c2. BULLETINS AND CIRCULARS ON /6V CHARCOAL, LUMBER, AND^ SAWMILLS (Excerpt from Philippine G)mmission Report for 1906, Vol. 3, pp 609-711, 779-788.J BUREAU OF INSULAR AFFAIRS WAR DEPARTMENT WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1907 0£C 30 laoa CONTENTS. Charcoal, lumber, and sawmills: Page. Forestry Bulletin No. 2: Charcoal industry in the Philippine Islands — Native methods, Japanese methods, and comparison — Waste in makings Prices — Species used 611 Forestry Bulletin No. 4: Mechanical tests, properties and uses of 30 Phil- ippine woods — Philippine sawmills, lumber market, and prices 615 Forestry Bulletin No. 5: Preliminary working plan for the public forest tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental, P. 1 651 Foresty Bulletin No. 6: Preliminary working plan for the public forest tract of the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company, Bongabon, Min- doro, P. I 679 Circular No. 1: Opportunities for lumbering in the Philippine Islands 709 Public Lands: Circular containing the laws and instructions concerning the leasing of public lands, issued November 7, 1904 781 Circular containing the laws relating to homesteads and instructions there- under, issued November 7, 1904 785 33581—07 1 I BULLETINS CHARCOAL INDUSTRY, LUMBER AND SAWMILLS IJ{ THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 609 9%. \^^^ BUREAU OF FORESTRY. (Bulletin No. 2.) THE CHARCOAL INDUSTRY IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS— NATIVE METHODS, JAPANESE METHODS, AND COMPARISON— WASTE IN MAKING— PRICES SPECIES USED.a By William M. Maule. letter of transmittal. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Manila, March 23, 1906. Sir: I have the honor to inclose herewith an article by Forester William M. Maule on -"The Charcoal Industry in the Philippine Islands," together with a Spanish translation of same, and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 2. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. The Secretary of the Interior, Manila, P. I. The charcoal industry in the Philippine Islands, while not one of the most important of commercial enterprises, is yet kept alive by certain market demands which can not be filled from other sources. The call for charcoal in Manila, which is the leading market, is somewhat limited, but steady. Larger consumers are usually supplied by contract, while smaller users buy from the open market. Aside from the considerable amount used in the prov- inces for laundry purposes and for smelting ores, which, in the aggregate, probably falls but little below that used in Manila, the more varied uses in the latter place are for laundries, tailor shops, hatters, restaurants, bakeries, and metal workers. The following table shows the amount of charcoal shipped to Manila by provinces during the fiscal year 1904-5: Zambales . . . Pampanga.. Bataan Pangasinan. Mindoro Laguna Batangas . . . From public lands. Cm. met. 2,591 608 544 182 29 19 From private lands. Cm. met. ""i'a70 Tarlac Bulacan Tayabas Sum total From public lands. Cm. met. 8 2 1 3,984 From private lands. Cm. met. 1.182 a The following illustrations accompany this report and are on file in the War Department: Types of Philippine kilns: Fig. 1. Native kiln (general use). Fig. 2. Type of kiln, Masinloc, Zambales, P. I. Fig. 3. Kilns in various stages: (1) Burning; (2) complete before burning; (3) nearing completion (not capped). Fig. 4. Oven complete (clay dome and two vents). Fig. 5. Medial transverse section of oven. Door on left and chimney on right. Flame starts upward from door, along top, and down to chimney. Fig. 6. Floor plan of kiln. By being pear shaped it has better draft than if circular. 611 612 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 2. NATIVE METHODS OF MAKING CHARCOAL. The native methods of charcoal burning as pursued in Zambales and Pangasinan provinces may be taken as typical : The wood which is to be used, having been cut into 1-meter lengths, is piled on end about a central guide post or pole having the required height of the kiln, or about four wood lengths. Each tier decreases in diameter, and they finally converge to form a cone-shaped pile. (Figs. 1 and 3.) There are no uniform dimensions in the kilns, but an average one will have a basal diameter of 2 meters by 3 in height. In order to provide draft in burning, a small radial vent leads along the ground to the central axis, then upward to the apex of the cone. At the time of building, the lower portion of this chimney is filled with combustible materials — leaves or small dry branches. At Masinloc certain burners employ another method of piling, whereby the wood is arranged in a horizontal radiating manner of from 2 to 3 concentric circles. Kilns of this type are but slightly conical and are rarely more than 1 meter high. The same system of draft is given as that of the former mehod. In either case, in order to com- plete the kiln, the surface is capped by a layer of clay or loam and during burning is constantly moistened. In starting the burning, a fire is placed at the lower vent and, in order to distribute it properly, small openings are made on the surface of the cone. During the course of burning the fire works from below toward the openings above, and as carbonization of parts is complete, new drafts are made and old ones closed. Sufficient information is not at hand to show the comparative merits of the above methods, but as the former is more frequently used, it is no doubt preferable. One week is usually required to burn a kiln whose construction and burning require the services of three men for one week. From a kiln whose volume is 12 cubic meters (which is an average size) the yield in charcoal never exceeds 9 cubic meters, the waste being divided between 1 cubic meter of partially carbonized wood and 2 cubic meters of ash. On an average but 7 cubic meters of charcoal are secured, and at times only 5. The improperly carbonized wood is usually replaced in the following burning, thereby diminishing the waste. Rarely is the oven protected by a roof, and in case of heavy rain the cap is washed off and the fire quenched. From the upper Zambales coast charcoal is usually shipped by means of paraos, the owners of which buy either direct from the burners or secure a license and employ men under their supervision. * In the provinces, charcoal is usually bought and sold by the "batulan" (Tag.), which is 1 cubic yard (Spanish) or 0.584 m/3. In general, the price paid per batuldn in the provinces is from 2 to 3 pesetas (40 to 60 centavos, Philippine currency). The foregoing methods are used in producing charcoal on a commercial scale. By a third method, which is applied only to making small quantities for household use, the wood is embedded in rice hulls or chaff and the mass fired. This method requires about two days to bum, after which the fire is extinguished by water — a method observed to be in general use in Pampanga. JAPANESE METHOD. STRUCTURE OF KILNS. In the vicinity of Subic, Zambales, and Moron, Bataan, several Japanese licensees have begun the manufacture of charcoal according to methods employed in Japan, and as such methods seem superior in many ways to those in general use, their intro- duction should meet with favor. Permanent kilns are constructed on a well-drained hillside, half the kilns being excavated from the bank, while the front, containing a door for filling, is built up from stone and clay. Having constructed the kiln, which, on an average, is slightly more than 1 meter deep and having a capacity of about 5 cubic meters, a chimney, with diameter of 3 inches, is placed at the rear, having its inner opening at the bottom of the kiln. By filling the unfinished kiln with wood and rounding off the top a model is formed for the dome, which consists of a 6-inch layer of clay. In burning this first kiln, the clay is baked and, if of good quality and protected by roof, will last several years. Three small holes are made in the dome, which furnish draft. THE CHARCOAL INDUSTRY. 613 In order to insure complete and even burning, the ground plan of the kiln is made pear shaped, with the neck portion near the door. Such shape insures a better draft than where the plan is round. FILLING THE KILN. In securing wood for burning, but little care is taken in selecting species, there being but few that are not suitable. Pieces are cut into lengths of height of kiln and range from very small to 10 inches in diameter, above which size they are split. The larger pieces are placed toward the center of the oven, and all are builded in as compactly as possible by a man within. Having thus filled the kiln to the door, a small pile of dry wood is placed in front, from which the interior is fired. After burning some four hours, with all drafts open, or until about 4 inches of red coals appear over the top of the corded wood within, the door is closed or builded shut, with the exception of a small vent below, by means of cross logs cemented with clay. The fire, beginning at the top, works downward, as shown in Fig. 5. In from three to four hours more, the fire being well distributed, the three small vents of the dome are closed by clay, leaving open only the small aperture at the bottom of the door and the chimney, by which further burning is regulated. The kiln requires frequent attention to see that the fire is not too strong or too weak. Three days are required to carbonize the wood, after which all vents are closed, in order to smother out the fire, which requires an additional three days, so that, on an average, one week is required to produce one kiln of charcoal. On an average, three kilns are kept burning constantly, and require a crew of from 6 to 8 men and 1 foreman. The charcoal comes from the kiln in excellent condition ; rarely is there found any waste caused by under or over burning, and so perfect is the carbonization that the bark is not consumed. A kiln whose volume is 5 cubic meters will average 24 sacks of charcoal. VOLUME OF KILN. Five cubic meters contain 5.4 cubic meters of loosely piled wood and yield 4.30 cubic meters of charcoal, the approximate loss being 1 cubic meter. The foreman stated that a safe average of loss in burning would be two-fifths. In summing up the advantages of Japanese methods over those employed by the tiatives, we find the following: Kilns can be used repeatedly, with but little repair. The burning is more easily regulated and results in less waste. The product is not damaged by water, which is frequently used by natives in quench- ing the fire. The charcoal comes out clearer than where the oven must be destroyed in removing it, and brings better prices. In places where Japanese have been operating the natives have adopted their methods, working at first under a Japanese foreman, or employing him, and, seeing the advantage gained, they will no doubt adopt it generally. Profits, Japanese method. Charcoal gang, one month: 8 laborers, at P0.60 per diem n44. 00 1 foreman, at P2 per diem 60. 00 Freight on 350 sacks of charcoal to Manila (average monthly produc- tion), at P0.30 per sack, by steamer 105. 00 Loading on steamer, at P0.05 per sack 17. 50 Discharging steamer, at P0.05 per sack 17. 50 Government charge, at 10 per cent market price (at kiln) 28. 00 Combined expenses of making and shipping 372. 00 Contract price in Manila, at ^3 per sack 1, 050. 00 Profit of one month 678. 00 No account has been made of initial cost of sacks, which average PC. 15 each, and are used a number of times. Heretofore the source of timber used in charcoal making has been taken from the mangrove swamps. In many places near Manila the best of these mangrove species 614 FOKESTRY BULLETIN NO. 2. are becoming rare or are of too small size to use in burning. In such cases species of the semiopen forests, or "parang," are selected, and in certain parts of Pampanga charcoal is made from cauayan (Bambusa), which has been planted for fuel purposes. The following list includes species largely cut for charcoal: MANGROVE. Bacauan (Brugiera). Tangal (Rhizophora) . Pagatpat {Sonneratia pagatpat). Culasi {Lumnitzera) . Tibigi (Xylocarpus). Dungon-late {Heritiera littoralis). SEMIOPEN, OR "parang." Agoho {Casuarina equisetifolia) . Binayuyo. Guayabas(Psirfmm guayava)ii\tToduced sp. Madrecacao {Gliriddia masculata) intro- duced sp. MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS FOR CHARCOAL BURNERS. The manufacture of charcoal from trees cut indiscriminately from the high forest is usually undesirable from a sylvicultural point of view, as clear cutting is generally practiced. In places where mangrove species have been exhausted, or where such do not exist, and where it is necessary that forest species be used, a simple plan of management can be devised whereby an "improvement cutting^" can be made. The forests in provinces adjacent to Manila are composed largely of third-group species, many of which are important from a timber standpoint, and can be lumbered profitably, owing to cheap rates of transportation. It is ol)vious that the reproduc- tion of such species should be favored, with the view of timber producers. Growing in association with these species are numerous second-story or even taller trees, which are generally of a hard character, but never attain merchantable size. Such trees will not only be valuable for charcoal purposes, but their remoyal from the forest will promote the growth of younger stages of the merchantable species. In carrying out such plans, a list of prohibited species should be furnished the licensee as pertinent to his cutting locality. Owing to the frequence of the above- mentioned species, it is believed that the adoption of this plan will not cause undue hardship to operators. In order to show the importance of a safe and continuous supply of fuel, it may be of interest to state that the demand for fuel in certain of the Federated Malay States has assumed such proportions that a plan of management has been adopted for man- grove swamps. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. [Bulletin No. 4.] I. MECHANICAL TESTS, PROPERTIES, AND USES OF THIRTY PHILIPPINE WOODS— 11. PHILIPPINE SAWMILLS, LUMBER MARKET, AND PRICES. By RoLLAND Gardner, Manager of the timber-testing laboratory. letter of transmittal. Department op the Interior, Bureau of Forestry, Office of the Director, Manila, September 7, 1906. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "I. Mechanical Tests, Properties, and Uses of Thirty Philippine Woods; II. Philippine Sawmills, Lumber Market, and Prices," by RoUand Gardner, manager of the timber-testing laboratory, bureau of forestry, and to reconunend its publication as Bulletin No. 4 of the bureau of forestry. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, The Secretary of the Interior, Manila, P. I. Director of Forestry. INTRODUCTION.O (By H. N. Whitfokd, forester, chief of division of forest products.) This bulletin has been prepared in response to numerous inquiries concerning Philip- pine woods and milling operations in the Philippines. The results of the timber testa published represent the present knowledge of the subject and are not to be considered final, for such results can be obtained only from a large number of tests of properly identified botanical material from many localities and habitats. With two exceptions the woods tested have been representative of the commercial material found on the market, and are fair samples of those used by contractors and others. Indeed, in many instances they represent more approximately an average of the actual material used in construction than woods collected with botanical specimens might do. Nevertheless, the value of mechanical tests on properly determined material obtained from districts where logged is not underestimated, and such tests will be made as rapidly as possible. Since the microscopic characteristics of Philippine woods have not been studied it is not always possible to check market material with properly identified museum specimens. It is probable that structural differences can not be detected between closely related species, so that with good microscopic sections it will not always be pos- sible to identify closely related woods. In such cases botanical specimens alone will be the final test. It seems almost superfluous to caution against the blind acceptance of the names of trees and woods given by native woodsmen. This error becomes even more grievous when, without any botanical knowledge or specimens, scientific names are attached as equivalents. It is true that many of the natives are keen in distinguishing trees, and can often point out with great skill the differences. While their help is essential to one who would have first-hand knowledge of timber trees in the forest, yet such information should be constantly verified with botanical material and wood speci- mens. By such methods the bureau is adding to itsiist of properly determined wood specimens. oThe illustrations mentioned have been omitted from this I'eport and are on file in the War Department. 615 616 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. Part I. MECHANICAL TESTS, PROPERTIES, AND USES OF THIRTY PHILIPPINE WOODS. POPULAR DISCUSSION OF THE QUALITIES OF WOODS AND MEANING OF TIMBER TESTS. Every wood worker knows more or less of the properties of the various kinds of woods which come under his observation, but this knowledge is usually gained by long experience. He may know that certain woods are strong or stiff, but he seldom learns from his own experience how strong or stiff they are. For this reason the design of structures is often largely a matter of guesswork, the designer or builder not having experimental data regarding the strength, stiffness, and other properties of timber. In the timber-testing laboratory these various properties and characteristics are studied, and the results are collected in such form that others may use them to determine the fitness of woods for certain purposes. Timber, as a material of construction, is required to resist various stresses. A short, thick column must resist simple compression along the grain. A railroad tie must resist compression across the grain where the rail rests upon it, and also shearing across the grain by the edges of the rail. Simple tension and shearing along the grain are not common in practice, although these stresses frequently occur in combination with other stresses, as in cross bending. It is possible to subject timber to any one of the above-mentioned stresses, but it is much more common in practice that timber must withstand a number of these stresses at the same time. Timber also possesses such properties as stiffness, hardness, toughness, flexibility, etc., which are all important in determining the fitness of any wood for certain pur- poses. Strength and stiffness are measured in pounds per square inch, but no satis- factory units have yet been proposed by which such properties as hardness and tough- ness may be measured. The beam is one of the most common members in general construction and the stresses involved are most complex. Suppose we have a beam 4 by 4 inches in section, 5 feet long, and supported at each end. At the middle of this beam a load of 500 pounds is applied and the beam bends one-sixteenth of an inch at the middle; another 500 pounds bends it one-sixteenth of an inch more, and so on until a point is reached where an added 500 pounds produces an additional deflection of more than one-sixteenth of an inch. Here the true elastic limit is reached, or, to state this a little more accurately, the true elastic limit is reached when deflection is no longer proportional to load. This is approximately the point where the material begins to be injured, and if a beam is loaded beyond this point it will not return to its original condition when the load is removed. Even small loads produce some permanent set or bend in beams, but the true elastic limit is important as showing approximately the point where injury begins. Thus the true elastic limit is located. Now what do the figures mean which are tabu- lated under "Fiber stress at the true elastic limit, pounds per square inch?" Evi- dently not the load on the beam when the true elastic limit was reached, for that would be applicable only to a beam of the same size, under exactly the same conditions as the one tested. To answer this question, it is necessary to examine the stresses produced. As the beam is bent, its curve is approximately the arc of a circle. The bottom of the beam becomes longer and the top shorter, therefore the bottom is in tension and the top in compression. Upon the supposition that these stresses are equal, the stress at the extreme top and bottom of the beam is computed and is tabulated under ' 'Fiber stress at true elastic limit, pounds per square inch." Fiber stress at apparent elastic limit ^.nd modulus of rupture, as tabulated, are also approximate stresses at the extreme top and bottom of the beam. The apparent elastic limit is a point a little higher than the true elastic limit. It is located arbi- trarily, as explained under "Methods of testing and results of tests," and has no par- ticular significance, although it was used extensively in early timber tests. The true elastic limit may be considered as a limit of safety and the modulus of rupture as the greatest stress which the wood will stand in cross bending. In practice, the fiber stress is always kept much lower than the fiber stress at the true elastic limit. No attempt is made to measure brittleness and toughness, but in cross-bending tests a brittle wood may be distinguished from a tough wood by the relation existing between the true elastic limit and rupture^ for in brittle woods the amount of bending is small between the true elastic limit and rupture, while in tough woods it is great. Most Philippine woods are brittle, Dungon and Malugay being the only ones which have been investigated and found to possess the property of toughness to any considerable degree. These two, however, are quite tough, and compare favorably with white oak WOOD TESTS — SAWMILLS — PRICES. 617 for bending by steaming. Woods like Molave, Calantas, Ash, and Pine are brittle, while those like Malugay, Dungon, Elm, Hickory, and Oak are tough. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of the stiffness of a material. If a beam of one kind of wood has a modulus of elasticity of 1,000,000 pounds per square inch and a second beam of another kind has a modulus of elasticity of 2,000,000 pounds per square inch the second wood is twice as stiff as the first, and if the two beams are of exactly the same dimensions the first beam will bend twice as far as the second under a given load. For example, Yacal and Guijo are among the stiffest Philippine woods, being approximately twice as stiff as woods like Banuyo and Calantas. (See Table I.) Now consider two similar beams of the same material, supported at each end and loaded in the middle. If beam No. 1 is made twice as long as beam No. 2, other dimen- sions being the same, it will bend eight times as far under a given load but will be only half as strong. If beam No. 1 is made twice as high as beam No. 2, other dimensions remaining the same, it will liend only one-eighth as far under a given load but will be four times as strong. If beam No. 1 is made twice as wide as l)eam No. 2, other dimen- sions remaining the same, it will bend only one half as far but will be twice as strong. If the beams are of the same dimensions throughout and the load on beam No. 1 is double that on beam No. 2, beam No. 1 will bend twice as far. A strong wood is not necessarily stiff, nor is a stiff wood necessarily strong, although in many cases these properties appear to be closely related. By referring to Table 1, it is seen that the Betis, from Tayabas, which was tested, was about 60 per cent stronger in cross bending than that from Ambos Camarines, although it was not quite as stiff. With few exceptions, timber is much stronger when dry than when green. The weight of moisture in timber just from the saw is often from 80 to 90 per cent of the weight of the wood itself. This amount of moisture may be reduced to 30 to 35 per cent of the weight of dry wood, without showing any increase in strength, but when the wood is dried beyond this point the strengtTi usually increases quite rapidly, well-seasoned timber frequently being from 50 to 70 per cent stronger than green timber. The amount of increase in strength is shown for the various woods in Tables I and II. As wood dries, the fibers become harder, stiffer, and stronger, but the wood also shrinks, which causes checks that tend to weaken the timber. In most woods this latter effect is much less than the former and the wood shows a decided increase in strength and stiffness, l)ut in hard, brittle woods the checking effect is quite serious; for example, the Ipil and Molave which were tested showed a decrease in modulus of rupture when seasoned, as is shown by Table I. The tendency to check while season- ing may be overcome to a large extent by drying slowly and evenly, but in large timbers the outer surface dries months or even years before the interior, so that it is practically impossible to prevent cliecking. This is one reason why the strength values for large timbers are somewhat smaller than for small timbers. Timber is thoroughly seasoned when it contains 10 to 12 per cent moisture through- out, and will arrive at that percentage of moisture in time if exposed to air but pro- tected from rain and sun. If it is made drier than this by artificial means, it will reab- sorb moisture from the atmosphere until it arrives at 10 to 12 per cent moisture. There is considerable variation in the moisture content of timber seasoned by artificial means. Usually timber whose moisture content is' less than 20 per cent will pass for seasoned timber. In tropical countries the most desirable quality sought in wood is durability. This is true because the destructive elements to timber are greater than in temperate regions. Because of continuous heat and moisture, fungus growth is undoubtedly more rapid in the tropics. The universal presence of the white ant is perhaps the most destructive element that makes the use of durable timber almost imperative for rail- road ties and for general construction purposes. Such timbers as are used for ties in cold regions would not last nearly as long here as there, but some of the best native woods are extremely durable. In teiiiperate zones ten years is considered a long life for an untreated tie, but in these islands the extremely durable woods, like Ipil and Molave, are known to have been in the ground for more than ten years without any sign of decay. The ravages of the sea worm (teredo) restrict the use of untreated timber, in contact with salt water, to those species that are especially adapted to resist- ing the attacks of this enemy. The softer Philippine woods, like Lauan, and imported woods, like Oregon Pine, are quickly destroyed when placed in salt water, while Aranga and Betis are highly valued because of their great durability under these conditions. MATERIAL USED FOR TESTING — DESCRIPTION OF BEAMS. MATERIAL USED FOR TESTING. It being impracticable at the time these tests were started to secure timber which had been botanically determined, this series of tests was made almost entirely upon 618 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. timber purchased in the market. The Sacat and Balacat, which were obtained at the Lamao Forest Reserve, were the only woods which were not secured in the market. In buying care was exercised to select timber which well represented the quality generally used in construction. Most of the timber tested was clear and sound. No standard rules for the inspection of timber are in use in Manila by which the quality and condition of the timber tested may be described. Where defective beams have been tested, the beams will be described whose moduli of rupture correspond to the average, maximum and minimum moduli of rupture as tabulated. All blocks used for compression and shear tests were clear and sound. DESCRIPTION OF BEAMS. The following is a list of the woods used where all the beams tested were clear and sound: Name. Locality. Name. Locality. * Lauan Mindanao. Zambales. Mindanao. Ambos Camarines. Mindoro. Ambos Camarines. Near Laguna de Bay. Cagayan. Locality unknown. Lamao Forest Reserve. Ipil... Palawan. Do Apitong Do Mindanao. Guijo Locality unknown. Tayabas. Do Betis Yacal Do Narra Aranga Do. Do Negros Occidental. Laguna. Tanguile Sacat The following is a description of the beams used in testing that were more or less defective: APITONG FROM ZAMBALES. [Six beams contained slight defects.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound .... Clear and sound. Maximum do.. Do. Minimum One knot and check Do. MOLAVE FROM LAGUNA DE BAY. Many beams contained knots and checks which are characteristic of Molave. There were no defects in the middle of beams which would seriously affect strength. MOLAVE FROM AMBOS CAMARINES. Many beams contained knots and checks which are characteristic of Molave. There were no defects in the middle of beams which would seriously affect strength. TANGUILE-FROM ZAMBALES. Two beams contained slight defects. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. SACAT FROM TARLAC. [ Four beams contained slight defects.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 percent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average Clear and sound Clear and sound. . . . Maximum do do Do. Minimum do Heart check full length Do. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 619 IPIL FROM AMBOS CAMARINES. All beams clear and sound but slightly cross-grained. IPIL FROM MINDORO. [Eight beams contained sligiit defects. Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average Clea r and sound Clear and sound. .do .. Do Do. DUXGON FROM AMBOS CAMARINES. [Four beams slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average . . . Clear and sound Clear and sound . . Maximum-... do do Do. Minimum .... One knot and check .do Do MALASANTOL (LOCALITY UNKNOWN). [Two beams slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average Clear and sound .... Clear and sound Maximum- . . . do do Do Minimum do .do. . One-third sap wood. SUPA FROM TAYABAS. [Five beams slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound Maximum do Do Minimum do Large check in middle. BALACAT FROM LAMAO FOREST RESERVE. Small knots were quite common. There were three or four J-inch knots in each beam. BALACAT FROM TARLAC. [Ten beams slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average Clear and sound Clear and sound Maximum do do Do Minimum do Do 620 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. MACAASIN (LOCALITY UNKNOWN). [Two beams slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Clear and sound Clear and sound ..do do Do. Checked on side .do Do. CALANTAS FROM ALBAY. Two beams were slightly defective. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. CALANTAS FROM MINDORO. [Five beams were slightly defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average . . . Maximum. Minimum.. Clear and sound do One J-inch knot in middle. Clear and sound. Do. One small knot and bad check. TINDALO (locality VNKNOWN) . [One beam defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound Clear and sound. do Do. Minimum Slight check on top Do. TINDALO FROM AMBOS CAMARINES. [Five beams defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average Clear and sound Clear and sound Clear and sound. Maximum do do Do. Minimum Bad check in middle Slight check and one knot. . Do. TINDALO FROM MASBATE. Two lieams were defective. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. AMUGUIS FROM MINDORO. Eight beams were defective. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. ACLE FROM TARLAC. [Two beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Average Clear and sound Knotty in middle. Do. do do Minimum do do Do. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 621 ACLE FROM ZAMBALES. [Four beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Average Sliglitly checked. Maximum Clear and sound. Minimum One knot. BANSALAGUIN (LOCALITY UNKNOWN.) One beam was defective. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. PALO MARIA FROM ZAMBALES. [Three beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound. Maximum Do. Minimum Heart check on side. BATITINAN (LOCALITY UNKNOWN.) [Thirteen beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Three 1-inch knots. Two IJ-inch knots. Three 1-inch knots. BANUYO FROM MASBATE. [Five beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Clear and sound. Do. Clear and sound Do. SASALIT FROM ZAMBALES. [Twenty-one beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound. Clear and sound Small checks on two sides. do Checks on three sides. LIUSIN FROM BATAAN. [Four beams were defective.] Moisture over 35 per cent. Average Clear and sound. Maximum Do. Minimum Cross-grained. LUMBATAO FROM BASILAN ISLAND, MORO PROVINCE. One beam was defective. All beams whose moduli of rupture correspond to those tabulated were clear and sound. METHODS OF TESTING AND RESULTS OF TESTS. The machine used in making the following tests is a Tinius Olsen testing machine with a capacity of 200,000 pounds. CROSS-BENDING TESTS. All beams used for cross-bending tests (Table I) were either 3^ by 3^ inches or 4 by 4 inches in section, with a span of 60 inches. The machine was operated at a speed of 0.3 inch per minute and the deflection was noted at various loads during the tests. The 622 FORESTRY BULLETUST NO, 4. curve was then plotted between deflection in inches and load in pounds, and upon this curve were located the true elastic limit, the apparent elastic limit, and the point at which failure occurred. The fiber stress at the true elastic limit was calculated by the standard formula: ' ,. . 3WL , i iber stress at true elastic limit = „ p tt2 where, • W equals load in pounds at true elastic limit, L equals span in inches, B equals breadth of beam in inches, H equals height of beam in inches. The term "apparent elastic limit," as used in this bulletin, is defined byJohnsona as follows : "The apparent elastic limit is the point on the stress diagram of any material in any kind of a test at which the rate of deformation is 50 per cent greater than it is at the origin." The fiber stress at the apparent elastic limit and the modulus of rupture were deter- mined by the same formula which was used to determine the fiber stress at the true elastic limit, viz: , . ,. . 3 W^ L , r iber stress at the apparent elastic limit = oji T{2 '^here, W^ equals load in pounds at the apparent elastic limit; and 3 W'^ L Modulus of rupture = ^ p ttz where, W^^ equals load in pounds at rupture. Plate I shows the true elastic limit and the apparent elastic limit as located upon a typical stress diagram. After the stress diagram was drawn, a tangent was drawn to the curve at the origin and the modulus of elasticity was determined by the following well-known formula: W L3 Modulus of elasticity = 4 t) t? tj 3 where, W equals the load corresponding to some point on the tangent, D equals the deflection in inches corresponding to the same point, B equals the breadth of beam in inches, H e'quals the height of beam in inches, L equals the span in inches. After the cross-bending test, the beams were cut up, as shown in fig. 1, Plate II, for compression tests, shear tests, and moisture determinations. The parts which are marked C^ represent the blocks for tests in compression along the grain, and those which are marked S represent the pieces for shear tests. At A, B, and C thin disks were cut for moisture determination. COMPRESSION ALONG THE GRAIN. The blocks for tests in compression along the grain (Table II) were either 3^ by 3 J inches or 4 by 4 inches in cross section and 8 inches high. The machine was operated at a speed of 0.06 inch per minute and the load was increased until the blocks showed signs of failure by wrinkling on the sides. o Johnson, J. B.: Materials of construction, p. 19. 33581—07- 624 FORESTKY BULLETIN NO. 4. Table I. — Cross-bending Name. Lauan Do Apitong Do Guijo Do Molave Do Yacal Narra Do Tangiiile. . . Do Sacat Do Ipil Do Do Dungon Do Do. a. .. Malasantol. Locality. Mindanao. Zambales. Mindanao. Zambales. jAmbos Cama- 1 rines. Mindoro fNear Laguna I de Bay. JAmbos Cama- \ rines. ..do fNear Laguna I de Bay. Cagayan. . Unknown. Zambales. Lamao Forest Reserve, Ba- taan. /Ambos Cama- 1 rines. Mindoro. Palawan. JAmlios Cama- \ rines. Masbate. . Mindanao. Unlcnown. Average... Ma.ximum . Minimum . (Average... •^Maximum. [Minimum . (Average... per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. ■a >» » CO « m a> >>*< >, (B m ^ M D ® >%*-* •3 El § . CO 5?o . 3 S +j 3 g,5- •3 ft " 3 B-O £§ 3 ai Qj 1 o B 3 S u a> 0, £ 1 ■3 > c3 t *j c^■':^ lis 4.3 X 5^ S ^ CJ TO Q^ ass- sis lil £ S '^ £■3 s. ■SO. 'Se.s 1^ «a . Oftg 303 1 a 3 f k, ft £ 3 iber stress at elastic limit (pi per square inch. iber stress at app elastic limit (pi per square inch). 2" "S» 3 m « "O _ o* ^to 0) a 3 '% ft Z '^ M f^ Ph ^ a •a ;^ Vu fH f^ ^ s e tn 29.8 0.442 3,350 5,300 7,200 1,462 1 1 10.4 0.457 5,730 8,240 9,760 1,653 1 ( 0.446 • 21 35 .47 6,190 7,740 8,920 1,790 [14 17.5 .488 10,550 12,640 14,250 1,840 73^ .488 20 .40 1,550 3,520 4,220 1,050 1 1 3 .404 2,390 5,480 7,020 1,395 ) 1 .40 .478 .529 . 36 .412 26.8 .699 6,190 8,220 10,230 2,033 (1 14 .706 7,340 9,760 11,620 2,144 1 .645 • 10 33.6 .74 9,150 9,8.50 11,640 2,550 13-^ 19.8 .825 10,550 12,480 15,600 2,425 75 .825 22 .058 4,220 6,320 8,600 1,710 1 9 .618 4,920 6,050 6,050 1,900 J .56 20.8 .93 2,950 4,150 5,100 1,000 .687 ■ •^1 20.8 20.8 .93 .93 2,950 2,950 4,150 4,150 5,100 1.000 31- .93 5,100 l^OOO .588 26.6 .72 7,820 9,940 12,860 2,077 1 13.7 .759 10,080 12,850 15,150 2,158 1 .708 • 1,5. 35 .776 9,850 12,380 14,600 2,370 13-^ 18.6 1 7 .82 12,650 19,700 21,500 2,480 ^55{' .82 20.3 .673 4,920 7,800 10, 540 1,660 .718 7,730 8,940 11,900 1,740 J .629 2.3.3 .724 7,740 9,150 12,650 2,110 .697 ■ 1- 23.3 23.3 .724 .724 7,740 7,740 9,150 9,150 12,650 12,650 2,110 2,110 50-^; .806 .596 31.8 .S03 5,010 9,000 10, 190 1,602 ( 10.4 .824 8,240 8,580 8,580 1,614 1 t -785 ■ 11 35 .848 7,030 10,700 12,150 1,950 • 9-^ 19. 5 .88 10,550 13,600 13,600 1,980 ^67| .88 24.8 .725 3,520 7,740 9,530 1,400 I 3.5 .79 4,920 4,920 4,920 1,240 J 1 .69 7fi0 29J .825 1 .712 29.6 .846 8,180 10,700 14,090 2,368 1 (! 15.6 .848 9,650 12,130 15,690 2,583 1 .843 ■ 42] 34.3 .94 11,250 13,600 17,650 2,870 ^7-^1 19.8 .90 12,230 17,480 21,800 3,000 ^80| .94 ( 21.5 .77 4,220 5,480 7,700 1,680 1 1 11-4 .81 6,680 9,140 13, 580 1,844 1 .76 .563 n\ .59 .535 \ f 26.9 .508 5,650 6,570 7,380 1,462 1 f 9-6 ■izl 13.8 (; 4.6 .487 6,440 7,070 7,560 1,510 1 .54 \ A 32.7 .56 8,430 9,850 11,020 1,710 .531 10,550 10, 680 11,730 1,670 31v .77 22.9 .4.38 2,110 3,090 3,460 870 .384 2,810 2,810 2,960 1,050 1) |i .384 30.6 .487 5,310 6,960 9,110 1,456 ( 13.7 .422 6,440 7,380 8,360 1,232 1 11 .469 12] 34.6 .524 6,740 7,600 10,230 1,685 •16| 18.7 .58 9,150 11,400 12,560 1,610 ^36^ .58 21.8 .38 4,220 6,190 7,030 1,050 1 1; 5 .355 4,500 4,920 4,920 976 1 1 .355 34.5 .54 6,050 6,330 7,700 1,320 (: 9.7 .535 6,430 7,470 8,570 1,594 !i 1 .491 u 34.5 .54 6,050 6,330 7,700 1,320 19 18.4 .606 10,550 11,520 13,220 1,950 \il{ .606 34.5 .54 6,050 6,330 7,700 1,320 1 1 1.6 .478 2,110 2,110 2,300 1,120 1 1 .405 .561 .585 24.2 .606 5,9.30 7,290 9,050 1,637 1 f 12.8 .664 8,350 9,610 11,440 1,886 1 1 ( .54 .616 ■ io| 35 .677 7,600 9,140 12,470 1,900 ml 19.3 .70 10, 540 12,230 15,600 2,080 ^68^ .70 20.2 .485 2,110 2,390 4,220 1,160 1 1 4.2 .622 4,220 4.500 4,920 1,710 !| 1 .478 25.8 .783 5,580 6,640 7,900 1,470 1 f ^8-1 .816 6,000 6,440 6,980 1,383 il ( .792 14 1 34.6 .83 7,730 9,420 12,600 1,730 \h 19.6 .99 7,580 7,740 9,040 1,630 )iU .99 21 .685 3,520 5,070 5,620 1,260 1 1 16 .713 4,780 4,780 4,780 1,180 1 .68 34.5 .743 7,530 9,520 13,040 1,750 1 .673 ■ 2< 34.5 .77 7,740 9,700 9,350 13, 520 1,840 I. 46 .77 34.4 .71/ 7,320 12,560 1,660 1 .56 .807 .867 . 41- .75 26.4 .878 6,870 8,940 13,510 1,947 1 ( 11.6 .845 10, 160 13,460 17,110 2,209 1 .857 ■ 40- 33.9 .924 9,850 11,400 16,900 2,260 ^26-^ 17.6 .985 14,760 18,300 22,700 2,500 72. .985 20 .788 3, 800 5,910 7,900 1,240 1 6.5 .796 5,770 7,180 9,770 1,500 J .723 30.1 .854 4,960 6,910 10,600 1,442 .85 • 21. 34.5 .89 6,330 8,440 13,150 1,900 24' .89 20.3 .822 3.520 4,220 7,260 1,050 .816 1 30.7 .685 5,060 6,540 9,070 1,525 .669 • 2. 31.9 .69 5.200 7,040 9,200 1,530 23 .707 29.5 .68 4,920 6,050 8,940 1,520 .636 26.3 . 663 5,840 7,180 10,310 1,595 1 12.1 .694 5,760 7,630 10,880 1,754 .646 • 2 27.1 .68 6,330 7,600 10, 550 1,610 [H 18.2 .712 7,730 9,000 13,540 2,290 ■28 .712 25.6 . 646 5,350 6,760 10,080 1,580 n 5.3 .66 3,520 4,220 4,800 1,320 .608 626 FORESTEY BULLETIN NO. 4. Table I. — Cross-bending Name. Moisture over 35 per cent. Locality. > o iS o « o3 5 £■3 P. si (1> o3 53 £■3 ft Supa Do Balacat Do Macaasin Calantas Do Tindalo Do Do Amuguis Acle Do Betis Do Bansalaguin. Palo Maria . . Batitinan Aranga Banuyo , Balacbaean. . Mayapis J Unknown. (Lamap Forest i Reserve, Ba- taan. fAmbos Cama- 1 rines. Tarlac . Unknown. Albay Mindoro . . Unknown. Masbate . . Mindoro. . Tarlac Zambales . Tayabas. . fAmbos Cama- I rines. Unknown. Zambales . Unknown. fAmbos Caraa- \ rines. Masbate JO c c i d e n t a \ Negro s. Laguna [Average — ■{Maximum. [Minim lun . [Average — ■^Maximum. (Minimum . (Average... ■^Maximum. iMinimum . (Average... ■| Maximum. ^Minimum . [Average... ^Maximum. [Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimum . [Average... •I Maximum. iMinimum . [Average... •(Maximum. (Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . (Average... .•^Maximum. (Minimum . [Average... .■(Maximum. iMinimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimum . (Average... .■(Maximum. (Minimum . (Average... .•(Maximum. (Minim lun. . (Average... < Maximum . (Minimum.. {Average... Maximum . Minimimi. . {Average... Ma.ximum. Minimum.. (Average... .•^Maximum. IMinimum.. (Average... ■{Maximum. iMinimum.. (Average... .i Maximum. (Minimum.. (Average... ^ Maximum . (Minimum.. (Average. . . .■[Maximum. (Minimum.. ■35^ 37.3 40.8 35.6 38.7 46.7 35.1 56.1 86 45.7 45.4 '( 59. 8 36.5 68.4 87.9 ,36.3 75.4 94 61 57.3 67 38 40.4 44.6 35.8 44.7 55 37.7 59 71.8 50.7 46.1 61.1 .35.7 92.5 103 77 96.8 111 83.6 38.1 42.5 35.1 61.6 100 45 46.2 57.8 40 56 105 36. 6 54.4 61.2 49.1 H 82 115 47.7 40 45.8 35.2 07.7 91 0.673 .692 .61 .755 .843 .70 .517 .57 .478 .56 .62 .516 .695 .734 .667 .357 .379 .336 .511 .54 .492 .747 .77 .734 .757 .77 .813 .70 .692 .76 .621 .632 .707 .598 .579 .604 .553 .849 .882 .82 .725 .798 .615 .841 .883 .784 .623 .708 .488 .777 .795 .76 .522 .572 .455 .538 .584 .481 .399 .456 .343 6,410 8,440 4,920 4,890 6,720 2,810 5,120 6,190 4,220 5,210 6,330 3,520 4,370 8,440 1,546 3,000 3,940 1,970 3,560 5,620 2,110 8,a)0 9,140 6, .330 7,070 10,400 5,350 5,290 7,460 2,950 4,490 9,110 1,548 3,920 5,280 2,460 5,900 7,030 4,080 5,780 7, 380 3,160 3,670 5,240 2,090 6,820 8,440 3,800 5,840 8,790 2,950 4,540 5,620 2,540 2,900 5,070 1,400 5,410 6,330 4, 220 4,070 4,920 3,510 8, 18 J 8,870 7,180 7,170 8,920 4,920 6,280 6,750 5,780 6,200 7,390 3,940 6,120 8,790 3,550 4,240 4,920 3,100 4,900 6,180 3,020 10,770 11,940 8,430 9,700 12,400 5,350 7,690 9,480 4,500 6,800 9,300 3,520 6,000 7,7.30 4,780 7,010 8,720 4,570 8, 460 10, 130 6,330 5,620 7.750 2,830 9,420 10,550 7,310 7,040 9,500 4,080 6,350 7,600 4,080 4,170 6,880 2,860 6,320 6,900 4,500 5,320 6,330 3,510 lv.,050 11,150 8,630 8,700 10,500 6,490 8,540 9,200 7,730 7,780 9,370 4,790 8,660 10,880 5,180 5,650 6,600 4,400 6,250 7,950 3,060 15,000 16,980 12,300 11,330 14,200 8,600 11,200 13,240 8,420 9,780 12,670 5,630 7,270 8,920 5,250 9,080 11,560 5,810 11, Gi: 13,680 10,010 7,450 9,340 3,660 11,740 14,150 9,510 8,930 12,450 5,500 9,320 10,600 5,900 5,140 7,390 4,080 8.180 9,030 5,960 6,760 8,300 3,510 WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. strength of Philippine timber — Continued. 