, and oughtj by all means, to be obviated by planting shrubbery and under- wood, leaving here and there an open vista through which a full view of the whole building, or portion of it, may be obtained. It has, for some time, been the rage in this country to place horticultural buildings of all kinds upon eminences, and sur- round them, either wholly or in front, with square terraces. These terraces are made sometimes of brick, in all its primi- tive redness, sometimes of small stones and mortar, and more frequently, perhaps, of grass, nearly perpendicular. It is gen- erally difficult to discover which is the most unnatural and unsightly ; and, in nineteen cases out of twenty, we have found the terrace itself, of whatever materials, of very questionable taste. Terraces grew out of necessity, — not out of taste, — except, perhaps, in the Dutch school, which an able writer on this subject styles " a double-distilled compound of labored symmetry, regularity, and stiffness.'"^ A terrace may be in very good taste, in connection with a pretty little Tuscan or Italian * Downing's Landscape Gardemng. 2# 16 SITUATION. villa, when it is finished and ornamented as a terrace should be, i. e., with vases, urns, &c., of sizes and forms harmonizing properly with the architecture of the building. The same prin- ciple may be applied to detached conservatories when placed in the grounds as ornamental objects. While speaking of terraces, it may not be out of place to remark, that, about some of the finest gardens of this country, these grass walls are introduced to absolute satiety. Nothing like a gentle, undulating surface is for a moment tolerated, but, as a matter of custom, the ground must be levelled, and flanked by a terrace. Now we think that when terraces are found neces- sary in front of a garden structure, of an ornamental charac- ter, they ought to be of a different character from" those intermi- nable sod banks so liberally constructed about some fine places that we could mention, but forbear doing so, on the principle, that, where much has been done, a few errors in taste may be justified. However, it cannot be denied that a steep bank of grass, twelve or twenty feet deep and as many from the walls of the building, void of any architectural decoration or ornament of any description, save its own unrelieved formality, is in as bad taste as would be the surrounding of a mud-walled hut with architectural balustrades and sculptured ornaments. Steep, formal terraces, without architectural decorations to unite and harmonize them with the structure, are, unquestionably, the most insipid and meaningless objects that can be introduced into ornamental grounds. What is called an architectural terrace, consisting of a low parapet and balustrade of handsome masonry, or other rich ornamental work, has always a pleasing effect, especially when attached to buildings of an ornamental character,^ whether these buildings be for dwellings, or for horticultural purposes. These terraces, however, are very different from those perpen- dicular turf-banks, of which I have already spoken. The former are truly artistical, and, in connection with classical * The reader who is interested in this subject, and wishes for further mformation on this kind of ornamental terraces, is referred to the ele- gant remarks and illustrations thereon by Mr. Downing. [See Dorvnin^ handscape Ga*detivi^ ; section, Architectural EmheJlishjJwits.] SITUATION. 17 Btructures, constitute the harmonizing link between art in the building, and nature in the grounds. The latter are neither artistical nor natural Let the reader fancy to himself a horticultural structure, of unusually large dimensions, situated on the southern declivity of an open field, without a single green leaf of foliage to inter- vene between the unbroken whiteness of the structure and the distant sky. The very ornaments of the building are altogether hidden, even at the distance of a dozen yards, because their forms are viewed upon a background of cloudless vacancy ; directly in front is a terrace, more than a dozen feet deep, and so steep as to require a ladder to scale it, and at the bottom it terminates with an abrupt angle, adjoining a potato and cabbage garden. However unquestionable may be the position of the splendid structure here referred to, there is something so irreconcilably incongruous about its precincts, that the most untutored imagi- nation is at once struck with the total want of harmony, unity, and effect. The terrace itself has the unfinished appearance of a dwelling-house, where the work has been suspended before the roof and chimneys had been put on ; a thing appearing to have an isolated and independent existence, having no apparent relation either to the structure or the grounds, and heartily despised by both. Now the position of the building referred to is, undoubtedly, excellent, and a better site could not be found, to produce a more imposing effect from a front view, which, in horticultural structures, is generally the best, providing the structure be sufficiently elevated above the axis of vision. But in the present case the effect is destroyed ; first, by a total want of unity and harmony in the foreground, and, secondly, by a want of the deep, dark foliage of trees, presenting their irregular outlines against the sky in the background, which gives all buildings, and more especially those of a light character, as hot- houses, &c., that picturesque and pleasing appearance, particu- larly when the surface of the ground is broken by undulations, and the scenery diversified with a variety of objects, distinct in themselves, yet harmonizing with each other. From the foregoing observations, the propriety will be seen of placing horticultural erections in the immediate vicinity of 18 SITUATION. large trees, and of raising them where they do not already exist. A beautiful writer on this subject has observed, that green- houses in the country, without trees about them, are like ships divested of their masts and rigging, and impress the mind with the idea of their having wandered from their right position ; and, as Loudon justly remarks, a tree is the noblest object of inanimate nature, combining every species of beauty, from its sublime effect as a whole, to the most minute and refined ex- pression of the mind.^ We cannot too strongly urge the pro- priety of choosing a site where these advantages may be gained. This branch of landscape gardening has been already treated in a masterly manner by various writers ; therefore w^e consider it unnecessary to dwellany longer upon it. t The choice of position may, in some instances, be decided by other circumstances, such as an abundant supply of water. This is indispensable, in hot-houses of every description, though it seldom forms a very important consideration with architects, in their designs, who are perfectly unconscious of the amount of labor and expense subsequently created by a deficiency of this element. It is, therefore, desirable that the site chosen should command a plentiful supply of water, at all seasons of the year, independent of what may be collected from the roof. It should be considered that the period when the largest quantity .of water is required for the use of the plants, is also the time when the supply from rains is scantiest and most precarious ; and though ample provision must be made for collecting all the water that falls upon the roof, into tanks and reservoirs, suitably and con- veniently placed for that purpose, yet this supply is not to be entirely relied upon ; and hence water ought to be conveyed by pipes, or some other means, from the nearest source, to supply the tanks when the rain-water is exhausted. Where a stream of water is commanded by the position of * Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening. t Those who wish to study the principles of landscape gardening, will find all that is requisite for their instruction and improvement in "Down* mg's Landscape Gardening," the only work we know wherein the prin- ciples of the art are treated in such a manner as to render them perfectly applicable to this country. SITUATION. 19 the structure, it would be most desirable to coi.vey it through the interior of the house, in a kind of rill, or small stream, run- ning through a shallow channel, or, what would be still better, to fall into a tank, over a small precipice, forming a little cas- cade, or water-fall. If the stream had sufficient power by its declivity, a small jet might be kept continually playing. In an ornamental plant structure, this would be the ne plus ultra of a water supply; besides, the house would be kept delightfully cool in the hottest days of summer, and the rippling of the stream over the cascade, or the playing of the fountain, would prove the most agreeable music to the ear in the hot days of summer. We have here alluded to water, merely in so far as it may be likely to affect the choice of position. Of course, water may be supplied to a house by various other means, such as force pumps, and that admirable invention, the water-ram, by which jets, cascades, &c., may be also obtained ; but all these are at- tended with considerable expense, as well as subsequent labor, and, therefore, a natural, constant, and abundant supply of water, when possible, should not be abandoned, even at the expense of some trifling advantages in other respects. We have known places where the labor of carrying the water for the different departments of the exotic establishment during summer, exceeded the labor required to keep the garden in order.^ In regard to the precise elevation best suited for the site of horticultural buildings, various opinions exist ; some prefer low- lying grounds, others prefer a considerable altitude ; we have frequently seen both parties run into extremes. Low situations are generally warmer, and better sheltered from boisterous winds, which, however, is more than counterbalanced by certain evils consequent upon a very low site. In spring, low, swampy places are always subject to heavy depositions of dew and mist, which render them cold and damp, and expose vegetation of every description to be destroyed by vernal frosts, which is avoided in more elevated situations. We have this spring had abundant evidence of this fact, in a very large tree of the Platanus Occi- * For further information regarding cisterns and supplies of water, see Sec. IV,, Jftternal Arrangements. 20 SITUATION. dentalis, which had its leaves entirely destroyed, after they were fully expanded, and are now strewed upon the grass be- neath. This tree, with various others that shared the same fate, stood in a low part of the pleasure ground, beside a lake. Trees of the same species, on higher ground, escaped without injury. We have invariably found, in our experience, that plant-houses siiuated in very low grounds, were cold and damp in winter, and hard upon the more tender kinds of plants. In summer, the atmosphere is generally stagnant and unhealthy, to plants as well as animals. If circumstances, therefore, afford any choice, very low situations should be avoided, as it is more easy, and certainly more profitable, to bring an elevated and airy situation into the condition desired, than it is to obviate the injurious effects of a low one. 2. Aspect. — We find that most people prefer a southern aspect for their hot-houses, i. e., placing the front elevation due south. The absolute propriety of this preference, however, de- serves to be questioned, as experience has taught us that some valuable advantages are gained by placing hot-houses, for the growth of fruits, on a south-eastern aspect. Let it be observed, that we are alluding at present to what is termed lean-to, or shed-roofed houses, i. e., houses having only one sloping side, — a kind of structure still generally used for the production of grapes, &c., during the early part of spring, and which are probably better adapted for that purpose than span-roofed Louses. In fact, we should prefer a south-eastern aspect for lean-to houses, whether they were intended to grow fruits or flowering plants ; for, even in this clear and comparatively cloudless climate, this aspect has advantages which, in our opinion, are not possessed by any other; and, indeed, the greater intensity of the sun's rays at midday here than in England, gives this aspect greater ad- vantages in this country than in any other where the sun is lees powerful. The morning sun is more strengthening and exhil- arating to plants than during any other period cf the day, and more especially to plants kept in houses without c'\rtificial heat * but the same argumdnt holds gQo4 in all houses. We find that SITUATION. 2\ hot-houses, even during the early part of summer, — except fire heat be maintained, — sometimes fall exceedingly low at night, and become cold and chilly, with the aqueous vapors contained in the atmosphere, by the high temperature of the preceding day, condensed into water by the low temperature of the night, and depending in small globules from the leaves of the plants, the under surface of the glass, and other parts of the house, rendering the approach of the sun's cheering beams, a few hours earlier than if the house were placed meridionally, above all things acceptable. It might be plausibly argued, that, if we take the south-east- ern aspect for the purpose of gaining the morning sun, we must lose it for the same period in the afternoon, which, altogether, makes it the same thing to the house. This is not true in prac- tice ; though the period of the sun's duration upon the house in both cases be the same, yet the advantage gained, by taking the morning and losing the afternoon sun, is very great. The rays thus lost in the evening are of little consequence compared with those gained in the morning, because the plants are then partially enfeebled, and their elaborative powers impaired, if not altogether suspended, by the strong midday heat. By various experiments on the shoots of young plants, we found that their elongation was greatest during the mild hours of the morning, before the sun had attained its meridian fierceness. In general, we find that plants are more prostrated by the in- fluence of the afternoon sun than during any other period of the day, and it is supposed, by many, that the sun's heat is more powerful and oppressive in the afternoon — that is to say, from one to three — than it is when on its meridian. However this fact may be scientifically supported, it certainly holds good in experience.^ Supposing, then, that such is the case, we con- * This may be accounted for by the air having been already warmed to a high temperature, by the sun acting upon it during the previous ^art of tho day ; and, the deposited moisture of the preceding night hav- ing been already evaporated from the surface of the earth, the lower strata are liighly rarefied. The hot sun, continuing to act upon the lower stratum of air and the dry surface of earth, gives the former that lan- guid, oppressive, and suffocating character, which is experienced bj every one. 92 SITUATION. sider it another fact in favor of a south-eastern aspect, as the sun's rays will thus be made to strike the roof more obliquely and will be less likely to scorch, or otherwise injure, the plants, than if shining perpendicularly to the plane of the roof. Many authors might be quoted, in support of a south-eastern aspect ; and one of the best garden authors, of his own or any other time, says, " An open aspect to the east is a point of cap- ital importance, on account of the early sun." When the sun can reach the garden at its rising, continuing a regular and gradual influence, increasing as the day advances, it has a grad- ual and most beneficial effect in dissolving the hoar frost that may have been deposited the previous night. On the contrary, when the sun is excluded till about ten in the morning, and then suddenly darts upon it with all the force derived from its increased elevation, and increased power, it is very injurious, especially to fruit-bearing plants, in the spring months. The powerful rays of heat at once melt the icy particles, and, imme- diately acting upon the moisture thus created, scald the tender blossoms and leaves, which droop and fade as if nipped by a malignant blight.^ These remarks, it is true, are by an English author, and have reference tc ihe climate of England ; but they apply to us in full force in this country, and, in many locations here, are still more applicable than to any country in Europe. The morning sun is not only more agreeable to vegetable as well as animal development, but, as we have already observed, vegetation proceeds more rapidly under its influence than it does during any other period of the day. This may be accounted for by the fact, that the nourishing gases have been accumu- lating during the partial suspension of elaboration in the night, and, on the approach of the sun's vivifying beams, these functions are resumed with increased activity, and continue so. under the mild influence of its less powerful and fierce effulgence, until their energies are paralyzed by its burning rays, at midday, when they make little more progress till the next morning. We have heard similar arguments adduced in favor of a south* * Abercrombie's Practical Gardener. SITUATION. 23 western aspect for late nouses, and these facts have regulated the erection of some extensive houses with which we are ac- quainted. In this country, however, hot-houses are seldom erected for the express purpose of retarding grapes, or other fruits, although we have no doubt that very late grapes would pay better than early ones, since there would be very little ex- pense in their production. The sun's rays in this climate are so powerful, that the difference in aspect may not be so percep- tible, in regard to late and early forcing, as in England ; still we have no doubt the difference will be found sufficient to justify the erection of houses for these purposes, on the aspects we have pointed out as being most suitable for each. In the erection of span-roofed houses, that is, houses with double roofs, it makes very little difference, in the opinion of many, which way the house ma^ stanfl, and, upon the whole tne arguments hitherto used, ni favo . of one aspect over another, have been so feeble as hardly to deserve any consideration. Supposing the house to be a parallelogram, or long square, with both gables glazed, as well as the sides and roof, then, we think, it may stand any way in which the nature of the site, or taste of the erector, may dictate. Light being the most important point of attention in the construction of hot-houses, these are better adapted for plant-growing than those whose transparent surface forms only a segment of their transverse section. As a general principle, provided other circumstances are fa- vorable, we would recom.mend the house tc stand north and south, with its longer elevations towards the east and west : we find this to be the opinion of some of the best gardeners in the coun- try, with which we fully agree. If any advantage be gained by placing the house in one direction, in preference to another, we think it is the one mentioned, as the rays of the meridian sun will then strike the glass in an oblique direction, and have less power than if they were to fall upon the glass at right angles to it.^ The aspect of conservatories attached to dwelling-Iiousea ♦ For more detailed information on this matter, see Sec. II., Design |nd Slope of Roof. 3 24 SITUATION, must be regulated by the position of the building, or the fancy of the architect. These are deplorable erections, generally; nine tenths of them unsuitable, in the superlative degree, not for want of cost, but for want of skill. As the remarks we have to make, on this part of our subject, belong to the next sec- tion, we will just add here, that a conservatory ought never to be placed on the northern aspect of a building, nor situated in such a manner, in relation to the dwelling-house, that the sun's rays may be prevented from falling on the consenratorf during at least one half the day. SECTION II. DESIGN. 1. General Principles. — To ascertain principles of actioOj ll is always necessary to begin by considering- the end in view. The object or end of hot-houses is to form habitations for vege- tables, and either for such exotic plants as will not grow in the open air of the country where the structure is to be erected, or for such indigenous or acclimated plants as it is desired to force or excite into a state of vegetation, or accelerate in their pro- gress to maturity, at extraordinary seasons. The former class of structures are generally denominated green-houses, or botanic stoves, in which the object is to imitate the native clime and soil of the plants cultivated ; the latter, comprehending forcing- houses and culinary stoves, in which the object is to form an exciting climate and soil on general principles, and to imitate particular climates. The chief agents of vegetable growth in their natural habita- tions are lights heat^ air, soil, and moisture ; and the merit of managing these structures, and the success of cultivating vege- tables in them, depend on the perfection with which nature in these respects is imitated. To carry out the imitation to perfection, or anything like an approach to it, it is absolutely necessary, as we have previously observed, to be acquainted with the nature and habits of the plants under cultivation. Vegetable physiology ought to form a part of the acquirements of the hot-house architect ; and the chief cause of the great improvement in these structures, of late years, in England, is traceable to the fact, that their erection is no longer left, as formerly, under the control of mansion archi- cects, as they are at the present day throughout the length an4 26 DESIGN. breadth of tl.e Uinted States; and the chief reason why we see horticultural structures erected so numerously in this country, in violation of the first principles of plant culture, is undoubt- edly due to the same cause. The conservatory is g-enerally left to the uncontrolled management of the architect, who, of course, rnakes this structure to correspond with the rest of the building, ■without giving the slightest consideration to the vegetable beings fhat are to grow in it. If we consider this matter in its dif- ferent bearings, giving to professional architects the justice which is due them, it would be somewhat unreasonable to expect them to plan con lervatories otherwise. An architect is by education, taught to study and apply principles in his art v/hich, when carried into effect, as we sometimes see them in the construction of plant-houses, are in direct opposition to those laws which nature has laid down and determined as essential to the vigorous development of vegetable life. Can it be expected, then, that an architect will tamely surrender the grand principles of his art, — the antiquity of which is coeval with Cheops, and which has been the boast and pride of the greatest empires of the old world, — in meek submission before the yet half-developed principles of vegetable physiology, or even to the ftumble dictates of practical gardening ? To expect such a con- cession would be tant^amount to expecting an architect to build dwelling-houses with drawing-rooms solely adapted for the accommodation of plants, altogether irrespective of other pur- poses to which drawing-rooms are generally applied. Hence, we find the conservatory placed just where it is most subservi- ent to the general design of the mansion, most frequently in a corner or recess of the main building, having two or three sides of solid opaque material ! To civil architecture, as far as respects mechanical principles, or the laws of the strength and durability of materials, they are certainly subject, in common with every other species or description of edifice ; but in respect to the principles of design and beauty, the foundation of which we consider, in works of utility at least, to be " fitness for the end in view," they are no more subject to the rules of civil archi- tecture than is a ship or a fortress ; for those forms and combi- nations' of forms, and that composition of building, which is DESIGN. 27 very fitting, and, perhaps, beautiful, in a habitation for man or for domestic animals, is by no means fitting, and consequently not beautiful, in a habitation for plants. Such, however, is the force of habit and professional bias, that it is not easy to con- vince architects of this truth. Structures for plants are consid- ered by them no further beautiful than as they display some- thing of architectural forms, which, according to the innumerable illustrations presented to us, consist of a solid opaque building; for it is an undeniable fact that what are called fine architectu- ral conserva\ories, are designed, not for the purpose of growing oi exhibiting flowering plants, for they have not even the appear- ance of adaptation for this purpose. One half of their entire surface is obscured by pilasters, blocking-courses, cornices, projec- tions, massive astragals, sash-bars, etc., until the transparent glass forms only a small fraction of the surface ostensibly appropriated to the transmission of light. To complete the opacity of the structure, the whole is obscured or shaded one half the day by the main building. There is no ideal exaggeration here ; they form the grand rule in ornamental conservatories, and the exceptions are few. Let us take, for example, the splendid con- servatory erected by J. W. Perry, Esq., at his mansiori at Brook- lyn, near New York, and figured in Downing's Landscape Gar- dening, which is extolled as one of the most beautiful conservato- ries in the country, and with some degree of justice, for it is both more beautiful and better adapted for the purpose than many others to which we can allude. Yet, beautiful and fit as it may be considered, there never was, and never will be, a plant grown in it to perfection, nor is it possible by any species of care or skill to do so in such a structure. We have taken the liberty of particularizing this conserva- tory, because it has been made the model of various others which we are acquainted with ; and we justify our allusion to it on the following grounds : because the house in question has been figured and commended by such an able authority, and consequently been regarded as a model of perfection by many who know not the diflference between a structure " fit for the purpose," and one merely beautiful in itself; and, moreover, because we are well acquainted with the structure itself, as well 3^ 28 DESIGN. as with the able and excellent gardener who has managed it fol many years, and who finds it impossible to grow plants within, and has long since given up the case as utterly hopeless ; the only result which could be expected. It may seem strange that ten or twelve thousand dollars should be expended upon a plant-house, and, after all the expense, the house be unfit for the growth of plants, and that this fitness could be more extensively obtained at one twentieth the cost. Such, however, is the case, and will continue to be so, till the design be considered in relation to " fitness for the end in view ;" and that this is far from being the case, we have lately experienced sufficient proof. Buildings like that we have just alluded to, may properly be called beautiful specimens of architecture, but if the principles of design or beauty be regarded on fitness for the end in view, — as we believe it to be in works of utility, — then, as plant-conservatories, these structures ought to be condemned. I have no doubt some of our architectural readers, and lovers of dull, massive, gorgeous, and grotesque conservatories, will pronounce against such a violation of the principles of architec- ture, as would undoubtedly be perpetrated by building a mere shell of glass to form a counterpart of the solid masonry of a large mansion. Conversing on this point lately with a talented architect, he said, " Conservatories can never be reconciled with mansion architecture if they must be erected upon such princi- ples ; the thing is utterly inconsistent with beauty in a building. Such an appendage," said he, " would be as absurd as putting a gauze covering over a buffalo robe to withstand a snow storm." It would be useless here to reply to the injustice and inapplica- bility of these observations, and we will let them go for what they are worth. They serve, however, to convey a pietty accu- rate idea of the estimation in which architects hold the principles of plant culture, even when pointed out to them; or, as we might term it, how little they care for the beauty expressed by " fitness of purpose." Utility, however, is undoubtedly the basis of all beauty in works of use, and, therefore, the taste of architects, so applied, may safely be pronounced as radically wrong. DESIGN. S9 2. Light. — In erecting horticultural structures of any description, the first and decidedly the 'nost important object to be kept in view, is the introduction of light ; and really, though this point presents itself to architects in its simplest and plainest reality, it appears to be scarcely ever fully considered ; at least, we are induced to conclude so, from the instances already before us. It is easy for any person to satisfy himself of the wonder- ful effects of light upon vegetables under artificial culture, by the most familiar illustrations. When plants are placed against a wall, or other opaque body, they will speedily turn the sur- face of their leaves to the light, although the medium of its entrance should be many yards distant. One of the principal reasons why plants thrive so badly in dwelling-houses, is in consequence of their being deprived of that supply of light which is essential to their development. Set a plant how or where you will, it will twist and turn itself in any direction for the purpose of presenting its leaves to the light, or to the aper- ture where it enters unobstructed. Pure air is also a most essen- tial element in the economy of vegetation ; but we may safely assert, after much experience, that plants under artificial culture suffer far more from a deficiency of light than from a deficiency of what is called pure air. The reason of this appears obvious. By the latter deficiency a plant is merely deprived of its neces- sary food ; but by the former deficiency the plant is entirely deprived of its vegetable functions, or its energies are so en- feebled as to be incapable of assimilation. We are not speaking here of light merely as distinguished from darkness, for we are told, upon good authority, that the luminiferous ether is radiated in all directions from its grand source, viz., the sun,=^? but of its properties and influence on plants when transmitted through a transparent medium, such as glass. Every gardener knows that plants will not only fail to thrive without much light, bu t will not thrive unless they receive its direct influence by being placed near the glass. The cause of this last fact has never been satisfactorily explained. It seems probable that the glass, * Principles of Chemistry, by Prof. Sillimaa, Jr. so DESIGN. acting in some degree like the triangular prism, partially decom* poses or deranges the order of the rays. The theory of the transmission of light through transparent bodies is derived from the well-known law in optics, that the influence of the sun's rays on any surface, both in respect tp light and heat, is directly as the sine of the sun's altitude, or, in other words, directly as its perpendicularity to that sur- face. If the surface is transparent, the number of rays which pass through the substance is governed by the same laws. Thus, if one thousand rays fall perpendicularly upon a surface of the best crown glass, the whole will pass through, excepting about a fortieth part, which the impurities of even the finest crystal, according to Bouquer, will exclude. But if these rays fall at an incidental angle of 75°, two hundred and ninety-nine rays, according to the same author, will be reflected. The inci- dental angle, it will be recollected, is that contained between the plane of the falling or impinging ray and a perpendicular to the surface on which it falls.^^ In building a green-house or conservatory, then, light ought to form the first point of importance, as success in plant culture is entirely subservient to it, and we know full well, from experi- ence, that no skill, however perfect, and no attention, however zealous, will compensate for a deficiency of light. Indeed, no contingent or permanent advantage can justify, to the mind of the experienced gardener, the adoption of one inch of opaque material in the sides and roof of a horticultural building; and no part of the structure, from the side-shelves and upwards, should be rendered opaque that can consistently be covered with a material capable of admitting the rays of light. For pillars and other appendages of strength, the material ought to be as light as is consistent with strength and durability in the struc- ture ; and, although we do not recommend such an erection adjoining a dwelling-house, experience has taught that, both in this country and in others, a mere shell of glass, so to speak, is iiot only the cheapest, but also the best adapted for the artificial culture of a 1 kinds of plants, both for fruiting and flowering * See Inclination of Hot-house Roofs. DESIGN. 31 i. e,, plants that are cultivated solely either for their flowers or for their fruit. The exact manner in which light acts upon plants has been studied by Dr. Daubeny, and others, and especially Mr. Hunt. The result of these inquiries is given thus, in the Gardener's Chronicle, of August 16th, 1845 : " Assuming, with Sir David Brewster, that the prismatic spectrum consists of only three primitive colors, namely, red, yellow, and blue, it is ascertained, by experiment, that the maximum of heating power is found on the confines of the red rays ; that the largest amount of light is given by the yellow rays ; and that the chemical power exists most strongly amidst the blue rays, of the spectrum. If we take a deep red glass, which has been colored with the oxide of gold, it will be found that the quantity of light which passes through it is very small ; and, by using photographic paper, it may be ascer- tained that the amount of that principle which produces chemi- cal change is also very little, whereas the heat rays suffer no interruption. A deep yellow glass, or a cell filled to the thick- ness of an inch with a solution of bicromate of potash, intercepts the chemical rays, but admits of the permeation of all the lumi- nous rays, and offers but little interruption to the calorific rays. If, however, we cover a pane of this yellow glass with another of pale green bottle glass, the passage of the heating rays is much impeded. A deep blue glass, such as is used for finger- glasses, colored with oxide of cobalt, or a solution of oxide of copper in ammonia, has the property of admitting freely the passage of all the chemical rays, whilst it obstructs both the heat and light radiations. Experiments conducted with colors thus obtained led Mr. Hunt to the following conclusions : ( 1 . ) Light lohich has permeated yellow media. Light kays. - - In nearly all the cases the germination of seeds was prevented, and even in the few cases where the germination was com- menced, the young plant soon perished. The germination seemed referable to the action of the heat rays which had passed the medium employed, rather than to the light. Agarics, and several varieties of fungi, flourished luxuriantly under this influ- ence. Although the luminous rays may be regarded as injure 32 DESIGN. ous to the early stages of vegetation, Mr. Hunt believes that, in the more advanced periods of growth, they become essential to the formation of woody fibre. (2.) Light which has permeated red media. Heat rays. — Germination, — if the seeds are very carefully watered, and a sufficient quantity of water is added to supply the deficiency of the increased evaporation, — will take place here. The plant is not, however, of a healthy character, and, generally speaking, the leaves are partially blanched, showing that the production of chlorophyl is prevented. Most plants, instead of bending towards red light, as they do towards white light, bend from it .