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THE 
 
 ARMIES OF ASIA AND EUROPE: 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 OFFICIAL EEPORTS 
 
 ARMIES OF JAPAN, CHINA, INDIA, PERSIA, 
 
 ITALY, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA, GERMANY, 
 
 FRANCE, AND ENGLAND. 
 
 ACCOMPANIED BY 
 
 LETTERS DESCRIPTIVE OF A JOURNEY FROM JAPAN TO THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 BY 
 
 EMORY UPT0:N", 
 
 BREVET MAJOE-GENERAL UNITED STATES ARMY. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 549 AND 551 BROADWAY. 
 1878. 
 
 ^^^ 
 

 COPTRIGHT BY 
 EMORY UPTON, 
 
 1878. 
 
LETTER OF TEAIsTSMITTAL. 
 
 Fort Monroe, Virginia, December 15, 1877. 
 
 To the Adjutant-General U. S. A., Washington, D. G. 
 
 SiK : I have the honor to submit, herewith, my report on 
 the armies of Japan, China, India, Persia, Italy, Russia, Aus- 
 tria, Germany, France, and England. 
 
 The authority for making the military tour around the 
 world, which enabled me to make this report, is contained in 
 the following letter of instructions from the Hon. Secretary of 
 War, viz. : 
 
 War Department, Washington City, June 23, 18Y5. 
 
 General : On or about June 30th next you will be relieved 
 from the Military Academy, 
 
 Upon being so relieved, it is desired that you proceed to San 
 Francisco, Cal., visiting, on the route to that city, Salt Lake City, 
 the mines of Nevada, and the Yosemite Valley ; that on or about 
 August 1st you sail from San Francisco for Japan and China. 
 On reaching Canton, in China, you will proceed, ma Singapore, to 
 Calcutta ; thence up the valley of the Ganges to Peshawar, and 
 thence to the Russian possessions at Tashkend, by the most prac- 
 ticable route. 
 
 Should it, however, be found impracticable to proceed to the 
 Russian possessions from Peshawar, you will select the most feasi- 
 
iv LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 ble route that will enable you to reach Europe. Having arrived in 
 Europe, you are required to visit the camps of instruction and mili- 
 tary schools of Italy, Germany, Austria, Russia, France, and Eng- 
 land, and thence return to the United States. 
 
 The professional object of this order is to enable you to exam- 
 ine and report upon the organization, tactics, discipline, and the 
 manoeuvres of the armies along the route mentioned, and in Ger- 
 many the special examination of the schools for the instruction of 
 officers in strategy, grand tactics, applied tactics, and the higher 
 duties in the art of war, and the collection and compilation of such 
 other information as might naturally be expected to be of utility to 
 this Government. 
 
 During your absence upon this duty, which shall not exceed 
 eighteen months, you will report, as nearly monthly as practicable, 
 your address to the Adjutant-General ; and on your return will 
 make a full, detailed, written report to the Secretary of War upon 
 all the subjects mentioned in this communication. 
 
 You will report to General Sherman for further instructions, if 
 he desires to give you any ; and you will be accompanied by Major 
 George A. Forsyth, Ninth Cavalry, and by Captain J. P. Sanger, 
 First Artillery, who have been detailed for that purpose. 
 Yours, very respectfully, 
 
 Wm, W. Belknap, 
 Secretary of War. 
 General Emoey Upton, West Point, N. Y. 
 
 In pursuance of the orders of the Hon. Secretary of War, 
 I reported on the 12th of July to the General of the Army at 
 St. Louis, who gave me the following letter of instructions : 
 
 Headquarters Army of the United States, ) 
 St. Louis, Mo., July 12, 1875. ) 
 
 General Emory Upton, United States Army , present. 
 
 Dear General : I have read with pleasure the letter of in- 
 structions to you by the Secretary of War, and congratulate you 
 and your associates on having an opportunity, such as has never in 
 my recollection been enjoyed by any officers of the army at any 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL, v 
 
 former period of our history. I know that you will profit by it, and 
 only to suggest a few thoughts will I venture to use that part of 
 the letter of the Secretary which requires you to report to me. 
 
 You and I have already had much correspondence — mostly pri- 
 vate — on this very contemplated tour of the world, so that I think 
 we mutually understand each other. You know that, about four 
 years ago, I traveled up the Mediterranean and Black Seas to 
 Tiflis, the capital of the Russian Caucasus. Naturally I would like 
 to have you approach Europe by that gateway. The objects of 
 interest in Japan and China seem to me to have been well exam- 
 ined and reported on by modern travelers. In like manner, the 
 armies, forts, garrisons, and camps of Europe seem to me to have 
 been studied by American oflBcers and authors, until we know all 
 that seems applicable to our system of government and people ; 
 but Asia, especially India, Afghanistan, Persia, Khokand, Bokhara, 
 Toorkistan, etc. — the lands whence came our civilization, whence 
 came the armies of Xerxes, Genghis Khan, etc. — ^remain to us, 
 in America, almost a sealed book, though we know that the re- 
 flux tide of civilization is setting back from Europe to those very 
 lands. England and Russia are the two great powers that are now 
 engaged in the work, and you cannot devote too much time and 
 study to the systems of military government, by which these 
 nations utilize the people and resources of interior Asia. I there- 
 fore advise you to spend as much time as possible in Calcutta and 
 India ; cultivate the acquaintance of the officers, civil and military ; 
 ascertain how a small force of British troops, aided by the native 
 troops, govern 200,000,000 people ; notice how they quarter, feed, 
 and maintain their men, and transport them in peace and war ; 
 then make up your mind how to reach the Caspian Sea preferably 
 all the way by land. 
 
 There are several routes : the one I would prefer is from Pesha- 
 war through the famed Khyber Pass to Cabul ; thence to Herat, to 
 Teheran, around the lower end of the Caspian Sea to Tabriz and 
 Mount Ararat. From Tabriz, I know, you will have no trouble to 
 reach Tiflis, where you meet a highly-civilized and refined people, 
 with railroad to the Black Sea, where you will have choice of routes 
 by steamer to Odessa or Constantinople. 
 
 Another route of equal interest would be from Peshawar across 
 the Hindoo Koosh, to Bokhara, Khiva, and the Caspian. 
 
VI 
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 Any or either of these routes will enable you to see the nomadic 
 nations of Central Asia, who are far from being barbarous, but hold 
 themselves as the most cultivated people on earth. Their customs, 
 habits, laws, and rules of moraUty, date far behind the history of 
 Christianity ; and, I doubt not, a sojourn among them will give you 
 much knowledge that will be useful to us, as we come to people the 
 interior of America. 
 
 Should, however, neither of these routes be practicable, you can 
 go by rail to Bombay, and take steamer to the Persian Gulf,» and 
 thence cross over to the Mediterranean at Smyrna, or to the Black 
 Sea at Trebizond, whence steamers will convey you to the more 
 agreeable and more familiar routes of Europe. 
 
 I will watch your progress with intense interest, and will be 
 pleased to hear from you at any time at your own convenience ; 
 and, when you return, I shall welcome you back, and do all that is 
 in my power to enable you to record your observations and pub- 
 lish them for our common instruction and entertainment. 
 With great respect, your friend, 
 
 W. T. Sherman, General. 
 
 Having been joined by Major Sanger at St. Louis, and by 
 General Forsytli at San Francisco, we sailed on the 2d of 
 August for Japan, where we arrived on the 26th. 
 
 Nearly all of the month of September we devoted to Japan, 
 and thence sailed for China, where we remained till Novem- 
 ber, visiting, in the mean time, Peking, and the objects of mili- 
 tary interest at the capital, Tientsin, Shanghai, Chekiang, and 
 Canton. 
 
 From Hong-Kong we sailed for Ceylon and Bombay, where 
 we arrived the 29 th of November. 
 
 The interval from this time till the 11th of February, in 
 pursuance of the instructions of the General of the Army, we 
 spent in India, visiting nearly all of the great military stations 
 in the valley of the Ganges, from Calcutta to Peshawar. 
 
 Tlie study of army organization was greatly facilitated by 
 being twice permitted to visit the camp of instruction at Delhi, 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. vii 
 
 which, being organized specially in honor of the visit of the 
 Prince of Wales, was the largest ever held in India. 
 
 On arriving at Calcutta, I immediately called upon his ex- 
 cellency the viceroy. Lord Northbrook, to whom I had a letter 
 of introduction from the General of the Army, which stated 
 the object of our tour, and the routes he preferred we should 
 take. As we were required to defer to the views of the vice- 
 roy, he informed us that, in order to cross the Himalayas, the 
 passes of which were between 16,000 and 17,000 feet high, we 
 would have to wait till the following summer, and that, while 
 we might reach Kashgar, it would be altogether uncertain as to 
 whether we would be permitted to proceed farther toward Tash- 
 kend and the Russian possessions. In consideration of the 
 shortness of our time, which was limited to eighteen months, 
 this route was therefore abandoned. 
 
 As to the route through the Khyber Pass to Cabul, and 
 thence to Herat and Teheran, the viceroy informed us that the 
 orders of the Indian Government positively prohibited British 
 officers from attempting it, on account of the complications that 
 might arise in case they should be killed or maltreated by any 
 of the savage or semi-independent tribes who dwell in Af- 
 ghanistan. He stated that it might be possible for us to get 
 through ; but, as the danger would be great, and particularly 
 as the Indian Government would be censurable in permitting us 
 to cross the frontier should any harm befall us, he preferred 
 that we should relinquish the project. 
 
 The third route therefore only remained open. According- 
 ly, we left Bombay on the 11th of February, disembarked at 
 Bushire, and taking horses proceeded, ma Shiraz, Ispahan, 
 Teheran, and Tabriz, to Tiflis ; thence, crossing the Caucasus, 
 we proceeded, via Rostoff, to Sevastopol and Constantinople. 
 
 As representatives of the Army of the United States, we 
 
viii LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 
 
 were received with great courtesy by the Governments of all 
 of the countries we were ordered to visit, and every facility 
 was cheerfully extended to us for the prosecution of oflBcial in- 
 vestigations. 
 
 From our ministers, and consuls, in Japan, China, India, 
 Italy, Russia, Austria, France, and England, we received great 
 kindness and every assistance necessary to complete our mis- 
 sion. 
 
 I have already reported that through the action of our lega- 
 tion at Berlin my comrades and myself were excluded from the 
 German manoeuvres, and that, as a consequence, we were pre- 
 vented from witnessing the practical application of modern 
 tactics in the army in which they have found their widest 
 development. 
 
 In preparing my reports on the diiFerent armies, I have 
 given in brief their organization, and then have enlarged on 
 those features which, in my judgment, we ought to imitate. 
 These features are : 
 
 1. The three or four battalion system for infantry regi- 
 ments. 
 
 2. A system of detail, whereby our oflBcers may serve alter- 
 nately in the staff and the line. 
 
 3. A system of personal reports, by means of which the 
 Government may be informed of the character, capacity, and 
 qualifications, of all of its officers. 
 
 4. Examinations previous to promotion. 
 
 5. Schools for enlisted men. 
 
 6. Schools and qualifications for officers preparatory to re- 
 ceiving commissions. 
 
 T. Schools for officers in the art of war, and the higher 
 branches of their profession, subsequent to receiving commis- 
 sions. 
 
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. ix 
 
 Until we change our present inexpansive organization, 
 which, with few modifications, comes down to us from the 
 Revolution, and devote more attention to military education, 
 the details of arms and equipments in foreign armies merit lit- 
 tle, if any, of our attention. I have therefore excluded them 
 from the report, in order that the more prominent objects 
 should not be obscured. 
 
 Finding that I would not be able to collect, in the short 
 time allowed, all of the information that might be desirable, I 
 devolved upon General Forsyth the investigations in reference 
 to cavalry, and upon Major Sanger the same in reference to 
 the artillery. 
 
 Both of these officers are preparing their reports, which 
 have been delayed in consequence of the performance of other 
 duties. 
 
 In the hope that our united labors may prove acceptable to 
 the Hon. Secretary of War, 
 
 I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 
 E. Upton, 
 Lieutenant- Colonel Ifth Artillery, 
 
 Brevet Major-Oeneral, U. S. A. 
 
AEMY OF JAPAI^. 
 
 The introduction of modern ideas into the Army of Japan 
 dates from 1867, when the Emperor Napoleon III., at the soli- 
 citation of the Tycoon, sent out a military commission, consist- 
 ing of — 
 
 1 Captain of the staff, commandant, 
 
 1 Captain of engineers, 
 
 1 Captain of artillery, 
 
 2 Lieutenants of infantry, 
 
 1 Lieutenant of cavalry ; and 
 
 15 Non-commissioned officers. 
 
 The commission, whose object was to instruct the Japanese 
 troops in the tactics and regulations of the different arms of 
 service, had scarcely begun its work, when, in consequence of 
 the Revolution of 1868, it was recalled to France. 
 
 The primary object of the revolution was to restore to the 
 Mikado the temporal power, which for centuries had been 
 usurped by the Tycoons. The secondary object, scarcely less 
 prominent, was the expulsion of foreigners, whose arrogance 
 had become intolerable, and whose influence was regarded as 
 subversive of the ancient principles of government. 
 
 No sooner, however, did the government of the Mikado 
 
 come in contact with the foreigners than, like that of the 
 
 Tycoon, it perceived the value of military organization and 
 
 training. Formidable men-of-war, within cannon-range of the 
 
 1 
 
2 ARMY OF JAPAN. 
 
 capital, told of the naval strength of foreign nations, while 
 foreign troops at Yedo and Yokohama attested the superior 
 skill and discipline of modern armies. 
 
 Anxious to establish his throne in the capital of the deposed 
 Tycoon, the Mikado, with the consent of the clans, which had 
 supported his cause, issued in 1871 the decree which called 
 into existence the imperial army. 
 
 By the terms of the decree the clan of Satsuma was to raise 
 and transfer to the Mikado 4 battalions of infantry, and 2 
 battalions of artillery ; the clan of Chosiu 3 battalions of in- 
 fantry ; the clan of Tosa 2 battalions of infantry, 2 battalions 
 of artillery, and 2 squadrons of cavalry. 
 
 ' These troops, to which other clans agreed to add their con- 
 tingents, were ordered to Yedo, where they were to constitute 
 the nucleus of a national army. 
 
 To organize and discipline the army, foreign aid was again 
 invoked. 
 
 On application of the Mikado the Emperor of France ap- 
 pointed a second commission, which arrived in Japan in 1872. 
 
 This commission was composed as follows : 
 
 1 Lieutenant-colonel, commandant, 
 
 2 Captains of engineers, 
 2 Captains of artillery, 
 2 Captains of infantry, 
 
 1 Lieutenant of artillery, 
 1 Lieutenant of infantry, 
 1 Lieutenant of cavalry, 
 1 Quartermaster Sergeant of engineers, 
 1 Controleur d'Armes, to superintend the manufacture of 
 arms; and 
 15 Non-commissioned officers of all arms. 
 The object of the commission was to reorganize and instruct 
 the army, and to found such military institutions as were neces- 
 sary to place the army on a firm modern basis. 
 
 Adopting the French army as a model, the commission 
 began its labors in July, 1872. 
 
 The first work was to cause the French regulations and tac- 
 
MILITARY ACADEMY. 3 
 
 tics to be translated. In the mean time, by means of interpre- 
 ters, theoretical and practical instruction was given at Yedo to 
 2 Regiments of the Guard, 
 
 1 Squadron of the Guard, 
 
 2 Batteries of the Guard, and 
 1 Battalion of engineers. 
 
 In addition, several battalions of infantry, batteries of artil- 
 lery, and squadrons of cavalry, of the line of the army, were sent 
 annually to Yedo to receive the same instruction as the guard. 
 
 The officers and non-commissioned officers were frequently 
 assembled, and instructed in the principles of tactics and mili- 
 tary discipline. Camps of instruction were established annually 
 for the purpose of illustrating service in campaign, and teaching 
 the movements of large bodies of troops. Target-practice was 
 also taught to the infantry and artillery. 
 
 As the mission of the French officers was not to command, 
 but to instruct, Japanese officers retained command of their 
 battalions, batteries, and squadrons, and on the drill-ground 
 learned through interpreters the movements they were required 
 to execute. 
 
 MILITARY INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The French commission has already established at Yedo 
 the following institutions, viz. : 
 
 A Military Academy for Officers, 
 
 A School for Non-commissioned Officers, 
 
 A School for Musketry and Gymnastics, 
 
 A Veterinary School, and 
 
 A School for Practical Engineering. 
 
 It has also estabhshed an arsenal at Yedo, and a foundery at 
 Oji ; and near Yedo a depot for remounts, and a polygon or 
 school of practice for artillery. 
 
 MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 The object of the Military Academy of Japan, like our own 
 at West Point, which was adopted as a model, is to educate 
 officers for the engineers and all arms of service. 
 
4 AEMY OF JAPAN. 
 
 The admissions, whicli are by competitive examination, 
 number about one hundred and fifty per year, and of this num- 
 ber about one hundred and forty graduate. 
 
 The course of study for the engineers, artillery, and cavalry, 
 which are regarded as special arms, is three years ; for the in- 
 fantry two years. 
 
 The practical instruction for the first two years is mostly 
 limited to infantry, at the end of which time the students des- 
 ignated for officers of infantry go to their regiments, while 
 the students for engineers, artillery, and cavalry, remain an- 
 other year to perfect themselves in the specialties of their 
 arms. 
 
 The course of study embraces — 
 
 Drawing, Physics, 
 
 French, Tactics, 
 
 Mathematics, Artillery, 
 Fortification. 
 
 The system of instruction is by lecture, and subsequent in- 
 terrogation, the same as pursued in all of the Continental mili- 
 tary schools of Europe. The professors are Japanese, who have 
 received their instruction either from French officers or pro- 
 fessors. 
 
 The pay of the cadets, in addition to clothing and rations, 
 is about $3,00 per month. 
 
 The buildings for the Militaiy Academy, constructed be- 
 tween 1873 and 1875, consist of offices, barracks, mess-hall, 
 riding-hall, and laboratory, inclosing a large court which is 
 used as a drill ground. The energy' of the Government and its 
 appreciation of the value of the academy are shown by the mag- 
 nitude of the buildings, and the great rapidity with which they 
 were erected. 
 
 As an instance of the latter, a building, nearly 300 feet 
 long, which was burned in the spring of 1875, was reconstructed 
 and nearly ready for use by the following July. 
 
SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY AND GYMNASTICS. 
 
 SCHOOL FOE NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICEES. 
 
 The object of this school is to educate non-commissioned 
 officers for all arms of service. The course is eighteen months 
 for infantry, and two years for artillery, cavalry, and engineers. 
 
 From 300 to 500 non-commissioned officers graduate an- 
 nually. On graduation they are required to serve seven years, 
 and receive the grade of corporal, or sergeant, according to their 
 proficiency. Those who specially excel are sent as cadets to 
 the Military Academy to study for commissioned officers. 
 
 The course of instruction is both theoretical and practical. 
 The theoretical embraces the common branches, and the tactics 
 and regulations for each arm of service. For practical instruc- 
 tion the non-commissioned officers are organized into 2 battal- 
 ions of infantry, 2 batteries of artillery, 1 squadron of cavalry, 
 and 2 companies of engineers. 
 
 Instruction is also given to musicians, and these are trained 
 to become instructors of buglers and trumpeters. 
 
 At reviews and manoeuvres the battalions, batteries, and the 
 squadron of non-commissioned officers exercise with the troops 
 of the guard and line, and show by the precision of their move- 
 ments the value of the training they receive. 
 
 The pay of the non-commissioned officers, in addition to 
 clothing and rations, is about $1.50 per month. 
 
 THE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY AND GYMNASTICS. 
 
 The object of this school is to teach precision in musketry- 
 firing, and to increase physical training in the army. To this 
 end one or more officers and non-commissioned officers are sent 
 annually to the school from every regiment and corps in the 
 service. On completing the course, they return to their corps, 
 where they serve as instructors. The number of officers and 
 men undergoing instruction, in 1875, was as follows: 
 
 21 Captains, 
 
 24 First-lieutenants, 
 
 26 Second-lieutenants, 
 8 Sergeant-majors, 
 
6 ARMY OF JAPAN". 
 
 30 Sergeants, 
 32 Corporals, 
 40 Trumpeters. 
 
 . ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY OF JAPAN, 1875. 
 
 WAE DEPAETMENT. 
 
 The War Department consists of — 
 
 1 Minister of War, and 
 
 2 Vice-Ministers of War. 
 
 For the rapid dispatch of business the department is divided 
 into bureaus and sections, as follows : 
 
 1st Bureau. — Six Sections. 
 1st Section. — Letters and correspondence. 
 2d " Recruiting. 
 
 3d " General and staff officers, and military schools. 
 
 4th " Military Justice. 
 
 5th " Returns and reports. 
 
 6th " Translations. 
 
 2d Bureau. — Five Sections. 
 1st Section. — Personnel of the infantry. 
 2d " Personnel of the cavalry. 
 
 3d " Breeding of horses. 
 
 4th " Trains and transportation of supplies. 
 
 5th " Provost-Marshal. 
 
 3d Btireau. — Two Sections. 
 
 1st Section. — Personnel of the artillery. 
 
 2d " Expenses of artillery in the purchase and manu- 
 
 facture of guns, carriages, ammunition, and 
 other materiel. 
 
 Jfth Bureau. — Two Sections. 
 1st Section. — Personnel of the engineers. 
 2d " Expenses of materiel. 
 
3d 
 
 u 
 
 4th 
 
 a 
 
 Otll 
 
 a 
 
 6th 
 
 (( 
 
 7th 
 
 a 
 
 Sth 
 
 a 
 
 GENERAL OFFICERS. 
 
 Sth Bureaii. — N'ine Sections. 
 
 1st Section. — Subsistence and fuel. 
 
 2d " Clothing, camp, and garrison equipage. 
 
 Hospitals and ambulances. 
 
 Payment of officers and men. 
 
 Regulations of the 5th bureau. 
 
 Correcting and auditing the expenses of the 5th 
 bureau. 
 
 Auditing disbursements for materiel. 
 
 Estimating expenses for coming year, and pay- 
 ment of pensions. 
 9th " Total expenses of the entire War Department. 
 
 6th Bureau. 
 
 This bureau, which in 1875 was not yet organized, is in- 
 tended to supervise the military affairs of the island of Yesso. 
 Until organized, the duties will be performed by officers of the 
 1st bureau. 
 
 There is also a small bureau having charge of the corre- 
 spondence of the Minister of War, consisting of two majors and 
 three captains, who are detailed from both the staff and the 
 line. 
 
 The Minister of War is a general officer ; the chief of the 
 1st bureau may be a major or brigadier-general the chiefs of 
 the 2d, 3d, and 4th bureaux are brigadier-generals ; the chief of 
 the Sth bureau is the Intendant-General. 
 
 The assistant chiefs of bureaux are colonels or lieutenant- 
 colonels ; the chiefs of sections are majors. 
 
 GENERAL OFFICEKS. 
 
 There are — 
 
 1 General, 
 
 3 Major-generals, 
 12 Brigadier-generals. 
 
8 
 
 ARMY OF JAPAN. 
 
 -* Of the brigadier-generals three are members of Parliament, 
 
 and one is Vice-Minister of Justice. 
 
 ADJTJTANT-GENEKAL S DEPAKTMENT. 
 
 This department, in 1876, was not fully organized. 
 
 For the transaction of business, it is divided into seven sec- 
 tions. 
 
 1st Section. — Is charged with correspondence. 
 2d " Collects military, statistical, and geographical in- 
 
 formation concerning Asia. 
 3d " Same, concerning America, and Europe. 
 
 4rth., " Study and writing of military history. 
 
 5th " Geography. 
 
 6th " Topography. 
 
 7th " Printing, preservation, and translation of rec- 
 
 ords. 
 
 OKGAinZATION OF THE AEMT. 
 
 In 1875 the army, on a footing of peace and war, was organ- 
 ized as presented in the following tables : 
 
 Stcmding Army. 
 
 ARM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Artillery . 
 
 Engineers . 
 
 Heavy coast-artillery. 
 
 Total. 
 
 14 Regiments, or 
 42 Battalions. 
 
 2 Battalions. 
 
 9 Battalions, or 
 18 Batteries. 
 
 9 Companies. 
 6 Companies. 
 
 9 Companies. 
 
 NcuBBB o» Men. 
 
 Peace- 
 footing. 
 
 80 
 
 640 
 
 960 
 
 1'20 
 
 150 
 
 120 
 
 Monntain-Ar- 
 
 tillery. 
 
 160 
 
 Field- Artillery. 
 
 180 
 
 120 
 60 
 
 150 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 Total Peace- 
 footing. 
 
 Totnl War- 
 footing. 
 
 26,880 
 
 40,820 
 
 240 
 
 300 
 
 2,160 
 
 2,700 
 
 l.OSO 
 860 
 
 1,850 
 
 480 
 
 720 
 
 900 
 
 81,440 
 
 46,050 
 
INFANTKY. 
 
 Imperial Guard. 
 
 ARM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Number op Organizations. 
 
 Always maintained on a 
 War-footing. 
 
 
 2 Kegiments — 4 Battalions. 
 
 672 
 
 2,688 
 
 
 
 1 BattaUon. 
 
 150 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 1 Battalion— 2 Batteries. 
 
 180 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 Engineers 
 
 1 Company. 
 1 Company. 
 
 150 
 
 80 
 
 150 
 
 
 80 
 
 Total 
 
 3,328 
 
 Total Number of Soldiers. 
 
 
 
 NuMBEE oy Oeganizations. 
 
 Number 
 
 OF Men. 
 
 
 Peace-looting. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 
 16 Kegiments, or 
 46 Battalions. 
 
 29,568 
 
 48 008 
 
 
 
 
 8 Battalions. 
 
 890 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 10 Battalions, or 
 20 Batteries. 
 
 2,420 
 
 2,960 
 
 
 
 
 10 Companies. 
 
 7 Companies. 
 
 1,230 
 440 
 
 1,500 
 
 
 560 
 
 
 9 Companies. 
 
 720 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 34,768 
 
 49,373 
 
 
 
 The population of Japan, in 1874, was 33,008,430, giving a 
 ratio of the army on a peace-footing to the total population, of 
 1,000 to 1,000,000. 
 
 mFANTKY. 
 
 How completely the army has been Europeanized may be 
 inferred from the organization of the infantry, 
 
 A regiment consists of three battalions, of four companies 
 each. 
 
 The field and staff is composed of — 
 
 1 Colonel, commandant. 
 
 3 Majors, commandants of battalions. 
 
 1 Captain, regimental adjutant. 
 
10 ARMY OF JAPAK 
 
 3 First-lieutenants, battalion-adjutants. 
 
 1 First-lieutenant, regimental paymaster. 
 
 3 Second-lieutenants, battalion paymasters. 
 
 1 Major, regimental surgeon. 
 
 3 Captains, battalion surgeons. 
 
 In war each battalion has an additional surgeon. 
 
 The company consists of — 
 
 1 Captain, 
 
 2 First-lieutenants, 
 
 2 Second-lieutenants, 
 
 1 Sergeant-major, 
 
 1 Quartermaster-sergeant, 
 
 8 Sergeants, 
 16 Corporals, 
 
 1 Commissary-corporal, and 
 160 Privates. 
 
 In war the number of privates is increased to 240. 
 
 The artillery, cavalry, engineers, adjutant-general's depart- 
 ment, departments of supply, medical corps, and military train, 
 bear equally with the infantry the stamp of European or French 
 organization. 
 
 Recognizing the duty of every citizen to bear arms in the 
 defense of his country, military service is made obligatory. 
 
 Recruits are obtained by drafting, and, after the expiration 
 of the term of enlistment, which is three years, pass into the 
 reserve. 
 
 The height of the Japanese soldier is from five feet one to 
 five feet three inches. 
 
 The ration consists principally of rice and fish, but meat is 
 issued twice a week. Bread is also to form part of the ration ; 
 but, for want of skill in making it, the men have thus far pre- 
 ferred rice. 
 
 The uniform of the army is thoroughly European, and is 
 made of white duck for summer, and of dark-blue cloth for 
 winter. 
 
 The infantry is armed with the Snyder and Enfield rifles, 
 sabre-bayonet. 
 
INFANTRY. H 
 
 At the arsenal at Yedo, muzzle-loading muskets were 
 rapidly being converted into breech-loaders of the Albani pat- 
 tern. 
 
 The barracks of the army are of the most substantial and 
 imposing construction. Those of the guard at Yedo inclose a 
 square court of many acres, all smoothly graveled. Each build- 
 ing accommodates an entire regiment. The companies are 
 quartered in the upper story ; the lower story is devoted to 
 offices, mess-rooms, reading-rooms, and store-rooms. The na- 
 tional habit of cleanliness is encouraged by ample provision for 
 both hot and cold baths. 
 
 The hospital, like the barracks, is modern in all of its ar- 
 rangements. The guard-house is light and airy, and gives evi- 
 dence that punishment is administered according to modern 
 military law. On a visit from officers of rank all prisoners, 
 whose offenses are not capital, are released. This privilege 
 was extended to the sole prisoner who was in confinement on 
 the occasion of our inspection. 
 
 The sudden transition of Japan from ancient to modern 
 civilization, which will ever be the marvel of history, is no- 
 where more conspicuous than in the army. Appreciating tlie 
 necessity of substituting a national force in the place of the 
 undisciplined hordes, voluntarily furnished by the clans under 
 the old regime^ the Government applied for assistance to a 
 nation renowned for the success of its arms. 
 
 In response to its appeal, officers of distinguished reputa- 
 tion, responsible to their Secretary of "War, and not advent- 
 urers, were designated for the mission. 
 
 The zeal, the intelligence, the enterprise, and the success of 
 the French officers were no less surprising than the wisdom of 
 the Government in supporting them, without jealousy, in all 
 measures for reform. "Wherever we went we saw the evidence 
 of their skill. At the review at Yedo, kindly tendered by the 
 Minister of "War, we saw four battalions of the guard, two bat- 
 talions of non-commissioned officers, and two squadrons of 
 cavalry, manoeuvre with commendable precision. 
 
 At Lake Biva, and Osaka, hundreds of miles from the capi- 
 
12 ARMY OF JAPAN. 
 
 tal, we saw the Frencli tactics successfully applied by Japanese 
 officers to skirmisliing, and to the schools of the battalion and 
 regiment. In the barracks and foundery at Osaka the same 
 neatness, order, and system, prevailed as at Yedo. 
 
 If the army bears unmistakable evidence of French organi- 
 zation, it bears equally the impress of French ideas in its drill 
 and discipline. The men were badly set up, and on review 
 and at exercises appeared to have fallen into the swinging of 
 arms and slovenliness of marching, once so admired in the 
 French army, but so utterly in contrast with the precision and 
 steadiness of the English and German soldiers. 
 
 The recent modifications in tactics require increased indi- 
 viduality among the men, and this individuality, it has been 
 shown by experience, can only be developed by rigid discipline 
 and steadiness when in ranks. As Japan has military observers 
 in America and Europe, it is to be hoped that they will call 
 the attention of their Government to so vicious a practice, be- 
 fore it takes root in her military system. 
 
 In every other respect the progress of reorganization is to 
 be admired. The fact that all of the military institutions have 
 been established, and many buildings erected, within the space 
 of three years, and that the same period has sufficed to inaugu- 
 rate a uniform system of instruction in all corps and arms of 
 the service, is sufficient proof of the enlightened policy which 
 Japan, in spite of financial embarrassment, is pursuing in refer- 
 ence to her anny. 
 
 Already she has reaped the reward of her foresight. The 
 foundations of her government, which, in 1868, were built 
 upon the sand, are settling down to the rock; insurrections, 
 before ripening into rebellion, have been promptly stamped 
 out; while her success in Formosa and Corea give evidence 
 that Japan, no longer contented with progress at home, is des- 
 tined to play an important part in the history of the world. 
 
AEMY OF OHmA. 
 
 The Board of "War, or Ping Pu, like the "War Depart- 
 ment in other countries, is charged with the general manage- 
 ment of the army, and in addition has the control of the 
 navy. 
 
 Its duty, as expressed by the Chinese, is " to aid the 
 sovereign in protecting the people by the direction of all mili- 
 tary affairs in the metropolis and the provinces, and to regulate 
 the hinge of the state upon the reports received from the vari- 
 ous departments regarding deprivation of, or appointment to, 
 office ; succession to, or creation of, hereditary military rank ; 
 postal, or courier arrangements ; examinations and selections of 
 the deserving, and accuracy of returns." 
 
 The Board of "War is a civil court composed of a superin- 
 tendent, M^ho is generally one of the cabinet ministers, two 
 presidents, and four vice-presidents. Ordinarily all of the 
 members are civilians, the majority of them being Manchus. 
 
 The board receives reports from all officers in command of 
 land and marine forces ; from those responsible for the trans- 
 port of grain, and the security of river-embankments ; from 
 those who administer the affairs of nomads and half -subdued 
 savages; and from persons in charge of the horse and camel 
 pastures. 
 
14 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 To enable the board to discharge its duties, it is divided 
 into four bureaux, or sze^ which are further divided into sub- 
 divisions, or sections : 
 
 1. The Wu-siuen, or first bureau, regulates promotion ac- 
 cording to service, in order of succession, or in right of descent, 
 and has 13 secretaries. 
 
 2. The Chih-fang, or second bureau, corresponding to the 
 Adjutant-General's Department, regulates the distribution of 
 rewards and punishments, the camp and field inspection of 
 troops, and the issue of general orders, and has 17 secre- 
 taries. 
 
 3. The Chay-ma, or third bureau, provides for the supply 
 and distribution of horses for the cavalry, and has 9 secre- 
 taries. 
 
 4. The Wu-hu, or fourth bureau, which, in addition to other 
 duties, seems to unite the Ordnance and Quartermaster's De- 
 partments, attends to the rosters, prepares the army estimates, 
 provides equipments and ammunition, attends to the examina- 
 tion of military candidates, and has 7 secretaries. 
 
 Attached to the Board of "War are several other sections 
 of great importance. One of these sections keeps the rosters 
 for duty, promotion, and employment of the bannermen ; a 
 second has the management of the couriers and posts, and 
 sees to the reception and transmission of dispatches and me- 
 morials; a third attends to the delivery of commissions and 
 orders from all the governmental bureaux ; another delivers 
 all memorials addressed to the emperor, and seals and sends 
 off the replies to these, and the letters from the Council of 
 State. 
 
 The total force employed in the board at Peking, including 
 under-secretaries and clerks of all grades, whose names are in- 
 scribed in the Red-Book as receiving pay, is 197, of whom 
 about one-third are Chinese. 
 
 The board has no control over the bannermen, and other 
 troops stationed in Peking and Yuen-ming Yuen ; and, as the 
 oversight of the troops in each province is intrusted in a great 
 degree to the local authorities, its duties, in comparison with 
 
CAVALRY. 15 
 
 those of Ministers of War in Western countries, are mucli cir- 
 cumscribed. 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 As the guards in European countries are considered as 
 models for other troops, so in China the condition of the army 
 may be inferred from the organization, equipment, and disci- 
 pHne, of the troops at Peking. 
 
 The infantry consists as follows : 
 
 4 Battalions, of 875 officers and men each, armed with 
 muzzle-loading rifles of Russian manufacture. These battal- 
 ions are partially instructed in European tactics, 400 of their 
 number having gone to Tientsin several years since for the 
 purpose of receiving foreign instruction with the view of 
 transmitting it to their comrades. 
 
 1 Battalion, or Cadet Corps, under the authority of the 
 Nui-wu-Fu or Court of the Household, composed of 500 young 
 men armed with bows, arrows, spears, and several other varie- 
 ties of Chinese weapons. 
 
 1 Battalion, composed of 500 men, armed with the small 
 matchlock. 
 
 2 Battalions, composed of 500 men each, armed with large 
 matchlocks, called gingals, one to every two men. The bar- 
 rel of the large matchlock is six feet long, and when fired 
 rests near the muzzle on the shoulder of one of the men, who 
 assumes a stooping position, supporting his hands upon his 
 knees. 
 
 1 Corps of 1,200 men, armed with swords and shields. 
 
 1 Battalion, composed of 200 men, armed with various Chi- 
 nese weapons, who constitute the body-guard of Prince Chun, 
 or the Seventh Prince. 
 
 CAVALRY. 
 
 The cavalry consists of — 
 
 2 Divisions of 1,000 men each, armed with carbines and 
 Chassepots, and 
 
 3 Battalions of 500 men each, armed with matchlocks. 
 
16 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 AUTILLEEY. 
 
 The artillery consists of 24 field-guns, 2 horses and 6 
 men being attached to each gun. The guns are of Russian 
 manufacture, and all are small brass smooth-bores, except 
 two, which are rifled. The artillery brigade is attached to 
 the four battalions of infantry, armed with muzzle-loading 
 rifles. 
 
 In addition to the above there is a force of 1,000 artillery, 
 armed with the swivel, a small iron gun, fired from a bench, 
 wall, or tripod, with a calibre varying from four ounces to a 
 pound. 
 
 All guns are still discharged by means of the port-fire, blank 
 cartridges being used for practice. 
 
 TROOPS OUTSroE OF PEKING. 
 
 Outside of Peking, and mostly at Hai-tien, in the vicinity 
 of the summer palace of Yuen-ming Yuen, there are two bat- 
 talions of infantry, 875 men each, armed with muzzle-loading 
 rifles of Russian manufacture. 
 
 1,600 Infantry, armed with the large matchlock, 
 
 2,000 Cavalry, armed with matchlocks and short swords. 
 
 1 Battery of field artillery, 4 guns, 125 men, foreign drilled, 
 and 
 
 1 Howitzer battery of 4 guns, with 125 men. 
 
 The force in and around Peking, in 1874, was — 
 
 Infantry 10,250 
 
 Cavalry 5,500 
 
 Artillery 1,750, with 32 field-guns ; 
 
 making a total of 17,500 
 
 This force may be said to constitute the regular army sta- 
 tioned in and around the capital. 
 
BANNEEMEN. 17 
 
 BANNEEMEN. 
 
 In addition to the regular troops at Peking, there is an 
 hereditary or privileged soldiery, composed of Manchus, Mon- 
 gols, and enrolled Chinese, the latter being the descendants of 
 the Chinese troops who, in 1643, joined the force of invading 
 Manchus. All of these troops, according to their nationality, 
 are organized into ^'' pali-ki^'' or "eight banners." The ban- 
 ners are further arranged in two wings, or divisions, the first, 
 third, fifth, and seventh banners constituting the left wing, the 
 remaining banners the right wing. 
 
 Each banner is distinguished by a triangular flag of plain 
 yellow, white, red, and blue, for troops in the left wing, and 
 the same colors bordered with a narrow stripe of different color 
 for troops in the right wing. 
 
 Out of the Manchu and Mongol banners, two special forces 
 are selected and enrolled, one of which is named the " Tsien- 
 fung^'' or Vanguard Division, the other '•'■ Hu-'kiun ying,^'' or 
 Flank Division. 
 
 These selected corps guard the emperor's palace within the 
 Forbidden City, and serve as his escort whenever he goes out. 
 
 The Vanguard Division, including officers, numbers about 
 1,500 men ; the Flank Division is much larger, and has been 
 estimated as high as 15,000. 
 
 Besides these two corps, the " Pu-Tciun ying^'' or Infantry 
 Division, corresponding to gendarmery, is detailed for the 
 preservation of order within the capital and suburbs ; the 
 strength of this division is sometimes reckoned as high as 
 20,000 men. 
 
 The number of bannermen of all arms in and around the 
 capital under pay, exclusive of the Vanguard and Flank Divis- 
 ions, is estimated at 60,000. 
 
 As the city of Peking is wholly set apart from the provin- 
 cial government of Chihli, and governed by military rule, with 
 troops specially selected for its defense, the capital of the em- 
 pire, with its series of double and triple walls, assumes the 
 forms and proportions of a vast intrenched camp. 
 2 
 
18 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 In the province of Chihli there are, exclusive of Peking, 
 twenty-live other banner garrisons, composed mostly of infantry, 
 nmnbering approximately 40,000 men. 
 
 The bannerraen are seldom required to drill, and, when 
 called out, muster with rusty swords, bows, spears, and weapons 
 of various descriptions. Receiving but small pay, they are per- 
 mitted to engage in various kinds of business and traffic. 
 
 In twelve of the provincial capitals, where bannermen are 
 stationed, as at Wuchang, Canton, Fuchau, etc., they are assigned 
 with their families to a special and usually fortified quarter, 
 with a view as much as possible to isolate them from the in- 
 habitants. But, notwithstanding the original precautions to 
 secure purity of descent, and attachment to the dynasty, they 
 have in the course of years associated with the people to such a 
 degree as to adopt Chinese language, manners, and customs, and 
 to obliterate the harsh traits of character that distinguished their 
 warlike ancestors. As soldiers they have long since ceased to 
 be useful, and, until reorganized and disciplined, they must re- 
 main but profitless pensioners of the Government. 
 
 The organization of the troops about Peking gives a good 
 idea of the military system in other parts of the empire. In 
 many of the larger cities, in addition to the hereditary banner- 
 men, there is the Luh ying, or Green-Banner Division, con- 
 sisting altogether of Chinese. These troops ordinarily render 
 merely nominal service, having purchased from their officers, in 
 consideration of their pay, the privilege of engaging in all kinds 
 of commerce. Those who remain in service, instead of being 
 employed as a garrison force, are used rather as a vast land and 
 naval constabulary ; couriers ; grain, mint, or revenue guards ; 
 and escorts for criminals. 
 
 The troops for the defense of the distant frontiers, and for 
 the preservation of peace in the provinces, are armed, like those 
 at Peking, with matchlocks, bows, cutlasses, and spears. 
 
 In case briffandase or insurrection becomes too formidable 
 to be put down by the regular troops, volunteers, called Chwang- 
 Yung, or Braves, are summoned into service, and disbanded 
 when no longer required. 
 
STEENGTH OF THE CHINESE AEMY. 19 
 
 STRENGTH OF THE CHINESE AEMY. 
 
 The strength of the Chinese army can never be definitely 
 stated, a fact due to the long-established military policy of the 
 Government, which obliges every province, if possible, to sup- 
 port all of the military and naval forces needed, not only for its 
 own defense, but for the defense of the empire. 
 
 The result of this policy is that, as a measure of economy, 
 each province, in time of peace, seeks to reduce its military 
 forces to a minimum, relying in time of war on both regulars 
 and volunteers to supply its deficiency. 
 
 In this manner the number of troops in service constantly 
 varies. In 1823, however, a careful analysis of native records 
 gave a total force of 1,263,000 men who were on the pay-rolls 
 of the army, but of whom fully one-third, being only liable to 
 duty, received no pay. 
 
 A subsequent investigation, deemed more reliable, fixed the 
 cavalry force of the empire at 87,000 ; infantry in the field, 
 195,000 ; infantry in garrison, 320,000 : giving a total in these 
 two arms of 602,000. It may, therefore, be assumed that the 
 total number of troops varies from 500,000 to 1,000,000, accord- 
 ing to the internal condition of the provinces, the governor- 
 generals being allowed to regulate the size of their armies as 
 they may see fit. 
 
 Even ignoring these causes of fluctuation, had the army a 
 careful and definite organization on paper, as it pretends to 
 have, the corruption which permits oflicers to give soldiers 
 indefinite leave, and pocket their pay, would hopelessly re- 
 duce the army below the legal standard. As a consequence, 
 when troops are ordered to move, the ranks have to be filled. 
 Men are then called from the field and the workshop, arms 
 are thrust into their hands, and, without knowledge or train- 
 ing, they are exposed to the danger and fatigues of cam- 
 paigns. 
 
 The troops embarked at Shanghai for the recent Formosan 
 expedition were largely of this class. Inveigled on board the 
 vessels through false pretense, many of them, on learning of 
 
20 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 their destination, and the perils that awaited them, sprang over 
 board and were drowned. 
 
 TACTICS. 
 
 The Chinese army is as backward in its tactics as in its 
 armament. At the large seaport towns a portion of the troops, 
 since 1860, have from time to time been drilled by Europeans, 
 and this knowledge has been partially extended toward the 
 interior. But, as yet, the Chinese officers have not the slight- 
 est appreciation of the amount of instruction required for troops 
 in modern war, nor do they possess any knowledge of the meth- 
 od of arranging and conducting troops in battle. Having pre- 
 pared their works, and posted their men so as to slaughter an 
 enemy in an attack from the front, they regard an attack in 
 flank as low-minded, if not cowardly. 
 
 The instruction witnessed at Peking was a mere burlesque 
 of infantry-drill. There were about 1,200 men on the 
 ground, outside the walls, armed with the large and small 
 matchlock. The superior officers were comfortably seated un- 
 der tents arranged along the line of battle. The troops were 
 formed in a dense mass, or column, and at a given signal formed 
 right and left front into line. There was no order, nor step ; 
 the men marched in twos, threes, and fours, toward the line, 
 laughing, talking and firing their pieces in the air. On arriv- 
 ing in line the fire was continued to the front, in the direction 
 of the tents occupied by the officers. 
 
 The band, with gongs, drums, cymbals, and other instru- 
 ments, was posted behind the centre, and swelled the noise of 
 arms by a continuous clangor. 
 
 On a certain signal the line faced to the rear; the band 
 passed through the centre, when the men bearing the large 
 matchlocks, hitherto silent, advanced, like a skirmish-line, a 
 few yards to the front and opened fire. In front of the match- 
 locks was squatted a line of flagmen who, during the firing, 
 waved their flags horizontally above the ground. 
 
 All the signals were made either by flags or by music, a feat 
 that was not difficult, as the formation of line, and the alternate 
 
DISCIPLINE. 21 
 
 firing to the front and the rear witli the small and the large 
 matchlock, were the only movements executed. 
 
 At the conclusion of the drill ranks were broken, and 
 the men, individually and in squads, wandered back to the 
 city. 
 
 The artillery at the capital is drilled with as little intelli- 
 gence as the infantry, its firing, through ill-judged economy, 
 being mostly limited to blank cartridges. 
 
 The cavalry, such as was seen at the funeral of the late em- 
 peror, was mounted on pony-built horses, and was mostly armed 
 with the bow and spear. Drill adapted to such weapons can 
 have no relation to the instruction required for modern cavalry, 
 and need not be described. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 China is the only country in which the profession of arms is 
 not honored- For ages a proverb, to the effect that, " as you 
 would not use good iron to make a nail, so you would not use 
 a good man to make a soldier," has hung like a millstone 
 about the necks of the officers and soldiers of the Chinese 
 army. 
 
 Branded as the refuse of society, the policy of the Govern- 
 ment has been such as to condemn both ofiicers and men to 
 hopeless ignorance, and to drown every sentiment of magna- 
 nimity and honor. Preserving traditions antedating the intro- 
 duction of fire-arms, the officers have been looked upon as 
 trained athletes, needing only physical development to fit them 
 for their profession. So completely does this idea dominate 
 the Government and the army, that the sole qualifications 
 required of officers at the competitive examinations are expert- 
 ness in archery on foot and on horseback, sword-practice, and 
 ability to lift and to swing heavy weights. 
 
 At Peking, in 187-i, 135 officers, who had graduated at the 
 triennial military competition, were subjected to a second 
 examination by two vice-presidents before being admitted to 
 the palace competition of the same year. Each graduate was 
 required to exhibit his skill in horse and foot archery, sword- 
 
22 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 practice, and stone-lifting. After careful tests, 11 were de- 
 clared deficient, and were debarred from entering the palace 
 competition. Among the officers were 22 who had been turned 
 back three years, and one six years before. 
 
 In accordance with the rule, the record of graduation of the 
 latter, who failed on his third trial, was canceled. The result 
 of the examination was so unsatisfactory that penalties were 
 recommended to be inflicted upon the ministers who presided 
 at the graduating competition. 
 
 "When the successful candidates at the second examination 
 were brought before the emperor at the palace competition, four 
 were honored with military degrees ; seven who failed in either 
 archery, sword-practice, or stone-lifting, were turned back for 
 three years ; while one candidate, who failed in both sword- 
 practice and stone-lifting, was turned back six years. Penal- 
 ties were also pronounced against the ministers who presided at 
 the preliminary examinations. 
 
 At the competition in archery at Canton, which we wit- 
 nessed in November, 1875, the governor-general presided. The 
 targets for archery were sixty yards off, and were six feet high 
 by two feet wide. Each candidate was permitted to shoot 
 six arrows, and at the beginning and end of his trial saluted 
 the governor-general by kneeling. The tally was kept by 
 sticks, deposited before the governor-general after each hit. 
 Some of the candidates missed every shot, while others, more 
 successful, entered the list for stone-lifting. Those who 
 passed all tests successfully were commissioned lieutenants in 
 the army. 
 