627 Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. o t>, a> m *3 M ,'-• j,^ a m +j m a> ,<-< o ■a 21 29 3 03 *^ 3 •3 a 21 CO 29 3 03 « 3 ■|ft +j ^ u-t g S o . fto- '■H ^ t»-< ^ S o . a& +J s "d CO 1 o 1^^ c3| . ■^ -M § o 5^§ 2" o o a 1% lie m ,^ =^ lis 9 1 o tub? oJ-3'2 2':i •gft m13 CO +J M 2^ § . a-a Name. Locality. 1 a S p. "S Sec fto- ■gft 1-3 ° ft§ o M B 1 o 2 !n S '^ 5^ ft to +J CO m 0) 35 p •o_rcr 9 ft z a f"H P=^ S S (Average 1 ( 57.2 0.635 4,780 6,930 10,280 1,627 Mindoro •^Maximum.. 1 Minimum... IH 72 48.2 .713 .553 6,680 2,810 8,570 5,200 12,700 6,900 1,920 1,290 (Average 1 Sasalit Zambales ^Maximum . I [Minimum... (.\verage 1 ( 60.9 .71 5,430 8,120 11.360 1,896 Bataan ■^Maximum. . [Minimum... hi 63 57.6 .73 .70 7,720 2,390 10.200 5,900 14,150 7,160 2,180 1.340 |B a si Ian Is- (Average ) ( 37.1 .545 5,620 6,460 7,7v0 1,160 •j land, Moro [ Province. ^Maximum. . [Minimum... H 38.7 35.5 .56 .53 6,740 4,500 6, 890 6,040 8. 060 7, 520 1,210 1,110 WOOD TESTS — SAWMILLS — PRICES. 629 strength of Philippine timber — Continued. Moisture 20 to 35 per cent. Moisture under 20 per cent. Ta" t^ c-o £ * ^S t- CO IH u ^S ■o i§ ^^ •gft •0 S . t.?r B^ 4J 1 1 o a S g o to"' § lis °p-i o § p, cS C3 U a a ■3 o .«i a- +J CO £■3 P. »H 1^ »H CI; OT 10 34 .684 5,820 4,400 37 { .707 25 !607 1 .598 1 .579 12 \ .604 .553 f 31.5 '.857 6,410 f .856 (• ^4 .34.8 .886 7,330 5,000 38 i .886 28.3 .82 I .82 34 .806 4,410 .728 2 34 34 .806 .806 4,540 4,290 . 62 \ .806 1 .615 32.8 .883 7,140 ( 14.5 .87 8,630 1 f .&5 2 32.8 .883 7,310 f ^^ { 16.5 .905 9,560 48 \ .905 32.8 .883 6,980 [ 12.1 .85 7,800 1 .784 34.2 .674 5,720 f .623 ( ^ 35 .708 6,240 42 \ .708 33.4 .64 5,340 .488 ( 5 .836 9,290 f .795 8 \ 5.6 I 4.4 .85 .821 10,640 7,190 26 \ .85 t .76 f 31.2 .826 8,020 ] ( 4.9 .882 12,420 ^ 88 .859 36 34.5 .86 8,730 I 52 { 6.4 .942 14,920 .942 27.7 .796 6,840 J 1 3.4 .832 9,290 [ .796 94 2 .50 3,990 1 1 15.5 .534 4,1,50 f .525 4 28' .546 4,470 [ * \ 17.8 .545 4,470 38 { .572 I 20.5 .455 3,400 1 1 13.3 .523 3, ,530 .455 f 28.8 .544 4,720 1 17.4 .539 5, 220 .543 20 \ 35 .67 5,640 [ 10 \ 19.9 .56 5,660 34 \ .67 [ 20.4 .481 3,980 J 1 14.8 .525 4,530 40 [ .481 1 .399 \ .456 1 .343 f 22.1 .666 5,740 1 f 11.2 .683 8,0S0 1 f -P 18 \ 35.9 .71 7,270 \ 26 \ 18.8 .75 10,930 \ 78 \ .75 20 .625 5,160 1 1 7.4 .62 4,830 1 I .553 25.7 .89 9,290 1 f 11.3 .849 9,100 1 ( .872 42 \ 31.1 .984 11,890 I 34 i 15.8 .995 11,180 \ 70 \ .995 I [ 21.5 .742 6,600 1 1 8.7 .815 6,400 1 8 1 .742 .71 \ .73 [ 1 .70 f 25.2 .551 5,480 ] f 12.5 .58 6,410 1 .565 54 \ 31.5 .603 6,390 [ 52 \ 19.7 .671 8,100 106 \ .671 [ 20.1 .483 4,520 J [ 5.3 .53 3,550 I .483 634 FORESTBY BULLETIN NO. 4. SHEAR ALONG THE GRAIN. The form of the piece used for shear tests is shown in fig. 2, Plate II. The pieces were either 1^ or IJ inches thick, 3 inches wide, and 18 inches long. Just 1 inch from one end of the piece a hole was cut five-eighths inch by 1 inch, through which a rectan- gular steel bar was placed. The opposite end of the test piece was then gripped in the upper jaws of the machine and the load was applied on the steel bar until the material directly under it was sheared out. It will be seen that this arrangement produces double shear, the area being either 3 or 3^ square inches, depending upon the thickness of the piece. For these tests the machine was operated at a speed of 0.3 inch per minute. Table III. — Shearing strength, along the grain of Philippine timber. (Results averaged regardless of moisture content.] Name. Locality. Kflg-vity Stress at Specific I rupture Lauan Do Apitong Do Guijo Do Molave Do Yacal Narra Do Cagayan . Tanguile Unknown Do Zambales Mindanao Zambales Mindanao Zambales Ambos Camarines. . . Mindoro Near Laguna de Bay. Ambos Camarines. . . . ....do Near Laguna de Bay. go_ot tLamao Forest Reserve, Ba 1 taan. Do 1 Tarlac . Ipil. -Ambos Camarines. Do Mindoro Do ' Palawan , Dungon ' Ambos Camarines . Do Masbate Do.a Mindanao Malasantol Unknown (Average. . . .■{Maximum. [Minimum . [Average. . . -•^Maximum. [Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . I Average... .< Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. .. .■{Maximum. [Minimum . (Average.. . .■{Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. .. .-^Maximum. (Minimum . (Average. .. .-^Maximimi. [Minimimi . (Average... .■{Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. . . .•{Maximum.. [Minimum . {Average. .. Maximum. Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimum . (Average. .. .■{Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. .. "■{Maximum. [Minimum . {Average.. . Maximum. Minimum. (Average. .. ■^Maximum. [Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . (Average... ■^Maximum. [Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . f Average... ■{Maximum. [Minimum. , (Average ■{Maximum. [Minimum . . (Average ■{Maximum.. [Minimum . . 142 09 150 (i2 110 98 129 51 150 20 59 70 86 14 132 79 90 44 0.446 .488 .40 .478 .529 .412 .645 .825 .56 .687 .93 .588 .708 .82 .629 .697 .806 .596 .784 .784 .825 .716 .843 .94 .76 .563 .59 .535 .54 .77 .384 .471 .58 .355 .491 .606 .405 .561 .585 .54 .616 .70 .478 .793 .99 .68 .673 .77 .56 .807 .867 .75 .852 .985 .723 .85 .89 .816 .669 .707 .636 .646 .712 o This is not the wood commonly known as Dungon, but is often sold under that name. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 635 Table III. — Shearing strength along the grain of Philippine timber — Continued. Name. 1)< Do. Do. Do. Do. Locality. (Average... Unknown -iMaximum. [Minimum . (Average. . . Tayabas .^Maximum. [Minimum . /Lamao Forest Reserve, Ba- l^ve^^g^.. ^ ^"-^^^ [Minimum . [Average. . . Tarlac .^ Maxim lun. [Minimum . (Average... Macaasin Unknown .^Maximimi. [Minimum . (Average.. . Albay -I Maximum. I Minimum . (Average. .. Mindoro ■; Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. . . Unknown .^Maximum. [Minimum . {Average. . . Maximimi. Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimum . (Average. .. Do Zambales .j Maximum. [Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimimi . (Average. . . Do Ambos Camarines -(Maximum. [Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . (Average. . . Zambales •! Maximum. JMlnimimi . (Average. . . Unknown -^Maximum . [Minimum . {Average.'.. Maximum. Minimum . {Average. . . Maximum. Minimimi . (.\verage... Negros Occidental -(Maximum. [Minimum . [Average... Laguna -(Maximum. [Minimum . (Average. .. Mindoro -| Maximum . [Minimum . Average.. . Zambales -(Maximum. [Minimum . {Average... Maximum. Minimum . |Ba£lan Island, Moro Prov- J^ISn,; [Minimum . \ ince. Num- ber of tests. 86 118 16 117 92 34 35 20 56 36 60 36 11 38 61 48 46 26 82 38 34 40 78 75 Specific gravity, dry wood. 0.71 .835 .61 .813 .955 .70 .517 .57 .478 .578 .66 .515 .717 .82 . 6t)7 .358 .379 .336 .527 .583 .492 .763 .864 .734 .805 .866 .72 .772 .813 .68 .692 .75 .621 .63 .707 .598 .579 .604 .553 .8,50 .886 .82 .728 .806 .615 .85 .905 .784 .623 .795 .85 .76 .863 .942 .796 .525 .572 .455 .543 .67 .481 .399 .456 .343 .658 .75 .553 .872 .995 .742 .71 .73 .70 . 565 .671 .483 Stress at rupture (pounds per square inch) . 1,480 520 852 1,,380 293 486 638 300 692 1,281 253 916 1,390 376 526 870 289 778 1,049 455 1,004 1,460 685 911 1,507 299 905 1,226 496 824 1,762 396 686 1,270 420 778 1,190 443 1,168 1,555 598 819 1,243 474 1,098 1,865 695 856 1,581 528 859 2,195 535 1,038 2,324 355 596 1,065 287 689 1,048 423 472 790 288 980 1,885 464 1,176 1,938 708 886 1,388 543 827 1,306 353 636 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. COMPRESSION ACROSS THE GRAIN. Compression across the grain, as it usually occurs in practice, is a combination of simple compression over a given area, and shearing and bending of the material along the edges of that area. It was desired, if possible, to determine just what part of the load went into simple compression and what part was used in shearing and bending the material along the edges of the area compressed. The following method was adopted and has proven very satisfactory. Pieces 4 by 4 inches by 6 feet were used. The ciece to be tested was laid upon the table of the machine and tne load was applied to cast-iron blocks laid across the test piece. (See fig. 3, Plate II.) Two tests were made upon each piece; one with an iron block 2 inches wide and one with an iron block 6 inches wide, the material under the iron block being compressed 0.6 inch unless it showed a decided point of failure before that deflection was reached. If no point of failure could be detected, 0.6 inch deflection was assumed arbitrarily as the point of failure. Let W equal the load necessary to apply on the 6-inch block to produce a given deflection, and let W^ equnl the load necessary to apply on the 2-inch block to produce the same deflection, then W— W^ equals the load which would produce that deflec- tion upon an area 4 by 4 inches by simple compression — that is, without the support usually given by the material along the edges of the area over which the load is applied ; W— W^ therefore, — r^ — equals the stress of simple compression in pounds per square inch. This quantity will be called P. Now, to determine the part of the load which is used in bending the material along the edges, the test with the 2-inch block will be considered. The area under compression is 8 square inches; therefore, 8P equals the part of the load which produces simple compression, and since W^ equals the total load applied, W^— 8P equals the part of the load which bends and shears the fiber along the edges w/. gp of the block, and 5 equals the stress in pounds per linear inch, which produces bending and shearing of the fibers and will be called p. For small deflections -and large areas, p may usually be neglected, but it increases rapidly as the deflection increases, and for large deflections and small areas which have their greater dimension extending across the grain, p is a very important factor, often much more important than P. P and p are very nearly independent of the area under consideration, and may therefore be used in all ordinary cases of compression across the gi'ain. In the following plates values of P are represented by curves A, and values of p by curves B. All specimens which were tested were clear and sound. MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS. As previously stated, moisture disks were cut at A, B, and C. (See fig. 1, Plate II.) These disks were about three-eighths of an inch thick. They were weighed as soon as cut and then placed in a small, steam dry kiln, having a temperature of 110° C, until they were dried to constant weight and then weighed again. The difference between the original weight and the weight after drying was considered as the weight of the moisture, and the percentage of moistm"e was determined with reference to the dry weight. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. In all cases the specific gravity was determined from the full-sized beam. After the moisture content was determined at A, B, and C (see fig. 1, Plate II), the results were averaged to obtain the average percentage of moisture for the entire beam and the specific gravity was determined for dry wood. For this paper, the following arbitrary classification for heaviness is made: Light, less than 0.50; moderately heavy, 0.50 to 0.70; heavy, 0.70 to 0.90; very heavy, over 0.90. Thus Lauan would be classed as light; Apitong, moderately heavy; Yacal, heavy; and Ebony, very heavy. HARDNESS." While hardness is an important property of all materials of construction and has received considerable attention by technologists, there is great diversity of opinion as to how this property shall be defined, tested, and measured. No measure of hard- ness has yet been proposed which is entirely satisfactory for all materials. The « For discussion of hardness of materials and hardness test, see Martens's Handbook of Testing Materials, p. 288. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 637 wood worker says a wood is hard if it resists penetration by wood-working tools. This is probably as satisfactory a definition as can be given, and the tests made by this bureau are based upon this conception of hardness. For lack of a b(>tter method, a scale of hardness for woods has been arranged in the following manner: Representative samples of the various species were selected for this test. The pieces were seasoned and one surface of each was carefully smoothed. Across the grain of each smoothed surface a hardened steel point was drawn, with a pressure of 3.3 pounds. The depth of the scratch produced was considered a measure of hardness. On such woods as Ebony and Bansalaguin the steel point had very little effect, while on California Redwood and Calantas it made a ragged scratch one thirty-second of an inch or more in depth. No claim is made for great accuracy by the above method, and it is possible that the order of hardness may be altered slightly if a more satisfactory test can be devised. California Redwood and Oregon Pine are placed in the following list to give an idea of the relative hardness of American and Philippine woods: Woods arranged in order of hardness. Mu- seum No. Kind of wood. Remarks. Mu- seum No. Kind of wood. Remarks. 1001 • Very hard. Do. Do. 1024 1027 "mi 1037 1038 1040 1041 1043 1044 1046 1047 1049 1053 1054 1056 Supa Hard. 1003 Bansalaguin Acle Do. 1004 Moderately hard. Do. 1005" Do. Malasantol 1006 Betis Do Do. Do. Hard. Do. Do. Banuyo Do. 1007 Tanguile Do. 1010 Aranga Sacat Narra Do. 1011 Guijo Do. 1013 Tindalo Lumbayao Soft. 1014 Yacal . Balaeat Do. 1015 Molave Do. Oregon Pine Lauan Do. 1016 Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. 1017 Do. 1019 Very soft. 1020 California Redwood Do. 1021 Ipil Do. 1023 STRUCTURAL QUALITIES, APPEARANCE, USES, PROVINCES LEADING IN PRODUCTION, SIZES, AND COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES. « Structural qualities. — Lauan is a light and soft wood that takes a fair polish. It is not durable in the ground or when exposed to the sun and the rain. It seasons well, is usually free from defects, and is not inclined to split or check. Appearance, color, and grain. — Both the heartwood and sapwood of Lauan are nearly white. The wood has a straight but rather coarse grain. Uses. — Lauan is used in light and temporary construction. It is also used in cab- inetmaking, in inferior furniture, and for small boats. Provinces leading in production. — Negros Occidental, Bulacan, Bataan, Leyte, and Zambales. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 575 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) of Lauan {Shorea contorta Vid.) is 26 inches (66 centimeters). On the lower slopes of Mount Silay, in Negros Occidental, the average diameter of 885 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) of Almon is 28 inches (71 centimeters). The average merchantable length of 15 measured trees of this species is 88 feet (27 meters). The Lauan of Tayabas has a maximum diameter of 35 inches (89 centimeters) and a clear length of 102 feet (31 meters). Common names.i — T., Lauan, Lauaan, Bayucan, Sandana; Cag., Balabas; II., "All information here given regarding sizes and common and botanical names was collected and arranged by H. N. Whitford, forester, chief of the division of forest products. bin connection with the common names, the dialects of the names, or the provinces where they are used, are shown by the following abbreviations: T., Tagalog; Cag., Cagayan; ll., Ilocano; Pamp., Pampanga; Neg.. Negrito; V., Visayan; B., Bicol; N. v., Nueva Viscaya; Isa., Isabela; Pang., Pangasinan; Z., Zambales, 638 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. Apuit Duyong, Ligameti, Anting, Bayncan; Pamp., Lauayan; Neg., Bayucan; V., Lauaan; B., Malasinoro, Hapnit. Remarks. — Several different kinds of woods are marketed under the name of Lauan. They are classified as red and white Lauan. The red Lauans are allied to Balacbacan and Tanguile in structural qualities. (See under these names.) There are at least two white Lauans. Shorea contorta Vid., found in the provinces of Mindoro, Bataan, and Zambales, is the true white Lauan. Shorea squamata from the island of Negros is known under the Visayan name of Almon or Lauaan. .It is probable that the true Lauan (Shorea contorta) and Almon (Shorea squamata) are known on the market from other provinces under other names. Structural qualities. — ^Apitong is a moderately heavy, hard wood that is fairly durable and usually clear and sound. It shrinks considerably in drying, but does not check badly. Appearance, color, and grain. — Apitong has a reddish color. It is straight but rather coarsegrained. Uses. — Apitong is used in ordinary construction, in shipbuilding, and for inferior furniture. Provinces leading in production. — Bataan, Zambales, Negros Occidental, Ambos Ca- marines, Tayabas, Bulacan, and Mindoro. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 73 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) of Apitong (Dipterocarpus sp.) is 26 inches (67 centimeters). In Negros the average diameter of 1,051 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) is 24 inches (60 centimeters), and the average merchantable length of 13 measured trees is 62 feet (19 meters). These dimensions are for D. grandijlorus Blanco. The sizes given are thought to be low, for a large percentage of the Negros trees measured had been injured by tapping for resin. The Apitong (species not known) of Tayabas has a maximum clear length of 100 feet (30 meters) and a maximum diameter of 45 inches (114 centimeters). On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 161 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) of Hagachac (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus Perk.) is 26 inches (67 centimeters). In a similar habitat in Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter of all the trees on 31 acres, 8 inches (20 centimeters) and over, of Hagachac is 21 inches (53 centimeters). The maximum diameter is 53 inches (134 centimeters), and the average clear length is 86 feet (26 meters). Common names . — Apitong: T., Apitong, Hapiton, Apiton, Balao; B.,Anahaon; V., Hapitan, Mapitan; Cag., Camuyao, Duco; II., Canimyao. Panao: T. Bulay (Batangas), Balao, Malapao, Malapaho, Panao, Panuo. Hagachac: T., Hagachac. Remarks. — At least four species are placed on the market as Apitong. They are the true Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandijlorus Blanco), Panao (Dipterocarpus vernicifluus Blanco), Hagachac (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus Perk.), and an undescribed species from Mindoro that has the common name of Apitong (Dipterocarpus sp.). The woods of these four species differ but little in appearance. Bettergrades of Apitong are sometimes sold as Guijo. Structural qualities. — The wood of Guijo is moderately heavy, hard, strong, brittle, fairly durable, and usually free from defects. It is inclined to warp and check in drying. ... Appearance, color, and grain. — Guijo has an ashy red color and is straight grained. Uses. — Guijo is used in general construction and shipbuilding, for carriage wheels and shafts, for flooring and girders of. houses, and for inferior furniture. Provinces leading in production. — Mindoro, Tayabas, Leyte, Ambos Camarines, Misamis, and Sorsogon. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 168 trees over 16 inches (40 centimeters) of Shorea guiso Blume is 25 inches (63 centimeters). For Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter for trees over 8 inches (20 centimeters) of Guisoc, meas- ured on 81 acres, is 13 inches (33 centimeters), the maximum diameter 35 inches (89 centimeters), and the average clear length 39 feet (12 meters). In southern Tayabas there is a reported maximum diameter for Guijo of 40 inches (101 centimeters) and a maximum clear length of 88 feet (27 meters). Common names. — T., Guiso, Guijo, Guis6c, Guisihang, Betic (Laguna); Cag., Sdray, Zitan; N. V., Cotopang, Curucat, Curyao; II., Yamban, Niquet, Zimaya, Saray, Zilan; B., Guisoc, Guiso, Yamban; Pamp., Yamban. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 639 Remarks. — So far as is known, there is only one species placed on the market as Guijo. This is Shorea guiso Blume, though better grades of Apitong are sometimes sold as Guijo. Structural qualities. — The wood of Molavc is hard, heavy, and brittle. It is almost imperviovis to decay and is not attacked by the anay (white ant). It checks slightly in seasoning. Heart checks and small knots are quite frequent. Appearance, color, and grain. — The heartwood of Molave is pale yellow and the sap- wood is only slightly lighter in color. The wood is very fine and usually cross-grained. Uses. — The wood of Molave is most highly valued for general building purposes, where durability is essential.' It is used in shipbuilding; for posts, sleepers, and interior trim of houses; and in cabinetmaking and turnery. Provinces leading in production. — Tayabas, Leyte, Misamis, Negros Occidental, Ambos Camarines, Cagayan, and Iloilo. Sizes. — There is a reported maximum diameter of 45 inches (114 centimeters) and a maximum clear length of 24 feet (7.3 meters) for Molave in Tayabas. The tree is usually irregular in shape, with heavy large branches, a part of which may be utilized. Common names. — Spanish-Filipino, Molave; T., Molauin, Lanahan; V., Aguherao, Bongabon, Bulaon, Hamoraun, Mauraun, Tugas, Tuigan, Agubarao; II., Amugauan, Danigga, Sagad, Sagat; B., Amoraun, Hamuraon; Pamp., Bulaun, Bulauen; Neg., Yangal; Cag. and Isa., Amuganan; Surigao, Amuyaon (boards), Buyog-tongon (con- struction), Tugao. Remarks. — Vitex littoralis Decne. is the principal species from which Molave is obtained, though how much of the wood on the market comes from a closely related species, Vitex pubescens Vahl., is not known. (See "Sasalit.") Structural qualities. — The wood of Yacal is heavy, hard, strong, elastic, and quite durable. It breaks in long splinters. Appearance, color, and grain. — Yacal has a dirty yellow color and is rather coarse but straight grained. ' Uses. — Yacal is used in general construction and in shipbuilding, and is particu- larly valuable for beams, on account of its stiffness and high modulus of rupture. Provinces leading in production. — Tayabas, Misamis, Surigao, and Cagayan. Sizes. — There is a reported maximum diameter of 33 inches (84 centimeters) and a maximum clear length of 52 feet (16 metei's) for Yacal from Tayabas. The tree attains sizes considerably larger than this in other provinces. One tree was measured at Santa Maria, Zamboanga, that had a diameter of 48 inches (122 centimeters). Common names. — T., Yacal, Dilao, Yacal puti, Papolongan, Saplungan; II., Taggay, Pangi, Banutan, Seggay, Paniggayen, Callot, Sallapugud; V., Linap; Pamp., Siacal; N. V., Banutan. Remarks. — The wood of Yacal is obtained from Hopea plagata Vid. ^Vhile it is very probable that other species are placed on the market as Yacal, yet it is not positively known what these species are. Structural qualities. — The wood of Narra is moderately heavy, moderately hard, very dvirable. and is seldom, if ever, attacked by the anay (white ant). It seasons well when properly treated and takes a fine finish. Appearance, color, and grain.— The heartwood of Narra is white, yellow, or red, and the sapwood nearly white. Tne grain is rather fine, but irregular, and very beautiful when quarter-sawn. Uses. — Narra is used principally for fine furniture, cabinetmaking, and intei'ior house trim. Provinces leading in production. — Cagayan, Mindoro, Tayabas, Albay, Isabela, and Sorsogon. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 137 trees 16 inches (40 centimeters) and over of Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) is 29 inches (74 centi- meters). In a similar habitat in Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter of all Narra trees 8 inches (20 centimeters) and over, on 31 acres, is 25 inches (63 centimeters), the maximum diameter is 50 inches (127 centimeters), and the average clear length is 25 feet (7.6 meters). In southern Tayaba Narra has a recorded maximum diameter of 40 inches (101 centimeters) and a maximum clear length of 40 feet (12.2 meters). 33581—07 3 640 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. Common names. — T., Narra, Asana; Pamp., Asana, Apalit, Daitanag; Cag., Tagga, Antangan, Taygat; Isa., Tagga, Antagan, Dungon (Calingan Igorot); B., Naga; V., Sangque. Narra; II. , Sangque, Magalayao. Remarics. — There are two well-known species of Narra, Pterocarpus indieus Willd. and P. echinatus Pers. Botanically there are a number of other species, but little, if any, wood on the market comes from these. Narra is divided commercially into two varieties, called Red and Yellow. So far as is known this division is not a specific one, but a difference due to the habitat in which the tree grows. Both species, Pterocarpus indieus and P. echinatus, have the red and yellow varieties. The red grows in the hilly country, near the streams gener- ally, and the yellow is found in the flats near the seacoast. Slabs are obtained from the buttresses of Narra, from which large one-piece table tops, are made. These are sometimes 6 feet and over in diameter. Narra wood is often finished in its. natural color and sometimes stained brown or dark red. TANGUILE. Structural qualities. — Tanguile is a light, moderately hard structural timber that varies considerably in quality. It is not durable in the ground or when exposed to the sun and rain. The heartwood of Tanguile is frequently unsound. Appearance, color, and grain. — Tanguile is light reddish brown in color and is rather coarse grained. Uses. — The wood is used in light and medium grade construction and is highly prized for small boats. Provinces leading in production. — Surigao, Bataan, Cagavan, Cebu, Tayabas, and Bohol. Sizes. — See "Balacbacan" for size. Commonnames. — T., Tanguile, Tanguili, Panonsongin, Tangile, Tangili; V., Balac- bacan, Babanganon; II., Bunga, Tamug, Araca; B., Adamuy. Remarks. — Sliorea polysperma Merr. is the botanical name of Tanguile. There is very little doulit that a portion of the lumber that is put on the market as Balacbacan (see p. 644) is Tanguile., SACAT. Structural qualities. — Sacat is a moderately hea\'y and moderately hard wood. It is not very durable in the ground or when exposed to sun and rain. Appearance, color, and grain. — Sacat is yellow and gray in color, and is coarse but straight grained. Uses. — Sacat is used in light construction. Provinces leading in production. — Pangasinan, Tarlac, Bulacan, and Pampanga. Common names. — T., Sacat, Pangsaquet; II., Saquet. Remarks. — The tree that yields the wood Sacat is Terwiinalia nitens Presl. Termi- nalia edulus Blanco (Calumpit) yields a wood very much like Sacat. IPIL. Structural qualities. — Ipil is moderately heavy to heavy, hard, strong, almost imper- vious to decay, and is seldom, if ever, attacked by the anay (white ant). Appearance, color, and grain. — Ipil is light yellow to dark brown in color. The grain is usually straight. It takes a beautiful clark-brown finish. Uses. — Ipil is used for general first-class construction, especially posts of houses; for sleepers, and for furniture and cabinetmaking. Sleepers made of this wood have been buried for more than ten years without showing any signs of decay; consequently, it is highly valued for railroad ties. Provinces leading in production. — Palawan, Cagayan, Mindoro, Masbate, and Ambos Camarines. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Palawan the average diameter of 60 trees 18 inches (45 centimeters) and over for Intsia bijuga is 24 inches (61 centimeters), and the average clear length of 20 trees is 29 feet (9 meters). Common names. — T., Ipil, Camantatali (Laguna), Taal; II., Sangay; V., Ipil; Guam, Ipil; Samoa, Ifi-lele; Pang., Obien, Ubien; Z., Nala. Remarks. — The principal species that yield the timber Ipil is Intsia bijuga 0. Kuntze. Intsia acuminata Merr., however, furnishes some of the wood, and the Ipil of Mindanao comes from a third unidentified species. DUNGON. Structural qualities. — Dungon is moderately heavy to heavy, strong, tough, durable, and very hard. It is difficult to work, is inclined to warp, and heart checks are numerous WOOD TESTS — SAWMILLS PKICES. 641 Appearance, color, and grain. — ^Dungon has a chocolate-brown color and a fine, close grain. Uses. — Dungon is used in first-class construction where strength and durability are essential, in naval construction, and as piles and posts. It is also valued in construc- tion where bending by steaming is necessary, as for boat ribs. Provinces leading in production. — Ambos Camarines, Zambales, Abra, Nueva Vis- caya, Negros Occidental, and Masbate. Sizes. — There is a recorded maximum diameter of 34 inches (86 centimeters) and a clear length of 47 feet (14.3 meters) for Dungon found in Tayabas Province. Common names. — T., Dungon, Dongon, Dungol; II., Paronapin, Palogapig; Z., Palonapim, Palonapoy. Kemarhs. — The tree that yields Dungon is Tarrietia sylvatica Merr. This should not be confused with the wood known as Dungon-late {Heriticra littoralis Dry.), which grows near the upper limits of high tide. The Dungon of Mindanao is evidently another (unknown) species. (See tests in Tables I, II, and III.) MALASANTOL. Stnictural qualities. — Malasantol is a moderately heavy structural timber. It is moderately hard and fairly durable. Appearance, color, and grain. — Malasantol is reddish brown in color, and straight but coarse grained. Uses. — Malasantol is used in general construction. Provinces leading in production. — Leyte, Pampanga, Pangasinan, and Bulacan. Coiximon names. — T., Malasantol; II., Panantalen. Remarks. — Sandoricum vidalii Merr. is the only tree that is known to yield the wood Malasantol. SUPA. Structural qualities. — Supa is a good structural timber, being heavy, hard, strong, and fairly durable. It is easily worked and seasons well. Appearance, color, and grain. — Supa is yellow and brown in color and is fine grained. Uses. — Supa is used in general construction, in flooring, in interior house trim, and for furniture and cabinetmaking. Provinces leading in production. — Tayabas, Ambos Camarines, Union, Sorsogon, and Ilocos Sur. Sizes. — Near Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter of all trees 8 inches (20 centi- meters) and over, on 81 acres, is 15 inches (38 centimeters), the maximum diameter is 38 inches (97 centimeters), and the clear length is 40 feet (12.2 meters) for Manapo {Sindoi'a supa Merr.). Common names. — T., Malipaho, Supa, Yacal-dilao; B., Manapo; Cag., Paimo, Panalalian, Pancalian. Remarks. — The only species that is known to yield the timber called Supa is Sin- dora supa Merr. BALACAT. Striictural qualities. — Balacat is a moderately heavy, soft, inferior wood, which is not durable when exposed. Appearance, color, and grain. — This wood is white to light brown in color, and is coarse grained. Uses. — Balacat is used in light or temporary construction. Provinces leading in production. — Tarlac and Bulacan. Common names. — T., Ligaa; Pamp., Balacat. Remarks. — Zizyphus zonulatus Blanco is the only species that is known to yield the timber known as Balacat. Very little of it is now being used. MACAASIN. Structural qualities. — Macaasin is a good structural timber, being moderately heavy, hard, strong, and fairly durable. It seasons well. Appearance, color, and grain. — Macaasin is brown in color and rather fine grained. Uses. — Macaasin is used in general construction; as flooring, joists, and rafters of houses, and in cabinetwork. Provinces leading in production. — Tayabas, Ambos Camarines, Sorsogon, Laguna, and Leyte. Common names. — T., Macaasin, Macasin, Macasim; B., Binolo; V., Saguimsim- lumbajon, Batuan. Remarks. — A number of species of Eugenia yield the wood known as Macaasin. 642 FORESTKY BULLETIN NO. 4. CALANTAS. Structural qualities. — Calantas is moderately heavy, very soft, and not very strong, but is quite durable. It is easy to work and takes a good polish. It seasons well and is not inclined to shrink, warp, or check. Appearance, color, and grain. — Calantas has a reddish color and is fine grained. Uses. — Calantas is highly valued for cigar boxes. It is also used for small boats; in furniture, cabinet and pattern making, and for carving. Provinces leading in production. — Mindoro, Ambos Cam^rines, Misamis, and Pan- gasinan. Sizes. — In Mindoro a recorded maximum diameter of 90 inches (228 centimeters) and a total height of 180 feet (55 meters) is given for Calantas. Few trees are found, however, that have a diameter of more than 60 inches (152 centimeters). The boles are usually straight and cylindrical. Common names. — T., Calantas; V., Lanigpa, Lanigda, Lanipga; B., Lanigpa, Lanigda; II., Catingin, Danipra, Porac; Pamp., Calantad. Remarks. — The specific name (or names) of the tree that produces the wood known as Calantas is not known. It is, however, known that one or more species of the genus Toona (Cedrela) yields this wood. The wood somewhat resembles the Red Cedar ( Juniperus) in color and odor. It is closed to the West Indian Cedrela odorata L. , the East Indian Cedrela toona Roxb., and the Australian Cedrela australis, both botanic- ally and in the structure and quality of the wood. The general name of Red Cedar is applied to all species of Cedrela. They are known in India under the general name of "Toon." TINDALO. Structural qualities. — The wood of Tindalo is heavy, hard, stiff, strong, and durable above ground. It is prized for beams because of its high modulus of rupture. It seasons well and breaks in long splinters. Appearance, color, and grain. — Tindalo is yellowish red in color. It is fine and usually straight grained, but occasional pieces are found having the appearance of bird's-eye maple. It takes a beautiful finish. Uses. — Tindalo is highly valued for fine furniture and cabinetmaking. It is also used for construction purposes above ground. Provinces leading in production. — Masbate, Negros Occidental, Iloilo, Ambos Cama- rines, Rizal, and Pangasinan. Sizes. — In Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter of all trees of Pahudia rhomboidea Prain 8 inches (20 centimeters) and over, on 81 acres, is 12 inches (30 centimeters) and the maximum diameter is 24 inches (61 centimeters). The tree attains much larger sizes in other provinces. Commonnames. — T., Tindalo, Balayong, Tindolo; Cag., Magalayao; II., Magalayao, Uris; B., Barayon, Balayon, Baraya, Balayong; V., Barnion, Balayon, Barion, Balaon, Barayon; Pang., Ipel. Remarks. — Pahudia rhomboidea Prain (Afzelia rhomboidea Vid.) yields the wood known as Tindalo. AMUGUIS. StructuTal qualities. — Amuguis is a structiu-al wood of medium quality, being fairly strong, brittle, moderately heavy and hard. Appearance, color, and grain. — Amuguis is reddish brown in color and is rather fine gi-ained. Uses. — Amuguis is used in ordinary construction and in cabinetwork. Provinces leading in production. — Ambos Camarines, Mindoro, Albay, Tayabas, Tarlac, and Masbate. Sizes. — On a coastal plain in Mindoro the average diameter of 185 trees of Koor- dersiodendron pinnatvm Merr. 16 inches (40 centimeters) and over is 25 inches (63 cen- timeters), and the average clear length of 10 trees is 33 feet (10 meters). In Baler, Tayabas, the average diameter of all trees of Amuguis, on 81 acres, 8 inches (20 centi- meters) and over is 13 inches (33 centimeters) and the maximum diameter is 31 inches (79 centimeters.) Common names. — T., Amuguis, Amoguis, Ambogues, Palosanto; V., Danguila, Sambaluyan, Amoguis, Ambogues, Muguis, Sambulauan, Calumanog; II., Bancalari; B., Carugcog; Neg.,Twi. Remarks. — Koordersiodendron pinnatum Merr. is the only species that yields the wood Amuguis. ACLE. Structural qualities. — The wood of Acle is moderately heavy and hard, quite durable, and seasons well. Appearance, color, and grain. — This is one of the most beautiful Philippine woods. It has a rich dark- brown color and is fine grained. It resembles English walnut and WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 643 is usually given a walnut finish. Whon plain sawn it presents a large irregular figure, but when quarter sawn the grain appears liner. Uses. — Acle is highly valued for line furniture and cabine'tmaking. Plain sawn lumber is preferable for large siuf aces and quarter sawn for small surfaces and panels. This wood is considered as good as walnut for gunstocks, but has not yet been used commercially for that piu'pose. Provinces leading in production. — Masbate, Zambales, Tayabas, Union, Cagayan, and Pangasinan. Sizes. — Acle is a tree with a short irregular bole. Commonnames. — T., Acle; II., Anaguep, Quitaquita; V., Tabalangi, Langit. Remarks. — Pithecolobium acle Vid. is the only tree that yields the wood known as Acle. BETIS. Structural qualities. — Betis is a high grade structural timber, being very hard, heavy, strong, and durable. It lasts well in the ground and is fairly resistant against the attack of sea worms (teredo). Appearance, color, and grain. — Betis is a light brown to purplish color and is very finegrained. Uses. — Betis is used in general high-grade construction, where strength and dura- bility are essential. It is used in shipbuilding and for piles and posts. Provinces leading in production. — Leyte, Ambos Camarines, Tayabas, Isabela, and Cagayan. Common names. — T., Betis, Pailan, Bayacao, Betes, Betis lalaque, Bitis; Cag., Pagpagan, Pailan, Pappagay; Pang., Bacayao; B., Baniti; V., Banicac; II., Bacayao. Remarks. — Illipe betis Merr. is the only tree that is known to yield the wood Betis. BANSALAGUIN. Structural qxialities. — Bansalaguin is a valuable structural timber, being very hard heavy, strong, brittle, and durable. Large sizes of it check somewhat in seasoning, and it is hard to saw. Appearance, color, and grain. — Bansalaguin has a dull reddish color and is very fine grained. Uses. — Bansalaguin is a first-class construction timber and is used for posts, for ship- building, as tool handles, and in turnery. Provinces leading in production. — Tayabas, Uocos Sur, Pangasinan, Cagayan, Abra, and Masbate. Common names. — T., Bansalaguin, Bansaldgin, Bansaldgon, BansalAgue, Cabiqui, Pasac; V., Bansalague, Bansalogue, Talipopo; Z., Pasac; B., Bansalagui. Remarks. — Mimusops elengi L. is the only tree that is known to yield the wood Ban- salaguin. PALO MARIA. Structural qualities. — Palo Maria is a good construction timber; is hard, moderately heavy, and fairly strong and durable. It is inclined to warp slightly. Appearance, color, and grain. — Palo Maria has a reddish color, is fine grained, and takes a beautiful finish. It has an irregular figure, which is caused by part of the fibers running perpendicular to the surface. Uses. — Palo Maria is used in general construction, for masts, and for hubs and turn- ery. It is very valuable for fine furniture. Provinces leading in production. — Ilocos Sur, Uocos Norte, Isabela, Pangasinan, and Mindoro. Common names. — Palo Maria de la Playa: T., Bitanhol, Bancalan, Dancalan, Ding- calin, Palo Maria, Palo Maria de la Playa, Tamauian; U., Bitog, Bitaog, Pamitaoguen, Pamitlaten, Bitaosy, Biroy, Vitog, Bansangal, Pamitlain, Pamitclaten, Sarumayer; Z., Bitoc, Birog, Bitaoi; Cag., Dancalan; V., Bitaog, Dancalan, Bitanghol, Pamita- ogon, Bitaob; Pamp., Bitaog, Palo Maria, Bitaob; B., Dancalan. Palo Maria del Monte: T., Batinan-amo. Remarks. — There are two species, used indiscriminately, that produce the wood known as Palo Maria, and which resemble each other very closely. Calophyllum inophyllum L. is known as Palo Maria de la Playa and grows only on the seacoast. Calophyllum wallichianum, PI. et Tr., found inland, is known as Palo Maria del Monte. The latter has a straighter grain and is not so beautiful as the former in finished work. Palo Maria del Monte, however, is more easily polished. baTitinan. Structural qualities. — Bitatinan is a structural timber of good quality, being hard, durable, and heavy. Appearance, color, and grain. — Batitinan is light yellow to olive green in color and has a fine and straight grain. 644 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. Uses. — Batitinan is used in general construction and for posts and sleepers. Provinces leading in ^production. — Tayabas, Ilocos Sur, Ambos Camarines, Rizal, and Misamis. Common names. — T., Batitinan; B., Tinaan; II., Magatululung, Lasila, Bingas; V., Miao, Saguimsim ; Pamp., Batitian; Pang., Baticalag; province unknown, Nathubo, Lurdate, Bugaron, Mafiglate. Remarks. — The only species known to yield the timber called Batitinan is Lager- stroemia batitinan Vid. ARANGA. Structural qualities. — Aranga is very hard, heavy, strong, and durable. It is one of the most valuable woods in sea water, for it withstands well the action of the sea worm (teredo). It is usually clear and sound, and seasons without difficulty. Appearance, color, and grain, — Aranga is light yellow in color and fine grained. Uses. — Aranga is used as piling and in construction in sea water almost exclusively. It is, however, a very valuable timber for high grade construction. Provinces leading in production. — Ambos Camarines and Tayabas. Common names.