*^ a very remarkable manner. Plants, in a flowering condition, may be preserved for a much longer time, under the influence of red, than under any other media ; and Mr. Hunt thinks that red media are highly beneficial under the fruiting process. (3.) Light which has permeated blue media. Chemical rays. — The rays thus separated from the heat and light rays, and which Mr. Hunt has proposed to call Actibiic, have the power of accelerating, in a remarkable manner, the germination of seeds, and the growth of the young plant. After a certain period, vary- ing with nearly every plant upon which experiments have been made, these rays become too stimulating, and growth proceeds rapidly, without the necessary strength. The removal of the plant into yellow rays, or into light which has penetrated an emerald green glass, accelerates the deposition of carbon, and the consequent formation of woody fibre. It was also found that, under the concentrated actimic force, seeds will germinate beneath the soil, at a depth in which they would not have grown under natural conditions. Mr. Hunt believes that the germina- tion of seeds in the spring, the flowering of plants in summer, and the ripening of fruits in autumn, are dependent upon the variations in the amount of actimism, or chemical influence, of light and heat in the solar beam at these seasons. It must, however, be observed, that, although such experiments have much physiological interest, the value of them is greatly diminished by the necessarily imperfect manner in which tho prismatic colors are separated by artificial preparations. It is DESIGN. 33 ftlmost, if not quite, impossible to form pure colors artificially The yellow, for instance, of the bichromate of potass contains both red and violet in abundance.^ It has been already ascertained that the amount of assimila- tion, and consequently of the healthy exercise of its vital func- tions, depend upon the intensity of the light to which the plant is exposed. In bright sunshine they perspire most; in weak diffused light, and in darkness, none at all. Hales found that a cabbage lost nineteen ounces of weight per diem, and a sunflower twenty. He estimated the average rate of perspiration by plants to be equal to seventeen times that of a man. In one of his exper- iments he found that the branch of an apple-tree, two feet long, with twenty apples, exposed to bright sunshine, raised a column of mercury twelve inches in seven minutes. But a dry, arid atmosphere, especially if in motion, also robs the plants of their moisture independently of light. The clear and unclouded skies of this country do not, as some suppose, obviate the necessity of surrounding the plant with a transparent medium in all directions, nor does the dark and su7i- less climate of England render it necessary that the houses should be more transparent there than here. It is a practical absurdity to fancy that in England there is less light than in this country, and that, because the mid-day sun is more powerful, they can do with a greater opacity of structure. Those who make such statements manifestly know as little of the climate of England as of the natures of its skies, and mislead those who know as little as themselves. No argument whatever, based upon the brightness of the sunshine at mid-day, can serve to justify the adoption of one single inch of opaque material in a horticultural building. It is very easy to reduce the quantity of light, or break the rays of the sunshine, by shading; but it is not so easy to increase the quantity of light in the dark and gloomy months of winter ; and such sort of plant-houses will damp the energies and zeal of the most skilful gardener, as well as his tender exotics. When he sees these errors, which he cannot remedy, and observes his plants speaking in a language which * lor further experiments on Light, see Sect. IV., G&wf 34 DESIGN. cannot be mistaken, even by the most inattentive, " Give us light, or we shall die ! " he gives up their case, in hopeless despair, as being altogether beyond his control. And thus we have known excellent gardeners censured for neglecting things, and for doing badly what it was not in their power to do better. Solar influence being necessarily connected with the roofs of hot-houses, we will discuss these subjects in their relation to each other, including inclination and reflection, in the following sub-section. 3. Slope of hot-house roofs. — In regard to the theory of the transmission of light through transparent bodies, we have already stated that the influence of the sun's rays on any surface is directly as his perpendicularity is to that surface ; and, accord- ing to Bouquer, that if one thousand rays fall perpendicularly upon a surface of glass, the whole pass through, excepting about twenty-five rays, or one fortieth part of the whole. But falling on the same surface at an incidental angle of about 75°, then two hundred and ninety-nine, or nearly one third of them, will be reflected. The influence of the sun on the roofs of hot-houses depends very much on the principle there given, — at least, so far as regards the form of its surface. This principle has been applied, in various ways, for the purpose of obtaining the ful influence of the sun's rays at certain seasons of the year. We have managed forcing-houses where the roof was laid at right angles to the sun's rays in mid-winter, — the period when the most powerful rays were required for forcing purposes. Although it cannot be denied that much more depends on the management of the house, for the success of cultivation, than on the inclination of the roof, yet it is the most satisfactory method to proceed on what may be considered something like princi- ples. And in this country we find this the more necessary, because the heat of the sun's rays, at certain seasons of the year, is so violent as to prove injurious to vegetation under any cir- cumstances. And hence, this principle should be adopted in the construction of hot-house roofs, that their perpendicularity to the sun's rays, at the hottest period of the year, should by all meani be avoided. DESIGN. 3a In England, the most common elevation of roof is an angle of 45°, which, in the latitude of London, would form a perpendic- ular to the impinging ray, about the beginning of April, and the beginning of September, — which also makes the obliquity of 'the rays greatest when they are most powerful, viz., during the month of June. " This angle is preferred by most gardeners," observes Loudon, " probably from habit." We think, however, that something more than mere habit justifies the adoption of this angle, — more especially for forcing-houses, — since by it the benefit of perpendicularity is obtained at a period when the rays are comparatively feeble and most necessary. Fisr. 1. As some of our readers may not have made themselves suffi- ciently acquainted with the altitude of the sun in relation to the slope of hot-house roofs, we have annexed the above figure, (Fig. 1;) which represents the slope of five different roofs on the angles marked by their respecti re complements. / representi 4' 36 DESIGN. the altitude of the sun m the latitude of London, the impinging ray falling on the roof, c, at an angle of 45°. It will be seen that the angle, contained between the back wall of the house and the inclined plane of the roof, c, is just equal to the sun's altitude, — the one forming an exact perpendicular to the other. Allowing, then, for the difference of altitude betwixt the latitudes of London and Philadelphia, for instance, we have a difference of inclination of about 11°. Hence the roof of a hot- house, to receive the same influence of the sun's rays at thai period, would be at an angle of 34°. The difference will be nore closely perceived by the following cut. Fisr. 2. a. In this cut we have given the altitude of the sun at Philade' phia, a, with the roof at right angles to it, on an angle of 34** At ^, we have given the altitude of the sun at London, with corresponding angle of elevation, 45°, and, according to tL principle here laid down, both of these roofs should be equalh influenced by the sun, notwithstanding the difference of his altitude at the respective places. In a theoretical point of view these principles are correct, and are certainly preferable to the usual mode of putting on roofi DESIGN 37 without regard to anything excepting the caprice or fancy of the architect or builder. But, as general principles, we regard them as unsafe and dangerous, were they to be practically acted upon in the Southern States. Suppose, for instance, the roof should be laid at right angles to the sun in mid-summer, — as is some- times done in England, upon this principle, — then the conse- quence would be that his rays would be unendurable by any species of vegetation. The mid-summer sun, even in the lati- tude of Baltimore, (39° 45',) falling on a transparent surface, at right angles to the impinging rays, would scorch vegetable forms, and dry them up in a few hours. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that the exercise of this principle be limited to northern latitudes, where it is indispensa- ble to economize the sun's heat, for the purpose of accelerating the maturation of fruits. It may, also, be applied in more southern latitudes, when all the warmth of the sun's rays is required early in spring ; and, therefore, if the principle be applied south of the 40° of latitude, it should be taken when the sun is at its very lowest altitude, otherwise the pitch of the roof will be too flat for the months of summer. We are decidedly of opinion. — and this opinion is fully con- curred in by some of the most learned and skilful gardeners in the country — that a great deal of error is committed in the pitch of hot-house roofs ; probably more than four fifths of them are made too flat; their angles of elevation are much too small for the climate ; and yet, notwithstanding the fierce heat of our perpendicular sun in summer, this practice is daily persisted in. One would suppose that the scorching of vine-leaves, peaches, and other plants, would convince people of the impropriety of erecting their hot-house roofs at right angles to the sun's rays in any of the summer months ; and yet Ave know some of the finest graperies in this country on angles of about 20^. If v consider how very few of the rays are reflected by the glass> its plane approaches a perpendicular to the sun's altitude, ana how mamj are reflected as the angle of incidence is increased, we will then have some notion of the advantage of increasing (he obliquity of the roof. The annexed table will show the number of rays reflected 38 DESIGN. from various angles between the plane of the horizon, and within two and a half degrees of the perpendicular. Bouguer^s Table of Raijs reflected from Glass. Of 1000 incidental rays, when the angle of incidence is 87^ 30', 584 are reflected. 85°, 543 " '' 82° 30', 474 " '' 80°, 412 " •' 77° 30', 356 " " 75°, 299 " " 70°, 222 '' '' 65= 175 60°, 50°, 40°, 30^ 20°, 10°, 1°, 112 are reflected 57 ' 11 34 '^ 27 ' ( (( 25 * (( 25 * c u 25 < t it The slope of hot-house roofs, therefore, should depend on the following circumstances : The latitude under which they are erected. — If in a southern latitude, the plane of the roof should be as oblique as possible to the sun's rays. South of 40°, the angle of incidence should not be less than 20°. It will be recollected that this angle is contained between the sun's rays and a perpendicular to the roof. The position of the house^ and the purposes for which it is \7ite7ided. — Houses intended for the forcing of fruits in winter, may have their roofs made on a perpendicular to the sun's rays at that season. Conservatories attached to dwelling-houses may also have their roofs perpendicular to the rays of the winter sun for the same purpose ; but blinds should be provided for them, during the months of summer, to guard against the effects of the perpendicular rays when the sun is crossing his meridian altitude. SECTION III. STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES 1. Forcing-hovMs, culinary houses, ^c. — Forcing-houses are erected with the intention of forming an artificial climate for the culture of tender plants and vegetables in winter and early spring. For this purpose artificial heat is employed to keep up an exciting temperature, and, therefore, it is desirable that they should be constructed in relation to this end. Until very lately, the form in which forcing-houses were con- structed was that of lean-to, or single-roofed, houses, with sheds or garden-offices on the back of them. When it is not neces- sary that light should be received from all sides of the house, these lean-to houses answer very well, and possess many con- veniences which cannot be obtained with span-roofs. Climbing plants, such as grape-vines, trained beneath the glass, and peaches, trained in the same manner, derive a sufficiency of light from the single roof to enable them to bring their fruit to perfection ; and it is very doubtful if single roofs will ever be entirely superseded for the purposes of winter forcing. Fig. 3 n Fig. 3 is the section of a pit for winter forcing, which we consider well fitted for the several purposes to which these rita 4# 40 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. may be applied. The one here represented is what we have formerly used for the culture of grape vines, French beans, and strawberries, during winter; and where fermenting manure is to be had in abundance, it is probably the most economical house for this kind of forcing. Fig. 4 is the plan of a forcing pit. This house is 80 feet long, in two divisions of 40 feet each. It is chiefly intended for forc- ing vines in pots, and is furnished with a bed, b, which is filled with fermenting materials for plunging the vines in, and supplying them with bottom heat. A shelf, c, elevated to within about 20 inches of the glass, on the back wall, and extending the whole Jength of the house, is intended for forcing strawberries in pots ; d is another shelf, for the same purpose, on the front wall. We have designed this pit with the view to procure the great- est accommodation in the given space, at the smallest expenditure for construction, keeping strictly in view the purposes for which it is intended. For winter forcing, we decidedly approve of this kind of house above all others, i. e., where utility only is consid- ered in regard to it. The cost of this house is only four hundred dollars, or eight dollars per linear foot. A house for winter forcing should never exceed 40 feet in length, even where the operations are extensive. Thirty or 35 feet is considered, by the best gardeners, the most desirable length. If the range be a greater length, and the operations very extensive, it should be subdivided into either of the dimen- sions here stated, and each division heated by a separate appara- tus. There is no branch of gardening that requires a greater amount of skill, or is more calculated to display the mastership of the gardener's art, than winter forcing. It is absolute folly for any novice in gardening to attempt it. To be successful in produc- ing the luxuries of summer, in winter or early spring, requires a great degree of skill, vigilance, constant and persevering energy. The most unwearied attention is requisite, from the day the house is started into work, until the productions are all fully matured. Scarcely a day passes but something happens, tend- ing to thwart the object of our labors. Heat or cold, wind oi STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. §■ 43 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. steam, moisture and drought, mice, worms, slugs, aphides, and insects innumerable, as Cowper says, oft work dire disappoint- ment, that admits no cure, and which no care can obviate. It is, therefore, the more requisite that the structure intended for these purposes should be the best that science and practice can adopt. )^ Fig. 5 is the end section of a forcing-stove, which we have seen used in various parts of this country, with considerable suc- cess. It is sunk a few feet into the ground, so that the roof reaches within about two feet of the ground level. In some places this kind of pit answers very well, as in very dry and sheltered situations. The site of such a pit must necessarily be in gravel, or sand ; in wet clay, coldness and dampness would be unavoidable ; and in exposed situations, it would be very unsuit- able for winter forcing, unless provision vere made for covering it at night. Fig. 5. Fig. 6 shows the end section of a polyprosopic forcing-house, which, by some, is considered superior to all other forms for winter forcing. The roof presents the different faces to the sun's rays, a, c, a, at different periods of the year. This kind of roof may be considered as exactly equivalent to a curvilinear figure, whose curved lines shall touch all the angles of the faces, so that, were the house built in the form of a semi-ellipse, or having curved ends, the sun would be nearly perpendicular to some one of the faces every hour of the day, and every day in the year. The rafters in this house are curved the same as in a curvi* Fi-. 6. I^lii i i I I I i I I I i I T^m'-/>//^2>y^MV^^A^^yk^;^l^^^ ^1 if 44 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. lineal house, and should be made of iron, as a curvature for this purpose can be made cheaper of iron than of wood, and ia tighter and more durable. Iron beams are made to screw into the rafters, b, h, b, b, having a fillet in which the smaller rafters are placed, on which the sashes run. We have seen two methods of constructing this kind of roof, — the one just described, in which the sashes are made to slide, and another, in which the sashes are made to rise on hinges, by which the house may be aired, over the whole surface of the roof, or entirely exposed, for admission of a congenial shower of rain, or for hardening the vines or peach trees, after the crop has been gathered. The arrangement by which this is effected is exceedingly simple, not liable to get out of repair, and is applicable to all kinds of houses, whether the roof is formed of curved or straight lines. This form of house is considered by Loudon as the ne plus ultra of improvement, so far as air and light are concerned. We are of opinion, however, that these considerations alone render it less- valuable in this country than it is in England, except, as we have already stated, for the purposes of winter forcing. The Cambridge pit, Fig. 7, is admirably adapted for early forcing, where there is an abundant supply of stable manure. ii is heated entirely with fermenting material, and is much used in England for the purpose of growing pine-apples, melons, cucumbers, &c. a, «2, are shutters, w^hich lift entirely off, or are wrought up and down by hinges attached to the back w^all of the pit. These shutters are made to fit closely on the lining bed, 3, b, which is kept constantly filled with the materials to *mpply the heat, which enters the interior of the pit through pigeon-holes in the wall. We have kept pines during long and severe winters, in this kind of pit, keeping up a temperature of 50° to 55° in the coldest weather. During winter the linings require to be frequently renewed, at least every week some fres^i material must be added, otherwise the heat will decline below the minimum temperature ; and, as it will be some time before the new linings generate much heat, a part should only be re newed at one time, and never both sides of the pit at once, x Saunders' forcing-pit. Fig. 8, is considered an improvement STRu:;TunEs adapted to particular purposes. 45 upon the foregoing. This pit has a double roof, and is furnished with the dung-beds, «, a, on each side of the house. The fer- menting material is supplied by means of linings along both sides of the pit, and communicates the heat to the beds through the arches in the side walls. This pit has a narrow path in the centre, which admits of the internal operations being carried on with more facility. We have only seen this pit in use by the inventor, and, so far as we know, it is quite original. Mr. Saunders informs us that it answers the purposes of early forc- ing better than any other construction he has tried, and works admirably, in the severest weather, without the aid of fire. We have the fact of its perfect adaptability fully verified by its pro- ductions, and are so fully satisfied with its superiority as a dung-pit, that we are about erecting one ourself. It ought to be borne in mind, regarding this pit, that unless there be abundant supplies of fermenting manure always at hand when required, it would be useless to attempt forcing with it in winter ; but this fact also applies to all forcing pits heated solely by fermenting materials. Fig. 9 is the end section of a curvilinear-roofed cold-pit, for protecting plants not sufficiently hardy to stand the winter with- out protection, yet hardy enough to endure a considerable degree of cold, and even a slight frost, if kept in a dry state. Of this class we might name verbenas, roses, pansies, &c. Indeed, there are many summer flowers, used by the amateur, for the decoration of his parterre and flower-garden, which he might save, during the winter, in such a pit. The pit here given we consider the best, for any purpose to which the cold-pit can be applied. We have found them practically superior to all other pits we have yet used ; and as iron is now coming into general use, for the construction of horticultural buildings, we believe that these pits will be found, not only the most convenient, but also the cheapest that can be erected, a, shows the bed in which the plants are placed — we generally put in about a foot deep of tan, or saw-dust, for plunging the pots in ; — b, h, shows the sashes, elevated for the admission of air, supported by iron rods, c, c, which are made to enter a staple, by being bent, or hooked, at the en^? 16 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO TARTICULAR PURPOSES. 47 Fig. 10 is a representation of an ordinary dung-bed, with ihe frame set on it. The formation of dung-beds is so simple as hardly to need a single word of explanation ; nevertheless, a few passing remarks may be useful to the uninitiated. Hot-beds of fermenting materials are generally laid on the surface of the ground. Some prefer the basis of the bed to in- cline L-lightly towards the horizon ; but we can see no i\tiiity whatever in this system, except the site of the bed be very wet, and then we prefer building the bed on a layer of brushwood. It is also beneficial to place a layer of brushwood every eight or ten inches deep, which lets the rank heat and steam escape more readily. The bed should have a slight inclination towards the south, when the frame is laid, though this rather tends to prevent the bed heating equally all over; and, where light is not an object, as in cutting-beds, &:c., we prefer it quite level, and even inclining towards the north, the inclination of the frame turned in the same direction. Temporary or portable frames, or cases, for covering beds, and protecting plants, are exceedingly useful about places where it is requisite to harden young plants, or protect individual specimens in the open ground. Fig. 11 shows a portable glass frame, of a rectangular shape, and which we have often found useful for hardening young stock, in the early part of summer, which was intended for bed- ding out in the flower-garden. It can also be set on a dung- bed for growing early melons, cucumbers, and starting young plants into growth ; for this it is admirably adapted, as the light is admissible all round. A portable frame of this kind may be made of any size. We find, however, that about four feet wide, and six or eight feet long, is the most convenient size for practical purposes. Fig. 12, the portable plant protector, which will be found exceedingly useful for covering individual plants, standing in the open ground. Those may be glazed with coarse glass, or covered with oil-cloth. They will be found of much utility in covermg the more tender conefirs during winter, as well as dur- ing summer from the intense heat. By having the south side of ♦he case painted with a slight coat of a lime solution, to darken • ■■ 5 " ' ^ STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. Fiar. 11. II- Fig. 8. Fig. 12. STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PU.IPOSES. 49 the glass and prevent the entrance of the solar rays in that direction, the plants are better able to endure the extremes of either heat or cold, than if exposed or covered with straw or mats. In using these protectors for Vv^inter covering, it is only neces- sary to throw a garden mat over the case during severe frosts, removing it when the weather becomes mild, or immediately on the relaxation of the frost. There is not the slightest injury resulting from the taking off the mats, as would be the case with mat and straw coverings without the protector, as a body of air is always at rest inside, which prevents the temperature from falling so low as to cause injur}"- to the tree. Framing-Ground. — This term seems to have a very different meaning in American gardens from what it has in England, for vfQ find the spot usually appropriated to the pits, frames, hot- beds, &c., located in some out-of-the-way comer, with dung, weeds, and rubbish lying about in all directions, or, perhaps, we may observe them occupying a place in one of the squares of the garden, a site equally objectionable. Where frames and hot-beds are extensively used, they should, by all means, have a place appropriated to themselves, and sheltered, if possible, on the east, north, and west ; and, as we can see no reason why this department of the garden should not be visited by the proprietor as well as any other, it should be laid out and kept in a manner to make it worthy of a visit. In fact, the frame-ground should come as naturally in the course of promenade as the larger fruit houses. Every one, indeed, may not take the same interest in this department as in others of the garden, but this can form no excuse for huddling the frames and hot-beds into some recess, out of the way, and pay- ing no attention to order and cleanliness about them. Who, that is in the habit of frequently visiting large gardens, has not heard the gardener apologizing for the filthy condition of his frame-ground, v/hen the curiosity or interest of the visitor led him thither ? The only reason that can be given for this state of things is, that the frame-ground is seldom intended to form a prominent object in the establishment; its object being 50 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PL'RPOSES. altogether for utility, it is considered by many a matter ol absurdity to make it also an object of beauty. If gardeners would consider how much gratification they sometimes lose themselves, by depriving this department of the garden of its interest by proscription, they would exert them- selves more to bring it forward into its right place. If it is not a source of interest to others, it should be made so to the pro- prietor, for it must not be forgotten, that the pleasure and satis- faction derived even from culinary hot-beds and forcing-pits, does not wholly consist in their receiving the produce thereof, when ready for use, — for if so, recourse need only be had to the markets, — but, also, in marking the progress of their devel- opment, from the commencement to the close of their growth, in beholding fruits and vegetables flourishing in an artificial climate, and in the satisfaction of partaking of products of our own growth. When the ground rises towards the north part of the garden, this is doubtless the most eligible site ; although we are aware that some prefer placing them within an enclosure inside the garden, yet we think they are better placed near the northern boundary. As dung is at all times necessary, and at all times being carted to the frame yard, it is a continual nuisance havmg it taken over clean gravel walks. It is, above all things, desira- ble to have the spot approachable by carts, without in any way coming upon the gravel walks, which are appropriated only to promenade. Fig. 13 shows the disposition of the forcing-houses, frames, etc., at a gentleman's residence in the country, which is now being executed under our direction. The ground on the north side of the garden rises somewhat abruptly from the principal range, which gives the houses a fine aspect and a dry site. Immediately behind them, and stretching along the whole length of the forcing-pits, and frame-ground, compost-ground, etc., is a belt of trees, which have been planted expressly for the purpose of sheltering the spot from the north and north-eastern winds, the same object being attained by rising ground and plantation on the west. Abundant . space is left between the different erections to afibrd room to promenade and insnect the whole i^ r r d r U IT >s- fV, 5*^- ?4s 52 STRUCTURES a:)apted to particular purposes. department, without being- annoyed with manure under foot Here, also, sheds and offices have been erected for the various purposes of the establishment, and arranged with a due regard to convenience and economization of labor in the operations daily going on in this department of the garden. The position of the framing-ground should command a good supply of water; either a natural stream should be brought through it, or a plentiful supply kept in a large tank, as in the plan, Fig. 13, and kept always full for immediate use, either by means of a water-ram, or other forcing-power. Pipes should be led from this large tank or reservoir into small tanks, one of which should be in each house, to be kept at the same tempera- ture of the atmosphere of the house in winter, for watering the plants. These tanks should receive the water from the roof, and be supplied from the reservoir, when that is exhausted. Fig. 13 is c ground plan and arrangement of frame-ground designed by the author for a gentleman's garden. REFERENCE TO PLAN. a Orange house. b b Vineries. c c Vine-stoves for forcing in winter, the vines being grown in pots. d d Culinary stoves. e Cold frames. / Water tank. g Open shed for soils. h Seed room. i Garden office. J Miscellaneous store room. k Potting room. I Store room for pots. m Tool house. n n Larg') beds, in which green-house plants are plunged in ashes durmg summer, being covered, during the heat of the day, with awnings fixed on rollers, mounted on a slight frame-work. ffTSUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 53 J i[^ = iViBa^ ( m\ti-'*mu s m i 54 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSE^. 2. Graperies, Orangeries, S^c. — These we have distin- guished from forcing-houses, as not being stimulated before their natural season of growth, artificial heat being sometimes applied, however, for their protection from early frosts in spring, and for ripening the fruits or accelerating the maturation of the current year's shoots in autumn. A greater latitude may be taken, in the construction of houses of this class, both as regards extent and ornament. Here the taste and wealth of the proprietor may be indulged to any degree. These structures may vary in length from 30 to 100 feet, or more, although we prefer them to be limited to the lat- ter dimensions, adding others of different proportions, rather than continue the unbroken flatness of the roof beyond this extent. Fig. 14 represents a range of houses of this class, erected by John Hopkins, Esq., in the gardens of his splendid country-seat at Clifton Park. This is one of the most extensive structures of this kind yet erected in this country. It is three hundred feet in length, by twenty-four in breadth. The structure is divided into three compartments of one hundred feet each ; the centre compartment, which is larger and loftier than the others, is appropriated to the growth of orange trees planted in the ground, which, in a few years, will form a complete orchard of orange and lemon trees. The site of t'hese houses is one for which nature has done com- paratively little, but for which art and outlay have done much, and for which the taste and munificence of the proprietor are still doing more; but, like many other structures which have come under our observation, they contain much inferior glass in the roof-sashes, which is very injurious to tender foliage. Bad glass is an abundant material in the United States, and is generally used by tradesmen, who do the work by contract, on account of its cheapness. This is a matter which demands particular attention from those erecting horticultural buildings ; otherwise, they may not discover the error, until too late to prevent it. Fig. 15 is a representation of a model house for growing grapes on the lean-to or single-roofed system; and, both in regard to its dimensions and slope of roof, is just such a stnic- STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 65 i r a5* 56 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. ture as we would recommend — that is, if a lean-to house was desired by tlie erector, or the position would not admit of any other kind. We need hardly mention that houses of this kind are suitable in many positions where curvilinear houses would be inappropriate, and where span-roofed houses would be impracticable. This house is at once cheap and substantial, in every way adapted for grape-growing, and presenting as good an appearance to the spectator as one that would cost double the sum, without any corresponding advantage. Fig. 16 is a span-roofed house on the same scale and the same design. Of course, span-roofed houses are to be preferred, either for plant-houses or for cold vineries, to lean-to houses, although, as we have said, there are positions which render lean-to houses preferable, even as cold houses. Span-roofed houses cost somewhat more in their erection than single roofs ; nevertheless, we consider it a matter of economy to erect a span-roofed house where the position is suitable, because the difference of cost is not so much as the difference of glass sur- face available for the growth of vines. In fact, a span-roofed house gives just two single-roofed houses of the dimensions of one of its sides. Hence, it is clear, that as many grapes can be grown in a span-roofed house, 50 feet long and 20 feet wide, as in a single-roofed house, 100 feet long and 10 feet wide, while the back wall, 100 feet in length, is saved. From the principles we have laid down for the construction of hot-houses, in the beginning of this section, it will be apparent that double-roofed houses are in every way superior to single ones for the general purposes of horticulture, not only on account of their superior lightness, but also as regards cost of erection. And we find this fact is now becoming generally admitted, from the prevailing tendency to erect double-houses, all over the country, where the advantages of double roofs are not sacrificed to the desire of having a more imposing and extensive appear- ance from a single point of view. Amongst the various forms of curvilinear houses lately brought under our notice, is that of forming the roof of the segment of a circle, which shall equal the width of the house, — a principle which we think is not generally recognized, nor do we think it structuhes adapted to particular purposes. 