 The system of competitive examinations for the army was 
 introduced by the present dynasty, in imitation of the time- 
 honored system prevailing in the civil service, and the nature 
 of competition clearly shows the relative esteem in which the 
 military and civil services are held. 
 
 Reversing the practice of Europe, where a higher scientific 
 and general education is required to enter the military than the 
 civil service, the latter frequently requiring no special test, the 
 Chinese Government simply demands an aspirant for a commis- 
 
PUNISHMENTS. 23 
 
 sion to give evidence of physical expertness and brute strength ; 
 whereas the candidate for civil honors, after spending the best 
 years of his life in study, must show an exact knowledge of the 
 national literature and classics. The quality of officers furnished 
 by such a system can readily be inferred. No encouragement 
 being given to study the art of war, tactics, artillery, engineer- 
 ing, fortification, or any of the sciences so intimately connected 
 with modern war, the Chinese officer is sunk in ignorance as 
 deep as the men, and frequently shows as little respect for 
 law and military discipline. This ignorance, and enforced 
 idleness, its concomitant, encourage vice, particularly the use 
 of opium, which destroys the endurance of the soldier, and 
 disqualifies him for the fatigues and hardships of campaign. 
 The use of opium, which has already become formidable, bids 
 fair, if not checked, to entirely destroy the efficiency of the 
 army. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 Whenever a serious offense is committed, the governor of 
 the province recommends to the Board of War the summary 
 dismissal of the offender, who, if the recommendation be ap- 
 proved, ceases to be an officer. This power of summary dis- 
 missal, or cashiering, is applied to officers of all ranks from 
 general to second-lieutenant, and is usually administered for 
 such offenses as arbitrary conduct, embezzlement, indolence, in- 
 capacity, and carelessness. 
 
 In 1874, on the application of the Governor of Honan, a 
 captain was cashiered for " undertaking litigious proceedings 
 with an eye to promotion." A subaltern officer, belonging, to 
 the nobility, on hearing that a householder was carrying on 
 illicit distillation, ordered the offender into his presence, and, 
 when the accused told him that he was simply making his 
 own spirits for the celebration of the New Year, he refused 
 to believe him, punished him with forty blows, and let him 
 go. For this arbitrary and illegal conduct the officer was 
 cashiered, and stripped of his hereditary title. 
 
24 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 HONOKS. 
 
 To encourage officers to a faithful performance of their duty, 
 various marks of imperial favor are bestowed upon them, such 
 as brevet rank, donations of money, presentation to the em- 
 peror, and permission to officers of rank to ride on horseback 
 within the Forbidden City. 
 
 Special acts of bravery are rewarded by permission to wear 
 the yellow jacket. 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 The supplies for the army in money, fuel, forage, arms, and 
 clothing, are usually procured by requisitions made by the com- 
 manding officers upon the provincial treasury, the requisitions 
 being submitted for approval to the commander of the forces 
 and the governor, who are responsible for disbursements and 
 expenditures. The money which is paid into the military chest 
 passes through the hands of the commandant of the forces, and 
 is disbursed pursuant to his orders. 
 
 In an expedition made outside the Great Wall against the 
 Mohammedan rebels in 1874, the troops were organized into 
 three divisions, numbering 17,000 men. Servants, coolies, and 
 camp-followers, swelled the number to 20,000. The supplies 
 for the expedition were collected in the provinces of Kansuh 
 and Hunan, and thence forwarded, the cost of transportation 
 exceeding many times the original price of the provisions. The 
 long continuance of hostilities, the inevitable consequence of a 
 feeble military policy, so impoverishes some provinces, that ap- 
 plication has to be made to the Board of Revenue at Peking for 
 the necessary funds to carry on the war. Other provinces are 
 then called upon to contribute. The Governor of Kweichow, 
 in 1874, acknowledged the services rendered by the different 
 provincial governments in supplying funds for the military 
 operations of the last twenty years, which finally terminated in 
 the complete pacification of the province. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 25 
 
 TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 In the northern part of the empire, and particularly out- 
 side the Great Wall, the two-humped Bactrian camel is princi- 
 pally used in transportation. One driver is assigned to a 
 kafila of five or six camels, which move in single file. To 
 conduct, the camels a wooden pin, with a broad head, is passed 
 through the nasal cartilage of each animal, and then attached 
 to a cord about six yards long, which is tied to the tail of the 
 camel in front. A large bell is tied to the neck of the hind- 
 most camel, to give notice of any break in the column. 
 
 The average load of a camel is 400 catties, or 533 pounds, 
 and his rate of travel two miles and a half per hour. 
 
 The length of a string of five camels, carrying but 2,666 
 pounds, allowing six yards for each camel with his cord, is 30 
 yards, whereas our six-mule government wagon, frequently 
 carrying 5,000 pounds, occupies when hitched but 14 yards. 
 To carry the load of five such wagons, extending Y8 yards, 
 would require a caravan of camels 860 yards long. 
 
 The above figures show the enormous length of Chinese 
 trains, when operating in mountainous regions, as compared 
 with the compact trains employed by us in our campaigns 
 against the Indians. 
 
 With the length of trains the diSiculties and dangers of 
 transportation directly increase. As a rule, even when the 
 width of the road will permit, the camels will only march in 
 single file, and when the road becomes slippery they frequently 
 fall, never to rise. 
 
 When carefully nursed and driven, they make good beasts 
 of burden, but when subjected to cold and wind, or to terrific 
 heat, as in the English campaign against Afghanistan, they 
 perish by thousands. 
 
 In the populous portions of the empire, carts drawn by 
 mules and bullocks, the latter frequently serving as pack-ani- 
 mals, are used for transportation, while along the course of the 
 great rivers, and in the seaboard provinces, innumerable junks 
 and small boats serve the same purpose. 
 
26 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 One of tlie great impediments to successful military opera- 
 tions in China is tlie want of good highways. Every river, 
 every stream, every canal, for want of bridges, constitutes a 
 barrier to the speedy march and concentration of troops. 
 
 Unlike the colossal power overshadowing her on the north, 
 which found the construction of broad roads the surest means 
 of subduing the warlike Circassians, China has thus far opposed 
 their construction, perhaps lest they might facilitate the march 
 of rebels upon the capital. The fact that there are no pave- 
 ments or sidewalks in Peking, and that as late as October, 1875, 
 a mule might be seen hopelessly floundering in a mud-hole with- 
 in a stone's-throw of the gates of the city, is sufficient evidence 
 of the little importance attached by the Government to a proper 
 system of communication. 
 
 GOVEENOE-GENERALS OE VICEEOYS. 
 
 The efficiency of the Chinese army largely depends upon 
 the governor-general, governor, or highest civil authority in 
 each province; when a governor-general and governor reside 
 at the same capital, they cooperate in providing for all military 
 operations within their respective jurisdictions, leaving the de- 
 tails of military movements to the Tsung-jping and Tituh, or 
 general officers who serve as their subordinates. 
 
 The governor-generals and governors recommend officers 
 for promotion and degradation, and possess the initiative in 
 matters of reform. 
 
 All memorials, reports, and petitions, before being for- 
 warded to the Board of "War, pass through their hands. These 
 memorials are sometimes signed openly by officers ; at other 
 times, when fearful of the result, they resort to the round 
 robin. 
 
 As an instance of the former, officers of all grades, from 
 general down, if disabled by wounds, may petition to be ex- 
 empted from displaying proficiency in archery on horseback. 
 
 In Yunnan, where the Luh ying, or Chinese infantry forces, 
 had become inefficient and demoralized by prolonged hostilities 
 against the Panthays, and the incorporation into their midst of 
 
GOVERNOR-GENERALS. 27 
 
 the Chwang-yung or irregulars, the whole body of officers, on 
 being compelled to be more active in drill, and attentive to 
 duty, sent a round robin to the governor, requesting that, in 
 consequence of the increased demands made upon them, certain 
 stoppages might be removed, and that they might no longer be 
 compelled to receive their pay in paper. The petition, sup- 
 ported by the governor-general, was approved. 
 
 In each province the standard of discipline is maintained by 
 a system of triennial inspections. The governors receive orders 
 from the Board of War when to make the inspections, charging 
 them to "examine with sedulous care and denounce to the 
 throne any instances of laxity among the officers in command." 
 Frequently the orders are accompanied with the injunction that 
 they are not to be regarded as " an idle form of words." 
 Whenever these functionaries make their military inspections, 
 they inquire into the general affairs of their provinces. The 
 Governor of Cheh-kiang, in making his report of 1874, ex- 
 pressed himself " well satisfied with the skill in musketry-fir- 
 ing, shield-exercise, use of the spear, and scaling-ladder ; also 
 with the exhibition of horse and foot archery, matchlock and 
 gingal practice." AVhen it is considered that this province lies 
 on the seaboard, and that its capital is less than 150 miles from 
 Shanghai, the above report is conclusive as to the little progress 
 modern ideas have made in the Chinese army. 
 
 While the governor-generals are practically the heads of the 
 regular army in their respective provinces, having power to 
 arm and equip, to increase and reduce, both the regular and 
 irregular forces, they cannot be held responsible for the in- 
 efiiciency, lack of discipline, and disorder, that everywhere pre- 
 vail. There are some among them who, through contact with 
 foreign officers, appreciate fully the value of modern arms and 
 organization, but their plans have been opposed or disapproved 
 at the capital, where conservatism, like a barrier, resists all 
 progress. 
 
 Nevertheless, within the field of discretion left to them, 
 some have sought to improve the arms and to increase the 
 instruction of their commands. 
 
28 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 At Tientsin, in 1875, an arsenal was nearly completed, in 
 wWcli Hemington cartridges, and powder and shells for cannon 
 of all calibres, were then manufactured. The best English 
 machinery for the manufacture of Kemington breech-loaders 
 was also shortly expected. The arsenal with its different 
 buildings, occupying an inclosure a mile square, was planned 
 and constructed by an Englishman, and the superintendents of 
 instruction in the different departments were likewise for- 
 eigners. 
 
 Remington rifles are also made at the arsenals at Shanghai 
 and Nanking. At Shanghai a short musketoon for cavalry is 
 manufactured side by side with one of the best breech-loaders 
 in the world — a proof that the best weapon for all arms of ser- 
 vice is not yet appreciated. 
 
 At Canton, where American arms are also manufactured, 
 the Remington and Spencer have been enlarged to a calibre of 
 one inch, with a barrel six feet long. On being told that the 
 barrels were too long, the intelligent Chinese superintendent 
 replied that he " knew it, but that the length was added to 
 give them a formidable appearance." These enlarged breech- 
 loaders, like the matchlock, are to be carried by two men. 
 
 The breech-loaders made at the different arsenals gradually 
 disappear toward the centre of the empire, where they may be 
 produced when least expected. 
 
 The troops near the seaboard still carry antiquated weap- 
 ons, and, to judge by the soldiers seen at Chinkiang, are unfit 
 to be intrusted with arms of delicate mechanism. Quartered in 
 low, dark, dirty mud huts, liable to be washed down in the first 
 rain, it is impossible for them to keep their arms clean. Fur- 
 thermore, as little attention is paid to the care of arms as to 
 other features of discipline and drill. The Chinese soldier, 
 naturally brave, and in the northern part of the empire hardy 
 and muscular, is little more than a man with a musket, I^o 
 care has been taken to train him, or to give him pride in his 
 profession ; neither can such a spirit be inculcated while the 
 officers are suffered to remain ignorant and indolent. The uni- 
 form, too, is a great obstacle to military pride. It consists of a 
 
GENERAL REMAEKS. 29 
 
 cotton jacket, usually blue, with trousers so loose and flowing 
 as to completely conceal the figure. 
 
 The wide discretion given to the governors inevitably tends 
 to destroy uniformity in the army. In no two provinces are 
 the troops armed and equipped alike, and, according to the 
 greater or less conservatism of the governors, the troops stand 
 still or advance. 
 
 This condition of affairs with its multitude of attendant 
 evils cannot be improved till the Board of War becomes awak- 
 ened, and the Government at Peking assumes full control of the 
 organization, disciphne, and support of the army. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 The study of the military policy of China is equally interest- 
 inff to the soldier and statesman. 
 
 The corruption that stands at the receipt of customs and 
 the doors of justice, that bars the approach to officers of state, 
 and pervades all branches of civil administration, has pene- 
 trated the army, and makes it as often an instrument of op- 
 pression as the beneficent means of preserving the peace. In 
 China, as in other countries, corrupt officials have recognized a 
 state of war as affording the best field for the gratification of 
 avarice, and it is not a violent assumption that the army has 
 been kept small and inefficient in order that prolonged hostili- 
 ties might afford them the opportunity of accumulating riches. 
 
 With a civilization extending back to the remotest antiquity, 
 the policy of China has been essentially pacific. Continually 
 lulled into a state of false security by the absence of formidable 
 neighbors on her borders, her army has never borne any rela- 
 tion to her population, or the vast extent of her territory. Sunk 
 into a state of political and military decadence, twice she has 
 been subjugated, and to-day she still bears the yoke of a foreign 
 dynasty whose ancestors were despised as barbarians. Within 
 our own time repeated rebellions have imperiled the existence 
 of the Government, and have only been suppressed after years 
 of dev^astation, cruelty, and carnage. 
 
 Insurrections, which might have been put down by a com- 
 
30 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 pany of trained soldiers, have been permitted to spread until 
 towns, cities, and provinces, have been overrun and desolated. 
 In the great Taiping rebellion the Government forces, regular 
 and irregular, were repeatedly put to flight by the unorganized 
 hordes, who sought to throw off the imperial yoke. Ill-fed, ill- 
 paid, ill-clothed, with neither confidence in themselves nor 
 their officers, the Government troops struggled in vain to sup- 
 press the revolt, while many, lured by the prospect of plunder, 
 joined the army of insurgents. Unable to cope with its adver- 
 saries, the Government, in its distress and feebleness, sought 
 external aid, and presented the humiliating spectacle of con- 
 tracting with foreign adventurers to recapture its cities. The 
 little of military skill these strangers imported into the army 
 soon produced its effect. One city after another was taken, 
 until the tide of revolution began to recede, when the Govern- 
 ment forces, with fire and sword, suppressed the revolt. 
 
 The bloody wars which for centuries have ravaged the 
 empire have been prolonged for want of a well-organized and 
 disciplined army. The soldiers, composed of the lowest class 
 of society, have been held in contempt, and, when called upon 
 to quiet disorders, have frequently met the disaffected on equal 
 terms, and if overcome have spread fear and demoralization in 
 their own ranks. Encouraged by first successes, civil wars 
 have alternately revived and languished until the Government 
 by a supreme effort has brought them to a close, only to be 
 follow^ed by wholesale executions and slaughter. 
 
 So harsh is the Government toward its rebellious subjects 
 that its aim appears to be the prevention of rebellion more by 
 the practice of cruelty than by the more sensible policy of 
 maintaining a sufficient force to preserve peace. 
 
 In 1874 twenty-eight prisoners belonging to a body of ban- 
 ditti were put to death, in cold blood, because a rescue was 
 feared ; and during the Taiping rebellion repeated acts of 
 cruelty and perfidy shocked the foreigners, and made them re- 
 pent the assistance they had given. 
 
 But it is not only in the destruction of life and of property, 
 and in the sufferings and ill-treatment of her own subjects that 
 
GENEKAL REMARKS. 31 
 
 the wickedness and folly of the military policy of China is 
 revealed. 
 
 Conquered by Mongols and Manchus, the present dynasty, 
 ruling nearly 400,000,000 people, and boasting of an army of 
 more than 500,000 men, has suffered within a few years a Euro- 
 pean army of less than 20,000 to march to its capital, and 
 dictate the terms of peace. What England and France have 
 done Kussia, and possibly Japan, may repeat. 
 
 A glance at the map shows that the destiny of Asia is in 
 the hands of England, Russia, Japan, and China. Two of these 
 nations, by means of their armies and navies, are ranked among 
 the great powers of the world. The third, abandoning an 
 effete civilization, is rapidly founding civil and military institu- 
 tions, which will enable her to play her part in modern develop- 
 ment. 
 
 China, servile in her admiration of the wisdom of past ages, 
 attaining the highest stage of pagan civilization centuries before 
 her competitors sprang into existence, remains motionless, a 
 prey to corruption and discord. "Without well-organized forces, 
 without good roads or other means of speedy concentration, her 
 seaboard provinces, and even her capital, lie at the mercy of 
 her enemies. 
 
 If, reversing the picture, she were to adopt the Christian 
 civilization ; were to encourage purity, justice, truth, and in- 
 tegrity, by recognizing as the basis of human action respon- 
 sibility to divine power ; if, imitating the example of Japan, 
 she were to establish schools and academies for the educa- 
 tion of the officers and men of her army and navy, and were 
 to make them feel that they were honored agents for the pres- 
 ervation of peace at home, and to insure respect abroad — who 
 could compute the vast resources and military strength of her 
 people ? 
 
 With reform in her civil service; with the sentiment of 
 new national life ; with liberty, a word as yet unknown in her 
 language, beating in the hearts of her citizens ; with railroads 
 and telegraphs leading to her frontiers ; with troops armed with 
 breech-loaders, organized on modern principles, and commanded 
 
32 ARMY OF CHINA. 
 
 by generals skilled in the art of war — to what seas might she 
 not carry her standards ? 
 
 The realization of visions of peace and of conquest is within 
 her grasp, but, delivered over to weakness, cruelty, ignorance, 
 and superstition, history has yet to record whether she shall 
 continue to be an independent nation or, like India, become 
 the vassal of a nobler people. 
 
AEMT OF INDIA. 
 
 The established strength of the military forces of India, in 
 1876, was as follows : 
 
 European army — oflScers, 2,986 ; men, 60,224 : total, 63,210. 
 ^ Native army — European officers and staff-corps, 3,398 ; 
 natives, officers and men, 123,479 : total, 126,877. 
 
 Total military strength, 190,087. 
 
 These forces were distributed in the three presidencies as 
 follows : 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Engineers and sappers . 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Invalids and veterans.. 
 
 MiSCELLANEOtrS OFFICERS. 
 
 Staff corps 
 
 General list, cavalry j including cadres 
 
 General list, infantry ) of old corps 
 
 Unattached oflRcers 
 
 General oificers unemployed 
 
 Total 8,348 
 
 Ndmbebs (pbe Establishment). 
 
 Europ«an Army. 
 
 Officers. Men. 
 
 168 
 
 238 
 
 1,056 
 
 19 
 
 1,125 
 
 64 
 
 226 
 
 11 
 
 73 
 
 6,55T 
 2,780 
 
 28,864 
 
 18 
 
 37,669 
 
 Native Army. 
 
 619 
 
 12,918 
 
 1,355 
 
 48,859 
 
 3,151 
 
 7,544 
 15,816 
 
 1,493 
 
 77,779 
 
 37 
 
 1,125 
 
 64 
 
 226 
 
 11 
 
 73 
 
 104,168 
 
34 
 
 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 NUMBBBS (PIB ESTABLISBHSNT). 
 
 Kuropean Army. Native Army. 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Engineers and sappers. , 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Invalids and veterans . . 
 
 Miscellaneous Officers. 
 
 Btaft corps 
 
 General list, cavalry ( including cadres ( . 
 
 General list, Infantry 1 of old corps (. 
 
 Unattached officers 
 
 General officers unemployed 
 
 Total. 
 
 147 
 56 
 67 
 
 297 
 24 
 
 653 
 54 
 
 123 
 3 
 44 
 
 2,670 
 910 
 
 7,974 
 144 
 
 1,4X8 
 
 11,698 
 
 1,723 
 
 1,439 
 
 80,b01 
 
 33,968 
 
 2,817 
 
 2,689 
 
 1,506 
 
 39,072 
 
 168 
 
 658 
 54 
 
 128 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 47,139 
 
 Numbers (peb Ebtablishmest). 
 
 European Army, 
 
 Officers. Men, 
 
 Native Army. 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Engineers and sappers . 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Invalids and veterans... 
 
 Miscellaneous Officers. 
 
 Staff corps 
 
 General list, cavalry J including cadres ( . 
 
 General list, infantry | of old corps f . 
 
 TJnattaclied officers 
 
 General officers unemployed 
 
 189 
 23 
 67 
 
 297 
 15 
 
 504 
 24 
 66 
 3 
 27 
 
 2,428 
 455 
 
 7,974 
 
 Total. 
 
 10,857 
 
 177 
 
 3,965 
 525 
 
 22,086 
 
 2,744 
 
 4,443 
 
 592 
 
 30,857 
 
 15 
 
 504 
 24 
 66 
 
 27 
 
 38,780 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE INDIAN AKMY. 
 
 The transfer of the government of India from the East 
 India Company to the crown was followed by a complete reor- 
 ganization of the army. 
 
 Previous to that time the officers of artillery, cavalry, in- 
 fantry, and engineers, belonged permanently to their respective 
 arms, or corps, and received their promotion in the same man- 
 ner as in the British army. 
 
 It is not necessary to state all of the reasons that led to the 
 reorganization, but prominent among them was one developed 
 by the mutiny, which seems to have exerted a controlling in- 
 fluence. 
 
OFFICEES OF THE INDIAN ARMY. 35 
 
 It was observed that irregular regiments, hastily equipped, 
 and led by brave and skillful English officers, fought with a 
 zeal and steadiness approaching, if not equaling, that of the 
 native regiments in the regular establishment. 
 
 In all of the wars of India, the latter had gone into battle 
 under great disadvantages. 
 
 The cadre of each infantry regiment, for example, num- 
 bered twenty-five European officers, yet, so many were detached, 
 in consequence of the increasing demand for officers to serve in 
 the staff, and also in civil and political positions, that companies 
 in time of peace were frequently left in the hands of boys fresh 
 from England, who were without the slightest military ex- 
 perience. Even when this did not occur, those who had staid 
 with their regiments during the intervals of peace, and were 
 ambitious of distinction, found themselves superseded at 
 the opening of each campaign by officers hastily ordered 
 back, whom years of detached service had unfitted for com- 
 mand. 
 
 It was impossible that such a system should not produce 
 bad results. In India, as in every other country, where de- 
 tached service is indefinite, officers sought exemption from the 
 hardships and restraints of military discipline. 
 
 Furthermore, the history of India proved that the surest 
 road to distinction lay in the civil service, in which officers were 
 frequently appointed governors of millions of people. 
 
 Having grown old in such service, having enjoyed its pleas- 
 ures and its honors, having forgotten their tactics and regula- 
 tions, it was not unnatural that their return to military duty 
 should have produced jealousy and confusion, and been followed 
 by the most dangerous, if not the most criminal, of all experi- 
 ments, the sending of men into action under incompetent 
 leaders. The conduct of the irregular regiments in the mutiny, 
 it was thought, suggested a remedy for the abuse. 
 
 If they could fight so well under three or four English 
 officers, why should not the regular regiments do the same? 
 "Why should not each regular regiment be given seven or eight 
 officers, instead of twenty-five, thereby leaving a surplus of 
 
36 AKMY OF INDIA, 
 
 seventeen or eighteen available for staff duty, and other de- 
 tached service? 
 
 This idea appears to have been the germ which, hi its devel- 
 opment, led to the organization of a staff corps in each presi- 
 dency, embracmg not only the non-combatant, but all of the 
 combatant officers of the old Indian army. 
 
 STAFF COKPS. 
 
 It was resolved that all the officers then in the staff, the 
 artillery, and cavalry, should be ultimately merged into one 
 body, to be known, in Bengal, as the " Bengal Staff Corps ; " in 
 Bombay, as the " Bombay Staff Corps ; " and in Madras, as the 
 "Madras Staff Corps." 
 
 There was to be no permanent quartermaster, commissary, 
 or ordnance department. All of these positions in each Presi- 
 dency were to be filled for a term of years by officers detached 
 from the " staff corps," or from the British troops serving in 
 India. The same great corps was to furnish by detail the 
 seven combatant officers of native infantry, and eight com- 
 batant officers of native cavalry. 
 
 In organizing the staff corps, special arrangements were 
 made, whereby, under certain conditions, officers of the Indian 
 artillery and engineers, could enter the same corps in the 
 Koyal army. 
 
 Provision also had to be made for the young officers, who 
 were gazetted to the Indian army after November 1, 1858, the 
 date of transfer of the government to the crown, up to the year 
 1862. As these officers had never served with the native army, 
 their names were placed on a 
 
 GENERAL LIST, 
 
 which was gradually to disappear by the process of absoi*ption 
 and death. 
 
 They were guaranteed promotion to the grades of major 
 and lieutenant-colonel after a service, respectively, of twenty 
 and twenty-six years, the same as in the staff. 
 
 Promotion to the grade of captain was secured by assign- 
 
BENGAL STAFF CORPS. 37 
 
 ment to vacancies as they occurred in the cadres of the old 
 native regiments. 
 
 OLD CADKE LIST. 
 
 This list embraces those officers of the old Indian army 
 who, on the general reorganization, declined the offer to enter 
 the staff corps. 
 
 Their names were continued on their regimental lists, the 
 same as if the regiments had not been disbanded or reorganized, 
 their promotion being secured as vacancies occurred in these 
 lists the same as before the mutiny. The old cadre list will 
 disappear only on the death of the last officer. 
 
 UNEMPLOYED LIST. 
 
 This list consists of officers of the staff corps, general list, 
 and old cadre list, who exceed the number of appointments or 
 places at the disposal of the Government. They draw the 
 Indian pay of their rank, and are available for special duty, 
 such as courts and boards. 
 
 BENGAL STAFF CORPS. 
 
 This corps, organized in 1861, may be accepted as the model 
 of the staff corps of the other two presidencies. 
 
 To induce officers to enter it, the Bengal Army Regulations 
 prescribe that no staff appointments, except those tenable for 
 five years, and personal staff appointments, shall be held by an 
 officer of the British army, unless he enter the staff corps. 
 This prohibition does not apply to officers of Royal Engineers 
 serving in the sappers and miners ; in the public works, survey 
 and telegraph departments ; nor to officers of the Royal Artil- 
 lery serving in the native batteries, and in the ordnance depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Any officer desiring to enter the staff corps must be above 
 the grade of sub-lieutenant, and must serve a year on probation 
 with native troops, either as a wing or squadron subaltern. 
 The application for transfer must be accompanied by the cer- 
 tificate of the commander of the regiment, stating that he has 
 
38 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 passed the examination in the native languages according to 
 the higher standard ; that he has acquired such knowledge of 
 his drill and duty as to qualify him to command a company of 
 troops in all situations ; that he possesses a fair knowledge of 
 the articles of war, army regulations, and the Bengal Army 
 Regulations ; that he has a general acquaintance with the or- 
 ganization and duties of all branches of the army serving in 
 Bengal, and that during his service with his regiment he has 
 been attentive to his duty, and unexceptionable in his conduct. 
 The application must also be accompanied by the certificate of 
 the medical officer of the regiment. 
 
 The object of probation is to test the " tact, temper, and 
 judgment," and other qualifications of the officer, for employ- 
 ment with native troops. 
 
 If successful in his probation, the officer, before his final 
 transfer, is required to pass an examination divided into two 
 parts, as follows : 
 
 FIRST PAET. 
 
 TACTICS. 
 
 Embracing the evolutions of a regiment of cavalry, or bat- 
 talion of infantry, including skirmishing, duties of outposts, 
 patrols, escorts, advanced and rear guards. 
 
 INTERIOR ECONOMY. 
 
 Of a troop, company, or detachment, embracing a knowl- 
 edge of correspondence, regulations, and returns ; also musketry 
 instruction. 
 
 REGULATIONS. 
 
 Embracing the native articles of war, and the military regu- 
 lations of the presidency, particularly those that apply to native 
 coi'ps. 
 
 REGIMENTAL ECONOMY OF NATIVE CAVALRY AND INFANTRY. 
 
 Embracing the system of keeping accounts and rosters ; the 
 mode of dealing with the offenses, complaints, and petitions of 
 
NAVIVE REGIMENTAL ECONOMY. 39 
 
 the men ; a knowledge of the articles of equipment kept by the 
 men, with the cost and mode of carrying them ; the system of 
 purchasing horses ; knowledge of their defects and good quali- 
 ties ; also a general knowledge of shoeing, and of the diseases 
 and injuries to which horses are subject, with the method of 
 treatment. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 This part embraces : 
 
 Military law, 
 
 Elements of tactics, 
 
 Field-fortification, and elements of permanent fortifica- 
 tion, 
 
 Military topography and reconnaissance, and riding. 
 
 The examinations of probationers for the staff corps are held 
 at division and district headquarters. The examining board 
 consists of a general ofiicer and two commandants of native regi- 
 ments, or one commandant and one second in command of 
 native regiments. 
 
 Since the 1st of January, 1875, every captain of the staff 
 who aspires to the position of commandant, second in command, 
 or wing-officer of a native regiment, or who, being in a native 
 regiment, desires an appointment outside of his regiment, has 
 been required to pass an examination in two parts. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 For cavalry: 
 
 Command of a regiment singly on parade ; as part of a 
 brigade ; as advance or rear guard ; as outpost covering a brigade 
 or division, and manoeuvring on varied ground, adapting the 
 movements to the accomplishment of specified purposes. 
 
 For infantry : 
 
 Eiding, and the command of a regiment singly on parade ; 
 as part of a brigade ; as advance or rear guard ; as outposts, 
 covering a brigade or division, and skirmishing, adapting the 
 movements to the ground and a specified purpose. 
 
40 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 SECOND PART, 
 
 This part embraces : 
 
 Military law, 
 
 Elements of tactics, 
 
 Field-fortification, 
 
 Elements of permanent fortification. 
 
 Military topography and reconnaissance. 
 
 Principles of combining the movements of infantry, artillery, 
 and cavalry, for mutual support. 
 
 Representing on a map of a piece of ground, previously 
 seen by the officer, the map. being furnished the officer under 
 examination, the disposition of a combined force of the three 
 arms: 
 
 1. As advance and rear guard. 
 
 2. As outposts. 
 
 3. For attack and defense of a given position such as a 
 hedge, wall, or defile. 
 
 The examination for captains, as given above, is required to 
 qualify any officer of the staff corps to hold the positions of : 
 Military secretary of the viceroy, and to the commander-in- 
 chief, 
 Assistant adjutant-general. 
 Assistant quartermaster-general. 
 Deputy assistant adjutant-general, 
 Deputy assistant quartermaster-general. 
 Brigade-major. 
 
 GAKKISON INSTKUCTION. 
 
 To enable officers to pass the examinations specified, a sys- 
 tem of garrison instruction has been established at different 
 posts in the Bengal Presidency. 
 
 The course of study embraces two terms, the first of which 
 extends from the 1st of October to the 1st of February ; the 
 second from the 1st of February to the 31st of May. 
 
 The garrison instructors are officers who have specially quali- 
 fied for this position, many of them being graduates of the 
 Staff College at Sandhurst. 
 
NATIVE LANGUAGES. 41 
 
 The classes, usually not exceeding ten to twelve members, 
 are composed of officers from the native and British troops at 
 the rate of — 
 
 2 officers from each regiment British infantry. 
 
 1 officer " " " " cavalry. 
 
 1 " " " " native infantry. 
 
 1 " " " " " cavalry. 
 
 The subjects to which special attention is given, are : 
 Military law, 
 Field-fortification, 
 Field-sketching, surveying, and reconnaissances. 
 
 NATIVE LANGUAGES. 
 
 The only officers serving on staff duty in India, who are not 
 required to show proficiency in the native languages, are : 
 
 One-half of the personal staff of the viceroy, commander-in- 
 chief, a governor or lieutenant-governor ; the staff of a station 
 occupied exclusively by British troops ; inspectors of gymnasia, 
 and garrison instructors. 
 
 The " lower standard of examination " is required to be 
 passed by : 
 
 One-half of the personal staff" of the viceroy, commander- 
 in-chief, governor or lieutenant-governor ; assistant and deputy 
 assistant adjutant-general for musketry and station staff. 
 
 All other staff aj)pointments can only be held by officers 
 who have passed the interpreter's test, or higher standard Hin- 
 dostani, or an equivalent examination in other native languages. 
 
 The "lower standard" in Hindostani consists in reading 
 fairly and translating with accuracy a given portion of two 
 standard text-books ; also ability to converse with examiners, or 
 natives of India, on such subjects as relate to e very-day life, and 
 the performance of regimental or professional duty. 
 
 Examinations for the " lower standard " are held every two 
 months at every large station such as Agra, Allahabad, Cawn- 
 poor, and Lucknow. The station committee appointed for this 
 purpose is composed of three officers who have passed the 
 "higher standard." 
 
42 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 The " higher standard " examination consists in reading 
 fluently, and translating into English with readiness and ac- 
 curacy, an octavo page of a standard text-book ; reading fairly 
 and translating readily and correctly Hindostani manuscripts, 
 written in both Persian and Hindi characters ; conversing with 
 examiners or natives with fluency and sufiicient correctness to 
 be clearly intelligible. 
 
 These examinations are held annually at Simla, Landour, 
 Murree, and Nynee Tal, and half-yearly at the headquarter 
 stations of divisions, districts, and brigades. The committees 
 consist of one civil, and two military officers, who have passed 
 the higher standard. 
 
 Examinations are also held in sixteen other languages, as 
 follows : 
 
 Arabic, Assamese, Bengali, Burmese, Canarese, Guzerathi, 
 Mahrati, Malayalam, Ooriya, Persian, Punjabi, Pushtoo, San- 
 skrit, Sindhi, Tamil, and Telego. 
 
 The importance attached to a knowledge of the native and 
 other languages is shown by the pecuniary rewards offered to 
 the successful competitors. 
 
 To every officer who passes the " lower standard " of Hin- 
 dostani an allowance of 180 rupees is given, nearly equal to 
 $90. On passing the " higher standard " an additional allow- 
 ance of 180 rupees is also given. If both standards are passed 
 at the same time, the whole allowance of 3G0 rupees is paid at 
 once. 
 
 A donation of 800 rupees ($400) is made to every candi- 
 date who passes an examination in Arabic, Pushtoo, or San- 
 skrit, and 500 rupees to candidates who pass an examination in 
 any other of the sixteen languages before mentioned. 
 
 " High proficiency " examinations, a grade next above the 
 " higher standard," are provided for eleven of the most impor- 
 tant languages. Any officer or soldier who passes the " high 
 proficiency " examination in Arabic or Sanskrit receives a do- 
 nation of 2,000 rupees ($1,000) ; in the other languages 1,500 
 rupees. 
 
 " Degrees of Honor " are accorded for attaining the highest 
 
PEOBATION FOR STAFF EMPLOYMENT. 43 
 
 proficiency in Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit. Candidates who 
 obtain this honor in Arabic and Sanskrit receive a donation of 
 5,000 rupees ($2,500), and in Persian 4,000 rupees. They are 
 also presented with a gold medal by the presidency in which 
 they are serving. 
 
 Abbreviations like L. S., " Lower Standard," " H. S. P., 
 "Higher Standard Persian," are placed on the army list 
 opposite to the names of all officers who have passed examina- 
 tions. 
 
 The encouragement to learn native languages, a knowledge 
 of which is indispensable to enter the staff corps, or to hold 
 certain staff positions, together with the incentive offered by 
 means of donations, degrees of honor, and medals, has resulted 
 in the acquisition of a greater variety of languages by the In- 
 dian officers than in all probability is possessed by the officers 
 of any other army. 
 
 TENURE OF APPOINTMENTS. 
 
 Appointments in the adjutant-general's department, includ- 
 ing musketry branch ; quartermaster-general's department ; ap- 
 pointment as brigade-majors (corresponding to assistant adju- 
 tant-general of brigade) ; fort adjutants ; adjutants of volunteer 
 corps ; personal staff ; station staff, and garrison instructors, is 
 open alike to officers of the Indian army and British army 
 serving in India. 
 
 The tenure of appointment in each of the foregoing posi- 
 tions is five years, except on the personal staff of a governor, 
 where it is extended to six years. 
 
 PEOBATION FOR STAFF EMPLOYMENT. 
 
 Service in the judge advocate-general's department, mili- 
 tary account department, commissariat department, stud, sur- 
 vey, civil and foreign departments, is open to all officers of the 
 staff corps and Indian army. 
 
 Previous to appointment in the judge advocate-general's 
 department, an officer must pass an examination in military 
 
44 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 law, Mutiny Act, Articles of War, Queen's Eegulations, Ben- 
 gal Army Regulations, and Indian Penal Code. He must also 
 show a capacity to review the proceedings of minor courts- 
 martial, and to conduct the proceedings of general courts-martial. 
 
 The examination is conducted by the deputy judge advocate 
 attached to the division or district, and two selected field-officers. 
 After passing the examination the officer must serve a year on 
 probation in the department. If at the expiration of this period 
 the deputy judge advocate-general, and the general command- 
 ing the division, or district, to which he is attached, make a 
 satisfactory report of the practical qualifications of the proba- 
 tioner, he becomes eligible for a permanent appointment. 
 
 An applicant for the Military Account Department must be 
 examined by a paymaster to ascertain that he has a good gen- 
 eral knowledge of accounts and book-keeping. He must then 
 serve a year on probation under the controller of military ac- 
 counts, who assigns him to duty in the various branches of the 
 department. If the controller at the conclusion of the year 
 reports that the conduct of the probationer has been satisfac- 
 tory, and that he gives promise of usefulness in the department, 
 he is examined by a committee composed of the controller, 
 military accountant, and a pay-examiner. In case the examina- 
 tion is satisfactory, the appointment is confirmed. 
 
 In the Commissariat Department an officer must serve a 
 year on probation, preceded and followed by an examination. 
 The same rule applies to the Stud Department, except that no 
 preliminary examination is required. 
 
 In the Survey Department the same period of probation is 
 required. The preliminary examination embraces arithmetic, 
 algebra, geometry, trigonometry, topographical and mechanical 
 drawing. In certain cases such as artillery officers holding 
 certificates of qualification from the Academy at "Woolwich, the 
 preliminary examination is dispensed with. The final examina- 
 tion, at the close of the probation, embraces a fair knowledge of 
 the rules of the department ; the computation and mapping of 
 a small area of territory ; a knowledge of the use of all the in- 
 struments employed in the department, with the manner of 
 
PAY. 45 
 
 adjusting them, and sufficient knowledge of astronomy to ascer- 
 tain time, azimuth, and latitude. 
 
 The final application for transfer to any department of the 
 staff corps must be accompanied by the certificate of the chief 
 as to the conduct of the officer while on probation. 
 
 PAY. 
 
 Officers of the staff corps receive the following monthly pay : 
 Lieutenant-colonel, 827 rupees 14 annas, $413 . 92 
 
 Major, 640 " 14 " 320.42 
 
 Captain, 374 " 1 anna 6 pice, 187.04 
 
 Lieutenant, 5 " 12 annas, 112.86 
 
 The above is the pay proper of officers employed and un- 
 employed. 
 
 In addition, nearly every appointment in India carries with 
 it staff pay and allowances, equal and frequently exceeding 
 the officers' pay proper. 
 
 The pay, per annum, of the following officers, is: 
 Commander-in-chief, . . 100,000 rupees = $50,000.00 
 Military secretary, 
 Adjutant-general, . 
 Deputy adjutant-general, . 
 Assistant adjutant-general. 
 Quartermaster-general, 
 Inspector-general of artillery, . 
 General commanding division, 
 
 A colonel commanding a brigade of horse-artillery receives 
 1,358 rupees per month, and command allowance of 400, mak- 
 ing $879 per month. 
 
 A lieutenant-colonel commanding a regiment of British 
 cavalry receives 1,037 rupees per month, with a command al- 
 lowance of 400 rupees = $718.50. 
 
 A lieutenant-colonel commanding a regiment of British 
 infantry receives 1,002 rupees per month, and a command 
 allowance of 400 rupees — $701. 
 
 The commandant of a regiment of native cavalry receives 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 9,000.00 
 
 36,000 
 
 
 18,000.00 
 
 22,560 
 
 
 11,280.00 
 
 15,725 
 
 
 7,862.50 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 15,000.00 
 
 28,024 
 
 
 14,012.00 
 
 38,564 
 
 
 19,284.00 
 
46 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 640 rupees 14 annas per month, and a command allowance of 
 700 rupees = $670. 
 
 The monthly pay of a commandant of a native infantry 
 regiment is $620. 
 
 In the Indian service great distinction is made between the 
 pay of officers in command, and at the head of departments, 
 and tlie pay of the grades next below, but the fact that a sub- 
 lieutenant, on probation in a native regiment, receives $165 
 per month, is suflBcient to show that the officers, if serving in 
 the worst of climates, are, as a compensation, better paid than 
 those of any other army in the world. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 Officers of the staff corps are entitled to promotion to the 
 grade of captain after 12 years' service, to major after 20 years, 
 and lieutenant-colonel after 26 years. 
 
 EETIEEMENT. 
 
 Officers of the staff corps who have served half of the re- 
 quired periods in the corps, are permitted to retire according 
 to the following scale : 
 
 After 20 years' service in India, on £191 12s. per annum. 
 u 24 " " 292 " 
 
 " 28 " " 365 " 
 
 u 32 u u 45(3 u 
 
 After 38 years' service officers are allowed to retire with 
 " off reckonings," which increases their pay to £1,100 per 
 annum. 
 
 Under the old rule colonels were granted an allowance for 
 clothing their regiments, and the difference between the allow- 
 ance and the actual cost of the clothing, usually amounting to 
 £650 per annum, was regarded as an emolument, and was 
 termed "off reckonings." Officers entitled to "off reckon- 
 ings" usually retire as soon as they become available, after 
 which their promotion goes on to the highest grades in the ser- 
 vice, but their pay cannot exceed £1,100. 
 
FURLOUGHS. 47 
 
 Officers who are not entitled to " off reckonings," when 
 retiring on full pay, are given a step in brevet rank, after which 
 their promotion ceases, but their names are retained in the 
 Army List in italics. 
 
 Officers who contract disability in the service, or become 
 unfit for duty before being entitled to retire on full pay, are 
 allowed to retire on half pay, or their names may be placed on 
 the half-pay list. Those who subsequently recover their health 
 may be restored to the active list at the option of the Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 FUKLOUGHS. 
 
 For the purpose of enabling officers of the Indian army to 
 preserve their health and vigor, and to support the prolonged 
 heat of the climate, the Government has established liberal 
 rules for leave of absence and furlough. 
 
 Every officer in military employ in India is entitled to 60 
 days' " privilege-leave " each year, without loss of pay or emolu- 
 ments, and at particularly unhealthy stations the period is 
 extended to 90 days. The officers are encouraged to take this 
 leave, as experience has proved that change of climate, of 
 thoughts, and of scenes, gives to them an increased zeal and 
 cheerfulness in the discharge of their duty during the remaining 
 months of the year, more than sufficient to compensate the 
 Government for the loss of pay during their absence. 
 
 In case of urgent private affairs, officers are allowed a 
 " general leave " not exceeding six months, with full pay, but 
 a loss of one-half of their staff emoluments. If this leave be 
 taken three years in succession, certain officers may lose their 
 staff appointments. 
 
 In addition to the privilege and general leaves, every offi- 
 cer of the Indian army is entitled, if the public interests permit, 
 to two years' furlough on the completion of eight years' service 
 in India, and an additional year for every subsequent six years' 
 service. 
 
 During his furlough the officer retains any staff appoint- 
 ment he may hold at the time, and receives half pay and allow- 
 
48 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 ances, provided the sum does not exceed £1,000, nor fall below 
 £250. 
 
 To secure the full advantage of his furlough an officer is 
 granted 30 days' leave to enable him to reach the port of em- 
 barkation, and the same length of time to get back to his station 
 on his return. 
 
 In all he is granted eight years' furlough during his service 
 in India, and of this amount he is allowed to count as service 
 toward retirement or pension — 
 
 2 years in 20, 
 
 3 " " 25, 
 
 4 " " 30, 
 
 5 " " 34, 
 
 6 " " 38. 
 
 Besides the usual leaves of absence and furloughs, provision 
 is made for furlough without pay, and for leave on certificate 
 of disability. Special provisions are also made for officers of 
 the British army, and for officers of the Indian army serving 
 in civil departments. These rules vary but slightly from those 
 established for the staff corps. 
 
 VARIETY OF SERVICE IN INDIA. 
 
 As all of the European officers of the Indian army will 
 ultimately belong to the staff corps, the principle of detail for 
 staff employment, and for service with native troops, will find 
 its widest application in India. The extent of its present ap- 
 plication to the staff corps, general list of infantry and cavalry, 
 old cadre list, and to officers of British troops serving in India, 
 may be inferred in the Bengal Presidency by reference to the 
 Bengal Army List. 
 
 The personal staff of the viceroy consists of 12 officers ; 7 
 detailed from British troops, and 5 from the Indian army, em- 
 bracing representatives from all of the lists above mentioned. 
 
 The personal staff of the commander-in-chief consists of 6 
 officers ; 4 detailed from British troops, and 2 from the Indian 
 army. 
 
 The secretariat of the Government of India, Military De- 
 
VARIETY OF SERVICE IN INDIA. 49 
 
 partment, is composed of 5 officers ; all detailed from the staff- 
 corps. 
 
 The Adjutant-General's Department is composed of 8 offi- 
 cers ; 3 detailed from the British troops, and 5 from the staff 
 corps. 
 
 The Quartermaster-General's Department is composed of 24 
 officers ; 12 detailed from the British troops, and 12 from the 
 Indian army. 
 
 The Judge-Advocate-General's Department is composed of 
 8 officers ; all detailed from the staff corps, and old Bengal in- 
 fantry. 
 
 Of the 8 assistant adjutant-generals of division 4 are from 
 the British troops, and 4 from the staff corps. 
 
 Of the assistant adjutant-generals of musketry, 1 assistant 
 and 7 deputy assistants, 6 are detailed from the British troops, 
 and 2 from the Indian army. 
 
 The garrison instruction staff in India is composed of 27 
 officers, 24 of whom are detailed from officers of British troops, 
 and 3 from the Indian army. 
 
 The brigade-majors, station-staff, and fort-adjutants, are de- 
 tailed about equally from officers of British troops and the 
 Indian army. 
 
 The ordnance and ordnance manufacturing establishments 
 are composed of 20 officers ; all detailed from the Royal Ar- 
 tillery. 
 
 The Accounts Branch, Military Department, is composed 
 of civilians and 22 officers ; all detailed from the Indian 
 army. 
 
 The Army Commissariat Department is composed of 53 
 officers ; 44 detailed from the staff corps, the remainder from 
 other officers of the Indian army. 
 
 In addition to details in the Military Department, the civil 
 service opens to officers in India a vast field for ambition and 
 usefulness. 
 
 The officers of the Survey Department, embracing the Great 
 Trigonometrical and Topographical Survey of India, are nearly 
 all detailed from the Royal Engineers. 
 4 
 
50 
 
 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 The officers in the Revenue Survey are nearly all from the 
 staff corps. 
 
 The Great Public Works Department, which builds the forts, 
 barracks, irrigation canals, roads, and railroads, is largely com- 
 posed of officers of the Royal Engineers, Artillery, and staff corps. 
 
 The telegraph is likewise under military control. 
 
 Without specifying further the civil and military occupations 
 to which officers may aspire, the variety of service required of 
 them will best appear by quoting the remarks opposite ten con- 
 secutive names, taken at random in the grades of lieutenant- 
 colonel, major, captain, and lieutenant, of the Bengal staff 
 corps : 
 
 Lieutenant- Colonels. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Bemarka. 
 
 Chief Commissioner of Mysore and Coorg. 
 
 Judge- Advocate-General. 
 
 Civil employ, Assam. 
 
 Civil employ, Northwestern Provinces. 
 
 In Europe. 
 
 Army Commissariat Department. 
 
 In Europe. 
 
 Civil employ, Bengal. 
 
 First Assistant Adjutant-General. 
 
 Civil employ, Punjab. 
 
 Majors. 
 Third Squadron Officer 6th Bengal Cavalry. 
 Civil employ, Punjab. 
 Topographical Survey Department. 
 Quartermaster- General's Department. 
 Second Commander Mai w ah Bheel Corps. 
 Civil employ, Punjab. 
 Civil employ. Central India. 
 2d Squadron Officer 14th Bengal Lancers. 
 Commandant 16th Bengal Cavalry. 
 Second in command and Wing-Officer Corps of Guides. 
 
 Captains. 
 Civil employ, Hyderabad. 
 Army Commissariat Department. 
 Second in command and Squadron Officer 18th Bengal Cavalry. 
 
MILITARY OFFICERS AND CIVIL AUTHORITIES. 
 