-^T., Aranga, Arangan; V., Arang, Puyot, Ampupuyot; II., Arangin, Cuela. Remarks. — Homalium luzoniense F. Vill., //. panayanum F. Vill., and H. villarianum Vid. are the three species that probably yield the timber known as Aranga. H. pana- yanum is known among the Visayans as Puyot. Structural qualities. — Banuyo is moderately heavy and moderately hard, but is not very strong. It is easily worked. Appearance, color, and grain. — The wood of Banuyo is golden brown in color and has a fine grain, similar to that of Acle. It is often finished in its natural color and sometimes stained a dark brown and given an Acle finish. Uses. — Banuyo is used in making fine furniture and in cabinetwork. Its beauty is only beginning to be appreciated. It is used to some extent in light construction. Provinces leading in production. — Masbate, Negros Occidental, and Ambos Camarines. Common name. — T., Banuyo. Remarks. — The scientific name of the tree that yields the wood known as Banuyo is not known. BALACBACAN. Structural qualities. — Balacbacan is moderately heavy, very soft, and brittle. It seasons well and is easily worked. Appearance, color, and grain. — Balacbacan is reddish brown in color and coarse grained. Uses. — Balacbacan is used in light or temporary construction and for inferior cabinet- work. Province leading in production. — Negros Occidental. Sizes. — In the island of Negros the average diameter of 620 trees 16 inches (40 centi- meters) and over is 27 inches (69 centimeters), and the average merchantable length of 6 trees is 69 feet (21 meters) for Balacbacan or Tanguile {Shoi'ea polysperma Merr.). In the same stand, for the tree known as Mangachapuy (see below) measurement of 1,142 trees 16 inches (40 centimeters) and over shows the average diameter to be 34 inches (86 centimeters), and the merchantable length (average of 23 trees) is 72 feet (22 meters). Commonnames. — T., Tanguile, Panonsongin, Tangili, Tanguili, Tangile; II., Bunga, Tamug, Araca; V., Balacbacan, Mangachapuy, Babanganon; B., Adamuy. Remarks. — The wood that is sold on the market for Balacbacan comes from two species of Shorea. A small portion of it comes from Shorea polysperma Merr., and is known by the Visayan name of Balacbacan. The larger portion of it, however, comes from a tree known by the Visayans as Mangachapuy, which is an unidentified species of Shorea. Both woods have also the common name of Tanguile (see p. 640) and Red Lauan. MAYAPIS. Structural qualities. — Mayapis is a light, soft wood and is not durable. Appearance, color, and grain. — Mayapis is white and gray in color and coarse grained. Uses. — Mayapis is used in light or temporary construction. Provinces leading m production. — Laguna, Tayabas, Bataan, and Cagayan. Sizes. — In Baler, Tayabas, measurements of all trees 8 inches (20 centimeters) and over in diameter, on 31 acres, show that Mayapis has an average diameter of 26 inches WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES, 645 (66 centimeters), a maximum diameter of 75 inches (190 centimeters), and an average merchantable length of 68 feet (21 meters). Common name. — T., Mayapis. Remarks. — The tree that yields most of the lumber known as Mayapis is probably Anisoptera vidaliana Brandis, though other species of Anisoptera and some species of Shorea are known as Mayapis. MALUGAY. Structural qualities. — The most important property of Malugay is toughness, a qual- ity quite uncommon among Philippine woods. It bends well when steamed, is fairly strong and stiff, and has long fibers. It is moderately heavy and moderately hard, but easily worked. It is usually free from defects and shrinks considerably while seasoning, but does not check badly. Appearance, color, and grain. — Malugay ranges in color from reddish to white and is fine grained. Uses. — Malugay is used for ribs and planking for small boats; in interior trim; for cabinetwork, and for general construction. Provinces leading in production. — Malugay is abundant in Mindoro but is not mar- keted from other parts of the Archipelago.. Common nam^. — T., Malugay. Remarks. — This wood has only recently been introduced into the Manila market and at present is not used extensively. It is an excellent wood in many respects and will undoubtedly come into greater favor. The scientific name of the tree that yields Mal\igay is not as yet known. From imperfect botanical material it is known to be a member of the Anacardiacex, and probably belongs to the genus Dracontomelum. Structural qualities. — Sasalit is a very hard, heavy, close-grained, and durable wood. Small knots and checks are quite common. Appearance, color, and grain. — It has the color of Molave — that is, a pale-yellow color — and is fine grained. Uses. — Sasalit is used for posts, general house construction, and is considered as good as Molave for these purposes. Provinces leading in production. — Zambales, Bataan, and Negros Occidental. Sizes. — In the island of Negros the average diameter of 173 trees 12 inches (30 centi- meters) and over of Dungula {Vitex aherniana Merr.) is 15 inches (37 centimeters). In Baler, Tayabas, the average of all trees of Igang ( Vitex aherniana) 8 inches (20 centi- meters) and over, on 81 acres, is 12 inches (30 centimeters), the maximum diameter is 38 inches (96 centimeters), and the clear length is 33 feet (10 meters). Commonnames. — Z., Sasalit; Baler, Tayabas, Igang; V., Dungula. Remarks. — The tree that yields the tim1:)er known as Sasalit is Vitex aherniana Merr. It is a wood very similar to Molave in quality, but trees of it do not reach very large dimensions. Structural qualities. — Liusin is a very hard, heavy, strong, and durable wood. It withstands well the action of the sea worm (teredo). Appearance, color, and grain. — Liusin is white and reddish in color, and is fine grained. Uses. — Liusin is used in piling, for wharf construction, and for shipbuilding. It is considered one of the best woods for construction exposed to sea water. Provinces leading in production. — Bataan and Zambales. Common names. — T., Liusin; V., Sampinit. Remarks. — The only tree that is known to yield Liusin is Parinarium griffithianum Benth. LUMBAYAO. Structural qualities. — Lumbayao is a soft and moderately heavy wood of medium quality. It seasons well and is usually free from defects. Appearance, color, and grain. — Lumbayao has a reddish-brown color and is coarse grained. Uses. — Lumbayao is used in general construction. Province leading in production. — Moro. Remarks. — This wood is marketed in Zamboanga, Iloilo, and Cebu, but is not brought to Manila. The scientific name of the tree that yields the wood is unknown. 646 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. Table IV. — Summary of mechanical tests on thirty-two species of American woods. [From Tables I, II, IV, V, and VI, Circular No. 15, Division of Forestry, United States Department of Agriculture.] Kind of wood. Specific gravity of dry wood. Fiber stress at relative (appar- ent) elas- tic limit (pounds per square inch). Modules of rup- ture (pounds per square inch) . Modulus of elas- ticity (1,000 po'unds per square inch) . .Stress at rupture com- pression along the grain (pounds per square inch) . Stress at rupture shearing along the grain; not re- duced for moisture (pounds per square inch) . Reduced to 15 per cent moisture. O.Gl .63 .51 .53 .38 .50 .44 .46 .37 .51 .80 .74 .80 .74 .73 .73 .72 .73 .72 .73 .81 .85 .73 .77 .78 .78 .89 .54 .74 .62 .62 .59 8,500 9,500 7,200 8,200 0,400 7,700 8,400 6,600 5,800 6,400 9,600 7,500 8,400 7,600 9,200 9,400 8,100 8,800 7,400 8,600 11,200 11,700 9,800 11,100 9,300 11,500 12,600 7,300 8,000 7,900 8,900 7.800 10,900 11,900 9,200 10,100 7,900 9,100 10,000 7.900 6,300 7,900 13, 100 11,300 12, 300 11,500 11,400 13, 100 10,800 12,400 10, 400 12,000 16,000 15,200 12,500 15,000 12,500 15,300 18, 700 10,.S00 13, 500 10, 800 11,600 9,500 1,890 2,300 1,600 1,950 1,390 1,620 1,640 1,290 910 1,680 2,090 1,620 2,030 1,610 1,970 1,860 1,740 2,000 1,750 1,930 2,390 2,. 320 2,080 2,280 1,940 2,530 2,730 1,540 1,700 1,640 2,050 1,700 6,900 7,SO0 5,900 6,500 5,400 6,700 7,300 6,000 5,200 5,700 8,500 7,300 7,100 7,400 7,200 8,100 7,300 7,800 7,200 7,700 9,500 10, 100 8, 400 9,600 8,800 9,100 10,900 6,500 8,000 7,200 8,000 7,100 700 700 Shortleaf Pine 700 700 Reduced to 12 per cent moisture. White Pine 400 Red Pine 500 800 500 White Cedar . 400 500 White Oak 1,000 1,000 Post Oak 1,100 900 Red Oak 1,100 900 Yellow Oak 1,100 Water Oak 1,100 Willow Oak 900 900 1,100 1,100 1,000 1,000 1,100 1,200 Pignut Hickory 1,200 White Elm 800 1,300 White Ash 1,100 1,000 Sweet Gum 800 a Actual tests on "dry" material not reduced for moisture. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 647 Table V. — Results of tests on thirteen Borneo woods. Kind of wood. Selangan Batu (Bor- neo Yaeal) Penagah Merabau ( Borneo Ipil) Camphor Billian (Ironwood) Kruen Seraiah Mira (Borneo Cedar) Seraiah Puleh Selangan Kacha ObaSuluk Rungus (Borneo Rose- wood) Gagil Griting (Borneo Oak).. Num- ber of beams tested. Average per cent of mois- ture. 27.6 11.6 21 21.2 22.5 22.7 16.2 28.1 27.4 18.1 28.6 31.6 25.7 Average specific gi-avity of dry wood. 0.689 .594 .965 .61 .96 .542 .507 .493 .,563 .582 .55 .43 .706 Average fiber stress at ap- parent elastic limit (pounds per square jnch). 7,700 5,875 Average modulus of rup- ture (pounds per square inch). 8,700 8,070 11,860 Average modulus of elas- ticity (1,000 pounds per square inch). 2,027 1,140 2,505 1,900 2,384 1,604 1,299 1,554 1,731 1,283 1,890 1,385 1,586 Average stress at rupture com- pression along grain (pounds per square inch) . Average stress at rupture shearing along grain j (pounds per square inch) . 7,420 6,020 9,035 6,540 11,290 4,840 4,920 5, 195 6,530 5,270 5,555 4,960 7,590 755 880 1,030 557 895 653 614 547 612 840 633 715 906 Note. — All beams were clear and sound. Table VI. — Comparison of selected Philippine, Borneo, and American u'oods. Name. Locality. Compression, along the grain. Aver- age per cent mois- ture. Average stress at rupture (pounds per square inch) . Cross-bending. Aver- age per cent mois- ture. Average modulus of rup- ture (pounds per square inchK Average modulus of elas- ticity (1,000 pounds per square inch) . Aver- age specific grav- ity of dry wood. Iron- Aranga Billian (Borneo wood). Pignut Hickory Dungon " Yacal Merabau (Borneo Ipil)... White Oak Molave Guijo Selangan Batu (Borneo Yacal). Apitong Longleaf Pine Ipil Lauan Oregon Pine California Redwood Philippine Islands. Borneo United States Philippine Islands. do ■ Borneo United States Philippine Islands. do Borneo Philippine Islands. United States Philippine Islands. do United States do 4.9 22.5 12 10.7 1.3.4 21 12 12.7 14.6 27.6 14.4 15 17.7 12.4 12 13.3 12,420 11,290 10,900 9,420 9,220 9,035 8,500 8,330 7,940 7,420 7,250 6,900 6,570 6,180 5,700 5,560 5.6 22.5 12 11.6 15.6 21 12 10.4 13.7 27.6 14 15 18.1 10.4 12 12.3 17,920 19,660 18,700 17,110 15,690 18,830 13,100 8,580 15,150 12,325 11,620 10,900 6,980 9,760 7,900 9,110 2,419 2,384 2,730 2,209 2,583 2,505 2,090 1,614 2,158 2,027 2,144 1,890 1,,383 1,653 1,680 1,320 0.859 .78 .857 .843 .965 .80 .785 .708 .689 .645 .61 .792 .446 .51 445 Part II. PHILIPPINE SAWMILLS, LUMBER MARKET, AND PRICES. Manila is the principal lumber market of the Philippine Islands. Here are located five of the most important mills. Timber is being shipped to them from all parts of the islands. Three of these mills are equipped with heavy band saws and other modern machinery. The other mills are equipped with vertical gang and circular saws. The combined sawing capacity of the five mills is about 100,000 board-feet per day. One mill has a capacity of 30,000 board-feet, two of 20,000 board-feet, and two of 15,000 board-feet per day. During the early operations of the mills in Manila they had to contend with numerous difficulties; Filipino labor was unreliable; many of the hard woods were difficult to saw, and it was impossible to secure a sufficient supply of logs from the provinces with regularity. Conditions have improved, however, during the past two years, and the 648 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 4. . mills are now operating in a very satisfactory manner. They now saw all commercial woods without difficulty, and are depending more and more upon their own cuttings to supply logs to meet their requirements. With proper training, Filipinos are found to be apt in handling machinery. Two of the mills have recently been running at night to fill orders. Some confusion exists in the market regarding the identity of a few of the leading commercial woods. This is especially true of Lauan. At least six different woods are now being marketed under that name. From the commercial standpoint this is not important, however, as all of these woods resemble the true Lauan {Shorea conlorta) closely and are of about the same quality. There are several different kinds of wood being sold for Apitong, and occasionally Apitong is sold for Guijo. Lauan, Apitong, and Guijo are used to a larger extent than any other fifteen native woods. Logs are bought and sold by the Spanish cubic foot. One Spanish cubic foot equals 0.765 of an English cubic foot. Lumber is bought and sold by the thousand English board-feet. In sawing the average-sized logs that are brought into the market, between 5 and 6^ board-feet are obtained from 1 Spanish cubic foot, but in the large-sized logs sometimes as high as 8 board-feet are cut from 1 Spanish cubic foot. Until quite recently it has been practically impossible to obtain well-seasoned lumber in the market. The mills have been accustomed to sawing to order; conse- quently lumber was seldom in the yards a sufficient length of time to become seasoned. There were no facilities for kiln drying lumber in large quantities. Two small kilns were erected several years ago, but they were of small capacity and have not been used extensively. One of the leading mills has recently installed a kiln of about 50,000 board-feet capacity, which is operating veiy satisfactorily. This kiln is capable of drying 100,000 board-feet or more of native lumber per month, the amount depending upon the texture and thickness of the lumber. This concern is now usiftg kiln-dried native lumber in its cabinet factory and is preparing to kiln dry Oregon Pine and Cal- ifronia Redwood for use in its planing mill. A considerable amount of imported lumber is still used in the islands. Most of this is Oregon Pine and California Redwood. During the period from July 1, 1904, to June 30, 1905, 29,679,644 board-feet of lumber and timber, and 9,261 pieces of timber (dimen- sions not known) were imported. During the same period 139,148.77 cubic meters of native timber were cut. If this were all sawn into lumber it would make about 40,000,000 board-feet. The price of logs fluctuates from day to day. The following table gives the Manila market prices on August 1, 1906. Manila market prices. [Philippine currency.] Kind of wood. Logs per Spanish cubic foot. Sawing per 1,000 English board-feet. Lumber per 1,000 English board-feet. Lauan P-0.30-0.35 .35- .37 .50- .65 .80- .90 .65-1.00 .70- .80 .75-1.00 .33- .45 .40- .75 .76- .85 .80- .90 .65- .70 .40 .40- .75 .65-1.20 .78-1.00 .40- .75 .85-1.20 .70-1.00 .45- .85 .75- .80 .65- .75 .50- .75 .55- 75 .60- .65 .35 .35 ri3. 00-15. 00 16.00-18.00 16.00-18.00 21.00-23.00 21.00-23.00 16.00-23.00 16.00-23.00 13.00-18.00 15.00-18.00 21.00-23.00 38.00-40.00 21.00-23.00 18.00 15.00-18.00 13.00-15.00 21.00-23.00 18.00-21.00 16.00-23.00 38.00-40.00 . 23.00 18.00 21.00-23.00 21.00-23.00 16.00-18.00 16.00-23.00 13.00-18.00 15 00 P70.00- 90.00 Apitong . . 90.00-115.00 Guijo 98.00-140.00 Molave . . 215.00-300.00 Yacal 160.00-200.00 Yellow Narra 225. 00-275. 00 Red Narra 250. 00-300. 00 Tanguile 95. 00-120. 00 Sacat 100.00-150.00 Ipil 180. 00-225. 00 Dungon 220. 00-300. 00 Supa 140. 00-220. 00 Balacat 100.00 Macaasin 110.00-150.00 Calantas 180. 00-200. 00 Tindalo 250. 00-300. 00 Amuguis .. . 110.00-150.00 Acle 280.00-350.00 Betis . ... 250.00-300.00 Bansalaguin 150. 00-260. 00 Palo Maria 175.00-185.00 Batitinan 150. 00-280. 00 Aranga 150.00-160.00 Banuyo 140.00-220.00 Malugay 95.00-130.00 Balacbacan 70.00- 90.00 Mayapis 90.00 The government stumpage charges in the provinces where large stands of timt ^r are found range irom $1 to $5 gold per 1,000 board-feet. WOOD TESTS SAWMILLS PRICES. 649 Aside from the logging Avhich is carried on to supply the Manila mills, there is some logging in connection with mills located in the provinces. The operations of one company in Negros Occidental are probably more extensive than those of any other company in the provinces. Their mill has a capacity of about 20,000 board feet per day, but the daily cut is less than 10,000 board feet. The trees known by the Visayan names of Balacbacan, Mangachapuy, and Almon are being cut principally; the first two are sold in Iloilo and Manila as Red Lauan or Balacbacan. Almon has the market name of White Lauan. This company has recently purchased a narrow-gauge railway for use in logging and contemplates putting in a new mill, with a much larger capacity, in the near future. Another company has a mill located on the island of Basilan, which is cutting about 6,000 board feet of lumber per day. This lumber is marketed in Zamboanga, Iloilo, and Cebu. The Zamboanga prices quoted by this company are as follows: Per 1,000 board-feet. Lumbayao ^72. 00 Guijo 80. 00 Calantas 80. 00 Yacal 140. 00 Camagon 300. 00 Tindalo 180. 00 Ipil 180. 00 Lauan 50. 00 Narra 200.00 Planing, F7 extra per 1,000 board-feet. Another company, a l^ranch of a Manila milling company, has recently installed in Mindoro a circular-saw mill, with a capacity of 5,000 to 10,000 board-feet per day. In the near future this company will have the mill operating at full capacity and will ship lumber to Manila. Near Baguio, Benguet, there is a mill for sawing Benguet pine, which sells in Baguio and vicinity for ^"85 to ^"95 per 1,000 board-feet. The maximum capacity of the mill is 3,000 board-feet per day, and the average daily cut is 2,000 board-feet. In the near future this company will have a new sawmill in operation in the same locality. A small mill has recently been installed at Gattaran, Cagayan, which supplies Aparri and the towns up the Cagayan River with lumber. This mill charges P'O.SO per Eng- lish cubic foot for Ih-st-group timber in the log, and ^"20 per 1,000 board-feet for sawing. About 2,500 board-feet per day is the capacity of a mill which is cutting Agoho ( Casu- arina equisetifolia Forst.) almost exclusively at San Antonio, in the province of Tarlac. This is put on the market at Manila for P'lOO per 1,000 board-feet. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. (Bulletin No. 5.) A PRELIMINARY WORKING PLAN FOR THE PUBLIC FOREST TRACT OF THE INSULAR LUMBER COMPANY, NEGROS OCCIDENTAL, P. I.a By H. D. Eve RETT, /oresie/', in charge of forest district No. 8, and H. N. Whitford, Ph. D. forester, chief of the division of forest products. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Manila, September 24, 1906. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a manuscript entitled "A Preliminary- Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental, P. I.." by H. D. Everett, forester, in charge of forest district No. 8, and H. N. Whitford, forester, chief of the division of forest products, and respectfully recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 5. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, The Secretary of the Interior, Manila, P. I. INTRODUCTION. Director of Forestry. The following working plan has been prepared: First. To furnish a prescribed plan for the regulation and management of the large tract of public forest in the island of Negros granted to the Insular Lumber Company for a period of twenty years. Second. To secure accurate information concerning the timber of an important forest region of the Philippine Islands. Third. To give the native rangers employed in the bureau of forestry needed training in forest field work. Field work was begun May 1, 1906, and completed June 15, 1906. Two foresters, one assistant forester, three native rangers, and a constantly changing force of six to fifteen laborers were engaged in the work. Owing to the short time available for the field work, some interesting information was not secured which would add to the com- pleteness and detail of the report. The field work divided itself into three parts: First, forest map; second, botanical survey; third, collection of data for forest management. There were made 135 acres of valuation surveys of standing timber, 15 reproduction plots, volume measurements of 57 felled trees, measurement of area logged, valuation surveys in logged area, sylvicultural studies of the principal species, a study of the logging operation, collection of log specimens of the principal species, and a general botanical collection of trees and other plants growing on the tract. Two base lines were run through the concession 8 kilometers long and 5 kilometers apart, with stations marked every one-half kilometer. Then from each kilometer a The following illustrations accompanying this report have been omitted and are on file in the War Department: Plate I. Cutting alargeAlmon tree. (Frontispiece.) II. Mangachapuy seedlings in the forest. III. Clearing on logged land. IV. Characteristic caiiigins under rude cultivation. V. Hauling engine at the landing. VI. Bridge on the hauling road. VII. Yarding engine at the end of the hauling road. VIII. Cutting up a large Man- gachapuy tree. IX. Forest in good condition after logging. X. Forest in poor condi- tion after logging. XI. General view of the sawmill site. XII. Sawmill of the Insular Lumber Company. Map of the forest tract on the Himugaan River, Negros Occidental, P. I., operated under a twenty-year license agreement by the Insular Lumber Company. 651 652 FORESTKY BULLETIN NO. 5. station, valuation survey lines were run east and west of the base line. The trees 5 meters, or 1 rod, each side of these survey lines were calipered as nearly as possible at the point just above the main buttresses. In this manner about 29 per cent of the total area of the tract was surveyed with the actual measurement of the trees on 1 per cent of this area. The figures for stand of timber in the report are based on this measure- ment. Since the merchantable forest on the tract is remarkably uniform in composi- tion and density, it is believed that the figures can be applied to the entire area of upland or merchantable forest. However, it is better to -confine their application to the area lying between the Himugaan and Hitalon rivers, where the surveys were made. This working plan is provisional only and should be revised as soon as complete data in regard to the tract is secured. It will serve as a guide for the next few years, while the Insular Lumber Company is initiating extensive operations. As much field work as possible should be done on the tract each year, with the revision of the plan in mind. Part I. STATEMENT OF THE FACTS UPON WHICH THE WORKING PLAN IS BASED. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TRACT. SITUATION AND AREA. The tract of the Insular Lumber Company is situated in the municipalities of Cadiz and Sagay, province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros, P. I., approxi- mately in latitude 10° 50^ north and longitude 123° 30' east of Greenwich. Its area is 69 square miles, or 44,160 acres (18,000 hectares), of which approximately 39,660 acres (16,060 hectares) are forested and the remaining 4,500 acres cultivated, waste land, and recent clearings. The tract lies on the lower slopes of Mount Silay, just back of the coastal strip of sugar lands, here about 6 miles wide, and consists of two adjoining parts, the upper and smaller of which lies to the south of the lower along the Himugaan River. It is a part of the large and similar forest which extends from Escalante to Silay, some 50 miles, lying 6 to 15 miles back from the coast and extending far into the interior. In some places, as on the Himugaan River, it occupies rolling and hilly lands, and in others, as near Silay, it has been driven back to the steep foothills. BOUNDARIES. Lower tract. — Beginning at a point on the left bank of the Himugaan River, at the mouth of Lumbunao Creek, about 6 miles south of the coast line; thence the bound- aries run east-southeast for about 6 miles to a point 1 mile due south of Baobao Hill ; thence south-southwest 5 miles; thence west- northwest 12 miles; thence north-north- east 5 miles; thence east-southeast 6 miles to the starting point; in all, an area of 60 square miles. Upper tract. — Beginning at a point on the southern boundary of the lower tract, IJ miles east-southeast of the Himugaan River, the boundaries run south-southwest Smiles; thence west-northwest 3 miles; thence north-northeast, 3 miles; thence east- southeast along the southern boundary of the lower tract to the starting point; in all, an area of 9 square miles. The boundary lines are not marked in any way. They are bordered by dense forest on the east, south, and west, and by alternating patches of forest, waste land, and cultivated land on the north. PHYSIOGRAPHY. The land is characterized by gentle slopes, with alternating ridges at the base of Mount Silay. The elevation ranges from 100 feet at points on the northern boundary to 1,200 feet at the highest point on the southern boundary. Small streams and arroyos are scattered profusely over the tract. Four large rivers drain the tract and small tributary streams are numerous. The Himugaan River, flowing in a deep, winding valley through the middle, drains about 65 per cent of the area. It is the largest of the four rivers and is navigable by small steamers as far as the company's sawmill, about 6 miles from its mouth. The Hitalon and Talabon rivers drain the extreme western and the Tanoa River the eastern parts of the tract. WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 653 SOIL AND UNDERLYING ROCK. The rock and soil are practically uniform throughout the tract. The former is a black igneous rock, which rapidly disintegrates, forming a deep, stiff clay soil, brown in color. The soil is evidently fertile, as it yields good crops of corn and sugar cane where it is now under cultivation. The rock outcrops along the streams and frequently occurs as bowlders on the surface of the ground. The climate of this region is tropical. Extreme heat, however, is moderated by the influence of the surrounding waters and by the cool sea breezes, which blow almost constantly. These are the northeast monsoon, which prevails from about June to November 1, and the southwest monsoon, from November 1 to June 1, with short periods of variable winds at the times when the monsoons change. The coolest time of year is from November to March, and the hottest from March to June. The follow- ing table gives the average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures for 1903 at Bacolod, Negros Occidental. They are probably slightly higher than they should be for the immediate neighborhood of the tract. Table I. — Temperature at Bacolod, Negros Occidental, 1903. Monrt. Januarj'- February March . . . April May June Average monthly tem- perature. Maxi- Mini- mum. mum. °F. °F. 86 72.6 85.6 71.8 88.5 70.5 91.6 73 91.8 74.6 88.8 74.6 Month. July August . . . September October. .. November December. Average monthly tem- perature. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. °F. 73.8 73.2 73.2 73.4 73.8 73.2 There are two general seasons, wet and dry. From January 15 to May 15 the weather is dry, although showers are often frequent during the latter part of January and the beginning of May. From May 15 to January 15 it is generally wet, with the greatest amount of rainfall in July, September, and October. The following table of monthly rainfall in Bacolod, Negros Occidental, and in Iloilo, Iloilo, is applicable in a general way to this tract, although it is important to remember that the northeast monsoon, bearing rain at the time most needed, strikes with more force on the north and north- east coast of Negros, where the tract is situated, than at Bacolod or Iloilo, and hence the dry season is probably considerably less pronounced than it is at Bacolod. The vegetation is, in consequence, much more luxuriant than in parts of the islands where the dry season is more extended . In the forest in question the trees are not without leaves at any time of the year. In other words, it is a typical evergreen tropical forest. Table II. — Rainfall. Month. January February March April May June July August September October November December Total (millimeters) Total (inches) Iloilo, Iloilo. 1903. mm. 5.5 1.5 3.3 4.8 165.6 244.3 427 186.2 146.3 245.6 124.5 528.3 2,082.9 82 1905. 2.8 8.9 32.4 60.7 175.8 603.1 277.5 148.8 342.8 60.6 1,761.4 69 Bacolod, Negros Occidental. mm. 51.3 13 6.3 2.8 91.3 178.1 334.6 200.2 298.4 223.3 149.7 429.2 1,978.2 78 mm. 31.4 3.1 1.6 1.1 112.1 145.9 388.7 425.5 227. 6 362.5 165.5 158.7 2,023.7 654 FORESTKY BULLETIN NO. 5. ROADS AND TRAILS. The tract is crossed by numerous foot and carabao trails, generally running in a north and south direction. They are used for the transport of bejuco and poles from the forest, and should be useful in the management and protection of the tract. Outside of the forest they unite with the main trails or roads leading to the towns and barios on the coast. These are uniformly bad foot and horse trails, almost impassable in the rainy season. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. The Filipinos of the region are Visayans, who live on the cleared land along the coast but seldom in the forest, and a few roaming families of Negritos in the interior. About forty-five Visayan families, exclusive of the employees of the company, live within the tract, nearly all of whom are in its northwest corner and in the valley of the Himu- gaan River. They live on small farms, or caiiigins, 5 to 50 acres in area, on which they grow corn, tobacco, and camotes. Generally they are also collectors of bejucos, which they sell in the neighboring sugar haciendas or in the coast towns. The chief occupations of the people of the costal strip of cleared land are fishing and farming. The principal agricultural products are sugar, corn, and tobacco. Sugar is grown on large estates, or haciendas, and requires considerable capital for its cultiva- tion. Corn and tobacco are mostly grown by the poorer people on small farms or caiii- gins. Owing to losses during the revolution and insurrection and to the destructive epidemic among the draft animals, many farms are abandoned at the present time. Nevertheless, the country is well settled. The municipality of Cadiz had a popula- tion of 16,429 and Sagay of 8,311 persons by the census of 1903. In general intelli- gence and industry the population is equal to that of any other agricultural region in the islands. The forest needs of the population are limited. The mangrove swamps on the coast supply most of the necessary firewood and small timbers. From the mountain forest they gather bejucos, vines, resins, palm leaves, small poles, and a few large trees, from which they shape their bancas, or dugouts. For their legitimate personal needs ^ which should be satisfied, an insignificant amount of forest products is required from the tract. OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND. The timbered area of the tract, comprising 39,660 acres, is public land. All of the remaining 4,500 acres of cultivated and waste lands are either owned or claimed by private persons. Their titles, or claims, are based principally on possession. In no known case has any title to this land been registered in the court of land registration. However, the claim should be recognized as far as possible and all residents left in possession of the land which they now occupy. THE COMPOSITION AND CONDITION OF THE FOREST. CHARACTERISTIC TYPES. On the tract there are three characteristic vegetative types. They are as follows: Waste-land type, river-valley forest type, and upland forest type. The two latter are natural; the first is the result of clearings made in the forest types. Waste-land type. — In the Philippines the vegetation that occupies clearings or par- tial clearings has the general Tagalog name of '' parang. "« The kind of woody vege- tation that springs up quickly in clearings is known by the Tagalogs as "calaanan" and by the Visayans as "late," and is merely a subtype of the "parang." The "parang," or waste-land type, together with a small amount of cultivated land, com- prises about 4,500 acres. A greater p^irt of this is occupied by the "late," the vegeta- tion of which is composed of quick-growing weed trees that have little or no value. The following species are the most characteristic: Trema amboinensis Blume (Jan- agdon), Psidium guayava L. (Bayabas), Homalanthus popiilneus Pax. (Balanti), Mal- lotus ncinoides " Muell. (Himlaamo), Breynia rhamnoides Muell. (Tulugtulug), Ficus hauili Blanco (Labnug), Musa sp. (Wild hemp), and many others. This type is only temporary and if protected from fire will gradually return to the- original forest con- dition. o See Vidal, D. Sebastian: Catdlogo Met6dico de las Plantas Lenosas Silvestres y Cultivadas observadas en la Provincia de Manila (1880), 9-10, for the original defini- tion of "parang;" also H. N. WTiitford: The vegetation of the Lamao Forest Reserve, Phil. Journ. Sci. (1906), 1: 388-398, and W. W. Maule: Parang and Cogonales in the Philippines, Forestry and Irrigation (1906), 12: 311-317, for more detailed accounts of "parang" vegetation. WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 655 River-valley type. — At the lower limits of the tract the Himugaan River is winding and distinct terraces have been formed. As the stream is ascended these terraces become more narrow until finally on the upper half of the tract they disappear entirely, the river itself occupying a deep, narrow canyon. The terraces are valuable for agri- cultural purposes and, as shown by the map, the original forest has been cleared from a large portion of them. Probably tliere are 2,000 acres that are still in original forest. This estimate, which is liberal, includes the forest on the terraces near the mouths of the principal branches. A hurried examination of this type shows it to be in a poor sylvicultural condition. It is characterized by many species, most of which are small, crooked, and defective. The undergrowth is a dense mass of climbing bamboo, bejucos (rattan), wild hemp, vines, and shrubs. The commercial unimportance of the trees makes it doubtful if the Insular Lumber Company will ever find it advis- able to log them. The land is better suited for agricultural than for forest purposes, consequently it may be found best to grant homesteads and permit caingins on it with- out consideration of the present forest growth. Upland-forest type. — The commercial forest of the tract is of the upland type and has an area of about 37,600 acres (15,200 hectares), or 85 per cent of the entire tract. The merchantable timber 'which is being lumbered is on this type. The upland for- est type, ranging from 150 to 1,200 feet elevation, covers the bi'oad gentle slopes and ridges which lead up to the foothills and peaks of Mount Silay. The slopes are cut up by a number of small streams and numerous arroyos. The forest itself is characterized by a numerous dominant stand of large over- mature trees belonging to the family Dipteroearpacece, with an undergrowth of many small trees, making a forest remarkable for its density and yield. The dominant trees important numerically and commercially are six in number, all Dipterocarps. They are Apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflonts Blanco), Almon (Shorea squamata Dyer), Balacbacan (Shorea polysperma Mcrr.), Mangachapuyo (Shorea sp.), Lauan-dunlog {Shorea contorta Vid.) and Lauan-bagtican {Shorea sp.). Of the 32.9 trees per acre 40 centimeters (16 inches) and over in diameter, 29.4, or nearly 90 per cent, are the above species. They occur well mixed on every acre of upland forest. The average diameter of trees 40 centimeters and over is 71 centi- meters (28 inches). The largest is Mangachapuy and the smallest Apitong. They are all tall, clear trees, with large buttresses, which attain a diameter of more than 150 centimeters (60 inches), a height of more than 60 meters (200 feet), and sometimes have a clear length of 30 to 40 meters (100 to 130 feet). The minor species, though they occur in large numbers, are too small and too varied in quality to be of any great importance commercially. The average diameter of trees 40 centimeters and over is 49 centimeters (19 inches). Those which occur in largest numbers and for which a commercial use may be found are Ata-ata {Diospijros sp.), Dungula {Vitex aherniana Merr.), Guisoc-guisoc {Hopea philippinensis Dyer), Bulog {Eugenia sp.), and Moabog {Canarium sp.). On the banks of small streams and in arroyos there is usually a very narrow fringe of small, unimportant trees. Here certain species are uniformly found. The most common are Astronia cumingiana Vid. and Kayea sp. The upland forest, compared to most tropical timber forests, is lacking in dense underbrush. (PI. II.) Climbing bamboos, bejucos, palms, and vines are regularly distributed through the forest, but only in a few spots, where an opening has been made admitting the light, do they form dense tangles, almost impossible to penetrate. As a rule, one can travel easily and steadily through the forest, cutting an occasional bamboo or bejuco from the path. The most common plants in the undergrowth are a Pandanns sp., bejucos, palms, climbing bamboos and vines, and numerous shrubs of the families Ruhiaceoi, Euphorhiacea:., Mclastom,acece, and others. The heavy shade prevents a dense herbaceous growth in the ground cover. The most common plants are vines, herbaceous plants and seedlings of trees, bejucos, and palms. The characteristic species are a Pandanus sp. and a large sedge {Mapania humilis Naves). The ground itself is remarkably free from litter. Heavy rains, insects, and fungi rapidly remove debris from the ground, leaving the soil bare, except for the scanty growth of small plants. The silvical condition of the forest is bad. Most of the dominant trees are over- mature and almost invariably diseased. The forest is balanced between growth and decay, with a big annual loss of increment which should be utilized. The mature and overmature trees should be removed as soon as possible to reduce the loss to a minimum and to enable the production of a second timber crop through the growth of the small trees and seedlings, which are abundant in the forest. a It should be stated here that this species is not the Mangachapuy of commerce. 33581—07 4 656 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. Reproduction of the tree species is abundant and well distributed in the upland forest. (PL II.) There is a regular assortment of seedlings, saplings, small poles, large poles, and small trees to take the place of the large trees as they drop out. The deep shade beneath the large trees aids germination by keeping down a rank suffo- cating growth of vines, herbs, and grasses, which spring up in abundance in openings. On the other hand, this lack of light makes it difficult for the seedlings and saplings to survive and grow. Only a few of the millions of seedlings in the virgin forest finally reach a size where growth to maturity is practically assured. In short, the ground is usually a good seed bed. Seedlings of all species are sufficiently abundant and well distributed. Few seedlings reach the pole size, but enough do so to provide for the future of the forest. The six principal species are well represented in the reproduction and evidently will continue to predominate in the forest in about the same proportions as in the past. They appear to seed periodically and abundantly. Seedlings of Mangachapuy and Almon are especially abundant at present, pointing to a recent heavy seeding of those species. The seeds of all appear to have germinated well. The seedlings endure considrable shade, and poles and small trees of all are present in satisfactory numbers. The advantage in shade endurance and persistency of growth under unfavorable conditions seems to lie with the Apitong and Almon. Table III gives the total number of seedlings and saplings of trees and all other plants entering into the underbrush and ground cover ascertained by actual count on 15 plots, of one square rod each, regularly distributed through the upland forest in block 4. Table III. — Tree reproduction and ground cover on 15 square rods {375 square vieters). Scientific name. Common name. Seedlings. Saplings. Dipterocarpus grandiflorus. Shorea squamata Shorea poly sperma Shorea sp Hopea philippinensis Vitex aherniana Diospyros sp Other tree species Palmse " Calamus spp Pandanus sp Mapania humilis Unknown plants b Dinochloa sp Total. Apitong Almon Balacbacan Mangachapuy . Guisoc-guisoc. Dungula Ata-ata Palms Bejucos, or rattans. Pandan Sedge Climbing bamboo. (<^) 4 169 41 1 19 57 155 45 29 215 583 (<:) 65 1 Species of the genera Livistona, Pinanga, Oncosperma, and others. b Mostly vines, some trees, with a few herbs and ferns. c Abundant but not counted. Table IV gives the average number per acre and hectare of poles and small trees of the six principal species, based on valuation surveys of 135 acres of upland forest in blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6. Table IV . — Stand / the small trees of the six principal species. stand per acre. Stand per hectare. Sc c a Diameter above but- tresses. bi a i ft J3 .0 M bb 3 & .Q <^ C ° d ^ Id o ■ft o .2 ■3 a 03 3 3 ■ft 6 .5 "3 P §•0 c 3 C S < < a S ^A H < < n s J H Inches. Cm. - 4. 7- 7. 5 12-19 3.43 3.47 1.01 1.29 0.65 9.85 8.47 8.58 2.51 3.18 1.61 24.35 7.9-11.4 20-29 3.89 3.34 1.56 1.81 1.14 11.74 9.61 8.25 3.86 4.48 2.82 29.02 11. 8-15. 7 30.39 2.18 1.86 .94 .94 .56 6.48 5.38 4.59 2.32 2.32 1.39 16 Total 9.50 33.8 8.67 30.9 3.51 12.5 4.04 14.4 2.35 8.40 28.07 100 23.46 21.42 8.69 9.98 5.82 69.37 1 a 1 hectare=2. 471 acres. WOKKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 657 Sylvic treatment of the upland forest for its perpetuation and the production of timber is not difficult. The composition of the forest and the sylvics of the trees render a selection system of cutting, with protection of the reproduction, safe and certain to secure the desired results. STAND AND YIELD OF UPLAND FOREST. The merchantable timber on the concession is practically all in the 37,600 acres of upland forest, which is about 85 per cent of the total area of the tract. The valuation surveys and other measurements made to determine the volume of merchantable tim- ber were confined to this type of forest. It is this type that the company will log, and to it that the chief provisions of the working plan apply. Stayid. — One hundred aiid thirty-five acres of the timber land in blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6 (mostly in 4 and 5), between the Hitalon and Himugaan rivers, were surveyed and the trees classified and measured according to species and diameter outside of the bark just above the main buttresses. From this data Tables V, VI, and VII were con- structed, showing the average number of trees per acre and hectare. Although the surveys were made in a part of the tract comprising but 29 per cent of the total area, owing to the homogeneous character of the forest and the conservative nature of the figures, it is believed that they can be applied to the entire area of upland forest with- out serious error. It is safer, however, to confine their application to blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6. Tables V, VI, and VII show the number of merchantable trees per acre and per hectare — that is, trees 40 centimeters and over in diameter. The six principal species are separated, except the two Lauans, which are comparatively few and nearly alike in all respects. The scarcity of the other species makes it inadvisable to separate them in this table. A tree 16 inches in diameter, besides its use for sawn lumber, will also serve for railroad ties and skids in road construction. Table V. — Nuraber of trees per acre 40 centimeters and over in diameter. [Average of 135 acres in blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6.] Lauan- Diameter above buttresses. Apitong. Almon. Balac- baean. Manga- chapuy. bagtican and Lauan- dunlog. Total. Other species. Grand total. Incites. Cm. 16 40 1.303 .800 0.548 0.6.52 0.400 3.703 1.185 4.888 • 18 45 1.334 .792 .518 .496 .260 3,400 .970 4.370 20 50 .933 .622 .446 .526 .185 2.712 .526 3.238 22 55 .740 .511 .303 .474 .170 2.198 .260 2.458 24 60 .763 .474 .385 .422 .111 2.155 .148 2.303 28 65 .659 .407 .429 .466 .140 2.101 .126 2.227 28 70 .451 .326 .266 422 .133 1.598 .066 1.664 30 (0 .446 .303 .237 .400 .096 1.482 .059 1.541 31 80 .260 .378 .223 .437 .074 1.372 .066 1 438 33 85 244 .355 .244 .370 .0.59 1.272 .037 1.309 35 90 .207 .185 .185 .281 .052 .910 .022 .932 37 95 .103 .133 .126 .318 .052 .732 .015 .747 39 100 .059 .207 .163 .289 .089 .807 .007 .814 41 105 .126 .260 .111 .446 .082 1.025 .007 1.032 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 .052 .015 .022 .022 .015 .007 .170 .155 .163 .044 .044 .066 .066 .037 .037 .066 .052 .066 .066 .074 .037 .393 .289 .370 .274 .237 .215 .281 .103 .118 .052 .096 .029 .037 .022 .015 .029 .022 .007 .710 .548 .643 .421 .399 .347 .354 .169 .170 .052 .117 .710 .548 .643 .421 .399 .347 .354 .169 .177 .0.52 .117 .007 .022 .015 .007 .007 .007 .007 .007 .030 .037 .037 Total 7.768 6.549 4.589 8.457 2.071 ' 29. 434 3.501 32.935 Percentage... 