57 58 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. applicable except under certain circumstances. We ha\e seen houses erected on this principle in Northern Europe, ^A'here they doubtless answer the purpose much better than houses with ellip- tical roofs, for the reasons already stated in regard to forcing- houses; viz., the deficiency of perpendicular light, not only in the winter and spring, but also in the early part of summer, wlien all the perpendicular power of the sun's rays is required for the prcjper maturation of the fruit. It must be evident, however, that these reasons can be of no influence on this side the Atlantic, at least, in the southern and midland states, although we know of several houses in the state of New York, built on this principle, or a very near approximation to it. Fig. 17 is a single-roofed curvilinear house, built on th: above principle, the back wall being equal to the breadth of the house. As a single-roofed house, this curve has a very good appearance, and answers admirably where perpendicular light is desirable. The only objection that can be urged against it, is the flatness in the upper portion of the roof, which gives it the same faulty character, for our hot climate, that we have urged against the flat roofs of straight-lined houses. Fig. 18 is intended to represent a double-roofed house, on the same principle. Here the width of the house must be equal to the chord of both the sides. The parapet wall being only a con- tinuation of the semi-circle, of course this form of house is open to the same objections as the other, (Fig. 17,) even in a greater degree, as the flat part of the roof, in this case, is precisely doubled. The perpendicularity of the rays is in some measure obstructed by a portion of the segment, at the apex of the roof, being opaque, as in the case of the house from which our sketch is taken. This plan answers the purpose very well, without depriving the house of its efTect, and we think, where it is neces- sary, the effect might be heightened by a slight balustrade, or other ornament. That curvilinear houses, properly constructed, are superior to those with plain roofs, can hardly be questioned on practical oi scientific grounds. The construction of the monster palm house, lately erected in Kew Gardens, at London, is an evidence that this principle is recognized by the most scientific cultivators in STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 59 that kingdom ; and though the immense structure is avowedly for the growth of pahnaceous plants, still the objections that might be urged against its modification as a palm-house might, with equal propriety, be urged against its form as a fruit house, on a smaller scale. If there be any fault in its curvilinear con- struction, the fault is augmented as the dimensions of the structure are increased. TJie objections that have been urged against curvilinear houses in England can have little application in this country, whatever force they might have in the cloudy climate of North- ern Europe. And we cannot help thinking that the arguments against them have, in a great degree, promoted their adoption, on account of the inconsiderate manner in which their mode of structure has been questioned. We think it clear, that any form of curvilinear roof, from the common rectangle to the semi- ellipse, or the acuminated semi-dome, not only admits of a larger run of roof, but also a larger proportion of light, than any form of straight-lined roof that can be adopted, excepting the polypro- sopic roof, which, in fact, is nothing more than an approximation to the curvilinear, or spherical roof, having the advantages of the one, without the disadvantages of the other. Another remarkable property possessed by curvilinear roofs, and not by straight-lined ones, is their power of reflection and refraction, which, in the hot summers of our climate, is of much more importance, in a horticultural point of view, than is gener- ally supposed. Though the power of curved surfaces of reflect- ing the rays of light be similar to that of plane surfaces, yet the phne is so small on which the rays fall, that its position is changed before its concentration can cause injury to the foliage on which it falls. As the surfaces of curvilinear roofs are, or ought to be, presented more obliquely to the sun's rays than straight-lined roofs, the amount of refraction, in very hot weather, will be greater in the former than in the latter case. The more ob- liquely the ray falls on the medium of refraction, the greater the amount refracted. The general form of curvilinear-roofed houses, in this country, is the common curvature already described, forming the segment 9f an ellipse, the ends being uriright as in straight-lined houses. 6 60 STJIUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICL^LAR PURPOSES. For the purposes of grape-growing, we think a loss of surface is sustained by the position of the gable ends. In fact, from a series of calculations, bearing directly on this question, we have found in some houses that stand apart from other structures a loss equal to one third the extent of the roof surface. Some houses may be less, but some more, than this amount. In growing grape-vines for instance, we know that the rafters — or the slop- ing part of the house — is the principal area for the fruit-bearing branches of the plant. Now, supposing that your house be 50 feet in length, 15 feet wide, and as many feet high, then, by having no vines of any account growing on the ends of the house, you lose a transparent surface equal to nearly one half the extent of the whole roof. If it be asserted that the perpen- dicularity of the gables is necessary for the admission of hori- zontal light, we think this wholly unwarranted ; for experience has fully proved that horizontal light, entering by the medium of upright glass, is powerless, comparatively speaking, for assim- ilating the juices, either in proper quantity or quality, for the production and maturation of fine fruit. Many of the oldest and most experienced gardeners prefer hot-houses having no upright glass at all in front, placing the roof directly upon a parapet 18 or 20 inches m height. By way of remedying the objection here pointed out, we have designed a house which combines the advantages of a curved roof with those of a plane surface, rendering the whole of the house available for the production of fruit. By this plan a greater training surface is obtained, for the same extent of glass surface, than by any other we know, or in any other structure of similar dimensions. This we consider the most perfect form of a hot-house that has yet been erected. Fig. 19 is intended to convey a clearer notion of the kind of house we have referred to. This house is 100 feet in length, 20 feet in height at the back wall, with a perpendicular rise of five feet. The roof rises in series of successive planes, from the upright front, and presents a continuous surface for training the vines to, from one end to the other. Fig. 20 shows the ground plan of the house, which may be made of any dimensions, as easily as any of the common forms. STRITCTITRES 4BAPTEU TO PAKTICULAE rUKPOSES. 6 m i!^l. i§ Ippji 3 62 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. A double-roofed house can be erected on the same plan, bj substituting a row of columns along the centre of the house for the support of the ridge, in place of the back wall; one of the planes being raised the necessary height at each end, for the doors, which must also be done in the single roof, (Fig. 19,) unless the door enters through the back wall, which, in some cases, may not be so convenient as having them at the ends, though, for the economizing of glass surface, we would prefer them in the back wall. Although double-roofed houses are generally of a rectangular shape, yet they admit of every combination of form without militating against the admission of light and air. Nevertheless, that they may be perfectly adapted to the end in view, there are rules to be observed, and errors to be guarded against, which it is necessary here to point out. If the house is above fifteen feet in width, it is necessary to have a single or double row of columns in the centre to support the ridge of the roof, but in many houses these columns are three times thicker and heavier than they ought to be, even with a due regard to strength and durability. When the columns are disproportionately heavy, the house has a dull and clumsy appearance, and the effect within is extremely bad. Indeed> columns ought to be dispensed with where they can possibly be spared, consistent with strength in the structure. We have frequently seen the internal view of double-roofed houses com- pletely spoiled by the clumsiness of the columns supporting the roof, even when columns were altogether unnecessary. Cast- iron columns are always preferable to timber, even when the structure is made of the latter material. When the columns or rafters are bound together by braces and crossbars of slight con- struction, as of iron in different forms, vines and other climbing plants may be trained upon them, and be hung in festoons from column to column, or otherwise, as fancy may dictate; this gives an elegant appearance, and is always pleasing to the spec- tator. Another common error in the construction of fruit-houses ia, the heaviness and height of the front, something in the fashion of the heavy and dull-looking plant-houses of the last centurv' STRTTCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 63 This results from a very general desire to give the structure a finer effect from a front view; but it must be regarded as a decided sacrifice of utility and adaptation to purpose. Making the front of graperies from eight to ten or twelve feet high, is not less objectionable than to make the roof on a level with the plane of the horizon. The sides of a hot-house should never be more than four or five feet in height. This gives the struc- ture a more characteristic appearance, and is certainly much more fitted for the purpose in view, than upright sashes, which make the roof appear to the eye only a fraction of its real extent, whether viewed from the interior or the exterior of the structure, apart from the consideration, that the upright part of the house neither produces nor ripens the berries of grapes so well as tlie sloping part of the transparent surface. All structures of glass, for horticultural purposes, should have a parapet wall, from 12 to 20 inches in height, on which to rest the frame-work of the fabric ; then about four feet of upright glass. This modification jrives the house, whether of large or small dimensions, a neat and characteristic appearance. A span-roofed house, 24 feet wide and 16 feet high, with a five-feet front, makes a well- proportioned house, and gives about 16 feet of a run for the vines under the rafters, — the slope of the roof being upon an angle of 45°, which, as we have already said, is the best pitch for a hot-house roof for general purposes. Until these few years, the forms of hot-houses were generally plain, flat, right-lined buildings, differing in no respect from one another than in their size and relative degrees of clumsiness. Lately, however, a great improvement has taken place in the form and construction of this class of buildings. Single-roofed houses are fast dwindling into desuetude, and right-lined houses are giving way to the more light and elegant curvilinear roofs. This is an important step in the right way; and we regard those who, laying aside their prejudices in favor of right-lined houses, adopt the curvilinear shape, as conferring a benefit on exotic horticulture as acceptable to those interested in the pro- fession as it is creditable to themselves. Regarding curved houses, Loudon says, — " On making a few trials, to ascertain the variety of forms which might be 6=^ 64 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES, given to hot-houses by taking ailferent segments of a sphere, I, however, soon became fully satisfied that forcing-houses, of excellent forms for almost every purpose, and of any convenient extent, might be constructed without deviating from the spheri- cal form ; and I am now perfectly confident that such houses will be erected and kept in repairs at less expense, will possess the important advantage of admitting much more light, and will be found much more durable, than such as are constructed according to the methods and forms which have hitherto been recommended." Fig. 21 is a representation of what is called the zig-zag, or ridge-and-furrow roof, which has not, as far as we know, been very extensively adopted. There are several places in Eng- land where this method of roofing has been adopted, but prin- cipally as an experiment, or merely as the fancy of the erector. The advantage of this mode of roofing is, that the rays of the sun are presented more perpendicularly to the glass in the morning and afternoon, when they are weakest, and more obliquely to the glass at noon, when ihey are strongest. We doubt, however, — though the arguments we have heard urged in favor of this kind of houses be indisputable, — whether the additional expense required in their construction will be coun- terbalanced by the advantages gained. There is no doubt the expense of their erection militates very much against them ; and, if they could be erected as cheap as plane roofs, they are decid edly superior to them for graperies, as the vine can be trained up the middle of the ridge, and, consequently, though suffi- ciently near the glass, the intense rays of the sun will be less injurious than under a plane roof. The ridge-and-furrow roof may be carried out either on com- mon plane-roofed houses, or on the curvilinear principle, though doubtless the latter is more difficult of construction, and, of course, more expensive ; but we have no doubt, if the principle of constructing horticultural structures were fully understood by competent manufacturers, who had directed their attention to the details of the structures, that this, or, in fact, any other form of structure, could be made as cheap as the houses now in common use. SfHUCTUKES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES, 65 Fig. 21. 66 l^TRUCKJRES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. The ridge-and-furrow roof may be formed by placing- th« rafters as in making a common roof, say four feet apart; then placing the ridge-bars in such a manner that, contiguous to each other, they will form an angle of 45° with the furrow-bar, or rafter. Or the angle included within the ridge-bar may be formed to suit the climate of the neiq-hborhood, — bearinof in mind the principles already laid down regarding the effects of intense sunshine upon flat roofs. The sides of the ridge may be glazed of small panes, as in common sashes, or may be made of single panes, as in the finest houses now erected ; but, whichever method is adopted, the rafters should terminate in one horizontal line on the top of the parapet : this is also desirable at the back wall. Some apparent difficulty is thus occasioned in the lower part of the roof; but this difficulty is only apparent, especially if the front of the ridge be made to slope on the same angle as the side. Only the smaller and triangular pieces of glass can be used. It becomes, in fact, more economical, as the smaller pieces of glass may be all used up, which would, otherwise, be thrown away. The ridge-and-furrow roofs are especially advantageous in countries liable to heavy falls of snow or rain, and in large houses which are parallelograms in plan. Almost any weight of snow may be carried by such roofs, especially where the fur- row is small, as the pressure will then be chiefly on the bars and rafters, and not on the glass. As to hail, which is some- times very heavy in this country, breaking the glass in flat-roofed houses, it will always meet the glass of a ridge-and-furrow house at an angle which will prevent breakage. The advantages of these ridge-and-furrow roofs, as we have already stated, — their presenting the surface of the glass at an oblique angle to the noon-day sun, while the morning and even- ing sun is admitted almost perpendicular to the surface on which it falls, — ought not to be altogether overlooked in this country ; and we think that a great deal might be done with houses of this kind, — probably upon an improved plan, — where- by the effect of the intense sunshine of mid-summer might be, in some measure, deprived of its meridian force upon glass-houses. Whatever may be thought of the plan here given, the principle STRUCTURE: ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PUUPOSES. 87 upon which it is made is undoubtedly good ; — a principle wliich may easily be illustrated by placing a few common frame- sashes in the positions of the supposed ridge-and-furrow roof, placing some tender-foliaged plants beneath them, and then comparing the results, under intense suishine, with the effects produced under a common sash, whose surface is perpendicular to the noon-day sun. Whatever might be said in favor of cold vineries, they are, nevertheless, subject to casualties which are necessarily una- voidable. This is more especially the case in the Northern States ; and even as far south as the latitude from which we now write, (39° 45',) they are liable to the same mishaps. All houses for the production of foreign grapes should have some means or other of commanding a little artificial heat when it is found absolutely necessary. This does not amount to saying that good crops have not and may not be grown in cold-houses, without any means of raising the temperature in cold nights ; yet it cannot be denied that good crops have been sacrificed for the want of a slight fire in frosty nights. This is particularly the case in nectarine and peach houses, where we have seen the crop completely destroyed in a single night. Experience has fully shown that the culture of exotic fruits is a precarious business, without some readily available means of averting those evils which are neither modified nor averted by any peculiar rnode of construction, or any angle that can be given to the roof. This circumstance is worthy of particular attention, as many persons who design hot-houses lay particular stress on certain trifling details in the structure, which, in a practical point of view, are unw^orthy of the least notice. We have lately had some conversatioi>s with men thoroughly skilled in the science, as well as the practice, of vine-growing and the details of hot-house management, and have particularly noted the diversity of opinion regarding the upright portion of the front of the house. Some are of opinion that hot-houses for the culture of fruit should have no pa^pet-wall, but that the sashes should rest on a water-plate level, or nearly level, with the ground, giving, as a reason, the fact that the parapet pre- vents the sun and light from getting to the inside border, and to 68 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. the stems of vines. Now, with regard to small winter forcing"- houses, this may be of some effect ; but in cold summer-houses, i. e., houses intended for growing- peaches, grapes, etc., without fire heat, this is of no importance, as the meridian altitude of the sun durino; summer renders the wall rather beneficial than injurious, by shading the border during the heat of the day. Hence, it is evident that the construction of the house for grape-growing, etc., should be regulated according to the locality, as well as the period of the year at which it is required to ripen the fruit. . Many have a serious objection to upright fronts, whether of glass or other material, from the undeniable fact that fruit is seldom produced below the angle of the rafter ; and if it is, it never ripens so well as that grown under the perpendicular light, nor is so well-flavored. Upright glass, however, adds so much to the appearance of this kind of building, that it can hardly be dispensed with, even at the sacrifice of a little fruit ; but the latitude here allowed must be kept within certain limits, otherwise the effect produced is worse than if the house had no parapet at all. The parapet wall of a peach-house or grapery should never be more than twenty inches or two feet high ; the perpendicular sash above it, three feet more, making the upright front five feet in all. This is, we think, a proper height for structures of the kind here referred to ; and this will be found to give the struc- ture, whatever its longitudinal dimensions, better proportions, and a more handsome appearance, than if these dimensions be either diminished or increased. In many private establishments it is much more convenient to have one, two, or more houses, than to have one single house perhaps equal to the length of the whole. We happen to know several persons who prefer ere cting houses for grapes and peaches in this way ; and, indeed, it has many advantages over building a large house, especially for private establish- ments of moderate extent, where the whole produce is consumed by the family, because one house may be advanced a month or two before the succeeding one, while the third may be protracted as late as possible, so that the fruit season will be much longei •nUCTTJRES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 69 ¥FB. a r 70 STRUCTUr^ES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR ' PURPOSES. than if the structure was composed of a single house of the aiz« of the three. In building a range of hot-houses on these principles, say one hundred feet long, we would arrange them in the order rep- resented in the opposite cut, Fig. 22, showing three houses united into a neat and compact range. The centre division, which is more elevated than the others, may be used as an orangery, or camellia house ; or for growing figs, planting the trees in the centre bed and growmg them as common dwarfs, which is the best way of growing figs, their strong and uncom- pliable branches being unsuited for training on the common trellises of a vinery, neither do they fruit so well as when allowed to grow like a dwarf pear-tree. These dimensions are also advantageous on account of the trees that are to be grown in them, as different kinds of trees Kjquire different kinds of treatment, as well as different degrees of heat, air, and moisture. Each kind of tree can have the treatment which is most conducive to health and fruitfulness, without infringing on the peculiar conditions required by the others. Where a large quantity of fruit is required, the houses for its production must, of course, be upon a larger scale. We men- tion this, as very absurd ideas are frequently entertained by individuals regarding the producing capacity of vines, etc., in houses, being ignorant of the quantity that healthy trees can bear without inflicting a permanent injury. If it be desired, the centre compartment of this range may be converted into a green-house, by placing a stage along the mid- dle of the house, and a front shelf two feet wide along the front nearly level with the building of the parapet wall, leaving a sufficient space between the shelf and the stage for a pathway. The plan of placing the green-house in the centre, between the fruit-houses, is very common. The plans of modern archi- tects are somewhat different from those of the last century, in which we generally find the green-house a part of the cul- inary department, either in the middle, or in a corner of the kitc.hen garden. In fact, little can be said in favor of placing *he green-house or plant-stove among the fruit-houses, except STRlTCTUrvLS ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 4 m small places where the limits of the ground do not admit of a select position, or where it may be desirable to place the whoit of the glass structures together, either for economy, conven- ience, or effect. When a grapery having some pretensions to architectural display is desired, either to correspond with buildings already on the place, or to form a connection between some portion of the mansion and another, then the structure may possess a heavier and more artistic character. This may be accomplished without in the slightest degree infringing on the principle of adaptability. For instance, there may be a recess, with the proper aspect, in some part of the mansion, which the proprietor may wish to fill up with a house productive of profit as well as pleasure ; and for this purpose, he chooses a grapery, and wishes a suitable house for the purpose, without destroying the general harmony of his mansion. Or, perhaps, his premises may be very limited in extent, and he wishes a fruit-house nearly of the same order as his Tuscan or Italian villa ; in which case, a house with a somewhat massive parapet and blocking-course, as in Fig. 23, would be more in unison with his taste, ns well as with the rest of the premises. This house, it will be observed, has rectangular ventilators in the front wall, which give the house a more architectural appearance ; the back wall is also surmounted by an ornamental blocking-course, with ventilators for the admission of air through the back wall. [See Vc?itilatio7i.] We do not, by any means, justify the method of placing fruit-houses immediately contiguous to the dwelling, yet such is the taste of many. And as there is no valid reason why persons may not carry out their particular fancies with their own property, we have made the foregoing remarks for their benefit. We do not give the above cat as a model house for an archi- tectural vinery, — of course, its ornamental character may be increased, according to the money that is to be devoted to its erection ; but with regard to the princi lies of its design, unless the polyprosopic roof be adopted, which is considered by some more architectural in its appearance than curvilinear roofs, when conjoined to the square forms of dwelling-houses. i I'J .TTRUCTTJRES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURP08WL STRUCTURES ADAPTE-D TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 73 8. Xireen-houses, Conservatories, ^c. — The principal dis- tinction between a green-house and conservatory is, that in the former, the plants are exhibited upon shelves and stages, while, m the latter, the plants are generally planted out in a bed in the middle of the house prepared for their reception. In many instances, however, there is no other distinction thiin in the name ; as these structures are sometimes so arranged that the middle portion is appropriated to the growth of larger plants planted out, while the sides are surrounded with shelves for the reception of plants in pots, as in a common green-house. And to this arrangement there can be no special objection, especially where the structure is of small dimensions, which admits of the sides being shelved for plants in pots, without destroying the character of the house, or the plants, by their distance from the glass. We have seen a few instances, a very few, where the two characters were amalgamated together, forming a most interesting conjunction ; but, unless the specimens exhibited be very large and well-grown, their effect, when situated upon the centre bed of a common-sized house, surrounded with shelves, is meagre and defective in the last degree. Properly speaking, a green-house is not a receptacle for large plants, and hence it should have adequate means within it for standing the plants within a proper distance from the glass. This is absolutely necessary with regard to those classes of flow- ering plants that are fitted to adorn it, both in winter and sum- mer. Some are of opinion that green-houses are of no further service than merely to store away a miscellaneous assortment of rubbish during the months of winter, for the obvious purpose of preserving them until the next summer, that they may turn them out under trees, or in out-of-the-way corners, to keep them from being burnt up by the hot summer sun ; and, as a matter of course and of custom, the green-house is converted into a lumber-room, or something else. And there it stands ! what i^, or ought to be, the chief ornament of the garden, deprived of its character, for want of taste, and divested of its interest, for lack of skill! Visitors say, "Let us have a look at the green- house." " No," replies the gardener, apologetically, " it 's no! 74 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. worth your while going in, for there is nothing there to see : A humiliating acknowledgment, but full of truth. It is foreign to our purpose to enter upon the present condi- tion of green-house gardening, and the maimer in which these structures are managed by gardeners. Our present object is to treat of their construction, and of the means of adapting them the most easily to the culture of flowering plants, either during wmter or summer. It is a well known fact, that plants that are grown in what are called lean-to green-houses, have exactly the character of the house in which they are grown, i. e., they are one-sided ; nor is it possible, without a vast amount of labor and attention on the part of the gardener, to grow them otherwise. In this respect the cultivator does not imitate nature, but rather the monstrosities of nature. Trees and shrubs only grow one-sided when their position precludes the access of light and air around them ; but they grow naturally into a compact bush, which is universally allowed to be the most beautiful form that plants can assume. Even a handful of cut flowers have their beauty, and are generally admired, but when seen upon the living plant, whatever shape or form the latter may possess, how much greater their charms ! If, therefore, we add to these natural beauties the additional charm of a positively beautiful form, surely it will double their claim to our admiration. And we may here add the gratifying fact, that this claim is now gener- ally recognized by all who can appreciate the superior beauty of well-grown plants. The principles upon which plant structures ought to be built, are somewhat different from those which regulate the erection of forcing-houses, culinary houses, &c., and as their purposes are different, their shapes and forms are generally also different. Plant-houses admit of a greater variety of shape and design than any of the kinds previously mentioned, and as they are generally erected in private grounds, for ornament and display, they should have a more artistic character than the others. The size of the green-house may vary according to the extent of the ollection to be cullivated, but it should always have a STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 75 .engtli proportionate to its height and width. There is a great inconvenience in having the green-house very capacious, and where it is desirable to have a large collection of plants, it is best to have a conservatory for the growth of the larger speci- mens, or a stove for the palmaceous families of plants. We shall, however, allude to what is properly termed the green- house. A first-rate green-house should be completely transparent on all sides ; lean-to houses are decidedly objectionable, for the reasons already given. Houses that are only glazed in front, and have glass roofs, but otherwise opaque, are also objection- able, as plants can never be made to grow handsome. They become weakly and distorted by continually stretching towards the light, neither do they enjoy the genial rays of the morning and evening sun, and only perhaps for a few hours during mid- day. If such houses be large and lofty, they are still more un- manageable, as no culture can keep the plants symmetrical and of good appearance. A green-house should stand quite detached from all othel buildings, and may be of any form the fancy may dictate, or the position suggest. It maybe circular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal, or a parallelogram, with circular or curved ends. The house, to be proportionate, should be about fifty feet in length by twenty in width, and fourteen feet high, above the level of its floor; if more effect be required from the external view, its parapets may be raised, to give the house a loftier appearance. The parapet should be not more than two feet high all round, the upright glass about two and a half or three feet more, including base, plate, and sash bars. The house should be surrounded by a shelf, two feet wide, level with the top of the parapet wall. This shelf is of great importance to a gardener, and is gener- ally the best place for the finer kinds of plants ; being sur- rounded on all sides with light, and being near the glass, they grow bushy and dwarf in habit, in which rtate they are most pleasing and attractive. Next to this shelf comes the pathway, three feet wide at least, (having just enough room between the roof for the tallest individual to clear the glass and rafters;) then the stage, or centre tables, of stone or timber and arranged 7# 76 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. according to the size of the plants to be grown. The following end section will illustrate what we here refer to. It is somewhU enlarged, for the purpose of showing the arrangements of the interior. The cut which follows (Fig. 25) is a perspective view of the same house, taken at a considerable distance from it, for the purpose of showing the effect of this plain structure in a pleasure-ground. If desired, it may be made to assume some- thing of the character of a conservatory, by introducing a ground bed in the centre, instead of the shelves or tables. The fire- place and heating apparatus may be placed at one end, and under ground, so as to be out of sight, or may be formed in a sunk shed, and blinded with shrubbery. The flues, or pipes, for warming the house, must be carried round, beneath the side shelves, dipping below the level of the floor at the doors, and returning by the opposite side of the house to the furnace. The cost of such a structure will very much depend upon the quality of the workmanship, and the material used in the construction ; but we think a very good house may be erected, according to the foregoing plan, for about ten dollars per foot in length, or about fi^^e hundred dollars for a house 50 feet long by 20 feet in width. Fig. 24. Such a green-house, though plain and inexpensive in its character, may, nevertheless, be made to harmonize well with fliower-garden scenery, and is far superior to the clumsy, shed- like erections frequently seen stuck into corners of buildings STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSE? t" and dwelling-houses, without reference to the posit' iii of the structure, or the purpose for which it was built. Fig. 25 shows the appearance of the house, on the proportions which are given in the above plan, (Fig. 24,) which, in our opinion, admits of more room for plants than any other form that can be built at the same cost ; for, although we might adopt a semi-circular form for the end toward the most prominent point of view, it must be remembered that this would add con- siderably to its cost. Our object here is to give the sketch of the best and cheapest kind of house that can be erected for plant- growing, and such is the one here given. This house may be placed in any situation, as regards aspect. It may be attached at one end to any other building, without much injury to its efficiency as a plant-house ; and where it is found absolutely necessary to attach green-houses to the walls of other buildings, they should, by all means, be constructed after the plan here given, or under some architectural modifica- tion of it, avoiding, if possible, that old, and now almost obsolete, ¥i^. 