 51 
 
 Names. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Second in command and Squadron Officer 8th Bengal Cavalry. 
 
 Officiating Brigade-Major. 
 
 2d Squadron Officer 5th Punjab Cavalry. 
 
 Quartermaster-General's Department. 
 
 Commandant of Cavalry and Squadron-Officer Corps of Guides. 
 
 "Wing-Officer 39th Native Infantry. 
 
 Quartermaster-General's Department. 
 
 Lieutenants. 
 
 Quartermaster 34th Native Infantry. 
 1st Wing Subaltern 29th " «' 
 
 " " 31st " " 
 
 Adjutant 45th " " 
 
 Civil employ, Rajpootana Agency, 
 2d Squadron Subaltern 5th Punjab Cavalry. 
 Adjutant 1st Punjab Cavalry. 
 1st Wing Subaltern 29th Native Infantry. 
 Deputy Controller Pubhc Works Department. 
 Adjutant Erinpoora Irregulars. 
 
 RELATION OF MILITAEY OFFICERS TO THE CIVIL AUTHORITIES. 
 
 In no free country is the subordination of the military to 
 the civil authority more clearly defined than in the politico- 
 military despotism of India. The Army Regulations prescribe 
 that — 
 
 " The civil officer is vested with authority to call upon the military 
 commander for the services of the troops under his command, whenever, in 
 the judgment of such civil officer, the public interests of the Government 
 may require such a measure ; and it is the absolute duty of the military 
 officer to whom such requisition is addressed, whoever and whatever 
 he may be, forthwith to comply with the same. It is not competent 
 for him to enter into any discussion upon the merits of the measure pro- 
 posed, or to take any cognizance whatever of its policy, justice, or neces- 
 sity. 
 
 " It is for the civil officer, and him alone, to judge of the policy, the 
 justice, or the necessity, of the measure. For these he alone is responsible 
 to the government he serves ; and he is not called upon in duty either to 
 justify his conclusions or to communicate his reasons to the military officer 
 to whom he may address the requisition for troops. Although such mani- 
 
52 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 festations of confidence and cordiality are always to be desired, he is only 
 required by his strict duty to state distinctly (in writing) the service he de- 
 sires to see performed and the necessity of troops for the purpose, and to 
 afford such further information as may be necessary to enable the oflScer 
 in command eflficiently to perform the service he is called upon to exe- 
 cute. 
 
 " The civil or political oflacer is not authorized to interfere in any way 
 with the formation or details of the force, the military officer being held 
 responsible for the success of the operations to be undertaken ; and it is 
 for the latter, and for him alone, to judge in what manner the troops shall 
 effect the object which the civil officer has indicated, and to direct the 
 force in the execution of the service in which it is engaged. 
 
 " If, however, the military officer should consider his force inadequate 
 for the performance of the service required, or the service itself impracti- 
 cable on purely military grounds, it would be competent for him to decline 
 to accede to the requisition. But in so doing he must be prepared to jus- 
 tify his refusal to the satisfaction of the government he serves, and whose 
 interests are affected by his acts." 
 
 "While tlie Kegulations place the military officers under the 
 civil in all political affairs, and relieve them from all responsi- 
 bility when acting under the orders of the civil authorities, they 
 also, in the interest of the Government, subordinate the civil 
 officer to the military whenever, as in military constructions, 
 economy can be promoted. 
 
 In relation to the Department of Public "Works, which builds 
 forts, barracks, and arsenals, and which, while strictly civil, is 
 largely composed of military officers, the Regulations pre- 
 scribe : 
 
 " Commanding officers are directly responsible to their immediate supe- 
 riors, and to the Government, that the public works, buildings, etc., within 
 the limits of their commands are properly maintained, and that these works 
 and buildings properly provide for the wants of the troops under their or- 
 ders ; and it will be their duty to bring to the notice of superior authority 
 all deficiencies that may exist in these respects from whatever cause they 
 arise. 
 
 *' Although commanding officers should avoid interfering in the details 
 of the duties of the functionaries of the Public Works Department, they are 
 fully competent to point out any apparent defect of arrangement, want of 
 diligence in the prosecution of works, or the like, and to report any short- 
 coming, if the case shall appear to demand such a step. 
 
MILITAEY OFFICERS AND CIVIL AUTHORITIES. 53 
 
 " Executive engineers will comply with the requisitions and act in con- 
 formity with the wishes of commanding officers whenever they can do so 
 without infringing departmental rules ; and they are at all times to treat 
 commanding officers with becoming respect. 
 
 " It will be the duty of an executive engineer, and of his assistant or 
 subordinate in charge of any station or outpost, to afford the commanding 
 officer every assistance in forming his judgment and issuing his orders on 
 any subject relating to military works or buildings, and to lay before him, 
 when necessary, any general or departmental orders which may bear upon 
 such subjects. 
 
 " Before submitting to the engineer authorities any proposals, estimates, 
 drawings, etc., connected with military works, executive engineers shall 
 invariably submit them to the regimental or departmental officers con- 
 cerned, as well as to the commanding officer of the station, and obtain 
 their counter-signatures and opinions for transmission with the papers un- 
 der dispatch. 
 
 " General officers in local command should refer all matters appertain- 
 ing to the Public "Works Department, in which executive engineers may 
 differ from them, to the superintending engineer before making any refer- 
 ence to the commander-in-chief, the local government or administration, or 
 the Government of India." 
 
 Could our " Regulations " prescribe with equal clearness 
 the relations of our officers to the civil authorities, and re- 
 lieve them from responsibility for the use of troops in civil 
 affairs, it would place this duty before the country in a 
 proper light, and would tend to disarm personal and partisan 
 criticism. 
 
 If at the same time in purely army matters they were to re- 
 quire commanding officers to exercise a limited control over all 
 disbursements for military purposes within, or in connection 
 with, their commands, the Government might be saved millions 
 of dollars. 
 
 As matters are now conducted, we may have, as at Fort 
 Monroe, three separate jurisdictions at the same post, where staff 
 officers have disbursed, and may continue to disburse, large sums 
 of public money — and yet the commanding officer cannot offer a 
 suggestion ; nor can he apprise the Government of a useless ex- 
 penditure without placing himself in the light of an informer. 
 
 All of this arises from breaking away from the established 
 
54 
 
 AKMY OF mDIA. 
 
 usages of other armies, simply to gratify our natural love of 
 personal independence, which is as strong in the army as in 
 civil life. 
 
 KATIVE INFANTET. 
 
 A regiment of native infantry consists of eight companies^ 
 with an established strength as follows : 
 
 Europeans. 
 1 Commandant. 
 1 Second in command and wing-officer. 
 
 1 "Wing-officer. 
 
 2 Wing-subalterns. 
 1 Adjutant. 
 
 1 Quartermaster. 
 1 Medical officer. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 2 Subadars (captains) 1st class. 
 
 2 " " 2d " 
 
 4 " " 3d " 
 
 4 Jemandars (lieutenants) 1st class. 
 
 4 " " 2d " 
 
 1 Havildar (sergeant-major). 
 40 Havildars (sergeants). 
 40 Naicks (corporals). 
 16 Drummers. 
 600 Sepoys (privates). 
 
 The native infantry force in the three presidencies consists 
 as follows : 
 
 pq 
 
 45 Eegiments Bengal Infantry 
 
 5 " Goorkha " 
 
 6 " Punjab " 
 4 " Sikh " 
 
 6 " Guide, Deolee, and 
 other Infantry. 
 
 Numbering in native 
 
 officers and men. . . 48,293 
 ■ European officers, 8 
 
 per regiment 528 
 
 Total 48,821 
 
NATIVE INFANTRY. 55 
 
 ! Numbering in native officers and men . . 30,761 
 European officers 320 
 
 Total 31,081 
 
 r Numbering in native officers and men. . 22,056 
 
 Bombay : 30 Regiments < European officers 240 
 
 ( Total 22,296 
 
 Total, three presidencies 102,197 
 
 The European officers attached to the native regiments are 
 detailed from the staff corps of each presidency ; the general 
 list of officers of infantry and cavalry, and from officers of the 
 British array serving in India, who desire to enter the staff 
 corps. 
 
 The duties of the commandant of a native regiment are in 
 general similar to those of the commandant of a European 
 regiment. Three times a week he holds a " durbar," which 
 the wing-officers, wing-subalterns, adjutant, quartermaster, 
 and all native officers, are required to attend. At the dur- 
 bar he hears reports and complaints, awards punishments, 
 issues orders, and transacts the general business of the regi- 
 ment. 
 
 Wing-officers act in the capacity of majors, and command 
 wings or half-battalions. They are responsible to the com- 
 mandant for the appearance, drill, and discipline of their 
 wings, and at the durbars wait on him with such men as are 
 brought up for punishment, or whose complaints and petitions 
 are of such a nature as to be beyond the limits of their author- 
 ity. 
 
 The men are paid by the native officers in their presence ; 
 they also have charge of, and are responsible for, the arms, ac- 
 coutrements, ammunition, clothing, and all warlike stores, be- 
 longing to their half -battalions, for which they receive increased 
 pay. 
 
 They are likewise required to keep themselves informed of 
 the names, services, and characters, of the men, and to exercise 
 all of their authority through the native officers. 
 
 Wing-subalterns assist their wing-officers generally in their 
 
56 ARMY OF IKDIA. 
 
 duties, superintend target-practice, and such drills as tliej may 
 be required to attend. 
 
 The adjutant issues all orders from the commanding officer, 
 keeps the records, and is largely responsible for the drill and 
 instruction of the native officers, non-commissioned officers, and 
 men. 
 
 The quartermaster is charged with the care and preservation 
 of stores, ammunition, equipments, and clothing, of the men. 
 The barracks, bazaar, and camp-equipage, are also under his 
 care, and he is responsible for their order and cleanliness. 
 
 NATIVE OFFICERS. 
 
 The native officers are commissioned by the Government of 
 India. As a rule they are promoted from the rank of non-com- 
 missioned officers, and are of the same caste as the privates. 
 Latterly a ieM^ educated Hindoos, and owners of land, have been 
 appointed, with a view to elevating the standard. 
 
 As a special recognition of the native officers, one is ap- 
 pointed aide-de-camp on the staff of the viceroy, and another 
 on that of the commander-in-chief. In each regiment also the 
 senior native officer, called the subadar-major, receives an in- 
 creased allowance of twenty-five rupees per month. 
 
 The native officers are required to command their compa- 
 nies, and are supposed to receive sufficient instruction to enable 
 them to do so in all situations. 
 
 For the purpose of interior economy each company is divided 
 into two half-companies, each under the command of a native 
 officer, and each half-company is further divided into two 
 squads. 
 
 The Bengal Army Regulations prescribe that — 
 
 " It is the imperative duty of the native officers to keep their wing and 
 commanding officers acquainted with everything that takes place in their 
 companies, to report all infractions of orders and discipline, and to bring 
 to light at once all causes of discontent or misconduct ; as it is impossible 
 for a grievance to exist without their knowledge, if they know their duty, 
 and are willing to act up to it." 
 
PAY. 57 
 
 "When on detached service a native officer is allowed to com- 
 mand his company, but " no battalion parades should take place 
 without the presence of a British officer." 
 
 NATIVE NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 
 
 In each regiment there is a drill-sergeant (drill-havildar) 
 and drill-corporal (or naick), selected from their respective grades 
 with special reference to their efficiency and qualifications, who 
 receive a special monthly allow^ance of five rupees. The same 
 allowance is granted to the pay-havildar, drum-major, and fife- 
 major. 
 
 In each company the color-havildar, or first-sergeant, re- 
 ceives an extra allowance of two rupees. 
 
 Corporals are promoted from the sepoys (privates), who know 
 how to read and write in at least one character, exception only 
 being made in the case of sepoys who have displayed conspicu- 
 ous courage. 
 
 Drill-instructors are appointed in each company from the 
 sepoys, and, to encourage emulation among them, one is pro- 
 moted annually to the grade of corporal (or naick). 
 
 The havildars and naicks are arranged in the regimental list 
 in each grade, and, without regard to companies, are promoted 
 to vacancies according to seniority. 
 
 If the regiment is composed of " class troops," that is of 
 companies of different religions or castes, the lists are arranged 
 according to caste, and vacancies are filled by seniority in each 
 class. 
 
 To enable sepoys to qualify for promotion, a school is main- 
 tained in every regiment, attendance being voluntary. For the 
 privilege each sepoy is required to pay his teacher two annas 
 (six cents) monthly ; naicks and havildars pay four annas. 
 
 PAY. 
 
 The following table shows, in rupees, annas, and pice — the 
 currency of India — the monthly pay and allowances of a native 
 regiment of infantry : 
 
68 
 
 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 Ettbopban Officers. 
 
 Commandant 
 
 Second in command and wing-oflScer 
 
 Wing-officera 
 
 Adjutant 
 
 Quartermaster 
 
 Wing-subaltern 
 
 Medical officer 
 
 Nativk Officebb. 
 
 Subadar-major 
 
 Bubadars, first class 
 
 " second class 
 
 " third class 
 
 Jemandars, first class 
 
 " second class 
 
 NoN-CoM. Officers, Sepoys, etc. 
 
 Drill-havildar 
 
 Pay-havildar 
 
 Color-havildar 
 
 Havildar 
 
 Drill-naick 
 
 Naick f. 
 
 Drum-major 
 
 Fife-major 
 
 Drummers 
 
 PAY PBOPEB. 
 
 640 
 874 
 874 
 225 
 225 
 225 
 600 
 
 100 
 100 
 80 
 67 
 35 
 80 
 
 COMMAND AND 
 
 STAFF 
 ALLOWANCES. 
 
 600 
 270 
 
 230 
 250 
 150 
 100 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1240 
 644 
 604 
 475 
 375 
 825 
 
 125 
 100 
 SO 
 67 
 85 
 30 
 
 EqulraleDt 
 Id Dalian 
 per Mouth. 
 
 620.42 
 322.04 
 302.04 
 237.86 
 187.86 
 162.86 
 300.00 
 
 62.60 
 50.00 
 40.00 
 38.50 
 17.50 
 15.00 
 
 9.50 
 9.50 
 8.00 
 7.00 
 7.24 
 6.00 
 6.00 
 6.00 
 8.50 
 
 The non-combatants of each regiment, consisting of hospital 
 assistants, attendants, bheesties (or water-carriers), cooks, sweep- 
 ers, schoolmasters, tindal (or head native, quartermaster's de- 
 partment), lascars (or tent-pitchers and laborers), bildars (or 
 scavengers), chowdry (or headman of the bazaar), mulsooty (or 
 clerk), and weighmen, numbering in all 45, receive on the 
 average from 4 to 5 rupees per month. In addition to the 
 staff allowance already stated, each wing-officer receives 85 
 rupees per month for the repair of arms, and for superintending 
 the payment of the men. The quartermaster likewise receives 
 for the repair of tents, targets, and school-sheds, and for pur- 
 chase of school-books, an allowance of 49 rupees per month. 
 
 The annual pay-roll of a native regiment, according to the 
 fixed establishment, numbering 720 combatants and 45 non- 
 combatants, amounts to 1 lac and 38,228 rupees, or about 
 $69,114. 
 
 In consideration of the pay stated for all of the native 
 ranks, each man is required to provide his own rations and 
 clothing, except one coat and one pair of trousers issued by the 
 
EEWARDS. 59 
 
 Government every two years. If the cost of rations exceeds 
 one-half of the soldier's pay. per month, the Government gives 
 him a compensation equal to the diflference between one-half of 
 his pay and the actual cost of the ration. 
 
 Arms, ammunition, camp-equipage, and medical attendance, 
 are provided by the Government. 
 
 BAZAAK. 
 
 In consequence of requiring the native soldiers to provide 
 their own rations and clothing, each regiment is accompanied 
 by a native village, called a bazaar, in which are to be found 
 tailors, shoemakers, grocers, grain-dealers, dry-goods merchants, 
 and tradesmen of nearly every description. 
 
 The bazaar is under strict military discipline, and is man- 
 aged by the quartermaster under the orders of the commanding 
 officer. 
 
 Each inhabitant of the bazaar is required to register, showing 
 his occupation, after which he becomes amenable to the articles 
 of war, and to trial by court-martial. No man, having regis- 
 tered, can withdraw without a regular discharge. The chowdry, 
 or headman, has to give security to the commanding officer to 
 keep on hand transportation for five days' supply of all articles 
 of consumption required by the troops. The prices of supplies 
 sold in the bazaar are regulated by the commanding officer, and 
 such reports and inspections are made as are necessary to keep 
 him informed of its actual condition. 
 
 When the regiment moves, the bazaar follows it with all 
 kinds of transportation, and on the arrival of the men in camp 
 immediately provides the food and other articles required. 
 
 In case the bazaar cannot accompany the troops, the Gov- 
 ernment provides rations, which consist of wheat, flour, rice, 
 dhall (or pulse), ghee, resembling butter, and salt. 
 
 KEWAEDS. 
 
 The "Order of British India" is conferred on native com- 
 missioned officers for long, faithful, and meritorious services. 
 The first class is composed exclusively of fifty captains (su- 
 
60 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 badars or ressaldars), to whom are given the title of " Sirdar 
 Bahadoor," and an annuity of 730 rupees. The second class, 
 composed of fifty members, is open to all grades, and carries 
 with it the title of " Bahadoor," and an annuity of 366 rupees. 
 
 The insignia of the order consists of a gold star, inscribed 
 with the words, " The Order of British India." Commanding 
 officers of native regiments are required to forward annually to 
 the adjutant-general the names of two native officers for the 
 bestowal of the order of the second class, if they deem them 
 deserving of the honor. They are also authorized to recom- 
 mend deserving officers for promotion from the second to the 
 first class. 
 
 The " Order of Merit " is conferred for " personal bravery," 
 irrespective of rank or grade. The order is divided into three 
 classes, and carries with it an annuity. Admission to the first 
 and second classes is restricted to members of the class next 
 below. Admission to each class is granted by the Government 
 of India, on application, specifying the special act of gallantry 
 for which the reward is solicited. 
 
 Whenever an officer or soldier is recommended for the 
 order, the commander of the division or district in which he is 
 serving, convenes a mixed court, composed of a major, two 
 captains, and two subadars, before which the claimant is re- 
 quired to appear, as also witnesses who are examined under 
 oath, the proceedings being conducted, when practicable, by a 
 deputy judge-advocate. 
 
 If the testimony establishes an act of conspicuous and un- 
 doubted gallantry, the court records its opinion to that efiect, 
 which is forwarded with the application to the commander-in- 
 chief, to be laid before the Government. 
 
 The insignia of the order consists of a gold badge, in the 
 shape of a military laureled star for the first class, and a silver 
 badge for the second and third classes. In the centre of each 
 star is inscribed " The Reward of Yalor." 
 
 Campaign medals are likewise granted to both officers and 
 men. 
 
 Good-conduct pay, pension for life after forty years, or in 
 
PUNISHMENTS. 61 
 
 case of disability, after fifteen years' service, and discharges 
 with gratuity, are among the other inducements offered to the 
 officers and soldiers of the native army to faithfully perform 
 their duty. 
 
 PUNISHl^IENTS. 
 
 The Indian articles of war provide trial by court-martial for 
 all serious offenses, and in minor offenses confer ample author- 
 ity upon European officers for the enforcement of discipline in 
 all native regiments and corps. 
 
 The extraordinary power is given to the commandant, in 
 case of incapacity and neglect, to disrate a native officer, or to 
 reduce him from a higher to a lower class ; he can also, in pro- 
 motions, advance a junior over the head of an incompetent 
 senior. In each case, a full record, presenting the reasons for 
 his action, has to be forwarded to the adjutant-general. 
 
 In minor offi3nses, not deserving courts-martial, the com- 
 mandant can inflict — 
 
 1. Lrvprisonment in the guard-house, or solitary cell, for 
 seven days, carrying with it deprivation of pay and allowances. 
 
 2. Confinement to the lines for any period not exceeding 
 thirty days. The limits of confinement are within a space oc- 
 cupied by the barracks or huts of the regiment. 
 
 In addition to all regular duty, confinement to the lines 
 carries with \i punishment-drill to the extent of fifteen days, 
 and extra fatigue. Punishment-drill also accompanies all con- 
 finements to the lines for any period not exceeding fifteen days. 
 It is carried out by a non-commissioned officer detailed for the 
 purpose, and is not to exceed two hours per day, or an hour at 
 a time. 
 
 Confinement to the lines, carrying with it punishment-drill, 
 can also be inflicted by wing-officers and the adjutant for ten 
 days ; by wing-subalterns and the quartermaster for seven days, 
 and by native officers for three days. 
 
 Subject to such restrictions as the commandants may im- 
 pose, every commander of a detachment can inflict the same 
 punishments for minor offenses as the commander of a regiment. 
 
62 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 The effect of these regulations is to establish a uniform sys- 
 tem of discipline throughout the Indian army, and to subject 
 the soldier only to such punishments as are strictly legal. 
 
 TKANSPOKTATION. 
 
 All arrangements for the march and transport of troops are 
 made by the quartermaster's department. 
 
 Whenever troops move, the officer in command is required 
 to notify the commissariat officer of the station to which the 
 troops are destined. He is also required to inform the civil 
 officers, along the line of march, of the probable date of his 
 arrival in their several districts. 
 
 The necessary carriage or transportation is usually hired by 
 the commissariat officers, but, when it is difficult to be procured, 
 requisition is made upon civil officers. The local governments 
 make the necessary regulations governing the supply of trans- 
 portation, and fix the rates to be paid for carts or camels, and 
 the load each is to carry. On application to the civil officer, 
 arrangements are usually made with chowdries, or contractors. 
 One-half of the cost of transportation is paid before the march 
 is begun, and the other half on its conclusion, or while in prog- 
 ress. 
 
 The Government only transports a given allowance of bag- 
 gage. If officers and soldiers exceed this amount, they have to 
 hire their own transportation, and are authorized to call upon 
 civil officers for such assistance as is necessary. 
 
 The bazaars always provide their own means of transport. 
 
 The variety of transportation accompanying the march of 
 troops in India has to be seen to be appreciated. At the 
 mancEuvres at Delhi in 18Y6, it consisted of the elephant, the 
 camel, the buffalo, the ox, the horse, the mule, and the donkey, 
 each with its pack; together with litters, carts, wagons, and 
 wheeled vehicles of many descriptions. On the backs of the 
 elephants and camels were carried chairs, tables, bedsteads, 
 bath-tubs, trunks, chests, tents, and many other articles which 
 impede the march of an army. 
 
 Accompanying the baggage were swarms of natives belong- 
 
MOVABLE COLUMNS. 63 
 
 ing to the bazaars, who gave to the column the appearance of a 
 vast caravan. In no other country except India, where the 
 enemy is unenterprising, could an army be so encumbered with 
 camp-followers and baggage. In the expedition of 17Y8 sent 
 across from the valley of the Ganges to the Bombay Presidency, 
 to cooperate in the Mahratta War, the detachment composed of 
 6,600 native troops, under 103 European officers, was accom- 
 panied by 31,000 camp-followers. 
 
 The above figures cannot be accepted as showing the average 
 proportion of troops to non-combatants, but so long as the reg- 
 ulations permit officers and soldiers to carry an unlimited supply 
 of baggage, and especially so long as the Government adheres 
 to the economical system of allowing the native troops to pro- 
 vide for themselves, the army in India, as has been observed, 
 must continue to resemble " a nation emigrating, guarded by 
 its troops." 
 
 MOVABLE COLUMNS. 
 
 To facilitate the rapid movement of troops with a view to 
 quiet disorders and suppress insurrections, transportation for 
 seven days' supplies of all kinds for British troops, two days' 
 rations for native troops, forage for horses, sixty rounds of spare 
 ammunition for infantry, and twenty for cavaliy, is constantly 
 kept on hand for movable columns, which aggregate in the 
 Bengal Presidency 54 guns, 6 squadrons of British cavalry, 9 
 regiments of British infantry, 9 regiments of native cavalry, 
 and 12 regiments of native infantry. 
 
 The stations occupied by movable columns are designated 
 by the commander-in-chief, and also the number of troops com- 
 posing them. The list of troops to compose the column at 
 each station is published monthly and furnished to the com- 
 missariat officer, who is responsible that the transportation is on 
 hand or within call, and that it is in a thoroughly effective con- 
 dition. The columns are also frequently ordered out for exer- 
 cise, in order to accustom them to move with promptness when 
 an emergency arises. 
 
64 AKMY OF INDIA. 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 For the purpose of transporting troops with rapidity for 
 long distances, railroads are now available to nearly every prov- 
 ince in India. Experiments have also been made in shipping 
 troops with their transportation from point to point, in order to 
 accustom them to loading and unloading promptly and without 
 confusion. The arrangement of cars preferred for this purpose 
 is with end-doors, so that the cars may be loaded successively 
 from one end of the train to the other. 
 
 As the whole railroad system, already embracing from 8,000 
 to 10,000 miles, will ultimately fall into the hands of the Gov- 
 ernment, there is no doubt that every recommendation of the 
 military authorities will be adopted with a view to hasten and 
 simplify military operations. 
 
 Whenever troops are ordered to march in India, the com- 
 manding officer notifies the civil officers of the time he will 
 arrive at the various stages along the route within their several 
 districts, and forwards to them requisitions for such supplies as 
 will be required at each point. The civil authorities send a 
 native functionary to join the troops the day before they enter 
 the district, whose duty is to receive the instructions of the 
 commanding officer, and to precede the corps daily, so as to 
 insure that the supplies will be on hand and be of good quality. 
 
 The " Route-Book of India " describes the lines of march, 
 and locates the camping-places between all of the principal 
 cities and villages. The supplies are delivered and paid for at 
 each camping-place. Those for the native troops are turned 
 over by the contractors, or persons furnishing them, to the 
 chowdry of the bazaar, through whom they are sold to the offi- 
 cers and men. The supplies remaining on hand at the end of 
 the day are returned at the price fixed for them in the morning. 
 
 The native officer appointed to accompany the troops is re- 
 sponsible for the adjustment of the accounts, which he submits 
 to the quartermaster at 4 p. m. daily. On the settlement of the 
 account he is required to give to the commanding officer an 
 acknowledgment to that effect. 
 
INFANTRY (EUROPEAN). 
 
 65 
 
 The cost of supplies procured throngli civil officers is reg- 
 ulated by price-currents of all articles of fixed value. In case 
 of imposition in reference to articles of fluctuating value the 
 civil authorities are at once notified, who have the necessary 
 power to redress the grievance. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 BKITISII AEMY IN INDIA. 
 
 The total number of British troops in India, as has already 
 been stated, is 66,220 men, distributed as follows : 
 
 32 Regiments of infantry. 
 
 6 Regiments of cavalry. 
 
 11 Batteries horse-artillery. 
 
 22 Light batteries field-artillery. 
 
 2 Batteries mountain-artillery. 
 
 2 Batteries heavy field-artillery. 
 
 11 Batteries garrison-artillery. 
 
 9 Regiments of infantry. 
 2 Regiments of cavalry. 
 2 Batteries horse-artillery. 
 11 Light batteries field-artillery. 
 1 Heavy battery field-artillery. 
 6 Batteries garrison-artillery. 
 
 9 Regiments of infantry. 
 
 1 Regiment of cavalry. 
 
 2 Batteries horse-artillery. 
 10 Light batteries field-artillery. 
 
 1 Heavy battery field-artillery. 
 5 Batteries garrison-artillery. 
 
 ESTFANTKY (eUROPEAN). 
 
 The established strength of a regiment of British infantry 
 in India is as follows : 
 
 1 Lieutenant- colonel. 
 
 2 Majors. 
 
 8 Captains. 
 16 Lieutenants and sub-lieutenants. 
 1 Paymaster. 
 
GQ ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 1 Adjutant. 
 
 1 Quartermaster. 
 
 1 Surgeon-major. 
 
 2 Surgeons. 
 
 Total commissioned, 33. 
 1 Sergeant-major. 
 1 Bandmaster-sergeant. 
 1 Quartermaster-sergeant. 
 1 Paymaster-sergeant. 
 1 Armorer-sergeant. 
 1 Hospital-sergeant. 
 1 Sergeant-pioneer. 
 8 Color, or first sergeants. 
 32 Sergeants. 
 1 Sergeant instructor of musketry. 
 1 Orderly-room sergeant. 
 1 Drum-major. 
 16 Drummers. 
 40 Corporals. 
 780 Privates. 
 
 Total enlisted, 886. 
 Aggregate, 919. 
 The regiment is composed of eight companies, each consist- 
 ing of — 
 
 1 Captain. 
 
 2 Lieutenants or sub-lieutenants. 
 
 1 Color, or first sergeant. 
 
 4 Sergeants. 
 
 2 Drummers. 
 
 5 Corporals. 
 97 Privates. 
 
 The term of service of British infantry is ten years, and dur- 
 ing this period two years are passed at one of the Hill-Stations. 
 
 In the Bengal Presidency the troops change station periodi- 
 cally from south to north, and the reverse, the troops to go 
 home being gradually moved toward the port of embarkation. 
 For the purpose of transporting the troops to and from India, 
 
PvECEEATION. 67 
 
 troop-ships, capable of carrying a whole regiment, have been 
 built, and are commanded by officers of the navy. 
 
 EECREATION. 
 
 The cost of transporting, invaliding, and replacing invalid 
 soldiers, is so great that, with a view to economy, every dispo- 
 sition is made by the Government to preserve and promote the 
 health of the British troops. To this end occupation of mind 
 and body is encouraged, and every amusement provided that 
 can tend to turn or divert the thoughts of the soldier from the 
 discomforts of the climate. 
 
 Each regiment has its canteen, libraries, reading, recreation, 
 and refreshment rooms. 
 
 The object of the canteen is to supply the soldiers with rum, 
 wine, and beer, which are provided by the Government, with- 
 out charge for transportation, and are sold in limited quantities 
 to the soldiers at the rate of three cents a dram for rum, and 
 nine cents a quart for beer. 
 
 The profits from the sale, arising from the difference between 
 the cost and the retail price, constitute the basis of the regi- 
 mental canteen-fund, which is applied to the support of regi- 
 mental schools, reading and refreshment rooms ; to the pur- 
 chase of necessaries for the soldiers' messes ; to donations to 
 widows and orphans belonging to the corps ; to invalid soldiers 
 going home ; and to other purposes having the welfare of the 
 men in view. 
 
 Each regiment of infantry has two libraries, one belonging 
 to the regiment, the other to the state ; the two numbering 
 1,200 volumes. The libraries and reading-rooms, in which are 
 kept writing-materials and games for the men, are managed by 
 a committee of non-commissioned officers and men, under the 
 supervision of an officer. Adjoining the reading and recreation 
 rooms is a refreshment-room, in which are sold tea, coffee, soda- 
 water, lemonade, and other refreshments. The reading-rooms, 
 in which are to be found, in addition to books, the newspapers 
 and periodicals of the day, constitute, in connection with the re- 
 freshment-rooms, a club where all of the men can pass an agree- 
 
68 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 able evening, or divert themselves dm-ing the idle hours of 
 the day. 
 
 For physical exercise, regimental workshops, racket-com-ts, 
 swimming-baths, and gymnasiums, are provided. The work- 
 shop is specially fostered by the Government to enable soldiers 
 and their childi'en to learn profitable trades. To this end prizes 
 are offered for fii'st and second class workmen, and when an ap- 
 prentice acquires a thorough knowledge of a trade the soldier 
 who instructed him receives a donation of 25 rupees. The 
 charges for work done in the regimental shops are fixed by a 
 tariff" or by the hour. The tools, in the first instance, are pur- 
 chased by the canteen-fund, and afterward paid for and kept in 
 repair by the profits of the shop. The soldiers who work in 
 the shop are encouraged to deposit their earnings in the savings- 
 bank of the regiment. 
 
 The object of all of the regimental institutions is to deliver 
 the soldiers from idleness, and to give them profitable employ- 
 ment and recreation, and it is safe to say that in no country in 
 the world is more done for their comfort than in India. 
 
 SUNDAYS. 
 
 The only duty required of soldiers in India on Sunday is 
 attendance at divine service. There are no Sunday-morning in- 
 spections nor drills. Since the mutiny, the men march to church 
 under arms. After their return from service the remainder of 
 the day is at their own disposal. 
 
 In addition to the rest given to the soldiers on the Sabbath, a 
 holiday every Thursday has recently been given to them for 
 the purpose of encouraging shooting and other out-door sports. 
 
 Notwithstanding the loss of time, it is maintained that dis- 
 cipline is not impaired, but on the contrary is improved, through 
 the increased cheerfulness of the men. 
 
 BAKKACKS. 
 
 The barracks, hospitals, and other buildings for the accom- 
 niodation of the European troops in India, are constructed by 
 the Public "Works Department. 
 
BARRACKS. 69 
 
 The principles governing the construction of barracks were 
 drawn np by Colonel Crommelin in 1863, and by direction of 
 the Home Government were submitted to the Sanitary Com- 
 mission for Bengal. The governor-general in council also 
 directed that they should be submitted for remarks to the Gov- 
 ernments of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, ISTorthwest Provinces, the 
 Punjab, and British Burmah. In addition, opinions were ex- 
 pressed by the viceroy and governor-general, the commander- 
 in-chief in India, other members of the governor-general's coun- 
 cil, and by the commander-in-chief in Bombay, and the Sani- 
 tary Commission for Bombay. 
 
 After weighing the opinions of the officers above cited, who 
 were familiar with the climate of nearly every locality in India, 
 the governor-general in council decided that, in the future con- 
 struction of barracks, the following principles should be ob- 
 served, viz. : 
 
 1. That specimen plans suitable for different localities be 
 provided, together with a statement of the general rules and 
 principles to be observed. These being furnished for guidance, 
 the preparation of designs for particular barracks is to be left 
 to the local officers who construct them. 
 
 2. That for a regiment of infantry, half-company barracks 
 are to be provided, except in forts, where, for want of space, 
 barracks for a whole company may be substituted. 
 
 For a regiment of cavalry a separate barrack should be 
 provided for each troop. For a light battery of artillery 
 there should be a separate barrack provided for each pla- 
 toon. For a garrison-battery of artillery one or two barracks 
 should be provided according as local circumstances may re- 
 quire. 
 
 The object of the arrangement is that in infantry and artil- 
 lery not more than forty-four men, and in cavalry sixty-six men, 
 shall sleep under one roof. 
 
 3. That four rooms be provided for a company of infantry, 
 three for a troop of cavalry and battery of light artillery, and 
 three for a battery of garrison-artillery, except when two bar- 
 racks are allowed, in which case each is divided into two rooms. 
 
70 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 By tbis arrangement not more than twenty-four nor less than 
 sixteen men occupy the same room. 
 
 4. That double-storied barracks, in which only the upper 
 floors are to be used as dormitories, and the lower for day-rooms 
 and for auxiliary purposes, should be adopted as a rule in all 
 parts of India. 
 
 That in places where ground is restricted three-story build- 
 ings may be adopted, the two upper floors being used as dormi- 
 tories ; that in forts or other places where the efiicient ventila- 
 tion of the lower floor is obstructed by the proximity of a ram- 
 part or hill-side, this floor should not be occupied by dweUing- 
 rooms; that at Hill-Stations it is not obligatory to build 
 two-story barracks, but, when it is more convenient to have 
 them, there is no objection to using both floors as dormi- 
 tories. 
 
 Without adopting any definite arrangement for the lower 
 story, it was decided in general terms that one-half of the space 
 should be assigned to day-rooms for the men, one-fourth as an 
 open arcade, and one-fourth for auxiliary purposes such as 
 store-rooms, sergeants' mess, regimental library and recreation- 
 rooms ; but offices, privies, cook-rooms, etc., etc., fall under the 
 head of subsidiary accommodation. 
 
 5. That the space in barrack dormitories be arranged as 
 follows : 
 
 On the Plains — 
 
 ^^ runuing feet of wall-space per man. 
 
 90 superficial feet per man. 
 
 24 feet width of ward. 
 
 20 feet height of ceiling above floor in both stories. 
 
 1,800 cubic feet per man. 
 
 At Hill-Stations — 
 
 7 running feet of wall-space per man. 
 
 77 superficial feet per man. 
 
 22 feet width of ward. 
 
 16 to 18 feet height of ceiling on both floors. 
 
 1,232 to 1,408 cubic feet per man. 
 
 Beds are to be arranged in two rows in each ward ; no bed 
 
BARRACKS. 71 
 
 to be placed within nine inches of a door, nor more than two 
 within the wall-space between two contiguous doors. In all 
 Indian barracks, doors with large transoms take the place of 
 windows. 
 
 6. Each barrack to be kept free from anything likely to 
 affect the purity of the air ; the barrack-room unit to consist 
 of— 
 
 1. The dormitory. 
 
 2. Mess-room. 
 
 3. The quarters of a sergeant. 
 
 4. Water-room. 
 
 5. Any other day-rooms that may be allowed. 
 Lavatories to be in detached buildings. Closet containing 
 
 two close stools and two urinals permitted for each upper story 
 dormitory for night purposes, but to be kept locked in day- 
 time. 
 
 The sergeant's quarters are the same as authorized for mar- 
 ried men, viz. : two rooms, one 18' x 12', and one 12' x 12'. 
 A small bath-room is provided for the sergeant's wife, who can 
 have no suitable out-building in the vicinity of the single men's 
 barracks to resort to. 
 
 The width of the verandas of barracks on the plains is 
 twelve feet, in the hills ten feet. 
 
 The principles together with the plans of barracks approved 
 by the Indian Government in 1864, have since been modified in 
 some unimportant particulars, such as diminishing the height 
 of ceiling in upper story from twenty to sixteen feet, reducing 
 wards from twenty to eighteen beds, superficial area from sev- 
 enty-seven to seventy-one feet per man at Hill Stations. Where 
 good barracks existed before the new plans were adopted, they 
 have been simply remodelled to conform to the general princi- 
 ples of the new system, 
 
 OUT-BUILDINGS. 
 
 The kitchen, lavatory, privy, bath-house, and laundry, are 
 special buildings. At most of the stations swimming-baths 
 from four to five feet deep are also provided. 
 
72 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 BAKKACK8 FOE MAKEIED MEN. 
 
 Each married man is allowed two rooms, one 16'xl4', the 
 other 14' x 10'. Barracks, one story high, surrounded by ve- 
 randas, are preferred, but two-story barracks are permitted. 
 Each barrack contains from eight to ten sets of quarters. To 
 insure privacy, all of the partition-walls between quarters are 
 carried to the roof; and privies for women and children are not 
 under the same roof as those of the men. Bath-rooms are pro- 
 vided in detached buildings. 
 
 HOSPITALS. 
 
 As the Government does not consider general hospitals de- 
 sirable in time of peace, a separate hospital, as a general rule, is 
 provided for every regiment or detachment. 
 
 The hospitals are required to accommodate 10 per cent, of 
 the regulation strength of regiments, and detachments exceed- 
 ing 400, and 12 per cent, for detachments under 400. In un- 
 healthy climates such as Agra, Delhi, Peshawar, the accommo- 
 dation is increased to 12 per cent, for detachments above 400, 
 and 15 per cent, for detachments below 400. 
 
 In accordance with the above proportion, a hospital must 
 furnish beds as follows : 
 
 UnheaUhy Stations. Healthy Stations. 
 Eegiment of infantry, .... 110 92 
 
 Kegiment of cavalry, .... 62 50 
 
 Battery of artillery, .... 20 18 
 
 Company of garrison-artillery, . . 10 10 
 
 The hospitals, like the barracks, are two-storied, and for a 
 regiment of infantry consist of two buildings, 400 feet long. 
 
 The out-buildings consist of a privy, dead-house, guard- 
 house, wash-house, and shed for ambulance. 
 
 Separate hospitals are provided for the women belonging 
 to the married establishment. 
 
 The importance attached by the Government of India to a 
 proper system of barrack and hospital accommodation of the 
 European troops, is shown by the fact that £10,000,000, or 
 §50,000,000, would be required for their construction. 
 
o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o. 
 
 o. 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 

 0) -- 
 
BAKEACKS. 73 
 
 The magnitude of the barracks and their imposing structure 
 may be inferred from the accompanying plans — section and 
 elevation of a double- storied half-company barrack for British 
 infantry at Saugur. 
 
 The interesting features of the barracks when considered 
 with reference to our hot climates in the South — such as Texas 
 and Arizona — are, that they are two-storied ; that each is sur- 
 rounded with a broad two-story veranda ; that by means of blinds 
 the sun never strikes upon the walls of the rooms in which the 
 men sleep ; that the ventilation by flues within the walls, and 
 by clear-story windows is perfect, and that most ample provision 
 is made for the recreation of the men, and also for their clean- 
 liness by providing both lavatories and swimming-baths. 
 
 To enable the men to sleep, " punkas," or large fans, are 
 worked all night by coolies, whose labor costs a mere pit- 
 tance. 
 
 As a general rule the Government does not provide barracks 
 for the native troops, but instead gives them an allowance called 
 " hutting -money." With this fund the troops construct their 
 own huts, the walls of which are made of mud or adobes. 
 The contrast between the lofty barracks of the white troops, 
 and the huts, or " lines," of the natives is very marked ; never- 
 theless, the latter, never having had better accommodation, do 
 not fret under the distinction that is made. 
 
 No quarters are provided as a rule for officers in India. 
 They have an allowance instead, and occupy " bungalows," or 
 one-story cottages, built in the cantonment not far from the 
 troops. 
 
 In campaign they supply their own tents. These are well 
 adapted to the hot climate, and always consist of one tent 
 pitched wholly within a second or larger one. The space be- 
 tween the two tents is from two to four feet wide, and this 
 permits the air to circulate freely. To give additional coolness, 
 and to soften the glare, both the inner and outer tents are 
 lined with yellow cotton. 
 
 It is not "uncommon for officers to have a double supply of 
 tents, in which case the set not in use is sent ahead and pitched 
 
74 
 
 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 at the next camping-place, where it is ready for occupation on 
 the arrival of the troops. 
 
 In hot weather, matting, kept wet by bheesties, or water- 
 carriers, is hung before the doors of the tents. The circulation 
 of the air through the interstices of the matting produces such 
 rapid evaporation as to keep the temperature between 8U° and 
 90°. 
 
 PAT. 
 
 The expense of the British troops serving in India is de- 
 frayed by the Indian Government. 
 
 The following table shows the monthly pay and allowances of 
 each grade in a regiment of British infantry serving in India : 
 
 RANK. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 PAV 
 
 PBOPEE. 
 
 COMMAND, 
 STAFF, AND 
 HOKSB ALLOW- 
 ANCE. 
 
 TOTAL PER 
 MONTH. 
 
 DOLLARS. 
 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 P. 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 p. 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 16 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 8 
 32 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 16 
 40 
 780 
 8S6 
 919 
 
 1002 
 759 
 415 
 202 
 445 
 256 
 274 
 789 
 817 
 
 50 
 47 
 39 
 2!) 
 77 
 83 
 29 
 87 
 29 
 45 
 29 
 29 
 15 
 18 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 ^6 
 
 12 
 13 
 10 
 14 
 3 
 8 
 
 9 
 14 
 14 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 14 
 9 
 9 
 
 '5 
 '3 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 10 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 
 430 
 30 
 80 
 
 78 
 257 
 
 85 
 
 io 
 
 's 
 
 1432 
 7St) 
 445 
 202 
 524 
 513 
 809 
 789 
 317 
 
 50 
 47 
 89 
 29 
 77 
 33 
 29 
 37 
 29 
 45 
 29 
 29 
 15 
 18 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 14 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 14 
 9 
 9 
 
 '5 
 
 8 
 
 '3 
 
 6 
 10 
 10 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 10 
 6 
 6 
 
 $716.12 
 
 
 394.59 
 
 
 222.68 
 
 Lieutenant and sub-lieutenant.. 
 
 101.87 
 262.22 
 
 
 256.80 
 
 
 184.93 
 
 
 394.59 
 
 
 158.74 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 25.37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23.93 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant 
 
 19.98 
 14.62 
 
 
 38.62 
 
 
 16.65 
 
 
 14.62 
 
 
 18.62 
 
 
 14.62 
 
 Sergeant instruct, of musketry. 
 
 22.62 
 14.62 
 
 
 14.62 
 
 
 7.93 
 
 Corporal 
 
 9.37 
 
 Private 
 
 7.28 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The total annual cost of a British regiment of 919 men is 
 $173,670. The cost of a native regiment of 720 men is $69,228. 
 If increased to 919 men, its cost would only amount to half 
 that of a British regiment. The total cost of the fifty regi- 
 
GENERAL EEMAEKS. Y5 
 
 ments of Britisli infantry in India is $9,212,458. The total 
 cost of the sixty regiments of Bengal infantry is $4,537,343. 
 
 The gross expenditure on account of the army of India, 
 numbering 190,000 men, for 18Y5-'T6, was £11,930,400 = $59,- 
 652,000. 
 
 GENERAL KEMAEKS. 
 
 The military institutions of India present more features for 
 our imitation than those of any army or country in Europe. 
 From the battle of Plassy, when the vision of conquest first 
 dawned upon the East India Company, until the final subjuga- 
 tion of the empire, every war was prosecuted with mixed troops. 
 The British regulars formed a nucleus around which the native 
 troops could rally, and furnished to them the standard of drill, 
 discipline, and valor. The value and economy of native troops 
 were early discovered, and nowhere in history has the wisdom of 
 a government been so signally rewarded as in the organization 
 of the native army. It would have been surprising if, with the 
 material for soldiers everywhere at hand, the project of form- 
 ing native corps, under European officers, had not suggested 
 itself. 
 
 The first use of sepoys was at Bombay. Later, in 1746, 
 they took part in the siege of Madras. Those first employed 
 in the Madras Presidency were organized into companies, com- 
 manded by native captains and subalterns, and were organized 
 into battalions of ten companies, commanded by British cap- 
 tains, with one British subaltern to each company. "With this 
 leaven of European ofiicers, several campaigns were successfully 
 prosecuted by the sepoys, which greatly increased their espint 
 de co7'ps and attachment to the company's service. 
 
 In the campaigns of 1790-'91 European troops were inter- 
 mixed with the natives, and with this composition, in 1757, the 
 great Clive. with a force numbering 3,000 men, of whom less 
 than 1,000 were English, defeated an army of 60,000 at the 
 battle of Plassy, and changed the fate of an empire. The stu- 
 pendous results of the battle, in which Clive lost but 72 killed 
 and wounded, can only be attributed to the wisdom of distrib- 
 
Y6 AEMY OF INDIA. 
 
 uting military talent among the native troops, and to tlieir sub- 
 sequent perfection in drill and discipline. 
 
 In 1Y66 the native army in Madras consisted of 10 battalions 
 of 1,000 men each, with three European officers to each battal- 
 ion ; in 1770 it had expanded to 18 battalions, and 1784 it had 
 increased to 2,000 cavalry, and 28,000 infantry. In 1796 the na- 
 tive troops were formed into regiments of two battalions each, 
 with a complement of European officers nearly the same as in a 
 British regiment. In 1876 the established strength was 1,700 
 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. 
 
 In Bombay the sepoys were first organized in companies 
 under their native officers, and afterward formed into battalions 
 under Europeans. In 1796 the force was organized into four 
 resriments of two battalions each. In 1876 the established 
 strength was 3,900 cavalry and 22,000 infantry. 
 
 In Bengal, the first battalions raised were composed of ten 
 companies of 100 men each. The Europeans attached con- 
 sisted of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 ensign, and 1 or 2 ser- 
 geants. This force has been expanded and contracted until it 
 reached its present established strength of 12,800 cavalry and 
 48,000 infantry. 
 
 The average height of the infantry sepoys in Bombay and 
 Madras is five feet five inches, and the minimum five feet three 
 inches ; the maximum height is five feet six inches. The Sikhs 
 from Northern India, in the Punjab, are the tallest and finest- 
 looking soldiers in Bengal, many of them being six feet in 
 height. The Goorkhas, short, thick-set, muscular men from 
 the mountains, dispute with the Sikhs the reputation of being 
 the best fighters in Bengal, if not in India. 
 
 The religion of the native troops is mostly Hindoo and Mo- 
 hammedan, but in Bombay there are also many Jews and some 
 Christians. When Mohammedans and Hindoos serve in the 
 same regiments the companies are arranged in classes according 
 to their religion. 
 