23.6 19.9 13.9 25.7 6.3 89.4 10.6 lOO 658 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. Table VI. — Number of trees per hectare Diameter above but- tresses. Apitong. Almon. Balac- baean. Manga- chapuy. bagtican and Lauan- dunlog. Total. Inches. Cn. 16 40 3.60 2.21 1.51 1.80 1.10 10.22 18 45 4.93 2.94 1.92 1.83 .96 12.58 20 50 4.60 3.08 2.20 2.60 .92 13.40 22 55 4.57 3.05 1.87 2.92 1.05 13.40 24 60 5.98 3.72 3.02 4.45 .86 18.03 26 65 6.26 3.84 4.07 4.41 1.34 19.92 28 70 5.10 3.72 3.03 4.78 1.52 18.15 30 75 5.94 4.05 3.18 5.34 1.30 19.81 31 80 4.00 5.82 3.44 6.76 1.12 21.14 33 85 4.36 6.39 4.36 8.61 1.02 22.74 35 90 4.28 3.86 3.86 5.79 1.09 18.88 37 95 2.35 3.10 2.91 7.33 1.22 16.91 39 100 1.48 5.39 4.23 7.50 2.32 20.92 41 105 3.66 7.55 3.18 12.98 2.36 29.73 43 no 1.70 5.51 2.10 12.73 .93 22.97 45 115 .54 5.51 1.88 10.29 1.32 19.54 47 120 .86 6.40 2.56 14.56 .86 25.24 49 125 .94 1.92 2.79 11.87 .65 18.17 51 130 .70 2.09 3.42 11.21 1.35 18.77 53 135 .37 3.26 1.85 10.81 • 1.10 17.39 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 3.47 2.08 2.15 14.97 5.70 6.87 3.17 6.00 .39 18.83 9.42 9.89 3.17 7.35 .41 1.23 .87 .45 .45 .45 .46 1.90 2.36 Total 66.63 92.02 59.93 185. 18 25.23 428.99 WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 661 For a safe and conservative estimate of the merchantable timber per acre, an allow- ance for defects should be made of about 20 per cent for Apitong, 40 per cent for Man- gachapuy, and 30 per cent for Balacbacan, Almon, Lauan-bagtican, and Lauan-dunlog. This allowance is made in Tables XI and Xll. Since it may be advisable to place the merchantable diameter or cutting limit at 20 inches instead of 16 inches, the merchant- able stand and yield for trees above those two diameters, respectively, are given in those tables for the purpose of comparison. Table XI. — Sinnmary of stand and merchantable yield of the six- principal species 40 centimeters {16 inches) and over in diameter. [Allowance for defects: Apitong, 20 per cent; Mangachapuy, 40 per cent; others, 30 per cent.] Stand. Yield. Species. Per acre. Per liectare. Doyle rule, feet B.M.per acre. Cubic meters per hectare. 7.77 .6.55 4.59 8.45 2.07 19.16 16.18 11.32 20.85 5.11 5,670 7,470 4,850 13, 460 2,000 53.3 64.4 42.0 111.1 17.7 -Total 29.43 72.62 33, 450 288.5 Table XII. — Sumynary of stand and merchantable yield of the six principal species 50 centimeters {20 inches) and over in diameter. [Allowance for defects same as in Table XI.] Species. Apitong Almon Balacbacan Mangachapuy Lauan-bagtican and Lauan-dunlog Total Stand. Per acre. 5.13 4.96 3.52 7.31 1.41 22.33 Per hectare. 12.65 12.24 8.69 18.02 3.48 55.08 Yield. Feet B. M. per acre. Cubic meters per hectare. 5,140 7,150 4,640 13,240 1,880 44.8 59.3 38.6 107.5 15.7 32,0.50 265.9 The data from which, the volumes and yields are obtained is clearly insufficient to permit of an accurate estimate. This is not claimed for the above tables. They will, however, be found approximately correct and will serve as a basis for management until they can be revised. They apply to blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6, but are generally applicable to the entire area of upland forest. This tract, having about 32,050 feet B. M. of merchantable timber (over 20 inches in diameter) per acre on 37,660 acres of forest land, therefore contains a total merchantable stock of 1,207,000,000 feet B. M., if the above yield will hold for the entire area of com- mercial forest, which is jjrobable. This should be cut as ra]3idly as possible. It is sufficient to supply a mill cutting 100,000 feet per day for forty-two years of three hundred working days per year. DESCEIPTION OF TREES. Principal species. — Apitong {Dipterocarpus grandiflorus): Apitong is an important timber tree of the third group, found generally in the hill forests throughout the islands, the timber of which comes into the market in large quantities. On this tract Apitong occurs in abundance, singly, in mixture with other species, or in small groups. It is most numerous on the slopes of the upland forest, where it is often found in almost pure groups on the tops of hills and ridges. Apitong rarely occurs above 1,800 feet elevation on Mount Silay. It prefers a deep, well-drained soil. Apitong is a smaller tree than any of the other five principal trees, although it reaches a diameter of 145 centimeters (57 inches), with a clear length of 25 to 30 meters 662 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. (80 to 100 feet). The majority of the trees, however, are small. This probably is not due altogether to natural conditions, but more to the long-continued and injurious boxing of the trees for the balao, or pitch, which it yields. In the forest the Apitong is a clean-looking, tall tree, with a straight cylindrical trunk, short, compact crown, and low moderate butresses, or none at all. Apitong endures shade remarkably well, but thrives best in the stronger light on the upper slopes or tops of hills. Although seedlings are comparatively few, saplings, small poles, and large poles are present in a proportion sufficient to provide for the future of the species in the forest. Apparently it seeds well, but intermittently. No 1-year-old seedlings were observed during the field work of the past year.' Apitong is the freest from defect of the six principal species. It is sound except when it has been subjected to boxing. That the boxing is injurious and responsible for the death of many trees was proven by the observations of the various stages of decay and death of trees which, without exception, had been boxed. Notches 8 to 12 inches deep are hollowed out below to catch the pitch as it oozes out of the wood. Trees of only 40 centimeters diameter are often tapped, and large trees frequently on two sides. The balao is collected and the box is burned out every two weeks. In a short time insects and fungi take hold and the decay is rapid. The wood of the Apitong is heavy, moderately hard, and fairly durable. It is reddish brown in color and has a straight but coarse grain. It is used in ordinary con- struction, in shipbuilding, and for inferior furniture. Apitong sells in Manila for P90 to F115 per 1,000 feet B. M. Almon or White Lauan (Shorea squarnata): Almon is one of the important timber trees, the timber of which enters the market as White Lauan.o (PI. I, frontispiece.) It occurs in mixture with other species throughout the tract, most numerous on the rich gentle slopes. It is a very large, tall, clear tree, attaining a diameter of 170 centimeters (67 inches), a height of more than 65 meters (210 feet), and a clear length of 35 meters (115 feet). In the forest it is straighter and clearer than the other species and is characterized by less taper. A tree 135 centimeters in diameter on the stump had the following diameters outside the bark at the small end of each 5-meter log: 114, 112, 111, 103, 101, 96, and 93 centimeters, a total taper in 35 meters (115 feet) of 42 centimeters (16 inches), 21 centi- meters (8 inches) of which was in the first 5-meter log. The crown of Almon is short, sturdy, and compact. Large, high buttresses are almost invariably found on the big trees, sometimes 3 meters high and reaching from 3 to 4 meters from the base of the tree. Almon may be classed as a fair shade endurer, although its clear, tall habit of growth shows a strong desire for light. Seedlings are not numerous in the forest, but the num- ber of saplings and small and large poles is only exceeded by that of the Apitong. The large trees of Almon and many of the small ones are very defective. The principal defect is a punk or rot in the heart, which varies from a small doty spot, making the heart boards useless, to large hollows extending the full length of the tree. This has probably been caused by injuries to the tops, which have permitted the entrance of destructive fungi. The wood of Almon is light brown in color, rather soft, and not heavy. It is used mostly for interior work in the construction of houses. It is also substituted for Balacbacan for interior finishing and for furniture. Almon does not endure exposure to moisture or weather, and is veiy susceptible to the attacks of anay, or the white ant. It is sold in Manila for F70 to F90 per 1,000 feet B. M. Balacbacan or Tangmlc {Shorea poly sperm a): Balacbacan, the timber of which is now well known in the market, occurs well distributed on the tract in mixture with the other species. It prefers deep soil on the slopes of the hills and is more numerous above 500 feet elevation. It is found on Mount Silay to an elevation of about 2,500 feet. Balacbacan is a large timber tree not reaching the magnificent sizes of the Man- gachapuy, but attaining a diameter of 160 centimeters (63 inches), a height of more than 50 meters (165 feet), and a clear length of 30 meters (100 feet). It is characterized by a stout spreading crown and a straight cylindrical trunk, with prominent buttresses at the base. It, as well as the other species of the genus Shorea in the forest, is defective at the heart. In general, however, it is less so than the others. Reproduction of Balacbacan is fairly well distributed in the forest. Seedlings and saplings are not so numerous as those of Mangachapuy. The tree endures shade about as well as the Almon. The wood of Balacbacan is porous, light in weight, and red or reddish brown in color. It is used extensively for interior finish and for furniture, and is now received with favor in Manila, where it is sold for F70 to F90 per 1,000 feet B. M. The wood o This wood should not be confused with that of Shorea contorla, the White Lauan of Mindoro, Zambales, and other provinces. WORKING PLAN FOB PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 663 closely resembles that of Mangachapuy, which has ))een sold in the markets under the name of Balacbacan. Mangachapuy or Red Lauan {Shorea sp.): Mangachapuy, known in the mark(>t as Red Lauan and Balacbacan, is both the largest and the most important timber tre(! on tlie concession. It occurs throughout the tract in mixture with other species, most tuimerous on the rich, moist, lower slopes and nearly level land of the upland forest. Mangachapuy here reaches magnificent sizes. Trees 150 to 180 c(>ntimeters (60 to 70 inches) in diameter, towering to a height of more than 65 meters (215 feet), with clear lengths of 30 to 35 meters (100 to 115 feet), are not uncommon. It is character- ized by stout, long, cylindrical trunk, immense buttresses, and sturdy spreading top. The Mangachapuy endures shade well. Seedlings, saplings, and small and large poles are abundant. (PI. II.) It is evident from the abundance of small seedlings that a heavy seeding of this species occurred one or two years ago. The Mangachapuy is the most defective of the principal species. The large trees are all subject more or less to dote, or rot, at the heart, and it is difficult to find a small specimen which is not already slightly affected. The wood of Mangachapuy is sold in the markets as Balacbacan or Red Lauan. It is porous, red in color, and light in weight. Locally it is used in the construction of houses and bancas, or dugouts. It is now being used extensively for interior finish and furniture. It is sold in Manila for ^70 to P90 per 1,000 feet B. M. Lauan-dunlog (Shorea contorta) and Lauan-bagtican (Shorea sp.): These two trees are relatively few on the tract. Lauan-dunlog is the \Miite Lauan of commerce. Both occur in mixture, preferring the moist, steep slopes in the upland forest near streams, and are also scattered in the river-valley forests. The close resemblance between the two species and the difficulty of distinguishing them in the woods makes it advisable to treat them as one. Both are large trees, attaining a diameter of 150 centimeters (60 inches). They resemble in general form the Almon already described, and are subject to heart rot and other diseases to about the same degree as Almon. In proportion to their numbers in the forest, reproduction is satisfactory. Their wood has, in general, the same characteristics and uses as Almon, but is a trifle harder and heavier. They are sold in the markets as Wliite Lauan. Minor tree species. — The many minor tree species scattered over the tract in small numbers and sizes are of little or no importance commercially. The following list includes the larger and the more numerous; Diospyros sp. (Ata-ata), Vitex aherniana (Dungula), Hopea philippinensis (Guisoc-guisoc), Canarium spp. (Moabog), Eugenia spp. (Bulog), Kurrimia luzonica Vid., and Livistona sp. (Palma brava). These trees are so well distributed through the forest that large numbers of no one species can be found within a prescribed area. There are but 2.55 trees per acre 40 centimeters and over in diameter. They are all small, dominated trees, growing in the shade of the large Dipterocarps. Although many of them doubtless possess value for some pur- poses, only three (Dungula, Ata-ata, and Palma brava) can have any importance at present to lumbermen. Dungula, o which belongs to the same genus as Molave, is a small tree, seldom exceeding 60 centimeters (24 inches) in diameter, and occurs well distributed through- out the forest, but is most numerous on moist, gentle slopes and near streams. It is a small, rather crooked, ill-formed tree, growing in the shade of the dominant Dipte- rocarps. It is a true shade endurer and reproduces well. The wood of Dungula is very hard and heavy, resembling Molave so closely that it is often substituted for that species in the Manila market. It is extremely durable in the ground. Fallen Dungula trees in the forest, after the narrow sapwood has rotted off, remain hard and sound, although it is evident that they have laid on the ground for a long time. Dungula is gladly used by the inhabitants of northern Negros for harigues, or house posts. It has not, however, because of its relative scarcity and small size, which makes logging costly, been introduced into the timber market on any scale. There is no doubt that it is a very satisfactory timber for small house posts, railroad ties, and mining timbers, especially for the latter. Ata-ata is a small tree belonging to the same family as the valuable Ebony and Camagon. It resembles very closely Bolongeta (Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco). Ata- ata seldom forms more than 1 to 2 inches of the black heartwood which makes species of the ebony family valuable for cabinetwork. For construction purposes it is hard and strong. Ata-ata occurs throughout the forest in the lower dominated story. It is more numerous on the lower gentle slopes. It is a straight, well-formed tree, often slightly rectangular in cross section at the base. Its deep blue-black bark gives it a striking appearance in the forest. It reproduces well and endures heavy shade. a This tree is knxjwn in Manila markets as Sasalit, the common name for it in Zam- bales. In portions of Tayabas it is called Igang. 664 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. The . following table shows the sizes and number of trees per acre and hectare of Dungula and Ata-ata: Table XIII. — Stand of Dungula and Ata-ata. [Average of 135 acres in blocks 3, 4, 5, and 6.] Number of trees Number of trees Diameter above buttresses. per acre. jJer hectare. Dungula. Ata-ata. Dungula. Ata-ata. Inches. Centmeters. 12 30 0.511 0.407 1.262 1.005 14 35 .385 .644 .950 1.590 16 40 .082 .289 .203 .714 18 45 .155 .178 .383 .439 20 50 .082 .059 .202 .146 22 55 .022 . .029 .054 .072 24 60 .022 .0073 .054 .018 26 28 30 31 33 35 37 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 .0073 .018 .0073 .0073 .018 .018 .0073 .018 Total 40 centi- meters and over .3849 .5696 .950 1.407 Total 30 centi- meters and ov er 1. 2809 1. 6206 3.162 4.002 Palma brava, or Anahao, is a very useful tree locally, although it reaches no large size. Its poles are used in house construction, usually split for flooring. Its large leaves are used extensively for thatching. It occurs generally on the moist slopes, but the better trees have been badly thinned out in the lower edge of the tract. Farther back it occurs in considerable amounts as a very tall, clear tree, up to 30 centimeters in diameter. The minor species will be generally used in railroad and skid-road construction. Dungula, however, should be exploited and introduced into the market. As fast as investigation shows that any other of the minor species possesses a commercial value, it should be exploited by the company. INJURIES TO WHICH THE FOREST IS LIABLE. The forest is subject to damage from natural and artificial causes. To the former belongs the damage caused by insects, fungi, and winds; to the latter the damage caused by logging, fires, and cairigins. The latter are by far the most important. Damage from natural causes. — The amount and importance of the insect damage are not yet known. There is a beetle {Crossotarsus sp.) which bores into the log soon after the trees are felled, making it inadvisable to cut the trees more than a few days ahead of the skidding. The injury is greatest during the wet months of March and April. Since it is impossible to remove all the bark from the logs in the woods, peel- ing them immediately after cutting is ineffectual. It will always be necessary to remove the logs from the woods within a week after felling. The damage done by this insect appears in the lumber as small black pin holes. Fungi, though useful in cleaning the forest, inflict great injury. The prevalent heart rot in the various species of Shftrea is due to a number of fungi not yet deter- mined. Apparently the spores of fungi enter through some injury in the tops of the trees. The disease then rapidly works down through the soft heart. Year by year the work continues, until the tree is only a hollow shell. All large trees of the genus Shorea are affected in this way to a certain extent. The only remedy now possible is to cut the diseased trees as soon as possible, thus removing the centers of infection and lessening the loss of timber. Since the entire tract is covered by mature .timber almost equally damaged by this disease, the entire area should be logged off as soon as possible. The damage from windfall is here negligible. The only trees observed blown down by the winds were overmature and diseased. Wind thus merely assists the ants, anay, and fungi in removing the dead trees from the forest. Damage from artificial causes. — Forest fires in the untouched timber are impossible, because of the evergreen, moist character of the forest, and the lack of dry under- WOKKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 665 growth and litter. In the cutting area after logging, however, there is considerable danger during the dry months of March and April, when the great quantity of tops and other debris is well dried out, that a fire will sweep through, destroying the repro- duction and killing many of the remaining trees. Yet, even in the cuttings a fire must be set at the opportune time, with a favoring wind, in order to spread over any large area. A moderate degree of watchfulness will prevent accidental fires in the slash. The principal and important injury to the forest is caused by caiiTgins, or clearings. (Pis. Ill and IV.) Caiiigins are a system of shifting agriculture. They are small clearings, rarely exceeding 25 acres in area, made in timber or brush land by ignorant, irresponsible persons. The undergrowth, small trees, and some of the large trees are cut during the months of January, February, and March. In April, just before the spring rains, the dried mass is fired. If the weather has been favorable, the fire burns eagerly and leaves only charred trunks and stumps to hinder planting. Crops of corn, camotes, and sometimes tobacco are carelessly cultivated for one, two, or three years, until grass and other weeds make cultivation difficult. Then the auther of the caiiigin abandons it to find another spot in the forest in" which to repeat the operation. The problem of protecting the tract against this danger is made more difficult by the attitude of the owners of several sugar plantations adjacent to the northern boundary, who evidently encourage and inspire many of the clearings in the public forest, with the object of securing the land after it is abandoned by the authors of the caiiigins. Recently they have attempted to secure the land through homesteads made by persons dependent upon them. Where such applications have been made for land which is suitable for agriculture, and on which there is little or no merchantable timber, it has been certified as more valuable for agricultural than for forest purposes. In many cases, however, applicants for heavily timbered land have made clearings immediately after, if not before, making their applications and before receiving the approval or disapproval of their applications. In this way, much valuable and accessible timber within the tract granted the Insular Lumber Company has been destroyed. From this a difficult problem has arisen in regard to the land suitable for agriculture. On such lands covered with timber which will be exploited by the Insular Lumber Company, it is evident that homesteads should not be allowed until the timber has been removed, or should only be granted under the condition that no clearings be made until the land has been logged by that comjjany. But if the applicants have entered the forest and made clearings on the land prior to its examination by the forest officer, there is then no reason why the homesteads should not be approyed. The forest officer can, however, have the applicants punished for making the caiiigins without permis- sion, but this will not affect the final disposition of the land nor compensate for the timber destroyed. This problem was met during the past year in heavily timbered land in block 7, adjoining a neighboring plantation. The punishment of men making caiiigins without permission in the public forests, as provided in article 25 of the Forest Law, will not alone serve to remedy the evil. Imprisonment has no great terror for the offenders, and they are seldom able to pay the fines imposed. During the fiscal year 1905 about 300 acres of caiiigins were made in heavily timbered forest along the northern boundary of the tract, which destroyed about 7,000,000 feet B. M. of merchantable timber. Ten offenders were arrested and punished with from five to thirty-five days' imprisonment each, but no fines could be collected for the timber destroyed. On their release from prison they returned to their clearings, which they are now cultivating. It is absolutely necessary to protect this tract against caiiigins in order to initiate even the simplest plan of forest management and regulation. Prevention is the only means. This can be done by — First. Marking and posting warning notices along the northern boundary line. Second. Patrolling the forest where there is danger of caiiigins. Third. Marking the boundaries of existing clearings within the tract to prevent their extension by means of caiiigins. Fourth. Permitting caiiigins on the partially timbered land outside of the tract. Injuries from logging are unavoidable. Small trees will be crushed in felling large ones, and seedlings will be destroyed. It is necessary, however, that care be taken to make this injury as small as possible. Damage from logging will be treated more fully under a succeeding heading. THE UTILIZATION OF THE FOREST. History of lumbering. — Lumbering in northern Negros previous to 1903 was carried on in a desultory manner by the Spanish and Filipino licensees. They hauled the timber to the nearest streams by carabao, where the logs were made into rafts and 666 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. towed to the Iloilo market, about 70 miles distant. It is reported that fine Molave and Narra were obtained in Spanish times along the coast in Cadiz and Sagay. The forest of third and fourth group trees, which covered most of the area, was gradually- pushed back to its present position. The timber of this forest has always been in disfavor with the Spaniards and Filipinos, and doubtless very little of it in the destroyed forest of this.type was utilized. Lumbering on the tract itself has a brief history. Previous to 1903 practically no timber had been exploited, except for local needs, aHhough clearings had made inroads along the northern side. In 1903 a license to cut 100,000 cubic feet of timber in the sitio of Sanghai, on both sides of the Himugaan River, was granted to the Iloilo Electric Company. This company installed the present small circular-saw mill, having a capacity of about 15,000 feet B. M. per day, and a logging outfit of one donkey engine, wire cable, etc. This preliminary and experimental operation, though not a financial success at the time, owing to the difficulty of introducing species against which the markets were prejudiced, and to floods which caused considerable damage to the mill and carried off many logs, nevertheless demonstrated to the satisfaction of the promoters that a large and modern plant, operated on American principles, would pay, and that steam logging was the best method to use in exploiting the large timber of this forest. In 1904 the Insular Lumber Company, incorporated under the laws of the State of New York, took over the plant of the Iloilo Electric Company and secured the present concession under a license agreement to exploit the timber on the tract for a period of twenty years. In return, it bound itself to comply with certain cutting rules and other regulations. It was its intention to install at once a new mill, of 100,000 or 200,000 feet capacity per day, but various difficulties prevented its accomplishment until the pres- ent year. The new mill is now being installed and will be completed in the near future. The Iloilo Electric Company and the Insular Lumber Company have logged off about 250 acres from July 1, 1903, to July 1, 1906, most of which was cut over by the latter company. In 1903^ the former company manifested about 300,000 feet B. M., for which they paid about 11.33, gold, per 1,000 feet B. M. The Insular Lumber Com- pany has manifested in the first two years of its existence about 1,770,000 feet B. M., for which it paid about $1.06, gold, per 1,000 feet B. M. This amount manifested does not include a large amount of lumber used in the construction of the plant and on which no Government charge has been imposed. The discrepancy between the large area cut over and the relatively small amount of timber manifested is accounted for by the unusual waste in logging, by the small size of the mill, which could not handle the largest trees, by leaving the White Lauans standing over a large part of the area because it was not marketable, and by the fact that the company had the free use of timber for construction purposes on the tract during the past two years. Present lumbering operations. — General conditions: Differences in climate, transpor- tation, and labor, as well as in the timber, make successful lumbering in the Philip- pines more difficult than in the United States. The Insular Lumber Company, under able management, has been meeting these difficulties and has gradually overcome them. A lumberman in the Philippines has to choose between locating his mill near the forest or in one of the large towns or markets. The larger mills are found in Manila. The five largest mills in the Islands are in Manila and have a total daily capacity of 100,000 feet B. M., although the actual amount cut is less than half the capacity. Transportation of logs and lumber is entirely by water, and for long distances logs or lumber are not rafted. Mills which purchase their logs in the market are better located in the cities. The Insular Lumber Company, however, having an almost unlimited supply of available timber and the necessary means to log it, and having a a deep, navigable river penetrating almost to its timber, rightly decided to place its mill on this river as close as possible to the forest and to ship the sawn lumber to Manila and the other markets. The great size and weight of the timber on the tract made it necessary to employ some other system in logging than the ordinary native method. Carabaos are scarce and expensive, and, in addition, are unable to haul the largest logs. Steam skidding and hauling seemed the only method available. The forest is one easily logged. The configuration of the ground is favorable to steam skidding and railroad transportation. Roads can be built with much less grading and bridging than in the forests of western Washington. The hot climate is not a hindrance in the mill or woods, and during the rainy season logs are more easily skidded. A sufficient supply of good native labor is essential for a large lumbering operation, like that of the Insular Lumber Company. Fortunately, it has located in a populous WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT, 667 region, where there is a laboring population employed on large sugar estates. Conse- quently the company has not encountered great difliculty in securing a force of about 80 Filipino workmen. The efficiency of the labor, judged by American standards, is low, but compared with similar labor in other parts of the Islands, stands high. The men work fairly steadily, are docile, and easily taught. Among them ihc. com- pany now has some who do very good work in the woods and in the sawmill. They are treated well, furnished with good frame houses without rent, and are paid about P0.50 per day. Those who become skilled in special work receive slightly higher wages. As the ordinary wage paid on the sugar estates is T"l to ?1.50 per week, with food, the company has little difficulty in securing and keeping its native labor. It is a more difficult problem to obtain and keep skilled American labor, which has to be secured from the United States. Only high salaries will bring suitable American sawyers or loggers to this country, and even then they will not make long-time contracts. Logging: This company and the Iloilo Electric Company have logged about 250 acres of forest land since August, 1903. The logging camp still stands at the place where cutting was first begun on the bank of the Himugaan River, less than 1 mile from the sawmill. The logs are hauled to this point and rolled over the steep bank to the river. A group of houses for the employees, a machine shop, and the hauling donkey engine are also located at this place. From the landing a hauling road extends 1 mile west into the forest, where the cutting is now going on. The method used in logging is an exact copy of the steam logging system used in western Washington. (Pis. V, VI, VII, and VIII.) The outfit consists of one large, hauling donkey, of about 50 horsepower, about 1 mile of 1-inch hauling cable, about 1 mile of three-fourths-inch haul-back cable, one skidding or yarding donkey of about 40 horsepower, over 2,000 feet of three-fourths-inch yarding cable, and the necessary blocks, hooks, rollers, chokers, cant hooks, axes, saws, etc. The rollway or landing is the almost perpendicular river bank, here nearly 100 feet high — much higher than is necessary or desirable. From the hauling donkey stationed at the top (PL V) a nearly straight road, about 10 feet wide, has been made into the forest. This is carefully graded and has strong bridges over the few arroyos or guUeys. (PL VI.) Across the road, and about 6 feet apart and buried about one-half in the earth, are placed skids or sleepers, 8 feet long and 14 to 20 inches in diameter, notched at the middle to about the level of the ground. The timber is hauled over these skids. From this main road radiate short skid roads or trails not more than 1 ,000 feet long. These are simple dirt roads, without grading. The hauling cable from a drum on the engine at the rollway runs on the ground along the hauling road and over iron rollers where a turn in the road makes this necessary. At the end of the road, where the yard- ing donkey is set up (PL VII), the hauling cable passes through a block and returns as the haul-back cable to another drum on the engine. The yarding cable runs from the yarding engine in a similar manner into the forest over a skid road, through a block and back again. Parallel to these cables are wires connected with the whistles on the engines, by which signals are given to the engineers. The trees are felled with ax and saw by fellers working in pairs. A staging is built of small poles to enable them to get above the large buttresses. (PL I.) A tree is notched on one side, sawed on the other, and wedged over, if necessarJ^ until it falls. One felling crew of two men cuts three or four large trees per day. Other men then cut np the tree into logs 16 and 32 feet long, and occasionally 12, 18, 20, and 24 feet long. (PL VIII.) The logs are then nosed at one end, and if very large are barked on one side to make hauling easier. The skidding crew place a choker (noose of cable) around the log and fasten it to the end of the skidding cable, signal the skidding engine, and the log is pulled out and hauled to the main road. When several logs (usually two when the skids are dry, and four or more when they are wet) lie on the main road, they are coupled together by hooks or grabs driven into their ends and connected by cable. The head log is fastened to the hauling cable, the signal is given, and the train of logs, or turn, as it is called, moves down the road to the rollway, where the logs are rolled into the river and confined within a boom until they are floated to the mill. As soon as the logs are hauled in, the engine reverses and the haul-back line pulls the hauling cable back into the woods. The method will be changed when the new logging railroad is completed. The engines will then haul directly to the railroad track, where the logs will be loaded on cars and taken to the mill. At present the logs are floated down the river to the mill at high tide. With the exception of Apitong, they all float well, but the danger from floods and lack of water in the dry season, as well as the constantly increasing distance of the forest froni the river, make this method of transportation less satisfactory than a logging railroad, which can be built at a moderate cost. 668 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. The men employed in logging and their wages are as follows: Americans (2): 1 logging superintendent, per year T4, 200. 00 1 assistant per day . . 4. 00 Filipinos (42): 1 foreman . . . .per day each. . 1. 50 1 engineer do 3. 00 1 engineer do 1. 50 2 firemen do .50 1 subforeman do .60 (F2^$l United States currency.) Filipinos (42)— Continued. 4 fellers per day each . . 6 buckers do. . . . 7 cable men do 1 sled tender do 4 woodcutters for the en- gines per day each . . 4 road builders do 10 water carriers for the en- gines per day each. . P0.65 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 .50 This amounts to a daily labor cost of about P45. The logging crew handles on an average from 5,000 to 10,000 board feet of logs per day. The above method, which has been employed since the commencement of the oper- ations, is being supplemented by a railroad which is now being installed. The road is equipped with two locomotives and twelve logging trucks or cars. Tlie gauge is 3^ feet. The donkey engines and cable system will continue to be used, but will haul the logs to the railroad track instead of to the river bank. This will give a great in- crease in the daily output of logs. Waste and injury to the forest: The area thus far logged has been cvit over without much restriction or regulation. About one-half of it has been burned over and is now partly under sugar cane. The remainder is slash as it has been left by the company. Since it is agricultural land, to a large extent homesteaded, it will not be managed for a second timber crop. The trees cut have been almost entirely the six principal species, with an occasional large specimen of some other kind. Few trees less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter have been cut, and many larger ones have not been removed. The largest trees have been left because the mill could not handle them. On part of the area the Almon and White Lauans were not cut, because at the time there was no demand for that kind of lumber. The following table shows the number of saplings, poles, and trees remaining on one-half hectare of cut-over land. Many small trees are lacking which were destroyed but not utilized during the logging. Table XIV. -Saplings and trees remaining on one-half hectare {1.2S acres) of cut-over land. Size. Api- tong. Almon. Man- gacha- puy. Balac- bacan. Dun- gula. Ata- ata. Guisoc- guisoc. Other trees and shrubs. Total. 30 5 3 1 1 1 8 5 4 4 14 8 3 13 1 3 1 8 2 1 84 8 3 1 166 28 13 3 1 1 2 2 1 2 4 2 2 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 Total 43 10 18 4 25 18 11 97 226 The logging makes a bad slashing. The tops and rotten logs of the large trees piled on the small trees crushed by their fall form a dense and almost hopeless mass of debris. Some of this is unavoidable, but care in felling the large trees and the utilization of as much of the timber as is possible will reduce the damage. Plates IX and X show pieces of good and bad slash. Fire in the cuttings during the dry months of March and April would be destructive to the young growth. Fire, however, does not run readily until the brush is thoroughly dry and the wind favorable. This condition WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 669 obtains only for a few days in March and April. Sometimes the friction of moving logs upon the skids causes fires which might spread to the cuttings. There is considerable waste in the felling and cutting up of trees. The Filipino fellers are usually not trustworthy and must be watched. Occasionally they leave stumps much higher than is necessary. High stumps can not be entirely avoided, because of the difficulty in sawing swell-butted logs in the present mill. With a new band-saw mill, capable of handling logs of any size, the stump height should be reduced. The average stump height of 23 Mangachapuy trees felled during the past year is 9 feet (2.8 meters) and of 13 Apitong trees 4.2 feet (1.3 meters). Apitong is much less buttressed than Mangachapuy and is a smaller tree. It is unreasonable at present to require that the large buttresses be chopped through in felling the trees, but it is practicable to cut at the point where the principal buttresses end. In cutting the trees into logs, it is difiicult to determine when defective ones will repay handling. In cases of doubt the tendency is to leave them in the woods. Defective top logs are much more doubtful than butt logs, being knotty and diseased around the knots, which injures nearly all boards in the logs. However, when the company has gone to the expense of building a logging railroad and setting up donkey engines and cable, it is to their interest to remove every possible stick of timber from the area. Clear logs, not more than 50 per cent defective, should repay the cost of handling. They would also assist in bearing the expense of building roads. Little sound saw material which is not excessively knotty is left in the tops. As a general rule, the trunks of fairly sound trees are utilized up to the large limbs. More than this is impracticable at present, as there is little sale for knotty lumber. Much of this material in the tops would make boxes. It may be found profitable for th-e company to manufacture box boards, in which case much timber now wasted could be utilized. Another source of waste is the fuel used by the engines. This is usually secured from defective logs, which are hauled in and cut up into firewood. The tendency is to use logs which would be more valuable for lumber. Care should be taken to use no logs for this purpose which contain 50 per cent or more of good material. A large number of trees are necessarily used for the construction of roads and bridges. One mile of hauling road requires over 100,000 feet B. M. for skids alone. Large amounts in the future will be necessary for ties, bridge timbers, etc. At present, Apitong, Ata-ata, and small trees of the principal species are used. Unmarketable trees and tops of felled trees, as far as possible, should be used for construction work, except on land which is to he cleared for agriculture, where small trees of all kinds can be used. Logging does injury to the small trees and reproduction, which are to be the basis of the future forest. The large and overmature trees should be cut out to give the young growth an opportunity to take their places. Consequently, the logging must not destroy more than is necessary of the small growth. Much of this damage is unavoidable. The fellers, however, can be shown how to drop the trees where the damage will be least. The sawmill: The present sawmill is located on the right bank of the Himugaan River, about 6 miles from its mouth and about 1 mile north of the logging operation, which is on the opposite side of the river. The location is at the head of navigation for small steamers, although high tide reaches nearly 2 miles farther up. The mill stands on the river bank, jutting slightly over the water. (Pis. XI and XII.) From the mill a short tramroad runs to the lumber yard, directly in front of which is the dock. (PL XI.) Surrounding the yards are the office and quarters of the employees. The mill is operated by a steam engine and is equipped with a circular saw, a top saw, a simple edger and trimmer, and a saw-filing machine. The logs are boomed just below the mill in the river and are brought up into the mill by a bull wheel and cable. They are then rolled on to the carriage by a chain and drum operated by the engine. The carriage is run by friction feed. The logs are sawn slowly and carefully. The sawn lumber passes to the edger on dead rollers, is lifted by men to the trimmers and from there to the truck, which bears it to the yard. The principal species cut present no great difficulties in sawing. Apitong is much harder on the saws than the others. The waste is large, owing not only to the defective char- acter of the timber but also to the inadequacy of the mill and the unskilled labor at the edger and trimmer. The standard length of logs is 16 feet, but some 12, 14, and 18 foot logs are cut. The lumber is cut mostly in 1 and 2 inch thicknesses, with some 2 by 4's and special sizes. It is piled in the yard without cover other than a few boards, and without grading except by species and thickness. Most of it is shipped green to Manila, as the demand is greater than the supply. It is all clear lumber, and with careful 670 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. grading and seasoning its quality would be much improved. The mill has been sub- ject to some shut downs, owing to floods, breakage, and lack of logs. The following is the average operating pay roll at the sawmill: Americans (3): 1 sawyer per year. . F4, 000. 00 1 bookkeeper, per month.. 150.00 1 setter per day. . 4. 00 Filipinos (28): 1 dogger per day each. . 1 . 00 1 dogger do ... . .65 1 engineer do ... . 2. 00 1 fireman do .60 1 fireman's helper. . .do. .. . .50 1 off bearer do ... . .50 1 offbearer's helper .do. . . . .50 2 men sawing logs in the water per day each . . .50 F2=$l United States currency. Filipinos (28) — Continued. 2 men hauling logs into mill, per day each 2 edgers per day each . . 2 trimmers do ... . 2 men loading .trucks, per day each 1 man removing sawdust, per day each 8 yard men, per day each . . 2 watchmen, per month each F0.50 .75 .50 .50 .50 .50 15.00 This is a daily labor cost of about P42. Cost of lumbering: The estimated cost of logging and manufacturing lumber on this tract is only approximate and is intended as an indication of what can reasonably be expected under fair management. The following is the cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of the lumber delivered in Manila, including deterioration, repairs, and interest on the investment at 10 per cent: Cutting and hauling logs to the river ?