25. system, of laying the roof up to the w^all, as in a common grapery, or of making the front of heavy pilasters and massive wood-work, like the orange-houses of the "middle ages. The method of construction here described is that in which the plants enjoy the largest share of light; and this house is the easiest managed — with respect to air and heat in winter, and moisture and shade in summer — of all other methods which have come under our experience m •TRUCTURfiS ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR I URP03SS. PH y|p||-il ^^ ^ffi 'T\ W\ m □ ii-ii-i- m ■mi >//^M=/^i vllfiH- gTRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. "^9 In some establishments it may be requisite to have a range of plant-houses, or one house divided into compartments, for the different kinds of plants ; thus the structure may be of a highly ornamental character, as in Fig. 26, one end consisting of a common green-house, for geraniums and soft-wooded plants, and the other may be either a heathery, an orchidaceous, or an exotic stove, for promiscuous plants ; the centre, being larger and more capacious than the ends, may be an orangery, or a palm- house. This forms an elegant range of botanic hot-houses, and being of glass all round, should stand in the middle of a large pleasure- ground, or shrubbery. The smoke of the furnaces, being con- ducted into a subterraneous canal, is carried to a distance, and emitted by means of a shaft having the appearance of an orna- mental column, as in the Botanic Gardens of Edinburgh and Kew. By having the plant-stove in the middle of the other houses, a considerable advantage is gained by the protection afforded in winter, when the structure requires to be kept at a high temper- ature by artificial means ; and as both of the adjoining houses will also be warmed in severe weather, the centre one, though larger, will be maintained at the required temperature with a heating apparatus no larger than the others. From the carved disposition of the centre house, this range has a peculiarly pleasing effect, when viewed from a horizontal point of view somewhat distant. The proportions of this struc- ture are excellent ; and it would, undoubtedly, form a splendid ornament in the grounds of a gentleman's country-seat. One of the leading errors in the erection of large plant-houses, is in the unreasonable height to which their roofs are carried, and which in the case of palm-houses may be defended as necessary; but in the case of conservatories, there is no tenable justification of such a course, except the house is intended to be the object of admiration, instead of the plants that are grown in it ; and if fitness for the end in view be expressive of beauty, then, after all, these architectural temples must decidedly fail in producing that effect upon the mind, that the plain finished, but fitly and efficiently designed structure never fails to produce. But the so STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 8x beauty, even of the plainest kind of structures, may be easily lieightened and increased by an ornamental moulding of wood along the ridge of the roof, if a span, or on the end rafters and front plate, as in Figs. 26 and 27, which will deprive the house of none of its lightness, and will give it a neater and more ele- gant appearance. Plants placed at a distance, either under water or under glass, are as much influenced in their development by the light as by the heat. When plants are a great distance from the roof, they are, of course, in a colder and denser medium at the surface of the soil than at the top of the house, and there cannot be a doubt that this difference in the density and temperature of the atmosphere has much to do with the struggle and effort which every plant makes to rise upward, and to elevate its assimilating organs into the warmer and most humid regions of the house. It will also be found that the difference betwixt the higher and lower strata of air in hot-houses, is more immediately the cause of plants drawing, and becoming w^ak, than anything that re- sults from a feeble constitution, or from a deficiency of atmos- pheric air. Notwithstanding the practical illustrations of this prevailing error in plant-houses, there seems to have been very little done to counteract this fault in lofty houses. The large conservatory in the Regent's Park, Botanic Garden, is the only structure of great size where this circumstance has had sufficient weight to induce the erectors to provide against it, in the general design and construction of the building. This admirable plant-house stands as a striking illustration of what can be done on a grand scale, without rendering fitness for the end in view subservient to architectural display, and yet, without depriving the structure of that dignity and effect which fine conservatories always convey to the cultivated mind. This conservatory, we believe, is the result of well digested practical and scientific knowledge, and we doubt if there be any other such erection in England, where the effect of this rare combination is so strikingly displayed on a scale so magnificnnt ; and the result of this combination has indeed been clearly manifested, in the formation and subsequent management of this beautiful garden. 82 STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. A? the influence of the upper and lower strata of air, in large houses, will be discussed in a subsequent portion of this work, devoted to that subject, we will not enlarge further upoii it at present, more than to observe, that lofty-domed, or curvilinear roofs, as that lately erected at Kew, are more difficult to manage, both in winter and summer, than low-roofed houses, whether curved or straight, and that the impossibility of rendering these houses in any way workable, has induced, in some instances, their almost entire abandonment on the part of the proprietors, owing solely to the. intense heat of the superior regions of the house. The most experienced and enlightened men have satisfied themselves, that structures in which the atmosphere has to be kept at a higher temperature than the external atmosphere, and in which plants have to be grown, should be kept at the very lowest elevation which the use and purpose will admit, so that the temperature of the air, at the level of the floor, and among the roots and lower portions of the plants, may be as little dif- ferent as possible from what it is in the higher regions of the house ; by regarding which, the house will be much easier kept during summer, with respect to air and moisture, and, during winter, with respect to a more equal diffusion of heat. In the comparatively still atmosphere of a hot-house, when all is closely shut up in a cold winter's night, the difference betwixt the temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of the floor and the highest part of the roof will generally be in the ratio of one degree to every two feet of elevation ; thus, in a house 20 feet high there will be a difference of 10°, and in a house 60 feet high the same rule gives a difference of no less than 30 de- grees. This ratio, however, is not absolutely correct, as we have proved by experiment, in houses of various sizes, which give, under certain circumstances, a greater difference of tem- perature than here stated, as will be shown when we come to treat on this branch of horticultural science.^ We have already said enough on this point, here, to show the advantage of erecting low-roofed conservatories, especially wlieu * See Ventilation STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES. 83 the object is to grow the plants in beds, or masses, irregularly placed on the level of the floor, which is decidedly an improve- ment upon the old method, of having a few long-legged and branchless specimens sticking their heads up to the glass, where their leaves and flowers are far above the common axis of vision, and where nothing is seen below but the monotonous bed, and the bare seems of the plants that are growing in it, compelling the gardener, at all hazard of propriety, and in violation of every principle of taste, as well as of his own judgment, to stick in the commonest plants, whatever they are, among the bare stems of the others, to fill up the unsightly blanks and vacancies thus occasioned in the beds. While on this subject, we will just briefly remark, that nothing has so much tended to improve the culture of the trees and shrubs, generally grown in houses of glass, as the improvement that has taken place in the mode of construction. All practical men are agreed on the point, that, to grow plants well, the house must be low in the roof, and light as well as air must be aamitted freely to every part of the plant, from the ground to the glass. They must also be situated in such a way, regarding their lower parts, that the light may not be obstructed, for how- ever powerful, and perhaps sometimes injurious, the fierce rays of the mid-day sun may be in mid-summer, yet its perma- nent obstruction is far more so. It is easier to obviate scorch ing in. the one case, than etiolation in the otheF. 8 SECTION IV, INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. 1. Arrangements for the interior of forcing-houses, culinar}'- houses, &c., are generally very much alike, consisting chiefly of trellises of wood, or of wire, to which the trees are trained. The other portions of interior detail are common to horticultural structures of every description, and will be subsequently de- scribed in their respective places. " Half the advantages," says Loudon, (Ency. of Gard.,) " of culture, in forcing-houses, would be lost without the use of trel Uses. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun of whose influence every branch, and every twig, and every leaf, partake alike ; whereas, were they left to grow as standards, un- less the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots would enjoy sufficient light. The advantages, in respect of air, water, pruning, and other parts of culture, are equally in favor of trellises, independently, altogether, of the influence which proper training has upon fruit-trees, as the vine, the peach, apricot, &c., to produce fruitfulness." Notwithstanding the obvious utility of trellises in culinary houses, the use of them is frequently carried to a most unprofit- able and injurious extent, when the whole interior of the house is filled with foliage from the glass to the floor. Here, work is entailed upon the gardener to no purpose ; and though good crops may be borne on the trees that are trained upon the trel- lises crossing the house, or on the back wall, the fruit is utterly worthless. The trellis, situated on the back wall, was formerly considered the principal part of the house, for producing a crop ; but this is only the case in small, narrow houses, and where no trees are trained upon the rafters, or under the glass. Experience has proved that, where the whole surface of the glass " overed INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. 85 with foliage, there is very little gained by training either peachea or vines on the back wall. The principal use to which back-wall trellises may be profita- bly turned, is for the cultivation of figs, which are found to do much better than peaches under the shade of others. The trellis, whatever its form, should be as near to the glass as possible, and placed so as to command the full influence of the light entering the house. When the vines are trained upon the single rafter trellis, Fig. 28, A, leaving the middle of the lights open, for the free admission of light to plants beneath, then the curvilinear trellis may be introduced into the centre of the house, as represented at a, Fig. 29, from which good peaches and nectarines may be obtained, providing the sashes be kept open in the middle, as already stated, for the admission of the unobstructed light. A. B. Fig. 28. C. The most common method of fixing the roof trellis is by studs. Fig. 28, B, screwed into the rafter, about eight inches distant. Each stud is provided with an eye, or hole, at the extremity, through which the wire is passed, and tightened at both ends by screws and nuts. The studs should not be less than twelve inches in length, so as to afford room for the foliage to expand itself fully, without coming in contact with the glass, which, when moistened with the condensed vapor, is apt to scald the leaves that happen to be touching it. The wires forming the trellis are stretched horizontally from both ends of the roof, at about nine inches distant. Instead of studs screwed into the rafter, the horizontal wires may be fixed, and kept in their places, by rods of iron, having holes for the wires passing through, at regular distances. These S6 kTterior arrangemen:s. rods are attached by a loop and staple to the front wall at the lower end, and to the back wall at the upper. This method is preferable to having the studs screwed into the rafter, as they can be easily removed, or the whole tegument of trellis may, if desired, be taken down and put up again without much trouble. This is of great importance on occasions of cleaning and painting the sashes, etc. Fig. 28, C, shows the perforated rod which is here referred to, the looped end being fixed in common staples. When provision is made for a middle trellis, this should always have a curvilinear shape, as in a, Fig. 29. This form Fig. 29 affords not only the largest training surface, but presents a larger surface to the light, than any other form that can be adopted, and, what is of more importance in regard to smah houses, it occupies less room in proportion to its training surface than any other trellis with which we are acquainted. Cross-trellises, or horizontal upright trellises in the middle of the house, not only destroy the effect within, but are worse than useless. Where the house is of sufficient size to admit of a middle trellis, and a sufficiency of roof-surface to afford the cen- tre of the sashes to be kept clear of foliage, we should prefer having a sloping trellis on the back wall, and the centre bed occupied with dwarf standards, planted either in a straight or zig-zag line along the border, which, under good management, will be as fruitful as if trained on a trellis, while their appear- ance would be pleasing and handsome. Fig. 29 will convey a better idea of our method than by description. Fig. 30 shows the same system carried out in a double-roofed house. Trellises are now made generally of wire, as being cheapei INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS s? Fig. 30. Fig. 31. and lighter than wood. Wire is in every way fitter for tae purpose than wood, especially for roof trellising. The distance at which the wires should be placed apart depends upon the kind of trees to be trained to them. For grapes, the distance should be 12 or 14 inches ; and for peaches, nectarines, and small-wooded trees, not more than 8 inches. The distance of the wires of the roof trellis from the glass should not be less than one foot for grapes, and for peaches and other similar trees not less than ten inches. In properly constructed houses, there should always be a lower trellis, with the wires placed at double the distance of the others, for training the summer shoots to, to prevent the crowding of the vine branches when the trees are full of fruit, in order that there may not be a confusion of fruit and foliage. Vines, or, indeed, any other kind of fruit trees, should never be nailed to the wood of the house ; but, in all cases, trained at some distance from it, however little room there may be for that purpose. 2. The interior of the green-house is generally provided with a stage in the centre, and shelves round the sides on which the 8^ SS INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. plants are arranged ; and this is the principal object which demands our attention. In single-roofed houses, the stage gen erally rises towards the back wall ; but in span-roofed houses, which are surrounded by a path, the stage or platform, rises from both sides, and meets in the middle of the house. It is a principle with some peopie to place the stage on the same angle as the roof, i. e., each shelf rising at an equal dis- tance from the plane of the rafters. This, however, is a bad rule, and, m cases where the roof is very steep, will make a wretched receptacle for green-house plants. No general rules can be laid down for the erection of the stage, as this will very much depend upon the form and size of the house. We might add, however, that the angle of the stage ought never to exceed the angle of the roof, but, if practicable, should be rather flatter than otherwise, to admit of larger plants being placed on the upper shelves, which serve to give the house a larger and more effective appearance from the inside view. Green-houses intended for the growth of a promiscuous col- lection of plants, some of which may reach a considerable height, should have but few shelves on the platform, say three or four rises are quite sufficient, leaving the upper shelves, at least, twice the width of the others. This applies, also, to sin- gle-roofed houses. Many commit an error in making their stages not only too steep, but the shelves too narrow and too high, individually. The shelves of a green-house for displaying plants ought not to be less than one foot in width, this width increasing towards the top shelf, and not more than eight or nine inches in height from each other. Houses appropriated to the g;rowth of small plants, as nurse- rymen's stock-houses, propagating, etc., may be staged much closer than this. These remarks chiefly apply to the green • houses of private individuals, and houses for the exhibition and arrangement of a general collection of plants. 3. Conservatories, orangeries, and houses for the growth of the palm family, have pits, or more properly beds, in which plaLits are planted out. These beds are sometimes level with the floor, and sometimes raised above it, being enclosed by a INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. 89 curb. The principles of culture in these houses being some« what different from the common green-house, it is necessary that they be arranged to suit the plants grown in them. The general form of conservatory beds is exactly that of the structure. If the house be a parallelogram, the bed has the same form, sometimes divided in the middle by a path, and sometimes surrounded by a path on both sides. These structures, when properly built and managed, are undoubtedly the means of conferring on lovers of gardening and jfiowers, enjoyment of the highest and purest character. When a fine conservatory of this kind is attached to the mansion house, or connected with it by a glazed arcade, it forms one of the most delightful prome- nades in winter that wealth and taste can command. There is undoubtedly much yet to be done in the way of improving the interior of ornamental conservatories, not only as regards their adaptability to plant culture, but also their general effect. We seldom see anything else than the same fiat, form.al bed or border, which is either rectangular, round, or square, according as the form of the building may determine by its walls. Even the refinement or elegancies of construction of architecture fail to invest such buildings with any character of distinctness or novelty, owing to the sameness or monotony which forms the basis of the design. As far as relates to the exterior, a considerable improvement is taking place from the use of curvilinear roofs, and lighter and more elegant workman- ship, and also resulting from the adoption of double-roofed houses, instead of the dark, dull, narrow, clumsy shed-like erec- tions which formerly used to be erected, and the various forms of elevation, which are now so generally arranged as to produce a very pleasing and picturesque effect. A recent and very general improvement in the construction of green-houses, consists in making the stages and shelves of slate, or thin plates of stone ; this practice is now common about London. These slates are frequently grooved or hollowed out so that the water is retained under the pots, and thus dripping is prevented, and evaporation is provided for in dry weather. This may be considered as a real improvement, which is proved by the readiness with which this practice was adopted by prac- 90 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. tical gardeners and nurserymen, and, from the cool nature of that material, deserves to be more extensively followed in orna- mental green-houses in this country. The irregular method of laying out the interior of conservato- ries, which promises to subvert the formal and monotonous arrangements of the old school, is one of the greatest steps towards a higher and more natural taste of artificial gardening than any other that has taken place in this department of the art for the last fifty years, inasmuch as it can be carried out with equal advantage on a large, as well as on a small, scale and v/here this method is applied to a large structure, i. c, a structure covering a large area of ground, it necessarily leads to the adoption of interior arrangements, as far surpassing the old method in beauty and effect as it does in respect to econ- omy, convenience, and comfort. When we visit a conservatory lately erected, and see it to be a perfect fac simile of others that had been erected a century before, there is positively nothing to strike us with admiration except, perhaps, the character of its architecture. When we see, in the costly erection before us, the exact image of conser- vatories everywhere else, the object loses one half of the charms of novelty and interest. It is, in fact, in the endless variety and intrinsic beauty of which they easily admit, that their chief fascination rests. This is the case with all other objects of art, with private mansions, for instance. How monotonous and tire- some would a country or suburb be, were every mansion and dwelling an exact copy of the other ! And why should it be sc with erections for the growth of plants ? Why should these, which are, to a certain extent, invested with the charm of rarity, be deprived of the charm of variety ? Why should there not be groves, and lakes, and irregular flower beds, and rocks, and aquariums, and caverns, and jets, and waterfalls within as well as without? In the former case, their beauties would be avail- able, either for recreation, admiration, or study, at all seasons ; in the latter, the fickleness and vicissitudes of our climate fre- quently prevent the enjoyment of either. The finest illustration of this system with which we are Ecquainted, is in the beautiful conservatory of the RoyaJ INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS 91 Botanic Society's Garden, in the Regent's Park, by Mr. Mar- nock, and which is, perhaps, one of the best adapted structures for the growth of plants in England, and is decidedly superior to the many monster plant-houses lately erected in that country. We ha^ve compared this structure with the large houses at Chatsworth, Kew, Sion House, and other places, and, whether in respect to convenience and comfort, general appearance or adaptability, we consider it in every way preferable to any other structure of the kind we have seen. This splendid winter- garden — for its great size justly entitles it to this name — contains collections of different degrees of hardiness, and em- braces climates suitable to each. Its walks are gravelled, like a flower-garden, winding through amongst the various groups of plants ; sometimes overhung with the pendulous branches of flowering plants of great size and beauty, and sometimes wind^ ing beneath arches and arbors of climbers in wild profusion. Here you climb over rocks, covered with characteristic plants, and there you descend into the humid recesses of orchids and aquatics. This house has not the domed and lofty character of come other structures of the kind, which is at once a prominent feature and a prominent fault in their construction ; it consists of several spans, supported on light iron columns, the centre one being somewhat higher than the others ; and, though having little pretensions to what is generally called architectural dis- play, yet its commanding position and its magnitude strike the observer with a feeling of admiration, which is only surpassed by its internal arrangements. The general system of building conservatories in a recess of the mansion is entirely subversive of this method of internal arrangement, because of their total inadaptability for this pur- pose. It must not be supposed, however, that there is any abso- lute reason for detaching the conservatory from the mansion, if it be otherwise desired ; but it ought to be there as a positive part of the building, not a tributary attachment to fill up a cor- ner. That these kinds of structures for plants are being rapidly improved, is evident, and this, indeed, must be the case, since the improvement here spoken of springs from necessity. The attachment of a green-house to a mansion appears to us in aa 92 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. questionable taste, as placing the conservatory in the middle ul the kitchen garden, or in the orchard ; and if any kind of hor ticultural structure is to be attached to the mansion, it ought by all means, to be a conservatory. As an illustration that conservatories may form prominent portions of a mansion, or even a whole wing of it, without destroying its architectural character, we might point to a design, in the December number of the " Horticulturist " for 1849, by A. J , Downing, Esq., of Newburgh, which is introduced to show how a simple structure of this kind ought to be treated so as to give the whole an architectural and harmonious character, and show- ing, also, how this may be accomplished without rendering the conservatory opaque on either side, except ^the one end by which it is attached to the house, — a circumstance which will be indispensable in conservatories attached to houses, unless they be joined by means of a veranda, which gives them somewhat of an isolated character. This house which we have referred to is the kind of conservatory which we like, being satisfied, •from experience, that, unless they be constructed somewhat after this method, they can never give the proprietors that satis- faction which they have a right to expect ; and we trust Mr. Downing will go on with creations of this kind, till these trans- parent conservatories become more general than they are at present. Although it is not necessary, on account of perfect adapta- bility, to place conservatories apart from dwelling-houses, yet we generally find that structures, standing detached from the mansion, are better suited for the growth of plants : first, because there is less temptation to introduce massive workmanship, on purpose to harmonize with the house ; and, secondly, there is, in most instances, more facility of making the house to satisfy the requirements of vegetation, and, consequently, less likelihood of departing from the principles of erection which science and practice have determined as essential to the successful cultiva- tion of plants. In many instances, it is absolutely impossible to comply with these principles, whatever interior arrangements may be adopted. Where the conservatory is a rneie lean-to, s tuck-in ^ttachment INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. 93 compliance with the principle of plant-culture, or with the methoa of interior arrangement which we have here recom^ mended, is equally impossible. In the latter case, the greatei portion of the plant-house must necessarily be form.ed by the walls of the building, and the shadow of its elevated parts will he thrown upon the plant-house for at least one half the day This is nearly as injurious as if the portions thus shaded were opaque. The only way of obviating the evils consequent upon its position, is to give every possible inch of light to the one, to enable it to counterbalance the shade which it must bear from the other. When plants are planted in beds in the conservatory, they require to be large specimens, otherwise they have a meagre appearance, and must be a great distance from the roof, and this is one of the greatest difficulties the gardener has to contend with. It must be borne in mind that fine specimens do not consist in plants that reach from the bed to the glass, with naked stems, and only a few branches at the top, which is invariably the result of lofty roofs and dark walls. We have already shown, in the preceding section, the conse- quence of high-roofed houses, and the difficulty of managing them in a manner fitted for the successful cultivation of plants; and if high-domed or right-lined roofs be improper in houses where the plants are elevated on shelves and stages, they are much more so where the plants are set in the beds without pots, as the distance from the light renders it impossible for them to grow bushy and branching below. These, when included wnthin the common-place curb of a square, or a parallelograni, or an oval, or circle, which are little better, (except when sparingly introduced, and only where they are described by the natural curves of the contiguous figures,) invariably produce an effect so common-place and uninteresting, as to f^iil in exciting the faintest emotions of pleasure, or novelt}^, or interest, in one cu' of a hundred individuals of taste and judgment. 94 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. REFERENCE TO FIG. 32. Ay A, A, A, A, A, Beds in which the plants are set out and arranged according to their methods of growth, habits height, &c. B, Water Tank, with jet in the centre. This tank is surround- ed by rock-work and characteristic plants. C, C, Seats on each side of the jet, commanding, also, views of the surrounding grounds. D, B, D, D, Conduit for the hot-water pipes, for warming the structure. This open conduit passes along the wall the whole length and breadth of the house, and is covered with grating, which serves as a path for watering, and conduct* ing the necessary operations connected with the culture of the plants. E, E, E, an open Balcony, passing all round the house, and surrounded by a balustrade. This balcony forms a contin- uation of the porch on the one side, and runs out upon the ground-level on the other. From this balcony are seen the garden, the lakes, the hot-house, and the ornamental grounds. The chief purpose of this balcony, however, is to maintain the ground-level of the floor, and to make the conservatory in harmony with the mansion, without de- stroying its adaptability as a first-rate plant-house, of that class intended for growing large specimens, planted out in the ground. jp. Steps, leading from the balcony into the pleasure-grounds. G, Door opening from the drawing-room. if, Rock- work for alpine plants, surrounding the aquarium and jet. For end view of this house, see Frontispiece, mXERIOR ARRANGEMENT3. 95 Fig. 32. 96 INTEKIOR ARRANGEMENTS. (^onscivatories are, probably, the most important structaref. used in ornamental gardening; and, as we have already said in regard to other kinds of horticultural buildings, we say, also, of them, that no degree of gardening ability, and practical attention on the part of the gardener, will compensate for the want of light and air; and, where the arrangements for the working of the house, in regard to air, heat, &c., are imperfect, the risk is great, and it is painful for a skilful and zealous gardener to contem- plate the consequences which he may be unable to prevent. One single night may destroy the labors of years past, and for- bid hope for years to come ; and, after all, the blame may be laid where it is least merited, and censure withheld from the party who most deserved it. In all buildings, and especially conservatories, the most com- plete and elegant design, when badly executed, is disagreeable to the view, defective in the object of its erection, and ruinous to the proprietor, because it is incapable of giving that satisfaction and pleasure which he was entitled to expect from his outlay. Fig. 32 is the ground plan of a conservatory, which we have designed for erection at a gentleman's country-seat. It is in- tended to form a prominent wing of the mansion. The structure is entered at one end by a door, leading from the principal apartments of the house. The conservatory is traversed by curved walks, laid with marble, and bordered by a curb, on each side, of the same material. In the centre is a basin of water, with a jet playing over a rockery, as seen in the cut. Fig. 32. In this design we have endeavored to combine perfect adapta- bility, with beauty in the structure, and harmony in the whole. This method of laying out the interior of a conservatory admits of the most perfect arrangement in the planting of the beds and compartments, intended for the exotic trees and shrubs, with which the structure is to be filled. The walks wind through, among the plants, as in a common shrubbery, or flower- garden ; and, when the compartments are tastefully arranged, and the whole kept in healthiness and luxuriance, with climbing plants hanging in festoons from the rafters and other supporters of the roof, it forms decidedly the most delightful and satisfac' tory kind of horticultural structure that can be erected for com fort, convenience, and enjoyment, INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS. 97 We do not think that any definite rule can be laid down for the laying out of the area of a conservatory, as the formation of the beds and walks may be dictated by the taste of the proprietor; or those in whom he confides the management of the work. Almost any curve may be adopted in the walks, without destroy- ing the effect of the interior view. What we condemn is the monotonous straight lines by which the area is generally laid out. It must be observed, however, that this method is entirely inapplicable, unless the house be glazed on at least three sides, and the roof so constructed as to admit the greatest possible quantity of light in proportion to the extent of the area enclosed. The roof should, also, be as low as is consistent with exterior effect, and the admission of plants of good size; for, as we have already observed, one of the prevailing errors in the construction of conservatories adjoining mansions consists in their being made too lofty and too opaque. They are designed generally to suit the place of the building, without regard to the effect of the conservatory itself, as a structure, or as a plant-house. There are many other advantages, resulting from houses of this description, which, in a practical point of view, are deserv- ing of consideration. Not the least of these is the facility with which plants can be arranged to produce the best possible effect. Plants are much easier arranged within curved lines, than in squares or parallelograms ; and the curvatures of the beds are always more spirited and pleasing than continuous straight lines, whatever the house may be filled with, or however badly the plants may be disposed. We have only room to notice one feature more in the con- struction of this conservatory, viz., the form of the roof We have chosen the spans of different sizes, in preference to one single span, as much for adaptability as to harmonize with the architecture of the mansion. This system tends to prevent the accumulation of warm air at the top of the house, and hence the heat is distributed more equally among the plants. For the same reason, ventilators are provided at the top of each span so that the external air admitted, as well as the artificial heat ris- ing upwards, will be more equally distributed over the house."* * For further notice of this, see Ventilation,. 98 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENTS An end view of this structure is shown in the frontispiece. As the g-round, in this case, descends gradually from the base of the mansion, a considerable depth of parapet wall i§ necessary to bring the floor of the conservatory to the desired level, and the requisite distance from the roof. Curved roofs can only be adopted where the building admits them without jarring dis- cordantly with the general architecture, and, in some instances, straight-lined roofs will be preferable ; but in all cases where curvilinear roofs can be made to harmonize with the building, they are decidedly to be preferred, on account of the superior beauty of curved lines viewed in contrast with the surrounding scenery, and also on account of the superior beauty of the struc- ture fvom within, in harmony with curved figures of the walks »nd borders of a house, such as that we have here described. SECTION V. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 1. Woi kma7iship. — However excellent and adaptable may 6e the design of a horticultural erection, if the work be badly executed the structure will generally be defective in the work- ing, and the trouble of management will be greatly increased. Bad foundations, bad roofs, bad-fitting sashes, rendering them difficult to open and shut, bad glazing, and bad workmanship of every description, are too common to exist without being a very perceptible evil, and one that is much complained of by practical gardeners, upon whom the consequences of this method of con- struction generally fall. In all regular work, coming under the province of the architect or engineer, there is generally particu- lar attention directed to the facility of working, and ingenuity is exerted to its utmost limits to perfect and simplify those facilities, however temporarily the structure or work may be constructed. But horticultural buildings, relatively to civil architecture, appear to be an anomalous class of structures, not coming strictly within the province of the architect, — except in so far as they may be related to the house in an architectural point of view, — and hence they arc more the subject of chance or caprice in design, and of local convenience in execution, than any other department of rural architecture. The subject of horticultural architecture has not been deemed of sufficient importance to induce civil architects to make themselves ac- quainted with the principles on which plant-houses should be constructed, or to consider the nature of workmanship in relation to its work ; and, consequently, the construction of horticultural buildings is either left wholly to gardeners, who understand little of the science of architecture, or wholly to architects, wno understand as little of the science of horticulture. The conse- quence, in either case, is generally incongruity in appearance, 9^ 100 MA PERU LS OF CONSTRUCTION. want of success in the useful results, and want of permanency in the structure itself. In every country, no doubt, such cases are numerous, but here, they are more numerous probably than in any other, arising, no doubt, from that want of attention to the details of horticultural architecture, and to the still unde- veloped principles of science, upon which it is based. The temporary and inferior character of the workmanship generally bestowed on horticultural erections is a source of great loss to those erecting such buildings, and demands the serious attention of all who contemplate the construction of them. The remarks, which have been applied by a popular writer on farm- ing in regard to farm-buildings, are still more applicable to build- ings for the purposes of horticulture.^ Buildings, manifestly intended to be permanent, are put up to stand for a year or two, when it becomes absolutely necessary to their continuation, to spend a sum upon them equal to one third the cost of their original erection, which acts as a drawback upon the progress of horticulture in this country, as many suppose that this early additional expenditure is merely the consequence which the com- mon tear and wear of time entails upon all such structures ; and hence they are considered too expensive to keep in order, even though willing to go to the cost of original construction. Now experience has taught us that structures, substantially con- structed at the first, and of good materials, will stand for at least twenty years without any additional outlay, save a few coats of paint during that period, wiiich increases their durability, the oftener it is applied. We have been induced to dwell longer on the subject of workmanship, from the numerous examples which have come under our own observation, and from the trouble and annoyance to which we are almost daily subjected on this account. In small erections, the inconveniences arising from bad workman- * Few things serve better to distinguish the habits, and even the characters, of the progeny from the parent stock, — the Americans from their English ancestors, — than the more perfect and durable character of all their mechanical works, machinery, and buildings. There, things are made to endure j here, they are made to answer the purpoies cf the day. — \E(i. Farmer'' s Libranj.'] MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 101 ship maybe little experienced; but where the structures arc large and extensive, the results become ot" the deepest impor- tance, in an economical point of view. It is not easy to point out a course wherein these difficulties may be avoided, or to discover, at all times, to whom blame is attributable. Tradesmen, who take the work by contract, prob- ably endeavor to do the best they can with the job they have taiven in hand, and it is generally their policy to get over it as easily and as quickly as possible. Gardeners who may have the superintendence of the work, probably do the best they can, but from their wanting the necessary knowledge of the details of construction, are unable to exercise that surveillance which is necessary to the proper execution of the work. 2. Materials of the Frame of the Building, ^-c. — The most suitable material for the frames of horticultural buildings has lately been made the subject of considerable discussion and ex- periment, which has not been without its use in the elucidation of facts hitherto unknown, or, at least, unnoticed in general practice. The case of wood versus iron has been investigated on various grounds, by practical and scientific men, without, however, coming to a unanimous decision on the superiority of either. In this matter, as in some others like itself, some have adopted extreme views of the various merits and defects of the different materials, and have come to their conclusions by refer- ence to some single or specific property. These views and con- clusions, however, have been of considerable utility in bringing the subject before the bar of unbiased inquiry, which, if it has not already done so, is likely to result in the adoption of modi- fied views, and the recognition of specific principles, that, when fully considered and duly weighed against each other, will ulti- mately lead to a more definite result. The use of iron in the construction of hot-houses, like every other really valuable improvement, has met with much opposi- tion from the still slumbering spirit of prejudice, which is gener- ally slow to believe in the superiority of anything different from that with which it has been long acquainted, even when this superiority cannot, on reasonable grounds, be denied. This 102 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. spirit, however, which has long held undisputed sovereignty over the minds of gardeners, is fast giving way before the sweep- ing current of mechanical inventions ; and when science comes to the aid of mechanism in the building of hot-houses, as in the erection of factories, steam-engines, and other works of art, then the flimsy barriers reared by prejudice will be swept away, and I think I may fearlessly assert that, in regard to the opposition that has been given to the erection of iron hot-houses, this has nearly taken place. Gardeners, from the early ages of Abercrombie and Nicol, have been prejudiced against metallic hot-houses, and, to our knowledge, this prejudice is still entertained by some whose learning and intelligence would encourage us to look for more accurate judgment. The objections which have been raised against metallic houses for horticultural purposes, are chiefly the following : — Contraction and expansion, oxydation, abduction of heat, at- traction of electricity, and original cost. In regard to the first, and principal cause of opposition, viz., its susceptibility to the influences of heat and cold, a fact which cannot be denied, yet it is proved by experience that if a house be properly constructed of good material, this susceptibility is of no practical importance. In very small houses the incon- venience occasioned by sudden fluctuations of temperature may be more sensibly felt, although, in the management of small iron vineries, in England, we have never seen the slightest incon- venience result from external changes ; indeed, all our expe- rience in the management of hot-houses goes to prove the superiority of iron over wood, for every purpose to which timber is generally applied. It has been stated that metallic roofs are more liable to break the glass than wood ; practice has also proved that this statement is without foundation, and if it has ever taken place, can only be in copper or compound metallic roofs. Cast-iron or solid wrouofht-iron bars have never been known to cause breakage of glass, or displacement of joints, and some have asserted that the breakage of glass is even more during sudden changes, by wood than by iron roofs. The expansibility of copper being greater than that of iroa BIATERIALS 07 CONSTRUCTION. 103 in the proportion of 95 to 60, therefore copper is above one third more likely to break glass than iron. But when it is considered that a rod of copper expands only i-^uujju P^^^ ^^ i*^ length with every degree of heat, and that iron only expands tfb^Vg^f P^^*» the practical effects of even the hottest portion of our climate on these metals can never amount to a sum equal to the expan- sion required for the breakage of glass. The second objection which we have mentioned is also unde- niable. All metals are liable to rust; but painting easily rids us of this objection, at least it will so far prevent it as to form hardly any objection. The power of metals to conduct heat is an objection which, like the others, cannot be denied, but may be partially obviated. The abduction of heat, like the expansibility of metallic roofs, is very little felt in using them ; the smaller the bars, the less their power of conduction. The paint, also, and the putty used to retain the glass, obviate this objection. Heat may be supplied by art, but light, the grand advantage gained by metallic bars, cannot, by any human means, be supplied but by transparency of roof. The objection raised on the ground of attraction of electricity, IS easily answered. If metallic hot-houses and conservatories attract electricity, they also conduct it to the ground, so that it can do them no harm. What is corroborative of this position is the fact, that no instance has come under our knowledge of iron hot-houses having been injured by the electric fluid. The objection regarding the expense of iron hot-houses, has been sufficiently refuted in* England, and we have observed, with pleasure, a refutation of the same objection, by an enter- prising gentleman of Cincinnati, who has lately erected an iron- roofed vinery. Mr. Resorr has given a cut, and description of this house, in the " Horticulturist " for Sept. 1849, p. 117. This '^ the only substantial account we have seen of the comparative cost of iron and wood roofs. This gentleman, who is in the foundery business, has every opportunity of knowing the accu- rate cost of such a house, and plainly states, " that those wish- ing to build a good, substantial house, can do it, and make the roof of iron, as cheaply as of wood, ^he other parts costing the 104 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION same." From inquiries and calculations which we have made we have come to the same conclusion, although, from a want of the requisite knowledge, and from the expense of having patterns made for the castings, it may, in some localities, cost more than a structure of wood. In small houses, sudden changes of the external temperature are much sooner and more sensibly felt than in large structures, whether they are constructed of wood or iron, which arises from the fact that the smaller volume of air confined within becomes more rapidly heated, and hence the change is the sooner felt Supposing the circumstance to be more strikingly sensible in the case of small iron houses, — then all that is necessary to coun- terbalance it, is just a little more attention to ventilation, during sudden changes of external temperature. For large structures iron is incomparably superior to wood, and even for forcing-houses we would decidedly prefer the same material. The contraction and expansion of metallic hot-houses may be dreaded in the Southern States, if built on a very small scale, and badly managed ; but in structures of moderate size, this evil will be found practically of little importance, unless they are badly constructed, and negligently managed. The finest horticultural structures that have yet been erected in Europe are made of iron, and no houses of any importance are now being erected of wood, which proves its superiority over the latter material. The great conservatory, or Palm-house, at Kew, is wholly of iron, constructed under the auspices of the most scientific men in England. The Botanic Society's conser- vatory, in the Regent's Park, (already spoken of,) is made of iron. The fine plant-houses in the Glasnevin Botanic Garden, near Dublin, are constructed of iron, and the quite unequalled range of forcing-houses at Frogmore, in Windsor Park, are also of iron. In fact, the most extensive horticultural erections in Europe are made of iron, and many others, now in course of erection, are being made of the same material. Admitting that properly constructed iron houses would cost, at the outset, somewhat more than wooden ones, their lightness and elegance render them much superior in point of appearance and, when their durability is taken into consideration, they will ItTATERiALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 105 undoubtedly, be found cheaper in the end. But the coj>t of con structlon will vary, according as the details are understood by the constructors ; for if"Mr. Eesorr can make a vinery of iron as cheaply as of wood, then other tradesmen, when they have prop- erly understood the nature of the work, will surely be able to do the same. The Palm-hou!=^ at Kew was constructed by a tradesman fror^. Diilixii, wtiile some of the most extensive hot- house builders in England lived within the sound of their ham- mers, and the material and workmen were all brought across the channel, costing nearly as much as if brought to America ; yet the workmanship was superior, and the cost said to be less, — proving that practice and knowledge of the details lessen the original cost of construction.* * As instances of comparatively easy transportabiUty of iron hot houses, we might mention, that the whole of the materials of the immense structure at Kew were manufactured and fitted together at Dublin, and transported from thence to London. The unequalled range of forcing-houses st AVindsor, one thousand feet in length, was made at Birmingham, and fitted together in the works, before they were trans- ported to their final destination. Now it would have been just as easy, and perhaps little more expensive, to have shipped them to New York, r.; Boston, or Philadelphia, or Baltimore. AVbcn this is done in England, how long will American entpr^rl^e be behind them ? We prophesy, no» SECTION VI. GLASS. 1. EiPERrMENTS which have hitherto been made, in regard tfl the physical properties of glass as a transparent medium, have been conducted, generally, on purely chemical principles, and mostly without reference to observed facts, as regards the growth of plants, excepting, perhaps, those of the most common and obvious character. Partly for this reason, and partly from care- less negligence, hot-houses have long been, and still continue to be, glazed with material of a very inferior description. If any one doubts this, let him look at some of the finest hot houses in the countiy, and he will easily perceive the truth of this statement ; the sickly and scorched appearance of the plants under its influence, being far more painful than agreeable to the eye of any one who takes an interest in the vegetable kingdom. This evil, alone, renders the very best cultivation of no avail. The most elaborate and practically useful investigations that have yet been made, in this department, are those lately under- taken, with the view of securing the very best material that science and art could produce, for the glazing of the great Palm- house at Kew. We cannot do better than present our readers with the following extract from Mr. Hunt's report to the com- mittee, which we take from Silliman's Journal of Science and Art, vol. iv., p. 431. " It has been found that plants growing in stove-houses, often suffer from the scorching influence of the solar rays, and great expense is frequently incurred, in fixing blinds, to cut off this destructive calorific influence. From the enormous size of the new Palm-house, at Kew, it would be almost impracticable to adopt any system of shades that would be effective, this building being 363 feet in length, 100 feet wide, and 63 feet high. It GLASS. 107 "vvss. therefore, thought desirable to ascertain if it would be pos- sible to cut cff these scorching rays by the use of a tinted glass, which should not be objectionable in its appearance, and the ques- tion was, at the recommendation of Sir William Hooker and Dr. Lindley, submitted, by the commissioners of woods, &c., to Mr. Hunt. The object was to select a glass which should not permit those heat rays, which are most active in scorching the leaves of plants, to permeate it. By a series of experiments, made with the colored juices of the palms themselves, it was ascer- tained that the rays which destroyed their color belonged to a class situated at the end of the prismatic spectrum, which ex- hibited the utmost calorific power, and just beyond the limits of the visible red ray. A great number of specimens of glass, vari- ously manufactured, were submitted to examination, and it was at length 'ascertained, that glass tinted green appeared most likely to effect the object desired, most readily. Some of the green glasses that were examined, obstructed nearly all the heat rays ; but this was not desired, and, from their dark color, these were objectionable, as stopping the passage of a considerable quantity of light, which was essential to the healthy growth of the plants. Many specimens were manufactured purposely for the experi- ments, by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, according to given directions ; and it is mainly due to the interest taken by these gentlemen, that the desideratum has been arrived at. " Every sample of glass was submitted to three distinct sets of experiments. " First. — To ascertain, by measuring off the colored rays of the spectrum, its transparency to luminous influence. " Second. — To ascertain the amount of obstruction offered to the passage of the chemical rays. " Third. — To measure the amount of heat radiation which permeated each specimen. " The chemical changes were tried upon chloride of silver, and on papers, stained with the green coloring matter of the leaves of the palms themselves. The calorific influence was ascer- tained by a method employed by Sir John Herschel, in his ex- periments on solar radiation. Tissue paper was smoked on one side by holding it over a smoky flame, and then, while the 10 l08 GLASS. spectrum was thrown upon it, the other surfico T/a3 washed with strong sulphuric ether. By the evaporation of the ether, the points of calorific action were most easily obtained, as these dried off in well defined circles, long before the other parts pre- sented any appearance of dryness. By these means it is not difficult, with ease, to ascertain exactly the conditions of the glass, as to its transparency to light, heat, and chemical agency, (actinism.) " The glass thus chosen is of a very pale yellow green color, the color being given by oxide of copper, and is so transparent that scarcely any light is intercepted. In examining the spec- tral rays through it, it is found that the yellow is slightly dimin- ished in intensity, and that the extent of the red ray is diminished in a small degree, the lower edge of the ordinary red ray being cut off' by it. It does not appear to act in any way upon the chemical principle, as spectral impressions, obtained upon chlo- ride of silver, are the same in extent and character as those procured by the action of the rays which have passed ordinary white glass. This glass has, however, a very remarkable action upon the non-luminous heat rays, the least refrangible calo rific rays. It prevents the permeation of all that class of heat rays which exists below, and in the point fixed by Sir William Herschel, Sir H. Englefield, and Sir J. Herschel, as the point of maximum calorific action, and it is to this class of rays that the scorching influence is due. There is every reason to con- clude that the use of this glass will be effectual in preserving the plants, and at the same time that it is unobjectionable in point of color, and transparent to that principle which is necessary for the development of those parts of the plant which depend upon external chemical excitation, it is only partially so to the heat ]!ays, and it is opaque to those only that are injurious. The absence of the oxide of manganese, commonly employed in all sheet glass, is insisted on, it having been found that glass, into the composition of which manganese enters, will, after exposure for some time to intense sun-light, assume a pink hue, and any tint of this character would completely destroy the peculiar properties for which this glass is chosen. Melloni, in his in- vestigations on radian !; heat, discovered that a peculiar green GLASS. 109 glass manufactured in Ital}', obstructed nearly all the calorific rays. We may, therefore, conclude that the glass chosen is of a similar character to that employed by the Italian philosopher. The tint of color is not very different from that of the old crown glass, and many practical men state, that they find their plants flourish better under this kind of glass, than under the white sheet glass, which is now so commonly employed." We understand the glass employed in the Kew Palm-house has fully answered the intended purpose, viz., of obstructing the most injurious portion of the heat rays ; and we have learned, also, that it has answered all expectations as to its influence on the health of the plants, although its perfect utility, in this respect, has been doubted by some practical men. We think, however, that an absolute decision on its merits, in this respect, is rather premature, as we should prefer seeing the plants attain a greater size, so as to fill the structure more completely, and their foliage reach nearer to the glass, before pronouncing defi- nitely upon the calorific effects of the latter. As to the appearance of this glass, it is altogether a matter of taste, which we consider ourselves having no right to ques- tion; and, upon the whole, we think it in this respect unob- jectionable. When viewed obliquely, from a distance, it is slightly green, but when viewed from within, and at right angles to its surface, it is clear and nearly white. This kind of glass is highly worthy of the attention of glass-makers and horticulturists in this country, and we have no doubt, when its qualities hav^e been fairly tested and made known, it will be extensively employed in horticultural buildings. No kind of economy is more sure to defeat its end than using cheap glass in horticultural structures. Many suppose, if a house is merely covered with glass and made transparent, that all is well. We know this to be a common opinion ; yet we are fully prepared to prove its falsity, not by mere assertion, but by indabitable facts, — facts so clear that the most ignorant in these matters will be convinced, from his own observation, and on a scale so extensive, as to justify the conclusions that have been drawn from them. We know of nothing connected with the erection of horticiil- no GLASS. tural buildi \gs so vexatious as having the roof glazed with bad glass ; plants of almost every kind are certain to suffer under it. Knotted and wavy glass is the worst of all, as the knots and waves form lenses, and concentrate the sun's rays upon the plants, and that part on which the concentrated ray falls is sure to be burnt. It cannot for one moment be doubted that the glass used in the majority of horticultural buildings is not only inferior, but is of the very worst description ; and, on a recent examination of one hundred houses, we found scarcely one free from the defects here spoken of. Indeed, we are fully aware of the difficulty of procuring really good glass, at reasona- ble prices, for glazing hot-houses. But there cannot be a doubt that the money saved is money lost ; and if the vexation and annoyance subsequently incurred by the use of inferior glass, be taken into consideration, few persons of sound judgment will hesitate in paying an increased price. No doubt many of our readers will suppose that we are unnecessarily particular on this point, but our experience has taught us a severe lesson, and one, too, which no doubt has been strongly impressed upon the mind of every gardener, of lengthened experience, in these matters. Against such an evil there is but one resource, — and a bad one it is, — which is shading, either by means of cloth blinds, or by painting, the worst method of the two; but the one or the other is absolutely necessary. The first is troublesome, the other is unsightly; and, to be done right, both are expensive. We have a large house now under our management, on which the glass is so bad as to render its opacity absolutely necessary to prevent burning, even when the sun's rays have lost their meridian power. In very small houses bad glass may be used with less chance of injury, as they may be easily shaded with blinds during the noonday sun ; but in very large structures this is only accom- plished at very great expense ; and in curvilinear houses, and houses with irregular roofs, covering them with blinds is almost impossible. Painting the glass, then, is the only resource, unless glass be used which does not require it. Little has been said on the effects of glass used in hot-houses, by writers on practical horticu ture. Although facts are obviou» GLASS. Mi and familiar in regard to it, yet the evils seem to be passed over as results which cannot be prevented. We can at this moment point to houses standing side by side, in one of which it is impossible to grow, and keep in health, any species of vegeta- tion whatever, — no matter how hardy the tissue of the foliage maybe, — without shading the glass almost to opacity; while,in the other, plants ^vith tender and delicate foliage stand compar- atively uninjured. The cause is obvious : the glass with which the one is glazed is full of waves and blotches, and altogether of the worst description ; while that of the other, though not the best, is yet of better quality. The poorer glass burns vegetation, even when the incidental angle, between the impinging ray and a perpendicular to the roof, is as much as 45°. From what has been already said regarding the influence of the different solar rays on vegetation, and, more especially, the experiments made with regard to the Palm-house at Kew Gar- dens, by which it has been found possible to manufacture glass which is opaque to the scorching rays, without at the same time obstructing the light, heat, and chemical rays which are essen- tial to the development of plants, there can be no doubt that the scorching of vegetation in hot-houses, which has long been a serious drawback in exotic horticulture, can be prevented And when more extended experiments have been made, a good material for glazing can undoubtedly be manufactured at a price that will insure its universal adoption in horticultural structures. It is to be earnestly desired that some of our enterprising manu- facturers, — a class so remarkable for their fertility of invention, — will take up the matter seriously, and supply us with the material which exotic horticulture so much requires. 2. Glazing. — Common sash-glazing is generally performed with a lap of from one to three fourths of an inch', and, by many with a full inch lap. This is a most objectionable method, as the bioader the lap the greater the quantity of water retained in it by capillary attraction, and, consequently, the greater the breakage of the glass ; for when the internal temperature falls •-iT>d this water becomes frozen, the glass is certain to crack in ihe direction of the bars. The lap should never be broader thao 10* 112 GLASS. a quarter of an inch, but where the panes or pieces of glass are not above five inches wide, one eighth of an inch is sufficient. Half an inch in roof-sashes, unless they are placed at an angle of not less than 45°, is almost sure to produce breakage, except- ing the temperature within be kept sufficiently high to prevent the water retained between the panes from freezing. Broad laps are objectionable, also, on other accounts ; for the broader the lap the sooner it fills with earthy matter, forming an opaque space, and these spaces are so numerous as to have a very considerable effect upon the transparency of the roof, which is injurious by excluding the light, and is also unsightly in appearance. It may be puttied, but its opacity is the same, and its appearance no better than if filled with "dirt. Where the lap is not more than one fourth of an inch, it may be puttied without any very disf;greeable effect, but if the glass be per- fectly smooth in the edges, puttying is useless, and the glass is better without it. The most approved practice as to the laps, whether in roofs or common sashes, is, to make the breadth of the lap equal to the thickness of the glass, leaving it entirely without putty. But it is extremely difficult to get glaziers to attend to this, and it can only be obtained by employing good workmen, and keep- ing strict supervision over the work. This is not only the most elegant of all modes of glazing, but the safest for the glass, which, as we have observed, is seldom broken by any other nat- ural means but the expansion of frozen water retained between the laps. This mode is also by far the easiest to repair, and is more durable than any method of filling the laps with putty, or with lead. There are various other modes of glazing, as the lead and copper-lap methods, which, however, are so very objectionable as to be unworthy of occupying space in our description. The methods of shield glazing are equally objectionable, and little used. Curvilinear glazing has been used somewhat extensively and is, in the opinion of some men of undoubted skill, superioi to the other methods already spoken of. Curvilinear lap-glazing appears preferable to the square mcj'i, tor various reasons, one of which is, that the curve has a ten GLASS. 113 dency tc conduct the wat^r to the centre of the pane, which is let out by a smaL opening- at the apex of it. If the lap is broad, however, the water is accumulated by attraction precisely in the point where it is calculated to do most injury, — acting-, in fact, as a power on the end of two levers of the second kind. But when the lap is not more than one sixteenth of an inch in width, no evil of this sort can happen. It ought to be borne in mind that puttying, or otherwise fill- ing up the laps, is in no case. necessary if care be taken of the glazing, and smooth glass be used, and if the lap never exceeds one fourth, nor falls short one sixteenth, of an inch. However careful the laps may be puttied, in a very few years the putty begins to decay by absorption of moisture, and, when evapora- tion is great within, it becomes saturated with water, which readily freezes in frosty nights, (unless the temperature of the house is adequate to prevent it,) and breakage of glass is inevi- table. Reversed curvilinear glazing consists in making the lower edges of the panes to curve inwards, in a concave form, instead of curving outwards, in the common Avay. The effect of this method is the throwing of the condensed moisture down upon the bars, and thus conveying it off at the bottom of the roof, which prevents the moisture from being retained in globules, and dropping down upon the plants. This method is nothing more than reversing the position of the panes in common curvi- linear glazing, and is, according to our opinion, preferable to it. These are the most common and approved modes of glazing, although some others have been used that have not proved worthy of general adoption. Ridge-and-furrow roofs may be glazed in the same way. The size of the panes used makes no difference, — large ones only tending to reduce the opaque sur- face. Anomalous surfaces may be glazed with panes according to the figures of the bars. 3. Color of Walls. — The color usually applied to hot-houses is white. As affording the finest contrast with the plants in the interior, and the vegetation around the outs.de of the house, the general taste is manifestlv in favor of this color; and, as it is 114 GLASS the best reflector of light, t is, also, on that account, preferable to any other. There are some considerations, however, in favor of a dark color, which, as has been already stated, absorbs a larger quantity of heat, and parts with it again on the cooling of the atmosphere. A yellow color we consider the most objec- tionable of all, both on account of its contrasting badly with the glass of the house and the verdure of vegetation, as well as the effects produced by it on the light, which, as will be seen from the preceding investigations, exercises an injurious influence on vegetation. The influence may not be so great in the reflected light, as when permeating yellow or orange-colored media, but the power is, nevertheless, exercised to some extent. The same investigations show the beneficial influence of a blue, or dark color, which perfectly accords with our observations on plants growing against dark bodies, otherwise exposed to abundance of light; and, when it is in accordance with the taste of the proprietor, we think the interior walls of hot-houses should be of a dark color. In England, where the rays of light are less powerful than here, dark-colored walls are now very common. There, light is a more important consideration than heat : the latter can be applied by artificial means ; — not so the former. This probably tends to prevent the adoption of a dark color for the interior of their hot-houses. Here, dark walls are more desirable than white, as they absorb the heat-rays, during a powerful sun, and prevent the atmosphere from becoming so rapidly hot. This fact is sensibly felt on. standing before walls of the different colors during the mid-day sun. By a white wall, the rays are reflected from the wall back into the air, or on any other body which is near it, by which the temperature of the air and the body is very much increased. A dark-colored wall, on the con- trary, retains the heat which falls on its surface ; and though it may /ecZ colder, it contains more latent heat, which it only parts with when it is abstracted by the reduced temperature of the atmosphere. This, alone, is a good argument in favor of dark- colored walls in lean-to hot-houses. The inner side of the rafters, astragals, and sash-bars, should approach to the color of the glass. As the light-rays do not GLASS. 