 This variety of religion, and particularly of caste, is the 
 source of much annoyance and difficulty. The men of different 
 castes will not only not associate with each other, but will not 
 
DISCIPLINE. 77 
 
 partake of tlie same food unless it is prepared by one of their 
 own order. The result is, that a company may be divided into 
 as many messes as it has men, each of whom sweeps and washes 
 a plot of ground about a yard or two square on which he builds 
 his fire and cooks his food. If this ground is touched by his 
 European officer, or a sepoy of different caste, it becomes un- 
 clean, and has to be washed and swept again. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 The drill, discipline, movements, and appearance, of the 
 native troops at the camp of exercise at Delhi in 1876 would 
 compare favorably with those of many of the troops in Europe. 
 
 At the review before the Prince of Wales they marched with 
 a precision approaching that of the English regiments, and at the 
 subsequent manoeuvres applied the German tactics with as much 
 intelligence as the troops seen in Italy, Austria, and Russia. 
 
 The movements of the thirteen regiments of cavalry, three 
 of which were British, were particularly dashing and brilliant. 
 All of the evolutions, whether at the walk, trot, or gallop, were 
 executed with a strictness and precision that would have reflected 
 credit upon any army. 
 
 As in Europe, so in India, the value of the carbine is but lit- 
 tle appreciated. Apparently indifferent to the brilliant achieve- 
 ments of the American horse, a majority of the officers still 
 hold to the sabre as the only weapon worthy of a cavalry-man. 
 
 Whatever may be the external appearance of the native 
 troops, whether infantry or cavalry, their value almost wholly 
 depends on the European officers who lead them. If these fall, 
 the natives are liable to confusion, and to wander about without 
 direction or guidance. The value of skilled officers in conduct- 
 ing troops was never more conspicuously illustrated than during 
 the mutiny. No sooner were the revolted troops left to the 
 management of their own officers, than the utmost disorder and 
 confusion prevailed. 
 
 These officers had all risen from the ranks, and knew noth- 
 ing of the art of war except the movements of a battalion or 
 regiment. They had been trained to be the mere medium of 
 
78 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 communication between the European officers and tlie men, and 
 to assist in their drill and discipline. Above them, the sepoy 
 knew, was the stern, inflexible British officer, and to him he 
 looked alike for reward and punishment. When this motor 
 and governor was removed, the native officers found themselves 
 powerless ; no system or order was maintained, the troops 
 rushed into battle blindly, fought bravely, and when repulsed 
 fell back disheartened and demoralized. It seems strange that, 
 after a century's service with British troops, there could not be 
 found a single native officer capable of planning a campaign 
 against their oppressors. They allowed a small British and na- 
 tive army, composed mostly of Sikhs, to plant itself on a rocky 
 ridge overlooking the city of Delhi, and, with the exception of 
 one or two forays, never sought to interrupt the long line of 
 communications from the Punjab, wdiich was always open to 
 their attacks. While the infantry mutineers fought with des- 
 peration, the revolted artillery gave the besieging army the most 
 trouble and inflicted the greatest loss. So admirably was it 
 served that since the mutiny all of the native artillery, except 
 three or four batteries, has been disbanded. 
 
 The conduct of the native troops during the siege of Delhi 
 was such as to gain the admiration of their British comrades : 
 they fought side by side with them ; endured all the exposure 
 from May 30th, the beginning, to September 20th, the end of 
 the siege, and in their lists of casualties gave unmistakable proof 
 of their valor and fidelity. 
 
 The frequent mutinies that have broken out among the na- 
 tive troops cannot with justice be imputed to bad discipline, or 
 to the inefficiency of the European officers. In most armies 
 the causes leading to them, such as withholding pay, bad food 
 and clothing, can by proper foresight be removed ; but, when 
 this is not the case, the vigilance of the officers and patriotism 
 of the men are sufficient to reduce the insubordination within 
 narrow limits, and to secure a speedy return to duty. But in 
 India the causes are widely difi'erent, having their source in 
 the deep religious animosities and prejudices of the races. 
 However fair a regiment may be to look upon, it is but a 
 
DISCIPLINE. 79 
 
 smothered volcano whose flames may break forth at any mo- 
 ment and destroy every European within reach. 
 
 Nevertheless, if the total number of regiments in the native 
 army be considered, it is doubtful if mutiny is more frequent in 
 India than in other countries, and particularly in those which 
 rely upon raw and untrained troops. 
 
 If treated with kindness, the native soldier, in battle and 
 elsewhere, shows a devotion to his officers which cannot be ex- 
 celled, and it is only when his sense of military duty is overcome 
 by an appeal to his fanaticism that he becomes ferocious and 
 ungovernable. 
 
 The greatest struggle England has yet had in India was with 
 the mutiny of 1857, and this struggle was with the officers and 
 men she had trained for her own service. No combination of 
 races or tribes, without military organization, could for a mo- 
 ment have resisted her arms ; and it was only through the 
 prearranged defection of her troops that the effort to regain 
 independence assumed form and proportion : even then the 
 same weapons with which she had conquered the empire were 
 successfully used in suppressing the rebellion. The little army 
 that captured the King of Delhi and his capital, and settled for 
 an indefinite time the foundations of the Indian Empire, was 
 composed of but 12,000 effective men, of whom only 3,000 were 
 British. 
 
 Like the American Indians, the different races in India have 
 always shown more eagerness to fight each other than to fight 
 the English, and it was by taking advantage of this disposition, 
 and, like the ancient Romans, mingling in their quarrels, that 
 they successively subdued them all. The same causes that led 
 to the fall of India still exist to keep her in subjection. The 
 troops of Madras would clamor to be led against the troops of 
 Bengal; if the Mohammedans revolt, the Hindoos would be 
 true, and so long as, in the order of Providence, the races keep 
 separate in religion and feeling, so long will it be possible for 
 England to rule. 
 
 Like all great commotions, the mutiny precipitated a reor- 
 ganization of the whole native army. The authorities did not 
 
80 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 stop to discover the real causes, but attributed many of them to 
 the army, and to the " absenteeism " of officers that had up to 
 that time 2:)revailed. It was therefore resolved that all of the 
 officers in India, excepting those belonging to British regiments, 
 should be merged into one great staff corps, and that thereafter 
 the officers detailed with native regiments should remahi with 
 them. 
 
 The result of this change was to reduce the number of Eu- 
 ropeans serving with each regiment of infantry from twenty- 
 eight to eight, of which number nearly one-half arc usually 
 absent on leave, or detached service. This reduction is still the 
 subject of much discussion, and, considering the inefficiency of 
 the native officers when left to themselves, it may well be 
 doubted if the Government has acted wisely. 
 
 In no department of an army is skill so much needed as in 
 leading troops to battle, especially when they have not confi- 
 dence in themselves and their company officers. 
 
 It is in this respect that England has set us an example of 
 distributing military talent, which, had it been followed in our 
 late war, would have saved thousands of lives and millions of 
 treasure. But it is not in this respect alone that the Indian 
 army is worthy of our imitation. It presents the spectacle of 
 nearly 200,000 men conquering and keeping an empire in sub- 
 jection, without a single permanent staff corps. In our army 
 all of these corps are closed ; the appointments are permanent, 
 and no means are provided to weed out the inefficient or to en- 
 courage the aspiring. In India all the officers in the adjutant- 
 general's department and quartermaster-generars department 
 are changed every five years ; and in the other staff departments, 
 such as the commissariat and ordnance, in which the appoint- 
 ments are held more or less permanently, officers can at any 
 time be relieved and sent to other duty. Another marked feat- 
 ure of all of these departments is that, after officers are detailed 
 in them from the general staff corps, no regard is paid to sen- 
 iority in selecting officers for heads of bureaux, or for any 
 other position. In this manner, while favoritism is not abso- 
 lutely excluded, a sure encouragement is given to all officers 
 
DISTRIBUTION OF TROOPS. 81 
 
 who perform their duty with zeal and efficiency. The military 
 policy of the Government has unquestionably produced a bene- 
 ficial effect in India upon the corps of officers, and has imparted 
 to them a variety of military knowledge and experience not 
 possessed by any other army. 
 
 At Calcutta we met a colonel who was a civil and military 
 governor of four millions of people ; at Muscat and Bushire 
 military officers were intrusted with the diplomatic relations of 
 India with Arabia and Persia ; at the camp at Delhi the adju- 
 tant-general had previously been quartermaster-general, and 
 was anticipating the expiration of his five years' service, which 
 would give him the command of a brigade or a division. 
 
 All of the officers we met at Delhi and elsewhere in India 
 gave evidence that, whether in a military or civil capacity, they 
 had been acting in spheres of responsibility far greater than 
 those occupied by officers of other armies, and as a consequence 
 showed a capacity and self-confidence far above their rank. 
 The results attained in India are worthy of our closest study, 
 and suggest the question whether, in the impending reorganiza- 
 tion of our army, we should not, as the first step, establish a 
 vital and interchangeable relation between the line and the staff. 
 
 DISTEIBUTION OF TROOPS. 
 
 Unlike the armies of Europe, which are maintained in a 
 state of ceaseless preparation to wage war and to resist con- 
 quest, the army of India rests from its labors. 
 
 The Himalayas and the deserts of Afghanistan and Beloo- 
 chistan have fixed the bounds of conquest, and henceforth the 
 army, like a huge police force, must be maintained only to pre- 
 serve the peace. 
 
 The disposition maps of the three presidencies for 1874-'75 
 show that, instead of concentrating large bodies of troops at the 
 great strategic points, like Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Allahabad, 
 Lahore, and Peshawar, the army is distributed in small garri- 
 sons, not only with a view to exhibit the military power of the 
 Government at as many points as possible, but also to be within 
 such distance as to crush insurrections in their beginning. 
 6 
 
82 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 In tlie Bengal Presidency, extending np the valleys of the 
 Ganges and the Jumna, the principal points occupied are Cal- 
 cutta, Dinapore, Benares, Allahabad, Cawnpore, Lucknow, 
 Agra, Bareily, Delhi, Meerut, Umbala, Meean-Meer, Lahore, 
 Sealkote, Rawul, Pindee, and Peshawar. The garrisons at all 
 of these points are composed of mixed troops. 
 
 At Calcutta and vicinity there are 3 regiments of British 
 infantry, 3 of native infantry, and 3 batteries of artillery ; at 
 Allahabad there are 2 regiments of British infantry, 1 of native 
 infantry, 2 squadrons of native cavalry, and 2 batteries of artil- 
 lery ; at Cawnpore, 1 regiment of British infantry, 1 of native 
 infantry, and 1 of native cavalry ; at Lucknow, 2 regiments of 
 British infantry, 2 of native infantry, 1 of British cavalry, and 
 2 batteries of artillery. Four batteries of artillery are stationed 
 at Meerut, 2 at Umbala, and 3 at Meean-Meer. 
 
 The largest garrison in India is at Peshawar, which general- 
 ly consists of 2 regiments of British infantry, 4 of native in- 
 fantry, 2 of native cavalry, and 3 batteries of artillery ; num- 
 bering in all from 6,000 to 7,000 men. 
 
 The largest concentration of troops in any one district 
 in India is in the Punjab, where there are from 30,000 
 to 35,000 men, or nearly one-half the force of the Bengal 
 Presidency. It was through this door that Alexander, Gen- 
 ghis Khan, and Tamerlane, entered India, and it is tlie door 
 through which many Indian officers confidently expect the 
 Russians. 
 
 The troops in Madras are principally stationed at Trichi- 
 nopoly. Bangalore, Bellary, Hyderabad, and Nagpoor, all being 
 points within railroad communication, and lying on a line near- 
 ly bisecting the peninsula from Cape Comorin to Jubbulpore 
 and Allahabad. 
 
 In the Bombay Presidency the principal garrisons are at 
 Bombay and Kurrachee on the coast ; Belgaum, Poonah, Ahme- 
 dabad, Rajkote, Deesa, and Hyderabad, all on a line about fifty 
 miles from the sea ; and Mhow-Neemuch, and Nusseerabad, in 
 Rajpootana in the northeast. 
 
 Small garrisons, consisting of half-battalions, companies, and 
 
DISTEIBUTION" OF TROOPS. 83 
 
 small detachments, are likewise dotted over tlie country wher- 
 ever turbulence may be apprehended. 
 
 To prevent the wild, irresponsible tribes of Beloochistan 
 and Afghanistan from raiding across the Indus and escaping 
 with their plunder, a strip of territory about fifty miles wide 
 has been acquired to the west of the river from Kurrachee to 
 Peshawar. This territory from the mouth of the Indus to 
 Peshawar is occupied by about 12,000 men, composing a special 
 frontier force, under the exclusive control of the Lieutenant- 
 Governor of the Punjab. The success that has attended this 
 acquisition of territory suggests the similarity of our frontier' on 
 the Kio Grande. 
 
 The continued occupation of India by England must aiford 
 a subject of deep speculation to statesmen, and all the causes 
 that may contribute to prolong her rule deserve attentive con- 
 sideration. 
 
 The one great result of the mutiny was, to teach the natives 
 how powerless they were to throw off the yoke, even when 
 aided by the soldiers England had trained, who took with them 
 all of their arms and munitions of war. The mutiny broke out 
 when the Government was least prepared for it, and when the 
 subjugation of the warlike tribes of the Punjab had scarcely 
 been completed. 
 
 Pealizing that a crisis had arrived, the aid of the men who 
 had so recently fought to preserve their independence was in- 
 voked, and had they not responded, or had the Punjab failed 
 as a base of supply, no one could have fixed the bounds of a 
 movement that bade fair to expel the invaders. 
 
 Since the mutiny was crushed, the whole face of India has 
 changed. The Suez Canal enables English troops to be landed 
 at Bombay in fewer weeks than before it took months, while 
 the great lines of railway permit them to be sent directly to 
 every important part of the empire. 
 
 But, without aid from England, the railway system by 
 itself is sufficient to enable the 60,000 British troops to 
 hold India almost indefinitely, even against the defection of 
 the entire native army. Starting from Bombay, one trunk- 
 
84 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 line goes to Madras, and by its brandies opens up all of the 
 southern peninsula ; another stretches across to Allahabad, and 
 connects with the great line of the Ganges, already completed 
 from Calcutta to within two hundred miles of Peshawar ; a 
 second cross-line is in process of construction from Agra in the 
 direction of Ahmedabad, and is completed to Nusseerabad ; 
 while a third cross-line from Lahore is completed to Mooltan, 
 and will soon be extended down the Indu.s to Kurrachee. As 
 the link between Madras and Calcutta may be supplied by 
 sea, four great lines of communication will shortly be opened 
 from the shores of the Indian Ocean to the lines of the 
 Ganges. 
 
 INVASION OF INDIA. 
 
 As the time has passed when the fate of India can be de- 
 cided by a single battle, the lines of railway will be equally im- 
 portant in resisting invasion and in preserving the peace. 
 
 If an army enter by the north, the five rivers of the Pun- 
 jab form as many lines of defense. If deemed preferable to 
 lure an enemy to the southward, and allow the climate to do its 
 fatal work, the strategic points of Lahore, Agra, and Allaha- 
 bad, can be successively abandoned, and communication still be 
 maintained w^ith Bombay by way of Madras ; while from Kur- 
 rachee an army moving via Mooltan could cut oS retreat. 
 Should an army descend the Indus, a pursuing army from 
 the Ganges might drive it into the sea, or into the deserts of 
 Beloochistan. 
 
 Thoroughly prepared to suppress insurrection and rebellion, 
 it is only when England beholds the encroachments of Russia 
 that she becomes alarmed for her Eastern possessions. Like a 
 wild beast gloating over its prey, she is conscious that the actual 
 or supposed discontent of her subjects invites foreign nations 
 to their rescue. Napoleon thought of emancipating them, and 
 to Russia is ascribed the inheritance of his designs. Jealous of 
 her great Northern rival, and not considering the barren wastes 
 which extend hundreds of miles to the north and west of her 
 frontiers, a future invasion, like a hideous nightmare, disturbs 
 
INVASION OF INDIA. 85 
 
 the dreams of the Indian rulers. The recent successes of Rus- 
 sia in Central Asia, by means of which the frontiers of the two 
 powers have been brought nearly into contact, have increased 
 the alarm ; while the present war between Russia and the Turks 
 is regarded as the sure forerunner of the great conflict. 
 
 With vast possessions stretching across two continents, and 
 with only one natural outlet to the Atlantic, Russia feels that 
 geographically she has a right to Constantinople, and, by the 
 force of tradition, no less than by the irresistible weight of her 
 70,000,000 people, she demands and ultimately will conquer a 
 free passage to the sea. 
 
 The expulsion of the Turks from Europe, whenever it may 
 occur, will increase the dangers of England. Availing them- 
 selves of the sympathy of their co-religionists, who revere the 
 sultan as the successor of the Prophet, it is not impossible that 
 the Turks should seek to indemnify themselves in Asia for 
 their losses in Europe. 
 
 Largely outnumbering the Persians, and in every respect 
 superior to them, the weakness of that kingdom invites subju- 
 gation ; pressing onward in the footsteps of Alexander and 
 Tamerlane, 40,000,000 Mohammedans stretch forth their hands 
 for deliverance, and long for the restoration of the empire of 
 the Moguls. 
 
 This may not be accomplished in one or a dozen campaigns ; 
 but, supported and encouraged by Russia, repeated invasions 
 may involve the Indian Government in such expenditures as 
 to induce it, in deference to an opinion already existing in 
 England, to abandon India to her fate. But, without dwelling 
 on the probabilities of Turkish aggrandizement, it is possible 
 that the fate of India may be settled nearer home. 
 
 Constantly increasing, by her Eastern policy, the deadly 
 feeling of hostility which already exists in Russia against her, 
 the moment the former occupies Constantinople, England must 
 seize upon Egypt. Once secure in Constantinople, the fleets 
 of England can no longer oppose the designs of Russia. Con- 
 verting the Black Sea into an inland lake, thus insuring her 
 communications, a railroad from Trebizond across to the valley 
 
86 ARMY OF INDIA. 
 
 of the Euphrates, and thence on to Damascus, will place Russia 
 on the flank of England's line of communication. Thus brought 
 face to face, it is not impossible that these two great powers 
 may change the face of Asia on the famous plain of Esdrselon. 
 
 While such are the dangers which confront England from 
 the west, another danger, thus far concealed, lies nearer than 
 Russia or Turkey. To the north and east, on the very con- 
 flnes of her empire, a nation of 400,000,000 is sleeping, uncon- 
 scious of its strength. To awaken it, to vitalize, consolidate, 
 and give it power, to imbue it with schemes of conquest, is 
 but the work of a single man, like any of the great kings 
 who have sat upon its throne. Its richest provinces lie close 
 to British Burmah, and only railroads are needed to enable 
 it to pour its armies like successive waves down the valley 
 of the Brahmapootra and through the passes of the Himalayas. 
 Lofty as are these mountains, Chinese troops have traversed 
 them, have invaded Nepaul, and looked down upon the valley 
 of the Ganges. What Napoleon did for the passes of the Alps, 
 what Russia has done more recently for the communications 
 across the Caucasus, China can do for the Himalayas. She 
 may sacrifice army after army, but, like the barbarians who sub- 
 dued Rome, or like the Tartars who knocked for a thousand 
 years at the gates of her own empire, success eventually must 
 crown her efforts. 
 
 The possibility of such a conflict suggests the contrast of the 
 present condition of the two empires : China has 400,000,000 
 people ; India has 200,000,000. China is governed by a for- 
 eign dynasty which adopted the manners and customs of its 
 people ; India is ruled by a foreign people whose mission, if 
 not object, is to extend the blessing of Christian civilization. 
 In China an army, nominally 1,000,000 strong, is incapable of 
 suppressing brigandage, insurrection, and rebellion ; in India 
 peace has followed the British ensign, and an army of 200,000 
 men, wisely distributed, preserves absolute tranquillity. 
 
 In the language of the one, the word " liberty" is unknown ; 
 in the other, the rights of the people are protected by a " firm 
 and impartial despotism." In the one, rulers may seize the 
 
INVASION OF INDIA. 87 
 
 property and sever the necks ot their subjects with impunity ; 
 in the other, sacreclness of person is secure. 
 
 In China, men without trial languish in prisons, cruel and 
 unusual punishments, injustice, bribery, and corruption, pre- 
 vail ; in India, English law secures speedy trial, and protects 
 life and property. In China, servile admiration of the wisdom 
 of past ages resists progress ; in India, schools, churches, rail- 
 roads, steamboats, telegraphs, and just laws, are giving new life 
 and energy to the people. 
 
 With such mighty contrasts between Asiatic and European 
 civilization, no stranger, free from national prejudices, can 
 visit China and India without rejoicing that England controls 
 the destinies of 200,000,000 people ; neither can he observe the 
 great institutions which she has founded for their moral and 
 physical amelioration without hoping that, in the interest of 
 humanity, she may continue her sway until she has made them 
 worthy to become a free and enlightened nation. 
 
AEMY OF PERSIA. 
 
 The decline in military organization from India to Persia is 
 scarcely less marked than from Japan to China. 
 
 Sandwiched between the great powers, England and Eussia, 
 and brought more intimately in contact with Europe than China, 
 Persia has been made to feel the want of military institutions, 
 and has made in the course of her history several efforts to 
 adopt European models and tactics. 
 
 As early as the time of Queen Elizabeth, the artillery was 
 organized by an Englishman. Nearly two centuries later, when 
 the flames of war, kindled at the birth of freedom and republi- 
 canism in France, had swept over Africa and had reached the 
 shores of Asia, Napoleon, in 1801, in the hope sooner or later 
 of invading India, sent to the Shah a commission of seventy 
 officers and non-commissioned officers. This commission short- 
 ly afterward was replaced by English rivals, who carried on 
 military instruction till 1840. 
 
 Since that period the work has been successively undertaken 
 by Austrian, Italian, and French commissions, and is still car- 
 ried on by a corps of five or six instructors from Italy, France, 
 and Denmark. 
 
 ESTFANTRT. 
 
 The Persian infantry consists of 76 regiments or battalions, 
 of which — 
 
OFFICERS. 89 
 
 20 contain 1,000 men each. 
 
 1 contains 900 " each. 
 53 contain 800 " each. 
 
 1 contains 400 " each. 
 
 1 " 250 " each. 
 
 A company of infantry consists of 1 captain, 2 subalternSj 
 and 100 men. 
 
 The kingdom of Persia is divided into provinces, which are 
 subdivided into districts, each one of which is supposed to fur- 
 nish a regiment or fowg. 
 
 IS^ominally, the army consists of ten divisions of two bri- 
 gades each, but in reality no brigades exist. A general of 
 division is styled " Emeer Tooman," or chief of ten thousand ; 
 a general of brigade is called " Emeer Panj," or chief of five 
 thousand. 
 
 Each regiment is usually composed of men of the same tribe, 
 the chief of which is colonel. If a tribe occupies several dis- 
 tricts, it furnishes as many regiments. Districts may be ex- 
 empted from raising corps on condition of paying increased 
 taxes ; in like manner, when a district furnishes a regiment, its 
 taxes are reduced. 
 
 In consequence of this policy, the northern and western 
 provinces, settled by tribes of Turkish origin, furnish nearly all 
 of the regiments ; a few only are composed of mixed tribes, 
 while, of the seventy-six regiments, only four are purely Per- 
 sian. 
 
 Regiments are raised by conscription, the details being left 
 in the hands of their colonels. The draft always begins with 
 the rich, who purchase exemption, and then proceeds down the 
 list until poverty forces its victim into the ranks. 
 
 OFFICEKS. 
 
 General and field officers are appointed by the Minister of 
 War, and their commissions bear the seal of the Shah. Com- 
 pany oflicers are appointed nominally by the Minister of War, 
 but in reality by the colonels, particularly when they possess 
 
90 ARMY OF PEPwSIA. 
 
 political influence. The officers of each regiment are required 
 to belong to the same tribe as the men, who are usually their 
 vassals or tenants. 
 
 Company officers are wholly ignorant of military affairs, and 
 most of them can neither read nor write ; the field-officers gen- 
 erally belong to wealthy families, and are better educated. 
 
 It is not lawful to purchase promotion ; yet, in practice, 
 advancement can only be secured by purchase, or by favor. 
 
 Company officers buy their promotion from the colonel, 
 who, if sufficiently powerful, retains the bonus; if not, he 
 divides with the Minister of War. General and field officers 
 purchase directly from the minister. If a general officer com- 
 mands several regiments, he shares in the profits from the sale 
 of commissions to all of his field and company officers. 
 
 The price paid by general and field officers for promotion is 
 two years', and for company officers, one year's pay. 
 
 With such a system only the greatest incompetency can 
 prevail, and it is well understood that, without regard to quali- 
 fications, money will buy any rank in the army, together with 
 its honors and emoluments. A practice so destructive of honor 
 and efficiency might surprise us, did we not reflect that it once 
 prevailed in the English army, and that even Marlborough was 
 accused of fighting a battle in order that, through the death of 
 his officers, he might profit by the sale of their commissions. 
 Afterward, so regulated as to redeem the system from fraud 
 and corruption, it continued in the English army till 1871, when 
 it was finally abolished. 
 
 CAVALEY. 
 
 All of the Persian cavalry is irregular and unorganized. 
 In case of a popular war, it is supposed that the tribes could 
 furnish from 60,000 to 70,000. In the contrary case it is doubt- 
 ful if it would muster 20,000. 
 
 Its arms consist of swords, guns, and horse-pistols, fre- 
 quently ornamented with fanciful designs. 
 
 The Persians, like the Cossacks, are fine horsemen, and ride 
 with short stirrups and high saddles. Firing in various atti- 
 
ARMS AND MATERIAL. 91 
 
 tudes, leaping barriers and ditches, simulating tlie rescue of a 
 wounded comrade, standing on their saddle, and on their heads 
 while at full speed, were some of the feats of horsemanship per- 
 formed by the villagers who came out to meet us. The typical 
 horse is short, compactly yet gracefully built, and well adapted 
 to cavalry service. The saddle is high and long, inflexible, and 
 equally cruel to man and beast. 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 This arm of service consists of 20 battalions of 250 men 
 each, but there are no organized batteries nor trains. 
 
 ARMS AND MATERIAL. 
 
 In the arsenals at Teheran and Tabriz a supply of muskets 
 is kept on hand, consisting of 10,000 Chassepots, 40,000 taba- 
 tieres, and from 20,000 to 30,000 arms of other descriptions. 
 
 The tabatiere is a worthless, transformed muzzle-loader, 
 captured by the Germans in 1870, and sold to the Shah when 
 in Europe at 21 francs each. The ammunition for it is likewise 
 worthless. 
 
 The artillery material consists of about 500 smooth-bore 
 and 60 rifled guns, all of brass. The latter were rifled in Per- 
 sia, on the Belgian system. 
 
 Ammunition is kept on hand for the smooth-bores, but none 
 has yet been provided for the rifles. 
 
 Powder is manufactured at a mill near Teheran. 
 
 At a special audience, given without solicitation, to General 
 Forsyth, Major Sanger, and myself, the Shah manifested great 
 interest in American fire-arms. As a specimen, I presented to 
 him a Smith & Wesson revolver, with which he was much 
 pleased. 
 
 He knew of our diff*erent kinds of breech-loaders, and re- 
 quested me to write to Smith & Wesson, and to the Reming- 
 tons, to send him their price-lists ; and also to General Franklin, 
 for the cost of a battery of Gatlings. 
 
 In compliance with his request, while at Teheran, I wrote 
 to Smith & Wesson, and to General Franklin, while General 
 
92 AKMY OF PERSIA. 
 
 Forsytli wrote to the Remingtons, of whicli action I informed 
 the War Department at the time. 
 
 At the same audience the Shah expressed his regrets that 
 our Government was not represented at his capital, and re- 
 quested me to communicate to it his desire to estabhsh diplo- 
 matic and commercial relations with us. 
 
 CLOTHING AND CAMP-EQUIPAGE. 
 
 A supply of about 20,000 uniforms, of the zouave style, is 
 generally kept on hand. That required for immediate use, as 
 for the garrison at Teheran, is kept in depots with the arms, 
 and is issued to the soldiers on occasions of ceremony, after 
 which it is again turned in. 
 
 On service, the soldiers are supplied with tents. Barracks 
 specially constructed are scarcely ever provided. 
 
 PAY. 
 
 The annual pay of officers is nominally as follows : 
 
 General, 1st class (Emeer Tooman) 2,000 tomans, or $4,500 
 
 " 2d " (Emeer Panj) 1,500 
 
 " 3d " 1,000 
 
 Colonel 500 
 
 Major (no lieutenant-colonel) 150 to 200 
 
 Captain 80 
 
 Lieutenant 50 
 
 3,450 
 
 2,250 
 
 1,125 
 
 540 
 
 181 
 
 113 
 
 The maximum pay an officer is to receive is stated in his 
 commission, but it is merely nominal. Each year a paper is 
 made out, either by the Minister of "War, or the governor of the 
 province in which the regiment is serving, stating the sum each 
 officer is to receive, of which amount 20 per cent, is retained. 
 
 The annual pay of non-commissioned officers and soldiers is 
 7 tomans, or $15.89. In addition, non-commissioned officers 
 receive a monthly pay of 5 krans ($1.00) ; soldiers receive 4 
 krans, or 80 cents. 
 
 Each soldier is paid in hand, and, as a receipt, he attaches to 
 the pay-roll his seal, on which his name is engraved. 
 
 In the interest of economy, regiments are usually in service 
 
GENERAL EEMARKS. 93 
 
 one year, and on leave the next. While on leave their pay is 
 reduced one-half, and must be provided by the district in which 
 they were raised. 
 
 Few of the generals receive full pay, but gifts to the minis- 
 ter may secure an increase. 
 
 When a regiment is ordered on service, which is always 
 outside of its district, the Government provides the soldiers with 
 a uniform valued at 15 krans, or $3.00. Sometimes a money 
 allowance is paid to the colonel, who then supplies the clothes. 
 
 GEiSTERAL KEMAEKS. 
 
 The effect of Asiatic civilization is conspicuously illustrated 
 in the army of Persia. As in China, corruption pervades every 
 branch of military administration. The soldier who is too poor 
 to escape the draft buys his time from his officers, and fre- 
 quently remains at home, when he is supposed to be in ranks 
 on the distant frontier. Even when following the colors of his 
 regiment, by relinquishing his pay he may ply his trade, or 
 freely engage in commercial pursuits. 
 
 Ordinarily, the soldiers are small money-lenders, and, club- 
 bing together, establish their banks in the bazaars near the cen- 
 tres of business. Loaning only in small sums, and for short 
 periods, they accept only exorbitant rates, varying from 120 to 
 500 per cent, per annum. Cavalry-soldiers, with equal aptitude 
 for gain, frequently hire out their horses or donkeys, and be- 
 come the carriers of the country. 
 
 So prevalent is the employment of soldiers in all trades and 
 professions that, when, at Teheran, reviews or manoeuvres are 
 ordered, it is not uncommon to see workmen, not suspected of 
 being soldiers, drop their tools, don their uniforms, and take 
 their places in the ranks. The duty completed, they return 
 their clothing and muskets to the depot, and again resume work. 
 
 All of these irregularities are well known, and are en- 
 couraged by the officers, who, in consequence of low salaries, 
 seek, through corrupt practices, to eke out the means of sup- 
 port. 
 
 In no service in the world is it difficult for officers without 
 
94 ARMY OF PERSIA. 
 
 principle to rob tlieir government and at tlie same time keep 
 their accounts with apparent exactness. To avoid the danger 
 of false muster, the soldier who is permanently absent is 
 replaced by a substitute, who serves at a lower price ; to enable 
 the officers to draw his pay, the soldier simply leaves in their 
 possession his seal with his name, which the substitute attaches 
 to the rolls. 
 
 With such relations between officers and soldiers it is im- 
 possible for discipline to survive. The substitutes only receive 
 the instruction necessary to personate the soldiers who are 
 absent, and so ignorant are they of arms and tlieir use that 
 only those that are worthless are placed in their hands. 
 
 The cost and extravagance of raw soldiers are well illus- 
 trated by the fact that, on issuing tabatieres to regiments for 
 trial, they were turned in, nearly ruined, at the end of a month. 
 
 Drill to the Persian soldier, like our old " general train- 
 ings," signifies naught but noise and display. 
 
 The tactics employed resemble the French of 1831. At 
 the manoeuvres before the Shah, the only movements executed 
 were to advance and retire. 
 
 One movement consisted of a line of battle in double rank, 
 from which skirmishers appeared to advance, as in our deploy- 
 ment by numbers. Behind the line of battle, in imitation of 
 the German system, companies were posted at intervals in 
 double rank. At a signal, the skirmishers fell back, the com- 
 panies advanced, and, joining at the line of battle, all opened 
 fire, the line of battle kneeling. On the left, irregular cavalry 
 made irregular charges, scattering over the ground, raising a 
 great dust, and firing and flourishing their pieces in the air ; 
 on the right, the artillery joined its deep tones in the combat. 
 
 At the review, the infantry walked rather than marched 
 past. The cavalry, marching in squads of five or six, clucked 
 their heads as a salam to the Shah. 
 
 The army of Persia has its lessons for the military observer. 
 In India we saw an army of 190,000 men, ably commanded and 
 well supplied, without even a permanent stafi" corps. In Persia 
 there is no staff at all. 
 
GENERAL EEMARKS, 95 
 
 Each infantry-man provides his own food, and each cavalry- 
 man his rations and forage. As each soldier knows he must 
 eat, he forages at every opportunity, and transports his supplies 
 on a horse or donkey. 
 
 Wheeled vehicles being practically unknown, and there 
 being no wagon-routes, provisions and munitions of war have 
 to be transported on mules, donkeys, horses, and camels. The 
 number of animals thus accompanying an army often exceeds 
 the number of men. 
 
 Having no commissariat, the necessity to forage carries with 
 it cruelty and distress, and inspires so great a dread of troops, 
 even of the shah's escort, that when he proposes a journey to 
 a distant province, it is not uncommon for the people of the 
 towns and villages along the route, in the hope of escaping 
 plunder, to present him with money as an inducement to relin- 
 quish his design. 
 
 The one great distinction between ancient and modern ar- 
 mies is the organization of the departments of supply, which, 
 in providing for the daily wants of the soldier, have done more 
 to mitigate the horrors of war than all other causes combined. 
 "Without them, discipline is impossible, and an army losing its 
 cohesion, like a swarm of locusts sweeps over a country, leaving 
 despair and starvation behind. 
 
 Concentrating for battle, the troops may make a few wild 
 rushes, and, if successful, continue their work of devastation and 
 carnage ; but, if repulsed and pursued, their flight must end in 
 dispersion. 
 
 "With the arms, organization, and discipline described, and 
 with no commissariat, the influence of the army of Persia in 
 Eastern affairs can easily be computed. 
 
 Bordered by Russia on the north, open to attack from 
 Turkey on the west, accessible to England on the south, future 
 events may soon prove that the capital of Persia, like that of 
 all countries where military institutions are neglected, lies at 
 the mercy of a few disciplined battalions. 
 
MILITAEY OEGAIS'IZATIO^ OF EUEOPE. 
 
 The study of military organization, to be profitable, must 
 not only embrace tbe objects for which armies are raised, but 
 the means adopted to enable them to accomplish these objects. 
 
 A glance at the armies of Asia shows that the Government 
 of Japan, adopting a new civilization, has preserved its author- 
 ity and consolidated its power by the maintenance of a military 
 force of 35,000 men, bearing the ratio of 1,000 men to every 
 1,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 In China, an army varying from 600,000 to 1,000,000 men, 
 bearing a ratio of 1,000 or 2,000 to every 1,000,000 population, 
 through corruption and faulty organization, is unable to pre- 
 serve the peace. As a consequence, insurrection and rebellion 
 frequently deluge the country with blood. 
 
 In India, as in Japan, a well-organized army of 200,000 
 men, bearing the ratio of 1,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants, pre- 
 serves tranquillity throughout the empire. 
 
 The chief object of all these armies is the maintenance of 
 order and peace within their borders. 
 
 Turning from Asia to Europe, a remarkable contrast is pre- 
 sented. Claiming a higher civilization, we find from 6,000,000 
 to 8,000,000 of young men taken from the family, the field, and 
 the workshops, to compose armies whose object is less the 
 preservation of internal peace and the present status of their 
 governments, than to contend for new territory and increased 
 
MILITARY ORGANIZATION OF EUROPE. 97 
 
 power, in the ceaseless struggle for ascendency which has char- 
 acterized the history of Europe for the past thousand years. 
 
 To enable these vast armies to accomplish their mission, not 
 only are national resources exhausted, but human ingenuity is 
 taxed to its utmost. 
 
 It is when fighting against foreign enemies that military 
 policy and organization are put to the severest test. If they 
 are based upon wisdom, a single victory or series of victories 
 may secure territorial aggrandizement, and crown the nation 
 with glory ; if ignorance or fatal indifference have caused mili- 
 tary organization to be neglected, national independence may 
 perish in the first onset. 
 
 With the object for which they are maintained clearly in 
 view, it is to the armies of Europe that we ought to look for 
 the best military models ; and if through remoteness from formi- 
 dable neighbors, or through the difference of our institutions, 
 we are permitted to deviate from these models, either in details 
 or numbers, it should be only for such reasons as commend 
 themselves to common-sense, and can be vindicated by the wis- 
 dom and experience of other nations no less than ourselves. 
 
 In treating of the principal armies of Europe I shall only 
 give their organization in brief, and then enlarge on the means 
 of promoting their efficiency, which must be employed by all 
 nations, regardless of the nature of their institutions, if they 
 hope to secure similar results. 
 1 
 
AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 The military forces of Italy are composed of the regular 
 army, the militia mobile (Landwehr), and the militia territoriale 
 (Landsturm). 
 
 The efi'ective strength of the regular army, in July, 1875, 
 was as follows : 
 
 OEGAKIZATION. 
 
 General staff and administrative officers 
 
 Infantry of the line 
 
 Bersaglieri (^rifles) 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Engineers 
 
 Sanitary corps 
 
 Local service 
 
 Gendarmerie 
 
 Military districts 
 
 Institutions, educational establislmients, etc. 
 
 Total regular army 
 
 Ersatz reserve 
 
 Militia mobile 
 
 Reserve officers 
 
 Total 
 
 1.480 
 
 4,800 
 
 760 
 
 898 
 
 946 
 
 228 
 
 336 
 
 127 
 
 606 
 
 1,438 
 
 2,070 
 
 13,694 
 1,016 
 2. CIO 
 1,516 
 
 1S,S86 
 
 With the 
 Colors. 
 
 On Furlough or 
 
 Resen^e. 
 
 97.453 
 
 16,255 
 
 18,669 
 
 20,786 
 
 4,702 
 
 1,152 
 
 1.614 
 
 20.970 
 
 15,398 
 
 7,251 
 
 204.255 
 14.786 
 
 219,041 
 
 123,841 
 
 21,147 
 
 15.4.37 
 
 27,462 
 
 4.916 
 
 2,065 
 
 10,567 
 236 
 
 205,171 
 166,409 
 277,265 
 
 648,845 
 
 i 
 
 869,316 
 
 GENEEAL OFFICEKS. 
 
 This list consists of — 
 
 5 Generals, 
 42 Lieutenant-generals, 
 83 Major-generals, 
 
 Total, 130. 
 
ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S DEPAETMENT. 99 
 
 ADJUTANT-GENEEAl's DEPAETMENT. 
 
 {Mat-Major). 
 
 The officers of this corps are composed of — 
 
 1. Officers actually belonging to the corps, termed " real." 
 
 2. Officers attached, termed " aggregate." These officers 
 belong either to infantry or cavalry, and are in excess of the 
 complement required to fill the grades of their regiments. 
 Their number is not fixed. While on staff duty they wear the 
 uniform of their arm with certain modifications, denoting staff 
 employment. 
 
 3. Captains of the line temporarily employed as auxiliaries, 
 who wear regimental uniform, with special modifications. 
 
 4. Lieutenants who are borne on the strength of their regi- 
 ments. 
 
 The corps proper is composed of the first and second classes, 
 with an organization, in 1876, as follows : 
 7 Colonels,' 
 30 Lieutenant-colonels and majors, 
 70 Captains, 
 20 Lieutenants. 
 
 The third class consisted of — 
 60 Captains, 
 
 The fourth class consisted of — 
 18 First and second lieutenants. 
 A general officer acts as chief of staff. A committee of four 
 or five staff officers constitutes an advisory organ to the Minis- 
 ter of War in all important questions relating to organization, 
 instruction, and military operations. 
 
 The duties of the staff at the War Department are arranged 
 in bureaux, or sections, as follows : 
 
 1. Statistical section ; charged with collecting statistical infor- 
 mation relative to all foreign armies. 
 
 ' Since increased to 11 colonels, 38 lieutenant-colonels and majors, 81 cap- 
 tains, and 25 lieutenants. The number of auxiliary officers has also been in- 
 creased to 66. 
 
100 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 2. Historical section ; charged with writing military history, and 
 
 collecting information relative to past military opera- 
 tions. 
 
 3. Kailway section ; charged with studying the railway systems 
 
 of Europe, and their use in the movement and concen- 
 tration of troops. 
 
 4. Information section ; charged with collecting information 
 
 in reference to foreign armies, embracing changes in 
 arms, instruction, tactics, construction of fortifications, 
 etc. 
 
 5. Topographical section ; charged with studying the topogra- 
 
 phy and maps of all of the theatres of war in which the 
 army of Italy may be called to operate. 
 
 6. Topographical Institute ; charged with the construction and 
 
 completion of the map of Italy, and with the construc- 
 tion of maps of other countries. 
 There is also a bureau in the War Department charged 
 with the direction of military education, details for camps of 
 instruction, and compilation of regulations for the army. 
 
 At the division and territorial corps headquarters the staff 
 officers are specially charged with orders relating to the disci- 
 pline and instruction of the troops. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE CORPS. 
 
 In general terms, the administration is divided into two 
 separate corps, one called the " Commissariato Militaire," the 
 other " Contabile Militaire." 
 
 The Commissariat Corps consists of — 
 8 Colonels, 
 
 12 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 
 24 Majors, 
 
 98 Captains, 
 
 98 First-lieutenants, and 
 
 50 Second-lieutenants. 
 Total, 290.' 
 
 ' Since increased to 301. 
 
IKFANTRY. 101 
 
 The officers of this corps, in time of peace, audit the accounts 
 of the contabile, or accountant corps. In time of war they 
 make the great contracts for provisions and forage, are respon- 
 sible for the provision-trains, and for the delivery of supplies to 
 the accountant officers. 
 
 The Corps Contabile (Accountant) consists of — 
 
 7 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 52 Majors, 
 424 Captains, 
 590 First-lieutenants, and 
 295 Second-lieutenants. 
 Total, 1,368. 
 This corps pays the officers and soldiers, provides the cloth- 
 ing, arms, and accoutrements ; and in time of war receives and 
 distributes rations and forage. Four officers of the corps are 
 assigned to duty with each regiment, and are under the orders 
 of the colonel. 
 
 In time of peace all of the ration except bread, which is 
 made in government bakeries under charge of accountant of- 
 ficers, is supplied by contractors, who are paid by the regimen- 
 tal accountant officers every ten days. In time of war field- 
 bakeries accompany the troops. 
 
 INFANTRY. 
 
 A company of infantry consists as follows : 
 
 Peace-footing. War-footing. 
 
 1 Captain, 1 Captain, 
 
 3 Lieutenants, 4 Lieutenants, 
 
 1 First-sergeant, 1 First-sergeant, 
 
 4 Sergeants, 8 Sergeants, 
 
 2 Lance-sergeants, or Corpo- 4 Lance-sergeants, 
 
 rals (Maggiore), 
 
 1 Corporal (clerk), 1 Corporal (clerk), 
 6 Corporals, 16 Corporals, 
 
 6 Lance-corporals, 16 Lance-corporals, 
 
 2 Trumpeters, 4 Trumpeters, * 
 2 Trumpeters (apprentices), 
 
102 
 
 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 Peace-footing. War-footing. 
 
 2 Pioneers, 5 Pioneers, 
 1 Pioneer (apprentice), 
 
 73 Privates. 145 Privates. 
 
 Total, 101. Total, 205. 
 
 A battalion consists of four companies, with a staff and 
 non-commissioned staff, as follows : 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 1 Lieutenant-colonel or major, 
 
 commandant, 
 1 Lieutenant, adjutant, 
 
 1 Sergeant-major, 
 1 Corporal (clerk), 
 1 Corporal (trumpeter), 
 1 Coi-poral (pioneer), 
 1 Wagoner. 
 
 Total, 7. 
 Total 4 companies, 416. 
 Total battalion, 423. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 1 Lieutenant-colonel or major, 
 commandant, 
 
 1 Lieutenant, adjutant, 
 
 2 Surgeons (lieutenants), 
 1 Sergeant-major, 
 1 Coi-poral (clerk), 
 
 1 Corporal (trumpeter), 
 
 2 Corporals (pioneers), 
 
 3 "Wagoners, 
 
 4 soldiers (officers' servants). 
 Total, 16. 
 
 Total 4 companies, 820. 
 Total battalion, 836. 
 A regiment consists of tbree battalions and a depot. The 
 staff and non-commissioned staff of a regiment is composed as 
 follows : 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 1 Colonel, 
 
 1 Captain (adjutant), 
 
 1 Surgeon (captain), 
 
 2 Surgeons (lieutenants), 
 
 3 Sergeant-majors, 
 1 Chief musician, 
 
 1 Sergeant of pioneers, 
 1 Chief armorer, 
 1 Sergeant (band), 
 1 Sergeant-trumpeter. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 1 Colonel, 
 
 1 Captain (adjutant), 
 1 Surgeon (captain), 
 1 Accountant officer (lieuten- 
 ant), 
 3 Sergeant-majors, 
 1 Chief musician, 
 1 Sergeant of pioneers, 
 1 Chief armorer, 
 1 Sergeant (band), 
 1 Sergeant-trumpeter, 
 
INFANTEY. 
 
 103 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 2 Corporals (clerks), 
 
 1 Corporal (band), 
 
 16 Musicians, 
 
 10 Musicians (pupils), 
 
 2 Armorers (apprentices), 
 
 2 Vivandieres. 
 Total, 46. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 2 Corporals (clerks), 
 1 Corporal (band), 
 
 1 Corporal (commissary clerk), 
 26 Musicians, 
 
 2 Armorers (apprentices), 
 
 4 Wagoners, 
 
 5 soldiers (officers' servants), 
 2 Yivandieres. 
 
 Total, 55. 
 
 The depot consists as follows : 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 The depot in time of war 
 is not fixed, but varies accord- 
 
 ing to the necessities of the 
 service. 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 1 Major, 
 
 1 Accountant director (cap 
 tain), 
 
 1 Paymaster (subaltern), 
 
 1 Registrar (subaltern), 
 
 1 Accountant officer (subal- 
 tern), 
 
 5 Accountant (commissari- 
 at) sergeants, 
 
 5 Accountant corporals, 
 1 Captain, 
 
 1 First-sergeant, 
 
 4 Sergeants, 
 
 1 Corporal (clerk), 
 
 6 Corporals, 
 1 Trumpeter, 
 
 1 Trumpeter (pupil), 
 30 Privates. 
 Total, 60. 
 In war the men unfit for field-service are transferred to the 
 depot-companies, which guard the barracks, and have charge of 
 the books, records, and papers, of their regiments. 
 
 In case of mobilization they usually go to district headquar- 
 
104 AKMY OF ITALY. 
 
 ters, where they receive and train men belonging to their regi- 
 ments, and also aid in the general instruction of the men called 
 to arms. 
 
 The total strength of a regiment is as follows : 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 Regimental staff and non-commissioned staff 46 
 
 3 Battalions 1,269 
 
 Depot 60 
 
 Total 1,375 
 
 War-footing. 
 Regimental staff and non-commissioned staff 55 
 
 3 Battalions 2,508 
 
 Total 2,563 
 
 BERSAGLIEKI. 
 
 The bersaglieri, or riflemen, consist of ten regiments, of 
 four battalions each, organized the same as infantry. The 
 strength of a regiment on the peace-footing is 1,Y98 officers and 
 men ; the war-footing is 8,399. In peace each regiment is 
 united for instruction and administrative service, but in war it 
 is intended to attach a battalion to each division or brigade, to 
 act specially as skirmishers and sharp-shooters. 
 
 The infantry of the standing army consists in time of 
 peace and war of 80 regiments (240 battalions), with 10 addi- 
 tional regiments of bersaglieri (40 battalions). 
 
 The strength of the infantry regiments is as follows : 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 80 regiments 110,000 
 
 Bersaglieri ....... 17,980 
 
 Total peace-footing . . . 127,980 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 80 regiments 205,040 
 
 Bersaglieri 33,990 
 
 Total war-footing .... 239,030 
 
TERRITOEIAL COMMANDS. 105 
 
 BRIGADE. 
 