°7. 00 Floating logs to the mill 30 Sawing and piling in the yards 6. 00 Loading on barges at the dock 40 Freight to Manila (about 400 miles) 10. 00 Lighterage in Manila 2. 00 Salaries of higher officials 9. 00 Average Government charge, or stumpage 2. 50 Total 37. 20 It is certain that with a thoroughly modern mill and a logging railroad, which the company is now putting in, the cost per 1,000 feet will be reduced much below the above figure. Perhaps the pay rolls given above and the freight and Government stumpage charge will indicate better to lumbermen what the cost should be. Markets and transportation: The markets for the lumber are the cities of Manila, Cebu, and Iloilo. The distance by water to Manila is about 400 statute miles, to Cebu about 140 miles, and to Iloilo about 70 miles. Very little lumber can be sold locally or outside of those towns. Manila is the chief market. In the past two years the company has sold about 1,300,000 feet B. M. of timber in Manila, 190.000 feet B. M. in Cebu, and 275,000 feet B. M. in Iloilo. About 7,300 feet B. M. only were sold to local consumers. At the beginning there was difficulty in selling large shipments of lumber because of the prejudice against Lauan. The demand has slowly increased until now what is known as Red Lauan is taken in large quantities, and the White Lauan finds a fair sale. Its principal competitor is Oregon Pine, which is about equally good for most purposes, and sells in Manila for about ^75 per 1,000 feet B. M. The Insular Lumber Company should be able to manufacture their lumber and deliver it in Manila at a price which would gradually drive out the Oregon Pine. Manila would at the present time use 100,000 feet B. M. per day if it were available. It is possible that some of the clearest and best Balacbacan and Red Lauan can be exported, possibly to the United States. A small lot was shipped to New York, where it was received with favor. Transportation of lumber is by water. Freight to Manila in barges (PI. XI) towed by a small steamer is TIO per 1,000 feet B. M. To Iloilo and Cebu in lorchas the freight rate is about the same. Prices and government charges: In the Philippine Islands the government charges for timber are usually levied on round logs. For timber cut in the province of Negros Occidental they are P°2.50 per cubic meter for first-groui? timber, F1.50 for second group, T'l for third group, and P'0.50 for fourth group, which is equivalent to about PIO, TQ, F4, and T2, respectively, per 1,000 feet B. M. In the license agreement with the Insular Lumber Company, however, provision is made that the charges be paid on the sawn lumber, plus 15 per cent for loss in sawing. Since the loss in sawixig WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 671 is more than 15 per cent, the company has profited by the arrangement, as is shown by the following figures of cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of the vsawn luinl)er. The timber cut by the Insular Lumber Company is almost exclusively of the third and fourth group. In the fiscal year 1904-5 they paid an average price of F0.64 per cubic meter, or F1.76 per 1,000 feet B. M., and in 1905-6 T0.S7 per cubic meter, or P2.37 per 1,000 feet B. M. As the company receives on an average of more than P"60 per 1,000 feet B. M. for their lumber in Manila, the above stumpage charges are low. Prospects: It is apparent from the above that a modern lumber enterprise on this tract ought to be successful. Believing this, the Insular Lumber Company is now increasing its equipment and making improvements. A new modern double mill is being built, which will have a capacity of 100,000 feet B. M. per day. It will be equipped with a 9-foot wheel and 13-inch band saws. The logging railroad is already completed from the mill to the timber and will soon be in operation. The company is ready to install a tie-impregnating plant ju^t as soon as it can make contracts with the new railroads to take the output. Profiting by the experience of the past two years, the company will put capable men in charge and will use every effort to make the oper- ation as efficient as any similar one in the United States. Rightly conducted, the enterprise should pay a handsome profit, at the same time furnishing lumber to the people of the islands at prices lower than that of Oregon Pine. The railroad, which will soon be built with government aid in Negros Occidental from Escalante to Binalbagan or Hog, will pass close to this tract, if it does not go through its lower side. The new railroad will naturally benefit the Insular Lumber Company by furnishing a market for railroad ties and construction timber and by making available the local markets of the province of Negros Occidental. MINOR FOREST PRODtTCTS. Various minor forest products are collected on the tract by the inhabitants of this region. Chief of these is bejuco (rattan), which occurs throughout the concession. It is now rather scarce near the edge of the forest and in the more accessible parts of the tract, owing to the long-continued custom of collecting this product. To obtain good bejuco, it is now necessary to go 5 to 10 miles into the forest, although small specimens are abundant everywhere. Tlie demand for the bejuco is strong in the sugar haciendas and towns of Negros, where its principal use is for tying up sacks of sugar. The prices are such as repay the collector, who usually builds a house in a good situation m the forest, and with the help of a few natives, Visayans or Negritos, collects the bejucos, putting them up in small bundles of 100 pieces, ten of which form large bundles, which are then carried out by men or carabaos. Three such camps were found on the tract. In addition, many persons enter the tract for a day or two to take bejuco for their per- sonal use. The best bejucos on the ti-act are Gatasan, Yaming, Lontoc, and Calape. Split bejucos, used in tying up sacks of sugar, are worth F1.50 per 1,000; entire bejucos, 8 meters long, used in binding rafts, F15 per 100. Long bejucos for special purposes bring high prices. Balao, the pitch obtained from the Apitong tree by a destructive system of boxing, heretofore described, has for some years been collected on the tract. It is a dirty-gray pitch, used locally to make torches and commercially to calk boats. Its value in Cadiz is from P0.50 to P0.75 per 5-gallon can. It is doubtful if one tree yields more than one such can per year under the present method of collecting. The product does not compensate for the damage done to the tree. Until a less injurious method of tapping the Apitong is devised, the collection of balao on the tract should be prohibited. Two vines, Jagnaya and Sigid, which are collected to a limited extent, occur on the tract. They are small, about 1 centimeter in diameter, long, and very strong. They are used almost exclusively in the construction of fish corrals, and are worth in Cadiz from F0.60 to T0.70 per 1,000. The firewood possibilities of the concession at present are small. Neighboring sugar haciendas use considerable wood for fuel, but prefer to get it from the mangrove swamps, or, if from the mountain forest, to cut it themselves. Neither is it probable that firewood cut on the tract can be shipped to the large towns of the islands in competition with the mangrove product. The forest has few other minor products. There are scattered trees which yield gums and resins, but none of them occur in sufficient numbers to be of any commercial importance. Minor products are not included in the concession granted to the Insular Lumber Company. With the exception of balao, they can best be utilized in satisfying the needs of the surrounding population. Consequently, no special recommendations are made for the regulation of their collection. 33581—07 5 672 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILILIES OF THE LAND. Cleared land adjoining the tract, which has the same soil and general characteristics of the more level parts of the forest, is giving good results in agriculture. Sugar cane, hemp, and corn are the principal crops, all of which do well, although the sugar made from cane grown on this soil is discolored, and does not bring the best prices. For sugar cane the land is called third class. Corn grows well, and is the chief product of the poor people. At the present the price of the land is low. Probably considerable areas now covered by cogon grass and brush can be bought at less than !P20 per hectare. There are many acres of land on the tract suitable for corn, and a smaller area would give good results in sugar cane. About 300 acres in the northwest corner and in the valley of the Himugaan River are now under cultivation. The exact area of the tract which is better for agricultural uses after being lumbered is not definitely known. There are probably about 10,000 acres which would be classed as agricultural land, of which about 4,500 acres are either cleared or covered with brush. The largest single area of good agricultural land is in block 7, east of the Himugaan River. All of such land is confined to the northern side of the tract. The upper hilly portion is more valuable for forest than for agricultural purposes. There is a strong desire for the land among the neighboring people. Often, however, they use poor judgment in selecting their clearings, choosing rough, stony places, when rich level land is available. Land suitable for agriculture should be given to the people for homesteads after it has been logged by the company. Part II. FUTURE MANAGEMENT, BASIS OF PROPOSALS. RELATION BETWEEN OWNER AND LICENSEE. The owner of this tract of timber land is the government of the Philippine Islands. In order to secure a revenue from the heavy stand of timber which is balanced between growth and decay, a license agreement was made with the Insular Lumber Company, permitting that company, under restrictions, to exploit timber on the tract for a period of twenty ye^ars. The government requires that this be done without endangering the future supply of timber from the same forests, unless the land is more suitable for agricultural than for forest purposes, in which case the most benefit will be derived from its use for agriculture. On agricultural land the company should remove the greatest possible amount of merchantable timber before it is turned over to the farmer. On true forest land, which includes most of the tract, they should leave a sufficient number of trees to provide for the future stand and exercise care in the logging in order to prevent the destruction of an unnecessary amount of reproduction and small trees. The company, on the other hand, must make their enterprise yield a considerable profit in order to repay them for the risk in establishing a modern lumbering operation in a tropical country, where there is no experience of others to assist tiiem in avoiding disastrous mistakes. They have invested a large capital in the enterprise, setting an admirable example for those contemplating entering the lumber business in the Philippine Islands. Consequently many sylvic restrictions suitable and beneficial to the forest can not be imposed without excessive hardship to the company. The restrictions and regulations should be practicable, with due regard for the interests of both the government and the licensee. DIVISION OF THE FOREST INTO BLOCKS. To facilitate the management and protection of the forest, and to make the descrip- tion of places on the tract more concise and definite, the tract is divided into eight parts or blocks, which are bounded by the important streams. They are shown on the map and described as follows: WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 673 Table XV. — Description of blocks. Block. Situation. Approximate area. Remarks. Hectares. Acres. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Southwest corner of the tract between the Talabon Riverand the boundary. Between the Hitalon and Talabon rivers. Between the Panicion and llitalon rivers. Between the I'ioc and llimugaan riv- ers on the east and the Panicion River on the west. Between the Iglumgum and the Ma- lugo rivers on the east and the Pioc River on the west. Between the Himugaan and the Iglumgum rivers. Between the Tanao and Hinuigaan rivers. East end of the tract between the boun- dary and the Tanao River. Total 1,400 1,800 2,100 1,600 1,200 3,600 4,400 1,900 3,450 4,450 5,150 3,950 2,950 8,890 10,850 4,700 Hilly land; all heavily timbered. Rolling and hilly land; considerable area of grass 1111(1 lirushland; con- tains barrio of Maluni. Rolling and hilly land, mostly heav- ily timbered; son;o agricultural land. Rolling and hilly upland and some bottomland; clearings, cultivated land, and present cutting area near Himugaan River. Rolling and hilly land, mostly heav- ily timliered; little agricultural land. Do. Rolling and hilly land, heavily tim- bered; large area of agricultural land. Rolling and hilly land, heavily tim- bered. 18,000 44, 390 These blocks will furnish a useful basis for future investigations on the tract. The logging operations will probably be confined to blocks 3, 4, and 6 for several years, and ct)nsequently should receive as soon as possible a more careful and detailed study than has yet been given to them. The principal trails in the forest have been surveyed and marks have been placed on them every one-half kilometer from their starting points. Each trail is given a letter- -for example, 2 KC means that the mark is on Trail C, 2 kilometers from its beginning. The trails and their marks are on the forest maps. Places in the forest can be located easily and definitely. If a clump of large Apitong trees is discovered, one will pace to the nearest trail, down the trail to the first survey mark, and will then describe the location of the Apitong as follows: Block 4, B. F. 3 KG., S. W. 200m., S. E. 300 m. The place is then definitely located with few words and can be marked accurately on the forest map. This method of description will be used by forest officers for future work on the tract. SUMMARY OF MERCHANTABLE STAND AND YIELD. The following is a summary of the number of merchantable trees and of the mer- chantable yield of the six principal species above 40 centimeters (16 inches) and 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter, respectively: Stand. Yield. Diameter. Number of trees per acre. Number of trees per hec- tare. Feet, board measure, per acre. Cubic meters per hec- tare. 40 centimeters 29.4 22.3 72.6 55.1 33,450 32,050 288.5 265.9 METHOD OF TREATMENT. OBJECT TO BE ATTAINED. The object to be attained is to make the best use of the land and forest by securing the largest possible yield from the latter without inflicting hardship upon the licensee or endangering a future timber crop on the forest land, and by putting the agricul- tural land to its best use. 674 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. METHOD OF TREATMENT ADOPTED. It is evident that agricultural and nonagricultiu-al lands must receive different treatment. The former will be turned over to the farmer after being logged; the latter will be kept in forest to provide for a future yield. Agricultural land now covered with merchantable forest will be treated as nearly as possible under a clear cutting system — that is, all merchantable trees will be cut for lumber and as mi ny of the unmerchantable trees as possible for road construction. No care need be taken to protect the reproduction, as the land will be immediately cleared for agriculture. The essential requirement is that no merchantable timber be left on the land. As the logging proceeds, the boundaries of the agricultural land must be determined. Nonagricultural or forest land will be treated under the selection system, with a con- tinuous yield of the six principal species in view. Care must be taken to leave suf- ficient small trees and reproduction to provide for the future yield. No provision is advisable at present for a regular rotation and sustained annual yield. EXPLOITABLE SIZE. On agricultural land, all trees are exploitable. On forest land, none of the six principal species must be cut below a certain diam- eter limit. The diameter limit must be fixed so there will be sufficient seed trees and young growth to secure a good stand of the desired species. There should be as many trees as possible left standing without seriously affecting the merchantable yield. With a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches) there is a yield of about 33,450 feet B. M. per acre, leaving 28.1 trees per acre 12 to 40 centimeters in diameter. With a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches), there is a yield of about 32,050 feet B. M. per acre, leaving 35.3 small trees per acre 12 to 50 centimeters in diameter. Cutting to a 50-centimeter limit instead of to a 40-centimeter limit, there is a 'oss in yield of 1,400 feet B. M. per acre, or 4 per cent, and a gain in small trees of 7.2 per acre, or 25 per cent. The 50-centimeter diameter limit is clearly the better. Moreover, trees below 40 centimeters in diameter would probably not seed well, whil. trees between 40 and 50 centimeters in diameter would produce considerable seed 'nder the influence of increased light and space. Since a part of the small growth is unavoidably destroyed by the logging, it is all the more necessary to fix the diameter limit higher than 40 cen- timeters. The company has, however, shown little desire to exploit the trees between 40 and 50 centimeters in diameter, using them only in road construction. Therefore, a 50-centimeter diameter limit will be found practicable. Whether it is sufficiently high to provide for a satisfactory second crop is not certain. It is proposed as a pro- visional diameter limit until that fact is learned. THE LOGGING. Cutting areas. — The areas chosen by the company for exploitation should be selec- ted with' the approval of the Bureau of Forestry, to avoid leaving uncut exposed strips of forest. The cutting should proceed as regularly and compactly as possible. It is not deemed advisable, in view of the condition of the forest and other factors, to place any restrictions upon the size of the annual cutting area. General cutting rules. — The following cutting rules shall apply to both agricultural and forest lands. (1) All felling and cutting shall be done with saws as far as possible. (2) No trees shall be left lodged in the process of felling. (3) No stumps shall be higher than the principal buttresses. (4) Defective logs containing 50 per cent or more clear, sound lumber shall be util- ized for lumber. (5) No logs containing 50 per cent or more clear, sound lumber shall be used as fuel for the engines. (6) No sound logs in the tops of the trees 8 feet and over in length and over 15 inrhes in diameter shall be left in the woods. (7) Excessive quantities of timber cut for construction purposes in the forest and wasted shall be manifested and paid for by the company. (8) Timber wasted in violation of the cutting rules shall be measured by the forest officers and paid for by the company. Additional cutting rules for agricultural land. — (1) Agricultural land shall, as far as possible, be the first to be logged. (2) All merchantable trees of the six principal species 40 centimeters (IG inches) and over in diameter shall be cut for lumber. WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT, 675 (3) For construction purposes in logging, trees of the minor species and unmer- chantal^le trees of the principal species only shall be used. (4) Small trees broken down by the large trees in felling shall be utilized. (5) The railroad ties and skids for use in logging on the forest land shall be taken from the agricultural land whenever possible. Additional cutting rules for forest land. — (1) No Apitong, Almon, Balacbacan, Man- gachapuy, Lauan-bagtican, or Lauan-dunlog trees less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter shall be cut unless they stand in a proposed road, interfering with the logging, unless they have been damaged by the logging, or unless they have been selected for felling by the forester in charge of the district. (2) No Apitong, Almon, Balacbacan, Mangachapuy, Lauan-bagtican, or Lauan- dunlog trees less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter shall be used in road or bridge construction unless they stand in a place interfering with the logging, where their removal is necessary. (3) The workmen must not destroy seedlings or saplings of Apitong, Almon, Balac- bacan, Mangachapuy, Lauan-bagtican, and Lauan-dunlog. (4) Care must be taken to prevent fires on the cut-over land during the dry season. SUPPLEMENTARY RECOMMENDATIONS. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. (1) The forest adjoining the tract on the north, which is especially liable to destruc- tion. by caiiigins, should be logged as soon as possible by the company under yearly license. (2) The areas to be logged shall be selected by the company, after securing the approval of the bureau of forestry. (3) Cut-over land suitable for agriculture shall be immediately opened to homestead entry. (4) The boxing or tapping of the Apitong tree for balao shall be prohibited on the tract. (5) The species of timber manufactured by the company shall be classified in the timber groups to which they properly belong as soon as possible. (6) The company shall sell manufactured lumber to the residents of the municipali- ties of Cadiz, Sagay, and Escalante at prices which shall never exceed the wholesale price in Manila, less freight and lighterage. (7) A ranger employed by the bureau of forestry shall be stationed permanently on the concession, whose duties shall be to protect the forest from cairigins and trespass, to inspect the himbering operations, and to make forest investigations under the direc- tion of the chief of the forest district. (8) The stumpage charges will continue to be paid on the manufactured lumber. PROTECTION. In order to put the above plan into effect, the forest must be protected before as well as after it is logged. The destruction of standing timber is a loss to the Government as well as to the company, but the loss to the latter is more serious, since such destruction is here confined to the most accessible part of the tract, where the profits from lumber- ing are correspondingly greater. The production of the future timber crop can not be provided for without protection of the forest, nor can sylvic restrictions be imposed on the company. The necessity and difficulty of protection against caiiigins have been shown in Part I. The benefits of protection being mutual, the company should cooperate with the bureau of forestry in carrying out the necessary measures. The problem is to prevent the cairigins, because after the damage is done there is no remedy. The following measures are necessaiy: (1) The ranger of the bureau of forestry stationed on the concession shall engage himself principally with its protection. (2) The company shall provide him with the necessary assistance to make his work effective. (3) The ranger shall patrol the concession thoroughly and prevent caiiigins by means of warnings, and arrests if necessary. (4) The northern boundary of the tract shall be surveyed and marked. Every one- half kilometer a painted board marked with the letters B. F. and the number of kilo- meters from the starting point should be nailed to a tree. Where trails cross the bound- ary, warning notices in the Visayan dialect should be posted, stating that caiiigins are prohibited on the tract and that permission to collect forest products must be obtained from the ranger in charge. 676 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 5. (5) The cleared lands within the tract bordering on or surrounded by forest shall be surveyed and marked in order to prevent their extension. (6) Residents of the towns within which the tract is situated who desire to collect forest products for personal use shall obtain a written permission from the ranger in charge. Permission should be granted in all such cases, except for balao. It is believed that the above measures are practicable and will in a short time bring the caiiigins under control. This is a preliminary working plan, therefore it will naturally be found inadequate in many ways, and shall be amended from time to time. ADMINISTRATION. The forest officers who shall be charged with the administration of the plan shall be the forester in charge of district No. 8 and the ranger stationed permanently on the tract. Action taken by them to enforce the provisions of the plan shall be reported to the director of forestry for approval. The forester in charge of district No. 8 shall have general supervision of tlie tract and shall make frequent inspections. The ranger stationed on the tract shall have imme- diate supervision, under the direction of the forester. In matters relating to the pro- tection of the forest from fires and trespass, he shall take the necessary action, promptly reporting the facts to the forester. In matters concerning the compliance of the Insular Lumber Company with the provisions of the working plan, the ranger shall note the facts and report them to the forester. The forester will investigate and, if possible, arrange the matter with the representatives of the company, reporting the results to the director of forestry. New regulations and amendments to existing regulations shall be recommended by the forester to the director of forestry. The forest ofhcers shall assist the company with information regarding the tract, which they have collected in their investigations. Every effort consistent with the wise use of the forest products on the tract should be made by the forest officers to assist the company in making this enter- prise a financial success. The sections relating to cutting rules, management, and administration have been submitted by the director of forestry to the Insular Lumber Company for suggestions, and after a discussion of a few features of the working plan, the sections mentioned were, after slight modifications, agreed upon. Appendix. LIST OF TREE SPECIES. The following is a list of tree species mentioned in the text and includes, among others, all the commercial species found in merchantable quantities. Botanical spec- imens of about seventy tree species were collected. While the data at hand is too incomplete to make an estimate of the total number of tree species on the area, yet compared with other forests in the Philippines already examined, this one has a com- paratively simple floristic composition. On the other hand, contrasted with the average hardwood forest of the Temperate Zone, it is more complex. It will be seen from the stand and yield tables that the six species of Dipterocarpacese are so far ahead of all others, both in number of trees" and bulk of wood, that this may be regarded as a pure Dipterocarp forest. From a lumberman's standpoint, the yield of timber in this forest is equal to, or exceeds, the best American hardwood forest, and compares favor- ably with the best coniferous forests of the eastern United States. At present there is much confusion among the commercial timbers in the Philippines which can not be avoided until more is known about them. A number of species are placed on the market under one name, and sometimes the same species has several different market names. For the sake of comparison, the fourth column of the list gives the known names under which the species are sold in the Manila market. The authors wish to express their thanks to Elmer D. Merrill, botanist, bureau of science, for assistance in the identification of the Ijotanical material. WORKING PLAN FOR PUBLIC FOREST TRACT. 677 List of the species vxentioned in the text. Scientific name. Astronia cumingiana Vid Melastomaceae Brcynia rhamnoides Muell-Arg Euphorbiaceae Canarium sp Burseraceae Diospyros sp Ebenaceae Dipterocarpus grandiflorus Blanco Dipteroearpaceae Eugenia sp Myrtaceae Ficus hauili Blanco Moraceae Homalanthus populneus Pax Euphorbiaceae... Hopea philippinensis Dyer Dipterocarpaceae Kayea sp Guttiferse Llvistona sp Palmae Mallotus ricinoides Muell-Arg Euphorbiaceae Oncosperma sp Palmae Pandanus sp Pandanaceae Pinanga sp i Palmae Psidium guayava L MjTtaceae Shorea contoVta Vid ^ Dipterocarpaceae Shorea polysperma Merr do Family. Local common name. Shorea sp do Do. Shorea squamata Dyer Trema amboinensis Blume. Vitex aherniana Merr do do Tiliaceae Verbenaceae Tulug-tulug.. Moabog Ata-ata Apitong Bulog Labnug Balanti Guisoc-guisoc. Anahao . . . Hlmlaamo. Pandan . Bayabas Lauan-dunlog. . Balacbacan Commercial name. Mangachapuy . . . Lauan-hagtican . Almon Janagdon Dungula Bolongeta. Apitong. Palma brava. White Lauan. Balacbacan, Tanguile, Red Lauan. Red Lauan, Balacba- can. White Lauan. Do. Sasalit. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. (Bulletin No. 6.) A PRELIMINARY WORKING PLAN FOR THE PUBLIC FOREST TRACT OF THE MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING COMPANY, BONGABON, MINDORO, P. I.a By Melvix L. Merritt, forester, in charge of forest district No. 5, and H. N. Whit- ford, Ph. D. forester, chief of the division of forest products. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Manila, November 5, 1906. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a manuscript entitled "A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Com- pany, Bongabon, Mindoro, P. L," by Melvin L. Merritt, forester, in charge of forest district No. 5, and H. N. Whitford, Ph. D., forester, chief of the division of forest products, and respectfully recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 6. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. The Acting Secretary of the Interior, Manila, P. I. A. PRELIMINARY WORKING PLAN FOR THE PUBLIC FOREST TRACT OF THE MINDORO LUM- BER AND LOGGING COMPANY, BONGABON RIVER, MINDORO, P. I. INTRODUCTION. The territory with which this report deals is held under a twenty-year license agreement by the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company. This agreement, dated July 3, 1905, gives it "exclusive right to cut, collect, and remove timber, firewood, and bejuco" from the part of the public forest later described, on the condition that it complies with the rules and regulations of the bureau of forestry in cutting, collecting, and removing said forest products. The work upon which this report is based was undertaken for the purpose of forming a preliminary plan of management to be put into operation, pending more complete investigation. Hence the present plan must be looked upon merely as provisional and subject to change when more definite information is obtained. The field work was done by a party consisting of two foresters, one assistant forester, two native rangers, and from two to nine native laborers, working for a period of over four months. The tract was inspected, surveyed, and mapped, and notes were taken on the distribution of the different types of vegetation. Valuation surveys were then a The following illustrations accompanying this report have been omitted and are on file in the War Department: Plate I. Interior view of the Hagachac forest. II. General view of the Narra forest type. III. Interior view of a Narra forest. IV. View of the beach forest type. V. Agoho growing along the Bongabon River. VI. View of a Calaanan forest. VII. Interior view of a Mangrove swamp. VIII. Narra. IX. Stump of Narra. X. Haga- chac. XI. A young tree of Lauan. XII. Reproduction of Lauan. XIII. A young tree of Guijo. XIV. Apitong. Map of public forest tract between the Sucol and Uasig rivers, Mindoro, P. I., operated under a twenty-year license agreement by the Mindgro Lumber and Logging Company. 679 680 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. made over approximately 2 per cent of the better part of the forest. The trees were calipered and listed on strips 10 meters wide along lines 500 meters apart. Owing to the poor condition of the rest of the forest, and to lack of time, the remainder of the tract was investigated more hurriedly. While engaged in this survey an extensive botanical collection was made, which is the basis of the scientific nomenclature of this paper. Part I. STATEMENT OF THE FACTS UPON WHICH THE WORKING PLAN IS BASED. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TRACT. SITUATION AND AREA. The tract of land examined lies upon the east coast of the island of Mindoro, just north of the twelfth parallel of north latitude and east of the one hundred and twenty- first meridian east of Greenwich. The whole tract contains an area of about 85 square miles, while the part surveyed and examined includes approximately 55 square miles. BOUNDARIES. According to the terms of the license agreement, the tract is bounded as follows: "From the Sucol River south to the Uasig River, and 10 miles inland." Upon ascend- ing the Sucol River it was found that the native name is changed to Inuman after a short distance, therefore this river has been taken as the north boundary. A short distance inland the Uasig River divides into two branches, a large one known as the Baroc, and a small, nearly dry stream called the Uasig. No investigations were made south of the Baroc branch. PHYSIOGRAPHY. As may be seen on the map, the part examined is more or less triangular in shape, having its broadest side toward the coast. Starting at sea level, the land vises slowly and evenly as a broad, flat plain until about 7 miles (11 kilometers) inland it reaches an altitude of nearly 30 meters (100 feet). Here are found a few scattering hills, although the country is still quite level for a short distance more, especially along the Bongabon River. Back from this flat the foothills rise quickly into the broad and high mountain chain which runs north and south through Mindoro. To the south of the tract the foothills extend almost to the coast. To the north a low and less clearly defined range of hills reach nearly to the beach at a point about 4 miles north of the Sucol River. The whole territory is drained mainly by the Bongabon, Dangay, and Uasig rivers, all of which have rapid currents. The Bongabon River is the largest of these and flows through a grassy flood plain about half a mile wide. During the wet season this valley is often flooded and the river is practically impassible. At such times there is an abundance of water for rafting, but the rapid current, which extends far out to sea, would necessitate verystrong booms at the mouth of the river to stop logs. The Dangay and Uasig rivers are smaller and flow through tidal swamps which check their currents. The former could probably be utilized for floating logs for a short distance from its mouth. The Uasig (Baroc) River could also be used in this way a long dis- tance into the interior during the heavy rains, as the river bed is quite free from obstructions. GEOLOGICAL FORMATION AND SOIL. The entire flat is probably of delta origin, having been formed by the action of the Bongabon River. During this formative period there were a number of uplifts that have changed the shore line and the river course from time to time, resulting in the origin of different physiographic units. Corresponding to these there are distinct vegetative types which are adapted to the physical conditions of the topographic units upon which they are found. The soil is, in general, a deep, fine clay, covered with a thin layer of hunaus. No underlying rock was found on the flats, although examinations were made in many places from 1 to 2 meters in depth. In the valley of the Bayangan River there is a subsoil of sand or sandy gravel at a depth of from 75 centimeters (30 inches) to 150 MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 681 centimeters (59 inches) which appears to be more or less continuous. A more shallow- sandy subsoil was also found north of the Boii^abon River on the grassy and poorly wooded flats. In almost all places the soil is ricTi and suitable for agriculture. Formerly no records either of rainfall or temperature had been taken in Mindoro. The rainfall, however, is heavy and more or less distributed throughout the year. The period of heaviest rain comes during the months of July, August, September, and Oc- tober, while the lightest is during January, February, March, and April. Notes regard- ing the rainfall, which were kept from January 16 to March 31, show the following num- ber of rainy days: Date. Number of days with heavy rainfall. Number of days with light rainfall. Date. Number of days with heavy rainfall. Number of days with light rainfall. January 16to31 2 5 1 March 1 to 14 3 6 February 1 to 14 March 15 to 31 4 February 15 to 28 The coolest months are from September to February and the warmest from March to June. Although the warmest months are normally the driest, the northeast monsoon which prevails at this season brings some rain and moderates the heat. KOADS AND TRAILS. Extending from the beach just south of the Cauayan River to the sawmill of the company, about IJ miles inland, there is a logging tramway, made with wooden rails laid upon cross-ties. Aside from this one tramroad there are only rude trails running through the tract. Nearly all of these are passable for horses or carabaos, although some are merely footpaths through the woods. With the exception of a few rude structures, made only for foot passengers, there are no bridges on the tract. None of the present trails would be of any value in lumbering except for the pas- sage of laborers and carabaos. All logging roads must be built especially for that purpose. This, however, is easily done outside of the swamps, it only being neces- sary to clear away the brush and small trees. All such roads are good during the dry and many of them fairly good in the wet season. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. According to the last census report, the tract which includes the barrios of Anilao, Masaguisi, and Paclasan supports a population of about 650. In addition, the barrios of Bongabon to the north and Uasig to the south, which have a combined population of nearly 450, draw approximately half of their support from the tract. The people live in or near villages, around which they practice a rude agriculture, the crops being corn, rice, and vegetables. The only landowners in this territory claiming more than a few acres are a Filipino, who pastures about 300 head of cattle near Paclasan, and an American at the sitio Cupang, who has planted several thousand hemp and cocoanut plants. The Filipinos depend for their forest products upon the forest adjacent to the settlements. They gather resin for torches from Pili and Pag- sahifigin trees, a limited amount of Buri palm leaves for mats, Nipa palm leaves for thatching, and bejucos for rope. The mangrove swamps furnish the firewood, and not much timber is used locally. For the most part these and other needs fhay be supplied without affecting the virgin forest. OWNERSHIP OF THE LAND. Practically all of the second growth and grass lands within a distance of about 2 miles from the coast are claimed by private persons. There are also a number of holdings farther back. None of these have titles, although some have Spanish titles. Practically all of the commercial and uncut noncommercial forest and swamp lands are parts of the public domain. Owing to the fact that no land surveys have been made, it was deemed impracticable to attempt to separate the public from the private lands except in this general way. 682 FORESTEY BULLETIN NO. 6. COMPOSITION AND- CONDITION OF THE FOREST. CHARACTERISTIC TYPES. Several distinct natural and artificial types of vegetation are found, due principally to- First. The influence of salt water. Second. The effect of drainage. Third. The action of rivers. Fourth. Fire. Fifth. The clearing of forests by man. Sixth. The sylvicultural demands of the different species. The effect of these factors will be noted as each type is discussed, both for the pur- pose of showing why that type is present and in order to indicate its possibilities for future development. Since the vegetation of one type merges gradually into that of another, it has been impossible to fix the boundaries exactly and to locate the areas definitely on the map. The following is the classification, with the estimated per cent, of each type for the portion of the tract surveyed: Commercial forest areas: Per cent. Narra type 10 Hagachac type 15 Mixed type 12 Beach type 1 Total commercial forest 38 Noncommercial forest areas: Guipa type 8 Calaanan type 19 Unclassified 7 Total noncommercial forest 34 Swamp forest areas: Mangrove and Nipa types 11 Buri type 2 Total swamp forest 13 Other areas: Grass land 13 Cultivated land 2 Total 15 COMMERCIAL FORESTS. Nana type. — Most important of all the different types of forest is that in which Nan-a (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) grows as the characteristic tree. This type extends from the swamp belt near the coast back over the newly made and poorly drained flats until it reaches a higher and better drained soil, where it gi-adually disappears. Over this tract the abundance of soil moisture and the comparatively open character of the for- est furnish the conditions in which Narra reaches its best development. The general appearance of the forest is much the same throughout. (Pis. II and III.) Usually there are twelve to fifteen large and tall-growing trees of perhaps half as many species scattered over an acre. These form a broken upper story to the forest. Scattered in among them are a gi-eat many smaller and lower-growing or younger trees that fill in the ground space, making a thick under story. Of the smaller trees there are from fifty to seventy species commonly reaching a size of over 10 centimeters (4 inches) in diameter when mature. In addition, there are many that do not reach this size. Mixed with this lower growth, though often shooting up to greater heights, are numer- ous palms (PI. II), while throughout the whole is a mass of climbing bamboo, bejuco (rattan), and other vines that extend to the tops of the tallest trees, as well as over the growth lower down, and often forms dense tangles on or near the ground. Herbs and shrubs are relatively unimportant. Taken as a whole, the undergrowth of brush and MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 683 vines, especially bejuco, is so thick that in walking through the forest it is necessary to use a ' 'bolo " to cut one's way. Principal species: Of the trees reaching a diameter of over 40 centimeters (16 inches), Narra constitutes 7.16 per cent. Other timber trees are Lauan {Shorea conlorla Vidal), 22.23 per cent; Amuguis {Koorderswdcndron pinnatum Merrill), 7.06 per cent; Guijo {Shorea guiso lib), 6.37 per cent; Apitong {Dipterocarpus sp.), 3.83 per cent; Hagachac {Dipterocarpus lasiopodus Perk.), 0.68 per cent, and three species of the genus Termin- (dia, Calumpit (7". edulis Bb), Malagabi (T. pellucida Presb), and Sacat {T. nitens Presb), 1.98 per cent. These trees, which include practically all of the kinds that are lumbered at present, constitute a trifle less than one-half of the whole number which reach a size of over 40 centimeters (16 inches). Of the others, Agupanga (Chisocheton sp.), 7.07 per cent, Dao [Dracontomelum mangiferum Bb), 5.10 per cent, and Malagui- buyo {Celtis sp.), 4.69 per cent, are most numerous, while the two Canarium.s — Pili (C. luzonicum A. Gray) and Pagsahingin (C. villosum Bb), noteworthy because of the fact that they yield resins — make up 1.57 per cent. The remaining 32.26 per cent includes a number of trees, found in small numbers, some of which are valuable. Among these are Bolongeta (Diospyros pilosanthera Bb), Ipil {Intsia acuminata Merr.), and Bansilac {Pithecolobiiun lobatnm Bth.). The first named is fairly common in many places but does not reach any great size. Other large-growing species are Antipolo {Artocarpus communis Forst.), Baslayan {Dehaasia triandra Merr.), Punghan (sp. of Lauraceae), Taloto {Pterocymbiu VI finctorumM.err.), Palusat SA\h\g {Endiandra coriaceaMerr.) , Bani- lad {Sterculia philipi>inc)isis Merr.), Candol-candol {Sterculia blancoi Rolfe), Bancal (Sarcocephalus cordatus iliq.), Talimadon {Gonystylus becanus Gilg.), Nato {Palaquium luzoniense Vi.b Binuang {Octomeles sumatrana Miq.), Catmon {Dillenia philippmcnsis Rolfe), and Pahutan {Mangifera altissima Blanco). Minor species: Butong ]^Ianoc (Cyclostemon microphyllus Merr.), Putat {Barringtonia reticulata Miq. and B. racemosa Bb), and several species each of the genera Canarium and Eugenia are among the commonest of the smaller-growing trees. Near the clear- ings or in places where there have formerly been clearings are found Tula-tula ( Mallo- tus floribundus Muelb), Alom (Mallotus moluccajius Muelb), Ylang-ylang {Canangiurn odoratum Bailb), a great many trees of the genus Ficus, and others. Palms: Growing among the other trees are a large number of palms that seldom exceed 30 centimeters (12 inches) in diameter. The Anahao (Livistona sp.) (PI. II) is widely distributed and grows to a height of 100 feet (30 meters). The Buri {Corypha unibraculifera L.) is seldom found except on the borders of the swamps or in very damp places. Borigan gubat {Areca whitfordii Becc.) is confined largely to wet places whei'e the ground water level is very near the surface. Yroc {Arenga saccharifera Labill) is scattered quite generally and is a low-growing form, found beneath the larger trees. Theothers, Sarauag {Pinanga insignia Becc), Pugahan {Caryotas]).), and Sagasi (Ihtr.ro- spathe elata Scheii.) are usually scattered. Table I, which shows the stand of these species, was compiled while taking valuation surveys, and as time was not takeu to count all seedlings the number is considerably underestimated. It is, hov/uver, approximately correct for the two larger classes: Table I. — Stand of palms per acre (Narra type). [.Vverage of 70.1.5 acres.] Species. Anahao Yroc Bongan gubat Sagasi and Sarauag Pugahan Buri Total Seedlings (without stems) . 