115 fall on them, nothing is. gained by making them dark, and it gives the house a heavy and gloomy effect. The structure is, or should be, transparent. The impression on the mind is that of a house covered with glass; and, as the rafters and astragals are only there as supports to the glass, they should be deprived, as much as possible, of their opaque character. When they are painted a dark color, the reverse effect is produced. A glaring white color is, also, objectionable ; it is hurtful to the eye, and generally displeasing to a refined taste : some of the different shades of cream, or light stone color, will be more effective and pleasing. The same may be said in regard to the external portions of the roof. It may, by way of contrast, be a shade or two darker than the interior; but a decidedly dark color should be avoided. We have seen various plant-houses painted dark, and even dark red, but have seen very few who admired them. We do not wish to incur censure by finding fault with the taste of those who may fancy these colors, and admit that every one has an undoubted right to gratify his own taste. We give our opinions for the benefit of those who may choose to adopt them. It is a good plan to give the wood-work of the structure a coat of some anti-corrosive paint before the color is put on. The timber is preserved much longer ; and the house requires less painting, as the timber is hardened, and more impervious to moisture. For numerous preservative solutions, see Table XVIII, Appendix. SECTION VII. FOIlI\IATION OF GARDENS. .. Form of the Garden. — I'he form of the garden must oe determined by two conditions : first, the natural disposition of the ground chosen for its site ; and, secondly, by the aspect and position of the walls and hot-houses. If there are no hot-houses or walls, the form of the garden will be regulated mainly by the first condition. In most kitchen or culinary gardens, of any importance, if no walls are erected, wooden palings are generally substituted for them, which also regulate the disposition of the ground. The site having been fixed upon, with due regard to the considerations necessary in choosing the site for horticultu- ral structures, (see Sect. I,) these considerations being in both cases equally applicable, the next thing to be done is the dispo- sition and formation of the walks, which also define the size and shape of the borders and principal compartments of the garden. 2. Walks. — The principal walks from the house to the garden should be somewhat broader than the garden walks, and should, if possible, enter the garden at the south side. This is more especially desirable if there be hot-houses on the south side. In either case, however, it is desirable, as a more favor- able impression is produced on the mind of the spectator than if entering at either side. The north side is the very worst for the principal entrance, as the necessary offices connected with the garden, — the mould-heaps, rubbish-piles, manure, &c., — are generally located in that quarter ; besides, the impression, produced by the best trained trees on the walls or fences, and the general view of the ground, is lost. Next to the south, the east or west sides should be chosen. There are various methods of forming walks, according to the foumatioiv or (iAFUjRNs. in eharactnr of the soil and siih-soil, arid the kind o( inalcrlal ;it hand to form a surface. Wliere tlie ^j^round is naturally wet, or where there is a liability of the accumulation of water, the soil should be taken out to the deptli of at least twenty inches, — the section formed by the excavation forming an ol)tuse angle towards the centre, or forming the segment of a circle. These excavations should lead into drains, at th^i lowest points, to carry off the water that percolates through among the stones with which they are filled. 'J'hcy may be filh.'d to within two irxdu^s of the intended surface of the walk, — tl»e largest in the bottom, and the smaller toward the surface. This forms a (hirable and dry walk at all seasons; and, where the soil contains a consid- erable quantity of stones, which have been thrown out i»i the process of trenching, or the rubbish of building-materials, this affords a good medium of getting them out of the way. On dry, gravelly ground, however, these excavations are use- less, so far as drainage is concerned; and, shovelling aside the mere surface-soil, the walk may be laid down on the substratum beneath it. If the walks are on a Irjvcl, or nearly so, the water generally finds its way off as quickly as it falls, and the cost of excavation is saved. The surface of walks may be formed of grass, graved, or sand. Good gravel is the best, sand the very worst, and grass can only bf! introduced witli propriety in j)articular places. Sand, or loose gmvel, makes a very uncomfortable walk, and, when of great length, is tiresome and disagrcM.'able to walk upon. A very common error, among those not ac(juaint<;d with the proper method of makirjg walks, is, to l;iy on too much surface- material ; and, in many places, we have seen trenches tak-, E the difference between the temperature of the flowing returning columns is 8 degrees, the difference in weight is grains on each square inch of the section of the return- supposing the height of the boiler A (Fig. 36, B) to be 12 inches. This height, however, is only taken as a convenient standard from which to calculate ; for, probably, the height may, in many instances, be more than this, though it will seldom be less. Now, suppose that, instead of 12, 18 inches was the distance between the tw^o pipes, that is, betvveen the top of the upper and the centre of the lower pipe, and the pipe 4 inches in diameter ; if the difference of temperature between the water in the boiler and the return-pipe be 8 degrees, the pressure on the return-pipe will be 153 grains, or about one third part of an ounce; and this will constitute the whole amount of motive power of the apparatus, whatever be the length of pipe attached to it. If such an apparatus have 100 yards of pipe 4 inches in diameter, and the boiler contains, say, 30 gal- lons of water, there will be in all 190 gallons, or 1900 lbs. weight of water, kept in continual motion by a force equal only to one third of an ounce. This calculation of the motive power will vary under different circumstances ; and, in all cases, the velocity of the circula- tion will vary simultaneously with it. and 816 pipe, CO W 186 HOT-WATER BOILERS iND P1PE3. Difference in weight of two columns of water each one foot high, at venovt temperatures. Difference in tomp. of the Eifference in weight of two colut nns of water contained Difference of two columns of water in in different pipes. a column one foot high. Fah.'s scale. 1 in. diam. 2 in. diam. 3 in. diam. 4 in. diam. 5 in. diam. per sq. inch. grs. weieht grs. weight grs. weight grs. weight grs. weight grs. weight 2° 1-5 6-3 14-3 25-4 33-6 2.028 40 3-1 12-7 28-8 51-1 110-1 4-068 6° 4-7 19-1 43-3 76-7 211-7 6-108 8° 6-4 25-6 57-9 120-5 250-0 8-160 10° 8-0 32-0 72-3 128-1 317-5 10-200 12° 9-6 38-5 87-0 154-1 376-1 12-264 140 11-2 45-0 101-7 180-1 390-9 14-328 16° 12-8 51-4 116-3 205-9 449-1 16-392 18° 14-4 57-9 1310 231-9 522-0 18-456 20° 16-1 64-5 145-7 2580 700-0 20-532 The above table has been calculated by the formula given with table IV., (see Appendix,) for ascertaining the specific grav ity of water at different temperatures. The assumed tempera ture is from 170° to 190^. It will be observed, in the foregoing table, that the amount of motive power increases with the size of the pipe ; for instance, the power is four times as great in one of 4 inches diameter as in one of 2 inches, and nearly six times as great in one of 5 inches. The power, however, bears exactly the same relative proportion to the resistance, or weight of water to be put in motion, in all the sizes alike ; for, although the motive power is four times as great in pipes of 4 inches as in those of 2 inches, the former contains four times as much water as the latter. The power and the resistance are, therefore, relatively the same. These calculations are given with the view of showing how trifling a cause may impede the proper circulation of the hot water in pipes, and that, when once obstructed, how impossible it is for an apparatus to work. Trifling as this power may appear, yet upon its action depends entirely the efficiency of an apparatus. Seeing that the motive power is so small, it is not surprising that, by an injudicious arrangement of its parts, the motion may frequently be impeded and even destroyed ; for the slower the circulation of the water, the more likely is it to b« interrupted in its course. HOT-WATER BOILERS AND PIPES. 187 There aro two ways by which the motive power may be mcreased. One, to allow the water to cool a greater number of degrees between the time of its leaving the boiler and the period of its return through the descending pipe. The other, by increasing the vertical height of the ascending and descending columns. The effects produced by these two methods are pre- cisely similar; for, by doubling the difference of temperature between the flow and return pipes, the same increase of power is obtained as by increasing the vertical height. There are two methods of increasing the difference of temper ature between the flowing and returning pipes. First, by increasing the quantity of the pipe, so as to allow the water to flow a greater distance before it returns to the boiler. Secondly, by diminishing the diameter of the pipe, so as to expose more surface in proportion to the quantity of water contained in it, and by this means to make it part with more heat in a given time. The first of these methods, although the most practical, is ncessarily limited, in some instances, to the length of the build- ing to be heated, to which the length of pipe must be adjusted, in order to obtain the required temperature ; and, as to the second, we have already enumerated many objections against the use of small pipes. Where the motive power, therefore, is not of sufficient strength, the increase of the height of the col- umn ascending from the boiler must be depended on for an additional motive power. In all cases, the rapidity of circulation is proportional to the motive power, and, in fact, it is the index and measure of its amount. For, if, while the resistance remains uniform, the motive power be increased in any manner, or in any degree, the rapidity of circulation will increase in a relative proportion. Now, the motive power may be augmented, as we have seen, either by increasing the vertical height of the pipe, by reducing its diameter, or by increasing its length. If, by any of these means, the circulation be doubled in velocity, then, as the water will pass through the same length of pipe it did before, in one half the time, it will only lose half as much heat as in the for- mer case, because the rate of cooling is not proportional to the 188 HOT-WATER BOILERS AND PIP'^.S, distance through which the water circulates^ but to the time iff transit. If, then, by raising the pipes vertically, the difference between the temperature of the flow and return pipes be in- creased, it appears to be the most practical method of increasing the velocity of motion. The increased velocity, therefore, i? indicative of increased power, and in a hot-water apparatus it is the velocity of circulation which enables it to overcome any extraordinary obstructions. Neither the principle nor the practice of an apparatus is in the least affected by having an additional number of pipes lead- ing out of, or into, the boiler; the effect is the same, whether there be more flows than return pipes, or, conversely, more return than flow pipes. 4. Level of Pipes. — Some persons have supposed that if the pipes be inclined so as to allow a gradual fall to the boiler in its return, additional power is gained. This appears very plausible, particularly with regard to some forms of apparatus, but the principle is entirely erroneous. This error appears to arise from treating the subject as a simple question of hydraulics, instead of a compound result of hydrodynamics. If the question were only as regards a fluid of uniform temperature, then the greatest effect would be obtained by using an inclined pipe; but the water in the pipes we are now treating of, is of varying density and temperature, which very materially alters the results. Contrary to the ideas of some persons, the circulation of the water first takes place in the lower pipe ; in consequence of the water in the boiler becoming lighter by the absorption of heat, the column of water in the return-pipe, being of greater density, forces its way into the boiler, when the water in the upper pipe falls into its place. Now, suppose the distance between the entrance of the return-pipe and that of the flow-pipe be 12 inches. This distance is neither increased nor diminished by any incli- nation of the return-pipe towards the boiler, the effective pressure being in both cases the same. Discarding the erroneous hypothesis that the motion of the wster commences in the upper pipe instead of the lower one,— - and the motion commences at the entrance of the ower pipe int« HOT-WATER BOILERS AND P;PES. 189 the boiler, which we have frequently proved, — it is, therefore, evident that there can be no advantage by making the pipe to incline from the horizontal level ; for whether the water descends through a vertical or through an inclined tube, the force of gravity will only be equal to the perpendicular height ; there must, therefore, be an equality of pressure on the boiler under all circumstances, whether the pipe entering the boiler be on a level, or inclined from its junction with the flow-pipe. When it is necessary to sink the return-pipe below the level of the boiler, there must be a sufficient weight of water in the pipes, above its level, to overcome the perpendicular column that exists below the level of the boiler, otherwise the tendency of the lower column will be to a retrograde motion. The only way is to raise the pipe sufficiently to afford a perpendicular return- ing column of sufficient pressure to raise the water in the per- pendicular pipe attached to the boiler. If the flow-pipe be carried on a horizontal level with the boiler, and the return-pipe carried heloio the level of the boiler, it is scarcely possible to obtain any circulation ; and if this depth be much, no circulation at all can be obtained. We have seen some costly apparatuses completely useless on this account ; and those erectors of heating apparatus, unacquainted with the principles of hydrodynamics, are very apt to commit similar mistakes. The velocity of circulation in such apparatus will be just in proportion to the difference of weight between the columns above and below the boiler. It must not be supposed that water will not circulate in pipes below the level of the boiler; and much trouble and expense have frequently been incurred in consequence of being ignorant of this position. All that is necessary is to give the upper section of pipe a sufficient preponderance to raise the water in the lower one, allowing for the superior density of the water in the lower pipe. It, however, requires considerable judgment in adopting any such forms of apparatus as this, for many concurring cir- cumstances are essential to complete success. It should, there- fore, never be adopted when a common horizontal working apparatus can be introduced. 190 HOT-WATER BOILERS AND PIPES. 5. Accwnulation of air in pipes. — It is necessary to make provision for the escape of air in the pipes, which sometimes so accumulates as to prevent circulation. This is more especially the case when the apparatus is complicated, and has many turn- ings and vertical bends in the pipes. It generally collects at the upper bends of the pipe, but this will depend very much upon the mode of supplying the apparatus with water. It frequently requires the greatest care and the closest attention to discover where the air is likely to lodge, as the most trifling alteration in the position of the pipes will entirely alter the arrangements in regard to the air-vents. Want of attention to this has been the cause of many failures, and the discovery of the places where the air accumulates is sometimes a matter of difficulty. For although it be true, in a general sense, that air will rise to the highest part of the apparatus, it will frequently be prevented from getting to the highest part by alterations in the level of the pipes, and by other causes. As water, while boiling, always evolves air, it is not sufficient merely to discharge the air from the pipes on first filling them, because it always accumulates ; and, in many instances, it is desirable to have the air-vent self-acting, either by using a valve, or small open pipe ; but we have generally found a cock most convenient. The size of the vent is not m^aterial, as a very small opening will be sufficient to allow the escape of air. The rapidity of motion in fluids is inversely proportional to their specific gravi- ties, as water is 827 times more dense than air; an aperture which is sufficiently large to empty a pipe in 14 minutes, if it contained water, would empty it, if it contained air, in one second. Air being so much lighter than water, it is of course necessary that the vents provided for its escape should be placed at the highest parts of the apparatus, for there it will always ^odge when no impediment occurs to prevent it; but it wilJ sometimes be found necessary to have several in different parts of the apparatus. Though it is perfectly easy to provide for the discharge of the air from the pipes, — as far as the mere mechanical operation ia concerned, — it requires much consideration and careful study tq HOT-WATER BOILERS AND PIPES. 191 direct the application of those mechanical means to the exact spot where they will be useful. We have frequently seen mechanics, who, though well acquainted with the practical details of the apparatus they were erecting, yet were perfectly ignorant of the principles on which it works ; hence the success of such an apparatus must be entirely a matter of chance. Wherever alterations of the level occur, vents should be pro- vided for the escape of air; and, as we have said, a small tap (or cock) will be the most convenient method of outlet. In a complicated arrangement of hot-water apparatus, it is sometimes so very difficult to detect the various causes of inter- ference, and the impediments which arise are often so apparently insignificant in their extent, that when ascertained they are frequently neglected. Those, however, who bear in mind hov/ very small is the amount of motive power in any apparatus of this description, will not consider as unimportant any impedi- ment, however small, which they may detect; moreover, they will immediately see the propriety of having the evil in ques- tion put right. But, in the more complicated forms of the apparatus, so many causes become operative in impeding the circulation, that the real cause of impediment may elude the detection of even an experienced practitioner. We will now proceed to give a description, in detail, of various methods of heating, which come within the range of our own experience, accompanying the descriptions with sketches, bv which their details will be more easily understood. 17 SECTION V. VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED I H DETAIL. The heating of hot-houses, by any of the ordinary methods &f warming these structures, has hitherto been attended with extravagant expense. The difficulty of obtaining, at a reason- able price, the means of keeping up the desired temperature, during long and severe winters, — the expense of the apparatus, — the annual cost of repairs, — the continual outlay for fuel, — together with the incidental expenses and trouble of working them, has, in many instances, proved a barrier to their erection, and has induced many to abandon the attempt, who had well nigh carried it into execution. Many lovers of exotic gardening have thus been diverted from the enjoyment of this pleasant and healthful pursuit; and hence it is of the utmost importance, especially to amateurs and others having small establishments, and who do not keep a regular gardener, that the internal ar- rangements of a plant-house, and, above all, the heating arrange- ments, should be so constructed as to be dependent upon the very smallest possible amount of time and attention, and likely to produce the least injury by neglect. Among the numerous systems of heating lately applied to horticultural buildings in England, is one called Polmaise, from its having originated at a place in Scotland of that name,-— the seat of the late Mr. Murray, near Sterling. The principles upon which this method is founded are not new, and the system itself, in other modifications, dates from a period much more remote than any other with which we are acquainted. This system is applied, in a more practical and perfect form, to the warming of many public and private buildings in this country. The very general adoption, however, of this system, does not, in |lie smallest degree, give us a warrant against its defects. It VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL^ 193 has been ascertained that air heated to a temperature of 300 de- grees, becomes so deprived of its organic matter, and otherwise changed in its properties, as to be unfit for the sustenance of either animal or vegetable life, in a state of healthy and vigorous development, for any length of time ; and hence the admission of a current of highly heated air into a dwelling room, or into a well glazed hot-house, if no means are taken to restore its original properties, must, in a short time, become sensibly in- jurious to the animals and vegetables that are compelled to breathe it. And this we find to be practically the case. Every gardener, on entering a hot-house so heated, is immediately sensible of the presence of contaminating gases in the atmosphere, whether arising from the combustion of fuel, or otherwise, and he is too well acquainted with its effects on vegetative beings to allow his tender plants to absorb it ; hence he takes immediate meas- ures of modifying what he cannot possibly prevent. It can scarcely be doubted, that a vast amount of sickness and diseaees of the respiratory organs is, in a great measure, attributable to the same circumstance, especially in people of sedentary habits, who confine themselves to close chambers, warmed by currents of hot air, or highly heated stoves. The latter, in this respect, is probably worse than the former ; for, in the one, the supply of air to be heated is drawn from the external atmosphere, and, consequently, is less likely to contaminate the air of the room, although, when conducted into the room at high temperatures, the atmosphere of the latter, without egress as well as ingress of air, must ultimately become so. In the case of stoves, how- ever, it is different, for by them the same atmosphere is heated over and over again, by convection. The particles of air in contact with the stove first become heated, these expand with the heat, and, consequently, becoming lighter, rise, and the colder particles supply their place, which also expand, rise, and are in their turn replaced by others. Here the supply of air to be warmed is drawn directly from the room itself; thus com- pelling the inmates to inhale the same contaminated atmos- phere for days together, without mixture or admission of fresh air, excent the small portion theit finds sn iinwejcome entraricg 194 VARIOUS METHODS Of IlEAtiNG DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. by the occasional opening of the door ; and in the severe woathef of our winters, with the thermometer below zero, this portion is frequently small indeed. The pleasure and ability of exercising our physical functions in cold weather, will be in exact propor- tion to the frequency of practice ; and it is truly surprising, that with so much positive proof of direct injury resulting from con- tinued confinement over highly heated stoves, many will, never- theless, persist in so pernicious a custom, — a custom which is truly national, and which renders the influence of these stoves as baneful as that of the Upas tree, and sends thousands an- nually to an untimely and premature grave. I have observed, by some articles that have lately appeared in an excellent horticultural periodical, (Downing's Horticulturist,) that this much talked of system of warming horticultural struc- tures with hot air, called Polmaise, has been adopted by some individuals in this country. These individuals have been misled by the extravagant statements, or rather mi^-statements, that have from time to time appeared in the Gardener's Chronicle, (of England,) by its talented editor and others under his influ- ence. Those who have been in the habit of reading that paper in this country, and noticed the laudatory articles that have so frequently appeared in it, in favor of this method, yet unac- quainted with the practical opposition it has received by num- bers of experienced men, in every way qualified to decide upon its merits, can scarcely be blamed for adopting a system said to possess so many advantages over all others; and when it is con- sidered that the gardening journal, which represents the opinions of practical men in that country, is but little read in America, — in fact, I may say, almost unknown, save by a few individuals, — it is not surprising that they should have been betrayed into the system supported by such authority. It is difficult, indeed, to account for the strong-headed and one-sided policy of the advo- cates and promoters of Polmaise. The fact is well known, that the system, and the defects connected with it, were thoroughly established many years before it was applied at the place from which it takes its name. In many places it had been tried, and found inferior, and far more fickle than the common smola VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 195 flue.* It originated at Polmaise Gardens, from the following circumstances : — A church in the neighborhood of that place had been warmed by a hot-air furnace, similar to those used in dwelling-houses in this country. A gardener at that place examined it, and thought it a good plan to warm his hot-houses ; accordingly, he applied something of the same kind to heat his vinery. The thing was entirely new to the worthy gardener, as well as to his employer, who sent an account of it to Dr. Lindley, of the Gardener's Chronicle, who forthwith espoused the system, extolled it to the skies, and induced various individ- uals to adopt it; and those who would not, he straightway de- nounced as interested and dishonest men. The gardening com- munity arose in arms, and waged war against their theoretical foes, until its so-called originators were confounded at the amount of opposition excited. No controversy connected with gardening was ever carried on with so much virulence as this one on Pol- maise heating ; and no system has been so severely tested, to * The premature encomiums so liberally lavished upon this system, by the zeal of its promoters, have neither shamed imposture nor reclaimed credulity. Deceptions seldom stand long against accurate experiments, and the mere charm of novelty soon vanishes, when economy and util- ity are both against it. The desire of notoriety, if nothing else, has too often induced parties to impose on the credulity of those who have not science enough to investigate its principles, nor practice enough to dis- cover its defects. Nothing can more plainly show the necessity of doing something, and the difficulty of finding something to do, to obtain these paltry ends, than the getting up of this method of heating hot-houses ; and this, too, by those who know, or ought to know, better, and who ought to have rejected it with contempt. When a system has no intrin- sic value, it must necessarily owe its attractions to theoretical embellish- ment, and catch at all advantages which the art of writing can supply. Trifles always require exuberance of ornament ; the building which has no strength or utility, can be valued only for the novelty of its charac- ter, or the money which it cost. It is certain that the advocate of a new system is less satisfied by its failure, than its success, even when no part of its failure can be imputed to himself, and when the fruits of his labor are tested by those who can discover their real worth. No man has a right, in things admitting of gradation, to throw the whola odium upon his opponents, and totally to exclude investigation and in quiry, by a haughty consciousness of his own excellence. 17# 196 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. pTipve its worth. Gardeners, amateurs, and all, entered the arena of experiment and discussion. Still its promoters would not flinch from their original position, and, right or wrong, would cram it down gardeners' throats, whether it was digestible car not ; and that, too, without one tittle of evidence in favor of it, except ripe grapes in September, — a period when grapes would ripen themselves, without any artificial heat at all. Yet its cheapness and simplicity were its recommendation, and for some successive winters many went to work Polmaising their hot-houses, tearing down their furnaces, flues, &c., and con- verting them into Polmaise stoves, hot-air drains, and other appurtenances of Polmaise ; but, after a short trial, and a good deal of plant-killing, they one and all abandoned the sys- tem with disgust. Still, amidst all this dust and dirt, and smoke and gas, created by the cracking of plates and the breaking of tiles, the Doctor maintained his ground, until, like the conquered hero, he was left alone in his glory, in the midst of the wreck and ruin he had created. What seems very stiange, he never erected one, or caused one to be erected, at the Horticultural Society's garden, where he had unlimited con- trol, and ample opportunity of so doing ; and those who erected them by his recommendation and advice, were obliged to ac- knowledge them unqualified failures, notwithstanding all their alterations and improvements upon the original plan,. which was simply this : — A hot-air furnace is placed behind the back wall, about the centre of the house ; immediately opposite the stove there is an aperture in the wall, for the admission of the heated air into the house ; directly in front and above this aperture, a woollen cloth is suspended, which is kept constantly moist by a number of worsted skeins depending from a small gutter, fixed on a frame of wood, which supports both the gutter and the cloth, the lower end of the latter reaching the ground. The cloth is made thicker in the middle, in order to equalize the heJit,— an arrangement which is absolutely necessary ; for if the cloth was an equal thickness all over, the centre of the house would be heated to a scorching degree, (by the rush of hot air,) while the ends would be comparatively cold. By means of drains," under the floor, the fire-place is supplied with air from FAEIOUS METHOD^i OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 197 Fig. 37. 198 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. inside the house, part of which is used for the combustion of fuel ; the rest passes over the heated stove and enters the house through the apertures above noticed. Fig. 38. Such is the original system of Polmaise heating, which has created so much sensation in England, but which is now aban- doned for some one or other of the many improved methods to which it gave rise, the most perfect and scientific of which, I have represented in the accompanying cuts, Figs. 37, 38, and 89. The arrows marked a, in the three figures, show the entrance of the cold air from the external atmosphere ; and its passage to the fire-place, beneath the floor of the house, is further shown by the arrows b, in Figs. 37, 38, and 39. Its passage over the hot plate, through the chamber, under the bed, and thence into the house, is marked by c, attached to each arrow in the three figures ; d, the fire-place ; e, a tank containing water, imme- diately over the cast-iron plate ; /, a small funnel, or tube, for supplying water to the tank ; g^ (Fig. 38,) shows the bed on \yhich the plants are placed, resting on cross-bars, and filled with pieces of brick, having a layer of sand or sawdust on top ; this can be converted into a stage, if desired. This is Mr. Meek's modification of Polmaise, from whom the drawing ap- peared in the Gardener's Chronicle, and was there represented as something very near perfection in heating, if not perfection itself. The above sketch is somewhat altered and 'simplified in VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 199 D D N^S the formation of the drams ; and yet, m all conscience, it is complex and compound enough for a heating appa- ratus, as any person can see by a glance' at the above sketches. It is difficult too discover wherein lies its superiority over the old smoke-flue, and it is clearly evident, that it has neither cheapness, simplicity, nor economy in fuel, to recommend it; and, as to its working, it is infinitely more precarious than the common flue, and the loss of heat is certainly much greater. This loss has been stated, by those who have tested its merits, to be at least one fourth of its whole heating power. Mr. Ayres, one of the most enlightened gardeners in England, stated, in a paper on that subject, published in the Gar- dener's Journal of 1847, that Mr. Meek wasted more heat from his one house, tnan he (Mr. Ayres) did from one fire that had 7iine different arrangements to work; and in a Polmaise apparatus that Mr. Ayres had erected, the waste of heat was enormous ; that in ten min- utes after the fire was lighted, he could ignite a piece of paper at the top of the chimney with the greatest ease ; and when the same gentleman asked one of its strongest advocates the following question, " If you had a range of houses to heat in the best possible manner, would you abandon hot water for Pol- maise ? " he was answered, " No, cer- tainly not." I have quoted the opinion of Mr. Ayres, because he is well known to be one of the best authorities on matters of practical 200 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. importance, connected with horticulture, at the present day, and his opinions are endorsed by almost every gardener of note in England. Mr. Fleming, of Trentham, and Mr. Paxton, of Chatsworth, as well as many others, regarded it as a thing ut- terly unworthy of notice. Mr. Ayres, in the same paper already quoted, puts to the advocates of Polmaise the following conclu- sive and unanswerable query. If Dr. Lindley, or any other of its advocates, can point to one place where the apparatus is at work, and as efficacious as a hot- water apparatus ; if they can refer us to any one place, where we can see better productions than what have resulted from the use of hot water, why, says he, I am ready to spend five sovereigns to go to see it, and be convinced of my error in opposing it ; but until then, it is mere nonsense to suppose that any responsible person will adopt it. As an example of a combination of hot water and hot air, applied in a practical and scientific manner, the following sys- tem is superior to any other with w^hich I am acquainted, espec- ially for small houses. It supplies heat, moisture and air, either singly or combined. It consists of a cast or plate iron boiler, a, for containing the water ; in shape it is not unlike a pretty large inverted flower-pot, with a hollow between its sides, about four or five inches wide, having one pipe entering near the top for the flow, and another at the bottom for the return, with a tube entering quite through to the fire-chamber, as represented at b^ c, and d ; then there is a hot-air chamber round the boiler and fire-place, as shown at e, e, e. Figs. A, B, and C ; the boiler rests on a circular course of bricks, forming the furnace/,/. Figs. B and C. The whole is enclosed by the hot-air chamber, from which the air is conducted into the house, at h, and is supplied with cold air, both for the combustion of fuel, and drawing off* the heated air, at i, i, Fig. C. The fire is fed through the door in the chamber, j, opposite which is a smaller door in the furnace, at k. In Fig. C is shown the door of the ash-pit, I, through which the ashes are drawn. We know of no apparatus, where a small green-house or conservatory is required to be heated, that will do it so effectually and economically as this. No particle of heat generated is lost, and in its simplicity is everything that a novice could desire. Here is nothing more VABKVb METHODS OF HEAXmC DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. $1^1 Fig. 40. 