 A brigade of infantry consists of — 
 2 regiments (6 battalions). 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 A division consists of — 
 
 The division staff, 
 
 2 Infantry brigades (12 battalions), 
 
 1 Artillery brigade (3 batteries), 
 
 2 Squadrons of cavalry, 
 
 1 Division artillery park, 
 1 Sanitary section, 
 
 1 Subsistence section, 
 
 COEPS. 
 
 An army corps consists of — 
 The corps staff, 
 
 2 Divisions of infantry (24 battalions), 
 1 Regiment bersaglieri (4 battalions), 
 
 1 Brigade of cavalry (2 regiments or 8 squadrons), 
 
 1 Artillery brigade, 
 
 1 Brigade of engineers (2 companies), 
 
 1 Engineer park and brigade train, and 
 The supply-trains. 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 An army consists of — 
 The army staff, 
 
 2 or 3 corps. 
 
 The army intendance, or supply department. 
 
 TEEErrOEIAL COMMANDS. 
 
 For purposes of command and military administration, Italy 
 is divided into 7 ' general or corps, 16 divisional, and 63 district, 
 commands. 
 
 ' By the law of March 22, 1877, the territorial commands have been increased 
 to 10 ; divisional commands to 20 ; and military districts to 88. In addition, 20 
 
106 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 The corps commands and the divisional commands, embrac- 
 ing one or more provinces, are held by general officers. The 
 districts which generally coincide with provinces are commanded 
 by colonels or field officers. 
 
 MILITAKY DISTRICTS. 
 
 All of the details of recruiting and mobilizing the regular 
 army, of organizing, mobilizing, and training the militia mo- 
 bile, are carried out in the eighty-eight military districts. 
 
 To this end the personnel of each district consists of a staff 
 and non-commissioned staff, and from four to five permanent 
 companies, which are concentrated at the district headquarters. 
 There is also at the headquarters a depot of arms (provided 
 there is no artillery-depot in the same city) and also a depot of 
 equipment and clothing, where the clothing is made for all of 
 the soldiers furnished by the district. 
 
 The organization of the district of Rome may be taken as a 
 representative of the others. It consists of five permanent 
 companies, with staff", company, and non-commissioned officers 
 as follows : 
 1 Colonel, 
 
 1 Lieutenant-colonel, 
 1 Major, 
 9 Captains, 
 
 19 Lieutenants, and 
 
 15 Clerks. 
 
 All of the above officers are detailed from the regular army, 
 and are in excess of the regimental complements. 
 
 One hundred and seventy-six permanent companies are dis- 
 tributed among the eighty-eight military districts. The privates 
 composing them are mostly such men of the regular army as 
 have been found unable to endure the hardships of campaign. 
 
 The names of all the men of the regular army on leave and 
 in the different categories are on the books, or rolls, of these 
 companies. On reporting at the district headquarters when 
 
 superior commands of military districts have been newly created, 8 of which are to 
 be commanded by major-generals, and 12 by colonels. 
 
MILITARY DISTRICTS. 
 
 107 
 
 mobilization is ordered, each man receives from the captain of 
 the company to which his name is attached his arms and equip- 
 ments, and, while waiting to be forwarded, he is drilled and 
 instructed by the officers and non-commissioned officers of the 
 company. 
 
 According to the law of March 22, 1877, the eighty-eight 
 military districts are to be divided into three classes, with the 
 following stafE and non-commissioned staff : 
 
 GRADE AND EMPLOYMENT. 
 
 Commandants (colonels or lieutenant-colonels) 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels or majors 
 
 Senior adjutant (captain) 
 
 Junior adjutants (first-lieutenants) 
 
 Surgeon (captain) 
 
 Chief administrative officer (major) 
 
 Director of accounts (captain) 
 
 Clothing-officer (lieutenant) 
 
 Eegistrar (lieutenant) 
 
 Commissariat or administrative officers disposable in addition to 
 above 
 
 Total commissioned 
 
 Sergeant-majors 
 
 Commissary and quartermaster sergeants 
 
 Chief armorer , 
 
 Lance-sergeants 
 
 Commissar}' corporals 
 
 Corporals (clerks) 
 
 Corporal trumpeter 
 
 Soldiery (first class) 
 
 Armorers (apprentices) 
 
 Total non-commissioned 
 
 Total commissioned and non-commissioned 
 
 STAFF AND NON-COMMISSIONKD i 
 
 1st Class. 
 
 2d Class. 
 
 3d Class. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 The cadre of each permanent company consists of : 
 1 Captain, 
 1 Lieutenant, 
 1 First-sergeant, 
 
 3 Sergeants, 
 
 1 Lance-sergeant, 
 
 4 Corporals, 
 
 1 Corporal (clerk), 
 1 Trumpeter, 
 24 Privates. 
 
 Total, 37. 
 
108 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 From these figures it appears that a district of the first class, 
 with five permanent companies, has a personnel of 26 ofiicers 
 and 178 men ; but this is not all, for, in excess of the cadres, 
 there are distributed among the 88 districts for special duty — 
 such as clerks and bakers — another force of 134 non-commis- 
 sioned ofiicers and 2,585 men, making a total of more than 
 11,000 oflScers and men, who simply constitute the machinery 
 for recruiting and mobilizing the Italian army. 
 
 RECRUITMENT. 
 
 The recruitment of all the great armies of Europe is con- 
 ducted on the same principles. 
 
 All men who are physically qualified are held to owe the 
 state military service between certain ages, and must perform 
 the service unless for special reasons they are exempted by 
 law. 
 
 In Italy the period of military service is nineteen years, and 
 extends from the beginning of the twenty-first to the end of 
 the thirty-ninth year. 
 
 About 14:0,000 men annually become liable to military duty, 
 and are divided into three categories : 
 
 FIRST CATEGORY. 
 
 This category, which is regulated by Parliament, is com- 
 posed of about 65,000 men, who are drafted into the regular 
 army, where they serve in the infantry, artillery, and engineers, 
 for three, and in the cavalry for five, years. Those in the in- 
 fantry, artillery, and engineers, after serving three years are 
 sent on furlough, and for the next five years are liable at any 
 time to be recalled to the colors. These men, in connection 
 with troops of the second category, enable the army when mo- 
 bilized to pass from the peace to the war footing. Taking 
 127,000 as the peace-footing of the infantry, one-third of that 
 number, 42,333, will represent the number of men annually 
 drafted into that arm of the service ; and the same number, 
 diminished by deaths and discharges, will represent the number 
 of trained soldiers who, on leave of absence, annually return 
 
EKSATZ RESERVE. 109 
 
 to their homes to be called back to the ranks in time of war. 
 As there are five classes on leave, the maximum number avail- 
 able to fill up the ranks cannot exceed 211,000. 
 
 In case of general or partial mobilization, the classes are 
 recalled, beginning with the last one sent on leave. 
 
 After a service of eight years in the regular army — three 
 with the colors, and five on leave — the men pass into the sec- 
 ond category, and their names are transferred at district head- 
 quarters to the companies of militia mobile, in which they serve 
 another five years. They then pass into the third category for 
 seven years, and, on the completion of nineteen years' service, 
 are exempt from further military duty. 
 
 The men of the first category are those who in the draft 
 draw numbers from one up to the number denoting the quotas 
 to be furnished by their municipalities, and also such men of 
 the second category as having drawn numbers immediately 
 above the latter are required to replace the men in the first 
 category entitled to exemption. 
 
 SECOND CATEGORY. 
 
 The number of men in this category is annually fixed by 
 Parliament, and varies from 20,000 to 35,000. In the draft it 
 is composed of the men who draw consecutive numbers next 
 above those who enter the first category. 
 
 EESATZ EESEEVE. 
 
 The men of the second category belong to the regular army 
 for five years, and constitute what is called the Ersatz reserve, 
 or " troops of complement." 
 
 The object of this reserve, in connection with the men of 
 the first category on leave, is to raise the army to a war-footing, 
 and in addition provide a reserve to fill the vacancies that may 
 occur after the opening of the campaign. 
 
 The men of the second category are arranged in classes, and 
 on entering the service repair to district headquarters, where 
 for forty days they are drilled and instructed by the officers and 
 non-commissioned officers of the permanent companies. They 
 
110 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 draw caps, shoes, linen coats, trousers, arms, and equipments, 
 from the district depot, wliieh are turned in at the completion of 
 the course of instruction. Before being dismissed on leave, they 
 are assigned to the various regiments and corps of the regular 
 army, and their names are also attached to the rolls of the per- 
 manent companies. The Ersatz reserve in 1876 consisted of 
 171,758 men, of whom 164,412 belonged to the infantry. 
 
 In case of mobilization the men at once repair to district 
 headquarters, report to the permanent companies to which their 
 names are attached, draw arms and equipments, and receive drill 
 and instruction until they can be forwarded to their regiments. 
 
 After serving five years in the Ersatz reserve, the men of 
 the second category are transferred for four years to the militia 
 mobile. They are then transferred for ten years to the third 
 category, which completes their military service. 
 
 THIKD CATEGORY. 
 
 After deducting 65,000 men for the first category, and 20,- 
 000 to 30,000 for the second category, the remainder of the 
 contingent of 140,000 men, amounting to from 45,000 to 55,- 
 000 men, are assigned to the third category, as are also all of 
 the men of the first and second categories, who, for reasons 
 other than physical, are exempted from service in the army and 
 Ersatz reserve. 
 
 To ascertain the number of men who annually enter the 
 third category, there must be added to the above numbers from 
 50,000 to 60,000, representing the men of the first and second 
 categories who have completed their fourth year in the militia 
 mobile. 
 
 The men of this category are neither organized, uniformed, 
 nor instructed. 
 
 DETAILS OF EECEUITIVIENT. 
 
 The mayor of every municipality submits annually to the 
 prefect of the province a list embracing the names of all the 
 young men who have completed their twentieth year, and have 
 become liable to military duty. On the receipt of these lists 
 
DETAILS OF KECRUITMENT. HI 
 
 the total number liable to military duty in the province is for- 
 warded by the prefect to the Minister of War, who publishes 
 tables showing the number of men each province will have to 
 furnish for the different categories. 
 
 When the prefect receives from the Minister of War the 
 number of men required for the first category he convenes the 
 provincial council, and in its presence assigns the quota to be 
 furnished by each municipality. On a day appointed by the 
 prefect, the draft takes place in each municipality in the pres- 
 ence of the mayor and municipal council. 
 
 As many numbers are placed in a wheel as there are men 
 liable to military duty. The men having drawn numbers with- 
 in the quota required for the first category, repair, between cer- 
 tain days named by the Minister of War, to the capital of the 
 province, where they present themselves to the recruiting com- 
 mission for examination. 
 
 The commission, nominated annually for each province, is 
 composed of the prefect or sub-prefect, two provincial council- 
 ors (delegates in the provincial government from the munici- 
 palities), two army officers, one government commissary, one 
 officer of gendarmes, and one army surgeon. 
 
 The men of each municipality are examined separately in 
 the presence of the mayor, who is required to answer questions 
 in the interest of both the individual and the state. 
 
 The commission usually meets in October, or l^ovember, 
 for the examination of the first category, and remains in session " 
 about five or six days. 
 
 The men who are found to be physically disqualified are 
 forever free from military service. Those who are exempted 
 for family reasons, such as only son of a father over sixty years 
 of age, mother a widow, etc., are placed in the third category. 
 
 The commission, having examined and assigned the men 
 required for the first category, assembles a second time, and 
 having received notification from the prefect of the quota 
 required from each municipality for the second category, it 
 resumes the examination, beginning with the lowest number 
 that escaped the first category. As before, the physically dis- 
 
112 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 qualified are relieved from furtlier military duty, while those 
 exempted for family reasons are placed in the third category. 
 
 All of the men not examined for the first and second cate- 
 gories are assigned to the third. 
 
 The men of the first category having been notified of their 
 acceptance, are allowed to return to their homes for a month or 
 two, until called under arms, when they repair to district head- 
 quarters, where, after a physical examination, they are assigned 
 to infantry, cavalry, artillery, or engineers, according to tables 
 furnished by the Minister of War. 
 
 The men are not allowed to choose their arm of service, but 
 are assigned according to physical and other qualifications. 
 
 If any fail to pass tlie examination, the prefects are notified 
 and the recruitment commission selects from their municipalities 
 men from the second category to replace them. 
 
 MILITIxl MOBILE. 
 
 The militia mobile constitutes an army in the second line, 
 and is intended to reenforce and support the regular army in 
 time of war. 
 
 It is still in process of organization, but in 18Y6 there could 
 have been mobilized 108 battalions of infantry and 15 battalions 
 of bersaglieri. 
 
 The future cadre, exclusive of the island of Sardinia, is to 
 consist of — 
 
 120 Battalions (480 companies) of infantry. 
 
 20 '' (80 " ) of bersaglieri. 
 
 10 Brigades ( 30 batteries) of artillery. 
 
 10 Companies artillery-train. 
 
 20 " foot artillery. 
 
 10 " engineers and sappers. 
 
 The cadre for the island of Sardinia embraces — 
 
 9 Battalions (36 companies) of infantry. 
 
 1 Battalion (2 " ) of bersaglieri. 
 
 1 Squadron of cavalry. 
 
 1 Brigade (2 batteries) of artillery. 
 
 2 Platoons of engineers. 
 
MILITIA MOBILE. 113 
 
 In addition to the troops of the militia mobile, staff and ad- 
 ministrative departments are to be organized on the same prin- 
 ciples as in the army. 
 
 In consequence of the difference of population in the mili- 
 tary districts, the battalions in time of peace cannot be organized 
 uniformly, some having two and three, while others have five 
 and six companies each, but in war they will be equalized by 
 transfers within the same superior district and divisional com- 
 mands, so that in each of the latter there may be formed two 
 regiments of infantry of three battalions of four companies 
 each. 
 
 The cadre of the field and staff of the two regiments organ- 
 ized within each superior district, which in its geographical 
 limits coincides with the divisional command, is organized at 
 the headquarters of the superior district. It also devolves upon 
 the superior district commandants to keep themselves informed 
 of the number and strength of the companies in each military 
 district, and to notify the district commandants which compa- 
 nies will be transferred to equalize battalions. 
 
 The cadres of the companies and battalions are organized by 
 the district commandants as rapidly as officers and non-com- 
 missioned officers become available for assignment. 
 
 The company and battalion organization is the same as in 
 the regular army. From what has already been said under the 
 head of recruitment, the militia mobile is composed of men of 
 the first category who have served eight years in the regular 
 army, and of men of the second category who have served five 
 years in the Ersatz reserve. 
 
 The number of men who enter the infantry and bersaglieri 
 annually from the class first mentioned may be estimated at 
 42,000 ; those from the Ersatz reserve at 20,000. As service in 
 the militia mobile is for four years, the force of infantry and 
 bersaglieri may be estimated at 248,000 men. Of this number 
 more than two-thirds have served three years in the ranks of 
 the regular army, while the other third has had at least forty 
 clays' training in the Ersatz reserve. 
 
 The preponderance of trained over the untrained soldiers is 
 
114 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 so great that only a few skillful officers are required to convert 
 the militia mobile into an active, efficient force. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE MILITIA MOBILE. 
 
 The officers of the militia mobile consist of former officers 
 of the regular army not over fifty years of age ; of sergeants 
 promoted, who have served twelve years in the regular army, 
 and of one year's volunteers, who have passed a qualifying ex- 
 amination as officers of complement. The total number now 
 available is between 2,000 and 3,000. The captains and subal- 
 terns are assigned to companies by the district commandants. 
 Battalion and regimental commanders are specially selected by 
 the Minister of "War, and usually from the field-officers of the 
 regular army. 
 
 In case of a mobilization of the militia mobile, the district 
 of Rome is expected to furnish arms and equipments for 28 
 companies of infantry and 2 of bersaglieri. 
 
 The number of officers available for these companies in 18T6, 
 and whose names were borne on the Army Register, below 
 those of the regular officers serving in the district, was 1 cap- 
 tain, 2 first-lieutenants, and 6 second-lieutenants. 
 
 This deficiency of officers, amounting in the entire militia 
 mobile to more than 500 captains and 400 lieutenants, is en- 
 gaging the serious attention of the Minister of "War, who hopes 
 to remedy the evil by designating as captains, officers of com- 
 plement in the regular army, and also officers in reserve, cor- 
 responding to our retired list. 
 
 MILITIA TEREITOEIALE. 
 
 . This militia is composed of the men assigned to the third 
 category in each annual contingent, and of all the men of the 
 first and second categories from the completion of their service 
 in the militia mobile till the end of their thirty-ninth year. 
 
 It has no organization, but can be called out by classes the 
 same as the Ersatz reserve. Practically, the men receive no 
 instruction, nor are they uniformed. In case of war they would 
 be distinguished by a band around the arm. 
 
VOLUNTEERS FOR ONE YEAR. 115 
 
 VOLUNTEERING. 
 
 Yolunteering is encouraged for the purpose of mitigating 
 the hardships of military service, and of permitting it to inter- 
 fere as little as possible with trades, professions, and business 
 pursuits. Its general principles are the same in nearly all Con- 
 tinental armies. 
 
 In Italy any boy who can read and write can present him- 
 self at the age of seventeen, serve till twenty, then go on leave 
 five years, afterward serve four years in the militia mobile, seven 
 years in the third category (militia territoriale), and thus com- 
 plete his military service at the age of thirty-six. Volunteers 
 of this class are allowed to choose their regiments, and may in 
 consequence sometimes serve the three years with the colors in 
 their own towns. 
 
 A second class of volunteers consists of those men of the 
 annual contingent who aspire to be sergeants, and who, after 
 egreeing to serve eight years with the colors, are sent to the 
 battalions, batteries, and squadrons of instruction, where they 
 pursue a course of study for two years. 
 
 VOLIJNTEEES FOR ONE TEAR. 
 
 The third, and by far the most important class, consists of 
 the volunteers for one year. 
 
 The conditions for admission to this class are, that they must 
 volunteer before becoming liable to military duty ; pass a pre- 
 scribed examination in reading, writing, composition, Italian lan- 
 guage, grammar, arithmetic, and geography ; and furthermore 
 pay to the Government the sum of 1,200 francs in the infantry 
 and artillery and 1,600 francs in the cavalry. 
 
 Those who comply with the requirements are given a cer- 
 tificate, and are permitted to choose for their service any year 
 between seventeen and twenty-six. On becoming twenty years 
 old the^ attend the draft and are assigned to a category, but 
 are exempted from service therein on showing their certificates. 
 
 After completing their service of one year they are for seven 
 years liable to service in the regular army, but on the payment 
 
 "4 
 
116 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 of 600 ' francs tliey may at once pass into the second category, 
 and thence into the third, where they complete their service 
 at thirty-nine years of age. 
 
 The vokmteers for one year are, as a rule, young men who 
 wish to pursue a university course, learn a difficult trade, or 
 who may wish to assume the management of great business and 
 commercial enterprises. 
 
 Those who prefer the engineers, artillery, and cavalry, are 
 permitted to choose their regiments, where they receive special 
 instruction. Those who choose the infantry repair to district 
 headquarters, where they are organized into a volunteer com- 
 pany, commanded by officers of the regular army, who are spe- 
 cially selected by the Minister of War. These officers, who are 
 usually graduates of the War Academy, are detailed for a period 
 extending from two to six years. 
 
 The volunteers are enrolled the 1st of October of each year, 
 and, in connection with their military training they pursue a 
 course of study embracing grammar, arithmetic, geography, 
 regulations, tactics, administration, and elementary fortification. 
 
 At the end of the year all are examined by a commission 
 appointed by the general commanding the division, pursuant to 
 a programme prescribed by the Minister of War. Those who 
 fail to pass the examination are sent to their regiments, provided 
 that at the draft they came within the first category ; those who 
 pass the qualifying examination for corporal and sergeant, and 
 pay the sum exempting them from the first category, enter the 
 militia mobile as non-commissioned officers." 
 
 OFFICEES OF COMPLEMENT. 
 
 The volunteers who pass the qualifying examination for 
 offieers are denominated " officers of complement," and are as- 
 signed to companies in regular regiments, where they serve for 
 three months. During this period they are allowed five francs 
 
 ' This exemption from service in the first category is to be discontinued after 
 1877. 
 
 * After 1877 tlie vohmteers for one year in infantry are to be instructed in their 
 regiments the same as the vokmteers in the cavalry and artillery. 
 
SCHOOLS FOR THE MEK 117 
 
 a day, and transportation to and from their regiments. At its 
 expiration they go home on leave, where they remain out of the 
 line of promotion until the Government recalls them to the 
 colors. 
 
 They may, however, be called back temporarily to their regi- 
 ments, or they may be required at district headquarters, to aid 
 in the instruction of the second category, and the militia mobile. 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 Every army in Europe, in all of its grades, is a training- 
 school for war, and intelligence and education are insisted upon 
 as essential alike to officers and men. 
 
 Having explained the method of procuring the personnel 
 of the Italian army, the next thing in importance is to describe 
 the institutions and training establishments, considered indis- 
 pensable in the transformation of the recruit into the soldier, to 
 whom in the hour of battle must be confided the happiness and 
 destiny of his people. The benefit of these institutions is not 
 confined to the army. The education they impart, the princi- 
 ples of obedience and respect for law which they encourage, 
 are carried back to the people by the soldier, who has become 
 the better qualified to enjoy the liberty and rights of a citizen. 
 
 SCHOOLS FOE THE MEN. 
 
 The first school for the enlisted men is, in its largeat sense, 
 the school of the soldier, in which, during the three years' ser- 
 vice with the colors, they learn every duty that may devolve 
 upon a soldier. Joining their regiments as recruits about the 
 1st of January, the course of military instruction progresses 
 regularly through the school of the soldier, the school of the 
 company, skirmishing, school of the battalion, and the e"^lu- 
 tions of a regiment, brigade, division, and corps. 
 
 A stated period in each year is given to the schools of the 
 company, battalion, and regiment, during which the new recruits 
 learn new principles, while the old soldiers review the instruc- 
 tion of the year previous. 
 
 In addition to the tactics, the men receive the most thorough 
 
118 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 practical instruction in reconnaissance, outpost and scouting 
 duty ; musketry-practice at different ranges, with both fixed and 
 movable targets ; marches ; skirmishing, and manoeuvres, spe- 
 cially adapted to the ground ; as also the manner of intrenching 
 and taking advantage of cover under fire. 
 
 The evolutions of brigades, divisions, and corps, take place 
 at camps of instruction, ordered by the Minister of War, where 
 both officers and men become accustomed to the movements of 
 large bodies of troops. 
 
 They likewise become accustomed to the sound of battle, 
 and learn to adapt themselves to every movement in the pres- 
 ence of the enemy except actual firing. 
 
 After three years' instruction in these schools, the once raw 
 recruit goes back to his home a trained and disciplined soldier, 
 ready at the first signal of danger to return to the ranks. 
 
 THEORETICAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 The advance in military science has eradicated from every 
 array in Europe the idea formerly held that the best soldier was 
 a mere machine, with no aim but to execute blindly the orders 
 of his superior officer. To-day the modifications in tactics re- 
 quire every soldier to be endowed with intelligence, in order 
 that he may assume responsibility, and act with judgment, in 
 cases where no officer or non-commissioned officer may be pres- 
 ent to guide him. 
 
 To this end theoretical schools are established in each regi- 
 ment, battalion, and company. 
 
 The lieutenant-colonel, or second in command, of every regi- 
 ment superintends and visits all of the schools, and reports the 
 progress made to the colonel. 
 
 Battalion and company commanders are responsible for the 
 schools within their commands, all of which are maintained 
 from the funds of the reojiment. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL SCHOOLS, 
 
 In the Italian army as many as sixty per cent, of the re- 
 cruits from some districts are unable to read or write. All sol- 
 
SCHOOL FOE NON-COMMISSIONED OFFIOEES. 119 
 
 diers are therefore compelled to attend the alphabetical schools, 
 in which are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. This 
 school in each company is superintended by a lieutenant, with 
 non-commissioned officers for instructors. 
 
 CORPOKALS' SCHOOLS. 
 
 Candidates for the grade of corporal must attend the cor- 
 porals' school in each battalion, where they are taught grammar, 
 arithmetic, army regulations, code of punishments, patrol and 
 guard duty. 
 
 The course of study begins October 15th, and ends March 
 15th, and is superintended by a captain, with other officers and 
 non-commissioned officers as assistants. 
 
 SEEGEANTS' SCHOOL. 
 
 This school is regimental, and must be attended by all cor- 
 porals who aspire to the grade of sergeant. The course of 
 study is five months, the same as for corporals, and embraces 
 grammar, geography, arithmetic, army regulations, and the use 
 of maps. The school is superintended by an officer, with non- 
 commissioned officers as assistants. 
 
 ADimsriSTEATTVE SCHOOL. 
 
 This school is superintended by an accountant officer, and is 
 attended by all non-commissioned officers and soldiers who seek 
 employment in the " Corps of Comptabilite." 
 
 HIGHER SCHOOL FOR NON-COMMISSIONED OEFICEES. 
 
 The object of this school is to prepare intelligent and de- 
 serving sergeants, who aspire to the grade of officer, for admis- 
 sion to the military schools at Modena and Parma. 
 
 The school in each regiment is usually superintended by a 
 graduate of the Academy of War. The course of study lasts 
 from eight to nine months, and embraces grammar, geography, 
 arithmetic, elements of geometry, and the use of maps. 
 
120 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 REWARDS OF INTELLIGENCE. 
 
 Soldiers who learn to read and write well, who are good 
 marksmen, and perform satisfactorily all of their military du- 
 ties, are sometimes sent home six months before the expiration 
 of their three years' service. On the contrary, those who neg- 
 lect to learn to read and write are detained with the colors after 
 the discharge of the class to which they belong. They are ex- 
 amined every two months, and are discharged as soon as they 
 pass a satisfactory examination. At the end of six months all 
 are discharged. The number detained is about six per cent. 
 Those who are discharged as hopelessly ignorant number about 
 three per cent. 
 
 The effect of the encouragement of education on one hand, 
 and the punishment for the neglect of it on the other, has 
 given an impetus to the schools in every village of the king- 
 dom. In this respect the army confers a great benefit on the 
 country, not only by educating the 65,000 recruits who annu- 
 ally join it, but in a far greater degree by inspiring every father 
 with the desire to educate his sons, in order to diminish the 
 length of their military service, and at the same time enable 
 them to serve with better hopes of promotion. 
 
 BATTALIONS OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 The battalions of instruction are specially designed to edu- 
 cate and train sergeants for the army. They constitute, in fact, 
 military schools for non-commissioned officers. 
 
 The first was estabhshed in 1871, at Maddaloni; the second 
 at Asti in 1872 ; the third at Senigallia in 1873. 
 
 They all owe their vitality to the recent inducements held 
 out by the Government to attain the grade of non-commissioned 
 officer, and to the guarantee of employment, after honorable 
 discharge, either in the administration of the "War Department, 
 or on the lines of state railroads. 
 
 The conditions of admission are to be able to read and write, 
 and an engagement to serve eight years with the colors. 
 
 The candidates consist — 1. Of volunteers between the ages 
 
BATTALIONS OF INSTRUCTION. 121 
 
 of seventeen and twenty-six; 2. Of such soldiers of the first 
 category who, being required to serve three years, possess the 
 necessary qualifications, and express a willingness to serve eight 
 years as non-commissioned officers ; 3. Of soldiers who at any 
 time during their term of service desire to become non-com- 
 missioned officers. 
 
 The enrollment for each battalion begins the first of January, 
 and terminates the last of February each year, the number of 
 candidates being limited to 400. 
 
 The course of theoretical and practical instruction embraces 
 two years, and is divided into four quarters, of six months 
 each. 
 
 During the first quarter the pupils receive the same practical 
 instruction as a soldier in a regiment ; during the second they 
 apply this instruction practically to the ground ; dming the 
 third they become the instructors of the new class, and thus 
 learn to command and instruct as well as to obey ; during the 
 fourth they make a general review, and thus complete the in- 
 struction deemed necessary to qualify them for the grade of 
 sergeant. 
 
 The military subjects taught the first year of the course are : 
 School of the soldier, with and without arms ; elementary gym- 
 nastics ; gymnastics with arms ; school of the company ; con- 
 struction, mounting and dismounting of arms ; estimating dis- 
 tances ; aiming drill ; target-practice ; reconnaissance ; garrison 
 duty ; theory of regulations and penal code. 
 
 Those taught in the second year are : School of the guides ; 
 sabre-exercise ; practical performance of all of the duties of cor- 
 poral and sergeant in garrison and camp ; reading and applica- 
 tion of maps ; transportation of wounded, and constrnction of 
 field-intrenchments. 
 
 The studies pursued are Italian language, embracing letters, 
 reports on military subjects, compositions on modern military 
 history, reports descriptive of ground and positions ; arithmetic, 
 through the rule of three ; first principles of geometry ; geog- 
 raphy, embracing all of the continents, particularly Europe and 
 the kingdom of Italy ; reading of maps, embracing the conven- 
 
122 ARMY OF ITALT. 
 
 tional signs ; reconnaissance of ground with the aid of maps, 
 and military organization. 
 
 The students, according to their proficiency, are arranged in 
 three classes, viz., inferior, middle, and superior. 
 
 The superior class, in addition to the prescribed programme, 
 receives instruction in company accounts, and also in hy- 
 giene. 
 
 Each battalion is organized into four companies, with the 
 usual complement of commissioned officers, who serve as in- 
 structors and superintendents of instruction. 
 
 At the end of every six months the students are classified 
 according to merit. 
 
 Two grades of corporal, corresponding to lance-corporal and 
 corporal, exist in each battalion. The number in the first grade 
 is unlimited, that of the second grade is fixed at 80. 
 
 At the end of the first six months all of the students who 
 have shown the required proficiency, and whose conduct has 
 been good, are promoted lance-corporals. Those who fail to 
 obtain the grade at this examination are promoted according to 
 their progress during the second six months. Those who fail 
 at the end of their first year to become lance-corporals are sent 
 to the regiments as private soldiers. 
 
 At the end of the first year the most deserving lance-cor- 
 porals are promoted to corj^oral, and at the end of eighteen 
 months all of both grades who are qualified are promoted to 
 sergeants. 
 
 At the end of the course the names of the students who 
 have merited the grade of sergeant are reported to the Minister 
 of War, who assigns them to their regiments. The corporals 
 who fail to qualify as sergeants are assigned to regiments as 
 corporals. 
 
 The three battalions of instruction for the infantry supply 
 sergeants to the infantry and bersaglieri. 
 
 The engineers, artillery, and cavalry, have companies, bat- 
 teries, and squadrons of instruction, corresponding to battalions 
 of instruction for the infantry. 
 
NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICEES. 123 
 
 NOX-COMMISSIONED OFFICEKS. 
 
 It is not alone in the system of schools provided for their 
 special education and training that the Italian Government 
 manifests its care in forming an efficient body of non-commis- 
 sioned officers. 
 
 Accepting the theory, now universally adopted in Eui-ope, 
 that a good non-commissioned officer can no more be improvised 
 than an officer, it imposes as the first condition of becoming a 
 sergeant that the candidate shall subscribe to an agreement 
 {ferma permanente) to serve eight years with the colors. It 
 furthermore imposes another condition that the candidate can- 
 not be promoted to this grade till he shall have served in the 
 ranks from two to three years, which, however, are included in 
 the eight years' engagement. 
 
 So tenacious is the Government in adhering to these con- 
 ditions that it prefers to keep open hundreds of vacancies rather 
 than permit unworthy occupants to fill them ; and, as an evidence 
 that this policy has been adopted after mature reflection, it only 
 needs to be stated that, in order not to cripple the companies 
 by the temporary want of sergeants, a new grade has been cre- 
 ated called " corporal-major," corresponding in our army to the 
 grade of lance-sergeant. 
 
 These corporals receive increased pay, and many of them 
 possess all of the qualifications for the grade of sergeant except 
 a willingness to sign an engagement for eight years. 
 
 The difficulty of securing competent men for the grade of 
 sergeant has led the Government to offer special inducements as 
 an encouragement both to aspire to the grade and to continue 
 in it so long as the incumbent is qualified for duty. 
 
 To appreciate these inducements it is necessary to state that, 
 according to the military budget, the pay of a sergeant-major 
 of infantry is 2 francs per day, a first-sergeant 1 franc 45 cen- 
 times, and a sergeant 1 franc 15 centimes. To this pay the 
 sum of 150 francs per annum is added the moment a sergeant 
 receives his promotion. 
 
 Having educated the sergeants at great expense, and still 
 
124 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 furtlier increased their efficiency by a long system of practical 
 training, the next inducement is offered as a means of encourag- 
 ing reenlistment, and to this end they are allowed in the infan- 
 try to reengage three times, with an increase of 150 francs per 
 annum for each reenlistment. The advantage of increased pay 
 for the first reenlistment, by way of anticipation, is granted to 
 the sergeant at the commencement of his seventh year of ser- 
 vice. 
 
 It thus appears that an aspirant to the rank of sergeant, in 
 addition to the pay proper of the grade, is assured an increase 
 of 150 francs from the moment of his promotion ; 300 francs 
 from the beginning of his seventh to the end of his eleventh 
 year of service ; 450 francs from the beginning of the twelfth 
 to the end of his fourteenth year of service ; and 600 francs 
 from this time to the end of his seventeenth year of service. 
 After the seventeenth year of service a sergeant is permitted 
 to reenlist up to forty -five years of age, but with no further in- 
 crease of pay. 
 
 Substantial as the foregoing inducements may appear, still 
 others are added. The sergeant who is discharged after sev- 
 enteen years' faithful service is granted an annuity of 360 
 francs, which is equal to four-fifths of the premium allowed for 
 three reenlistments, and this annuity, at the option of the ser- 
 geant, can be capitalized, and received in hand on quitting the 
 army. 
 
 The sergeants who remain in service up to the age of forty- 
 five on their discharge receive a pension varying from 415 to 
 725 francs per annum, which includes the amounts to which 
 they were entitled on completing their third reenlistment. 
 
 The expenses for increased pay, premiums for reenlistment, 
 annuities, and pensions for non-commissioned officers, are not 
 charged in the military budget, but are defrayed out of the 
 military chest, into which between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 
 francs are paid annually by the volunteers of one year, who 
 average between 3,000 and 4,000. 
 
 But the care of the Italian Government for its faithful non- 
 commissioned officers does not end with their discharge from 
 
NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 125 
 
 the service. Those who have served twelve years with the 
 colors are, as a rule, furnished with employment either on lines 
 of state railways or in the various offices and bureaux apper- 
 taining to the War Department, which, in 1874, gave positions 
 to more than 1,000. 
 
 The total number of sergeants required by the law of or- 
 ganization for the different arms of service is as follows : 
 
 Infantry 6,480 
 
 Bersaglieri (rifles) .... 1,000 
 
 Alpine battalions . . . . 120 
 
 Cavalry 1,000 
 
 Artillery 1,431 
 
 Ensrineers 292 
 
 Total 10,323 
 
 This number is recruited by the annual graduation of about 
 1,200 sergeants from the various battalions, batteries, and 
 squadrons of instruction ; by the promotion within the regi- 
 ments on an average of about 400 sergeants per year after 
 completing the prescribed course of instruction ; and by the an- 
 nual reenlistment of nearly 300 — amounting in all to 1,900 per 
 annum. This number multiplied by six gives 11,400 as the 
 total number of sergeants available to fill the 10,323 vacancies, 
 giving a surplus of 1,177 available to fill vacancies created by 
 death and discharge. 
 
 After receiving their promotion the sergeants are given spe- 
 cial privileges, and as ftir as possible are encouraged to separate 
 themselves from the men, in order not to destroy their authori- 
 ty by constant intercourse and familiarity. They sleep in sep- 
 arate rooms ; are not required to return to quarters till taps ; 
 are confined by themselves when punished ; have a special 
 mess, and also a reading-room properly lighted and heated, and 
 provided with books, papers, and periodicals. 
 
 To pass from the peace to the war footing, nearly 4,000 ser- 
 geants are required in addition to 10,323 already in the army. 
 This deficiency, it is expected, will be made up by the one-year 
 
126 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 volunteers, who already supply annually for tlie reserve 400 
 non-commissioned officers, making available in the eight classes 
 3,200. The remaining 800 will probably be supplied from the 
 same source, as the recent modifications in army laws, it is be- 
 lieved, will produce increased volunteering. 
 
 The foregoing description of sergeants in the Italian army 
 applies with very few modifications to all of the armies on the 
 Continent, and should impress us with the conviction that, if in 
 future wars we would increase the chances of victory, and di- 
 minish the waste of human life, we should devote our attention 
 to the education of our non-commissioned no less than the com- 
 missioned officers of our army. 
 
 SCHOOLS FOK OFFICEES IN EUROPE. 
 
 The systems of education for military officers, adopted by 
 all the great powers, are substantially the same, and are based 
 upon the principle that different degrees of instruction are re- 
 quired for the different arms of service. 
 
 In pursuance of this principle, officers of artillery and engi- 
 neers are educated at one academy, while officers of infantry and 
 cavalry are educated at another. 
 
 Inferior schools, more or less military in their organization, 
 prepare cadets for admission to the academies or schools from 
 which they pass as commissioned officers into the army. On 
 the Continent instruction is imparted by lecture, more or less in 
 connection with text-books. The lectures on all subjects in the 
 course of study are generally delivered to the entire class, the 
 members of which take notes. If not provided with text- 
 books, these notes supply the student with all the information 
 he can get on the subject, and with these he must show himself 
 familiar at subsequent recitations called " interrogations." 
 
 The interrogations take place usually the day after or second 
 day after the lecture, and are conducted by the professor, or 
 assistant professors, according to the size of the class, which is 
 divided for the purpose into sections. 
 
 Frequently the classes are so large that interrogations can- 
 not take place more than once a week, and often once in two 
 
SCHOOLS FOR OFFICERS IN EUROPE. 127 
 
 weeks. Under sucli circuinstances tlie cadets are notified when 
 they will be interrogated, and are also informed on what por- 
 tions of the subject they must be prepared. 
 
 "When complete text-books are provided, the subjects in each 
 lesson are also explained by the professor. The students as be- 
 fore take notes, and afterward are interrogated both upon the 
 notes and the lesson as given in the text. 
 
 This system of instruction involves great loss of time, and 
 in thoroughness cannot be compared with the American system 
 of recitations from text-books, especially when confined to small 
 sections as at the Military Academy. 
 
 The instructors at all foreign military schools are both mili- 
 tary and civil. The former usually teach mathematics and the 
 sciences, the latter languages and history. 
 
 The lecture-rooms are prepared for entire classes, but some- 
 times, when these exceed a hundred members, they are divided 
 into two sections. 
 
 The students sleep in large dormitories, which they are not 
 permitted to visit between reveille and tattoo. 
 
 The studying is done in large halls, arranged for each class, 
 which is under the supervision of an officer, who is always pres- 
 ent to preserve order and give assistance. 
 
 The military schools of each country are under the super- 
 vision of the Minister of War, but the general control is as- 
 signed to an ofiicer styled the Superintendent or Director of 
 Military Education. 
 
 This ofiicer presides over a bureau of the "War Department, 
 to which are referred all matters pertaining to military schools 
 and military education. 
 
 Cadets who seek admission to the academies and schools, 
 whence they graduate as oflicers of the army, are usually pre- 
 pared at inferior schools termed military colleges, military gym- 
 nasia, or, as in Germany, the cadet corps. 
 
 From these schools the cadets pass according to their ability 
 to the academies for artillery and engineers, or to the schools 
 for infantry and cavalry. 
 
 On graduating from these higher schools the officers of in- 
 
128 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 fantry go directly to their regiments ; the officers of cavalry go 
 to a special school of application for cavalry, where they usually 
 remain a year, while the officers of artillery and engineers go 
 for two years to a school of application for artillery and engi- 
 neers. 
 
 The highest military schools are the War Academies, spe- 
 cially designed to qualify officers who have been in the army 
 not less than three or four years for high command, and the per- 
 formance of duty on the staff. 
 
 All of the foregoing schools are supplemented by the great 
 manoeuvres, where officers and soldiers of all grades learn prac- 
 tically the duties required in the presence of the enemy. 
 
 MILriAKY SCHOOLS OF ITALY. 
 
 As a general rule, the expenses of military education are de- 
 frayed by the parents, and usually amount to 900 lire or $180 
 per year, which is paid in quarterly installments. If unable to 
 meet the payments, the cadet must quit the school and return to 
 civil life. 
 
 In the case of sons of deserving public men and officers, and 
 also as a reward for success in study, the state sometimes as- 
 sumes one-half of the expense, while in the case of officers killed 
 in battle it pays the entire expense of education. 
 
 MILITARY COLLEGES. 
 
 The lowest military schools are termed Military Colleges, 
 and are three in number : one at Kaples, one at Florence, and 
 one at Milan. 
 
 The field and staff of each college consists of one field-officer 
 as commandant, one field-officer as second-commandant, one 
 adjutant, and two accountant-officers. 
 
 The cadets are organized into three companies, to each of 
 which are assigned one captain and three lieutenants from the 
 army, who serve as instructors in both the military and aca- 
 demical departments. Each company is composed of men of 
 the same class, except the sergeants and corporals, who are 
 chosen from the two hio-her classes. 
 
MILITAEY COLLEGES. 129 
 
 Cadets are admitted from thirteen to sixteen years of age, 
 and for admission are examined in arithmetic, grammar, and 
 writing. These examinations are held at Milan, Florence, and 
 Naples, before commissions composed of professors and instruct- 
 ors of the colleges, and also at Palermo and Tm*in before local 
 commissions appointed for the same purpose. The total num- 
 ber of cadets received at each college approximates 230. 
 
 The course of study is three years, as follows : 
 
 First Year. — Arithmetic, plane geometry, Greek and Eo- 
 man history, geography, Italian and French languages, drawing, 
 and writing. 
 
 Second Year. — Algebra, plane and solid geometry, history 
 of the middle ages, geography, Italian and French languages. 
 
 Third Year. — Algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, mod- 
 ern history, geography, Italian and French languages, natural 
 history, geometrical and landscape drawing. 
 
 The maximum mark for a recitation is 20, the minimum 0. 
 
 The examinations are conducted by sub-committees, with a 
 common president, who is a general officer appointed by the 
 general of division within whose territory the college is lo- 
 cated. 
 
 The sub-committees for the first and second classes are com- 
 posed of three members chosen from the instructors, one of 
 whom is the instructor of the subject upon which the cadets 
 are to be examined. 
 
 The sub-committee of the third or graduating class is com- 
 posed of a field-officer, one officer named by the general of di- 
 vision, and the professor of the subject upon which the cadets 
 are to be examined. 
 
 All cadets of the first and second classes who receive 10 out 
 of 20 marks in each subject at the examination are advanced to 
 the class next above. Cadets of the third class who receive 14 out 
 of 20 marks in mathematics, and 10 in every other subject, are 
 permitted to pursue a special course in mathematics with a view 
 to admission to the military academy for engineers and artillery 
 at Turin. At the end of the year they are examined by a spe- 
 cial commission appointed by the Minister of "War, composed 
 
130 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 of a general and two professors of the academy who visit the 
 militaiy school at Modena in addition to the three military col- 
 leo-es. The students who at this examination receive 10 out of 
 20 marks in the special course, and in all of the other subjects, 
 are eligible for appointment to the military academy. 
 
 The other members of the third class who do not compete 
 for appointments to the academy at Turin, and who receive 10 
 out of 20 marks in all subjects, are eligible for appointment to the 
 military school at Modena for cavalry and infantry, where they 
 enter the second year's course. Such cadets as do not desire to 
 pursue a military career are allowed at the completion of the 
 course to return to civil life. Cadets who fail to pass the ex- 
 amination are allowed to repeat the course once. 
 
 The military instruction at the colleges is entirely practical, 
 and limited to the schools of the soldier, company, and bat- 
 talion. Gymnastics, dancing, and swimming, complete all of 
 the practical exercises. 
 
 Each year, in the month of September, the cadets make ex- 
 cursions under their officers to different parts of the country, 
 where they attend to military exercises, and study ground and 
 fortifications. 
 
 The discipline at all these colleges is paternal in its nature. 
 The officers are constantly in contact with the cadets. They 
 superintend them at recitations, recreations, at meals and gym- 
 nastics, and an officer of service is always present with them in 
 the hall of study and in the dormitory. 
 
 Coming to the college at a tender age, they learn obedience 
 and subordination without compulsion ; but, if refractory, disci- 
 pline is enforced by the commandant, according to a known 
 scale of punishment. Confinement in light prison and dismis- 
 sal are the severest punishments inflicted. 
 
 The generals of division where the colleges are located can 
 examine into the discipline, but cannot interfere with the course 
 of study, for which the commandant is responsible to the Min- 
 ister of War. 
 
 At the conclusion of the examinations the general who pre- 
 sides over the committees makes his report as to the condition 
 
MILITAEY SCHOOL OF MODENA. 131 
 
 of tlie college to the Minister of "War. This report is shown 
 to the commandant, who is authorized to make explanations. 
 
 MILITAEY SCHOOL OF MODENA. 
 
 The object of this school is to prepare cadets to receive com- 
 missions in the infantry and cavalry. 
 
 The examinations for admission are competitive, and are 
 held, as in the case of military colleges, before commissions 
 appointed by the Minister of War, which convene at Turin, 
 Milan, Modena, Florence, Naples, and Palermo. 
 
 It is intended that the number of admissions annually shall 
 approach 300, but in 1875 the total number of cadets did not 
 exceed 566. Competition is open to the cadets at the military 
 colleges, to civil students, and to soldiers, several of whom were 
 in the school in 1876. 
 
 Candidates must be between the ages of fifteen and twenty- 
 two, and on entering the second year of the course are re- 
 quired to engage for eight years' service with the colors. 
 
 Cadets who complete the third year's course at the military 
 colleges, which coincides with the first year's course at Modena, 
 enter at once on the second year's course. All others pursue 
 the full course of three years. 
 
 The officers of the school consist of a general, as comman- 
 dant ; one field-officer, second in command ; one field-officer, 
 director of studies ; two adjutants ; three accountant-officers ; 
 five captains, commandants of cadet companies; 15 lieutenants, 
 assigned to the cadet companies ; 12 captains and 5 lieutenants, 
 instructors ; 14 civil professors ; in addition, there are instruct- 
 ors of riding, fencing, and gymnastics — making the total per- 
 sonnel, military and civil, 77. 
 
 The course of instruction is three years, as follows : 
 
 First Year. — Algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, geog- 
 raphy, modern history, Italian and French languages, natural 
 history, line and landscape drawing. 
 
 Second Year. — Military art, topography, elements of phys- 
 ics, chemistry and mineralogy, study of arms, French and Ital- 
 ian literature, geometrical and topographical drawing. 
 
132 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 Third Year. — Military history, military geography, fortifi- 
 cation, Italian and French literature, military law and adminis- 
 tration, topographical drawing, also dra^dng of fortifications. 
 
 The annual examination takes place in July. Cadets who 
 fail are allowed a reexamination in September, when, if they 
 fail, they are turned back. If they fail a second time, they are 
 sent to a regiment of the line to complete their eight years' 
 service. 
 
 In consequence of the great demand for officers, 400 being 
 required annually, from 96 to 97 per cent, of the cadets are al- 
 lowed to graduate. 
 
 The military organization is in five companies, with one cap- 
 tain and three lieutenants from the army as officers. The du- 
 ties of these officers have heretofore been exclusively military, 
 but it is contemplated to make them instructors in other branch- 
 es of study. 
 
 The military exercises are limited to infantry tactics, riding 
 in the third year (school of the trooper), and gymnastics. 
 
 The cadets encamp from 20 to 30 days each year, during 
 which period they devote their time to military exercises, study 
 of ground, and reconnaissances. 
 
 If there be vacancies, the cadets on graduation are commis- 
 sioned as officers, otherwise, until vacancies occur, they rank as 
 sergeants. The officers assigned to the cavalry go to the cav- 
 alry school at Pinerolo, those assigned to the infantry join their 
 regiments. 
 
 Attached to the military school at Modena is a special school 
 for 250 non-commissioned officers, selected from the best ser- 
 geants of the army, who, on completing a course of instruction 
 for two years, are commissioned as officers in all arms of ser- 
 vice. These sergeants are qualified for admission either in the 
 school for non-commissioned officers in their regiments, or else 
 at the battalions of instruction already described. 
 
 The course of study is two years, as follows : 
 
 First Year. — Italian language, history of Italy, arithmetic, 
 geography, linear drawing, physics, natural history, materiel of 
 artiller3^ 
 
MILITARY ACADEMY AT TURIN". 133 
 
 Second Year. — Italian language, topography, fortification, 
 military art, military law and administration, study and treat- 
 ment of the horse (for cavalry and artillery), use of artillery, 
 and construction of batteries (for the artillery). 
 