9.47 8. .58 5.07 1.02 .55 .77 25.46 Less than 10 meters (.3.3 feet) high. 4.97 .5.81 5.10 1.61 .91 .14 18.54 More tha"i 10 meterj (38 leef ) high. 3.89 1.51 2.20 .52 .28 18.33 15.90 12.37 .3.15 1.74 .91 52.40 Soil: The soil of this type is fairly uniform. It consists of a clay surface soil, more or less mixed with humus, 10 to 12 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) in thickness, and a yellowish blue subsoil, which usually extends to the underground water level. In a few places the subsoil is mixed with sand. As far as investigations show, the underground water level is uniformly 1.5 to 3 meters (5 to 10 feet) below the surface during the dry season, and much aboA^e this during the rainy season. It is always sufficiently near the sur- face to be within reach of the roots of the larger trees, and during extremely wet weather large areas are flooded. 684 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Reproduction: The dense growth of vines, especially bejuco and bamboo, hinders reproduction. Many of the trees are tolerant and can exist m the forest if the shade is not too heavy. Lauan seedlings (PI. XII), for instance, may be found in a shade den- sity of 75 per cent. Here the undergrowth is comparatively scarce and open. How- ever, such favorable conditions are scattered through the forest and may be temporary only, for the breaking of limbs or tree tops, due to the wind or the constantly increasing weight of the mass of bejuco and other vines, may bring this tangle of growth in the tree tops to the surface, forming thickets so dense that little or no sunlight can reach the ground. The falling mass may also injure the pole and seedling growth that has already been established. In such a manner, areas in the forest favorable for seedlings are destroyed and the former condition is established only after a number of years. In some places, the leaves of young palms, especially those of Anahao, produce a shade density of almost 100 per cent. For intolerant species, like Narra, reproduction is poor and it is only along trails and in open places that Narra seedlings are found at all. Table II, which shows the number of poles and young trees in the area, is a fair indica- tion of the capacity of the forest to reestablish itself. Table II. — Stand of poles and small trees per acre on Narra type. [Average of 70.15 acres.] Diameter. Species. 10-19 centi- meters (4-7 inches). 20-29 centi- meters (8-11 inches) . 30-39 centi- meters (12-16 inches) . Total. 0.499 2.922 .955 .713 .884 .142 .156 .769 1.553 .415 .171 19. 187 28.467 0.470 3.150 1.211 .570 .698 .214 .128 .912 2.309 .641 .356 17.505 13.043 0.057 1.169 .342 .427 .228 .042 .071 .285 1.098 .442 .128 10. 306 1.026 7.241 2.508 1.710 1.810 .398 .355 1.966 4.9eo 1.496 Dao .655 Others reaching 30 centimeters (12 inches) in diameter when 46.998 41.510 Total 56.831 41.207 14. 595 112. CrS Condition: The sylvical condition of the forest is poor. In it are many over-mature trees that should be removed as soon as possible. This is especially true of Narra. The dense undergrowth renders reproduction difficult. Hagachac type. — On the slightly higher and better drained land adjacent to the Narra forest is a stand of timber which apparently has taken the place of Narra as the river delta has been extended. Contrasted with the Narra forest, the Hagachac type is characterized by the absence of Narra, by the presence of Hagachac (Diptero- carp^is lasiopodus Perk.) (frontispiece), by a decrease of underbrush, and by an absence of climbing bamboo. While a consultation of the yield tables indicates that the yield is lighter in this than in the previous type, yet virgin stands of the Haga- chac type are heaver. The lighter yield shown by the tables is due to the fact that some of the original forest has been cleared or cut over. Since this type includes several detached areas, it was deemed advisable to dis- tinguish between them for the purpose of calculating the yields separately. The main part of this description, while generally applicable to them all, will be based upon the part designated upon the map as Hagacnac I, which is adjacent to the Narra type- Hagachac Division II does not differ materially from the first except in having a smaller quantity of Guijo. While the average stand is poorer, in some places it is equally as good. Division III of the Hagachac type extends back into the low foot- hills, in which territory the Mangyanes, a non-Christian tribe, are found. These people have for a long time made their clearings in the forest unrestricted in any way, and have destroyed large amounts of timber. In some places the low hills have been rendered practically valueless from this cause. A single line of survey through this tract, and including a trifle over 19 acres of forest and clearings, shows a yield of MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 685 approximately 2,300 feet B. M. per acre, about half of which is Hagachac. These figures have not been placed in the tables of stands and yields, as they represent so small a per cent of the forest. Division IV is a small tract of forest whicn lies just north of the Boiigabon River. It is of about the same grade as Hagachac II, though it has a number of minor differences, due to its proximity to the river and to the sur- rounding cleared land. Leading species: Hagachac makes up 17.45 per cent of the stand of timber trees over 40 centimeters (IG inches) in diameter; Lauan, 18.28 per cent; Amuguis, 6.01 per cent; Guijo, 5.54 per cent; Trrminalia spp., 1.65 per cent; Narra, 0.95 per cent, and Apitong, 0.23 per cent. In this, as in the Narra type, Lauan is the predominant species, although nearly equaled by the Hagachac. As a matter of fact, the Haga- chac is usually grouped in favorable spots, and in such places greatly outnumbers the Lauan, which is more evenly scattered. It is not uncommon to find groups where the total stand of timber would probably run as high as 20,000 to 30,000 feet B. M. per acre. Of the other common species, the most numerous with percentages of stand of each are Agupanga, 10.5 per cent; Dao, 6.48 per cent; Malaguibuyo, 5.19 per cent, and Pili and Pagsahiiigin, 2.25 per cent. Of the remaining trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter, Malugay {Dracontomdum sp.) and Calantas (Toona sp.) are found scat- tered here and there through the forest, but are not present in merchantable quantities. Minor species: Putat, Bolongeta, and the many species of Eugenia, while still found, are not so plentiful as in the Narra forest. Near the Calaanan area thei^ are present many kinds peculiar to that type, especially species of Ficus and Mallotus. Palms: While all the palms growing in the Narra forest are present in this type, the total number per acre is less. Buri and Boiigan gubat are nearly absent; Anahao and especially Yroc are still abundant, and Sarauag, Pugahan, and Sagasi are scat- tered. Undergrowth: Climbing bamboo has practically disappeared and bejuco and other vines, though still common, are not so plentiful in the heavier stands. The smaller growing tree species still continue to form an understory, many of these being found even in the densest places. Shrubs and herbs occur in small numbers, and are rela- tively unimportant. Soil: The soil here is a yellowish clay, sometimes slightly sandy, and has a small amount of humus at the surface. A sandy layer was found at a depth of about 150 centimeters (59 inches) in a few places, but is not universally present. The area, contrasted with the Nan-a type, is better drained. Reproduction: Reproduction is especially good of Hagachac, seedlings, saplings, and poles being common in all places where seed trees are found. No other tree seems to reproduce so well with so little light. The reproduction of Lauan, Amu- guis, and Guijo is plentiful except in the more densely shaded places. Table III shows the stand per acre of trees from 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter. The number of trees in the next to the last column (those over 30 centimeters when mature) is below the actual number. This is due to the fact that it is difficult to properly classify all of these species, no doubtful ones being listed. Table III. — Stand of poles and small trees per acre on Hagachac type. [Average of 34.735 acres.] Species. Diameter. 10-19 centi- meters (4-7 inches'! . 20-29 centi- meters (S-11 inches) . 30-39 centi- meters (12-16 inches) . Total. Hagachac Lauan Amuguis Guijo Dao Malagabi, Sacat, Calumpit Pill and Pagsahingin Narra Apitong Agupanga Malaguibuyo Others which will grow to be larger than 30 centimeters (12 inches; Total 1.756 1.497 .345 .575 .288 .086 .460 .029 .057 2.015 .201 9.328 2.072 1.727 .489 .575 .431 .173 .374 11.631 ' 20.808 1.180 .575 .?;47 .288 .057 .115 .115 .029 5.008 3.799 1.381 1.438 .776 .374 .949 .058 .143 6.475 1.264 25.939 10. 159 47. 604 686 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Density: In a typical stand of Hagachac, the high crowns spread over half or often all of the surface. Sometimes, however, the forest is more open than this. In nearly all cases an understory of smaller growing trees gives a comparatively dense ground cover. Condition: The silvicultural condition is poor owing to the presence of many over- mature trees, to the unfavorable conditions for reproduction, and to the presence of many inferior species. The merchantable condition is fair. Mixed type. — Situated along the upper waters of the Madugo, Uyao, and Bayangan rivers is a tract of forest characterized by the absence of both Narra and Hagachac and by a predominance of less important species. The area is flat; rich bottom land, and has a deep clay soil, with a layer of humus at the surface. The forest is made up of scattering groups or individuals of large and tall growing trees, the most important of which are Lauan, Guijo, and Amuguis. Malugay and Calantas occur in places, while Malaguibuyo, Dao, Agupanga, and Candol-candol are very common. Growing in between and below this upper story of trees are a large number of smaller ones. All through the forest palms are common. Especially is this true of Yroc, which grows in fairly dense shade. An abundant growth of vines and bejuco is universally present. The condition of the forest is poor, because of clearings, the scarcity of valuable trees, and their poor reproduction. Beach type. — Since the coastal line of the tract is open and exposed to the direct action of the waves, a narrow beach has been formed, separating the swamp- portion from the sea. Near the mouths of the rivers this beach is broader than the average, while -in some other esi^ecially open places it is being destroyed, thus exposing small patches of the mangrove vegetation which normally lie behind the frontal zone of beach plants. The forest of the beach is distinct (PI. IV). Agoho {Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.) and the Palo Maria de la Playa {Calophyllum inophylliim L.) are the two leading and distinctively characteristic trees. In places the former grows in nearly pure stands and extends inland along the Boiigabon River (PI. V) for about a mile. Besides those mentioned, the usual beach plants of the Tropics are found. Among the trees, Botong {Barringtonia spedosa Forst.), Dap-dap {Erythina indica Lam.), Talisay {Terminalia catappa L.), and Balabago {Hibiscus tiliaceous L.) are the more common. Guijo, Amugius, Apitong, and Ipil are among the timber trees that occur, but not in mer- chantable quantities, on the landward side of the beach. Pandan {Pandanus tectonics Sol.), Cycad {Cycas drcinalis L.), and many other shrubby plants are found. The Agoho reproduces well and rapidly in most places, but reproduction of Palo Maria is more scattered and in some places entirely absent. Unclassified commercial forest. — This part of the forest was given very little exami- nation, althougli it was seen to be of commercial importance. Both sides of the Boiigabon River valley along its upper waters were lined with tree growth. A strip taken to the north at a distance of 9 miles up this river showed a stand in which were found Lauan, Amugius, some Guijo, and many other large-sized trees. The country here is hilly. An elevation of 260 meters (850 feet) was reached within a mile of the river. Mangyan clearings have destroyed large quantities of timber, and the outlook from this hill and from others indicates that tlie same conditions exist over the major part of the foothill region, which makes up the back portion of the tract. Logging in this territory is not advisable under present conditions. Noncommerdal forests. — In addition to the types of commercial forest already named and described, there are considerable areas covered with tree growth not suited for lumbering under present conditions, and some of it not at all. While a complex classification of this part might be made, the part examined has been divided into two parts and the native names for these used. Naturally these grade into each other and lines of division are difficult to fix. Fundamentally, however, the distinction between them is clear. The first, or "Guipa" type, is uncut noncommercial forest, containing many large, though at present noncommercial, varieties of trees. The "Calaanan" type is the second-growth forest on land which has been cleared and used for agricul- tural purposes, and then abandoned. Guipa type. — In most cases the Guipa forest appears to be the first high forest growth on areas where the underground water level is very near the surface. Such areas are usually abandoned river channels and flood plains, and, excepting along the Boiigabon River, are very near the coast. Some idea of the stand and species of the larger trees may be obtained from a rapid count made over 1.7 hectares (4.2 acres) of land in the Guipa south and southeast of the Payang cogonal, where the following are found: Seventeen Dao, 4 Antipolo, 1 Cupang (Parkia roxbtirghii G. Don), 1 Lauan, 1 Terminalia, 1 Malaguibuyo, and 1 Bancal, as the more promising of the larger trees. In another place, on an area of 1.6 hectares (3.95 acres) running through the central part of the narrow strip of Guipa between the Anilao River and the bairio of Masaguisi, are found 9 Dao, 3 Amuguis, 5 MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 687 Toog (Bischojia trifoliata Hook.), 3 Bancal, 3 Pagsahirigin, 1 Antipole, 1 Calantas, 1 Narra, 1 Pili, and a few other trees with diameters greater than 40 centimeters (16 inches). These two places represent two of the best portions of the Guipa forest. In both of them, as elsewhere in this type, Catmon is the most characteristic tree, although it rarely reaches a diameter of over 40 centimeters (16 inches). Palms, especially Anahao and Yroc, are very plentiful. The undergrowth is com- posed of small trees, vines, and bejuco, and is generally quite dense. Reproduction is fair of the trees present, although in some places the lack of desirable seed trees prevents the reproduction of the better kinds. The soil is rich and varies from a loamy clay to a loamy sand. Calaanan type. — The Calaanan stands in sharp contrast to all of the forest types thus far described (PI. VI). While the others have been fundamentally natural divisions, this one is distinctly artificial and the direct result of the influence of man. It may be best understood by briefly describing its origin. A long-standing custom for those raising agricultural crops has been to go into the forest at the commencement of the dry season, cut all of the trees over a small area, and leave them until near the end of the dry season. The slash is then burned, and upon the excellent seed bed left the desired crops are planted. After growing crops for two or three years, the lack of any kind of tools for working the land allows the entrance of weeds, grass, etc., so that it is easier to clear a new place than to clean out the old. As a result of these methods, large areas have been cut over, abandoned, grown up, and perhaps cut over again and again. Thus they have been rendered worthless for forest purposes. The composition of the Calaanan varies considerably in different places. In portions bordering upon or near to the commercial forest, saplings and small poles of adjacent timber species are common. In other places, where the land has been worked for a longer time before abandonment, and where the clearings are near to grass lands, cogon grass {Imperata exaltata Brongn.) is mixed with the Calaanan. In still other places there is almost a pure stand of typical Calaanan trees. Taken as a whole, this type is made up of rapid-growing and quick-maturing varieties, which seed abundantly and at an early age. The first to come in, and one of the widest in distribution of these, is Binunga {Macaranga tanarius Muell.) (PI. VI). This seeds at an early age, grows with wonderful rapidity, and while most of the trees die early, some reach the size of forest trees. Commonly growing with this are a number of species of the genera Mallotus, Macaranga, and Ficus. Table IV gives the number of trees upon a plot one-fortieth of a hectare (one-six- teenth of an acre) taken in the midst of a young Calaanan forest situated so far away from the commercial forest as to be entirely unaffected by it. In this Calaanan there is an unusually large proportion of Binunga and Alorn, the former being much the taller, having an average height of 14 meters (45 feet). Table IV. — Number of trees on one-fortieth of a hectare {about one-sixteenth of an acre) of young Calaanan not adjacent to the commercial forest. Species. Macaranga tanarius Muell . . . Mallotus moluccanus Muell. . Macaranga playfairii Hemsl. Ficus hauili Blanco Leea sp Ficus mindoriensis Merr All others (8 species) Dead trees Total live trees. Seedlings less than 1 meter (3 feet) high. Diameter. 1-5 centi- meters (J-2 inches) . C8 5-10 cen- timeters (2-4 inches) . 10-15 cen- timeters (4-6 inches) . Total. As already stated, Calaanan near the forest usually contains a large number of forest tree seedlings, and would no doubt eventually produce excellent forest if left undis- turbed. An old Calaanan near the Narra forest illustrates this point. Table V shows the number of trees found upon two plots, each one-fortieth of a hectare (one six- teenth of an acre) in area. 33581—07 6 688 FORESTEY BULLETIN NO. 6. Table V. — Number of trees on one-twentieth of a hectare {about one-eighth of an acre) of old Calaanan adjacent to the commercial forest. Seedlings less than 1 meter (3 feet) high. Diameter. Species. \-h centi- meters ■ (|:^ mchcs) . 5-10 cen- timeters (2-4 inches) . 10-15 cen- timeters (4-6 inches) . 15-20 cen- timeters (6-8 inches). 20-30 cen- timeters (8-12 inches) . Total. 30 27 21 2 19 16 3 6 1 56 43 1 1 25 2 2 1 10 55 1 3 Pili 2 4 3 11 18 4 4 3 2 33 71 4 153 Total 157 1 mfi 36 9 6 4 318 The following is a list of trees which are typical Calaanan trees, though they are often found in other forest types: Ficus minahassae Miq. (Hagimit), F. hauili Blanco (Hauili), F. nota Merr. (Tibig), F. variegata Merr. (Taiigisang bayauac T.), Macaranga tanarius Muell. (Binunga), M. bicolor Muell., Mallotus barnesii Merr., M. playfairii Hemsl., M. floribundus Muell., M. riciniodes Muell., if. moluccanus Muell. (Alom), Stylocoryne macrophylla Bartl. (Basa), Trema amhoinense Bl. (Knugdon), Mussaenda grandijlora Rolfe, Clerodendron macrostcgiiim Sch., Laportea meyeniana Ward. (Lipa), Voacanga cumingii Rolfe, Phacanthus cumingii Miq., Callicarpa erioclona Schauer, C. blancoi Rolfe, and C.fonnc- sana Rolfe. Unclassified noncommercial forests. — Two small tracts of forest, one near the Sucol and one near the Uasig River, appear on the map under the above heading. These have not been examined carefully and hence no attempt has been made to classify them. It is believed that the part near the Sucol River contains small areas of com- mercial forest, otherwise they are apparently made up of a mixture of Guipa, Calaanan, and grass land. SWAMP TYPES. Mangrove type. — Behind the narrow strip of land along the shore that is occupied by the beach forest is a flat area, often quite wide, that is flooded at high tide. Here an excessive amount of salt water gives rise to the so-called mangrove vegetation (PI. VII), which is composed of a dense stand of trees from 15 to 30 centimeters (6 to 12 inches) in diameter and from 8 to 12 meters (26 to 40 feet) in height. Many of these trees have long stilt roots, which form a very characteristic appearance, especially noticeable since the ground is free from undergrov/th. Members of the family Rhizophoracese compose this type almost to the exclusion of all others. The following species are characteristic: Rhizophora mucronata Lam., R. conjugata L., Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lam., B. parviflora Lam., B. eriopetala Wanda., B. caryophylliodes Blume, Ceriops candolleana Arn., and C. roxburghiana Am. While the species of Rhizophora and Bruguiera have the common names of Bacao or Bacauan, and those of the Ceriops, Tarigal, these names are often interchangeable and the dif- ferent species of the genera have such a variety of individual common names that no attempt is made to collect them. Besides the Rhizophoracese,, Pagatpat (Sonneraiia pagatpat Blanco), Apiapi (Avicenma officinalis L.). and Nilad (Scyphiphora hydro- phyUarea Gsertn.) are present. On. the slightly higher areas Tabigue (A^lyocarpus oboratus Juss. and X. granatus Koenig) and Dungonlate {Heritiera littoralis Dry.) are quite common. The mangrove swamps are important commercially because they are the principal source of firewood in the Philippines and because species of Bacauan, TaTigal, and Tabigue furnish valuable tan barks and dye barks. ^^ hile in many parts of the Philip- pines the mangrove swamps have been greatly damaged by long-continued cutting, those within this tract are in excellent condition and will furnish, with proper man- agement, a constant supply of firewood, tan bark, and dye bark. Reproduction in them is good since the trees seed continuously and freely. Nipa type. — Near the upper limit of high tide and on- strips along the tidal portion of fresh- water streams the saline condition of the soil is less pronounced. These places are occupied by the Nipa palm {Mpa fruticans Wurmb.), which appears as the com- monest and characteristic growth. Nipa is often found in nearly pure stands, though MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 689 occasionally it is mixed with the mangrove species. In the upper limits of the Nipa swamp considerable areas are occupied by the swamp fern, I^agolo {Achrostichuvi aureum L.) and by Doloarin {Acanthus ilicifolius L.). The former occurs most fre- quently. Evidently the Nipa would grow and do well on the land occupied by the mangrove vegetation, but is probably shaded out by it. Buri type. — Behind the mangrove and Nipa swamp is a l)elt not flooded at any time by the tide, yet containing too much water for the growth of forest trees. Here is usually an almost pure stand of the Buri palm (Corypha, umhraculifera L.). Toward its higher limits it is mixed with shrubs and forest trees, and merges quickly into forest types. Reproduction is very plentiful, and large numbers of young plants are to be found. The Buri palm is not necessarily confined to the area bordering on the Nipa, but may form dense growth along the streams, especially if these run through or border on the grass areas. OTHER AREAS. Grass land. — The broad sandy and rocky flood plain of tile Bongabon River is appar- ently natural grass land. In places where the action of the floods is strongest, scat- tered clumps of Talahib (Saccharum spontanevin L.) are practically the only vegetation found. Toward the outer edges of the flood plain this grass forms a dense jungle from 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10 feet) in height. Fires sweep through it periodically, partially burning the driest and killing the greenest portions. In this way there has accumu- lated at the base a dense mass of dead and partially burned grass that is often 1 meter or more in depth, which is sufRcient to prevent the seeding of forest trees. In the thinner portions, where the seeding is possible, fires are instrumental in checking forest growth. Mention has already been made of the extension of the coastal belt of Agoho up the Boiigabon River valley. It is believed from observations made in other parts of the islands that the habitat occupied by the Talahib is especially suited to Agoho, and were it not for fires this tree would form in places pure stands. At the upper limits of the extension of this tree an excellent advance zone of seedlings and young trees was observed. A later visit to the same place showed a fire destroying this stand. A few ox-bow channels cut off from the main streams are filled with Tagpo {Phrag- mites sp.), and in places there is an extension of the grasss zone as peninsulas into the forest, which evidently marked the existence of old river channels. The Baroc River flood plain is similar to that of the Boiigabon River, but on a much smaller scale. The banks of all the other rivers are clothed with forest, except where the clearings have allowed cogon to come in. At present these river-bottom grass lands are practically valueless, although they furnish pasturage for such wild game as timarau, deer, and wild carabao. Cultivated lands. — Scattered in small areas along roads and trails in almost all parts of the tract are small cultivated fields. These are more numerous near the villages and along the river valleys. In the part of the tract near the mountains the Mangyanes have destroyed large portions of the forest by clearings. The portion of the tract actually under cultivation is estimated at 2 per cent. Since the areas are small, they are not indicated on the map. The stand tables given here for trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter were computed for each type separately. Whenever possible diameters have been taken at breast height, but in case of trees having high buttresses the diameters were taken above the swell NARRA TYPE STAND. Table VI was computed from valuation surveys taken over 70.15 acres (28.388 hec- tares) or 2.035 per cent of the whole amount of the tract, which contains 3,447 acres. This type includes some territory aroimd the mill which has been partially cut over and some bordering on inferior types of forest, consequently the main part of the tract contains a slightly heavier stand than that shown for the average acre. 690 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Table VI. — Stand per acre on Narra type {3,447 acres). [Average of 70.15 acres.] 1 Mala- Diameter abo.-e. buttresses. Narra. Lauan. Guijo. iSr |Apitong. gabi, Sacat, Cakim pit. Inches. Centimeters. [ 16 40 0.042 0.627 0.242 0.128 1 0.099 0.071 18 45 .085 .669 .285 .1.56 .099 .028 20 50 .199 .613 .156 .128 .085 .042 22 55 .242 .513 .190 .285 .071 .099 24 60 .185 ..556 .099 .299 .114 .057 26 66 .199 .470 .142 .199 .085 .028 28 70 .171 .456 .114 .213 .128 .028 30 75 .099 .313 .185 .156 .042 .042 31 80 .114 .256 .042 .099 .071 .014 33 85 .08.5 .456 .085 .071 .071 .014 35 90 .128 .228 .042 .085 .071 .042 37 95 .07] .156 .028 .042 .014 .014 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 100 lor. no 115 120 125 130 .085 .028 .042 .042 .057 .028 .142 .142 .156 .057 .057 .071 .014 .014 .028 .014 .028 .028 .028 .014 .014 .014 .028 ■; ;:::: ' :i .028 .014 .014 53 55 57 59 78 135 140 145 150 200 .042 .014 L__. .014 .014 Total: 1 Per acre 1.930 5.994 1.717 1.903 1.034 .535 Per hectare.. 4.769 14.811 4.243 4.702 2.555 1.322 Per cent 7.16 22.23 6.37 7.06 3.83 1.98 Diameter above buttresses. Haga- chac. Pili and Pagsa- hingin. Agu- panga. Mala- gui- buyo. Dao. Others. Total. Inches. Centimeters. 16 40 0.042 0.156 ).826 199 0.085 2.409 4.926 18 45 .014 .057 .356 .299 .028 1.682 3. 758 20 22 50 55 .057 .014 .299 .142 .228 .156 .099 .042 1.040 .841 2.946 2.618 .014 24 26 60 65 .042 .042 .114 .099 .128 .128 .156 .085 .841 .441 2.591 1.946 .028 28 30 70 75 .014 .028 .057 .028 .1.56 .028 .413 .199 1.750 1.162 .014 .028 31 33 80 85 .014 .014 .014 .014 .014 .128 .114 .213 .213 .979 1.151 .014 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 78 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 200 .014 .014 .085 .099 .085 .014 .057 .142 .028 .028 .028 .042 .851 .452 .410 .296 .353 .141 .213 .183 .084 .056 .042 1 .028 .014 .014 : .057 .014 .042 .042 .028 .014 .014 .014 .014 .014 .028 .028 1 i Total: Per acre .182 .424 1.906 1.265 1.374 8.700 26.964 Pe r hectare. . .450 1.048 4.709 3.126 3.395 21. 498 66.628 Percent .68 1.57 7.07 4.69 5.10 32.26 100 MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 691 HAGACHAC TYPE STAND. Table VII was computed from surveys made over 34.73 acres (14.057 hectares) or 2.052 per cent of the tiTritory of the part of the Hagachac type designatt^d as Hagachac I, which contains 1,092 acres. Tabl? VII. — Stand per acre on Hagachac I type {1,692 acres). [Average of 34.74 acres.] Diameter above buttresses. Haga- chac. Lauan. Amu- guis. Guijo. Mala- gabi, Sacat, Calum- pit. Pili and Pagsa- hingin. Inches. 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 Centimeters. 41 45 50 55 (50 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 0.748 .403 .374 .489 .288 .230 .316 .144 .230 .144 .201 .144 .173 .115 .057 .U57 .057 .029 .029 0.460 .460 .575 .345 .632 .374 .259 .345 .173 .115 .259 .173 .086 .086 .029 .029 .029 0.230 .115 .115 .173 .374 .144 .0.57 .115 .029 .057 .029 .029 0.086 .201 .086 .259 .057 .086 .173 .086 .029 .057 .029 .029 .029 .029 .057 .029 .029 0.115 .057 .057 .086 .029 0.173 .173 .029 .029 .057 .029 .029 .029 .029 .029 ~ .029 1 1 j .029 Total: Per acre Per hectare . . . Per cent 4.257 10.519 17.45 4.458 11.016 18.28 1.467 j 3.625 1 6.01 j 1.351 3.338 5.54 .402 .994 1.65 .548 1.354 2.25 Diameter above buttresses. Narra. Api- tong. Dao. Agu- panga. Mala- gui- buyo. All others. Total. Inches. 16 18 20 22 24 26 ■ 28 30 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 Centimeters. 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 0.029 9.144 .115 .057 .086 .230 .173 .086 .029 0.720 .575 .403 .316 .316 .144 .057 .029 0.173 .086 .374 .201 2.015 .892 .949 .."518 4.893 3.077 3.076 2.502 2.472 1.697 1.466 .863 .807 .632 .691 .605 .431 .287 .258 .172 .230 .029 .029 .029 .058 0.057 .029 ; .057 ! .115 .345 .115 .345 .144 ..345 .115 .029 .057 .029 1 .029 .144 .029 .230 .029 .115 .057 .057 .057 .029 .029 .173 .086 .057 .057 .086 .029 1 1 j .029 .029 1 .057 .057 1 .029 Total P P P er acre er hectare., er cent . : . . .230 .568 .95 .057 .141 .23 1.581 3.907 6.48 2.560 6.326 10.50 1.266 3.128 5.19 6.213 15.352 25.47 24.390 60.268 100 692 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Table VIII is computed from valuation surveys made over 25.11 acres (10.16 hectares) or 1.254 per cent of the territory designated on the map as Hagachac II, which con- tains approximately 2,000 acres. The scattered and varied condition of this forest is such that the small per cent taken in these surveys must not be accepted as an absolute statement of the stand. It is believed, however, that the actual stand will exceed rather than fall below this estimate. Table VIII. — Stand per acre on Hagachac II type {2,000 acres). [Average of 25.11 acres.] Diameter above buttresses. Haga- chac. Lauan. Amu- guis. Guijo. Dao. Malagui- buyo. Inches. 16-19 20-23 24-27 28-30 31-34 35-38 39-42 43-46 47-50 Centimeters. 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 120-129 0.477 .557 .358 .557 .278 .238 .318 .040 .119 0.477 .438 .796 .278 .159 .119 .040 .040 .040 0.318 .159 .557 .477 .079 .119 .079 0.079 .079 .079 .040 .040 .040 0.199 .438 .477 .398 .238 .159 .159 1.991 .677 .796 .238 .079 Total: Per acre Per hectare . . Percent 2.942 7.270 13.60 2.387 5.898 11.03 1.788 4.418 8.26 .357 .882 1.65 2.147 5.305 9.92 3.702 9.148 17.11 Diameter above buttresses. Agu- panga. Candol- candol. Mala- gabi, Sacat, Calum- pit. Others. Total. Inches. 16-19 20-23 24-27 28-30 31-34 35-38 39-42 43-46 47-50 Centimeters. 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 120-129 1.353 .836 .517 .040 .040 0.597 .517 .199 .119 1.233 .717 .637 .5.57 .278 .199 .079 .040 .040 6.724 4.497 4. 416 2.823 1.191 .914 .675 .120 .278. 0.079 .119 .079 .040 Tota I I I 1: 'er acre 'er hectare . . 'erc^nt 2.786 6.884 12.88 1.432 3.539 6.62 .317 .783 1.46 3.780 9.340 17.47 21.638 53.467 100 MIXED TYPE STAND. Table IX is computed from valuation surveys made over 34.7 acres (14.07 hectares) or 0.82 per cent of the total area for this type, which is approximately 4,200 acres. The variable character of this forest is such as to render this small per cent insufficient data for certain conclusions. The general stand is poor and the forest more or less mixed with clearings and Calaanan. More complete data would no doubt show a considerable variation from these figures. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. Table IX. — Stand per acre on mi.rcd type {4,200 acres). [Average of 34.7 acres.] 693 Diameter above buttresses. Lauan. Amu- guis. Guijo. Dao. Mala- gabi, Sacat, Calum- pit. Inches. 16-19 20-23 24-27 28-30 31-34 35-38 39-42 43-46 47-50 Centimeters. 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 0.403 .720 .633 .259 .317 .057 .057 0.230 .259 .230 .115 .172 0.230 .201 .086 .259 .201 .057 .057 0.028 .288 .259 .316 .259 .0.^7 .316 .086 .086 0.115 .144 .086 .028 .057 .028 .057 1 Total: Per acre Per hectare.. Per cent 2.503 6.185 15.80 1.063 2.627 6.71 1.091 2.696 6.89 1.695 4.188 10.70 .401 .991 2.53 Diameter above buttresses. Malagui- buyo. Agu- panga. Others. Total. Inches. 16-19 20-23 24-27 28-30 31-34 35-38 39-42 43-46 47-50 Centimeters. 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 1.5.'--5 .748 .662 .230 .086 0.748 .431 .374 .201 • .028 1.296 1.123 .691 .403 .345 .028 .144 4.605 3. 770 3.079 1.869 1.436 .199 .659 .086 .143 120-129 1 Tota I I I 1: 'er acre 'er hectare., 'er cent 3. 281 8.107 20.70 1. 782 4.403 11.24 4.030 9.958 25.43 15.846 39. 155 100 VOLUME TABLES. Owing to the fact that almost no cutting was going on during field work on the tract, very few measurements of felled trees were made. These volume tables have been computed largely from data taken by Forester Everett in Negros, Forester Maule in Bataan, and Forester Klemme in Tayabas, and checked with a few measurements taken upon the tract. In every case, however, it has been the purpose to make con- servative estimates. Three tables are given, one for Narra, a low-growing tree; one for Amuguis and species of Terminalia, which are of medium height; and one for Dipterocarpacese, which includes Lauan, Apitong, Guijo, and Hagachac. The latter trees are tall growing, and, while they differ from each other, it was thought best to use one table for them all. A comparison of this latter table with that given for the Yellow Poplar « (Liriodcndron tulipifcra L.) of the United States, which very much resembles in general form and habits of growth these Dipterocarps, shows a marked similarity between the two. a 3ee Braniff, E. A.: Grades and Amounts of Lumber Sawed from Yellow Poplar, etc. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, For. Ser., Bull. 73 (1906). 694 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Table X. — Volume table. Narra. Amuguis, Mala- gabi, Sacat, Ca- lumpit. Lauan, Guijo, Ha- gachac, Apitong. Board Board Board feet MK feet M3. feet UK Doyle. Doyle. Doyle. Inches. Cm. 16 40 140 0.500 210 0.875 210 0.875 18 45 195 .745 285 1.150 285 1.310 20 50 235 1.005 350 1.420 390 1.725 22 55 -300 1.320 416 1.775 445 2.250 24 60 370 1.555 505 2.200 680 3.150 26 65 450 1.950 622 2.550 910 3.640 28 70 550 2.275 760 2.920 1,170 4.315 30 75 650 2.540 885 3.310 1,380 5.110 31 80 740 2.955 1,045 3.870 1,615 6.000 33 85 821 3.250 1,200 4.310 1,804 6.850 35 90 915 3.625 1,360 4.750 2,115 7.650 37 95 1,010 3.950 1,465 5.320 2,420 8.325 39 100 1,115 4.350 1,640 5.901 2,685 8.900 41 105 1,220 4.800 1,820 6.300 2,982 9.540 43 110 1,310 5.200 1,985 6.595 3,200 10. 276 45 115 1,430 5.560 2,160 6.980 3,450 10.900 47 120 1,550 6.200 2,375 7.350 3,685 11.500 49 125 1,622 6.620 2,600 7.500 3,965 12. 120 51 53 130 135 4,215 4,500 12. 500 13.000 55 140 4,650 13. 000 The yield tables have been computed for each type separately by applying the proper volume table to the number of trees of each diameter class which was found upon that type. W hile the yields can not be accepted as being accurate, owing to the nature of the volume tables used, it has been thought advisable to include them as being a conservative estimate of the yield. Table XI. — Yieldin board feet on Narra type {3,447 acres). Species. Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches). Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20inciies). Average yield per acre. Total yield. Average yield per acre. Total yield. 1,249 6,855 1,582 1,200 1,260 408 285 4,305,303 23, 629, 185 5,453,154 4, 136, 400 4,343,220 1,406, .376 982,395 1,224 6,532 1,450 1,150 1,188 385 272 4,219,128 22,515,804 4,998,150 Apitong . 3,964,050 4,095,036 1,327,095 Calumpit . . 937,584 Total J 12,839 31, 725 44,256,033 12,201 30,148 42,056,847 MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 695 Table XII. — Yield in cubic meters on Narra type (1,395 hectares). Species. Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches) . Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Average yield per hectare. Total yield. Average yield per hectare. Total yield. 12.50 62.55 14 90 11.03 12.08 I 3.75 2.39 17, 437. 50 87,257.25 20.785.50 15,386.85 16,851.60 5,231.25 3,334 05 12.28 59.03 13.46 10.49 11.36 3.52 2.24 17, 130. 60 82,346.8.5 18, 776. 70 14, 633. 55 15, 847. 20 4,910.40 3, 124 80 Total 119. 20 48.24 166, 284 00 112. 38 45.48 156, 770. 10 Table XIII. — Yield in board feet on Hagachac I type {1,692 acres.) Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches) . Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Species. Average yield per acre. Total yield. Average yield per acre. Total yield. 4,815 4,526 1,497 798 1 ■" 135 8,146,980 7,657,992 2,532,924 1,350,216 335,016 228,420 4,543 4,298 1,421 711 158 * 131 22 7, 686, 756 7,272,216 2,404,332 1,203,012 Sacat Calumpit 267,336 221,652 22 37,224 37,224 Total 11,991 29,629 20,288,772 11,284 27,882 19,092,528 Table XIV. — Yield in cubic meters on Hagachac I type (6S5 hectares). Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches). Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Average yield per hectare. Total yield. Average yield per hectare. Total yield. 43.28 42.42 13.71 7.89 I 1.89 1.35 .24 29,646.80 29,057.70 9,391.35 5,404 65 1,294 65 924 75 164 40 40.36 39.94 12.87 7.06 27,646.60 27,358.90 8,81.5.95 4,836.10 1.48 1 1,013.80 1.31 i 897.35 . 24 164 40 Total 110. 78 44 83 75,884 30 103. 26 41.79 70,733.10 696 FORESTKY BULLETIN NO. 6. Table XV. — Yield in board feet on Hagachac II type {2,000 acres). Species. Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches). Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Average yield per acre. Total yield. Average yield per acre. Total yield. Hagachac 4,078 2,410 1,328 333 256 8,156,000 4,820,000 2,656,000 666,000 512,000 3,942 2,234 1,237 310 256 7,884,000 4,468,000 Amuguis 2, 474, 000 620,000 Malagabi . 512,000 Total 8,405 20,768 16,810,000 7,979 19,716 15,958,000 Table XVI. — Yield in cubic meters on Hagachac II type {810 hectares). Species. Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches) . Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Average yield per hectare. Total yield. Average yield per hectare. Total yield. 36.46 22.90 12.60 3.26 1 .37 29, 532. 60 18,549.00 10,206.00 2,640.60 1,919.70 34.92 21.35 11.70 3.01 2.38 28,285.20 17,293.50 9,477.00 2, 438. 10 1,919.70 Total 77.59 31.40 62,847.90 73.35 29.68 59, 413. 50 Table XVII. — Yield in board feet on mixed type {4,200 acres). Species. Lauan Guijo Amuguis Malagalji Sacat Calumpit Total Per hectare Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centim ters (16 inches). Average yield per 2,466 1,267 721 4,734 11,697 Total yield. 10,357,200 5,321,400 3,028,200 1,176,000 19,882,800 Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) . Average yield per acre. 2,351 1,201 655 4,464 11,020 Total yield. 9,874,200 5,044,200 2,751,000 1,079,400 18,748,800 MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 697 Table XVIII. — Yield in cubic meters on mixed type (1,700 hectares). Species. Lauan Guijo Amuguis Malagabi Sacat Calumpit Total . . . Per acre Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches) . Average yield per hectare. 23.84 11.88 6.92 2.67 45.31 18.33 Total yield. 40, 528 20, 196 11,764 4,539 77,027 Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches). Average yield per hectare. 22.54 11.13 6.27 2.34 42.28 17.11 Total yield. 