202 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DET/iL. than a cone of cast or plate iron, with hollow sides, one hole for a flow, and one for a return pipe, (these pipes can branch into several directions, if necessary, on leaving the boiler,) and a channel through it, with a flange, or neck, on which to fix the smoke pipe ; build the boiler, thus formed, on a fire-place, with just distance sufficient below the edge of the cone for a door, to supply fuel ; this door should be quite narrow, in order to let the edge of the boiler as far down as possible. The hot-air chamber should be built of brick, and, if exposed to the atmos- phere, should be at least one foot thick. In fact, the thicker the wall of the hot-air chamber is made, the better will the heat be retained. A tank of water is placed over the hot-air entrance, inside the house, for evaporation. If this system be not Dungled in the construction, it will be found as cheap as any other, and the expenditure for fuel is but trifling. The cir- culation of the water is complete, and the air in the chamber is neither roasted nor burned, as it is chiefly received through the boiler, and, consequently, is possessed of more natural purity, which is so essential to vegetable life ; and it requires so little attention that any amateur can manage it without much trouble. Even in pretty severe weather, when set fairly agoing in the evening, it wants no more attention till morning ; set it right in the morning, and you may safely leave it again till night. Nor is it liable to accident or derangement. Not the least of its recommendations is its economy of fuel, — a circumstance of con- siderable importance, especially where the cost of fuel is high ; and, therefore, the economy thereof is of double moment to the proprietor. We have never seen this system applied to large structures, but we have no doubt, were the apparatus made in proportion to its work, it would answer as well in large as in small houses ; at all events, there is no reason why furnaces and boilers of every description should not be chambered round in a similar way ; a very great amount of heat, that is now lost, would be turned to advantage, and I think it is not too much to say, that hot-houses could be heated at one half the expenditure of fuel. The system of ideating two, three, or more, houses with one U»»ler, is one of tl ose valuable improvements which science, VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 203 combined with mechanical ingenuity has devised, and which has been carried out in practice with the most gratifying success, — so much so, that in some places, separate apparatuses have been torn down, and this system adopted instead, merely on account of the fuel economized thereby. Among the many systems brought before the public, under the fine-sounding name of imjiTovedy it is doubtful whether any of them have given so entire satisfaction as the above, where it has been properly con- structed. The facility so admirably afforded by this method of heating any of the connected houses in the space of a few min- utes after it is found necessary, is certainly a great recommen- dation in its favor. In short, you have only to turn a tap, and the thing is accomplished. Fig. 41 represents the ground plan of four houses heated in this way, and most efficiently. It will be seen from the plan, that the two end houses on the front are heated by the pipes flowing and returning into the pipes which supply the hot water for the. two houses standing on the back. This is easily accomplished by having a tap on each pipe where it enters the house, so that either house may ts heated, or both together, if required. In the extensive forcing-establishment of Mr. Wilmot, at L.-e- worth, near London, no less than seven ranges of houses, each ninety feet in length, are heated by one boiler, and all are heated effectually, and that too for the purpose of forcing grape-vines. In many other places, in England, we know that this method has been adopted with the very best results. In the plan here given, the box, (Fig. 42,) which is given on a larger scale, is situated immediately over the boiler. It may, however, be on the same level, or nearly so, and situated in any corner out of the way The boiler here used is a common saddle boiler, and with a large apparatus, is probably the best boiler for general purposes. The apartments, g g, in the cut (Fig. 41 ^ are offices for the garden, tool-house, potting-room, fruit-room, &c., and may be used as a mushroom-house. As the hot-water pipes pass through them, they are kept slightly warmed, and may be made useful as store-rooms and other kinds of garden offices In some places in England, no less tnan eight or ten different 18 204 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL, VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 205 Fig. 42. departments are heated by one boiler; some of their, going at one time, and some at another, and sometimes all going together, and each having abundance of heat."^ The convenience of this system cannot be too highly appreciated, especially when there are a number of small plant-houses situated near each other. For instance, suppose the boiler to be at work for one of the houses, which may be a plant-stove or forcing-house ; well, you Fig. B. * Fig. B shows the common method of placing supply-cisterns. They may be placed in some convenient situation and attached by a small pipe to the apparatus. To prevent the escape of vapor, it is desirable to bend the pipe into the form shown at a b, as the water in the part of the inverted syphon at a, will remain quite cold. 206 VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. go out before bed-time, and find the sky clear and frosty, con trary to your anticipations in the early part of the evening, — ' and how often do we find this really to be the case, — you entel into your green-house, and you find the thermometer travelling down rather quickly towards the freezing-point. Kindling fires is generally an unpleasant business at this time of night, and we are pretty often inclined to let the plants take their chance, rather than be at the trouble of doing it, even if it should cost us half a night's sleep through anxiety. Here, this unpleasant business is dispensed with, and the anxiety too, as well as the sitting up till the house is heated and safe for the night. You go to the tank or box, which is generally situated so as to be easily got at, in a recess made in the wall, perhaps, or immedi- ately over the boiler, as represented in Fig. A ; but, in any case, it should be so arranged as to be always of easy access from the houses. The arrangement of the pipes makes no difference, providing the accumulating tank be sufficiently elevated. The moment the water is put on, the circulation commences; in flows a delightful stream of hot water, warming the pipes as it proceeds through the flow and return; a vivifying glow ot warmth pervades the chilly atmosphere of your green-house, and you can retire to rest without being troubled with anxious thoughts about your plants, let the weather turn as it may. It may appear, that, by this arrangement, a larger quantity of fuel will be required for a single house, than if that house had an apparatus for itself. Not so, however ; for, by close observa- tion, it is found that the consumption of fuel is pretty nearly in proportion to the water heated, and that the heat given off by the pipes is in direct ratio to the heat absorbed by the boile . from the fire. Thus, if one house only be at work, there is only the water of one arrangement to be heated; and, consequently, only one return of cold water into the boiler, the rest being shut off. Now, if the water be sJmt off into the box, that is, the mouths of the flow-pipes stopped, there is no circulation ; hence there is no return of the cold water into the boiler, and, conse- quently, no absorption of caloric or combustion of fuel. Of course, more fuel is required to heat the four houses, than woula be required to heat one, for the reasons stated, that the large/ VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL. 207 the body of cold water flowing into the boiler, and the larger the body of warm flowing from, it, the more heat is carried away ; hence, the more specific caloric is required, and the more combustion of fuel to produce it. But the proportion of fuel consumed to the proportion of heat generated by the pipes is found to decrease as the radiating surface is increased. This decrease amounts to nearly one third ; for it is found that eight separate houses, or departments of a house, can be heated by the same quantity of fuel which it formerly required to heat five. This calculation was supplied to me by an intelligent gardener, of extensive experience, who made it from strict investigation into the working of the system under his own charge ; and the statement is corroborated by the fact, that no case has occurred, to my knowledge, among many with which I am acquainted, and have examined, that has failed to give satisfaction. This system has not the complex character which some have assigned to it, and which, at first sight, it would appear to pos- sess; and, as to its cheapness, I believe little can be said about it, when placed in comparison with other hot-water apparatuses. I have had no means of calculating the difference, if any, between this apparatus and as many single ones as it may be substituted for. But it certainly appears, that four houses heated with one boiler and one furnace, would be cheaper than four houses heated with four distinct boilers and furnaces, the quantity of piping in both cases being equal ; for then, three boilers and furnaces, or the cost of them, would be saved. This difference, however, will depend very much upon the distance the pipes must travel before entering the different houses. When the houses are situated close to each other, the difference must be very considerable. Some apparatuses of this kind have no box attached to them, and work directly to and from the boiler. I consider the box, however, as a very important appendage ; not only because it affords greater facility for working the apparatus, but because any of the other arrangements may be repaired more easily, and parts may even be taken away with- out in the least affecting the working of the rest. As I have already stated, pipes, in reality, radiate a Vc'ry dry heat ; though many think otherwise, because the air of a hot- 18# 208 VABIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED IN DETAIL, house, SO heated, is generally less arid than one heated by a hot- air stove. This arises from the fact, that, by hot-water pipes, a much larger radiating surface is presented to the atmosphere of the house than by any other method, and the heat is radiated at a lower temperature, and more equally diffused; hence, less moisture is carried upwards by currents of heated air and deposited on the glass by condensation. Thus, it is clear, that the larger the heating surface that is acted upon by the air, and the lower the temperature of that surface, the less moisture will be drawn from the plants and the atmosphere of the house. It is always desirable, however, to provide against aridity in the atmosphere, as heated air will have its supply of moisture, come from where it will ; and if it cannot draw it from anywhere else, it will draw it from the plants, or whatever can supply the larg- est quantity under its influence. For this purpose, a number of troughs are made to fit on the pipes, made of zinc or gal- vanized tin. These troughs may likewise be made of earthen ware, and perhaps more cheaply than of zinc, though more lia- ble to be broken. They may be filled with a syphon from the pipes, or by a common water-pot. When moisture is required in the house, an agreeable evaporation will be given off, and which can be rendered still more healthful, by putting in a few bits of carbonate of ammonia among the water, or common pigeon's dung, or guano. As the water warms, ammonia will be evolved into the atmosphere and greedily absorbed by the plants. In recommending this system to the notice of those who may be entering upon the erection of hot-houses, we would state that we recommend it not only upon our own experience, but also upon that of others, whom we consider much better qualified to decide upon its merits. Nor do we mean to assert that it is the ne plus ultra of a heating apparatus, although, under certain iircumstances, it is the nearest approach to it that has yet come inder our observation. In making this statement, we do not Arish to dispute the judgment of those who think differently, and ;•::-.-.'-- ~^ i 5^a I I I I I i?^^;;s;!:S$:^$:§^^ n \J I I I I I 1 I l^>j^« ^J 5. The annexed cuts represent an improved method of ventilating lean-to houses, and by which th« Fig. 52. Fig. 53. F\s. 5. * Wyman on Vent. N/ 278 METHODS OF VENTILATION. whole house may be aired in the space of one minute ; or a% many houses as may be in the range. This is effected by a rod passing- along the whole length of the house. A pulley is fixed immediately above each ventilator, and another placed opposite it upon the rod, as shown in Fig. 51. A piece of chain or cord is attached to the ventilator at one end ; and passing over the . pulley, as shown at a^ Fig. 52, is then fixed to the pulley placed opposite it upon the rod. A larger wheel, or pulley, is fixed at one end of the rod, (^,) to which is attached a chain, connected with a crank, situated within the reach of a person standing on the floor. This crank is fixed on the back wall, as seen at c, Fig. 52. From the foregoing cuts and description it will be perceived that, by giving the crank {d) a few turns, the whole of the ven- tilators will be opened. The crank is provided with a racket, so that they may be opened to any distance, from half an inch to the full height. The ventilators in the front wall may be opened and shut b}'' the same method, and may be, for convenience, brought from the outside. Any length of house, or any number of houses, may be ventilated at once by this method, providing the apertures are in a straight line ; their perpendicular distance from the horizontal shaft makes no difference in their facility of working. The pulley cords of the higher ones only require to be length- ened according to the distance, the diameter of the wheel on which the cord turns being equal all along the shaft. 6. Figures 54 and 55 represent a method of ventilating Epan-roofed houses. 7t is employed in the houses at Frogmore Fig. 54 METHODS OF VENTILATION. 279 in England. Fig. 54 represents the end section of the house, with the ventilator in proportion to the other parts. Fig. 55 Fisr. 55. a> a shows the sectional view of the ventilator, enlarged : a a are openings of admission, and are covered with lattice-work, to break the force of the current of ingress ; b, the movable shut- ter, which regulates the admission to and egress from the house. It is scarcely necessary to observe that these houses have been ventilated on the most approved principles ; and it appears that several advantages are gained by this method. For in- stance, the current of heated air is arrested, in its progress outwards, by the depending glass at c c, and is, in some meas- ure, thrown downwards, preventing also the escape of its con- tained moisture. There is no doubt this method is very com- mendable for span-roofed houses ; and one of its advantages is, that the house can be aired, at any time, without the plants being saturated with rain. It is very possible that these compound systems of ventilation may^ excite a smile from some who have, all their lifetime, been accustomed to pull heavy sashes up and down for the purpose of giving air. But if we include, in one computation, the labor, the time, and the advantages of giving a range of houses three or four hundred feet long, air at the proper time, and all at the same moment, we will find a value in the system worthy of something more than the mere smile of passive silence, which is too frequently all that is at first accorded to such improve- ments. In some establishments, instead of pulleys, toothed wheels are fixed to the shaft, which are made to work in a curved handle 24^ 280 METHODS OF VENTILATION* attached to the front sash by means of a hinge. This cun'cd rod is toothed on the lower side to answer the w^heel. and is kept in its place by an iron staple, having an eye through which the sash-handle passes, as seen at a. Fig. 56. A crank and rachet Fig. 56. wheel is provided, at one end of the shaft, by turning which the sashes are simultaneously opened and shut, to any distance. This method is simple and efficient. It has been extensively carried out in the unique assemblage of horticultural buildings at Frogmore ; and, as an improvement in the modes of ventilat- ing hot-houses, is considered, by competent judges, the most valuable contrivance that has been introduced during the last half century. By the turning of a small windlass, (which any child may do,) any quantity of air may be admitted, and in- creased or diminished at pleasure, throughout the whole range of buildings. The ventilation of forcing-houses, by this compound method of opening the whole sashes at once, is very liable to produce serious results, before the person in charge becomes fully acquainted with the management of it. This, like many other really valuable improvements in gardening, has been adopted, — bungled in the construction, — mismanaged afterwards, — then, lo ! it is condemned, with all the pomp and dignity of pi'acticai experience ! The present moment affords an ocular demonstra lion of this too common fact. Some people suppose, if they can only get mechanical contrivances to accomplish certain ends METHODS OF VENTILATION. 281 that all is right. It is certainly desirable to employ mechan- ical contrivances, whenever they can, as in the present case, be applied advantageously. But mechanism can never make a gardener, inasmuch as the chief part of what constitutes a real gardener springs from mental, not physical, activity. It is a very easy matter to open and shut the ventilators of a hot- house ; but it requires something more than mere mechanical power to do so with certain benefit to the inhabitants within. This will be rendered clear by a common illustration. Let a dwelling-room be warmed to a temperature of 60° ; and suppose it to be tolerably well filled with individuals, by the animal heat and respiration of whom the room by and by becomes somewhat raised in temperature, and contaminated in its atmosphere. Then, all at once, let the windows be thrown open, and the con- sequence is not only disagreeable, but highly dangerous, as is manifest by the murmur which very soon pervades the assem- bled party. Now, the case is precisely similar in a hot-house, only with this difference, — the unfortunate plants cannot speak in audible sounds to tell the injuries that are perpetrated upon chem ; yet they bear a language, imprinted on their leaves, no .ess truthful, nor less understood by the attentive observer. The above common occurrence is a plain illustration of what I have often seen, and have been forced to perform, in the ventilation of forcing-houses, and which is more likely to be exemplified by the compound methods which I have described. Science may enable us to be more watchful of atmospheric phenomena, and may draw our attention to facts which mere practice might pass unnoticed. But this is a practical operation which science has not yet approached, and which, in all her discoveries, she never can approach, i. e., to tell us the precise quantum of air to admit at different times and under different temperatures. The method of mixtures does not come near it, and the combination of gases gives the gardener little scientific assistance. We must know the nature and properties of air at all times and tempera- tures ; but the quantities and proportions in which we are to admit it must be learned by experience and strict observation. We must watch its effects upon the plants, and admit it in SS2 METHODS OF VENTILATION. proportions which appear, by oft-repeated trials, to be most beneficial. 7. We could describe several other systems of ventilation, by what we have called the compound method, which have a greater number of wheels and rachets, and other kinds of ma- chinery about them, but which possess no advantage over either of the metnoas we have described. One system, in particular, has received some countenance, which consists in opening by the aid of a spring instead of the toothed rod, as shown in Fig. 56. We have managed various houses ventilated by this method, but we must say that it worked badly, although much care had been taken to have the machinery properly fitted up ; for instance, where the springs are of unequal strength, — and by constant use they very soon become so, — you will find a very great irreg- ularity in the airing of the house, some of them requiring to be opened nearly full length, before the others will open a few inches. Again, if some of the sashes be stiff to open, those that are not so will open freely, while the ones that are hard to move will not open at all. This has frequently caused us much annoyance. It can never occur with the toothed wheel, as an equal force is exerted on each ventilator or sash, and every sash is opened to a regular distance. But if any of the sashes be BtifF to open, then the whole power applied is directed upon them alone, until the whole move together. The only supposed advantage of the springs is, that they do the work silently, whereas a little noise is made by the rachet-wheels, — a matter, in most cases, of so trifling importance, as to be unworthy of consideration ; but, as drowning men catch at straws, so the most insignificant circumstance is eagerly seized, and magnified into momentous import, by would-be inventors, for the purpose of palming off their so-called invention upon the community, and sustaining its sinking reputation. The less machinery there is about a hot-house, the better ; and that system which does its work in the most efficient manner, with the smallest amount of labor, and is least likely to get out of order, is decidedly to be preferred. This is a commendation which cannot be justly given to some late inventions ; and, without wishing to throw METHODS OF VENTILATION. ^^ anything in the way of improving our present systems, oi discouraging the application of new mechanical inventions to aid the practical operations of horticulture, we would say that some of these methods lately brought into notice may be justly compared to the putting of extra wheels to a carriage, increasing the rattling and cornplexitjr of the machine, but add- ing neither to the strength of the structure nor the rapidity of its course. SECTION rv. iSANAGEJIENT OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1. Notwithstanding all the discussion which has taken place upon the abstract question of atmospheric motion, — and which, under certain temperatures, as we have already seen, cannot be disputed, — the true principles of ventilation still remain unsettled ; and the mechanical operation of admitting the air in larger or smaller quantities with facility does not, in the slightest degree, remove the general objections that have been urged ag-ainst its effects on the internal atmosphere. In considering, therefore, the question, how far the admission of external air into forcing-houses is practicable and proper, it is necessary to ask, in the first place. For what purpose is the admission of external air resorted to under certain circum- stances ? and, secondly. How does it act upon the atmosphere when admitted ? The first of these questions is of comparatively easy solution : the latter requires more deep consideration, and more close investigation, before we can find a satisfactory reply. First. The necessity for ventilation arises from two prime causes, which are briefly these : to regulate and reduce the internal temperature ; and to allow the escape of impure air, or that portion from which some of the essential constituents have been abstracted by the plants, or in which the natural equiva- lents have been changed in their proportions, and consequently the health-imbuing balance destroyed, — an effect which may arise from various causes. The first of these points is a distinct consideration, forming an important branch in vegetable physi- ology: the others constitute a different branch of scientific research ; but in relation to our present subject, they both merge into one. MANAGEMENT OF THE tMOSPHERE. 285 The admission of cold air as the sole or principal agent in regulating the internal temperature of a hot-house during win- ter, seems to be perfectly unjustifiable. There are, indeed times when it can hardly be avoided, during the application of artificial heat ; but these are exceptions, rather than the rule. Heat, when applied in early forcing, or to maintain the temper- ature of plant-houses, is artificial, and, therefore, so far unnatu ral. And it appears still more unnatural to apply more than is necessary, for the purpose of admitting the external to cool down the internal atmosphere, without having secured any equivalent advantage, but rather lost, by the change. It is much more reasonable, as well as economical, to apply as much heat^ and no more than is necessary, to raise the temperature to the minimum point, or, at least, as near this point as is possible. It may be supposed that it would be unsafe to keep the tempera- ture so close to the minimum point, lest the sudden external changes, to which we are subjected in this country in winter, might have an unfavorable effect upon the internal atmosphere ; and, under certain circumstances, this would be the case, — such as an imperfect heating apparatus, a badly glazed house, or a want of skill in the management of it. The necessity of main- taining the minimum rather than the maximum temperature has been already adverted to in the preceding chapter ; and, instead of being the exception to a general rule, it is rapidly becoming the rule itself. V/e must consider that the object to be kept in view is to improve upon the means at present in use to obtain these results, and to obviate the risk and inconvenience which might otherwise ensue by their adoption. It will be observed, that it is not when the mild and genial weather of spring is experienced that these remarks have any forcible effect, but when the outward elements are unfavorable to the development of vegetable life. 2. The atmosphere of a hot-house is very much influenced in winter by the glazing of the sashes, and the adjustment of its various parts. When the laps of the glass are open, there is a continijial egress and ingress movement in the atmosphere adja- cent r- OS o a) a, lbs. a, lbs. — a lbs. c t?^ o rt^ o ' s ^... a >t"' a >%— -"' .tH! 4-3 .2 8 bo ^ .t: *« t^S ?^ bo 5 -O ^ C5 C 03 OJ !-. — O C CM « _g C XI 5 .Q C 03 bjD 2 bD o s.s S.s C C-) O 3 .COO 2 iS £ofo .1° -^1-1 '5< 3 g ^-'5 jS ^ ri bo be O 03 — fl o w a. .g C8 X eJ (X 03 U O b3 • « m 03 O '>^ C O -H o £ C 03"'^ g O >- 03 ^ •— 3 03 o W 2 03 "5 C 03 fl . n 03 a. « i-t^ CO OCO 032 03 O "^ •5 ® a t o r <^ ., 03 I— ( _, 4? >- ^ g <=;2£'S£6 H <1 O -t1 05 rt £ 3 J2 „ . .2 D, P'm ^ 3 «^ T3 C^ C g_ O O g " •^ ra es -^ O ta o o ^ o c nS c TO ^ C 03 ^•■5 ^^ ^o boo C c IS bbo, « p-H o <~ • ""H G ; ".r o tS !* O 5 C I- rt .i: § £ i^p o O lb rt< .0 — O u, *^ c . "— O M o iio = >'5 " p, ii'3 rt ° ■S.= p 3 5 o o P '"'° .-lip »-iOO (M 0» CO OTCOrt^Tj*-^ (N (MK.0O oS O OiN Tjt 10 -^ to O O O lO te o 00 o o ^ 00000 OJ t^ l^ i:^ o 000 O O » (N (N li P 03 a, C ^ r^^ bo c ~^ ■^ a ^ r9. -« 03 43 •a 09 Li 'E. _d m r^ 3 a, "d '?S T? 43 C 43 03 03 B?. £ *''?, -^ 7J 43 L-i d „ 03 > 05 43 u '5 1 -a ra 03 3 3 S c " 3 5g —J 2 c :2 i|-2£ >» -43 I- C d * X 0) "P 03 C ^ 43~ £ ^ £ S ^0 03 s d 03 43 J2 s^ t1 . to "O _a3 fi d tli 01 b "^^ 03- |.2S.P« G 43 oT S d m 03 n .2 3 a, 03 !-• 4) oT 3 .£* 'i 1 a, M -6 2 .- 03 w S S G d oToj' add a VJ CO < H ;j4 Q IS^Ph H H O^y} 1— J ^ S ^^'P >>• >i >^p1 R M > y, APPENDIX 349 TABLE XIV. Constitution of the Atmc sphere. Dumas and Boussingault analyzed atmospheric air by fixing its oxygen on copper, which was weighed j the azote was also collected and weighed. 1000 parts of air at Paris contained by weight : — Oxygen. Azote. April 27, fair weather, 229.2 770-8 <' " " " 229.2 770.8 " 28, " " 230.3 769.7 " " " " 230.9 769.1 " 29, " " 230.3 769.7 " " " " 230.4 769.6 May 29, rainy, 230.1 769.9 July 20, mid-day, rainy, 230.5 769.5 « 21, midnight, clear, 230.0 770.0 " 26, mid-day, clear, 230.7 769.3 Mean, 230.2 769.8 By volume, 208 792=1000 Consumption of Oxygen and Formation of Carbonic Acid. From experiments of Dumas on himself, it appears that about twenty cubic inches were received into the lungs at each inspiration, and froa fifteen to seventeen inspirations per minute. The expired air contame*, from three to four per cent, of carbonic acid, and had lost from four • six per cent, of oxygen. These data, for each day of twenty-four hou. give, 16 insp. X 20 cubic inches = 320 cubic inches expired per minute 19,200 " " " hour. 460,800 " " " day 350 APPENDIX. TABLE XV. A Table of Mean Temperatures of the hottest and coldest months. Mean ' re,„p. of) Latitude. Longitude. Warm- est -Month. CoMcst Month. Authorities. St.. Petersburgh,' .59 56 N. 30 19 E. 65 -660 8 -600 Humboldt. Moscow, 5.5 45 N. 37 32 E. 70-52 6 08 i( Melville Island, < 74 47 N. 110 48 W. ,39-08 42-41 -35 -52 -3219 Hugh Murray. Ed. Phil. Journal. Copenhagen, 55 41 N. 12 35 E. G5-66 27-14 Humboldt. Edinburgh, 55 57 N. 3 low. 59-36 38-30 it Geneva, 46 12 N. 6 8 E. 66-56 34 16 li Vienna, 48 12 N. 16 22 E. 70-52 26 60 (1 Paris, 43 50 N. 2 20 E. 65-30 36-14 (( London, 51 30 N. 5 W. 64-40 37-76 (( Philadelphia, 39 56 N. 75 16 VV. 7700 32-72 u New York, 40 40 N. 73 53 W. 80 -70 25-34 11 Pekin, 39 54 N. 116 27 E. 84-38 24-62 It Milan, 45 25 N. 9 11 E. 74 66 36-14 li Bordeaux, 44 50 N. 34 W. 73 04 41-00 It Marseilles, 43 17 N. 5 22 E. 74-66 44-42 It Rome, 41 53 N. 12 27 E. 77-00 42-26 it Funchal, 32 37 N. IG £6 W. 75-66 64-04 (( Algiers, 36 48 N. 3 1 E. 82-76 60 -(is (( Cairo, 30 2N. 30 18 E. 85-82 56-12 Vera Cruz, 19 11 N. 96 1 W. 81-86 71-06 It Havanria. 23 10 N. 82 13 W. 83-84 69-98 (< Cumana, 10 27 N. 65 15 W. 84-38 7916 tt Canton, 23 10 N. 113 13 E. 84-50 57-00 Anglo-Chinese Ca'ead&r. Macao, 22 10 i\. 113 32 E. 86 00 63-50? K It >( Canaries, 23 30 N. 16 00 W. 78-90 63-70 Brande'3 Journal. Lohooghat ('"JSOO ^ feet above the > 29 23 N. 79 56 E. 69-34 43-57 ^ Trans. Med. Phya. Soc \ Calc. sea.) ) Fattehpur, 25 56 N. 80 45 E. 74 94 58-74 Gleanings in Science. Gurrah Warrah, 23 10 N. 79 54 E. 87-45 60-23 (1 It << Calcutta, j 22 40 N. 88 25 E. 85-70 66.20 It (t (( 86-86 70-10 Journal As. Soc. Ava, 21 51 N. 95 98 E. 88-15 64-12 Gleanings in Science. Bareilly, 28 23 N. 79 23 E. 91-91 56 50 (( i( (1 Chunar. 25 9N. 82 54 E. 90-00 58-00 Ed. Ph. Journ. Cape of Good ) Hope (Feld- [ 34 23 S. 18 25 E. 74-27 57-43 Herschel (MSS.) hausen,) ) Bahamas, 26 30 N. 78 30 W. 83-52 69-07 Hon. J. C. Leea (MSS.) Swan River, .32 00 S. 115 50 E. 78 00 54-84 Milligan. Bermuda, 32 15 N. 64 30 W . 76-75 57-90 Col. Emm«tt. APPENDIX. 351 TABLE XVI. The following proportions between the Mean Temperature of the earth, as indicated by springs, and that of the atmosphere, have beer, collecte 1 from various sources. Names of Places. Berlin, Carlstrom, .... Upsal, Paris, Charleston, . . . Philadelphia, . . . Virginia, Massachusetts, . . Vermont, Raith, (Scotland,) . Gosport, (England,) Kendal, (do.) . Keswick, (do.) . Laith, (Scotland,) . South cf England, . Torrid Zone, . . . Auihoriiy. Temp. of Earth. Mean Temp, of Atmos- phere. "VVahlenberg, . . . 49-28° 46-40° n 47-30 42-03 cc 43-70 42-08 (Catacombs,) 53-00 51-00 Volney, . . 63-00 68-00 a 53-00 53-42 ii 5700 57-00 Dewey, . 47-21 44-73 Volney, . 44-00 56-00 Ferguson, 47-70 47-00 Watson, . 52-46 51-42 ,ii 47-20 47-04 <( 46-60 48-00 47-30 48-36 Rees' Cyclo, 48-00 50-62 Volney, . 6300 81-50 30^ 852 APPENDIX. TABLE XVII. Showing the Specific Gravity of different kinds of timber. Box, Plum-tree, . . , Hawthorn, . . Beech, .... Ash, Yew, .... Elm, Birch, .... Apple, .... Pear, .... Yoke-elm, . . Orange-tree, Walnut-tree, . Pine, .... Maple, .... Linden-tree, Cypress, . . . Cedar, .... Horse chestnut. Alder, .... White poplar, . Common poplar, Cork, .... I. II. — 942 — . 872 — 871 852 845 670 807 744 800 568 738 733 734 732 728 705 660 657 763 — . 645 604 559 598 561 551 538 529 383 387 240 *4,.* The column I., in the above table, exhibits the specific gravity ef diflferent woods, adopted by the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes The second column contains the results obtained by M. Karmarsch. APrENDIX. 353 TABLE XVIII. Solutions for the impregnation of wood which is exposed to the atmos- phere, for the purpose of preserving it from decay. Tar. Sulphate of Copper. Sulphate of Zinc. Sulphate of Iron. Sulphate of Lime. Sulphate of Magnesia. Sulphate of Barytes. Sulphate of Soda. Alum. Carbonate of Soda. Carbonate of Potash. Carbonate of Barytes. Sulphuric Acid. Acid of Tar, (pyroligneous acid.) Common Salt. Vegetable Oils. Animal Oils. Coal Oil, (Naphtha,) Resins. Quick-lime. Glue. Corrosive sublimate.* Nitrate of Potash. Arsenical Pyrites water, — (watei containing arsenical acid.) Peat Moss, (containing tannin.) Creosote and Eupion. Crude Acetate, or pyrolignite of iron Peroxide of Tin. Oxide of Copper. Nitrate of Copper. Acetate of Copper. Solution of Bitumen, in oil of tur- pentine. Yellow Cromate of Potash. Refuse Lime-water of Gas-works Caoutchouc, dissolved in naptha Drying Oil. Beeswax, dissolved in turpentine. Chloride of Zinc. * Corrosive ajblimate is one of the most eflicient of all these antiseptic applications. It was propose-1 by Mr. Kyan as a preventive of dry rot, under the idea of its acting as a poison to the fungi and insects, which were the supposed cause of the disease. But this explanation of the action of corrosive sublimate is no longer tenable, se it is generally admitted that the fungi and insects are not to be considered the origin, but the result, of the dry rot. It has been suggested that its action depends on the forma- tion of a compound of lignum, or pure woody fibre, with corrosive sublimate, which re- sists decomposition in circumstances where pure lignum is liable to decay. But pure lignum possessas no tendency to combine with corrosive sublimate. The action of this substance is in reality confined to the albumen, with which it unites to form an insoluble compound, not susceptible of spontaneous decomposition, and, therefore, in- capable of exciting fermentation. Vegetable and animal matters, the most prone to decomposition, are completely deprived of their property of putrefaction and fermenta- tion by the contact of corrosive sublimate. It is on this account advantageously em- ployed as a means of preserving animal and vegetable substances. Its expensivenesa in this country is a great obstacle to its extensive employment on timber used for build- ing purposes, for fences, bridges, &c. There is scarcely any antisceptic application so effectual. By Mr. Kyan's process, the timber to be impregnated, is sawed up into planks, and soaked for seven or eight days in a solution containing one pound of cor- rosive sublimate to five gallons of water. The impregnation may be easily effected in an open tank ; though the best way is to impregnate the timber by placing it in an air-tight box, from which the air has been exhausted as much as possible by a pump. The solution then enters the pores of wood freely, be;ng pressed into them by a force •qual to about one kundrcd pounds to the stjuare inch. — Parnell's Applied Chemistry, 354 APPENDIX. TABLE XIX. Table showing the Healing Power of different kinds of Wood, draws by ]MM. Peterson and Schodler, from the quantity of Oxjgen reqiiirec to burn them. Names of Trees. Oxygen required to burn llioKi. Tila Europea, lime, 140-523 Uhnus suberosa, elm, 139-408 Pinus abies, fir, 138-377 Pinus larix, larch, 138-082 ^sculus hippocastanum, horse-chestnut, 138002 Buxus sempervirens, box, 137-315 Acer campestres, maple, 136-960 Pinus sylvestris, Scotch fir, 136-931 Pinus pinea, pitch pine, 136-886 Populus nigra, black poplar, 136-628 Pyrus communis, pear tree, 135-881 Juglans regia, Avahiut, 135-690 Betula alnus, alder, 133956 Salix fragilis, willow, 133-951 Quercus robur, oak, . . . . ^ 133-472 Pyrus malus, apple-tree, 133-340 Fraxinus excelsior, ash, 133-251 Betula alba, birch, 133.229 Prunus cerasus, cherry-tree, 133-139 Robinea pseudacacia, acacia, 132-543 Fagus sylvatica, white beach, 132-312 Prunus domestica, plum, 132-088 Fagus .cylvatica, red beach, 130-834 Diospyrcs cbenum, ebony, 128-178 APPENDIX. 