 The military and gymnastic exercises correspond to those 
 for the cadets in the higher school. 
 
 MILITARY ACADEMY AT TUEIN. 
 
 The object of this academy is to educate officers for the ar- 
 tillery and engineers. 
 
 The examinations are competitive, and are conducted, as 
 already stated, by a commission appointed by the Minister of 
 War, which visits the military school at Modena and the mili- 
 tary colleges at Naples, Florence, and Milan. 
 
 Competition is open to all, but preference is given to 
 cadets who have completed the third year's course at the mili- 
 tary colleges, or the first year's course at the military school at 
 Modena, which are identical. 
 
 The number of admissions annually is 90. Age at date of 
 admission must be below twenty-three. 
 
 The officers of the academy consist of a general as comman- 
 dant ; 1 colonel, as second commandant and director of studies ; 
 1 lieutenant-colonel, as director of interior economy and mili- 
 tary instruction ; 1 secretary ; 1 adjutant ; 2 accountant-officers ; 
 9 officers for practical instruction ; 23 military and civil pro- 
 fessors and assistant professors ; 1 riding-master, besides the ne- 
 cessary instructors for fencing and gymnastics. 
 
 The course of study is three years : 
 
 First Year. — Higher algebra, analytical geometry and ele- 
 ments of calculus, mechanics, surveying, Italian and French 
 languages, geometrical and topographical drawing. 
 
 Second Year. — Analytical geometry, differential calculus, 
 descriptive geometry, fortification, chemistry, Italian and French 
 literature, military drawing (fortification), and topographical 
 drawing. 
 
 Third Year. — Mechanics, descriptive geometry, organic 
 
134 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 chemistry, military art, military history, military law and ad- 
 ministration, elements of architecture. 
 
 The total nmnber of cadets varies, rarely ever exceeding 
 250. On graduating the cadets receive commissions as second- 
 lieutenants in the artillery and engineers, which commissions 
 are antedated one year, in order to place the graduates on the 
 same footing as regards promotion as the cadets of the school 
 at Modena, who graduate a year before them. 
 
 SCHOOL OF APPLICATION FOB AETILLEET AND ENGINEEKS. 
 
 As soon as the cadets graduate at the Military Academy 
 they go as second-lieutenants to the school of application. 
 
 The course of instruction is two years, as follows : 
 
 First Year. — Applied mechanics, materiel of artillery, per- 
 manent fortification, attack and defense of fortified places, mili- 
 tary geography, military bridges, architecture, and art of con- 
 struction. 
 
 Second Year. — Ballistics, materiel of artillery, permanent 
 fortification, art of construction, military history, employment 
 of artillery in war, manufacture of artillery materiel, drawing, 
 architecture, and geodesy. 
 
 The ofiicers of the school consist of a general as comman- 
 dant ; 1 lieutenant-colonel, as second commandant ; 1 captain, 
 as adjutant ; 1 first-lieutenant, as assistant adjutant ; 2 lieuten- 
 ants, at the disposition of the commandant ; 6 captains, military 
 professors ; 4 lieutenants, assistant professors ; 2 civil profess- 
 ors ; 5 captains, directors of practical instruction, 1 captain, 
 riding-master, and 1 fencing-master. The school is also fur- 
 nished with 44 men and 60 horses by the Normal School for 
 Cavalry at Pinerolo. 
 
 On graduating from the school of application the ofiicers 
 are appointed first-lieutenants ; those who fail are sent to the 
 cavalry and infantry. 
 
 NOEMAL SCHOOL OF INFANTRY AT PARMA. 
 
 There are several distinct courses of instruction pursued at 
 the Normal School. 
 
NORMAL SCHOOL OF INFANTRY AT TURIN. I35 
 
 The first is for such lieutenants of infantry and cavalry as 
 wish to compete at the examination for admission to the War 
 School at Turin. The course is four months, and embraces 
 arithmetic, geography, algebra, plane and solid geometry ; 
 trigonometry, mediaeval and modern history ; Italian and 
 French literature. 
 
 The examinations in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and 
 trigonometry, are oral, and are conducted by a commission com- 
 posed of two superior officers and one professor of the Normal 
 School. 
 
 The examinations in the other subjects are written, and the 
 papers are sent to the "War School at Turin, where they are ex- 
 amined by a commission composed of the commandant, second 
 commandant, and a professor of the War School. 
 
 To be eligible for admission, the competitor must obtain the 
 medium mark of 10 out of 20. 
 
 The second course lasts three months, and is repeated twice 
 a year for the benefit of the first and second lieutenants of in- 
 fantry who wish to prepare for examination previous to their 
 promotion. 
 
 Each course is pursued by about one hundred officers at a 
 time, and embraces the theoretical and ballistical principles of 
 portable fire-arms ; construction and repair of fire-arms ; recharg- 
 ing metallic cartridges ; field fortification, and target-practice, 
 with both fixed and movable targets. 
 
 The third course lasts forty days, and embraces the same sub- 
 jects as the second course. It is pursued by the officers of in- 
 fantry and cavalry of the lowest class at the War School, at 
 the end of their first year, one-half of the class attending at a 
 time. 
 
 The fourth course is for the education of non-commissioned 
 officers who aspire to be officers in the Accountant Department 
 or Department of Comptabilite. The course lasts two years, as 
 follows : 
 
 First Year. — Arithmetic, Italian language, military law, 
 theoretical and practical book-keeping, theory of the construc- 
 tion of fire-arms, and practical repair of fire-arms. 
 
136 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 Second Year. — Continuation of the first year's course, to- 
 gether with the method of provisioning troops. 
 
 The examination for admission of non-commissioned officers 
 to the schools at Modena and Parma is competitive, two or three 
 sergeants being permitted to compete from each regiment. Be- 
 fore being permitted to present themselves before the commis- 
 sion named by the Minister of War, the sergeants from each 
 regiment must compete with the other sergeants of the regi- 
 ment who seek the same privilege. 
 
 The number of competitors for both schools is approxi- 
 mately 300, of whom about 200 succeed. Of this number 
 about 120 to 125 go to the school at Modena, the remainder 
 to Parma. 
 
 The Government establishes no arbitrary rule fixing the 
 proportion of officers to be promoted from the ranks, but by 
 means of these schools encourages every good soldier in the 
 army to aspire to a commission. 
 
 The officers of the school consist of a colonel as commandant, 
 1 lieutenant-colonel or major as second commandant, 1 adjutant, 
 1 surgeon, 1 major of comptabilite director of the course of 
 comptabilite, 3 lieutenants of comptabilite, 9 officers (captains 
 and lieutenants) practical instructors, and 16 military and civil 
 professors. 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL FOE CAVALRY AT PINEROLO. 
 
 The principal object of this school is to carry on the educa- 
 tion of second-lieutenants of cavalry who join it immediately 
 after graduating at Modena. 
 
 The course of instruction is ten months, being mostly de- 
 voted to riding and practical duties required of cavalry. 
 
 A second course of instruction is provided for officers who 
 desire to become first-class instructors in riding, and a third 
 course of two months for the preparation of senior lieutenants 
 to pass their examination for promotion. 
 
 SCHOOL OF WAR AT TURIN. 
 
 The object of this school is to train officers for that branch 
 
SCHOOL OF WAR AT TURIK 137 
 
 of the staff corresponding in our army to the Adjutant-General's 
 Department. 
 
 The officers of the War School consist of a general as com- 
 mandant ; 1 colonel or lieutenant-colonel as second commandant ; 
 3 staff officers, and 23 military instructors and professors. The 
 military instructors are mostly officers of the General Staff". 
 
 Admission to the school is by competitive examination for 
 officers of infantry and cavalry ; and without examination for 
 officers of artillery and engineers, who have graduated at the 
 military academy and school of application for the artillery and 
 engineers. 
 
 The conditions of admission for officers of infantry and 
 cavalry are two years' service with troops, and ability to pass an 
 examination in the subjects mentioned in the first course at the 
 JSTormal School at Parma, which is specially designed to prepare 
 them for admission to the War School. The number of com- 
 petitors is iisnally about 100, of whom 50 to 60 are admitted. 
 
 The course of study for these officers is three years. At 
 the end of their first year they are joined by about six officers of 
 artillery, and two of engineers, taken in the order of class-rank, 
 after graduating at the school of application. 
 
 Failure to pass the annual examinations reduces the gradu- 
 ating class to about fifty, of whom eight or ten, after returning 
 to their regiments or corps, are summoned to Rome for duty 
 with the General Staff. 
 
 The course of study embraces : 
 
 First Year. — Topographical drawing, field fortification, 
 study of fire-arras, elementary mathematics (arithmetic and al- 
 gebra), descriptive geometry, Italian and French languages, 
 and, at the option of the student, one of the four following sub- 
 jects : English and German languages, political economy, and 
 physics. 
 
 Second Year. — Field topography, permanent fortification, 
 military art, military history, mathematics, Italian and French 
 literature, and, at the student's option, one of the four following 
 subjects : English and German languages, law, and chemistry. 
 
 Third Year. — Practical geodesy, military art, military ad- 
 
138 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 ministration, military geography, military history, French, Eng- 
 lish, and German languages, general history, geology, and min- 
 eralogy. 
 
 The practical course of study merits special attention. 
 
 At the end of the first year one-half of the students are sent 
 into the country to make maps for forty days, the other half go 
 to the normal school of infantry at Parma, where they take a 
 course of target-practice, study ballistics as applicable to small- 
 arms, also the construction of small-arms. They also receive 
 practical instruction in repairing arms, and in constructing and 
 refilling cartridges. At the end of the forty days each half ex- 
 changes duty with the other for the same length of time, which 
 completes the practical course for the first year. 
 
 At the end of the second year the entire class goes into the 
 country for a period of fifteen days, and plays the game of 
 Kriegsspiel. To accomplish this, two corps d'armee are supposed 
 to be operating against each other. A professor takes command 
 of each corps, and the students are placed in command of the 
 supposed divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions, and batter- 
 ies. 
 
 Before the operations begin a reconnaissance is made on each 
 side, and in all the subsequent movements the students are re- 
 quired to show on the ground where they would post their com- 
 mands, and explain in detail all the dispositions they would 
 make in the various attacks and counter-attacks. 
 
 After the game is over, the ground is visited with a view to 
 ascertain the correctness or faultiness of the various movements. 
 
 After the expiration of the fifteen days the same period is 
 employed in studying military positions on the frontier, and 
 their occupation by troops. In posting the troops they are re- 
 quired to designate the exact positions they would give to bat- 
 talions, regiments, brigades, divisions, or corps, according to the 
 command they might hold. They also make maps showing the 
 position of the troops, and the offensive and defensive disposi- 
 tions they would make in consequence of supposed movements 
 made by the enemy. 
 
 After the expiration of the thirty days they return to Tm'in, 
 
SCHOOL OF WAR AT TURIN". 139 
 
 and are specially examined in tlie practical duties they have 
 performed. 
 
 After the examination the class visits some of the principal 
 fortresses of Italy, to study practically the art of fortification. 
 After inspecting and criticising the fortress, the officers study 
 the ground, and are required to trace on maps the positions 
 they would assign to batteries, approaches, and parallels, in case 
 they were directing a siege. Fifteen days are allotted to the 
 above duty, followed by an examination in regard to all of the 
 fortresses visited. 
 
 At the conclusion of this examination, the infantry and cav- 
 alry officers of the class go for a month to Casale, for a course 
 in practical engineering, where they learn the construction of 
 trenches, parallels, epaulements, temporary bridges, as also the 
 method of destroying and repairing railroads. The officers of 
 artillery and engineers of the class during this time are em- 
 ployed with the next higher class in making maps in the 
 country. 
 
 At the end of the third year, the officers in the vicinity of 
 Turin study logistics as applicable to ground ; the marching 
 and camping of corps and other large bodies of troops; em- 
 barkation and disembarkation of troops ; routes for marching, 
 and also the means employed to make them practicable. This 
 duty occupies two months, and is followed by graduation when 
 the officers, before returning to duty with their regiments, are 
 sent to the grand manoeuvres to serve on the staff of the corps, 
 division, and brigade commanders. 
 
 To encourage officers to pursue the course of study at the 
 School of War, all of the lieutenants of infantry and cavalry who 
 complete the course successfully, and are not called to the staff, 
 are entitled to promotion as soon as they arrive in the upper 
 third of the grade to which they belong at the date of grad- 
 uation. For example, there being 2,717 first-lieutenants of 
 infantry, each graduate of the "War School, on reaching the 
 number 905 on the general list, would be entitled to the first 
 vacancy of captain, and would pass over the heads of 904 offi- 
 cers. 
 
140 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 The object of this advancement is to enable trained men to 
 arrive early at the higher commands of the army. 
 
 PKINCrPLE OF DETAIL FOE STAFF DUTY IN THE AKIMY OF ITALY. 
 
 The Utility of diffusing staff knowledge and experience in 
 the army, and the advantage to be gained by encouraging offi- 
 cers of the line to fit themselves for staff employment, as well 
 as high command, are fully recognized in the constitution of the 
 Italian Staff. Three of the four classes of which it is composed 
 are exclusively detailed from the line, and all above the grade 
 of lieutenant are in excess of the regimental complements. 
 
 All of the adjutant-generals of brigade or brigade-adjutants 
 are captains detailed from the line, in excess of the regimental 
 complement. To be eligible for appointment they must be 
 OTaduates of the School of War. 
 
 Aides-de-camp must be graduates of the School of "War, and 
 are borne on the strength of their regiments. Only aides-de- 
 camp attached to the royal household, Minister of "War, and to 
 generals commanding armies and corps, perform personal ser- 
 vice. The others assist the brigade-adjutants in their duties, 
 and, in case of necessity, replace them. 
 
 All subaltern officers return to regimental duty after two 
 years' detached service, and cannot again be detailed till the 
 expiration of another two years. 
 
 The principle of encouraging line officers to excel in pro- 
 fessional knowledge is strikingly acknowledged in the laws reg- 
 ulating promotion in the staff proper. 
 
 The lieutenants of the staff, twenty (20) in number, must be 
 graduates of the highest proficiency from the "War School ; 
 must subsequently have served a year with troops ; and have 
 passed the test of probation for staff duty at Rome. 
 
 Of the captains, seventy (70) in number, two-thirds are ap- 
 pointed from the lieutenants of the staff, and one-third from the 
 captains of the army at large, who are graduates of the War 
 School and possess the required qualifications. 
 
 An officer, therefore, who fails to receive the appointment 
 
PRINCIPLE OF DETAIL FOR STAFF DUTY. 141 
 
 of lieutenant has still the hope, if he distinguishes himself with 
 troops, of obtaining a captaincy in the staff at a later day. 
 
 The majors of the staff are selected from captains of the staff 
 who are previously promoted majors in the line, where they 
 serve with infantry or cavalry for two years ; from majors of 
 the line who, having graduated at the War School, are proposed 
 for admission to the staff, and from the most distinguished ma- 
 jors of artillery and engineers, who need not of necessity have 
 graduated at the War School. 
 
 The colonels and lieutenant-colonels are appointed from the 
 grade next below, but they may be transferred to the line, and 
 be required to command battalions and regiments. 
 
 The promotion to major shows that an ofScer who has been 
 both lieutenant and captain in the staff has no certainty that 
 he will receive the next higher grade. He must iirst go into 
 the line as major, and there he must remain unless summoned 
 back to the staff. The same rule applies to lieutenant-colonels 
 and colonels. 
 
 The staff officers know that on going to the line their con- 
 nection with the staff is severed, and that the Government is 
 left free to call them back or keep them with the troops. 
 
 The officers of the line, to the grade of major included, 
 know that staff preferment is open to them. 
 
 This constant interchange from the staff to the line, and 
 from the line to the staff, draws to the staff the highest talent 
 and skill in the army ; prevents the staff officers from becom- 
 ing slaves to routine ; enlightens them as to the wants of the 
 troops ; gives them a thorough knowledge of the instruction, 
 drill, and discipline of the troops ; and, by holding the com- 
 mand of companies, battalions, and regiments, qualifies them 
 for all the higher grades of the army. The army, too, in its 
 turn profits by all the talent of the staff, whose officers, return- 
 ing periodically to the command of the troops, become instruct- 
 ors in the grades where their influence will most surely be felt. 
 
 In addition to the variety of experience secured to officers 
 by transfers from the staff to the Ime and the reverse, there 
 are many other positions open to officers of the line — such as 
 
142 ARMY OF ITALY. 
 
 commandants of military districts, commandants, professors, 
 and instructors, at military academies, schools, and colleges — all 
 of wliicli are filled by detail. 
 
 The number of these different positions, and the care taken 
 by the Government to avoid crippling the regiments by de- 
 priving them of their complement of officers, are shown by the 
 following table, in which the first column represents the num- 
 ber of officers required to fill each grade in the 80 regiments of 
 infantry and 10 regiments of bersaglieri, and the second col- 
 umn the number of officers actually in service according to the 
 most recent legislation : 
 
 Officers 
 
 actually in 
 
 Service. 
 
 Colonels 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels and majors (one to command each battalion and depot) . 
 
 Captains (including 90 Tegmental adjutants and 90 on duty at depots) 
 
 First-lieutenants (including 280 battalion-adjutants) 
 
 Second-lieutenants 
 
 Total 
 
 90 
 
 460 
 
 1,260 
 
 2,520 
 
 1,120 
 
 5,450 
 
 140 
 
 493 
 
 1,744 
 
 2,750 
 
 1,37T 
 
 6,504 
 
 Of the number 493, 136 are lieutenant-colonels and 357 are 
 majors. 
 
 The difference between 6,504 and 5,450, which is 1,054, 
 gives the number of supernumerary officers of infantry avail- 
 able for the different varieties of detached service. 
 
 These supernumeraries are distributed among the several 
 regiments, to which they return on the completion of their tour 
 of duty, while the ratio which they bear to the total number of 
 officers in the regiments shows conclusively that every efficient 
 officer in the course of his career may hope to increase his ex- 
 perience by military employment outside of his own arm of 
 service. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 With the exception of graduates of universities or institu- 
 tions of technology, who must pass a special qualifying examina- 
 tion, and also one-year volunteers, no officer is commissioned in 
 
PROMOTION". 143 
 
 the Italian army without graduating at one or more of the es- 
 tablished military schools. 
 
 Promotion in infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, is 
 lineal in each arm or corps. As appears from the preceding 
 table, the list of officers in each arm embraces, in addition to the 
 number necessary to fill the regiments to their complement, the 
 number of officers required for detached service on the staff, at 
 mihtary schools, military districts, etc. 
 
 No officer can be promoted to the grade next above without 
 passing a prescribed examination. 
 
 The examining committees are appointed by the Minister of 
 "War, and for the grade of colonel are composed of general of- 
 ficers ; for the grades of captain to lieutenant-colonel inclusive, 
 they are presided over by a general officer ; for the grade of 
 sub-lieutenant by a field-officer. 
 
 The examination for promotion to the grade of captain in 
 infantry takes place at Parma, where the officers pursue a spe- 
 cial course of study. The examination for the grade of major 
 takes place in the territorial divisions, and is oral, written, and 
 practical. The written examination embraces tactical and mili- 
 tary themes, while the practical applies to the drill and move- 
 ments of a battalion, or a higher body of troops. The test for 
 lieutenant-colonel consists in commanding satisfactorily a bat- 
 talion and regiment. 
 
 About 200 lieutenants and 60 captains are ordered at the 
 same time for examination. If a lieutenant fails to pass three 
 successive examinations he must remain in the same grade for 
 twenty-five years, when, if he be forty-eight years of age, the 
 Government can retire him on full pension. If he becomes 
 forty-eight years of age before having served twenty-five years, 
 he can ask to be retired with as many twenty-fifths of the full 
 pension as he has served years. 
 
 For example, if allowed to retire after twenty years' ser- 
 vice, he would receive four-fifths of the full pension. 
 
 A lieutenant may waive an examination the first and second 
 year after failure, but he must submit to three examinations in 
 six years. 
 
144 AEMY OF ITALY. 
 
 The same rules apply to tlie examinations of captains for 
 promotion to major, the limit being fifty-two years of age and 
 thirty years' service. For example, if a captain fails in his ex- 
 amination, and after twenty-five years' service reaches the age 
 of fifty-two, the Government can retire him on five-sixths of 
 the full pension. The examination of captains is most severe, 
 and in 1876 about five per cent, failed. 
 
 The limits for promotion from major to lieutenant-colonel 
 are fifty-six years of age and thirty years' service ; lieutenant- 
 colonel, sixty years of age and thirty years' service. 
 
 Generals can be retired without regard to age or length of 
 service, and the Government can prolong at pleasure the ser- 
 vice of any officer beyond the prescribed age. 
 
 In all regiments and corps about one-third of the vacancies 
 is reserved for the sergeants who have been trained at the mili- 
 tary schools for the grade of officers. 
 
 In time of peace four-fifths of the promotions in infantry 
 and cavalry to grade of first-lieutenants are by seniority, and 
 one-fifth by selection ; in time of war, two-thirds are promoted 
 by seniority, the other third by selection. 
 
 Graduation from the "War School entitles a lieutenant to 
 promotion as soon as he arrives in the upper third of his grade. 
 
 To the grade of captain two-thirds are promoted in time of 
 peace by seniority, the other third by selection ; in time of war, 
 one-half are promoted by seniority, the other half by selection. 
 
 Promotion to major in time of peace is half by seniority and 
 half by selection ; in time of war it is all by selection. 
 
 All promotions above the grade of major are by selection, 
 the candidates being required to pass practical examinations. 
 
 Promotion by selection is based upon the fact that it is im- 
 possible for the Government to give all officers the same educa- 
 tion. In the interest of the state, therefore, the intelligent and 
 efficient are promoted over the heads of the ignorant and indo- 
 lent ; while, by the provision that all promotions above the 
 grade of major shall be by selection, worthless officers are whol- 
 ly debarred from attaining high commands. 
 
 In the consolidation and organization of the present army 
 
PE9M0TI0N. 145 
 
 the Government from time to time has found it necessary to 
 discharge officers who were known to be ignorant and worth- 
 less. 
 
 The first purification took place in 1861, after the army of 
 Piedmont was consol'dated with the armies of Lombardy, Par- 
 ma, Modena, Emilia, and Naples. In the latter army, which 
 contained more than 100,000 men, there were a large number 
 of the Garibaldi volunteers with little or no education. On 
 failing to pass a prescribed examination, many officers were dis- 
 charged with six months' pay. 
 
 In 1870 the army was again purified. Colonels of regi- 
 ments and generals were required to report to the Minister of 
 "War the names of all officers disqualified for service either 
 through ill health or inefficiency. These officers were invited 
 to retire from the service with a pension proportioned to their 
 length of service. A lieutenant, for instance, of fifteen years' 
 service, was offered fifteen twenty-fifths of the full pension ; a 
 captain of twenty years' service was offered twenty thirtieths of 
 the full pension. Such officers as refused to apply for retire- 
 ment were ordered before a commission for examination. 
 
 The action of the Government in giving proportional pen- 
 sions was based upon the consideration that officers who had 
 given to the Government the years from twenty to forty, in 
 which civilians lay the foundations of their fortunes, could not 
 with justice be turned adrift to begin, with advancing years, 
 occupations for which their previous life had unfitted them. 
 
 10 
 
AEMT OF RUSSIA. 
 
 Since the adoption of tlie principle of obligatory military 
 service in 1870, the Russian army has been in a state of transi- 
 tion. 
 
 When the organization is completed, the military forces 
 will be divided into the regular and irregular army, the 
 former of which embraces the field, reserve, depot, and local 
 troops. 
 
 The following table represents approximately the proposed 
 strength of the field-army on a peace and war footing : 
 
 EEGULAE ARMY. 
 
 Infantet, Peace-footing. 
 
 No. of 
 Battalions. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Combatants. 
 
 Non-Com- 
 
 batants. 
 
 528 
 
 116 
 
 4 
 
 10,771 
 
 1,918 
 
 90 
 
 315,925 
 
 55,4S7 
 1,908 
 
 24,291 
 
 5,852 
 
 
 
 293 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 648 
 
 12,779 
 
 371,320 
 
 30,436 
 
 
 Infantry, Wae-footino. 
 
 528 
 
 116 
 
 4 
 
 18..5fi5 
 
 2,389 
 
 106 
 
 537,421 
 
 113.055 
 
 8,316 
 
 30.824 
 
 
 7,127 
 826 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 648 
 
 16,060 
 
 658,792 
 
 38.277 
 
 
 
REGULAK ARMY. 
 
 147 
 
 EEGCLAE ARMY. 
 
 
 No. of 
 Squadr'ns. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Combatants. 
 
 Non-Co m- 
 batants. 
 
 
 833 
 16 
 
 849 
 
 2,529 
 140 
 
 flRQ 
 
 55,171 
 2,916 
 
 8,924 
 611 
 
 Caucasus 
 
 
 Total 
 
 58,087 
 
 9,585 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 Cavalry, Wae-footing. 
 European Russia 
 
 841 
 
 16 
 
 2,388 
 140 
 
 55,228 
 2,852 
 
 8,949 
 589 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 857 
 
 2,523 
 
 58,080 
 
 9,538 
 
 
 Field- Artillery, Peace-footing. 
 
 Batteries. 
 
 No. of 
 Guns. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Combatants. 
 
 Non-Com- 
 batants. 
 
 
 246 
 42 
 11 
 
 984 
 168 
 50 
 
 1,602 
 273 
 
 40,849 
 
 7,995 
 
 1,893 
 
 440 
 
 Caucasus 
 
 Asiatic Kussia 
 
 75 1 i,'716 
 
 
 Total 
 
 299 
 
 1,202 
 
 1,950 
 
 49,573 
 
 9,828 
 
 
 Field-Artilleky, Wae-footing. 
 European Russia 
 
 240 
 42 
 11 
 
 1,968 
 336 
 
 88 
 
 1,602 
 273 
 
 75 
 
 59,955 
 
 10,527 
 
 2,544 
 
 10,168 
 2,118 
 
 Caucasus 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 299 
 
 2,392 
 
 1,950 
 
 73,026 
 
 12 955 
 
 
 
 Hoese-Artillert, all in Europe. 
 Peace-footing 
 
 34 
 84 
 
 202 
 204 
 
 221 
 
 204 
 
 6,057 
 7,466 
 
 1 093 
 
 War-footing 
 
 1,272 
 
 Engineers. 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 War-footing.. 
 
 No. of 
 Battalions. 
 
 18>^ 
 18^ 
 
 483 
 4S3 
 
 11,432 
 18,180 
 
 Non-Com- 
 batants. 
 
 1.780 
 2,203 
 
 Total. 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 War-footing. . . 
 
 18,102 
 21,220 
 
 496,469 
 815,544 
 
 52,672 
 64,245 
 
 The reserve troops are composed of trained soldiers, and, 
 like the landwehr of Germany, are intended to reenforce the 
 active army, and to form an array in the second line. 
 
 Scarcely any cadres exist for the reserve in time of peace, 
 but ultimately, in time of war, it is intended to form 164 bat- 
 talions of infantry, with an approximate strength of 3,500 of- 
 ficers, 170,000 combatants, and 13,000 non-combatanta. 
 
 The depot troops in time of war are intended to fill vacan- 
 cies in the field-army, and to train recruits. Except in the artil- 
 
148 ARMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 ' lery and cavalry, no cadres exist in time of peace. In time of 
 war it is intended to form 199 battalions of infantry, with an 
 approximate strength, in infantry, cavalry, and artillery, of 
 6,650 officers, 270,000 combatants, and 40,000 non-combatants. 
 
 Local troops a;'e intended for garrison and local defense, but 
 can be utilized for field-service. The proposed organization of 
 these troops consists of 132 battalions in time of peace, capable 
 in time of war of an expansion to 245 battalions, with an ap- 
 proximate strength of 11,900 officers and 360,000 men. 
 
 The total war-strength of the regular army of European 
 Russia, embracing reserve, depot, and local troops, is estimated 
 at, 38,000 officers, 1,350,000 combatants, and 140,000 non-com- 
 batants; in the Caucasus, 4,900 officers, 216,000 combatants, 
 and 19,000 non-combatants ; in Asia, 1,050 officers, 35,000 com- 
 batants, and 4,000 non-combatants — making the total war- 
 strength of the empire 43,950 officers, 1,601,000 combatants, 
 and 163,000 non-combatants. 
 
 The above figures cannot be attained until the plan of reor- 
 ganization is completed. 
 
 The present strength available for war purposes can only be 
 deduced from the war-footing of the troops composing the active 
 army, together with the troops that have passed from the active 
 army into the reserve. This number depends upon the annual 
 > contingent called to perform military duty, which varies from 
 150,000 to 180,000. The period of military service being six 
 years in the active army and nine years in the reserve, if it 
 be assumed that of the annual contingent 100,000 should com- 
 plete the six years' service, the nine classes of the reserve would 
 amount to 900,000 men. Of this number, 300,000 would be re- 
 quired to raise the active army from the peace to the war foot- 
 ing, leaving 600,000 men available for organization as reserve, 
 depot, and local troops. In consequence of the great difficulty 
 of procuring officers, and want of time to organize the troops 
 of the second line, it is probable that for the immediate future 
 the reserve will only be available by calling out the men by 
 classes to fill the vacancies in the active army. 
 
i 
 
 i-r 
 
 INFANTEY. 
 
 149 
 
 IRREGULAR ARMY. ■ ^■■ 
 
 This consists of the Cossacks, all of whom owe military ser- 
 vice, and who constitute the irregular-cavalry force, with an 
 approximate peace-footing of 35,000 men, and a ^var-footing of 
 140,000 men. 
 
 LNFANTRY. 
 
 The infantry of the line is maintained on four different foot- 
 ings, viz. : 
 
 War, increased peace, peace, and cadre. 
 
 The organization of a company, according to the four foot- 
 ings, is as follows : 
 
 Captain 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Junior sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Privates 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Non-combatants. 
 
 Total 
 
 War- 
 footing. 
 
 6 
 12 
 20 
 160 
 3 
 3 
 T 
 
 Increased 
 Peace- 
 /ooting. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 8 
 18 
 
 lis 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 Peace- 
 footing. 
 
 123 
 
 85 
 
 The footing of increased peace and cadre are not usually 
 adopted. The regiments of the three divisions of the guard, 
 and the six divisions of the Araiy of the Caucasus, have four 
 battalions, of four companies each. All other regiments have 
 three battalions of five companies each, but ultimately they 
 will be organized like those of the guard. 
 
 The field and staff of a regiment consists of — 
 
 1 Commandant, 
 
 1 Field-officer, superintendent of interior economy, 
 
 3 or 4 Field-officers, one for each battalion, 
 
 1 Regimental adjutant, 
 
 1 Kegimental' quartermaster, 
 
 1 Regimental paymaster, 
 
 1 Instructor of arms, 
 
 1 Surgeon, 
 
150 
 
 ARMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 1 OflScer in charge of non-combatants, 
 
 3 or 4 Battalion surgeons, 
 
 3 or 4 Battalion adjutants, 
 
 1 Chaplain. 
 In the guards the commandants of regiments have the rank 
 of major-generals, and commandants of battalions the grade of 
 colonel. In all other regiments they have respectively the 
 grades of colonel and major. 
 
 The strength of a regiment of 
 lows: 
 
 X)ur battalions 
 
 is as fol- 
 
 REGIMENT. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Combatanls. 
 
 Non-CombatanU. 
 
 Peace-footing , . .... 
 
 64 
 
 8i> 
 
 4,057 
 
 192 
 
 "VVar-footing 
 
 233 
 
 
 
 The non-combatant class embraces the administrative of- 
 ficers, surgeons, chaplains, clerks, artificers, drivers, and officers' 
 servants, one being allowed to each. 
 
 EEIGADE. 
 
 An infantry brigade consists of two regiments with six of 
 eight battalions, according to the organization of the regiments. 
 
 DR^ISION. 
 
 An infantry division consists of two brigades (12 or 16 bat- 
 talions), and a brigade of artillery of four to six batteries. 
 
 The chief of staff of the division is a colonel or lieutenant- 
 colonel of the general staff, and is assisted by two captains of 
 the staff, who attend to all the administrative and routine 
 work. 
 
 CORPS. 
 
 A corps d'armee consists of two divisions of infantry, one 
 division of cavalry, with the proper complement of artillery 
 and engineers. 
 
 The cavalry division consists of two brigades of two regi- 
 ments of four squadrons each, also two batteries of horse-artil- 
 lery. 
 
SCHOOL FOR OFFICERS. 151 
 
 The Russian army is divided into fourteen territorial com- 
 mands, corresponding to the same number of provincial gov- 
 ernments. 
 
 The recruitment of the army is carried out by the various 
 local governments, and the recruits are trained and equipped by 
 the reserve, or local troops, in the same manner as in the mili- 
 tary districts in Italy, 
 
 The term of service is fifteen years, beginning with the 
 twenty-second year. Of this period six years are spent with 
 the colors, and nine years in the reserve. The annual contin- 
 gent varies from 150,000 to 180,000 men, and constitutes about 
 twenty-five per cent, of the number of young men who annu- 
 ally become liable to military service. 
 
 As an encouragement to intelligence, the battalion and regi- 
 mental schools are established the same as in other armies, and 
 a further inducement is oifered in a reduction of the term of 
 active service. 
 
 To secure a body of reliable non-commissioned officers the 
 Government has recently offered special advantages to all ser- 
 geants who will reenlist. Not only are they guaranteed em- 
 ployment in the civil and military departments of the Govern- 
 ment after their discharge, but pensions are likewise granted. 
 A sergeant of ten years' service on going into reserve receives 
 250 rubles, or $200. Those who have served three reenlist- 
 ments, or twenty years, receive in hand 1,000 rubles ($800), or, 
 if they prefer, an annual pension of 96 rubles ($76). 
 
 SCHOOLS FOR OFFICERS. 
 
 The means of providing an efficient body of officers for 
 the immense army has long since engaged the attention of 
 the Government, and has led to the establishment of a greater 
 number of military schools than exists in any other country of 
 Europe. 
 
 By far the largest portion of officers is composed of non- 
 commissioned officers promoted after pursuing a special course 
 of military instruction. For this purpose there are 14 schools 
 for non-commissioned officers of infantry, one in each provin- 
 
152 AEMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 cial government; one for the Cossacks of the Don at l^ovo 
 Tcherkask; one for the Cossacks of the Caucasus at Stavro- 
 pol ; one for the Cossacks of Orenburg at Orenburg ; one for 
 the cavahy at Twer, and another at Elizabethgrad. 
 
 The course of instruction at the infantry schools is two 
 years, and embraces — 
 First year: 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Russian language, 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Principles of physics and chemistry, 
 
 Military drawing. 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History. 
 Second year : 
 
 Infantry tactics, 
 
 Applied tactics. 
 
 Military topography, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Theory of fire-arms, 
 
 Military administration, 
 
 Military law, 
 
 Military hygiene, 
 
 Method of teaching soldiers to read and write. 
 The practical course embraces drill, gjmmastics, and fencing. 
 The students are also required to pursue a practical course with 
 their regiments, to which they return during the summer vaca- 
 tion of three months. 
 
 The number of scholars at the different infantry schools va- 
 ries from 200 to 400 ; the total number is 3,800, of whom about 
 1,800 graduate annually, and return to the army as commis- 
 sioned officers. 
 
 MILITARY GYSINASIA. 
 
 These schools, numbering thirteen, correspond to the mili- 
 tary colleges of Italy, and are intended to prepare cadets for the 
 higher schools for infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers. 
 
IKFANTRY SCHOOLS. I53 
 
 The course of study is seven years, and is open to boys from 
 the age of ten to seventeen. 
 
 Cadets named by the Minister of War, mostly sons of civil 
 and military officers, receive a free education, while the sons of 
 civilians are educated at the expense of their parents. 
 The course of instruction embraces — 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Grammar, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Trigonometry, 
 
 History, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Russian, 
 
 French and German languages, 
 
 Singing, 
 
 Dancing, 
 
 Gymnastics, 
 
 Fencing, 
 
 Swimming. 
 
 Only the senior class is instructed in the use of arms. 
 The military instruction of the other classes is limited to 
 marching and gymnastics. All the cadets wear uniform, and 
 are subject to mild military discipline. On graduation, those 
 who pass the examination can enter the higher military schools ; 
 those who dislike a military career are free to return to civil 
 life. 
 
 INFANTKT SCHOOLS. 
 
 For the special education of officers of infantry there are 
 three schools, known as the Paul and Constantine Schools of 
 War, at St. Petersburg, and the Alexander School of War at 
 Moscow. 
 
1^4: ARMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 Admission to these schools is open to such civil students as 
 can pass a qualifying examination, and to the cadets who pass 
 the final examination at the military gymnasia. The expenses 
 of education are paid by the state, and also by parents. The 
 number of cadets in each school is 300. 
 
 The course of instruction lasts two years, and embraces— 
 Keligion, 
 Russian, 
 
 German and French languages, 
 History, 
 
 Natural philosophy, 
 Chemistry, 
 Tactics, 
 
 Theory of arms. 
 Military geography, 
 
 Topographical and mechanical drawing, 
 Military law and administration, 
 Dancing, 
 Gymnastics, 
 Fencing, 
 Swimming. 
 Music and singing are also taught, but are not obligatory. 
 Riding is taught only the second year. 
 
 The cadets are organized into a battalion of four companies, 
 and annually take part in all the great manoeuvres near St. Pe- 
 tersburg and Moscow. 
 
 From 400 to 450 officers enter the army annually from these 
 three schools with the grade of second-lieutenant. Those who 
 are best qualified are assigned to the guard, others to the field- 
 artillery, but the great majority enter the regiments of the line. 
 
 CAVALRY SCHOOL. 
 
 The Nicholas War School for cavalry at St. Petersburg 
 corresponds to those just explained for infantry. All of the 
 expenses of education are borne by the parents. The number 
 of cadets is 150. The course of instruction is two years, the 
 
AETILLERY SCHOOL. 155 
 
 subjects being the same as in the infantry schools, with addition 
 of hippology. 
 
 The cadets are organized into a squadron, and take part in 
 the manoeuvres. 
 
 About 75 cadets graduate annually and enter the cavalry of 
 the guard, and the line as second-lieutenants, or cornets. The 
 graduating ceremonies of the two infantry schools, and the cav- 
 alry school at St. Petersburg, take place in the field on the last 
 day of the manoeuvres, when the Emperor in person welcomes 
 the young graduates into the army. 
 
 FINLAND CADET COEPS. 
 
 The school for this corps is a combination of the military 
 gymnasium and the infantry schools already described. The 
 course is seven years, the last two years being devoted to mili- 
 tary subjects. The number of cadets is 100, all of whom are 
 natives of Finland. The graduates, about 12 each year, are as- 
 signed to the infantry. 
 
 COKPS OF PAGES. 
 
 This school has the same organization as the Finland Cadet 
 Corps. The cadets are sons of the nobility, and officers of the 
 court. The number of cadets is 150, of whom about 20 gradu- 
 ate annually, and are assigned to the infantry, cavalry, and ar- 
 tillery of the guard. 
 
 AETILLERY SCHOOL. 
 
 This school is denominated the Michael Artillery War 
 School, and is located at St. Petersburg. 
 
 Candidates for admission must be above sixteen years of 
 age, and must pass a qualifying examination, or else have grad- 
 uated at a military gymnasium. 
 
 The number of cadets is from 125 to 150. The course of 
 instruction at the artillery school is three years, and embraces — 
 Religion, 
 History, 
 Analytical geometry, 
 
156 ARMY OF EUSSIA. 
 
 Calculus, 
 
 Elementary mechanics, 
 Natural philosophy, 
 Chemistry, 
 Tactics, 
 
 Science of artillery. 
 Artillery administration, 
 Fortification, 
 Military geography, 
 Military law. 
 
 Landscape and artillery drawing, 
 Russian, French, and German languages. 
 The practical instruction embraces — 
 Riding, 
 Fencing, 
 Gymnastics, 
 Swimming. 
 
 MICHAEL ARTILLERY ACADEMY AT ST. PETERSBURG. 
 
 This is a school of application for ofiicers of artillery who 
 must have served two years with their regiments, and must pass 
 a qualifying examination for admission. 
 
 The course of instruction is two years, and embraces — 
 
 Ballistics, 
 
 Technology, 
 
 History of artillery, 
 
 Artillery administration, 
 
 Higher mathematics, 
 
 Analytical and applied mechanics, 
 
 ]N'atural philosophy. 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Geometrical drawing. 
 
 SCHOOLS FOR ENGINEERS. 
 
 The Nicholas War School for engineers, and Nicholas "War 
 Academy, or school of application for engineers, are both lo- 
 cated at St. Petersburg. The course of instruction in each is 
 
NICHOLAS STAFF ACADEMY. 157 
 
 almost identical with the corresponding school for the artillery, 
 except that in the academy more attention is paid to fortifica- 
 tion, architecture, and military constructions. 
 
 NICHOLAS STAFF ACADEMY. 
 
 The object of this academy, which is located at St. Peters- 
 burg, is to train officers for the general staff. 
 
 The conditions of admission are to be below the rank of 
 major, to have had four years' service with troops, and to be 
 able to pass a competitive examination in mathematics, including 
 plane trigonometry, tactics of the three arms, theory of arms in 
 use in the service, history, geography, fortification, Kussian, 
 and German or French languages. 
 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces the follow- 
 ing subjects, classified as principal and secondary, according to 
 their importance : 
 
 The principal subjects are — 
 Tactics, 
 Strategy, 
 Military history, 
 Military administration, 
 Military statistics, 
 Geodesy, 
 Cartography, 
 Topographical drawing. 
 The secondary subjects are — 
 
 Kussian, French, and German languages, 
 History, 
 
 International law, 
 Artillery, 
 Fortification, 
 Riding. 
 All of the principal subjects, except tactics, extend through 
 the course. 
 
 The students are classified according to merit, and those 
 most distinguished are admitted to the staff* corps. 
 
 Attached to the academy is a geodetical division for the 
 
158 ARMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 education of oflBcers for the topographical corps. The princi- 
 pal subjects of this course are astronomy, physical geography, 
 geodesy, and cartography. 
 
 Special inducements in way of medals, employment, and 
 promotion, are offered to officers who graduate at the artillery, 
 engineer, and staff academies; and, as a mark of distinction, 
 they are permitted to wear on their breasts a badge to denote 
 that they have completed the course of instruction. 
 
 OTHER SCHOOLS. 
 
 In addition to the schools already described, there is a medi- 
 cal academy for the education of military surgeons ; a veterina- 
 ry academy for the education of veterinary surgeons ; a mili- 
 tary law-school to train officers for the department of military 
 law ; a riding-school for the training of riding-masters ; also a 
 school for the education of hospital-stewards and apprentices. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 Promotion in the infantry and cavalry to the rank of cap- 
 tain is by seniority. Instead of having a general list for the 
 entire infantry or cavalry of the army, a general list is pre- 
 pared in each infantry and cavalry division, and promotions are 
 made as vacancies occur in the divisional lists. 
 
 Promotion to the grades of major, lieutenant-colonel, and 
 colonel, is entirely by selection based on reports from the gen- 
 erals of brigade and division. This promotion by selection 
 enables the Government at all times to have at its disposal va- 
 cancies in the line to be filled by officers of the staff, guard, 
 engineers, and other corps, who desire to serve with the troops 
 of the line. 
 
 In the artillery and engineers, promotion is by seniority to 
 the grade of lieutenant-colonel. Above that grade, promotion 
 is by selection. 
 
 In the artillery, separate lists for promotion by seniority are 
 made out for the field-artillery of the guard and the field-artil- 
 lery of the line, also for the horse-artillery of the guard and 
 the horse-artillery of the line. 
 
DISCIPLINE. 159 
 
 In tlie engineers, separate lists are made for the sappers, 
 pontoniers, park-detachments, etc. 
 
 In the general staff (adjutant-general's department), up to 
 the grade of captain, officers receive a grade every two years. 
 A captain after three years' service in his rank, and who has 
 commanded a battalion of the line with success, is promoted to 
 the grade of lieutenant-colonel. 
 
 The object of rapid promotion in the staff is to enable 
 highly-educated officers to arrive at the grade of general while 
 still in the possession of mental and bodily vigor. 
 
 The officers of the guard, who are better educated than 
 officers of the line, are also given advantages for promotion 
 with the same object. To this end they rank with the next 
 grade above them in the line, and can at any time be trans- 
 ferred with increased rank. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. 
 
 For the purpose of enforcing discipline, all officers and non- 
 commissioned officers are permitted to inflict punishment for 
 all minor offenses. Serious offenses are punished by the sen- 
 tence of regimental and district courts-martial. 
 
 The power confided to the several grades for the punish- 
 ment of minor offenses is as follows : 
 
 Corporal. — Reprimand, twenty-four hours' confinement to 
 barracks, and one extra tour of police or fatigue duty. 
 
 Sergeant. — Reprimand, forty-eight hours' confinement to 
 barracks, two extra tours of police or fatigue duty, twenty-four 
 hours' confinement in guard-house. 
 
 Company Officer. — Reprimand, eight days' confinement to 
 barracks, three extra tours of police or fatigue duty, four days' 
 confinement to guard-house, two days' solitary confinement. 
 
 Officer commanding a Company.^ Squadron, or Half battery. 
 — Reprimand, two months' confinement to barracks, four extra 
 tours of police or fatigue duty, eight days' confinement to 
 guard-house, five days' solitary confinement on bread-and-wa- 
 ter, fifteen lashes to men on punishment-list. 
 
 Officer commanding a Battalion or Battery. — Reprimand, 
 
160 ARMY OF RUSSIA. 
 
 three months' confinement to barracks, six extra tours of police 
 or fatigue duty, fourteen days' confinement to guard-room, eight 
 days' solitary confinement on bread-and-water, twenty-five lashes 
 to men on punishment-list. 
 
 Officers commanding a Begiment. — Keprimand, three 
 months' confinement to barracks, eight tours of police or fa- 
 tigue duty, one month's confinement to guard-room, two weeks' 
 solitary confinement on bread-and-water, temporary reduction 
 to the ranks, name placed on punishment-list, fifty lashes. 
 
 Punishments infiicted by non-commissioned ofiicers must at 
 once be reported to the company commanders. 
 
 Non-commissioned ofticfers can be permanently or tempora- 
 rily reduced to the ranks, and can be punished to the same ex- 
 tent as men not on the punishment-list. 
 
 Company, battalion, regimental, and higher commanders, 
 can infiict punishment upon officers for minor ofienses. These 
 punishments are reprimands, extra tours of duty, confinement 
 to quarters or within main guard, suspension from command of 
 a company or battalion. An officer can likewise be reported as 
 unworthy of promotion. 
 
 The care wliich the Eussian Government has taken to edu- 
 cate its officers, and to form a reliable body of non-commissioned 
 officers, in connection with the long term of service, and stolid 
 temperament of its soldiers, has enabled the army, despite the 
 introduction of breech-loaders, to preserve the steadiness in bat- 
 tle which made it so famous in the days of Napoleon. 
 
 The success, too, with which military operations have been 
 planned and executed during the present conflict, and the great 
 saving of life as compared with the previous wars against Tur- 
 key, offered indisputable proof of the wisdom and humanity of 
 maintaining a proper military organization in time of peace. 
 
AEMT OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 The following tables present the Armed strength of Austria 
 on the peace and war footings.* 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 REGULAR ARMY. 
 
 Staff and administrative corps 
 
 Guards 
 
 80 Regiments of infantry 
 
 1 Eegiment of rifles 
 
 33 Battalions of rifles 
 
 41 Regiments of cavalry 
 
 13 Regiments of field-artillery 
 
 12 Battalions of fortress-artillery. . . . , 
 
 2 Regiments of engineers 
 
 1 Regiment of pioneers 
 
 Trains 
 
 Sanitary troops 
 
 Military establishments, schools, etc. 
 
 Total 
 
 LANDWEIIR. 
 
 81 Battalions of infantry and rifles. . . . 
 
 Tyrolese riflemen 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Total . 
 
 nUKGARIAN LANDWEHR. 
 
 Guard of the crown , 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Total . . . . 
 Gendarmerie. 
 
 Total peace-footing. 
 
 B.'itlsil- 1 Compa- 
 ious. Qie3. 
 
 400 
 
 T 
 
 440 
 
 440 
 
 141 
 
 Squad- 
 rons. 
 
 169 
 5 
 
 282 
 
 174 
 
 Depot of 
 
 Battalions, 
 
 Companies, 
 
 etc. 
 