38,318 18,921 10,659 3,978 71,876 Table XIX. — Total yield in board feet on Narra, Hagachac, and mixed types {11.339 acres). [Cutting to a diameter limit of 40 centimeters (16 inches).] Species. Narra type. Hagachac I type. Hagachac II type. Mixed type. Total yield. Percent. Narra Hagachac . Lauan Amuguis. . Guijo Apitong. . . Malagabi . . Sacat Calumpit . . Total 4, 305, 582, 23, 629, 4, 343, 5,453, 4, 136, 1,406,376 228, 420 8.146,980 7,657,992 1,350.216 2,532,924 37,224 335,016 8,156,000 4,820,000 2,656,000 666,000 10,357,200 3,028,200 5,321,400 512,000 1,176,000 4,533,723 17,285.375 46,464,377 11,377,636 13,973,478 4,173,624 3, 429, 392 44,256,033 20,288,772 16,810,000 19,882,800 101,237,605 4.48 17.07 45.90 11.24 13.80 4.12 3.39 100 Table XX. — Total yield in board feet on Narra, Hagachac, and mixed types {11. i acres). [Cutting to a diameter limit of 50 centimeters (20 inches) .] Species. Narra Hagachac . . Lauan Guijo Amuguis... Apitong . . . Malagabi . . Sacat Calumpit . . Total Narra type. 219,128 937,584 515, 804 998, 150 096,036 964,050 1,327,095 Hagachac I type. 221,652 7,686,756 7.272.216 2, 404, 332 1,203,012 37,224 267, 336 42,056,847 19,092,528 Hagachac II type. 7,884,000 4,468,000 620, 000 2,474,000 512,000 15,958,000 Mixed type. 9,874,200 5,044,200 2,751,000 Total yield. 18,748,800 4, 440, 780 16, 508, 340 44, 130, 220 13,066,682 10,523,048 4,001,274 3,185,831 95,856,175 Per cent. 4.6i 17.2 46 13.64 11 4.2 3.^ DESCRIPTION OF TREE SPECIES. Narra {Pterocarpus indicus). — This tree occurs throughout the forest on the low- lands back of the large mangrove swamp near Daihagan Point. It is a tree of the newly made flats and is seldom found in the higher and older forest farther back. It is known on the market as Yellow Narra. Narra is a low-branching, spreading tree, usually producing a bole with a merchant- able length of from 8 to 10 meters, or about 30 feet. (PI. VIII.) The bole is angular and irregular in cross section. The average diameter of trees over 40 centimeters (1(5 inches) is 73.86 centimeters (27.07 inches). Many of the logs of Narra, especially of he old trees, are defective at the center. Narra has wide, flat buttresses, from which 698 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. table tops from 5 to 6 feet in diameter are often taken. (PI. IX.) It demands consid- erable light and is never found in dense clumps. Reproduction is poor, excepting in a few open places. It sprouts freely from the stumps, and logs lying upon the ground send out both roots and shoots. It could probably be propagated from cuttings planted in the wet season. Narra is, without question, the most valuable timber found on the tract. The wood of Narra is moderately heavy, moderately hard, very durable, and is seldom if ever attacked by the white ant. It is especially valuable for cabinet work, and is also a valuable construction timber. Hagachac (Dipterocarpus lasiopodus) . — Hagachac is found on the higher, better- drained portions in the older forests, upon the flats, and the low foothills. Growing more or less in clumps, it is usually the predominant species in places where it is found. Hagachac produces a tall, even bole (PI. X), almost round in cross section. A tree of average height, with a stump diameter of 70 centimeters (28 inches), which was felled and measured, had a clear length of 30 meters to the first branch, at which place its diameter was 38 centimeters. Often higher trees than this are found. An average diameter of 66.31 centimeters (26.1 inches) was found for trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter. The tree has few exterior defects, and is usually sound throughout. It is not usually strongly buttressed, although on old trees there is a large root swell. Hagachac seeds plentifully and reproduces as well or better in shady places than any other timber tree. The young saplings and poles grow rapidly and soon shoot up above the surrounding vegetation, where they receive an abundance of light. Hagachac has been but little cut and is sold under the name of Apitong. Lauan (Shorea contorta). — This is the most widely distributed tree in the forest. It is found in limited numbers in every type of lowland forest, except the swamps, and is also present in the foothills. Lauan has a tall and regular bole, reaching a height nearly equal to that of Hagachac. (PI. XI.) The average diameter of Lauan trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter upon the Hagachac type is 64.88 centimeters (24.42 inches) and upon the Narra type 67.28 centimeters (26.48 inches). The young trees of Lauan are little buttressed, but old trees often have very large ones. Lauan is tolerant, reproducing in places where there is only a small amount of light. (PI. XII.) Mature trees stand above the surrounding vegetation, and when very large are sometimes hollow or defective at the heart. Lauan is used in construction and inside work, but does not stand well in contact with the soil, and is often eaten by the white ant. Guijo (Shorea guiso) .—This tree (PI. XIII) occurs over all of the low flat country and on lower hillsides, usually as scattered individuals. It is a tall-growing tree, having a clear length of 20 to 26 meters (65 to 85 feet). It reaches a diameter of 120 centimeters (47 inches.) The average diameter of Guijo trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) in diameter upon the Hagachac type is 66.4 centimeters (26.26 inches) and ontheNarra type 61.99 centimeters (24.4 inches). The tree has small or medium-sized buttresses, though many have no more than a large root swell. In favorable places reproduction is good. The wood of Guijo is moderately heavy and hard, strong, brittle, fairly durable, and usually free from defects. It is a good general-construction timber. Amuguis (Koordersiodendron pinnatum). — In almost all of the moist flats and hill- sides Amuguis grows as scattered trees throughout the forest. Although not so tall growing as Lauan, Guijo, or Hagachac, it usually reaches above most of the surrounding trees, having a clear length of from 12 to 15 meters (39 to 49 feet). The bole is evenly tapered and nearly round in cross section. The average diameter on the Narra type for trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) is 64.03 centi- meters (25.2 inches) and on the Hagachac type 58.2 centimeters (25.16 inches). While not so tolerant as many of its associates, it nevertheless will grow and repro- duce in partially shaded places. Reproduction is usually good. Broken branches are not uncommon, and hollows in the trunks of larger trees are frequently found. Amuguis is a structural wood of medium quality that is fairly strong, brittle, moderately heavy, and hard. It is used in ordinary construction and in cabinetwork. When used for rails on the logging tramway it gave excellent satisfaction, proving to be the best of any timber tried. Apitong (Dipterocarp^is sp.). — This tree is found only in the lower half of the Nai-ra type. Apitong has a tall, regular bole (PI. XIV) and reaches a height of 30 meters (98 feet), with an average diameter for trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) of 67.8 centi- meters (26.69 inches.) The tree is quite tolerant when young, and in favorable places has a good reproduction. It is known locally as Apitong, by which name it is sold upon the market. It very closely resembles the true Apitong (D. grandijlorvs) and appar- ently is as good for construction purposes. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 699 Sacat, Calumpil, and Makujabi {Terminalia spp.). — The tree species Sacat {Termi- nalia nitens), Calumpit ( T. edulis), and Malagabi ( T. pelludda) are too widely scattered to be of any great importance commercially, although they are found over almost all ])arts of the tract. They are tall growing and usually of large diameter. The average diameter of Terminalia trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) upon the Narra type was 66.44 centimeters (26.15 inches). Reproduction is not plentiful and the trees are evidently quite intolerant of shade. Dao (bracontomelum mangifervm). — Widely distributed over the whole tract, Dao is the predominant tree in some of the poorer grades of forest and a common one in nearly all. It reaches a height of from 12 to 20 meters (39 to 65 feet) to the lowest )>ranches and a diameter of as much as 150 centimeters (59 inches). The average diam- eter of trees over 40 centimeters (16 inches) on the Hagachac type is 75 centimeters (30 inches); in the Narra forest, 77.94 centimeters (30.68 inches). It has the largest buttresses of any common tree in the forest. Reproduction is not plentiful, for the tree is intolerant. Although never used, the wood appears to be of good quality. This is the most promising tree which has not been commonly used for lumber purposes. Malagiiibinjo ( Celtis sp.). — A commonly distributed tree, having an average diameter on the Hagachac type for trees over 40 centimeters ( 16 inches) of 55. 23 centimeters (21.74 inches) and reaching a height of 10 meters (33 feet), this tree may possibly prove to be of value, although it has never yet been used. Agupanga ( Chisocheton sp.). — This tree is one of the most widely scattered of any, and seeds and reproduces rapidly. Comparatively low growing, with a spreading top, it nevertheless is quite tolerant of shade. It seldom reaches a large size and probably will never make a valuable commercial wood. INJURIES TO WHICH THE FOREST IS LIABLE. Of all the injuries to which the forest is subjected, by far the largest part comes either directly or indirectly as the influence of man. Chief among these are caiiigins and grass-land fires. Forest fires, in the usual acceptance of the term, are unknown. Caiiigins. — As already mentioned under the description of the Calaanan type, it has long been the custom with the natives to enter the forest and to fell all of the trees upon a certain area at the commencement of the dry season. This area is burned over at the end of the dry season and planted to crops. Such a cleaning is called a "caiiigin. " In times past the damage done by these caiiigins has been very great. A consulta- tion of the map will sei've to illustrate this. The ("alaanan area has been formed in this way from what was probablj^ at one time good forest. The stand and yield tables show the same things. With the exception of the Narra type, which has largely- escaped because it is less accessible and lacks an equally good running water supply, the yield of timber has been greatly reduced by the numerous caiiigins made. The loss is much greater near to and upon the foothills of the mountains, where the prim- itive Mangyans have for a long time w-orked unrestricted. WTiile the damages has in recent years been largely checked, it still continues. Under present conditions the demand for caiiigins will probably continue, for they are regarded by the people as a necessary as well as a natural right. This deruand may be met by allowing caingins to be made upon the Calaanan, and, in exceptional cases, upon the Guipa type. A careful patrol of the tract during the first part of the dry season for the purposes of granting caiiigin permits and to punish those making unauthorized caiiigins will, it is believed, greatly lessen and eventually check this evil. Grass-land fires.— FracticsiWy all of the grass land upon the tract is burned over every spring and summer. In many places this effectually keeps out all the trees and in others does serious injury to the few that are present. In the river bottoms, which are annually flooded by the excessive rains, and upon the pastured grass land near the villages, fires are not so important, since this land will probably continue to remain grass land in any event, but, in other places unaffected by floods, fires have done a, great deal of damage. With the present force, and under the present conditions, it will be impracticable to entirely prevent these fires. Natural causes. — A few trees, especially those growing in the more open places, lose branches or tops from wind, but, as a rule, the damage done from this source is unim- portant. Insects and fungi are destructive mainly to felled timber, and often logs of the poorer kind that are left in the woods for any time are quite seriously attacked by insects or fungi, or by both. To avoid this damage, as well as to prevent the injury of the young growth which might spring up while they were left, these logs should be removed to some dry open place as soon after cutting as possible. 700 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. THE UTILIZATION OF THE FOREST. TIMBER. History of lumbering .—The license agreement of the Mindoro Lnmber and Logging Company is dated June 3, 1905. Table XXI, computed from data taken from the company's books, shows the amount of timber that has been marketed from that time to July'l, 1906. Table XXI. — Timber sold by the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Company during the year ended June 30, 1906. Name. Guijo Narra Lauan Apitong , Amuguis Candol-candol Palo Maria Pagsahiiigin.. In the log (round) . English Cubic cubic feet. meters. 20,284.04 574.35 8, 648. 07 244.89 5,822.66 164.88 2,612.65 73.97 1 1,279.79 36.24 651. 37 18.45 1 429.48 12.16 1 176. 70 5 Name. Pahutan . . . Pili Malugay. . . Ipil Others Total In the log (round) . English Cubic cubic feet, meters. 189. 19 44.59 52.54 40.20 328.68 40,560.56 5.36 1.26 1.49 1.14 9.31 1,148.50 Timber sawn on tract by company^s sawmill. Feet B. M. Lauan 24, 219 Amuguis 10, 535 Apitong 5, 611 Guijo 5, 503 Narra 2, 112 Total 47,980 In addition to this, a small amount of timber is still at the mill which, with the amount that has been used for construction purposes on the tract, is approximately equal to the quantity of sawn timber sold. Previous to July 3, 1905, a number of individuals or companies have from time to time held this tract, or portions of it, together with some adjacent forest. In no case did these concessions coincide with the present one, hence it is impossible to state the exact amount removed from it. It is believed, however, that only a small amount of timber had been cut from the forest south of the Boiigabon River. North of the Boiigabon River a larger number of logs have been taken from the scattered timber lands near the Tidiangan and Sucol rivers. It is stated by the natives that in former times a great many logs had been sold from the barrio of Paclasan from territory now occupied by Calaanan and grass. Present lumbering operations. — A very primitive method of logging, similar to that employed by native lumbermen, has been used by the present company. The trees are felled and chopped by Filipino laborers into lengths 3 to 6 meters (10 to 20 feet) long. For this work American axes are used, although occasionally saws are substi- tuted. The logs are then loaded upon rude sleds similar to the logging "dray" of the United States, and dragged by a team of from six to eight carabaos to the mill or to some point along the tramway which leads to the beach. The rough trails over which this hauling was done are made by merely cutting away the underbrush. These roads are passable, except at the lowest places, at almost any season of the year. At the tramway the logs are loaded upon small cars drawn by one or two carabaos and hauled one at a time to the beach. The cost of such operations as this can only be given approximately. Ordinary wages and costs are about as follows: Manager per month . . P150. 00 Head foreman do.... 40.00to 60.00 Gang foreman per day. . 1. 00 Choppers do 75 to 1. 00 Others laborers do 50 to .75 Carabao, with driver do 1. 50 to 1. 75 Carabao, value each. . 100. 00 to 150. 00 1^2=11 United States currency. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 701 Two men can fell and cut into logs from two to fom- medium-sized trees per day, or from 300 to 500 English cubic feet. A team of six to eight carabaos, with a driver for each animal, will haul from three to six logs per day for an average distance of half a mile. Two carabaos and their drivers will haul about four logs per day on the tram car from the mill to the beach, a distance of Ij miles. Working upon this rude basis, the cost of cutting and delivering at the beach by the present method will vary from T0.07 to F0.13 per English cubic foot, depending greatly upon the length of haul, management, and kind of timber cut. Counting an English cubic foot equivalent to 7.2 feet B. M.," this would be a cost of from F9.75 to 1*^18 per 1,000 board feet. Contracts are sometimes made to cut and deliver logs to the beach when the average distance is one-half mile at the rate of T2 per average log of 40 or 50 cubic feet, the contractor being supplied with carabaos by the owner. This would mean about P6 per M feet B. M. in addition to the rental of the carabaos. In other cases, the contractor supplies his own carabaos and received from F0.08 to PO.IO per English cubic foot, or aliout F12 per M feet B. M. for logs delivered on tlie beach. The present cost of logging could be greatly reduced by more careful organization and by providing cheaper methods of transporting the logs from the forest to the beach, which is by far the largest single item of expense. To do this it is suggested that iron rails be used upon the tramway, instead of wooden ones. This would permit the haul- ing of several logs instead of one at a time, would avoid breakage of rails and cars, and would greatly reduce the draft, thus permitting more trips per day. It is also suggested that wide-tired, two-wheeled logging carts be tried instead of the logging sled. These have a lighter draft, and, where tried in other parts of the islands, have given excellent satisfaction. A steam logging and skidding outfit, including two donkey engines and 2 miles of cable, could be used upon the tract and would greatly reduce the cost of logging. A portable sawmill, having a capacity of about 10,000 feet B. M. per day, has been placed upon the tract. Owing to difficulties incident to the installation of this mill, it has not yet been operated sufficiently to allow any estimate of the cost of running. In addition to the regular logging operations, the present company has cut a number of table tops from the large flat "buttresses of Narra trees. These can be removed with saws and axes and can be secured up to 6 feet in diameter. Usually the buttresses vary from 4 to 12 inches in thickness, and may be hew^ed to an even thickness of about 3 inches. One of these tops, which measured 6 feet in diameter and 3 inches in thick- ness, was removed under the direction of the field party at a cost of a little less than than ?18. In this case, the men were hired for this work alone. With a regular organized force, the cost should be reduced about one-half. Markets and transportation. — Practically all of the logs and lumber is sent to Manila by means of steamers or sailboats. The cost of shipment from the tract to Manila (dis- tance 200 miles) varies from fPO.18 to F0.25 per English cubic foot, which would be, counting an English cubic foot equal to 7.2 feet B. M., T25 to F34.72 per M feet B. M. The cost of transportation is slightly less upon sailing vessels than upon steamers. The logs are floated to the ships, which, on account of the shallow water, are required to anchor nearly one-quarter of a mile from shore. The regular charge for this is F0.50 per log, which amounts to about PO.Ol per English cubic foot, or F1.39 per M feet B. M. Weather conditions are an important factor to be considered in connection with trans- portation. Sometimes storms delay loading, hinder transit, or affect the shipper very seriously in a number of ways. The following are the average prices now paid in Manila for logs and for sawn timber: Name. Yellow Narra Hagachac Lauan Amuguis Guijo Apitong Sacat Per English cubic foot in the log. Per Spanish cubic foot in the log. Per M feet B. M., sawn timber. P0.92-P-l.05 .46- .48 . 39- . 46 .52- .98 .65- .85 .46- .48 . 52- . 98 TO. 70-ro. .35- .37 .30- .40- .50- .35 .40- .35. .75 .65 .37 .75 P225-F275 90- 115 70- 90 110- 150 98- 140 90- 115 100- 150 ?5.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 oMeasurements made by the Gibson's Saw and Planing Mills Company upon a few Narra logs that were sawn with a band saw showed the following facts: Forty-three logs, containing 41.81 cubic meters (1,476.58 English cubic feet), yielded 15,199 feet B. M. of lumber not edged. Allowing for a waste in edging of 20 per cent, this would be a yield of 290.81 feet B. M. per cubic meter, or 8.24 feet B. M. per cubic foot. The above factor of 7.2 feet B. M. per cubic foot is therefore conservative. 702 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Financial results and prospects. — Summarized, the cost, exclusive of taxes or stump- age charges of logging and delivery in Manila, should not exceed the following: Per English cubic foot. Cutting and delivering on the beach ?0. 07 to PO. 13 Loading upon shipboard 01 to .01 Shipping to Manila 18 to «. 25 Wages of officials, breakage, etc . 02 to .02 Total 28 to .41 This cost, as with the calculations throughout, is estimated regardless of the groups to which the logs belong. As a matter of fact, it costs slightly more to remove Narra than other kinds of timber, for the trees are lower growing and the logs harder to handle on account of their angular shape. With the other kinds of timber there is but little difference in the cost of handling. Taking into account the stumpage charges, the cost of delivery, and the selling prices, it will be seen that there is an excellent profit to be made upon the higher-group tim- bers, and a fair one upon all, even with the primitive methods in use. With improved methods and equipment, the cost should be so reduced that an assured profit could be made upon all timber taken from the forest. MINOR PRODtrCTS. Firewood.— Almost all the trees which compose the thick mangrove swamps of the coast make an excellent firewood. Firewood is commonly cut into two general sizes. The small sizes, called "leiias," are less than 2 feet in length and 3 inches in thickness. The other size, known as "rajas," are about 5 feet in length and not over 6 inches in thickness. It costs from T'd to F9 to gather 1,000 rajas, while the Manila price varies from P20 to F50. The market prices and cost of gathering leiias is correspondingly less. The forest tax on rajas is Fl 'per 1,000 feet and on leiias PO.IO per cubic meter. As yet but little firewood has been cut from this tract, although the supply is very large. Ta7i barks and dye barks. — The bark of a number of the mangrove-swamp trees is valu- able both for tanning and dyeing. As previously stated, the general terms of Bacauan (Bacao) and Tarigal are applied to many species of the Rhizophoracex . Another species, Tabigue, produces a good quality of dye bark and is very common. Tan bark and dye bark are generally sold in bundles composed of pieces 3 feet long and 3 or 4 inches wide, weighing 1 picul (139.4 English pounds). The Manila price is about ?2 per picul, while the local selling price is about P0.75 per picul. Bejucos. — Large quantities of bejuco, or rattan, are found in the forest. These vary considerably in value, the smaller ones being usually the best. These are usually cut into lengths 6 meters long and tied into bundles of from 50 to 100 pieces each. One man with a bolo can cut and prepare in one day about 6 bundles of 50 pieces each. Other minor products. — The leaves of the Nipa palm are very commonly used locally for roofing and thatching, but as yet little has been marketed. The young leaves of the Buri palm are gathered just before they open, spread out in the sun, and allowed to wilt for about two days. They are then made into rolls, each about 1 foot in diameter and 2 inches thick, and used for making baskets, hats, mats, etc. The market for this product is as yet but little developed. The local selling price is P^2.50 for 100 rolls. The sap of the Pili and PagsahiiTgin is gathered after slashing the trees with a bolo and leaving the resin until it hardens. It is then made into torches of convenient size by wrapping in Anahao leaves. These are commonly used by the natives for lights, and sold locally for P0.02 each. The resin of Pili has the market name of Manila Elemi, and is a commercial product from some portions of the islands. A number of vines, classed under the general name of Gogo, are gathered in pieces about 1 meter long, and sold locally for P3.50 per 100 pieces. These are pounded into a pulp and used as a soap for washing the hair. The principal species which produces this product is Entada scandens Benth. A number of vines under the general name of Diliman are gathered and used in tying fish traps and other similar articles. The fruit of the Bongan gubat palm (a wild betel nut) is chewed by the natives very generally. The heart of the Yroc palm is commonly used for food, and has a taste very much like fresh cabbage. A flour called " Yuro" is also made from this palm. The leaves of the Yroc palm make excellent brooms, and are much used locally. Many other less important minor products are secured by the natives, and are locally of value. o These figures, obtained from shippers, are thought to be high. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 703 AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES. The soil over the larger part of the tract is well adapted to agricultural purposes. Table XXII contains a summary of the analyses of twenty-three soil samples taken from twelve widely separated places on the flat portion of the tract. Table XXII. — Chemical analysis of soil. (^ Sample. Number of sam- ples taken. Loss on ig- nition. CaO. P2O. N. K2O. NajO. Fine earth through 40 mesh. Surface to 20 centimeters (8 9 9 5 S.08 3.79 3.73 0.50 .48 1.01 0.10 .06 .03 0.2.5 .06 .03 0.53 .33 .26 0.16 .25 .21 94.9 Subsoil from 20 to 120 centime- 95.9 Subsoil below 120 centimeters 91.1 a By L. A. Salinger, chemist, bureau of science, Manila, P. I. While too much reliance should not be placed upon any chemical analysis of soils as an indication of their fertility, it is to be noted that the amount of nitrogen (N), phos- phoric acid (PoO), and potash (KjO) found here is sufficient, under ordinary conditions, to supply the needs of plant growth, and compares favorably with analyses from other places. The vegetation, both cultivated and wild, is everywhere rank and dense, indicating that a sufficient quantity of this plant food is in an available form. With few minor exceptions, the soil over the whole tract resembles quite closely that of the samples taken. Usually, the surface soil is from 5 to 25 centimeters (2 to 10 inches) in depth and contains a considerable amount of humus. A clay or sandy clay subsoil reaches to a depth of from 75 to 200 centimeters (28 to 78 inches). Below this no investigations were made. Of equal importance is the question of rainfall and drainage. As already stated, the rainfall in this place is well distributed throughout the year. At no time during the dry season, while field work for this report was being done, was the soil dry, except at the surface in exposed situations or in pure sand or gravel. There is in most places a sufficient quantity of sand mixed with the clay to allow for drainage. Probably the most suitable crop is Manila hemp or abaca. Considerable quantities of this have already been planted. In the foothills cacao is raised by the Mangyanes with success. Cocoanuts, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, com, and various vegetables are the other principal crops. Part II. FUTURE MANAGEMENT. B.\SIS OF PROPOSALS RELATION BETWEEN OWNER AND LICENSEE. The public forest on this tract is owned l)y the Philippine government and is in the charge of the bureau of forestry. It is held by the Mindoro Lumber and Logging Com- pany under a twenty-year license agreement. This agreement grants them the exclu- sive right to cut, collect, and remove timber, firewood, and bejuco on the condition that they make use of their license privilege, pay the regular government charges on the products taken, and follow the bureau of forestry rules and regulations for gath- ering them. It is important to the licensee, as well as to the bureau of forestry, that provision be made for a future yield from the tract. SUMMARY OF STAND AND YIELD. A review of Tables VI, VII, VIII, and IX shows that the heaviest stands are upon the Narra tract, with that upon the Hagachac type next. Of the timber trees, Lauan stands first, 46 per cent of the total yield; Hagachac second, 17 per cent; Guijo third, 13 per cent; Amuguis fourth, 11 per cent; Narra and Apitong, 'about 4^ per cent each^ and Terminalia sp. less than 4 per cent. 33581—07 7 704 FORESTEY BULLETIN NO. 6. It is thus noted that while the cheaper timlier predominates, the total quantity of Guijo, Amuguis, and Narra constitute 28 per cent of the whole. Altogether, the total yield of timber trees over 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter from the 11,339 acres estimated, is 95,856,175 feet B. AL If the sawmill were run at its full capacity of 10,000 feet B. M. jDer day, this amount, which includes only the seven species now being cut, is sufficient to last thirty-two years of 300 working days each. In addition to these kinds, there are a great many large trees of other species, some of accepted commercial value, which would no doubt be utilized by any permanently located lumber company. By the time the present stand is removed the poles and trees under 50 centimeters (20 inches) would in all probability supply a second crop. METHOD OF TREATMENT. OBJECT TO BE ATTAINED. The object in view for the commercial forest area is (1) to regulate the cutting of timber in such a manner that the mature trees, together with such others as is con- sistent with goo.d management, may be removed from the forest as soon as possible; and (2) to retain in the forest the young stock, and, if necessary, seed trees, and to assist natural reproduction so that future crops can be provided for. The object in view for the noncommercial forest is (1) to supply the demand for agricultural lands, either as caiiigins or in some other form; and (2) to convert as much as possible of the Guipa type into commercial forests. METHOD OF TREATMENT ADOPTED. Owing to the lack of definite knowledge of the age of trees and of their habits of growth, and to the conditions under which this plan must be put into operation, the selection system of felling is the one which will be used for the commercial forest. The fellings should be so regulated as to remove all old and overmature trees, to protect the young growth, and to aid in every possible way natural regeneration. EXPLOITABLE SIZE. Since there are a large number of mature and overmature trees in the commercial forest which should be cut as soon as possible, the exploitable size of the trees has been fixed at 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter. Trees below that diameter should only be cut when marked by the forester in charge, and then only when the mature trees have been removed or when an especially heavy stand will admit of thinning. Table XXIII, compiled from the stand tables previously given, shows the number of trees over 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter, compared with the number from 10 centimeters (4 inches) to 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter. Table XXIII. — Suvivxary of stand of principal trees per acre. Species. Narra Lauan Guijo Hagachac. Amuguis. . Apitong.. . Malagabi . . Sacat Calumpit. . Total Narra type. Diameter. 10-50 centi- meters (4-20 inches) . 1.153 8.537 3.035 .411 1.994 2.008 .497 Over 50 cen- timeters (20 inches). 1.803 4.698 1.190 .126 1.619 .836 .436 2.956 13.235 4.225 .537 3.613 2.844 .933 28.343 Hagachac type. Diameter. 10-50 centi- meters (4-20 inches) . 0.087 4.719 1.725 6.159 1.726 .143 .546 Over 50 cen- timeters (20 inches) . 0.201 3.538 1.064 3.106 1.122 .057 .230 9.318 Total. 0.288 8.257 2.789 9.265 2.848 .200 .776 24.423 Cutting areas. — Cutting areas should conform as nearly as possible to the wishes of the licensee. When, however, cuttings shall have been started from any one base and over an area approved by the forester in charge, it shall not be carried on outside of that area without the consent of the forester in charge or of the Director of Forestry. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 705 For the present, logging operations should be continued from the present base until the north end of the Narra and adjacent parts of the Hagachac types shall have been cut over. Operations should then be started from the Dungay River as a base and a tramway extended back tlu-ough the south end of the Narra type and the narrow strip of Haga- chac adjoining it. The work upon this being completed, the remainder of the Narra and of the Hagachac I forests should be logged. Next, the tract designated on the map as Hagachac II should be cut, and, last of all, the mixed forest. In every case cutting on one part should be finished before it is commenced on the next. Thus a very primitive rotation is established, and, by the time the last area is cut over, the large poles and younger trees left upon the first part worked should be ready for a second crop. Cutting rules.— (l) Felling of trees shall ])e permitted only over such areas as are approved by the forester in charge or by the Director of Forestry. In assigning cutting areas the forester shall follow as nearly as possible the plan suggested in the paragraph headed "Cutting areas." (2) No Narra trees shall be felled except those marked by the district forester. (3) No timber trees shall be felled which are less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter at breast height or, in cases of trees having buttresses at the lowest place, above the buttress swell, unless marked by the district forester. (4) In cutting marked timber the marks upon the stumps shall not be destroyed or effaced . (5) Trees shall not be cut higher above ground than the diameter of the tree, except in cases of trees having buttresses, which may be cut above the highest buttress. (6) Buttresses shall not be cut for table tops or for any other purpose from any living tree. (7) All merchantable timber shall be removed from the forest within two months from time of felling and placed upon some suitable skidway or landing. (8) The licensee shall be held responsible for the destruction of, or serious injury to, young timber trees by careless felling and for all merchantable timber left in the woods. (9) No Narra, Lauan, Amuguis, Guijo, Hagachac, Apitong, or other trees of equal value shall be used for the construction of roads or skidways. (10) Minor species may be cut and used for the construction of roads, skidways, etc., without charge. (11) None of these special rules shall be construed to excuse the licensee from the regular bureau of forestry rules and regulations or from the terms of the license agree- ment. SUPPLEMENTARY RECOMMENDATIONS. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. All timber trees marked by the district forester shall be stamped in at least two places with the regulation marking hatchet in addition to such other distinctive marks as he may see fit to use. These marks shall be placed below where the tree is to be cut in felling. If a reasonable advantage is not taken of the privilege to gather firewood and bejuco by June 30, 1907, the exclusive right to remove these products should be taken from the company and licenses to gather said products granted to such other party or parties as may apply for them. PROTECTION. Since the proper protection of the forest depends so much upon the attitude of the local inhabitants, every legitimate effort should be made by the forebt officers to gain their confidence and cooperation. A forest officer should go over the entire tract at the beginning of the dry season and see that all persons desiring caingin permits be granted them if they can not be per- suaded to make homestead applications. The local inhabitants look upon the making of caiiigins as a natural right. Hence, it is deemed preferable to attempt to regulate caingins than to forbid them entirely. Every effort should be made to encourage the taking of homesteads and the occupying of permanent farms. Inspection should be made during the caingin season to locate and punish all persons violating the caiiTgin law. At present it will be impracticable to prevent the annual fires which bum over the grass lands, although forest officers should make every effort to gain the cooperation of the local inhabitants in preventing damage from this source. 706 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. As additional information is gained from time to time, the plan of management should be revised whenever such a revision will add to its effectiveness. A careful examination should be made of the tract south of the Baroc River and west of the small Uasig River some time within the next five years. ADMINISTRATION. The chief of the forest district in which the tract lies shall have charge of the admin- istration of this working plan. He shall be assisted by such other forest officers who are under his direction as he shall assign to this work. The district chief, or a subordinate, shall make trips of inspection to the tract when- ever it is necessary to mark timber or to perform other duties. In addition to these periodic inspections, a forest ranger shall be placed upon the tract for such time as may be necessary during the caiiTgin season to grant caiiTgin permits, to prevent illegal caiiTgins, and to perform such other duties as may arise regarding the regulation of cairigins, as well as to report upon any special subject which the district forester may direct. In cases of violation of the forest act or rules and regulations of the bureau, either by the licensee or by any other persons or persons, the forester in charge shall take the matter up with the offending parties in the manner authorized by law for such cases. He shall then report the facts to the Director of Forestry. The forester in charge shall render a special report of work done upon the tract at the end of each fiscal year. SUMMARY. (1) Practically all of the commercial forest on the tract examined lies south of the Boiigaljon River. (2) Narra is confined to a belt of forest varying from one-half to 2 miles in width immediately back of the tidal swamp. (3) The timber on the foothills at the back part of the tract has been greatly dimin- ished in value and in some places almost entirely destroyed by Mangyan clearings. (4) The flat land of the tract is, for the most part, suited for agricultural purposes and will no doubt be eventually so iised. (5) The land south of the Bongabon River, which contains commercial or Guipa types of forest, should be made to produce a second crop. The land north of the Bonga- bon River will probably not be reforested, except a part of the Guipa type, but will be used for agricultural purposes. (6) Caiiigin permits should be granted only iipon the Calaanan land, after a personal inspection by a forest officer. (7) The greatest source of expense in present lumbering operations is transportation. This could be reduced by providing a more permanent tramway, by installing a donkey engine and cable, or by using big-wheeled logging carts. Appendix. LIST OP PLANTS. The first of the following tables is a list of tree species found on the tract that reach the size of 30 centimeters or over in -diameter. The second list comprises all other species mentioned in the text, and includes some trees that are below 30 centimeters in diameter when mature. The first list of 88 tree species is fairly complete. In the second list no attempt has been made to enumerate all species under this size found in the forest. Compared with the Dipterocarp forest of northern Negros,« the floristic composition of this forest is very complex. The scientific nomenclature used in this paper is based on collections made by the authors and deposited in the herbarium of the Bureau of Science. They wish to thank Elmer D. Merrill for assistance in the determinations. a See Everett, H. D., and Whitford, H. N.: A Preliminary Working Plan for the Public Forest Tract of the Insular Lumber Company, Negros Occidental, P. I., Bur. For. Bull. No. 5, 1906. MINDORO LUMBER AND LOGGING CO. 707 Tree species 30 centimeters and over iii diameter when mature. Scientific name. Family. Local name. Commercial name. Actinodaphne philippinensis Merr. Alangium ineyeri Merr Alstonia macrophy Ihi Wall Artocarpus coinm^inis Forst Avicennia officinalis L Barringtonia luzonensis Vid Barringtonia racemosa Bl Barringtonia reticulata Miq Barringtonia speciosa Forst Bischofla trifoliata Hook Buchanania nitida Engl Canangium odoratum Baill Canarium luzonicum A. Gray Canarium perkinsae Merr Canarium radllvoferi Perk Canarium villosum Bl Calophyllum inophyllum L Carallia integerrima DC Casuarina equisetifolia Forst Celtis sp Champereia cumingiana Merr Chisochiton tetrapetalus Harms. Chisocheton sp Cryptocarya acuminata Merr Dehaasia triandra Merr Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe Diospyros pilosanthera Bl Dipterocarpus lasiopodus Perk.. Dipterocarpus sp Dracontomelum mangiferuni Bl. Dracontomelum sp Elaeocarpus olilongus Gaertn. . . Endiandra coriacea Merr Erythrina indica Lam Eugenia bordenii Merr Eugenia sp Euphoria cinerea Radlk Fagara integrifolia Merr Ficus taarnesii Merr Ficus nota Merr Ficus minahassae Miq Ficus variegata Merr Ficus sp Gonystylus bancanus Gilg Grewia stylocarpa Warb Heritiera littoralis Dry Horsfleldia ardisifolia Warb Horsfleldia merrillii Warb Intsia acuminata Merr Kayea paniculata Merr Koordersiodendron pinnatum Merr. Lauraceaj indet Litsea perrottetii F. Vill Litsea sp Macaranga bicolor Muell Macaranga tanarius Muell Mallotus barnesii Merr Mangifera altissima Blanco My ristica philippinensis Lam Neolitsea vidalii Merr Octomeles sumatrana Miq Palaquium luzoniense Vid Parkia roxhurghii G. Don Pisonia umbellata Seem Pithecolnbium lobatum Benth Pterocarpus indicus Willd Pterosperumu nivenm Vid Pterocymbium tinctorium Merr Pygeum latifolium Miq Radermachera banaibana Seem Sarcocephalus cordatus Miq Shorea contorta Vidal Shorea guiso Bl Sonneratia pagatpat Blco Sterculia blancoi Rolfe Sterculia foetida L Sterculia philippinensis Merr Stylocoryne macrophylla Bartl Terminalia catappa L Terminalia edulis Bl Lauraceae Cornaceae Apocynaceae Mx)race8B Verbenaceae Lecvthidacese do do do Euphorbiaceae... Anacardiaceae . . . Anonaceae Burseraceae do do do Guttiferae Bacan. Rhizophoracae.. Casuarinacese. . . Ulmaceae Opiliacese Meliaceae do Lauraceae do Dilleniacea" Ebenaceae Diptocarpaceac . do Anacardiaceae . . do Elaeocarpaceac. . Lauraceae . .. Leguminosse . . . Myrtaceae do Sapindaceae Rutaceae Moracese do do do ....do Gonystylacese... Tiliacese Sterculiaceae ..... Myristacese ....do Leguminosse Guttifereae Anacardiaceae . . . Lauraceae ....do ....do Euphorbiaceae... ....do ....do Anacardiaceae. . . Myristicaceae Lauraceae DatisacesG Sapotaceae Leguminosse Nyctaginacesc . . . Leguminosae do Sterculiacae do Rosacese Bignoniacea; Rubiaceae Dlpterocarpaceae do Sonneratiacese. . . Sterculiaceae do do Rubiacese Combreteceae do Antipolo. Apiapi. .. Putat ....do... ....do... Botong.. Toog.... Alangilang. Pili Palsahifigin . Palomaria.. Bacauan gubat. Agoho Malaguibuyo . . . Agupanga Malabacauan. . Baslayan Catmon Bolongeta Hagachac Apitong Dao Malugay Palusat saling. Dapdap Alupay Salav Tibig do Hagaimit Tangisang bayauac. Balete Talimadon , Dungon-late. Duguan do Tindalo Amuguis Punghan Bacan Busisingcahoy. Tabong Binunga Pahutan Duguan Lanotanputi. Binuang Nato Cupang Anuling Bansilac Narra Bayog Taloto Banaibanai. Bancal Lauan Guijo Pagatpat Candol-candol . Calumpang Banilad Basa Talisay Calumpit Batino. Antipolo. Ylang ylang. Pili. Pagsahiiigiu. Palomaria de la playa. .\goho. Catmon. Bolongeta. Apitong. Do. Dao. Malugay. .\lupay. Dungon-late. Tindalo. Amuguis. Cupang. Anagap. Yellow Narra. Taloto. Bancal. Lauan. Guijo. Pagatpat. Candol-candol. Talisay. Calumpit. 