35ri TABLE XX. Difference in Weight of two columns of Water, each one foot liigh, al various Temperatures. Difference in temperature. of the two columns of water in decrees of Difference in weight of two columns of water, contained in different sized pipes. Difference of a column one fool h'o^h. Fahrenheit's Scale. 1 inch dia. 2 inches dia. ■i inches dia. 4 inches dia. grs. weight. per square inch. grs. weight. grs. weight. grs. weight. grs. weight. 2^ 1-5 6-3 14-3 25-4 2-028 4 3-1 12-7 28-8 51-1 4-068 6 4-7 19-1 43-3 76 7 6-108 8 6-4 25-6 57-9 102-5 8-160 10 8-0 32-0 72-3 128-1 10-200 12 9-6 38-5 87-0 154-1 12 264 14 11-2 450 101-7 180-0 14-328 16 12-8 51-4 116-3 205-9 16-392 18 14-4 57-9 131-0 231-9 18-456 20 16-1 64-5 145-7 258-0 20-532 *^* It will be observed in the above table that the amount of motive power increases with the size of the pipe ; for instance, the power is 4 times as great in a pipe of 4 inches diameter as in one of 2 inches. The power, however, bears exactly the same relative proportion to the resistance, or weight of water to be put in motion in all the si2;es alike ; for, although the motive power is 4 times as great in pipes of 4 inches diameter, as in pipes of 2 inches, the former contains 4 times as much water as the other. The power and the resistance, therefore, are rcla- tiTcly the sa-Ttie. INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIONS. PART I. SECTION I. Pio. Paob. 1 Elevations of hot-house roofs, 33 2 Difference of elevation of the sun's rays at Philadelphia and Loudon, . . 36 3 End section of a forcing pit, 39 4 Ground plan and elevation of forcing pit, 41 5 End section of a stove, 42 6 Polyprosopic forcing hoase, 43 7 Cambridge pit, 43 8 Saunders' pit, 48 9 Curvilinear cold pit, 46 10 Dung bed with frame for forcing, 46 1 1 Portable glass frame, 48 12 Portable plant protector, . . . 48 13 Ground plan of an extensive framing ground, 51 14 Ran^e of graperies at Clifton Park, 53 15 Single-roofed grapery, 55 16 Span-roofed house on the same scale, 55 17 Single-roofed curvilinear grapery, 57 18 Double-roofed house of the same plan, 57 19 Polyprosopic grapery, 61 20 Ground plan of do., 61 21 Ridge and furrow roof, 65 22 Range of small houses, 69 23 Ornamental grapery 71 24 End section of green-house, 76 25 Perspective view of span-roofed green-house, 77 26 Range of plant-houses, 78 27 Ornamental plant-house, 80 SECTION II. 23 Roof trellises, • . 85 29 Interior trellises, 86 30 Upright trellises, 87 31 Roof trellises and open border planting, 87 32 Interior ground plan of a conservatory, 96 ILLUSTRATIONS. .%1 PART II. Fio. Paos. 33 Williams' furnace for prevention of smoke, 149 34 Jeffreys' smoke-precipitating furnace, 151 35 Improved arch boiler, 179 36 Common boiler, 179 36 A Circular boiler and pipes, 185 37 Ground plan of poimaise heated green-house, 197 38 End section of do., 193 39 Longitudinal section of do,, 199 40 Combination of hot water and hot air, 201 41 Four houses heated with one boiler, 204 42 Boiler and supply box, 205 6 Supply cistern, 205 43 Tank method of heating, 210 44 Tank of galvanized zinc, 214 45 Wooden tank for retention of heat, 216 46 End section of do., 216 47 Plant pits heated by wooden tanks, 227 48 Arched borders heated with hot-water pipes,* 230 49 Chambered border heated with tanks, 233 50 Covered hot wall, 241 PART III. 52 Method of ventilating lean-to houses by pulleys, 277 53 End section, showing the apertures for ventilation through tlie walls, . 277 54 End section of span roof, showing ventilation at top, 278 55 Showing the ventilator enlarged, 279 66 Front ventilation by rachet wheel, 280 E7 Movement of the atmosphere from the floor of the house, 289 ftt Common methods of ventilation ^1 TABLES. I. Table oi" the expansive force of steam in pounds per square inch, fortem peratiires above 212° Fahrenheit, 333 II. Table of the quantity of vapor contained in atmospheric air at different temperatures, when saturated, 336 III. Table of the expansion of air and other gases by heat, ■when perfectly free from vapor, 337 IV. Table of specific gravity and expansion of water at different temper- atures, 333 V. Table of specific heat, specific gravity, and expansion by heal of different bodies, 339 VI. Table of the effects of heat, 340 VII. Table of the quantity of water contained in 100 feet of pipe of different diameters, 341 VIII. Table showing the effects of wind in cooling glass, 341 IX. Experiments on the cooling eflTect of windows, 342 X. Weig^hts of watery vapor in one cubic foot of air, at dew points from 0° to 100° Fahrenheit, 344 XI. Dalton's table of the force of vapor, from 32" to 80°, 345 XII. Table for ascertaining dew point by observations on the wet and dry bulb thermome.ter, 346 XIII. Table of the analysis of confined air, 348 XIV. Constitution of the atmosphere ; consumption of oxygen, and formation of carbonic acid, 349 XV. Table of mean temperatures of the hottest and coldest months, 350 XVI. Mean temperature of the earth and of the atmosphere, 351 XVII. Specific gravity of difl^erent kinds of timber, 352 XVIII. Solutions for the impregnation of wood which is exposed to the at- mosphere, for the purpose of preserving it from decay, 353 XIX. Heating power of different kinds of wood, drawn from the quantity of oxygen required to burn them, 354 XX. Difference of weight of two columns of water, each one foot high, nt Tariou» temperatures, 459 INDEX. PART I.-CONSTKUCTION SECTION I. SITUATION. Site and position. — What is to be understood by site and position. — Cir- cumstances to affect the position of a hot-house.— Avoid bare, elevated spots. — Reasons for so doing. — For shelter. — For beauty and effect, IS Terraces. — Their origin, and use round horticultural buildings. — The un- sightliness of turf terraces. — Architectural terraces. — Description of a terrace at a gentleman's residence. — Effect of trees. — Effect without trees. — Choice of position decided by other circumstances, 15 Aspect. — Best aspect for lean-to houses. — Reasons for choosing a south- eastern aspect. — Aspect for span-roofed houses. — The aspect ot conserva- tories. — Unsuitable conservatories, 23 SECTION II. DESIGN. General principles. — Object of hot-houses. — Agents of vegetative growth. — Reasons wny bad structures are so generally erected in this country. — Mansion architects. — Their incapacity for erecting horticultural buildings. — Fitness for the end in view. — Solid, opaque conservatories. — Conservatory at Brookline. — Absurdity of spending large sums on conservatories. — Observations of ari architect. — Massive conservatories, 25 Light a primary object. — Wonderful effects of light on vegetables. — Theory «f the transmission of light. — Rays of light reflected from transparent sur- faces. — Action of light upon plants. — Effects of different ravs. — Light whi'jh has permeated yellow media. — Light which has permeated red media. — Light which has permeated blue media. — Difficulty of obtaining pure colors. — Amount of assimilation and perspiration in plants. — Necessity of making plant- houses transparent on all sides, 129 Slope of hot-house roofs. — Much depends on the angle of elevation. — Prin- ciples to guide the inclination of hot-house roofs. — J^levations of roofs in England. — Figure representing different elevations. — Figare showing the dif- ferepc* of 'latitude between London and Philadelph,ia. — Application of thew 31 360 INDEX. principles. — Error committed in laving hot-houst roofs too flat. — Table show ing the number of rays reflected at different angles. — Circumstances on which the slope of roofs depends, 34 SECTION III. STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR PURPOSES Forcing-houses, culinary-houses, &c. — -Purposes of their erection. — Section of a forcing-pit figured and described. — Large forcing-pit figured and described. — Dimensions of winter forcing-houses. — Skill required in the forcing of fruit in winter. — Polyprosopic forcing-houses figured and described. — Advantages of polyprosopic roofs, 39 Pits. — The Cambridge pit. — Saunders' forcing-pit figured and described. — Curvilinear roofed cold pits. — Dung beds. — Temporary frames. — Plant pro- tectors. — Figures and descriptions of them, 43 Framing ground. — Its purposes. — General condition of this department. — Appropriate site for it. — Ground plan and disposition of framing ground, . 49 Orangeries, graperies, &c. — Latitude given in their construction. — Repre- seniation of a range of cold-houses at Clifton Park. — Size of cold-houses. — Figures of lean-to and span-roofed houses. — Figures of double and single- roofed curvilinear houses, 54 Objections raised against curvilinear houses in England. — Properties pos- sessed by curvilinear houses. — Reflection and refraction of light by them. — Their adaptability for grape-growing. — Gable ends. — Objections to them. . 53 Polyprosopic houses. — Figures and descriptions of do. — Double-roofed houses of this kind. — Cold vineries. — Disadvantages attending them. — Front wall of hot-hous'es. — The height of do. -r. Objections to upright fronts. — Parapet walls, 60 Ridge and furrow-roofed houses. — Figure and description of a house of this kind. — Directions for building ridges and furrows. — Glazing of do. — Aavan- lages of do. — Principle of their construction, 64 Cold vineries. — Range of small houses figured and described. — Advantages of small houses over large ones, 67 Green-houses, conservatories, &c. — Distinction between green-houses and conservatories. — Amalgamation of the two together. — Appropriation of green- houses in summer. — Span-roofed green-houses preferable to single-roofed ones. — Beauty of well-grown plants. — Impossibility of growing plants well in opaque houses. — Proportions of a green-house, 73 Plan of green- house, and description. — Prospective view of green-house. — Range of green-houses. — Height of plant-houses. — Errors in making them too high. — Conservatory at Regent's Park Botanic Garden. — Principles of design and taste displayed. — Advantages of low -roofed plant-houses, 76 SECTION IV. INTERIOR ARRANGE BIENTS Arrangements for forcing-houses, culinary- houses, &c. — Trellises and meta- ods of fixing trellises. — Roof trellises. — Centre trellises. — Cross trellises. — Trellises for double houses, 34 Interior oi' green-houses. — Slope of green-house stages. — Green-houses for promiscuous plants. — Width ana height of green-house shelves. — Stages for small plants, &c., 87 Conservatories, Orangeries, &c. — Houses for growing large plants. — Con- servatory beds. — Level of do. — Objections to the general form of conserva- tory beds. — Irregular method of laying out the interior of conservatories. — This method illustrated in the conservatory at the Royal Botanic Garden, Re- gent's Park. — Ground plan of a conservatory laid out in the irreg,»lar stvle. — AdT&n*ages resulting frpni jhig njet>.*Pfl: ....■••... 89 INDEX. ^1 SECTION V. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. Workmanship. — Bad foundations, &c. — Temporary nature of horl'icnltural erections. — Consequence of bad constructed houses. — Superior workmanship. — Economy of building substantial houses, 99 Materials of construction. — Most suitable materials for building hot-houses. — Metallic houses — Superior to wood. — Opposition tc iron hot-houses. — • Objections raised. — Objections answered. — Expansibility of copper — Of iron. — Power of metals to conduct heat. — Electricity an objection. — Cost of iron hot-houses. — Mr. Ressor's iron vinery. — Horticultural structures in Europe of iron. — Transportability of materials, &c., 101 SECTION VI. .GLA SS. The physical properties of transparent bodies. — Glass of the palm-house at Kew. — Report of Mr. Hunt, from Silliman^s Journal of Science. — Calorific influence of the glass chosen. — Action of the non-luminous rays of light. — Green glass of Melloni, 103 Evils consequent on employing bad glass in hot-houses. — Knotted and wavy glass. — Its effects. — Resources against bad glass. — Painting and shad- ing ihe glass. — Inconveniencies attending both these methods. — Utility of using .good glass. — Propriety of manufacturers of glass making good mate- rial, 109 Glazing. — Size of laps. — Glazing roof-sashes. — Objectionable nature of croad laps. — The most approved method of making laps. — Curvilinear glaz- ing. — Reversed curvilinear glazing. — Puttying the laps. — Glazing ridge and furrow roofs. — Anomalous surfaces, 110 Color of walls. — Considerations in favor of a dark color. — Influence of reflected light on dark walls. — Retention of heat by dark-colored walls. -- Color of the rafters. — Painting of the wood-work of the house with an anti- corrosive solution, 113 SECTION VII. FORIMATION OF GARDENS. Form of the garden and disposition of the ground. — Considerations neces- sary for fixing on the site. — Walks. — Entrance-walk. — Formation of walks. — Different kinds of walks. — The durability and comfort of walks. — Materials for the surface of walks. — Form of the surface. — Edges of walks, . . . .116 Borders and compartments. — Width and size of do. — General ri.le for lay- ing down borders. — Size and number of compartments. — Bad effects of small walks, 119 Walls — their use. — Forms of walls. — Their height. —Gardens of Mr. Cushing, at Watertown. — Hot and flued walls. — Wooden fmces. — Com- parative pcotomy fit walls and fences, . \%\ SC2 INDEX. PART II. -HEATING. SECTION I. PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTIOri. TLe nature and properties of fuel. — Considerations on the subject. — Char acteristics in the use of coals pointed out. — Result of the application of heat to coa.. — Disengagement of gas. — Gases endowed with the power of giving out heat. — Combustibility. — What is combustion. — The heatingpower of gas, 125 Inquiry into the combustion of coal gas. — Doctrine of equivalents. — Ob- servations of Mr. Parks. — Disproportion between the volumes of the constituent parts. — Diflerent kinds of gases generated. — Bulk of gases represented by figures, • 133 Atmospheric air. — Its co.istituents represented by diagrams. — The com- posent parts of different gases represented by diagrams. — Union of the con- stituents. — Chemical law in relation to these gases. — Carbon vapor, . . .137 Formation of carburetted hydrogen. — Excess and deficiency of heat-producing ingredients. — The union of oxygen with smoke. — Gluantity of air required to supply the requisite quantity of oxygen. — How ordinary furnaces are incapable of consuming coal perfectly. — The complete combustion of bodies, . . . -145 Argand lamp. — Williams' smoke-preventing furnace figured and described. -Jeffries' smoke-precipitating furnace figured and described. — Their value considered. — Application of these inventions in Europe. — Methods of burning smoke, 148 Construction of furnaces. — For heating large boilers. — For making the fuel last a long time. — Considerations necessary to be noticed in building the furnace. — The kind of fuel to be consumed. — Size and width of bars. — Table for ascertaining the area of furnaces, 153 SECTION II. PRINCIPLES OF HEATING HOT -HOUSES. EfTects of artificial heat. — Changes produced by it. — Animal and vegetable matter decomposed by it. — Hydrogen eliminated by the decomposition of water. — Experiments on the effects of heated air. — Ileat from brick flues. — • Iron radiators more injurious than others, 156 Laws of heat. — Radiation and conduction. — Combined effects of radiation. — Proportion they bear to each other. — Table showing the velocities of cooling at different temperatures. — Experiments on cooling of iron pipes. — Specifi-c heat of air and water. — Horticultural structures difi^erenl from opaque build- ings. — Causes of loss of heat, 153 Table showing the quantity required to heat given volumes of air. — The effects of glass windows ascertained. — Experiments on glass surfaces. — Table showing the results. - Specific heat of air and water. — Application to hot- nouse buildings, . . 1(4 SECTION III. HEATING BY HOT WATER, HOT-AIR, AND STEAM. Practice of heating by hot water. — Its merits considered. — Temperature jf hot-water pipes. — Weight of steam. — Calculations showing the superiority of hot-water pipes. — Perinanancy of hrat by hot water, 187 INDEX. 363 C -vn^paiison of hot air with h rt water, as a method of heating horticultural buildings. — Air a bad conductoi. — Evaporating pans for supplying moisture. — Considered in respect to motion in the atmosphere — in respect to perma- nency of heating power. — Water a better conductor. — Experiments on air and water as modes of conducting heat, 171 SECTION IV. HOT-WATER BOILERS AND PIPES. Size of boilers, and surfaces necessary to be exposed to the fire. — Adapta- tion of the boiler to the apparatus. — Of the boiler and the quantity of water contained. — The repulsion of heat by the metal of the boiler. — Table showing the proportion the surface exposed to thefiremustbear to the quantity of pipe, 176 Causes tending to modify the proportions to be adopted. — Figures of boilers. — Estimated action of the fire upon the boilers. — Material for boilers, . .179 Size and arrangement of hot-water pipes most suitable for the purposes of heating. — Unequal rate of cooling in the various sized pipes. — The ordinary methods of arranging hot-water apparatus. — Advantage of taking the flue through the house. — Laying down hot-water pipes. — Expansion of pipes when heated. — Supply cisterns, 181 Impediments to circulation. — Causes of circulation. — Amount of motive- power. — Table showing the weight of water at different temperatures. — Trifling cause renders an apparatus inefficient. — Methods of increasing the motive-power. — The rapidity of circulation in proportion to the motive- power, 184 Level of pipes. — Errors committed in the level of pipes. — Circulation takes place first at the boiler. — Methods of making w^ater circulate in pipes below the level of the boiler, 138 Accumulation of air in pipes. — Provision necessary for the escape of air. — Want of attention to this the cause of failures. — The size of air vents, — Diffi- culty of finding the proper place to place the air vents, 190 SECTION V. VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING DESCRIBED. Expense attending the ordinary methods of heating. — Polmaise method of heating. — Its adoption in houses in this country. — Its origin. — Means em- ployed to promote it in England. — Description and figures of this method, . 192 A method of combining hot air and hot water together. — Figured and de- scribed. — Advantages of this method in the generation of heat and saving of fuel, ". 200 Compound method of heating. — Seven ranges of houses heated by this method. — Figure representing four houses heated by this plan. — Figure of boiler and box. — Of supply cisterns. — Advantages of this mode of heating. — Saving of fuel by it. — Simplicity of workin.g, 203 Tanic methods of heating. — Methods figured and described. — Wooden and metallic tanks. — The merits and properties of each. — Utility and simplicity of do., . 211 Fertilization of the atmosphere by tanks. — Dissolving volatile gases in tanks. Their use in English nurseries for growing young stock. — Their adaptation to amateurs, in small pits, 223 Representation of plant pits and description. — Uses of these pits. — Protec- tion of plants during winter in them, 226 Chambered vine borders. — Argument in favor of them. — Their utility under certain circumstances. — Figure and description of a chambered border. — Evidence in favor of them, 228 Cheap method of forming a chambered vine border. — Compariscn of cost of rt with manure. — Economy of their adoption. — Method of managing them. — Coverings of borders, . . . .284 3I# 364 KsDEX. CorifJtruclion of hot walls. — Figure and description of hot ■> vail. — Variouf methods of building hot walls. — Trial of hot walls, covered and uncovered. — Foreign grapes may be grown on hot walls. — Grapes produced on hot walls in England, 210 New method of propelling heated air by means of machinery — described by Mr. Marnock in Gardeners^ Journal. — The air propelled by means of a fan, 246 PART III. -VENTILATION. SECTION I. PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. Attention required from gardeners, &c. — Its practical importance. — Power of plants to withstand the changes of climate. — Power of vitality possessed by seeds. — Power of plants to bear high temperatures. — Of bearing delete- rious gases. — EfTect of winter-forcing on the odor of flowers — and on the flavor of fruits, 248 Whether vegetation purifies the air. — Opinions of Priestle^r — of Dr. Dau- beny, of Oxford — of Dr. Lindley, of London. — Natural adjustment of the atmospherical elements. — Atmosphere of cities. — Benefits of large trees in the streets. — New Haven, the effect of trees in it, 252 Power of plants to absorb carbonic acid. — Gottingen springs. — Property of charcoal for absorbing gases. — Table of gases and the quantities absorbed by charcoal, 254 Power of plants to withstand the vicissitudes of temperature. — Theories of physiologists. — Dalton's ciiemical philosophy. — His tneory of the relations of the atmosphere to heat. — Tlie properties possessed by caloric, 256 SECTION II. EFFECTS OF VENTILATION. Effects of admitting cold air into a hot-liouse. — Moisture carried away. — Necessity of keeping "the floors damp. — Plants unlike animals in respect to ventilation. — Ventilation not necessary as regards respiration. — Air-tight glass cases for plants, 262 Knight's experiments on grape vines. — The philosophy of this system. — Evaporation of moisture on the glass. — Contaminating gases in the atmos- phere. — Experiments of Drs. Turner and Christison, . .264 The abstraction of moisture in proportion to the rapidity of the motion of the air. — Methods of counteracting this loss. — Thermometric changes not sat- isfactory rules for the admission of air, .266 Quantity of moisture contained in the air. — Its capacity for moisture.^ — Estimated quantity of air escaped. — Estimated quantity of moisture escaping in the air. --Lofty plant-houses. — Difficulty of managing the atmosphere in them, 26S SECTION III. METHODS OF VENTILATION. ibjprovemcnts of tne present metnods of ventilation. — Plans adopted to Biodify the influence of draughts. — Motion in the atmosphen;. — Machinery employed for this purpose. — Detection of currents by a comtnon candle -^ *topri«ty qfa rapid Txntion disputed, 273 INDEX. 365 Diffirulty of managinsr the atmosphere in large, dome-shaped houses. — Covering necessary. — To equalize the temperature. — The natural law of equality ineffectual. — The s.ightest cause disturbs the equilibrium of the air. — The extreme sensibility of the air. — Irregularity of its temperature in hot- houses. — The causes of lias irregularity. — Experiments of Gay Lussac — of Rudberg, 275 A new method of ventilation. — Adapted to lean-to houses. — Figured and de- scribed. — Facility with wlich this method may be wrought, 277 Method of ventilating span-roofed houses. — Adopted in the new hot-houses Bt Frogmore. — Figures and description of this method, 279 Methods of airing by the rachet wheels. — By springs. — Superiority of the former. — Necessity of having the machinery for ventilation properly erected. — Its liability to get out of repair. — Method applauded without merit. — Neces- sity of guarding against the applauded inventions of any one, 230 SECTION IV. MANAGE :MENT OF THE ATMOSPHERE Atmospheric motion. — Admitting large quantities of cold air. — The results of this method. — Questions arising out of these considerations. — The quantity of air to be admitted, — Motion affected by various circumstances. — The atmosphere of a hot-house influenced by the glazing of the sashes. — Effect produced by radiatiou. — Growth of plants in Wardian cases. — Deterioration of air hy flues, &c., 234 Method of airing without opening the sashes. — Figured and described. — ■ This method recomraended for houses during cold weather in winter, . . . 283 Common method of ventilating fi^ure-d and described. — Evils resulting from bis method. — Action in cold weather, 290 Contrivance for admitting warmed air into the house over the heating appa- ratus. — By a serpentine conductor. — Size of the tubes necessary. — Radiation of heat from the surface of the flue. — The effects of the external air neutral- ized by this method, _ 292 The system of ventilation. — Its object being to prevent a stagnation in the atrnosphere. — Evils of this method shown and explained. — Mechanical and chemical effects of ventilation 293 SECTION V. CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF H OT-HOUSE S. Nourishment plants ought to receive from the atmosphere. — How to receive it. — Starch and sugar. — Their different properties. — Questions arising from considerations of their properties. — Experiments on the atmosphere. — The importance of oxygen to vegetable life, 296 Atmosphere from fermenting manure. — Quality of heat generated by it. — Impregnation of the atmosphere with ammonia. — Experiments on the atmos- phere of a green-house with ammoniacal gas, 299 Composition of ammonia. — Excess of ammonia. — Its suffocating influence. — Illustrations of its effects. — Fumigation of plant-houses and pits with ammonia. — The cause of luxuriance in plants. — Produced largely from fer- menting manure, &c., 300 What guides we have to ascertain the various changes in the atmospheric elements. — Disagreeable smell on entering a hot-house. — The cause, and how to remedy it. — The important part played by oxygen in this process. — Pro- portion of oxygen necessaiy to vegetables. — Amount contained in atmospheric tir and water. — Affinity of its elements, "303 366 INDEX. Beautiful adaptation of the atmosphere to plants and animals. — Effect of pure oxygen. — Property of watery vapor in vegetable economy. — Subtlety of the air. — Necessity of 'maintaining an ader^uate supply of aqueous vapor in thi atmosphere. — Instruments for guiding us in regulating the atmosphere. — In- struments much wanted for measuring the respective quantities of the gaseous elements, 305 SECTION VI. TROTECTION OF PLANT-HOUSES DURING COLD NIGHTS. Advantages of protecting bodies. — Conditions of the plants at low temper- atures. — Light coverings otherwise useful. — Experiments on the fooling effects of wind. — Materials for protecting glazed structures. — Methods of protection, 309 Slight covering that is required to protect plants from frost. — Experiments of Dr. Wells on coverings. — Method of covering. — Distance to keep the cov- ering from the object protected, • • ... 313 Effects of vertical coverings. — Horizontal coverings. — Coverings of straw, etc. — Protection afforded by walls. — Protection of snow. — Warmth afforded by the soil to trees in winter, 317 SECTION VII. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF THE AT3I0S?HERE OF HOT-HOUSES. Adjustment of the artificial to the natural atmosphere. — Observations of Knight. — Rest necessary to plants during night. — Cause of the imperfect maturation of fruit-tree blossoms. — High night temperatures exhaust the ex- citability of the trees. — Plants continue longer in bloom in low night temper- atures. — Admission of external air during day. — Difference of climate be- tween this country and England, 320 Rules to be observed by the gardener in charge of hot-houses. — Dutch meth- od of forcing. — Excessive moisture — its efiects. — Necessity for pe-riods of rest to plants. — Changing the period of fructification, .325 SECTION VIII. VENTILATION WITH FANS. Construction of ventilating fans. — Methods of using them. — ^^Their adapta- tion to horticultural purposes. — Different kinds of fans. — Objects to be ef- fected by them. — Requisites to the use of fans. — Windmill ventilators. — Their employment in horticultural buildings. — Pun p ventilators. — Veatila- lion by means of chinmey shafts, 6j-c 82S A GUIDE TO THE SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION OF THE MARKET AND FAMILY GARDEIT. By Peteii Henderson. Thia work has liad a constant and remarkable sale ever since it was issued, aiul the later enlarged and revised edition is as well received as was the first. It was the first work on Market Gardening ever published in this country. Its author is well known as a market gardener of many years' suc:essful experience. In this Avork he has recorded this experience, and given without reservation, the methods necessary to the profitable culture of the It ii a v.'ork for which there was an urgent demand before its issue, and one which commends itself, not only to those who grow vegetables for sale, but to tiie cultivator of the to whom it presents methods quite dift'erent from the okl ones generally practiced. It is an ORIGINAL and purely AMERICAN work, and not made up r,s books on gar- dening too often are, by quotations from foreign authors. Everything is made perfectly plain, and the subject treated in ail its detail^, from the selection of the soil to prepaiing the products for market. CONTENTS. Men fitted, for the Business of Gardening. The Amount of Capital Required, and "Working Force per Acre. Profits of Market Gardening. Location, Sitixation, and Laying Out. Soils, Drainage, and Preparation. Manures, Implements. Uses and Management of Cold Frames. Formation and Management of Hot-beds. Forcing Pits or Greenhouses. Seeds and Seed Raising. How, "When, and "Where to Sow Seeds. Transplanting Insects. Packing of "Vegetables for Shipping. Preservation of "Vegetables in "Winter. "Vegetables, their Varieties and Cultivation. In the Inst chapter, the most valuable kinds are described, and the cuUure proper to each is given in detail. Sent post'paid, prico $1.50. OEAKGE JTJDD COMPANY, 245 Brcadway, New-York. FARM-GARDENING AND BY FRANCIS BRILL. ISTOTICES BY THli: I^RESS. Orange Judd & Co. have added to their splendid catalognc of agricultural books "Farm-Gardening and Seed-Growing," by Francis Brill; it is practical, plain, complete, and satisfactory, so that for a small amount of moncya great deal of desirable information can be obtained. If there is any firm anywhere ■which is to-day disseminating so much knowledge in regard to tilling of the soil, as this same said firm of Orange Judd & Co., we will present a medal to our miovvnQv.—Watdwian and Bejiector, (Boston.) The want occasionally expressed to us of a work on the cognate subjects above named, (Farm-Gardening and Seed-Growing,) is now met in a book under this title, from the pea of Mr. Francis Brill, formerly a market-gardener and seed-grower at Newark, N. J., and at present engaged in raising seeds at Mattituck, L. I. Its directions arc concise and practical, covering those points on which a beginner is most likely to require information. — Country Gentleman. It seems to be a very sensible, practical work by a practical man. Mr, Brill's father was a gardener; and he himself has had an extensive experience, and he talks about what he knows, which is more than can be said of many authors of industrial works.— -J/oore'5 Rural New-Yorker. There can be no question that this farm-gardening can be made in many dis- tricts of the Southern Atlantic States, especially near the coast, far more profit- able than growing the ordinary staple crops. In connection with producing the vegetables, the growing and saving their seeds receive minute attention. — American Farmer., (Baltimore.) This industry is now occupying the attention of many persons who sell their products to the great seed-houses, and novices who have the facilities, and wish to enter upon the business, will find in this book just the hints needed. — Springjield Eepublican. Mr. Brill has been a successful farm-gardener and seed-grower for a number of years, and gives in a clear and concise form the knowledge he has gained. It gives the best method of manuring, planting, and cultivating every veg- etable sold in market— in short, every thing required to be known, plainly aiicl fully — and should be in the hands of every one who cultivates so much as a rod of land for family use, pleasure, or profit. — Suffolk (L. I.) Times. The seal of Orange Judd & Co. upon an agricultural publication is sufficient guarantee of its worth. Francis Brill's book, published by thcni, is a very complete work, giving plain, minute instructions as to raising, taking care of, and bringing to market, those vegetables which are most in demand in tho large cities, and those seeds which arc being called for throughout tho country. ^-X. Y. Evening Mail. Fince, Post-paid, Sl.OO. 245 BROAD WA T, NJE FF- TOIiK. k Glide to the Successful Propagation and Cultivation LORIST By PETER HENDERSON, Bergen City, N. J., iUTHOR OP "gardening FOR PROFIT." Mr. Henderson is known as the largest Commercial Florist In the country. In the present work he gives a full account of his modes of i3ropagation and cultivation. It is adapted to the wants of the amateur, as well as the professional grower. The scope of the Avork may be judged from the following TABLE OF Aspect and Soil. Laying out Lawn and Flow- er Gardens. Designs for Flower Gardens. Planting of Flower Beds. Soils for Potting. Temperature and Moisture. The Potting of Plants. Cold Frames — Winter Pro- tection. Construction of Hot-Beds. Greenhouse Structures. Modes of Heating. Propagation by Seeds. Propagation by Cuttings. Propagation of Lilies. Culture of the Rose. Culture of the Verbena. Culture of the Tuberose. CONTENTS. Orchid Culture. Holland Bulbs. Cape Bulbs. Winter-Flowering Plants. Construction of Bouquets. Hanging Baskets. Window Gardening. Rock- Work. Insects. Nature's Law of Colors. Packing Plants. Plants by Mail. Profits of Floriculture. Soft- Wooded Plants. Annuals. Hardy Herbaceous Plants. Greenhouse Plants. Diary of Operations for each Day of the Year. Beautifully Illustrated. Sent post-paid. Price, $1.50. ORANGE JUDD & CO., 245 JBroadivay, Neiv- York, [Established in 134-3.] ^A Good, Cheap, and very Valuable Paper for Every Man, Woman ajid Child, 1 N C IT Y, V I L L A G E and COUNTRY, AMERICAN A&EICULTURIST, FOR THE FARM, OARDEN AND HOUSEHOLD, Including a Special Departnnent of Interesting and Instructive Reading for CHILDREN and YOUTH. The Agricnltnriftt is a large pcrioflical of forty-four pages, quarto, not octavo, beautii'uUy [triiited, and filled with plain, practical, reliable, original matter, includ- Iny; hundreds of beautiful and instructive Engravings in every annual volume. It contains each month a Calendar of Operations to be performed on the Farm, in the Orcliard and Garden, in and around the Dwelling, etc. The thonf?and3 of hints and su^sestions given in every volume are prepared by prac- tical, intelligent T»'orkiiig men, who know what they talk and write about. The articles are thoroughly edited, and every way reliable. The Iloiisclioltl Department is valuable to every Housekeeper, affordinar very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and fi>cilitate in-door work. The Department for Cliildren and Youtli, is prepared with special care not only to amuse, but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles. Circulation.— Terms,— The Circulation of the AineHcan AgrlaiUurut is so large that it can be furnii-hed at the low price of $1.60 a year ; four copies, one year, for $5.40; ten copies, one year, for $13; twenty or more copies, one year, $1.10 each; postage ^?7'e/jaicf by the Publishers in each case; single copies, 15 cents each. THE America-n Agriculturist, THE BEST PAPER FOR EVERY HOWE. Ti^Y IT A yeah: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, Publishers, 245 Broadway, New- York.