 1,622 
 116 
 
 6,8S0 
 151 
 693 
 
 1,722 
 
 1,027 
 3.56 
 244 
 129 
 206 
 69 
 
 1,451 
 
 14,660 
 
 92 
 
 509 
 62 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 379 
 
 80 
 
 401 
 
 148 
 
 462 
 
 15,847 
 
 1,787 
 
 540 
 
 141,440 
 
 3,612 
 
 16,995 
 
 42,271 
 
 19,890 
 
 7,422 
 
 5,484 
 
 2.922 
 
 2,305 
 
 2,494 
 
 9,929 
 
 257,091 
 
 1,629 
 370 
 
 1,999 
 
 53 
 5,740 
 1,520 
 
 7,818 
 13,903 
 
 280,311 
 
 ' By the law of the 5th of December, 1868, the strength of the regular army, 
 
 navy, and reserve, for the next ten years, was fixed on the war-footing at 800,000 
 
 men, of which number Austria proper was to furnish 457,012, and Hungary 
 
 342,988. 
 
 11 
 
162 
 
 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 REGULAR ARMY. 
 
 Eattal- 
 
 ioDs. 
 
 Compa- 
 nies. 
 
 Staff and administrative corps 
 
 Guards 
 
 160 Regiments of infantry 
 
 1 Regiment of rifles 
 
 41* Battalions of rifles ' 
 
 41 Regiments of cavalry , 
 
 la Regiments of field-artillery 
 
 12 Regiments of fortress-artillery 
 
 2 Regiments of engineers 
 
 1 Regiment of pioneers 
 
 Train 
 
 Sanitary troops 
 
 Military establishments, schools, etc. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Landwehr 
 
 Tyrolese rifles. 
 Cavalry 
 
 Total. 
 
 HUNGARIAN LANDWEHK. 
 
 Guard of the crown 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Total . . . . 
 Gendarmerie . 
 
 Grand total . 
 
 48(1 
 
 8J 
 41i 
 
 530 
 
 101 
 
 92 
 723 
 
 Squad- 
 rons. 
 
 2T 
 
 Depot of 
 Battalions, 
 Companies, 
 
 1<J5 
 10 
 
 40 
 426 
 
 3,008 
 116 
 
 10.640 
 
 2 IS 
 
 S»M0 
 
 2.214 
 
 i,y34 
 
 f)2« 
 3!>5 
 
 202 
 
 991 
 
 202 
 
 2,618 
 
 117 
 
 112 
 
 2,266 
 500 
 150 
 
 2,916 
 
 2 
 
 2,626 
 
 400 
 
 8,028 
 
 148 
 
 10,460 
 
 540 
 
 475,040 
 
 10.037 
 
 47,223 
 
 56,457 
 
 50,842 
 
 18,888 
 
 16,248 
 
 7,856 
 
 80,047 
 
 18,738 
 
 17,616 
 
 23,504 1 753,992 
 
 92,206 
 22,100 
 4,320 
 
 118,626 
 
 58 
 118,356 
 
 8,820 
 
 127,234 
 13,903 
 
 29,596 11,013,755 
 
 INFANTKT. 
 
 The Austrian infantry is organized into regiments com- 
 posed of five field battalions of four companies each, and one 
 depot battalion of five companies. 
 
 In case of war, the six battalions are organized into two regi- 
 ments of three battalions each, the fifth company of the depot 
 battalion remaining as a common depot for both regiments. 
 
 The first, second, and third battalions constitute the field 
 regiment ; the fourth, fifth, and depot or complementary bat- 
 talion form the reserve regiment. 
 
 The field regiment is commanded by the colonel, the reserve 
 regiment by the lieutenant-colonel. 
 
 In time of peace the cadre of the depot battalion consists 
 only of 6 officers and 15 men, but the names of all of the 
 officers who, in the event of war, would be assigned to each 
 of the companies of the reserve regiment, including the depot 
 
 ' Can bo increased to GO battalions if necessary. 
 
INFANTKY. 
 
 163 
 
 battalion, are kept on a list at the TVar Department, where the 
 lists are revised twice a year. 
 
 The organization of a company is as follows : 
 
 Captain 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Cadet or officers' substitute 
 
 First-sergeant 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Lance-corporals 
 
 Privates 
 
 Pay-sergeant 
 
 Drummer 
 
 Bugler 
 
 Pioneers 
 
 Hospital attendants 
 
 Officers' seryants , 
 
 Total 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 Ut, 2d, and 4th and 5th 
 3d Battaliuns. Battalions. 
 
 95 
 
 WAR-FOOTING. 
 
 Each of 6 Depot 
 
 Battalions. Company. 
 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 12 
 18 
 180 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 ISO 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 228 
 
 The cadet is a non-commissioned officer, specially educated, 
 who is eligible for appointment as lieutenant. 
 
 The strength of each of the first, second, and third battalions, 
 on the peace and war footing, is as follows : 
 
 FIELD AJO) STAFF, 
 
 Rnttalion commander 
 
 Battalion-adjutant 
 
 Drummer 
 
 Bugler 
 
 Armorer 
 
 Ptaff-serffe.-int 
 
 Officers' servants 
 
 FOtTE COMPANIES. 
 
 Captains 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 Cadets 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Lance-corporals 
 
 Privates 
 
 Pay-sergeants 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Pioneers 
 
 Hospital attendants 
 
 Officers' servants 
 
 Total 
 
 Total officers and men 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 280 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 ■WAK-FOOTING. 
 
 872 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 720 
 
 4 
 
 386 
 
 952 
 
164 
 
 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 The field, staff, and non-commissioned staff, appropriate to 
 the three battalions which constitute the field-regiment, are as 
 follows : 
 
 FIELD REGIMENT. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 ■WAE-FOOTtSG. 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Regimental adjutant 
 
 Commissary 
 
 Regimental surgeon 
 
 Senior surgeons 
 
 Assistant-surgeons 
 
 Paymaster (captain) 
 
 Paymaster (lieutenant) 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 Drum-major l . 
 
 Corporals ( "S 
 
 Lance-corporals [3 
 
 Privates J 
 
 Armorers 
 
 Staff-sergeants 
 
 Drivers (wagoners) 
 
 Hospital-attendants 
 
 Officers' servants 
 
 Total 
 
 Total of three battalions 
 
 Total of field regiment 
 
 1,116 
 
 1,177 
 
 2,802 
 2,901 
 
 The strength of each of the fourth, fifth, and depot battal- 
 ions on the peace and war footing, is as follows : 
 
 RESERVE REGIMENT. 
 
 Battalion commander. . . . 
 
 " adjutant 
 
 District recruiting officer 
 
 Paymaster 
 
 Surgeon 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Armorers 
 
 Staff-sergeants 
 
 Officers' servants 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH BATTALIONS. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 WAK-FOOTINO. 
 
 DEPOT BATTALION. 
 
 CADBB. 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 FIVE COMPANIES, 
 ■W-AR-rOOTING. 
 
INFANTRY. 
 
 165 
 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH BATTALIONS. 
 
 DEPOT BATTALION. 
 
 RESERVE REGIMENT. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 WAE-FOOTINO. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 WAK-FOOTING. 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 FOTJK COMPANIES. 
 
 Captains 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 '"4 
 Hi 
 
 20 
 20 
 200 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 "12 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 "4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 72 
 
 720 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 IC. 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 "5 
 " 3 
 
 5 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 9001 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 Pioneers.. 
 
 
 llospitol attendants 
 
 Officers' servants 
 
 "26 
 
 Total 
 
 
 14 
 
 t 
 
 2S7 
 
 
 18 
 
 934 
 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 25 
 
 1,130 
 
 The field, stafi", and non-commissioned staff appropriate to 
 the fom'th, fifth, and sixth (or depot) battalions, which consti- 
 tute the reserve regiment, are as follows : 
 
 RESERVE REGIMENT. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 WAR-FOOTING. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men, 
 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 ""3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clerks 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Total of 4tli and 5tli battalions 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 574 
 
 15 
 
 633 
 
 36 
 25 
 69 
 
 1,868 
 1,130 
 
 Total depot 
 
 
 3,034 
 
 
 Total infantry regiment {0 battalions and depot).. 
 
 89 
 
 1,840 
 
 133 
 
 5,935 
 
 
 
 
 In the reserve regiment, in time of peace, the battalion-adju- 
 tant, and commissariat officer, are detailed from the subalterns 
 of the regiment. 
 
 The total number of non-combatant enlisted men in each 
 
 > Number of privates in the depot company can be increased from 180 to 300, 
 giving a total of 1,250 enlisted men in the five companies. 
 
166 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 battalion, on a war-footing, is TO. The total number in the 
 entire regiment, including both Held and reserve regiments, and 
 depot, is 540, nearly equal to one-twelfth of the entire strength. 
 
 The number of colonels and lieutenant-colonels in the Aus- 
 trian infantry exceeds 120 in each grade, enabling not only each 
 of the 80 regiments to be commanded by a colonel, but also one- 
 half of the reserve regiments. The lieutenant-colonels command 
 either reserve regiments or battalions ; the remaining battalions 
 are commanded by majors. The commander of the depot cadre 
 is a captain. 
 
 The organization of the rifle battalions and companies varies 
 but slightly from the infantry. 
 
 BKIGADE OF INFANTET. 
 
 The brigade of infantry in the field consists of the brigade 
 staff, and two regiments of three battalions each, numbering 
 approximately 6,100 officers and men. 
 
 DIVISION OF INFANTEY. 
 
 This is the highest tactical unit maintained in time of peace, 
 and consists of the division staff, 2 brigades of infantry (12 bat- 
 talions), 2 battalions of rifles, 2 to 4 squadrons of cavalry, 3 bat- 
 teries of artillery, 1 company of engineers, 1 squadron of the 
 military train, 1 division of ammunition-train, and 1 division 
 of sanitary troops (ambulance corps), numbering in all between 
 15,000 and 16,000 men. 
 
 AEMY CORPS. 
 
 The army corps consists of the corps staff, 3 divisions of in- 
 fantry, 1 cavalry brigade or division, 3 to 6 batteries of resei-ve 
 artillery, 1 company of pioneers, 2 sections of bridge-train, sup- 
 ply and sanitary departments, numbering approximately 50,000 
 officers and men. 
 
 KECRUITMENT OF THE AKMY. 
 
 All men are liable to military duty between the ages of 
 twenty and thirty-six. 
 
ERSATZ EESERVE. 167 
 
 The period of military service is fixed at twelve years ; three 
 with the colors, seven in the reserve, and two in the Land- 
 wehr. 
 
 The country is divided into 31 divisional, 73 brigade, and 81 
 district commands, one regiment of infantry being located in 
 each district. The commander of each reserve regiment is the 
 commander of the recruiting district. The depot cadre remains 
 always at the headquarters of the district, and is responsible for 
 all of the records relating to men in reserve and on furlough. 
 
 Efficient non-commissioned officers, on the expiration of their 
 service with the colors, are usually assigned to the depot cadre, 
 which, in war, is responsible for the equipment and training of 
 the reserve. 
 
 In time of war, four of the five companies comprising the 
 depot cadre may be organized into a sixth battalion, which con- 
 stitutes the third battalion of the reserve regiment. 
 
 The annual contingent drafted into the active army is 
 approximately 95,000 men. The strength of the active army 
 on the peace-footing being 257,000, if it be assumed that one- 
 third of that number, 85,000, go annually into reserve, the seven 
 classes in reserve would number 595,000 or 100,000 more than 
 would be required to raise the army to the war standard of 
 753,000. 
 
 The men of the annual contingent assigned to each regiment 
 are distributed among the five battalions, where they receive 
 all of their training. In order that the men in reserve shall not 
 forget their instruction, they are called out for drill three times 
 during the seven years, for a period usually not exceeding four 
 weeks. If practicable, they join the company and battalion to 
 which they would return in time of war, otherwise they are 
 drilled in the battalions of the reserve regiments. 
 
 EESATZ KESEEVE. 
 
 The ersatz reserve, in time of war, is intended to fill such 
 vacancies in the regular army as cannot be filled by the general 
 reserve. Its strength is limited to 95,000, or the equivalent of 
 one annual contingent. It is composed of men between the 
 
168 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 ages of twenty and thirty, arranged in ten classes. The men 
 of each class, usually numbering 9,500, are the men of the an- 
 nual contingent in excess of the actual number required to raise 
 the army to the peace-footing. 
 
 LANDWEHK. 
 
 This force consists mostly of men who have completed ten 
 years' service in the active army and in reserve ; ten years' ser- 
 vice in the ersatz reserve ; and such men as, escaping the an- 
 nual contingent, are at once assigned to it for the twelve years 
 during which they are liable to military service. The organi- 
 zation is by battalions, which in peace exist only in cadre. 
 Each battalion is assigned to a special district, which is subdi- 
 vided into company districts. 
 
 The battalion cadre, which is maintained on full pay in 
 Austria proper, consists of — 
 
 1 Major or Captain, commandant, 
 • 1 Kegimental oflficer who keeps the rolls, returns, etc., 
 
 3 Officers as instructors, 
 1 Cadet, 
 
 1 First-sergeant, 
 
 2 Sergeants, 
 
 4 Corporals, 
 
 4 Lance-corporals, 
 12 Privates (drill-instructors), 
 2 Armorers, 
 2 Musicians. 
 The cadre in Hungary consists of — 
 1 Field-officer as commandant, 
 1 Administrative officer, 
 1 Surgeon, 
 1 Armorer, 
 
 4 First-sergeants, one to each company, 
 11 Non-commissioned officers and men. 
 All rolls and records relative to tlie Landwehr in each bat- 
 talion district are kept at the battalion or depot headquarters. 
 The first-sergeants reside within their respective company 
 
EEGIMENTAL SCHOOLS. 1G9 
 
 districts, and constitute the medium of communication between 
 the battalion commander and the men. 
 
 The non-commissioned officers of the Landwehr are men 
 promoted from the ranks of the Landwehr, or non-commissioned 
 officers transferred from tlie regular army at the expiration of 
 their service. 
 
 The officers of the Landwehr are composed of officers trans- 
 ferred from the regular army ; of officers in reserve who have 
 completed their service in the army ; and of officers promoted 
 within the Landwehr aiter passing a qualifying examination. 
 
 The list of the officers of each Landwehr t)attalion is revised 
 twice a year at the war-office at Vienna. 
 
 The men of the Landwehr are required to attend one muster 
 a year. The recruits who annually join receive eight weeks' 
 training at the battalion headquarters, before being sent on fur- 
 lough. 
 
 There is also a company drill of a fortnight each year after 
 the harvest, and every two years there is battalion instruction 
 for three weeks, during which time the battalions must take 
 part in the army manoeuvres. Several of these battalions were 
 present at the manceuvi*es of 1876, and gave evidence of the 
 practical instruction they had received. In time of war, the 
 Landwehr, exclusive of the cadres left in depot, would number 
 193 battalions of 4 companies each, organized as in the active 
 army. 
 
 REGIMENTAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Captains of companies, batteries, and squadrons, are respon- 
 sible for the theoretical and practical instruction of their men. 
 The instruction begins with the school of the soldier, to which 
 the months of October and November are devoted. The al- 
 phabetical and theoretical schools begin the 1st of December, 
 and terminate the 30th of June. Within the same period is 
 carried on practical military instruction in all of the duties of a 
 soldier, embracing garrison duty, and drill in skirmishing, and 
 school of the company. The months of July, August, and Sep- 
 tember, are devoted to the schools of the battalion and evolu- 
 tions of the regiment and larger bodies of troops. 
 
170 ARMY OF AUSTEIA. 
 
 The alphabetical school for the men who cannot read and 
 ■write, and the schools for non-commissioned officers, are sub- 
 stantially the same as in the army of Italy. 
 
 SCHOOLS FOK ONE-YEAK VOLrNTEEKS. 
 
 The one-year volunteers are composed of young men of 
 education who desire to engage in professional and business 
 pm'suits, who, in consideration of volunteering, are permitted 
 to serve but one year with the colors, and are then sent into re- 
 serve. They perform during this year all of the duties of a 
 soldier, and in each regiment attend a special school where they 
 pursue a course of study, embracing — 
 
 Military correspondence and reports, 
 
 Military topography and surveying, 
 
 Pioneer service. 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Study of arms. 
 
 Tactics and field-service, 
 
 Military administration, 
 
 Army organization. 
 
 Army regulations. 
 According to the examination they pass in the theoretical 
 course and the practical duties of the year, they are appointed 
 lieutenants or non-commissioned officers of reserve. 
 
 Of the former there are now nearly three thousand avail- 
 able as officers in the regular army, or Landwehr, according to 
 the necessities of the Government. 
 
 DIVISIONAL PREPAKATOEY SCHOOLS. 
 
 The object of these schools is to enable meritorious non-com- 
 missioned officers and privates to prepare for admission to the 
 cadet schools. Boys above fourteen years of age who can pass a 
 prescribed examination are also admitted with the same object. 
 
 One of these schools is established in each of the 31 divi- 
 sions, and is superintended by a field-officer, who is assisted by 
 two or three subalterns as instructors. 
 
 The admissions to the school are at the rate of 8 candidates 
 
CADET SCHOOLS. 171 
 
 from each field regiment, 4 from each reserve regiment, 4 from 
 every rifle battalion, and 6 from each cavalry regiment. Candi- 
 dates from each regiment are selected on the principle of com- 
 petition. 
 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces — 
 
 Writing, 
 
 German language. 
 
 Some other language or dialect of the empire. 
 
 Military correspondence, 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, 
 
 Theory of ground and military plan drawing. 
 
 Penmanship, 
 
 Pioneer-service, 
 
 Theory of arms, 
 
 Field-service, ^ 
 
 Tactics, 
 
 Army regulations. 
 The practical exercises consist of drill, target-practice, fenc- 
 ing, gymnastics, and surveying. 
 
 CADET SCHOOLS. 
 
 The object of these schools is to prepare meritorious non- 
 commissioned officers and soldiers for the rank of cadet, from 
 which grade they are eligible for appointment as lieutenants. 
 
 There are 13 schools of infantry, 6 of which are open to 
 candidates from the cavalry. The artillery, engineers, and pio- 
 neers, have each a separate school. 
 
 Admission is open to such non-commissioned officers, sol- 
 diers, and students, as have passed through the divisional 
 schools, or who can pass a prescribed entrance examination. 
 
 Each school is superintended by a field-officer, who is as- 
 sisted by two subalterns as instructors. 
 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces — 
 Algebra, 
 Geometry, 
 
172 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Trigonometry, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, 
 
 Natural and experimental philosophy, 
 
 Military topography and surveying, 
 
 Theory of ground, 
 
 IMilitary organization and administration, 
 
 Military correspondence and reports. 
 
 Tactics of all arms. 
 
 Military history. 
 
 Field and permanent fortification, 
 
 Theory of arms, 
 
 Regulations for field-service and outpost-duty, 
 
 Army regulations. 
 The practical exercises consist of drill, riding (in the schools 
 to which cavalry candidates are admitted), distance-drills, target- 
 practice, fencing, gymnastics, and swimming. 
 
 officers' schools. 
 
 As in Italy and Russia, the system of education for officers 
 embraces preparatory schools, academies from which cadets 
 graduate as officers, and post-graduate schools to which officers 
 are admitted after a service of two or three years in the army. 
 
 MILITARY COLLEGE, ST. POLTEN. 
 
 The object of this school is to prepare candidates to enter 
 the Military Academy at Wiener-Neustadt. 
 
 The commandant of the school is a field-officer, who is assisted 
 by a corps of professors and instructors, composed mostly of regi- 
 mental officers ; a total personnel, commissioned and non-commis- 
 sioned, numbering 84. The number of students is limited to 200. 
 
 The course of study, which is two years, corresponds to the 
 course pursued by the fifth and sixth classes in the upper gym- 
 nasia or classical schools, and the real gymnasia or mixed classi- 
 cal and technical schools. 
 
 The subjects taught are : 
 
MILITAKY TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 173 
 
 Keligion, History, 
 
 Arithmetic, German, 
 
 Geography, French, 
 
 Grammar, Latin, 
 
 "Writing, N'atural history, 
 
 Algebra, Drawing. 
 Geometry, 
 The practical instruction consists of drill, gymnastics, fenc- 
 ing, dancing, and swimming. 
 
 MILITAKY TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 
 
 The object of this school, which is located at Weiszkirchen, 
 is to prepare candidates to enter the Military Technical Acad- 
 emy, also the artillery cadet school. 
 
 The entrance examination corresponds to the last year's 
 course in a lower gymnasium or middle classical school. 
 
 The commandant of the school is a field-officer of artillery, 
 who is assisted by a corps of military and civil professors, the 
 total personnel numbering 172. 
 
 The course of study is three years, and embraces — 
 
 Religion, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Trigonometry, 
 
 Surveying, 
 
 Analytical geometry, 
 
 Philosophy, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 History, 
 
 Natural liistory, 
 
 German, 
 
 French, 
 
 Bohemian or Hungarian languages, 
 
 Army regulations. 
 
 Military correspondence. 
 
 Artillery tactics, 
 
174 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Science of artillery, 
 
 "Writing and stenography, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Veterinary instruction. 
 The practical subjects are fencing, gymnastics, and swimming. 
 On graduation, the students are classified according to merit 
 as " excellent," " good," and " satisfactory." As many of the 
 first class as there are vacancies for are transferred accordins: to 
 rank to the Military Technical Academy. The remainder of 
 the class and all those marked " good " are transferred as non- 
 commissioned ofiicers of artillery, and, after a year's service, 
 are eligible for appointment to the artillery cadet school. Those 
 classified " satisfactory " are appointed gunners. 
 
 MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 The object of this academy, which is located at Wiener- 
 Neustadt, is to educate ofiacers for the infantry, rifles, cavalry, 
 and pioneers. 
 
 Admission to the college is open to graduates from the mili- 
 tary college at St. Polten, and such candidates as can pass an 
 examination corresponding to the course of study of the sixth 
 class at an upper gymnasium, with the addition of mathematics, 
 to include progression and equations of the second degree. 
 
 The number of students is limited to 400, but only 300 were 
 present in 1876. 
 
 The expenses of education are partly borne by the state and 
 partly by the student, who pays $100 (500 francs) for each of 
 the first three years, and $120 for the fourth. A certain num- 
 ber of students, usually sons of officers, are educated free, others 
 are charged half tuition. 
 
 The commandant of the academy is a major-general. The 
 corps of military professors and instructors consists of 6 field- 
 officers, 34 captains and lieutenants, the total personnel, com- 
 missioned and non-commissioned, numbering 273. The profess- 
 ors of languages, political economy, chemistry, and the instruc- 
 tors of religion, are civilians. 
 
 The students are organized into four companies, each of 
 
MILITAKY ACADEMY. 175 
 
 which is commanded by a captain of the army, who is respon- 
 sible for the administration, while another officer is assigned as 
 the military instructor. Students are given no military rank 
 in the companies, but at drill officiate temporarily as officers 
 and non-commissioned officers. Each class is divided into two 
 sections, of about forty students each, which have their separate 
 class-rooms and dormitories. Each two classes have a separate 
 dining-room. 
 
 The course of study is four years, and embraces — 
 
 Keligion, 
 
 German poetry and literature, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 French, 
 
 Bohemian (or Hungarian) languages, 
 
 Political and physical geography, 
 
 General history. 
 
 Philosophy, 
 
 Higher mathematics. 
 
 Practical geometry. 
 
 Analytical geometry. 
 
 Spherical astronomy and geodesy, 
 
 Physics and chemistry. 
 
 Mechanics, 
 
 Military and topographical drawing, 
 
 Keconnaissance and study of ground, 
 
 Political economy, 
 
 Austrian Constitution, 
 
 Military and international law. 
 
 Organization of European armies. 
 
 Military administration of Austrian army, 
 
 Military correspondence and reports. 
 
 History of the art of war. 
 
 Tactics and elements of strategy, 
 
 Infantry tactics. 
 
 Cavalry tactics. 
 
 Theory and construction of arms, 
 
 Pioneer service. 
 
176 AEMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Field and permanent fortification, including attack and 
 
 defense of fortresses, 
 Free-hand drawing, 
 Kippology. 
 The practical exercises embrace riding, fencing, gymnastics, 
 dancing, and swimming. 
 
 MILITARY TECHNICAL ACADEMY, VIENNA. 
 
 This academy educates officers for the artillery and engi- 
 neers. Admission is open to graduates from the military tech- 
 nical school, and to candidates who can pass an examination 
 corresponding to the highest class in the real or upper techni- 
 cal school. The number of students is limited to 280. 
 
 The commandant is a major-general. The corps of military 
 professors embraces 5 field-officers and 3G captains and lieuten- 
 ants ; the total personnel numbering 237. Civil professors are 
 also employed in various departments. 
 
 The course of study is four years. The subjects for the first 
 two years, which are common both to the artillery and engi- 
 neers, are — 
 
 German, rhetoric, and poetry, 
 
 French, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, 
 
 Higher mathematics, 
 
 Practical geometry, 
 
 Analytical geometry. 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Natural and experimental philosophy, 
 
 Technical and analytical mechanics, 
 
 Engineering, 
 
 International law, 
 
 Military law. 
 
 Military correspondence and reports. 
 
 Army organization, 
 
 Pioneer-service, 
 
 Field-service and tactics, 
 
SCHOOLS OF APPLICATION. 177 
 
 Army regulations, 
 
 Topographical drawing and study of ground. 
 The special course for artillery in the third and fourth 
 years is — 
 
 Mechanical technology, 
 
 General architecture, 
 
 Science of artillery, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Attack of fortresses, 
 
 Hippology. 
 The course for engineering is — 
 
 Spherical astronomy and geodesy, 
 
 Civil engineering, 
 
 Architectural and ornamental drawing. 
 
 History of architecture. 
 
 Science of arms. 
 
 Fortification and mining. 
 The practical exercises embrace riding, fencing, gymnastics, 
 swimming, dancing, infantry and artillery drill, target-practice, 
 surveying with the plane table, mapping, sketching, and the 
 construction of batteries and field-works. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF APPLICATION". 
 
 The artillery and engineers have each an advanced course 
 corresponding to the schools of applications in other countries. 
 
 Candidates must be below the rank of captain, and must 
 have served two years in the army. 
 
 Admission to these courses, which is not limited to officers 
 of artillery and engineers, is by competitive examination in the 
 following subjects : 
 French, 
 
 Higher mathematics, 
 Geometry, 
 Mechanics, 
 
 Military correspondence, 
 Topographical drawing and study of ground, 
 
 12 
 
178 ARMY OF AUSTEIA. 
 
 Science of arms, 
 Fortification, 
 General architecture. 
 The last subject is only required for admission to the engi- 
 neer course. 
 
 The subjects taught in the advanced artillery course are- 
 Technical mechanics and machinery, 
 Science of artillery, 
 
 Equipment of field, garrison, and siege artillery, 
 Technology with reference to the science of artillery. 
 Attack and defense of fortresses. 
 Artillery tactics, 
 Eeconnaissance and sketching, 
 Strategy, 
 As voluntary subjects officers are permitted to study — 
 French, 
 English, 
 
 Political economy. 
 Statistics. 
 The advanced engineer course consists of — 
 Fortification, combined with attack and defense of fortified 
 places, 
 
 Science of artillery in reference to fortification, 
 Technical mechanics and machinery. 
 Ornamental architecture. 
 
 Technology in reference to science of engineering. 
 Principles of building, railway-engineering, and road-mak- 
 ing. 
 
 As a reward for a successful prosecution of this course, lieu- 
 tenants of artillery and engineers who receive the certificate 
 "excellent" are at once promoted to first-lieutenant. Officers 
 of other arms who receive the same certificate, or the certificate 
 of "good," are qualified for promotion out of turn. 
 
 The advantages of the advanced course in both artillery and 
 engineering are given to extra students who are willing to pay 
 their own expenses. 
 
WAR SCHOOL. 179 
 
 WAK SCHOOL. 
 
 The object of this school is to qualify officers for high com- 
 mand, and also for employment in the staff. 
 
 The chief of the general staff is the president of the school, 
 and is assisted by a general officer or colonel as commandant. 
 
 The professors are part military and part civil, the former 
 being officers of the general staff. 
 
 The number of students admitted annually is approximate- 
 ly 40. Candidates for admission must be lieutenants or cap- 
 tains who have served three years in the army, and have been 
 favorably reported upon as regards character, zeal, and ability, 
 by the commanding officers of their regiments. 
 
 Admission is by competition in the following subjects : 
 
 Mathematics, to include spherical trigonometry and conic 
 sections, 
 
 Practical geometry, 
 
 Mechanics, physics, and chemistry, 
 
 Geography, 
 
 History, 
 
 German literature, 
 
 French, 
 
 Field-service, 
 
 Tactics of all arms, 
 
 Pioneer-service, 
 
 Theory of arms, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Army organization, 
 
 Theory of ground and topographical drawing. 
 
 Without passing the competitive examination, permission is 
 granted to officers to attend the lectures as extra students. 
 They are classified at the final examination, but cannot claim 
 admission to the staff corps. 
 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces the follow- 
 ing subjects : 
 
 Army organization, 
 Tactics of the three arms, 
 
180 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Strategy as illustrated by campaigns, 
 
 Military geography, 
 
 Theory of ground, topography, and military surveying, 
 
 Military reconnaissances and reports, 
 
 Duties of general staff in the field. 
 
 Study of arms. 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 International law, 
 
 I^atural sciences. 
 
 Political economy, 
 
 German literature, 
 
 History of civilization (voluntary), 
 
 French, 
 
 Riding. 
 Instruction has heretofore been imparted by lecture, but in 
 1876 it was intended to experiment with text-books and recita- 
 tions. 
 
 The studies are pursued between October 15th and June 
 30th. The months of July, August, and September, are de- 
 voted to surveying, sketching, reconnaissances, and military 
 tours to different parts of the empire. 
 
 The final examination is open to not only the regular and 
 extra students, but to any ofiicer not above the rank of captain 
 who thinks he can pass successfully. 
 
 All who pass are classified as " excellent," " very good," 
 " good," and " unsatisfactory." 
 
 Only those who are classified as " excellent " or " very good," 
 and who have shown aptitude for staff duty, are eligible for 
 staff employment. 
 
 Ofiicers who can pass the examination direct are required to 
 take a course of reconnaissance with the class of the following 
 year before being detailed for staff" duty. 
 
 CENTRAL INFANTRY SCnOOL. 
 
 This school, located at Vienna, is intended to prepare cap- 
 tains for promotion to the grade of field-officer. There is no 
 entrance examination. The number of students is fixed by the 
 
DISCIPLINE. 181 
 
 Minister of War. The course is eleven months, beginning No- 
 vember 1st, and embraces — 
 
 Army organization. 
 
 Tactics of the three arms, 
 
 Principles of strategy illustrated by campaigns, 
 
 Study of arms. 
 
 Theory of ground and reports of positions, 
 
 Military surveying and sketching. 
 
 Pioneer-service, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Field telegraphy, 
 
 Hippology, 
 
 Riding, 
 
 Natural sciences (voluntary), 
 
 Fencing (voluntary). 
 The final examination in these subjects must be passed, either 
 direct or after completing the course, by all captains who aspire 
 to promotion to the rank of major, unless they have previously 
 passed the final examination at the War School or at the ad- 
 vanced artillery and engineer courses. 
 
 The ofiicers after examination are classified as " excellent," 
 " very good," " good," and " unsatisfactory." 
 
 As a reward for diligence, ofiicers who can pass the theoreti- 
 cal and also a practical test with the certificate of " excellent " 
 are eligible for promotion out of turn. They are also permitted 
 to enter the second year's course at the War School as extra 
 students. 
 
 The certificate " good " entitles an officer to promotion by 
 seniority if favorably reported upon by his commanding officer. 
 Officers who fail to pass the examination are overslaughed on 
 arriving at the head of the list. 
 
 A corresponding central school is established for the cavalry. 
 
 DiscrPLmE. 
 
 In the case of ofienses beneath the cognizance of courts- 
 martial, summary punishments can be infiicted upon all grades 
 of officers and men. 
 
182 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 The punislimeiit for the different grades is as follows : 
 
 Officers. — Reprimands, and arrest with confinement to rooms 
 or station for thirty days. 
 
 Cadets and Sergeant-Ifajors. — Reprimands ; arrest with con- 
 finement to rooms or barracks, up to thirty days ; withdrawal of 
 permission to be absent after retreat for thirty days ; obhgation 
 to return to quarters or camp at a fixed hour before retreat, up 
 to thirty days ; reduction to ranks for sergeant-majors in accord- 
 ance with previous "warning." 
 
 Other Non-commissioned Officers and Privates. — Repri- 
 mands ; obligations to return to barracks or camp at a fixed 
 hour before retreat ; withdrawal from sergeants of permission 
 to be absent after retreat, up to thirty days ; withdrawal of con- 
 trol of pay, with enforced daily payment for thirty days ; daily 
 attendance, up to eight times, in full dress at the " morning 
 report" (with horse in mounted corps), applied only to cor- 
 porals and privates ; extra fatigue duty, up to thirty days ; put- 
 ting in irons for six hours ; tying up for two hours, so that the 
 delinquent can neither sit nor lie down, applicable to privates 
 in case of degrading offenses ; arrest with confinement to bar- 
 racks, quarters, or camp ; strict arrest, up to thirty days ; soli- 
 tary confinement, up to twenty-one days ; confinement in dark 
 cell, up to fifteen days; reduction after a prescribed "warn- 
 ing." 
 
 " "Warning " is only given by a regimental or correspond- 
 ing commander, and only in cases of repeated offenses, such 
 as drunkenness, neglect of duty, etc. Power to punish is lim- 
 ited to commanders of units like regiments, battalions, com- 
 panies. 
 
 Strict arrest implies confinement in the guard-room, under 
 lock and key ; it also involves bread and water three days in a 
 week, and confinement six hours daily in irons, with an inter- 
 val every three days of one day. 
 
 A regimental commander can inflict all of the punishments 
 enumerated up to the full extent ; a battalion commander can 
 reprimand officers and men of all grades, and inflict the same 
 punishments as a company commander ; a company commander 
 
PROMOTION". 183 
 
 can inflict upon non-commissioned officers and men all of the 
 punishments enumerated up to their full extent, except reduc- 
 tion, also strict arrest and solitary confinement, which he can 
 only administer to two-thirds of the legal extent ; a subaltern in 
 command of a detachment has the same power as a captain, but 
 is required to report all cases of punishment to his company 
 commander ; a non-commissioned officer in command of a de- 
 tachment can inflict confinement to barracks, or camp, and 
 strict arrest for two days, reporting all punishments immedi- 
 ately on the completion of the detached duty to his command- 
 ing officer. 
 
 General officers, besides the power to inflict punishment on 
 officers of all grades below them, have the same power as colo- 
 nels to inflict minor punishments on enlisted men. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 The Austrian law of promotion is based upon the difference 
 in professional attainments and efficiency known to exist be- 
 tween officers in all grades of the army. This difference is due 
 in part to the manner in which officers originally qualify for 
 the army, but more largely to the system of post-graduate edu- 
 cation, which enables every intelligent, zealous, and efficient 
 officer to prosecute a course of professional study with a special 
 view to fit himself for promotion and high command. 
 
 Promotion in the infantry, cavalry, and artillery, is by arm, 
 the names of all of the field and company officers in each arm 
 being on a general list. 
 
 Promotion is both by seniority or " in turn," and by selec- 
 tion " out of turn." 
 
 To the grade of captain, inclusive, five-sixths are promoted 
 by seniority, the other sixth by selection ; to all of the grades 
 of field-officers three-fourths are promoted by seniority, the 
 other fourth by selection. 
 
 The first condition of promotion both by seniority and 
 selection is the possession by the officer of a " certificate of 
 qualification," embracing his entire history since his entrance 
 to the army. The qualification list of each officer is drawn up 
 
184 
 
 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 at regimental headquarters, and is made out in duplicate — one 
 copy being retained, the other forwarded to the Minister of 
 War. 
 
 The qualifications of each officer are determined by a board 
 of officers of the grade next above, the board being presided 
 over by a superior officer. Subalterns are reported upon by 
 captains and field-officers ; captains by field-officers ; field-offi- 
 cers by generals of brigades and divisions. The qualification- 
 list of each officer is di-awn up on six different pages, and is 
 subdivided into headings, each of which is supported by re- 
 marks. 
 
 The qualification-list is prepared as follows : 
 
 First Page. 
 
 1. Kegiment. 
 
 2. Name. 
 
 3. Rank and seniority. 
 
 4. Date of birth. 
 
 5. Keligion. 
 
 6. Condition and education 
 prior to admission to service. 
 
 7. Date of entrance to the 
 army, and mode of entrance. 
 
 8. Civil or military educa- 
 tional establishments, from 
 which the officer may have 
 graduated since entering the 
 army. 
 
 9. Private circumstances. 
 
 10. Decorations. 
 
 The employment previous 
 to entering the service is here 
 stated, with mention of certifi- 
 cate obtained at any civil or 
 military school the officer may 
 have attended. 
 
 Eemarks show the result — 
 i. e., the certificate — he may 
 have procured as " excellent," 
 " very good," or " unsatisfac- 
 tory." 
 
 Whether married or sin- 
 gle ; also financial condition. 
 
 Naming all orders, medals, 
 etc., received. 
 
PROMOTION. 185 
 
 Second Page. 
 
 HEADINGS. REMARKS. 
 
 1. Dates of promotion and If promoted for distin- 
 transfer. guished conduct in battle, the 
 
 fact is to be specially stated. 
 
 2. Total period of service. 
 
 Third Page. 
 
 1. Official employment. The remarks show every 
 
 position the officer has ever 
 held, and the duties he has 
 performed. 
 
 Fourth Page. 
 
 1. Campaigns and service Remarks state all of the 
 
 in the field. campaigns, actions, and bat- 
 
 tles participated in, wounds 
 received, and rewards be- 
 stowed. 
 
 Fifth Page. 
 
 1. Other special services. Showing service not con- 
 
 nected with war, rewards re- 
 ceived, etc. 
 
 Sixth Page. 
 
 1. Date. Year to which report re- 
 
 fers. 
 
 2. Rank. Held at date of report. 
 
 3. Linguistic acquirements. State all of the languages 
 
 and dialects in the empire 
 spoken or written by the offi- 
 cer with fluency. 
 
186 
 
 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 4. General adaptation and 
 fitness for position he holds. 
 
 5. Qualification for duties 
 outside of the sphere of pres- 
 ent employment. 
 
 G. Zeal. 
 
 7. Conduct : 
 
 Before the enemy. 
 
 On duty. 
 
 Remarks enter into detail 
 as to fitness or unfitness, man- 
 ner in which he performs 
 duties, points in which he 
 excels or in which he is defi- 
 cient, positions he is special- 
 ly qualified to hold, as " adju- 
 tant," " quartermaster," " in- 
 structor," "duty at depots," 
 etc. 
 
 Remarks show officer's tal- 
 ents and inclinations ; also 
 whether he has performed the 
 duties referred to. 
 
 Showing whether officer is 
 devoted to his profession, and 
 whether zeal is attributable to 
 love of profession, or other mo- 
 tives. 
 
 Showing personal qualities, 
 moral tone. 
 
 Personal bravery, presence 
 of mind, endurance, determina- 
 tion, quickness to perceive ad- 
 vantages, etc. 
 
 Toward superior officers, 
 toward subordinates ; manner, 
 whether severe, kind, or engag- 
 ing ; ideas of discipline ; readi- 
 ness to assume responsibility; 
 ability to maintain discipline ; 
 influence over officers and 
 men, and whether or not he 
 possesses confidence of officers 
 and men. 
 
PEOMOTIOK 
 
 187 
 
 Sociallj. 
 
 8. Health and 
 service. 
 
 fitness for 
 
 9. General remarks. 
 
 10. Qualifications for pro- 
 motion. 
 
 11. General observations of 
 the reporting-officers. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Character and standing 
 among his comrades ; compa- 
 ny he keeps. 
 
 Physique, ability to per- 
 form various duties, eyesight, 
 sick-leaves, etc. 
 
 Such as may be necessary 
 to be stated, but have not been 
 referred to under previous 
 headings. 
 
 The remarks state whether 
 the officer is " qualified," " not 
 qualified," or " not as yet qual- 
 ified." 
 
 Each member of the board, 
 beginning vs'ith the junior, here 
 records his remarks or opinions. 
 
 When the report is received by the Minister of War, any re- 
 mark reflecting on conduct or zeal is communicated to the officer, 
 but remarks as to want of ability are not transmitted. 
 
 A special recommendation in favor of these reports is that 
 while they enable the Government to know who are the effi- 
 cient officers, every officer has the right, upon application, to 
 look at his record, and thus, if reported against, be able to re- 
 deem himself by future good conduct. 
 
 As a condition precedent to the promotion of a cadet, the 
 consent of the officers of the regiment must be procured as to 
 his social worth and character. His military qualifications are 
 determined by a period of probation as a cadet. 
 
 Promotion by seniority to the grades of first-lieutenant and 
 captain depends upon the certificate of qualification, and upon 
 a theoretical qualification which is satisfied by the possession of 
 a certificate of the academy, college, or cadet school, through 
 which the officer has passed. Promotion by seniority to the 
 
188 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 grade of major in the infantry and cavalry depends upon the 
 certificate of qualification, and a certificate that the officer has 
 passed the final examination at the central course of instruction 
 with the classification of " good." If he fails to pass this ex- 
 amination, either direct or after pursuing the regular course at 
 the school, he is passed over in promotion on arriving at the 
 head of the list. 
 
 The certificate " good " obtained at the War School, or at 
 the advanced course of artillery and engineers, exempts cap- 
 tains of all arms from further theoretical examination. 
 
 Promotion by seniority to the grades of lieutenant-colonel, 
 colonel, and major-general, is based upon the qualification-list 
 and practical qualifications as attested by the officer's suc- 
 cess in command. The practical test for promotion to major- 
 general is ability to handle a brigade composed of the three 
 arms. 
 
 Promotion by selection is based entirely upon efficiency, and 
 a superior degree of military education. 
 
 The certificate of " excellent " at a cadet school entitles a 
 cadet to promotion out of turn, provided his military quahfica- 
 tions are satisfactory. 
 
 Lieutenants and sub-lieutenants are entitled to promotion 
 out of turn provided they have obtained the certificate " very 
 good " at either the "War School, or at the advanced artillery and 
 engineer course, and the certificate of qualification be satisfac- 
 tory. The certificate " excellent " entitles a lieutenant to im- 
 mediate promotion. 
 
 For promotion to the grades of major and lieutenant-colonel, 
 the one-fourth of the vacancies given to selection is divided into 
 two categories — one-third being assigned to the first category, 
 the remaining two-thirds to the second category. 
 
 To entitle an officer to promotion in the first category, his 
 certificate of qualification must be satisfactory ; he must possess 
 the certificate " excellent " at the central cavalry or infantry 
 school, or the certificate " very good " at the "War School, or ad- 
 vanced course of artillery and engineers ; he must also receive 
 the certificate " excellent " at a practical test, consisting of han- 
 
DETAIL IN THE AUSTRIAN ARMY. 189 
 
 dling a mixed force of all arms, such as might be assigned to a 
 field-officer holding a detached command. 
 
 To be entitled to promotion in the second category, an offi- 
 cer — in addition to the qualifications required in the first cate- 
 gory — must pass, before a board of officers appointed by the 
 Minister of War, a searching and extended examination in 
 strategy, technical duties of the general staff in war, tactics, 
 fortification, artillery, army organization, and military adminis- 
 tration. A further practical test, before a board of officers, is 
 required, consisting of handling a brigade composed of three 
 battalions of infantry, three squadrons of cavalry, and a half- 
 battery of artillery. 
 
 Promotion to the grade of colonel is by both seniority and 
 selection ; to major-general by seniority, and to all grades 
 above by selection. 
 
 In all cases of promotion by selection, the officers of the 
 same grade who possess the required qualifications for promo- 
 tion to the grade next above are arranged on a special list ac- 
 cording to seniority, and not according to their classification in 
 the examination-lists at the schools from which they may have 
 graduated. 
 
 In war any officer may be promoted by selection for distin- 
 guished conduct, and he may be further rewarded by the presen- 
 tation of a medal. 
 
 DETAIL IN THE AUSTRIAN AEMY. 
 
 The entire general staff of the Austrian army, numbering 
 2 generals, 16 colonels, 21 lieutenant-colonels, 43 majors, 121 
 captains, 118 first-lieutenants, and 26 auxiliary officers, instead 
 of constituting a corps by itself, is composed of officers of all 
 arms of service, who are in excess of the regimental comple- 
 ments. The officers are promoted in their respective arms, and 
 in the staff take rank according to seniority. The conditions 
 for admission to the different grades of the staff are as follows : 
 
 A first-lieutenant must be above twenty-five years of age ; 
 must have served three years with his regiment ; and must also 
 have graduated at the War School, or taken the advanced course 
 
190 ARMY OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 of artillery and engineers with the certificate of " excellent ; " 
 or else have passed the examination for promotion by selection. 
 Previous to appointment their fitness is tested by the perform- 
 ance of staff duty at brigade and division headquarters, and they 
 may also be required to serve a year on probation in the mili- 
 tary geographical institute. 
 
 Captains as a rule are selected from those who have pre- 
 viously served as lieutenants on the staff*, or from those who 
 have qualified for promotion by selection in the second cate- 
 gory. If there still be vacancies, captains may be selected who 
 have qualified for promotion in the first category. 
 
 Majors are selected from those who have previously served 
 as captains on the staff, or who have qualified for promotion by 
 selection in the second category. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels and colonels are selected from the best- 
 qualified field-officers who have previously served on the staff. 
 
 In order that officers of the staff shall not forget the habit 
 of command, captains are required while holding that grade to 
 command for two years a company, battery, or squadron ; and 
 colonels are similarly required to command a regiment for at 
 least three years. 
 
 The constitution of the Austrian general staff shows that, 
 while composed of officers of all arms, there is a constant inter- 
 change between the staff and line. The lieutenant who, by the 
 nature of his appointment, is qualified for promotion by selec- 
 tion, as soon as promoted returns to his arm, where he must re- 
 main unless summoned back as a captain. 
 
 In the same manner captains, majors, and lieutenant-colo- 
 nels, leave the staff by promotion, and cannot return to it unless 
 appointed anew. 
 
 In this manner indifferent officers can be removed without 
 loss of pride, and good officers can be selected to fill their 
 places. 
 
 The effect of the staff arrangement, and promotion by selec- 
 tion, is to enable intelligent and efficient officers to obtain while 
 young the highest grades in the army, in which, at any moment, 
 they may be called upon to influence the destiny of the nation. 
 
AEMY OF GERMAE'Y. 
 
 The troops of tlie German Empire are divided into three 
 classes, as follows : 
 
 1. Field-troops intended to form tlie armies in the field. 
 
 2. Depot-troops composed of recruits from the reserve, and 
 Landwehr, destined to fill vacancies in the field-troops. 
 
 3. Garrison-troops embracing the Landwehr, foot-artillery 
 regiments, reserve cavalry regiments, reserve pioneers, and rifle- 
 companies, intended to garrison the populous cities, and, in 
 case of necessity, to reenforce the army in the field. 
 
 The following tables represent the armed strength of the 
 empire. 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 TROOPS. 
 
 Regi- 
 ments. 
 
 Battal- 
 ions. 
 
 Squad- 
 rons. 
 
 Batter- 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Staff officers 
 
 
 .... 1 .... 
 
 
 
 2,189 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 148 
 
 448 
 
 26 
 
 293 
 
 
 
 
 8,603 
 5.32 
 355 
 
 255,411 
 
 
 14 545 
 
 
 
 4,760 
 
 
 
 Total infantry 
 
 14S 
 
 7o2 
 
 
 
 
 9,490 
 
 274,716 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 465 
 
 
 
 2,857 
 
 64,668 
 
 
 Field-artillery 
 
 36 
 
 "29 
 
 
 300 
 
 1,216 
 
 1,629 
 
 682 
 
 80,720 
 15,156 
 
 
 
 
 Total artillery 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 800 
 
 1,216 
 
 2,311 
 
 45,876 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 10,3'24 
 
 
 
 Train 
 
 
 18 1 .... 
 
 
 
 218 
 
 5,050 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 1,023 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,631 
 
 748 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 621 
 
 
 
 626 
 
 Saddlers 
 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 277 
 
 859 
 
 465 
 
 300 
 
 1,216 
 
 19,890 
 
 402,999 
 
 
 
 
 
192 
 
 ARMY OF GEEMANY. 
 