708 FORESTRY BULLETIN NO. 6. Tree specks SO centimeters and over in diameter when mature — Continued. Scientific name. Family. Local name. Commercial name. Combreteccse .do.. Malaruhat Malagabi Terminalia pellucida Presl Meliaceaj Euphorbiacese. . Trewia ambigua Merr. .. Xylocarpus obovatus Juss .do do ... Other species mentioned in the text. Scientific name. Family. 1 Local name. i Commercial name.. Acanthus ilieifolius L. . . Acanthacese Polypodiaceae Palmse Doloarin Achrostichura aureum L Lagolo Areca whitfordii Becc Bongan gubat Yroc Arenga saccharifera Labill do Rhizophoracese... do B. caryophylliodes Bl Liray B. eriopetala W. and A . . .. ..do Pototan Busian. . Jangalai do Hangaraj.. Callicarpa blancoi Rolfe Verbenaceae do Callicarpa formosona Rolfe do Caryotasp. Palmse Pugahan Rhizophoracese... .do Tangal Tangal. Ceriops roxliurghiana Am do Corypha umbraculifera L . Palmae ... Buri Cycadacese Euphorbiacese Leguminosse Bitogo Butong manoc . .. Gogo Entada scandens Benth Gogo. Hauili Ficus banesii Merr . .do Tibig Ficus mindorensis Merr. Heterospathe elata Schefl . Palmae . Sagasi Balabago Imperate exaltata Brongn Graminese Urticacese Pa Imse Cogon Anahao Pahna bravi- Macaranga hisnida Muell . . Euphorbiacese do Hamindan Tula-tula Mallotus moluccanus Muell .do Alom do Mallotus ricinoides Muell.. . .do Mussaenda grandiflora Rolfe Rubiaceae Nipa fruticans Wurmb Palmae . Nipa Nipa. Pandanaceae Anonacese Graminese Palmse Lanotan Phragmites sp. . . Tagpo Sarauag Rhizophoraceae. . . .do Bacauan. .do Do. Gramineae Rubiaceae Talahib Scypftiphora hydrophyllacea Gaertn Nilad Voacanga cumingii Rolfe Apocynaceae . . BUREAU OF FORESTRY. (Circular No. 1.) OPPORTUNITIES FOR LUMBERING IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Manila, P. I., December 1, 1906. OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS. The Philippine public forests cover an area of more than 40,000,000 acres. Less than half a million acres of forest are held by private owners. Under an act of Con- gress in 1902 the Philippine forests can not be sold, leased, or homesteaded unless the same are more valuable for agriculture than for forest purposes. LICENSES TO EXPLOIT THE PUBLIC FORESTS. Exclusive licenses may be gi-anted for terms up to twenty years. These give the holders sole right to exploit certain forest products. The extent of the territory thus granted depends upon the size of the plant to be installed. No charge is made for such a license, and only stumpage charges are imposed. These charges range from P°0.50 to P'2.50 per cubic meter, or approximately from $1 to $5 (United States cur- rency) per thousand feet B. M. Such an arrangement is preferable to buying the land, since no land taxes are incurred. There arc a number of desirable tracts of public forest of large extent now unexploited. TARIFF RATES. There are no export duties on timber or on the manufactured product. Logs im- ported into the United States are admitted free. The import duty at Manila on saw- mill and logging machinery is 5 per cent ad valorem. FREIGHT RATES TO MARKET. Freight rates from Manila to the Pacific coast amount to |7 (United States currency) per ton (logs), about 40 cubic feet, or $12 to $14 per thousand feet B. M. Freight rates from Manila to the Atlantic coast of the United States are $14 to $15 (United States currency) per thousand feet B. M., or $8 per ton of 40 cubic feet; light-weight material, $5 per 40 cubic feet. Distances to market. Distance from— Manila, P. I. Cebu, P. I. Iloilo, P. I. Hongkong, China. Shanghai, China. Sydney, Australia. Seattle, U. S. .\ Miles. 6,400 400 200 Miles. Miles. Miles. 6,300 800 700 Miles. 6,200 1,300 1,200 Miles. 6,800 Cadiz, Negros Occidental 140 1 70 3,370 3,570 CONSUMPTION OP LUMBER. Board feet. Amount of lumber used in the Philippine Islands per year, approxi- mately 100, 000, 000 Amount of American pine used in China during the past year 85, 000, 000 Amount of American pine used in Australia during the past year 6.3, 000. 000 709 710 FORESTRY CIRCULAR NO. 1. PHILIPPINE TIMBERS. In Bulletin No. 4 of the bureau of forestry thirty common Philippine timbers are discussed. In this bulletin extensive tests show the qualities of the timbers. There is also a brief description of the different woods. Common Philippine timber as good as American pine can be laid down at tide water for about the same price as pine on the Pacific coast. Difference in freight rates, low stumpage, and cheap labor should com- bine to make a low rate on the manufactured Philippine product in the Chinese and Australian markets and should gradually replace the American product. STAND OF TIMBER. In Bulletins Nos. 5 and 6 can be obtained the actual stand of timber on tracts in Negros and Mindoro. These show 10,000 to 32,000 board feet per acre. The lower slopes of Mount Silay in northern Negros are practically covered with merchantable timber. One block of this forest, 69 square miles in area, shows a stand of 32,050 board feet per acre of merchantable timber over 20 inches in diameter. A large area of similar forest on Mount Silay adjoins this tract and awaits the lumberman. In the southwestern part of this province (Negros Occidental) is a large area of valuable forest which vfiW be close to the southern terminus of the new railway. There are a number of regions in these islands where dense forests of valuable timber are found which have never been exploited for the market. The Agusan Valley, in Mindanao, 4,000 square miles in area, is almost entirely covered with virgin forest and drained by large streams. The dense forests on the east coast of Mindanao are also unexploited. LABOR PROBLEM. Labor is not difficult to secure. The wages range from P0.50 to Fl. 50 ($0.25 to $0.75, United States currency) per day. Filipinos are apt at handling machines of all kinds and work satisfactorily when treated with consideration. Skilled American loggers and lumbermen, assisted by Filipino crews, should get out logs and manufac- tured material at prices not far from those quoted for pine on the Pacific coast, espe- cially in regions where we find 30,000 board feet of merchantable timber on each acre close to tide water, and where no special logging difficulties are encountered. LOGGING. Logging is carried on during the entire year in many provinces. In some places logging is suspended during the seasons of heaviest rains, a period of from two to four months. The logging methods are very crude. Many of the native woods will float, and, if handled by the expert raftsmen of the Pacific coast, could be rafted 200 to 600 miles tlirough the quiet inland seas to Manila, and possibly to China, which is about 660 miles from Manila. Not one of the lumber companies of the Pacific coast is actively interested in exploiting the Philippine forests. LUMBER DEALERS. The "leading lumber dealers in the Philippine Islands are: John Gibson, Insular Lumber Company, Cadwallader & Co., Philippine Lumber and Development Com- pany, Tuason & Sampedro, California-Manila Lumber and Commercial Company. The offices of these companies are in Manila. For discussion of sawmills see Bulletin No. 4. CAPITAL NECESSARY TO ESTABLISH LUMBERING OPERATIONS. The question is often asked, "What capital is necessary to carry on a successful lum- bering enterprise in the Philippines?" Such an enterprise should not be attempted unless the company intends to handle the product from start to finish, including trans- portation, lumber yards at the principal markets, supply stores for- use of employees in the forest, etc. This would probably involve the employment of not less than $200,000 (United States currency). A company contemplating logging operations should send a practical logger to look over the ground with an officer of the bureau of forestry. OPPOETUNITIES FOR LUMBERING. 711 SUMMARY OF LUMBERING POSSIBILITIES ON ONE TRACT OP PUBLIC FOREST IN NEGR08 OCCIDENTAL. In Bulletin No. 5 of the bureau of forestry a description is given of the forests and lumbering operations near Cadiz, Negros Occidental. The summary of this bulletin is as follows: Area of tract, 69 square miles; area in forest, 37,668 acres. Stumpage charges on this tract are collected on manufactured lumber and average less than $1.20 (United States currency) per thousand feet B. M. Six tree species constitute about 90 per cent of the total stand of merchantable tim- ber on the entire tract. Amount and value of merchantable timber on tract over 20 inches in diameter. Species. Stump- age charge, M feet B.M. (ap- proxi- mate). Feet B. M. per acre. Total yield, M feet B. M. Manila price, Mfeet B. M. Value per acre. Total value. f 4 2 4 2 2 5,140 7,150 4,640 13,240 1,880 193,572 269,269 174, 742 498,618 70,801 P90-P-115 70- 90 70- 90 70- 90 70- 90 F460 500 325 925 130 P 17, 421, 480 Almon 18, 848, 830 12,231,940 Mangachapuy (Red Lauan) Lauan-bagtican and Lauan-dun- log 34,903,260 4,956,070 Total 32,050 1.207.002 2,340 88,361,580 M. P2 equals $1, United States currency. SUMMARY OF LUMBERING POSSIBILITIES ON ONE TRACT OF PUBLIC FOREST IN MINDORO. In Bulletin No. 6 of the bureau of forestry a description is given of the forest and lumbering possibilities of one tract on the east coast of Mindoro. The summary of this bulletin is as follows: Area of tract, approximately 85 square miles; area of tract surveyed, 55 square miles; area of part of commercial forest (measured), 11,339 acres (not including mangrove swamps) . Stumpage charges on this tract average less than |2 (United States currency) per thousand board feet. Seven merchantable tree species constitute about 50 per cent of the total stand on this tract. Amount and value of merchantable timber on 11,339 acres of forest (trees over 16 inches in diameter). Species. Stumpage charge per M feet B. M. (ap- proxi- mate) . Yield Mfeet B. M. Manila price. Total value at lower prices. Narra Hagachac. Lauan Amuguis. . Guijo Apitong. . Sacat Total. PIO 2 2 4 6 4 4 4,534 17,285 46,464 11, 378 13, 973 4,174 3,429 F225-P-275 90- 115 70- 110- 98- 90- 100- 90 150 140 115 150 101, 237 PI, 020, 150 1,555,650 3,252,480 1,251,580 1, 368, 354 375, 660 342,900 9, 166, 724 Atotal yield of 101,237,000 feet B. M. on 11,339 acres, or about 9,000 feet B.M.peracre. P'810 per acre. AID FROM THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY. Lumber worth A study of Bulletins Nos. 5 and 6 of this bureau will indicate to the lumbermen what the bureau will do for them. Forest officers will use every effort to make such proposi- tions succeed financially. Upon request samples of wood may be obtained at the office of the bureau of forestry. George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. cincuL^i^s CONTAINING THE LAWS AND INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE LEAS- ING OF PUBLIC LANDS AND HOMESTEADS. 779 BTJREATT OF PUBLIC lANDS. CIRCULAR CONTAINING THE LAWS AND INSTRUCTIONS CONCERNING THE LEASING OF PUBLIC LANDS, ISSUED NOVEMBER 7, 1904. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Public Lands, Manila, P. I., October 11, 1904. The following compilation of laws and instructions relative to leasing the public lands are issued under authority of section sixty-nine of "the public land act," act No. 926, for the information of the public and the guidance of public officers engaged in the administration of the laws. LAWS. ACT or CONGRESS OF JULY 1, 1902. Sec. 13. That the Government of the Philippine Islands, subject to the provisions of this Act and except as herein provided, shall classify according to its agricultural character and productiveness, and shall immediately make rules and regulations for the lease, sale, or other disposition of the public lands other than timber or mineral lands, but such rules and regulations shall not go into effect or have the force of law until they have received the approval of the President, and when approved by the President they shall be submitted by him to Congress at the beginning of the next ensuing session thereof and unless disapproved or amended by Congress at said session they shall at the close of such period have the force and effect of law in the Philippine Islands: Provided, That a single homestead entry shall not exceed sixteen hectares in extent. Sec. 75. That no corporation shall be authorized to conduct the business of buying and selling real estate or be permitted to hold or own real estate except such as may be reasonably necessary to enable it to carry out the purposes for which it is created, and every corporation authorized to engage in agriculture shall by its charter be restricted to the ownership and control of not to exceed one thousand and twenty-four hectares of land; and it shall be unlawful for any member of a corporation engaged in agricul- ture or mining and for any corporation organized for any purpose except irrigation to be in any wise interested in any other corporation engaged in agriculture or in mining. Corporations, however, may loan funds upon real-estate security and purchase real estate when necessary for the collection of loans, but they shall dispose of real estate BO obtained within five years after receiving the title. Corporations not organized in the Philippine Islands, and doing business therein, shall be bound by the, provisions of this section so far as they are applicable. acts of the PHILIPPINE COMMISSION.) [Act No. 926.1 Chapter III. — Leases of portions of the public domain.'^- Sec. 22. Any citizen of the United States, or of the Philippine Islands, or of any insular possession of the United States, or any corporation or association of persons organized under the laws of the Philippine Islands or of the United States or of any State, Territory, or insular possession thereof, authorized by the laws of its creation and by the laws of the Philippine Islands and the Acts of Congress applicable thereto to transact business in the Philippine Islands, may lease any tract of unoccupied, unreserved, nonmineral agricultural public lands, as defined by sections eighteen and twenty of the Act of Congress approved July first, nineteen hundred and two, provid- ing a temporary government for the Philippine Islands, and so forth, not exceeding one thousand and twenty-four hectares, by proceeding as hereinafter in this chapter indicated: Provided, That no lease shall be permitted to interfere with any prior claim by settlement or occupation until the consent of the occupant or settler is first had and obtained, or until such claim shall be legally extinguished: And provided further, That no corporation or association of persons shall be permitted to lease lands hereunder 781 782 LEASING OF PUBLIC LANDS. which are not reasonably necessary to enable it to carry on the business for which it was lawfully created and which it may lawfully pursue in the Philippine Islands. Sec. 23. Leases made under the provisions of this chapter, of land previously surveyed, must be made of contiguous legal subdivisions. All lands leased hereunder, whether previously surveyed or not, in case the tract sought to be leased exceeds sixty- four hectares in area, must be taken, where possible, in the form of contiguous squares which shall contain at least sixty-four hectares each : Provided, That in connection with the lease of lands in one or more tracts of sixty-four hectares there may be leased one rectangular tract of thirty-two hectares, the longer side of which must be contiguous to the square tract of sixty-four hectares, or to one of such tracts if more than one be leased. In no case may lands leased under the provisions of this chapter be taken so as to gain a control of adjacent land, water, stream, shore line, way, roadstead, or other valuable right which in the opinion of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands would be prejudicial to the interests of the public. Sec. 24. An application to lease land under this chapter must be executed under oath and filed with such officer as may be designated by law as local land officer of the district in which the land is situated, or in case there be no such officer then with the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, and must show the following facts: The citizen- ship and post-office address of the applicant; the location of the land, showing the province, municipality, and barrio in which the same is situated, and as accurate a description as may be given, showing the boundaries of the land, having reference to natural objects and permanent monuments, if any; a statement as to whetlier the land contains any improvements or evidences of settlement and cultivation, and a statement that it is nonmineral in character, more valuable for agricultural than for forestry purposes, and does not contain deposits of coal or salts. Corporations and asso- ciations shall be required to file evidence of their legal existence and authority to transact business in the Philippine Islands. Sec. 25. All applicants for leases under the terms of this chapter must give notice, by publication and by such other means as may be required by the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, of intent to make application to lease the tract in question, which notice shall state the date when the application will be presented and shall describe as definitely as practicable the land sought to be leased. Sec. 26. It shall be the duty of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands to examine all applications for leases under this chapter, and to determine whether the applicant has the qualifications required in section twenty-two hereof, and, from the certificate of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, to determine whether the land applied for is more valuable for agricultural than forestry purposes, and further summarily to deter- mine from available records whether the land is nonmineral and does not contain deposits of coal or salts. He shall report his findings to the Secretary of the Interior, who, after proper consideration and approval of same, shall cause the lease to be executed. Sec. 27. The rate per hectare per annum for lands leased under this chapter shall be fixed by the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, with the approval of the Secre- tary of the Interior, and shall in no case be less than fifty centavos, Philippine cur- rency, per hectare per annum; said rent shall be paid yearly in advance, the first payment being deposited with the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands before the delivery of the lease. Sec. 28. Leases hereunder shall run for a period of not more than twenty-five years, but may be renewed for a second period of twenty-five years, at a rate to be fixed as above indicated, which rate shall not be less than fifty centavos per hectare and shall not exceed one peso and fifty centavos, Philippine currency, per hectare. Land leased hereunder shall not be assigned or sublet without the consent of the Chief of the Bureau of PuGlic Lands and the Secretary of the Interior. Sec 29. No land shall be leased -under the provisions of this chapter until the land has been surveyed under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands and an accurate plat made thereof, the cost of survey to be borne by the lessee. Sec 30. The lease of any lands under this chapter shall not confer the right to remove or dispose of any valuable timber except as provided in regulations of the Bureau of Forestry for cutting timber upon such lands. Nor shall such lease confer the right to remove or dispose of stone, oil, coal, salts, or other minerals, but the lease as to the part thereof which shall be mineral may be canceled by the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, whenever the mineral character of such part shall be made satisfactorily to appear, after due notice to the lessee. Sec 31. The commission of waste or the violation of the forestry regulations by the lessee shall work a forfeiture of his last payment of rent and render him liable to imme- diate dispossession and suit for damage. LAWS AND INSTRUCTIONS. 783 The civil governor was advised by the chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Wash- ington, D. C, by cabh'grani dated May 4, 1904, that Congress had adjourned wilhout amending or disapproving the public land act (act No. 920). On July 26, 1904, the civil governor issued his proclamation declaring tlie public land act to be in full force and effect from said date, as contemplated by section 13, Act of Congress of July 1, 1902, above stated. INSTRUCTIONS. LANDS SUBJECT TO LEASE. All unoccupied, unreserved, nonmineral public lands, more valuable for agricultural than forestry uses, are subject to lease. Public lands are such lands of the government as are subject to disposal under general laws. Mineral lands are such lands as are chiefly valuable for the minerals they contain. Whether lands upon which there is growing timber are more valuable for agricultural than for forestry uses will be deter- mined by the forestry bureau. (See sec. 18, act of Congress of July 1, 1902.) Owing to the sysfem of disposing of public lands which obtained under the Spanish Government in these islands, the present government has no maps showing the exact location of public lands; therefore, prospective lessees will be compelled to make inquiries as to the ownership of any particular tract desired of persons living in the vicinity thereof, and to consult the property register and record of tax returns, in the capital of the province in which the land is located, for evidence of ownership. No lease will be permitted to interfere with any prior claim by settlement or occupa- tion until the consent of the occupant or settler is first had and obtained, or until such claims shall be legally extinguished. The provisions of the public land act relating to leasing public lands do not extend, at the present time, to the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc, Benguet, Paragua, Nueva Vizcaya, and the Moro Province, but may at any time, by resolution of the Philippine Commission, be extended to said provinces. PERSONS WHO MAY LEASE PUBLIC LANDS. (1) Citizens of the Philippine Islands; (2) citizens of the United States; (3) citizens of any insular possession of the United States; (4) any corporation or other association of persons organized under the laws of the Philippine Islands or of the United States, or of any State, Territory, or insular possession thereof, authorized by the laws of its creation and by the laws of the Philippine Islands and the acts of Congress applicable thereto to transact business in the Philippine Islands. In this connection see section 75, act of Congress of July 1, 1902, supra, as to rights of corporations. AMOUNT THAT MAY BE LEASED. A qualified person may lease any amount not exceeding 1,024 hectares, equivalent to about 2,530 acres. PERIOD OF LEASE. Leases shall run for a period of not more than twenty-five years, but may be renewed for a second period of twenty-five years. RENT. Lessees will be required to pay an annual rent in advance, the amount of which will be fixed by the chief of the bureau of public lands, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, but it can in no case be less than 50 centavos, Philippine currency, per hectare, and during the second period can not exceed PI. 50 per hectare. The first payment of rent is due on the date of the execution of the lease, and must be paid before the lease is delivered. FORM IM WHICH LEASED LANDS MUST BE TAKEN. Leased lands, in all cases where possible, must be taken in tracts compact in form as provided in section 23 of the public land act. Tracts to be contiguous must have one boundary in common. The purpose of this provision is to prevent the taking of land in long or irregular strips whereby adjoining public lands would be decreased in value. PROCEDURE IN MATTER OF OBTAINING LEASE. Prospective lessees are required to file an application for the land desired with the chief of the bureau of public lands. This application must show that the applicant is qualified to lea^e public lands; must describe the land desired to be leased, with res- pect to both its location and character, as definitely as practicable, and must be executed under oath. A proper form to be used in making application will be furnished on request by the bureau of public lands. 784 LEASING OF PUBLIC LANDS. Applicants must give notice of intention to apply for a lease by publication for thirty days in two newspapers, one English and one Spanish. Said newspapers shall be of general circulation in the locality where the land is located. When the notice is pub- lished in a weekly newspaper, five consecutive insertions are necessary; when in a daily newspaper, the notice must appear in each issue for thirty-one consecutive issues. Said notice shall state the date when said application will be made, and shall describe as definitely as possible the land to be applied for; an approved form may be found at the close of this circular. Applicant must file a copy of the notice at the sirne date at which he begins the publication of same with the provincial secretary and municipal president of the province and municipality in which the land is located. In case the land is located within the city of Manila, said notice must be filed with the secretary of the municipal board. Applicant must submit to the chief of the bureau of public lands with his applica- tion a copy of said notice, and must show by affidavit of the manager of the newspaper in which same was published that it was published for the required period. The application will be examined in the bureau of public lands, and if found correct will be referred to the forestry bureau for report as to whether the land is more valuable for agricultural than for forestry purposes. Upon return of the application to the bureau of public lands from the forestry bureau, with a report that the land is more valuable for agricultural than forestry uses, the chief of the bureau of public lands will, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, fix the rate per hectare at which the government will lease the land. He will then advise the applicant of the rate fixed, also of the probable cost of surveying the tract. Upon deposit by applicant in the bureau of public lands of the amount of the esti- mated cost of survey the chief of said bureau will advise applicant of the date when he will cause the survey to be made, and will also send a copy of said notice to the secretary of the province and one to the president of the municipality in which the land is located, requesting said officials to post said notices in a conspicuous place in their respective offices. Upon completion of the survey, in caso there are no adverse claims to the land, a lease will be executed therefor as early ai) practicable. MISCELLANEOUS. A lessee of public lands has no right to remove timber except as authorized by the forestry bureau. No minerals may be removed from public lands under a lease. In case it is made to appear that leased lands contain valuable mineral deposits, the chief of the bureau of public lands, with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, is authorized to cancel the lease as to such lands. Attention is invited to the fact that section 77 of the public land act prescribes a penalty for the presentation of false proof or affidavits in connection with applications or claims respecting public lands. All necessary forms to be used in connection with the leasing of public lands may be had on application to the bureau of public lands. Will M. Tipton, Chief Bureau of Public Lands. I Approved, November 7, 1904. Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior. Notice of Application to Lease Public Lands. The undersigned hereby gives notice that he will on the day of -• , 19 . . , file with the chief of the bureau of public lands. Manila, P. I., an application for a leas3 to the following- described public land, beginning [Here give description as definitely as possible.] located in the barrio of , municipality of , province of , and containing hectares, more or less. Signature of applicant Post-office address BUREAU OF PUBLIC LANDS. CIRCULAR CONTAINING THE LAW RELATING TO HOMESTEADS AND INSTRUC- TIONS THEREUNDER, ISSUED NOVEMBER 7, 1904. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Public Lands, Manila, P. J., October 12, 1904. The following compilation of laws and instructions thereunder relative to the acquiring of public lands as a homestead, is issued under authority of section 69 of the public land act, act No. 926, United States Philippine Commission, for the infor- mation of the public and the guidance of public ofticials engaged in the administration of the laws. ACT OF CONGRESS OF JULY 1, 1902. Sec. 13. That the Government of the Philippine Islands, subject to the provisions of this Act and except as herein provided, shall classify according to its agricultural character and productiveness, and shall immediately make rules and regulations for the lease, sale, or other disposition of the public lands other than timber or mineral lands, but such rules and regulations shall not go into effect or have the force of law until they have received the approval of the President, and when approved by the President they shall be submitted by him to Congress at the beginning of the next ensuing session thereof and unless disapproved or amended by Congress at said session they shall at the close of such period have the force and effect of law in the Philippine Islands: Provided, That a single homestead entry shall not exceed sixteen hectares in extent. ACTS OF THE PHILIPPINE COMMISSION. [Act No. 923.] Chapter I. HOMESTEADS ON THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. Section 1. Any citizen of the Philippine Islands, or of the United States, or of any insular possession thereof, over the age of twenty-one years or the head of a family, may, as hereinafter provided, enter a homestead of not exceeding sixteen hectaras of unoccupied, unreserved, unappropriated agricultural public land in the Philippine Islands, as defined by the Act of Congress of July first, nineteen hundred and two, entitled "An Act temporarily to provide for the administration of the affairs of civil government in the Philippine Islands, and for other purposes," which shall be taken, if on surveyed lands, by legal subdivisions, but if on unsurveyed lands, shall be located in a body which shall be as nearly as practicable rectangular in shape and not more than eight hundred meters in length; but no person who is the owner of more than sixteen hectares of land in said Islands or who has had the benefits of any gratuitous allotment of sixteen hectares of land since the acquisition of the Islands by the United States shall be entitled to the benefits of this chapter. Sec. 2. Any person applying to enter land under the provisions of this chapter shall file with such officer as may be designated by law as local land officer, or in case there be no such officer then with the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, an appli- cation under oath showing that he has the qualifications required under section one of this chapter, and that he possesses none of the disqualifications there mentioned; that such application is made for his exclusive use and benefit; that the same is made for the purpose of actual settlement and cultivation, and not, either directly or indi- rectly, for the use or benefit of any other person, persons, corporation, or association of persons; that the land ajjplied for is nonmineral, does not contain valuable deposits of coal or salts, is more valuable for agricultural than forestry purposes, and is not occupied by any other person; and showing the location 6f the land by stating the 3.3581—07 8 785 786 HOMESTEADS. province, municipality, and barrio in which the same is situated, and as accurate a description as may be given, showing the boundaries of the land, having reference to natural objects and permanent monuments, if any. Upon the filing of said appli- cation the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands shall summarily determine, by inquiry of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry and from the available land records, whether the land described is prima facie subject under the law to homestead settlement, and, if he shall find nothing to the contrary, the applicant, upon the payment of ten pesos, Philippine currency, shall be permitted to enter the quantity of land specified. Sec. .3. No certificate shall be given or patent issued for the land applied for until the expiration of five years from the date of the iiling of the application; and if, at the expiration of such time or at any time within three years thereafter, the person filing such application shall prove by two credible witnesses that he has resided upon and cultivated the land for the term of five years immediately succeeding the time of filing the application aforesaid, and shall make affidavit that no part of said land has been alienated or encumbered, and that he has borne true allegiance to the Govern- ment of the United States and that of the Philippine Islands, then, upon payment of a fee of ten pesos, Philippine currency, to such officer as may be designated by law as local land officer, or in case there be no such officer then to the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, he shall be entitled to a patent: Provided, however, That in the event of the death of an applicant prior to the issuance of a patent, his widow shall be entitled to have a patent for the land applied for issue to her upon showing that she has con- summated the requirements of law for homesteading the lands as above set out; and in case the applicant dies before the issuance of the patent and does not leave a widow, then the interest of the applicant in the land shall descend and patent shall issue to the persons who under the laws of the Philippine Islands would have taken had the title been perfected by patent before the death of the applicant, upon proof by the persons thus entitled of compliance with said requirements and conditions. Sec. 4. ^o lands acquired under the provisions of this chapter shall in any event become liable to the satisfaction of any debt contracted prior to the issuance of a patent therefor. Sec. 5. If, at any time after the filing of the application as hereinabove provided and before the expiration of the period allowed by law for the making of final proof, it is proved to the satisfaction of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands, after due notice to the homesteader, that the land entered is not under the law subject to home- stead entry, or that the homesteader has actually changed his residence, voluntarily abandoned the land for more than six months at any one time during the five years of residence herein required, or has otherwise failed to comply with the requirements of law, then in tliat event the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands may cancel the entry, subject to appeal under proper regulations to the Secretary of the Interior, and the land thereupon shall become subject to disposition as other public lands of like character. Sec 6. Not more than one homestead entry shall be allowed any one person. Sec. 7. Before final proof shall be submitted by any person claiming to have com- plied with the provisions of this chapter, due notice, as prescribed by the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands with the approval of the Secretary of the Interior, shall be given to the public of his intention to make such proof, stating therein the time and place, and giving a description of the land and the names of the witnesses by whom it is expected that the necessary facts will be established. Sec. 8. Any person may file an affidavit of contest against any homestead entry, charging that the land entered was not unoccupied, unreserved, or unappropriated agricultural land at the time of filing the application, alleging disqualification of the entryman, noncompliance with law as to residence or cultivation, or any other matter which, if proven, would be just cause for the cancellation of the entry, and upon suc- cessful termination of the contest, the contestant, if a qualified entryman, shall be allowed a preference right of entry for sixty days from said date. The Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands or any public oflicial becoming aware of the existence of any of the grounds above stated, for impeaching or canceling the entry, may file formal complaint against the entry on any such ground which, if proven, shall cause the cancellation of the entry. Sec 9. No patent shall issue under the provisions of this chapter until the land has been surveyed under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands and an accurate plat made thereof, the cost of which survey shall be borne by the Insular Government. The civil governor was advised by the chief of the bureau of insular affairs, Wash- ington, D. C, by cablegram dated May 4, 1904, that Congress had adjourned without amending or disapproving the public land act (act. No. 926). On July 26, 1904, the LAWS AND INSTEUCTIONS. 787 civil governor issued his proclamation declaring the public land act to be in full force and effect from that date, as contemplated by section 13, act of Congress of .July 1, 1902, above mentioned. INSTRUCTIONS. 1. Location of public lands. — Owing to the system of disposing of public lands which obtained under the Spanish Government in these islands the present government has no maps showing the exact location of such lands; therefore, prospective homestead entrymen will be compelled to make inquiries, as to the ownership of any particular tract desired, of persons living in the vicinity thereof, and to consult the property reg- ister and record of tax returns, in the capital of the province in which the land is located for evidence of ownership. 2. Land subject to entry. — Only unreserved, unoccupied agricultural public land is subject to homestead entry. Land chiefly valuable for the mineral it contains must be purchased under the law relating to mineral land. Whether a particular tract is more valuable for forestry than agricultural purposes will be determined by the forestry bureau on request by the bureau of public lands. The provisions of the public land act relating to homesteads do not extend at the present time to the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc, Benguet, Paragua, Neuva Vizcaya, and the More Province, but may at any time, by resolution of the Philippine Commis- sion, be extended to said provinces. 3. Persons entitled to a homestead. — The following designated persons are entitled to make a homestead entry: (a) Citizens of tlie Philippine Islands. (6) Citizens of tiie United States, or of any insular posession of the United States. To be entitled to make an entry a person must be 21 years of age, or else the head of a family. Any person, male or female, who is the head of a family, and otherwise qualified, may enter a homestead, even though such person be less than 21 years of age. A person who is the owner of more than 16 hectares of land, or has received from the government a gratuitous grant of 16 hectares, under Chapter IV of the public land act, is not entitled to make a homestead entry. 4. Area of homestead and shape of tract. — A homestead can not exceed 16 hectares in area, but any amount less than that may be entered. Whenever land is sought to be acquired as a homestead which has been surveyed by the government under some plan for subdividing the public lands, such land must be taken by legal subdivisions. In case an entry is made on unsurveyed land, the tract entered must be in a single body, as nearly as practicable rectangular in shape, and not more than 800 meters in length. 5. Procedure in making entry. — An approved form on which to make an application for a homestead entry may be obtained by addressing the bureau of public lands, Manila, P. I. In executing the application care should be taken by the applicant to fill up all the blank spaces in the form. The best possible description as to the location and boundaries of the tract, without making a survey, should be given, and the corners of the tract should be carefully marked on the ground by using stones or stakes. The application should be filed with the chief of the bureau of public lands, Manila, P. I. 6. Residence and cultivation. — The applicant must continuously reside upon and cultivate the land for a period of five years from the date of the filing of his application. Failure to reside on the land for a period of six months will constitute an abandonment of the entry and subject it to cancellation. 7. Contests and adverse claims. — Any person, whether qualified to make a homestead entry or not, if he knows of any reason why an application should not be approved, or of any reason why an entry in which the application has been approved should be can- celed, may initiate a contest against the applicant or entryman by filing an affidavit with the chief of the bureau of public lands, wherein is set out the reasons why the application should be denied or the entry canceled. Upon the termination of a contest, if the application has been disapproved or the entry canceled, the person initiating the contest, if he is qualified under the law to enter a homestead has a pref- erence right of entry as to the land for sixty days from the date of the final decision on the contest. 8. Procedure to obtain patent. — At any time within three years after the es piration of the five years mentioned in paragraph 6, the applicant may submit proof sliowing that he has complied with the law in the matter of residence on the land and cultiva- tion of same. An approved form on which to make this proof will be furnished by the bureau of public lands. In case the proof is satisfactory a patent will issue. 9. Heirs of homestead settler. — If the applicant is a married man, and should die after entry and before patent, his surviving widow, by complying with the require- ments of the homestead law as to residence and cultivation,. may submit proof of this 788 HOMESTEADS. fact and obtain the patent in her name. If the applicant be not married, and should die after entry and before patent, such of his heirs as by law could inherit real estate from him, by complying with the above-mentioned requirements of the homestead law, may submit final proof and obtain the patent. 10. Surveys. — No homestead will be patented until the land has been surveyed and platted. The survey will be made as soon after the final proofs have been ap- proved as it is possible for the surveyors to take up the work. This survey will be at the cost of the government. 11. Fees. — A fee of FIO is required to be paid to the officer with whom the applica- tion is filed at the date of fding the same. At the time of submitting final proof (see par. 8) the entryman must pay PIO, as final fee, to the officer with whom the final proof is filed. These are the only fees that the government requires to be paid under the homestead law. 12. Miscellaneous. — Attention is invited to the fact that section 77 of the public land act prescribes a penalty for the presentation of false proof or affidavits in connec- tion with applications or claims respecting public lands. No land acquired as a homestead may be sold, by judgment of a court or otherwise, to satisfy any debt which may have been contracted by the applicant or patentee prior to the date of the patent therefor. (Sec. 4, act No. 926.) Necessary forms to be used in obtaining a homestead may be had by addressing the bureau of public lands. Will M. Tipton, Chief Bureau of Public Lands, Approved, November 7, 1904: Dean C. Worckster, Seaetary of the Interior. r LB D '09 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 003 148 245 8