 Of the enlisted men, 48,280, exclusive of lance-corporals, 
 are non-commissioned officers ; 12,493 are musicians ; 3,187 are 
 hospital attendants ; and 9,446 are tradesmen employed to make 
 shoes, clothing, etc. 
 
 War-footing. 
 
 FIELD-ARMY. 
 
 Regi- 
 ments. 
 
 Battal- 
 
 Compa- 
 nies. 
 
 Squad- 
 rons. 
 
 Batteries. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Officer!. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Staff officers 
 
 'i48 
 
 "'9.3 
 86 
 
 ■443 
 26 
 
 "54 
 
 '372 
 
 'soo 
 
 1,866 
 
 863 
 
 10,190 
 
 572 
 
 2,144 
 
 2,286 
 565 
 785 
 216 
 
 6,170 
 465 620 
 
 
 
 26,676 
 
 
 59,814 
 78,120 
 20,917 
 88,451 
 2,826 
 
 Artillery 
 
 
 Administrative depart- 
 
 
 
 Total field-army. . . 
 
 277 
 
 469 
 
 54 
 
 372 
 
 300 
 
 1,800 
 
 17,621 
 
 687,594 
 
 DEP0T-TK00P8. 
 
 Staff officers 
 
 
 ■i4s 
 
 "'26 
 
 "20 
 87 
 
 "'93 
 
 "ii 
 
 ■426 
 
 375 
 
 2,812 
 104 
 465 
 840 
 90 
 240 
 
 1,836 
 
 179,524 
 
 8,008 
 
 23 994 
 
 
 Elfles 
 
 
 
 13,261 
 
 Pioneers 
 
 4 950 
 
 Train 
 
 11,522 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 148 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 71 
 
 426 
 
 4,426 
 
 243,095 
 
 
 GARRISON-TROOPS. 
 
 Various brigade and di- 
 \ision headquarters. . 
 
 
 '293 
 
 Foot- 
 artillery. 
 
 53 
 
 "26 
 
 "4.8 
 
 "144 
 
 Field- 
 artillery. 
 
 54 
 
 824 
 
 850 
 
 6,424 
 
 104 
 
 828 
 
 1,370 
 581 
 
 10,000 
 250,244 
 
 Rifles 
 
 6.500 
 
 
 22,968 
 
 ArtUlerv 
 
 64,852 
 
 Pioneers 
 
 8,538 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 351 
 
 74 
 
 144 
 
 54 
 
 324 
 
 10,107 
 
 858,102 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,653 
 1,672 
 
 
 
 
 Veterin.iry surgeons... 
 
 833 
 1,057 
 
 
 711 
 
 
 16,032 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 277 
 
 968 
 
 211 
 
 609 
 
 425 
 
 9,550 
 
 38,479 
 
 1,302,429 
 
 INTAI^KT. 
 
 The infantry of the German Empire consists, in time of 
 peace, of 148 regiments of three battalions each, except one, 
 which has but two battalions. 
 
INFANTRY. 
 
 193 
 
 The organization of a company on the peace and war foot- 
 ing is as follows : 
 
 p 
 
 RANK. 
 
 EACE-FOOTING. 
 
 WAB-FOOTING. 
 
 O 
 
 ficers. 
 
 Men, 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Captain 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 .106 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 
 First-lieutenant 
 
 
 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 1 
 
 Fahurich 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 4 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 24 
 
 Drummers 
 
 2 
 
 Buglers 
 
 2 
 
 Privates 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 137 
 
 5 
 
 249 
 
 
 
 Hospital-attendants . . 
 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 Tradesmen 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Total non-combatants 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Total officers and men 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 
 257 
 
 The strength of a battalion is as follows ; 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 Officers. Men. 
 
 WAE-FOOTING. 
 
 Battalion commander 
 
 Adjutant 
 
 Non-commissioned officers 
 
 Dmm-major 
 
 Staff-surgeon 
 
 Assistant-surgeon 
 
 Paymaster 
 
 Paymaster-assistant 
 
 Armorer 
 
 Hospital attendants , 
 
 Tradesmen 
 
 Train-soldiers 
 
 FOTTK COMPANIES 
 
 Captains 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 Second-lieutenants 
 
 Sergeant-majors 
 
 Fahnriche 
 
 Vice-sergeant-majors 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Lance-corporals 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Privates 
 
 Total , 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 16 
 
 28 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 423 » 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 796 
 
 567 
 
 26 
 
 1,023 
 
 ' One company has 105 priyates. 
 
 13 
 
194 
 
 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The field, staff, and non-commissioned staff of tlie regiment 
 are as follows : 
 
 PEACE-FOOTING. 
 
 Officers. Men, 
 
 ■WAE-FOOTING. 
 
 Officers. Men, 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel. . 
 
 Adjutant 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Senior staff-surgeon. 
 
 Staff- surgeons 
 
 Assistant-surgeons. . 
 Train-soldiers 
 
 Total , 
 
 Three battalions . 
 
 Total regiment. 
 
 11 
 
 1,701 
 
 1,712 
 
 82 
 
 18 
 3,069 
 
 3,087 
 
 BRIGADE OF INFANTRY. 
 
 The brigade of infantry in time of peace consists of the 
 staff, 2 regiments of infantry (6 battalions), and 2 regiments of 
 Landwehr. In war it consists of the staff and 2 regiments, 
 or 6 battalions, numbering 6,366. 
 
 In addition to the field staff, the brigade in time of war 
 leaves behind a brigade district staff, consisting of a major-gen- 
 eral, or colonel, and two officers as assistants. This staff assumes 
 control of all depot and garrison troops of infantry, and is re- 
 sponsible for calling out, training, equipping, and forwarding 
 men to the brigade in the field. The brigade staff communi- 
 cates with the men to be called out through the headquarters 
 of the Landwehr battalions, and the sergeant-majors of the 
 Landwehr company districts. 
 
 DIVISION OF INFANTRY. 
 
 A division in time of peace consists of 2 brigades of infan- 
 try and 1 brigade of cavalry. 
 
 In war it consists of the staff, 2 brigades of infantry, 1 regi- 
 ment of cavalry (4 squadrons), and 1 division of artillery (4 bat- 
 teries). There is also attached to the division either 1 battalion 
 of rifles, or 1 company of pioneers. 
 
 The staff" consists of 1 general, 1 field-officer or captain of 
 
ARMY CORPS. 195 
 
 the general staff, 2 captains or lieutenants as adjutants, 2 judge- 
 advocates, and 2 chaplains. Total division 14,500. 
 
 AKMY COKPS. 
 
 An army corps in the field consists of — 
 I. — The staff', embracing — 
 
 1 General, or lieutenant-general as commander, 
 
 2 Field-officers of the general staff, one of whom is chief 
 
 of staff, 
 
 2 Captains of the general staff, 
 
 4 Adjutants, captains, or lieutenants, 
 
 3 Engineer officers, 
 
 1 Major-general, or colonel of artillery, 
 
 2 Lieutenants, or adjutants, who constitute the artillery 
 
 brigade staff, 
 
 1 Field-officer, and 1 lieutenant as adjutant, who consti- 
 
 tute the train staff". 
 
 II. — Two divisions of infantry — 
 
 In all, 25 battalions, 8 squadrons, 48 guns, and 1 com- 
 pany of pioneers ; numbering 29,000. 
 
 III. — One division of cavalry (16 squadrons), composed of — 
 
 2 Brigades of 2 regiments each, and 
 
 1 to 2 batteries of artillery ; 
 Numbering in all, 3,000 men. 
 
 lY. — Keserve artillery (42 to 48 guns), composed of — 
 
 2 Divisions of field, and 
 
 1 Division of horse artillery ; numbering 1,300 men. 
 
 V. — Intendance, commissariat-trains, bridge-trains (1 to each 
 division and 1 for the corps), 3 columns sanitary troops ; num- 
 bering in all, 2,571 men. 
 
 The total of an army corps approximates 41,600 men. 
 
 The field-troops of Germany, consisting of 18 corps, in 
 time of war are organized into armies of from 2 to 4 corps 
 each. ■• 
 
 MILITAEY TEERnOEIAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Corresponding to the military organization, the territory of 
 Germany is divided into 17 corps districts, each of which is di- 
 
196 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 vided into 2 division and 4 brigade districts. Eacli brigade 
 district is .divided into Landwehr battalion districts, which are 
 further subdivided into Landwehr company districts. 
 
 The guard-corps selects its recruits from the entire empire. 
 
 Each of the other corps is permanently assigned to a district 
 from which it is exclusively recruited both in time of peace and 
 war. 
 
 KECKUrrMENT. 
 
 The work of recruitment is conducted by two commissions, 
 called the Ersatz-Commission and the Oher-Ersatz- Commission. 
 
 An Ersatz-Commission is appointed for each of the 275 
 Landwehr districts, and is composed of both military and civil 
 officers, the commander of the Landwehr district being one of 
 the members. 
 
 This commission meets in the early part of the year, and be- 
 fore it must appear every man of the district who is liable to 
 military duty. After examining all the men physically, hear- 
 ing all petitions, and deciding such cases as come up for post- 
 ponement, the commission prepares a list of all who are quali- 
 fied for service. Such cases as the Ersatz-Commission cannot 
 dispose of, it refers to the Ober-Ersatz-Commission. 
 
 This latter commission is appointed for each brigade district, 
 and is composed of the brigade commander, an administrative 
 officer of high rank, and also a civil officer. The Ober-Ersatz- 
 Commission meets in each Landwehr district, usually in the 
 summer, and before it must appear all the men not put back by 
 the Ersatz-Commission. After another examination and fur- 
 ther revision of the cases submitted by the Ersatz-Commission 
 for postponement, a final list is made out by the commission, 
 which then proceeds to drafting, causing each man on the 
 list to cast lots. Those who draw the lowest figures are as- 
 signed to the annual contingent, and are turned over by the 
 president of the commission to the Landwehr commanders for 
 distribution to the various arms of service. 
 
 The persons exempted from drawing lots are volunteers for 
 one, or three years ; volunteers for non-commissioned officers' 
 
RESERVE. 197 
 
 schools ; foresters' apprentices, provided with required certifi- 
 cates ; those physically disqualified, and also those morally un- 
 worthy, or disqualified through crime. 
 
 Postponement of entry to service for one or two years is 
 granted to men who are the sole support of indigent families, or 
 of parents or grandparents unable to work ; to only sons of 
 landed proprietors, lessees, and tradesmen, where the son is their 
 indispensable assistant ; proprietors or tenants of land upon the 
 cultivation of which their livelihood depends, and in the super- 
 intendence of which they cannot be replaced ; proprietors of 
 large factories who cannot be replaced in the management of 
 business by others ; persons intending to pursue a professional 
 career or learn a trade ; those who reside permanently abroad. 
 
 In addition to the cases of postponement stated above, the 
 chief Ersatz authorities of any state can postpone, or exempt, 
 from service any person who can present a valid reason, though 
 such reason be not mentioned in the recruitino: regulations. 
 
 Persons whose entry to service has been postponed, if not 
 called up at the end of the second year, are passed into the 
 Ersatz reserve, whence, in case of war, they are liable to be 
 summoned to fill vacancies in the active army. 
 
 The annual contingent for the entire army approximates 
 140,000 men, and is distributed at the rate of 190 recruits to 
 each regiment of infantry ; 36 to each squadron of cavalry ; 30 
 to each battery of artillery ; 165 to each battalion of foot or 
 fortress artillery ; 160 to each battalion of pioneers ; and 175 
 to each battalion of the train. 
 
 The term of service is twelve years, of which three are with 
 the colors, four in the reserve, and five in the Landwehr. 
 
 The men of the reserve and Landwehr are arranged in reg- 
 isters, according to annual classes. 
 
 KESEKVE. 
 
 The reserve is composed of four classes of men, who have 
 completed their service of three years with the colors. The 
 total number depends upon the proportion of each annual con- 
 tingent of 140,000, who complete the three years' service, and 
 
198 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 may be estimated at above 500,000, of which number about 
 300,000 would be required to raise the field-army to a war- 
 footing. Such men as are not required to complete tlie war- 
 footing are available for the organization of garrison-troops. 
 
 During the four years a man is in the reserve, he may be 
 summoned back to the ranks twice for the purpose of attending 
 the annual manoeuvres for a period not exceeding eight weeks 
 each time. He must also attend muster twice a year — once in 
 the spring and once in the autumn. 
 
 In time of war the reserves are called back to the colors by 
 classes, beginning with the youngest. 
 
 OFFICEES or RESERVE. 
 
 These officers are provided to fill to the complement the 
 number of officers required to raise each regiment and field 
 organization to the war-footing. They consist of such officers 
 as have left the regular army before the completion of seven 
 years' service ; men of the furlough-list who have distinguished 
 themselves before the enemy ; fiihnrichs who have been dis- 
 charged with a certificate of qualification as officers of re- 
 serve ; one-year volunteers with the same certificate ; also men 
 of the furlough-list, who, after their discharge, procure a like 
 certificate. 
 
 All men of the reserve, who hold the certificate of qualifi- 
 cation for officers of reserve, are required to serve eight weeks 
 with a regiment of the line in order to learn their new duties. 
 They must also, before being appointed, be accepted by the 
 officers of the regiment to which they are assigned. On com- 
 pleting the total of seven years with the colors and in reserve, 
 the officers are transferred to the Landwehr to complete the 
 remainder of their twelve years' service. This arrangement 
 enables the Government to confide all of its troops, who may 
 be called to meet the enemy, to the leadership of officers who 
 have been specially educated, and who are familiar with the 
 duties of field-service. 
 
DEPOT TROOPS. I99 
 
 ERSATZ EESEEVE. 
 
 The Ersatz reserve is intended to supplement the reserve 
 already described, and, in connection with it, to replace casual- 
 ties in the field-troops. It is composed of two classes, in the 
 first of which a man serves five years, when he is transferred to 
 the second class, where he continues to serve till the end of his 
 thirty-first year. 
 
 The number of men in the first class is supposed to be equal 
 to the number required to raise the army from the peace to the 
 war footing. The class is composed of the men who have drawn 
 high numbers at the conscription, also such as have had their 
 entry to service postponed, or whose physical defects do not 
 entitle them to complete exemption from service. The second 
 class is composed of men transferred annually from the first 
 class, and also of those who have not been assigned to the first 
 class in consequence of physical defects, or who were in excess 
 of its requirements. 
 
 In case of war, the men of the first class are first summoned 
 to fill vacancies and to compose depot-troops, after which the 
 second class can be called upon for the same service. 
 
 FUKLOUGH-LIST. 
 
 To encourage faithful and intelligent performance of duty, 
 and also in the interest of economy, about 30,000 men, after 
 having served two years with the colors, are sent on furlough, 
 subject to recall, to complete their term of service. If not re- 
 called, they pass into reserve, the same as men who have com- 
 pleted the regular three years. 
 
 DEPOT-TEOOPS. 
 
 In time of war each regiment of infantry, artillery, and 
 cavalry, each rifle, pioneer, and train battalion, organizes a 
 depot for the purpose of clothing, training, arming, equipping, 
 and forwarding recruits to the troops in the field. The depots 
 
200 
 
 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 also supply the troops with the equipments and clothing needed 
 during the campaign. 
 
 The depot of each regiment of infantry constitutes a bat- 
 talion designated the " Depot Battalion (such) Regiment of In- 
 fantry." 
 
 The battalion is organized as follows : 
 
 Field-officer 
 
 Adjutant 
 
 Surgeons 
 
 Paymaster 
 
 Sergeant-major , 
 
 Drum-major 
 
 rOITK COMPANIES. 
 
 Officers 
 
 Non-commissioned officers , 
 
 Lance-corporals , 
 
 Buglers 
 
 Privates , 
 
 teadebmen's division 
 
 Officers 
 
 Non-commissioned officers 
 
 Tradesmen 
 
 Total 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 SO 
 
 
 9G 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 804 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 200 
 
 22 
 
 1,208 
 
 EACH COMPANY. 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 201 
 
 The officers for the depot battalion are taken partly from 
 officers of the regiment, and partly from officers on the half- 
 pay and the retired lists. A portion of the non-commissioned 
 officers are also detailed from the res-iment. 
 
 "When mobilization is ordered, 400 recruits are imme- 
 diately called to the depot, where their training is begun 
 under the experienced officers and non-commissioned officers 
 appointed to receive them. The recruits consist of men from 
 the reserves. Ersatz reserve, and later the youngest classes of 
 the Landwehr. 
 
 As soon as the regiment in the field is reduced one-tenth of 
 its strength by casualties, requisition is made upon the depot 
 for the number of men necessary to fill the vacancies. These 
 men completely armed and equipped are at once forwarded 
 under officers and non-commissioned officers from the depot, 
 
LANDWEHR. 201 
 
 who immedicately return to it unless required to remain with 
 the regiment. 
 
 The depot battalions (numbering 148) never take the field ; 
 they may, however, be required to replace garrison or Landwehr 
 troops, ordered into the field or on active service. 
 
 When all the depots of the difierent arms of service are 
 raised to their complement, they number 4,426 ofiicers and 
 243,095 men. 
 
 LANDWEHR, 
 
 As already stated, the Landwehr is composed of men who 
 have finished their term of service with the colors and in re- 
 serve. 
 
 In time of peace it is organized into Landwehr battalion dis- 
 tricts, with a cadre usually consisting of a field-officer, an ad- 
 jutant, and three non-commissioned officers and men. 
 
 The rolls of all men in reserve. Ersatz reserve, as also in the 
 Landwehr, are kept at the district headquarters. 
 
 A sergeant-major, corresponding to a first-sergeant, resides 
 in each Landwehr company district, and serves as a medium of 
 communication with the men at their homes. 
 
 During the five years a man is in the Landwehr, he may be 
 called out twice for company or battalion drill, for a period not 
 exceeding eight to fourteen days at a time. 
 
 In time of war each regiment of infantry, in addition to its 
 three field battalions, forms two battalions of Landwehr, to which 
 it assigns a certain quota of officers and non-commissioned offi- 
 cers. The total number of Landwehr battalions is 293. These 
 battalions can at once be raised to the complement of 22 officers 
 and 1,002 men, or if the emergency does not demand the war 
 strength each battalion may be increased to 14 officers and 402 
 men, called the first augmentation, or to 18 officers and 602 
 men, called the second augmentation. The battalions being 
 raised to the war strength, may be organized into regiments, 
 brigades, divisions, and corps, and sent to reenforce the army 
 in the field. 
 
202 ARMY OF GEEMANY. 
 
 OFFICEKS OF LANDWEHR. 
 
 The officers of the Landwehr consist of officers who have 
 completed their period of service in the regular army and are 
 still able to perform duty ; officers transferred from the reserve ; 
 men of the Landwehr who have been distinguished in the field ; 
 men who have received certificates qualifying them as officers 
 of reserve, but who have never been promoted ; also sergeant- 
 majors and non-commissioned officers discharged from the reg- 
 ular army with a recommendation for promotion in the Land- 
 wehr. "^ 
 
 In all cases, before an officer can be appointed in the Land- 
 wehr, he must be accepted by the other officers of the battalion. 
 
 In case the casualties in the regular army require it, officers 
 of the Landwehr can be transferred to fill the vacancies. 
 
 OBLIGATIONS OF EESEEVE SOLDIEES. 
 
 All men of the reserve, Landwehr, Ersatz reserve, and fur- 
 lough-list, on returning to their homes must report in person 
 to the sergeant-major of the company Landwehr district in which 
 they reside. 
 
 Men of the reserve, and Landwehr, are permitted to settle in 
 any part of the empire, but in case of a transfer of residence 
 they must report to the sergeant-majors of the districts they 
 leave, and also of the districts to which they remove. These 
 changes must be reported within fourteen days of their occur- 
 rence, also any change of residence within the company district 
 must be reported within the same period. Failure to report, 
 which may be done in person, or in writing, is punishable with 
 a fine of $1.50 to $4.00, or imprisonment from three to eight 
 days. 
 
 Intention to remove for short periods to distant parts of the 
 empire must be reported to the sergeant-major, and in time 
 of the mano3uvres his permission must first be procured. In all 
 eases the address must be left so that orders may be promptly 
 transmitted. 
 
 Soldiers who desire to reside abroad, and to enter upon 
 
SCHOOLS FOR ENLISTED MEN. 203 
 
 business pursuits in foreign countries, must first procure a fur- 
 lough, of two years, which may afterward be prolonged by the 
 corps commander till liability to service expires. 
 
 Whether in foreign countries, or in different parts of the 
 empire, it is the duty of all members of the reserve, or Land- 
 wehr, when mobilization is ordered, to immediately return to 
 their homes and report to the Landwehr authorities. 
 
 LAOT)STUKM. 
 
 This force practically embraces all able-bodied rfien. capable 
 of bearing arms not already in service. It is divided into two 
 classes : the first of which is composed of all men between the 
 ages of eighteen and forty-two who are not in the army, the 
 reserve, or the Landwehr ; the second class embraces all above 
 the age of forty -two. 
 
 The first class may be organized into 293 battalions on the 
 same basis as the Landwehr, making an aggregate force of 
 175,000 men. The second class has no organization. 
 
 SCHOOLS FOE ENLISTED MEN. 
 
 The perfection of the German military system lies less in 
 the military organization than in the exactness with which men 
 of every grade, in every branch of service, are trained for the 
 eflicient performance of their duties. 
 
 To this end, the same as in all of the other great Continental 
 armies, the chief school for the private soldier is practical service 
 with the colors for a period of three years. It is the graduates 
 of this school who constitute the reserve proper, and who in time 
 of war return to the ranks with the experience of trained sol- 
 diers. They also constitute by far the largest proportion of the 
 Landwehr, which can be called out as a second army to reenf orce 
 the army in the field. The Government does not satisfy itself 
 with training them simply to obey orders, to be good marks- 
 men, to drill with precision, and adapt themselves with intelli- 
 gence to a variety of service in the presence of the enemy, but 
 requires of them a general educational training, such as is re- 
 
204 AEMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 quired in every other walk of life, as the only sure basis of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 For this purpose there are schools in each battalion, in which 
 are taught reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. Candi- 
 dates for promotion to non-commissioned oflScers are, in addi- 
 tion, taught to make such reports and returns as may be re- 
 quired of non-commissioned officers. In reference to the train- 
 ing of this grade the Government shows special solicitude. The 
 largest proportion of non-commissioned officers is composed 
 of men who have completed three years' service with the colors 
 and reengage for another term. 
 
 PREPAEATORT SCHOOLS. 
 
 Preparatory schools are established for the eons of non- 
 commissioned officers and privates of the army, navy, Land- 
 wehr, and invalid list, at Annaberg, Erfurt, Spandau, Stralsund, 
 and Struppen. 
 
 Boys are admitted to these schools between the ages of ten 
 and twelve, and are discharged at the age of fourteen. The 
 subjects taught are principally the common branches. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS' SCHOOLS. 
 
 These schools are specially established for the training of 
 non-commissioned officers of the infantry. The four schools at 
 Potsdam, Jiilich, Bieberich, and Weissenfels, have each 496 
 pupils, with a staff and non-commissioned staff composed of 19 
 officers and 63 men. 
 
 The pupils are organized into a battalion of four companies. 
 The fifth school, at Ettingen, has 248 pupils organized in two 
 companies, with a staff and non-commissioned staff composed 
 of 11 officers and 34 non-commissioned officers. A sixth school 
 is to be established at Marienwerder. 
 
 Admission to these schools is open to boys who have passed 
 through the preparatory schools, and to volunteers between the 
 ages of sixteen and twenty. Candidates must be of good moral 
 character, and be able to read, write, and perform the four 
 ffround-rules of arithmetic. 
 
ONE -YEAR YOLTJNTEERS. 205 
 
 They must also engage to serve four years in the army after 
 completing the course of study, which lasts three year^. 
 
 The course embraces the common branches, tactics, regula- 
 tions, reports and returns, and such other subjects as are neces- 
 sary to qualify the pupils for the position of clerk, sergeant- 
 major, first-sergeant, and the other grades of non-commissioned 
 officers. 
 
 The military duties embrace all of the practical instruction 
 in the diiferent schools of the soldier, company, and battalion, 
 required to qualify non-commissioned officers to command and 
 to act as military instructors. 
 
 Schools like the above are also established in Saxony and 
 Wiirtemberg for their respective contingents. 
 
 The artillery has its own special non-commissioned officers' 
 schools, in the higher of which are taught mathematics, physics, 
 German, science of artillery, fortification, plan and fortification 
 drawing. 
 
 ONE-TEAK VOLUNTEERS. 
 
 The one-year volunteers are composed of young men of edu- 
 cation whose liability to military service in time of peace is lim- 
 ited to one year, with a view to interfere as little as possible 
 with their professional and business pursuits. 
 
 To be eligible as volunteers they must be able to provide 
 their food, lodging, and uniform, at their own expense. They 
 must also present to an examining committee either a certificate 
 from a German gymnasium that the candidate is qualified for 
 admission to the university ; that he is in one of the two senior 
 classes of a gymnasium or real school {Realschule) ; the upper 
 class of pro-gymnasium or first-class grammar-school ; that he 
 has passed the final examination at a real school of the second 
 class ; or that he has been one year at the cadet school at 
 Berlin or Dresden. 
 
 If the candidate cannot present one of the above certificates 
 he must pass an equivalent examination before the committee, 
 which is composed of two field-officers, the civil president of 
 the Ober-Ersatz-Commission in the district to which the candi- 
 
206 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 date belongs, a civil member, and a director and instructor, or 
 two instructors of a gymnasium, real school, or higher school. 
 
 The certificate from either of the schools mentioned in- 
 volves a previous course of study of six to seven years, embrac- 
 ing mathematics, physics, languages, and the classics. 
 
 Candidates are permitted to volunteer between the ages of 
 seventeen and twenty, and in time of peace select any year to 
 serve between seventeen and twenty-three. In case of war 
 they must present themselves immediately to the Ersatz-Com- 
 missions of their districts for service with the army. If ac- 
 cepted, volunteers are permitted to choose their arm of ser- 
 vice, not more than four being assigned to any one company. 
 They pursue a special course of instruction, and are not re- 
 quired to sleep in barracks, nor to mess with the men. At the 
 end of the year they undergo an examination, when those who 
 possess the necessary qualifications are discharged with officers' 
 certificates, and thus become available as officers of reserve. If 
 not appointed officers of reserve, they become available, in case 
 of war, as non-commissioned officers. 
 
 The number of volunteers averages from 4,000 to 4,200 an- 
 nually, of which number about 45 per cent, receive officers' 
 certificates. Of those who served in the Austro-Prussian "War 
 as high as 56 per cent, received the officers' certificate. 
 
 The value of this system was proved at the beginning of 
 the Franco-German War in 1870, when the number of volun- 
 teers, at the disposition of the Government, who had qualified 
 as officers of reserve, was, for the — 
 
 Infixntry 5,143 
 
 Kifles 65 
 
 Cavalry 740 
 
 Artillery 597 
 
 Engineers . . . . ... 121 
 
 Train 76 
 
 Total 6,742 
 
 This number embraced only those volunteers whose term of 
 
OFFICERS. 207 
 
 service (six years) in the reserve had not yet expired. Those 
 whose service had expired were still available for the subsequent 
 five years as officers of Landwehr. 
 
 OFFICERS. 
 
 With the exception of a very few of the most meritorious 
 cadets, called " Selecta," who are commissioiipd as officers on 
 graduating from the cadet school at Berlin, an others, previous 
 to being commissioned, must serve for a period of at least five 
 or six months in the ranks. 
 
 In this respect, the German system differs from that of all 
 other Continental countries, in which officers of all arms of self* 
 vice are for the most part commissioned directly upon graduat- 
 ing from the various military schools and academies. 
 
 Persons who aspire to the position of officers in the German . ^^ 
 service are termed " Avantageurs," and must be nominated 
 either by the colonel of a regiment, or else have completed sat- 
 isfactorily the second year's course at the cadet school at Berlin. 
 
 Those nominated by the colonels constitute about 60 per 
 cent, of all the officers of the army ; the remaining 40 per cent, 
 come from the cadet school. 
 
 The first requirement of a candidate is a good general edu- 
 cation, as to which the Government may be satisfied, either by 
 the production of a certificate from a gymnasium, or a real 
 school, showing tliat the candidate is qualified for admission to 
 a university, or by passing what is called the " Fiihnrich's Ex- 
 amination " before the Supreme Military Examination Com- 
 mittee. 
 
 In the case of those nominated by the colonels, applications 
 to pass the examination must be made to the examination com- 
 mittee through the colonel of the regiment in which the candi- 
 date desires to serve, and the examination may be passed either 
 before or after entering the service. The application to pass 
 the examination must be accompanied by a certificate from a 
 gymnasium or real school that the candidate is qualified to enter 
 the senior class at one of these institutions. 
 
208 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The fahnrich's examination embraces the following sub- 
 jects : 
 
 German language and literature, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Trench, 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Geography, physical and political, 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Plane trigonometry. 
 
 Ancient and modern history, 
 
 Free-hand and geometrical drawing, 
 And any other subjects which the candidates may have studied. 
 
 POETEPEE-FAHNEICH. 
 
 Candidates who have passed the fahnrich's examination, 
 have served at least five months in the ranks, and possess a ser- 
 vice certificate from the colonel, showing that the candidate 
 possesses the necessary mental and physical qualifications, that 
 his conduct has been good, and that he is proficient in the duties 
 of a private soldier and non-commissioned oflicer, are eligible 
 for promotion to the grade of " portepee-fahnrich " or " ensign 
 designate." After serving five months in this grade, they are 
 sent to a war school to pursue a course of professional study. 
 
 WAR SCHOOLS. 
 
 There are ten of these schools, eight of which are in Prus- 
 sia, one in Bavaria, and one in "Wiirtemberg. 
 
 The staff of each generally consists of a field-officer, as 
 commandant, an adjutant, a paymaster, 8 to 12 captains as in- 
 structors in studies, and 6 to 8 officers charged with discipline 
 and instruction in riding, gymnastics, and other exercises. The 
 average number of scholars at each school is about 30. 
 
 The course of study, which is purely professional, is from 
 nine to ten months, and embraces — 
 
CADET SCHOOLS. 209 
 
 Tactics, 
 
 Science of arms, 
 
 Munitions of war, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Topography, 
 
 Surveying, 
 
 Military regulations, 
 
 Military correspondence. 
 The practical exercises consist principally of — 
 
 Drill, 
 
 Riding, 
 
 Fencing, 
 
 Gymnastics. 
 At the conclusion of the course, an examination is held, 
 when those who pass it successfully are recommended for pro- 
 motion to the grade of oflBcer. Those who fail are allowed a 
 second examination after a period of three, six, or twelve 
 months. While waiting for promotion, the candidate still holds 
 the grade of fithnrich. 
 
 The only persons exempted from pursuing the course at a 
 war school, in addition to the " Selecta," are the members of the 
 " Ober-Prima " class at the cadet school, and students who have 
 completed one year's study at the JS'orth-German University. 
 The latter, after a service of six months, are authorized to be 
 appointed fiihnrichs, and may present themselves at the officers' 
 examination. If successful, they are placed on the same foot- 
 ing as the fiihnrichs who have studied at the war schools. 
 
 CADET SCHOOLS. 
 
 It has already been stated that about 60 per cent, of the 
 German officers enter the service through the nomination of 
 regimental commanders. The object of the cadet schools is to 
 prepare the remaining 40 per cent, for the grade of fahnrich, 
 preliminary to further service in the regiments and at the war 
 schools. 
 
 These schools consist of six preparatory schools at Potsdam, 
 
 14 
 
210 AEMY OF GEEMANY. 
 
 Culm, "WaLlstadt, Bensberg, Ploen, and Oranienstein, and a 
 central or finishing school at Berlin. 
 
 The pupils at all of these schools constitute the cadet corps. 
 The cadets are divided into two classes, paying cadets and king's 
 cadets. The former pay $195 per annum, except the sons ot 
 poor ofiicers, who pay $112. The king's cadets pay from $22 
 to $60 per annum. The king's cadets are usually the sons of 
 officers, and distinguished non-commissioned officers, who have 
 died in service, also sons of civilians who have performed meri- 
 torious service to the state, involving personal danger. 
 
 The number of paying cadets varies with the number of 
 king's cadets to whom preference is given. Pensioners are ad- 
 mitted according to priority of application. The total number 
 of cadets is between 1,900 and 2,000. 
 
 The cadet corps is commanded by a major-general. The 
 preparatory schools are commanded' by field-officers, who are 
 assisted by a proper number of captains and subalterns as in- 
 structors. Boys are admitted to the preparatory schools between 
 the ages of ten and fifteen. 
 
 The course of study is four years, and embraces — 
 
 Latin, 
 
 German, 
 
 French, 
 
 Writing, 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Elementary algebra and geometry, 
 
 Ancient and modern history, 
 
 Bible history, 
 
 ISTatural philosophy, 
 
 Drawing. 
 The military instruction is exclusively practical, and consists 
 of drill, gymnastics, and bayonet-exercise. 
 
 The cadets at each school are organized into two compa- 
 nies. The discipline is mild and paternal, being adapted to the 
 tender age of the cadets, who rarely show signs of insubordi- 
 nation. 
 
CENTRAL SCHOOL AT BERLIN. 211 
 
 CENTRAL SCHOOL AT BEELEST. 
 
 On completing the course at the preparatory schools cadets 
 are transferred to the Central Cadet School (house), Berlin, 
 where they remain two years. 
 
 The course of study embraces — 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Trigonometry, 
 
 Surveying, 
 
 Science of arms. 
 
 Tactics, 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Drawing, 
 The final examination takes place in March, when those of 
 the first class who are qualified, and desire to go to their regi- 
 ments, are given a certificate qualifying them for the position 
 of fahnrich. Tliey must then serve in their regiments at least 
 five months before going to a war school, where they are placed 
 in all respects on the same footing as the " Avantageurs " or 
 " fiilmrichs " nominated by the colonels. 
 
 Those of the first class who possess special merit, and have 
 distinguished themselves in the studies, are termed " Selecta," 
 and are permitted to remain a third year to pursue a profes- 
 sional course almost identical with that described for the war 
 schools. If, at the end of the course, they pass the prescribed 
 ofiicers' examination, they are recommended at once for com- 
 missions. Those who fail must enter the regiments as fahn- 
 richs, and subsequently go through the war schools. 
 
 Those members of the first class who have not yet attained 
 the age of seventeen, or are not sufficiently developed in 
 physique to become fiihnrichs, are permitted to continue their 
 studies, and constitute a class called " Ober-Prima," or higher 
 first. If, at the end of the course, they pass the prescribed offi- 
 cers' examination, they are sent to regiment as fahnrichs, and, 
 after six months' service in that grade, can be recommended for 
 promotion as officers. 
 
212 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 In addition to all of the military qualifications before de- 
 scribed, all candidates for commissioned officers, excej)t the few 
 cadets termed " Selecta," must possess the social qualifications 
 deemed essential for every oflicer, and these qualifications are 
 determined by a vote of the officers of the regiment in which 
 the candidate desires to serve. If the vote be adverse the 
 candidate cannot be commissioned. Colonels generally satisfy 
 themselves as to the sentiment of the officers before giving the 
 Avantageurs their nomination. The right to veto a nomination 
 is also given to officers of Landwehr battalions. 
 
 As to the relative advantage of the two methods pursued in 
 preparing candidates for the grade of Fahnrich opinion in Ger- 
 many seems divided, but the balance appears to be in favor of 
 the nomination by colonels. 
 
 It is certain that the six to seven years' course pursued at 
 the cadet schools is so elementary in its nature that it cannot be 
 deemed superior, if equal, to the course of the same length pur- 
 sued at the gymnasia or real schools. Furthermore, the mili- 
 tary discipline in these schools, which begins with boys from 
 ten years of age upward, is so mild as to give the cadets but lit- 
 tle idea of the stern duties required of a soldier. 
 
 On the other hand, the Avantageurs, who are nominated by 
 the colonels, must be at least seventeen years of age, at which 
 period the mind is peculiarly receptive. Well prepared at the 
 gymnasia, they readily acquire, in the ten months' service in 
 ranks, and as fiihnrichs, the military proficiency of the cadets, 
 and, as a rule, pursue with greater zeal the course at the war 
 schools. The last fact is partly due to the natural feeling of 
 cadets that they have become old soldiers, and that further in- 
 struction is superfluous. 
 
 It cannot be denied that the military and theoretical quali- 
 fications required of candidates for appointment as officers are 
 not so high as in some other European countries, yet this ine- 
 quality is soon made to disappear by the subsequent course of 
 training and discipline they receive. In a military sense they 
 only begin to go to school when they receive their commis- 
 sions. Annually they see nearly 150,000 ignorant recruits 
 
WAR ACADEMY, BEELIN". 213 
 
 received into the army who, within three years, are to be con- 
 verted into trained soldiers and sent home in reserve. 
 
 Every year they must go progressively through the schools 
 of the soldier, the company, battalion, and regiment, and review 
 not only their own duties, but they must teach the soldier how 
 to act intelligently, in every situation in the presence of the 
 enemy. 
 
 In the evolutions of brigades and divisions they see all the 
 methods that may be adopted to attack or repel an attack of the 
 enemy, and in the great manoeuvres they are permitted to study 
 the principles of strategy and grand tactics, and to witness their 
 practical application. 
 
 The German officer is proud, not that he belongs to a par- 
 ticular arm of service, but because he is a member of the " Offi- 
 cers' Corps," in which he knows that advancement is sure if he 
 proves himself worthy and efficient. 
 
 The effect of giving officers the right of veto in the case of 
 aspirants who are deficient in honor and social qualities, has 
 made the corps of officers the most exclusive in the world, and, 
 in the general acceptation of the term, has proved an insur- 
 mountable barrier to promotion from the ranks. In theory, 
 such promotion for distinguished gallantry exists, but in prac- 
 tice the non-commissioned officers promoted are as a rule in- 
 duced to quit the service by offers of civil employment. 
 
 Kepressive of military enthusiasm as this policy must ap- 
 pear, the Germans claim that their recent triumphs in three 
 wars show that, so far as they are concerned, all they have lost 
 by exclusiveness has been more than counterbalanced by the 
 high general attainments of their officers, and the feeling of 
 professional pride which makes them prefer death to dishonor. 
 
 WAK ACADEJIT, BEELm. 
 
 The object of the War Academy is to educate officers for the 
 staff and to hold high commands. 
 
 Admission to it is by competitive examination, held annual- 
 ly in each army corps before a committee composed of the chief 
 of staff as president, and several other field-officers or captains. 
 
214 ; ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The examination is written, and embraces — 
 Geography, 
 Algebra, 
 Geometry, 
 Trigonometry, 
 History, 
 
 Military administration, 
 French. 
 A series of themes is also proposed, from which one may 
 be selected by each candidate. The object of these themes, or 
 compositions, is to enable the candidate to show his literary and 
 scientific acquirements. These compositions are prepared at 
 leisure, and submitted to the committee on the day appointed 
 for examination. 
 
 The general kno\\ledge of the military art is tested by writ- 
 ing a theme treating of the movements and dispositions to be 
 adopted by detachments of mixed troops in conducting certain 
 offensive or defensive operations with a given object in view. 
 
 The conditions stated in the theme of 187C were as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 The evening of July 1st a colonel, with a detachment of 
 two battalions of infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, and a bat- 
 tery of artillery, arrives to the north of Mariendorf. His object 
 is to give the feeble garrison of Berlin, consisting of one bri- 
 gade, time to prepare for defense by disputing as long as pos- 
 sible the enemy who is advancing by Gross-Machnow and 
 Ivonigs-Wusterhausen, his advanced guards being established 
 along the line of the Marienfeld-Buckow road. Another de- 
 tachment guards the road from Britz. 
 
 The candidate is required in his theme to state the orders 
 the colonel would give for the 2d of July, his intentions and 
 ulterior views, and also indicate on a map the various positions 
 that would be occupied by the troops. 
 
 The time allowed in the preparation of the theme is three 
 hours. 
 
 Applications to compete must receive the approval of the 
 colonels of regiments, and are addressed to the general com- 
 
WAR ACADEMY, BERLIN. 215 
 
 raanding the corps to wbicli the regiment of the candidate be- 
 longs, or within whose territory the officer may be serving. 
 
 The apphcation must be accompanied by a copy of the report 
 of the officer's character and services, from which it must appear 
 that he has had practical service and has shown himself pos- 
 sessed of aptitude for it ; that he has a genuine desire to in- 
 crease his professional knowledge ; and that he is in sufficiently 
 good health to denote long service ; and that he possesses suffi- 
 cient character and firmness to indicate that the freedom he 
 will enjoy at Berlin will not be injurious to him. The other 
 conditions relate to the officer's financial affairs, which must be 
 above reproach. 
 
 On a day designated the candidates assemble at corps head- 
 quarters, when each submits to the examining committee a 
 sketch of his personal history, written in French and German, 
 stating in what manner he qualified for the examination of 
 Fahnrich ; he also submits a sketch certified to have been exe- 
 cuted by himself, which is intended to show his knowledge of 
 drawing. 
 
 The time to be given to each subject is fixed by the committee 
 of studies at the "War Academy at Berlin, and the examination 
 is conducted in the presence of one or more members of the 
 examining committee. No books are allowed to be consulted 
 during the examination except a table of logarithms in mathe- 
 matics, and a dictionary in French. 
 
 As soon as each candidate finishes a subject he submits his 
 paper to the officer in charge, who indorses upon it the time 
 occupied in writing it. On the conclusion of the examination, 
 the committee makes a report showing the names of all the 
 competitors, the time required by each in his examination in the 
 different subjects, the names of the competitors who have sub- 
 mitted the compositions already referred to, as also those who 
 have failed to do so, and adds such further remarks as it may 
 deem advisable. This report, accompanied by all of the papers 
 submitted by each candidate to the committee, together with 
 his written examination in each subject, is forwarded to the 
 War Academy at Berlin, where an examination by the commit- 
 
216 
 
 AEMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 tee of studies determines who are the successful candidates. The 
 course of study is three years, beginning each year the 1st of 
 October and ending the 1st of July. Daring the months of 
 July, August, and September, the students return to their regi- 
 ments. 
 
 The total number of officers present in 1876 was 300. 
 
 The supervision of the Academy is vested in the chief of 
 the general staff. The commandant is a general officer. The 
 corps of professors is composed of officers and civilians. The 
 officers are nearly all members of the general staff, who teach 
 mostly professional subjects. The civil professors teach the 
 languages, higher mathematics, and the sciences. 
 
 The method of instruction is wholly by lecture, and subse- 
 quently by interrogation. 
 
 In subjects like military history or applied tactics, a student, 
 when interrogated, is subject to correction by either his in- 
 structor or any of the students. If he makes any mistake or 
 commits an error in posting troops, his fellow-students are quick 
 to point it out and to apply the remedy. 
 
 The object of the instruction is less to acquire positive 
 knowledge than to develop the habit of thinking, so as to 
 insure action from foresight rather than impulse. 
 
 The following table shows the subjects taught, and the 
 number of lessons per \veek : 
 
 Obligatory Studies. 
 
 SUBJECTS. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of Lessona 
 per Week. 
 
 1 
 
 Tactics 
 
 1st year. 
 2d " 
 1st " 
 2d " 
 3d " 
 1st " 
 1st " 
 2d " 
 8d " 
 2d " 
 3d " 
 2d " 
 2d " 
 3d " 
 1st " 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Applied tactics 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Artillery 
 
 4 
 6 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 (1 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 R 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Duties of the freneral staff 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 ia 
 
 Mathematics .... .... . . . 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
WAR ACADEMY, BERLIN. 
 
 217 
 
 Optional Studies. 
 
 SUBJECTS. 
 
 Higher mathematics 
 
 Geodesy 
 
 Ancient history and history of the middle ages 
 
 History of literature 
 
 Modern and contemporary history 
 
 Geography (general) 
 
 Physical geography 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Experimental philosophy 
 
 French 
 
 Bussian 
 
 2d year. 
 
 Kd 
 
 8d 
 
 1st 
 
 ad 
 
 2d 
 
 1st 
 
 1st 
 
 Ed 
 
 2d 
 
 1st 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 1st 
 
 2d 
 
 Sd 
 
 No. of Lessons 
 per Week. 
 
 Of the optional studies students are required to select one 
 or more, which then become obligatory. 
 
 The number of lessons per week is not invariable, and may- 
 be changed slightly when necessary. 
 
 An examination of the obligatory studies shows the impor- 
 tance attached to the study of professional subjects after officers 
 enter the service. 
 
 Ever mindful of the national reputation, and anxious to 
 achieve success with the least loss of life, the German Govern- 
 ment specially provides that all officers who may hold high 
 command, or who as staff officers may be responsible for the 
 guidance and movements of troops in battle, shall learn the 
 principles of war in time of peace. To this end, during the 
 first year, four hours per week are given to theoretical tac- 
 tics or the movements of troops as laid down in drill-books for 
 the different arms of service. The second year four hours 
 per week are given to applied tactics, or the art of posting 
 and manoeuvring troops according to the configuration of the 
 ground. 
 
 To the history of wars, which embraces all of the details and 
 strategical principles of the great campaigns of history, together 
 with the tactical principles applied to battles, more than twice 
 as much time is devoted as to any other subject. 
 
 In addition, the third year, three hours per week are devoted 
 
218 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 to learning the duties of the general stafi in reference to plans 
 of campaigns, the movements of troops, and the orders to be 
 given from day to day as the war progresses. 
 
 Military geography is also carefully studied with a view to 
 knowing all of the lines of communications, strategic points, 
 and lines of defense, of various countries. At small expense 
 the German Government educates annually a hundred officers 
 in the duties pertaining to high command, and every nation in 
 Europe has vindicated her wisdom by adopting as far as practi- 
 cable the methods she has pursued. 
 
 At the end of the three years' course the officers return to 
 their regiments without examination, but the record of each is 
 forwarded to the chief of staff, with a view to calling the most 
 proficient officers of the class to the general staff. 
 
 GENEKAL STAFF. 
 
 The first condition for admission to the general staff is that 
 an officer shall be a graduate of the War Academy. After re- 
 turning to their regiments, ten or twelve of the most proficient 
 of each class are transferred for a period of six months to an- 
 other arm of service. If they acquit themselves well, they are 
 at the expiration of this term summoned to Berlin, where, on 
 probation, they are assigned to general staff duty. At the end 
 of this term they are again sent back to their regiments, short- 
 ly after which those who are regarded as qualified are named 
 captains of the staff, and are sent into the army to serve three 
 years as staff officers. They are then sent back to the line and 
 required to command a company, battery, or squadron, before 
 being promoted to the grade of major. Only the grades of 
 field-officer and above are permanent, the promotions in these 
 grades being by seniority. 
 
 In order, however, to preserve the habit of command, and 
 to keep them in sympathy with the troops, staff officers before 
 each promotion are required to return to the line, and to hold 
 for a year a command corresponding to their rank. 
 
 The system of staff selection and promotion is specially de- 
 
GENERAL STAFF. 219 
 
 signed to increase professional knowledge and to enable tlie 
 Government to call the most liiglilj-educated officers to the 
 highest posts in the army. 
 
 The most rapid step in promotion is to the grade of major, 
 to attain which an officer, from what has been said, must have 
 served three years in the line, three at the War Academy, six 
 months in an arm differing from his own, two years on proba- 
 tion at Berlin, and three years on the staff in the army ; mak- 
 ino; a total of at least eleven and a half vears. 
 
 Once in the general staff, the promotion goes on by seniority 
 to the grade of colonel, and afterward by selection to the grades 
 of general. 
 
 "While the selection of generals is not limited to the staff, 
 one of the best tests of the system of German military educa- 
 tion lies in the fact that, at the outbreak of the Franco-German 
 War, every general in the Prussian army was a graduate of the 
 War Academy. 
 
 The staff" system does not necessarily exclude favoritism, 
 which may be shown in the first instance in the admission of a 
 candidate to the War Academy, and again in selecting the ten or 
 twelve of each class who are called on probation to Berlin ; but 
 it reduces the evils of favoritism, if they exist, to the minimum, 
 by requiring of the officers so advanced a thorough professional 
 training. 
 
 The operations of the general staff are entirely independent 
 of the Minister of War, and are directed by the chief of staff. 
 
 The general staff is divided into the " Haupt-Etat," or main 
 branch, and " Neben-Etat," or accessory branch. 
 
 The main branch is again divided into the " great general 
 staff in Berlin " and the " general staff with the troops." 
 
 The general duties of the great general staff are to collect 
 information regarding the organization, tactics, and armament 
 of foreign armies, the present and projected lines of railway, 
 and other lines of communication in foreign countries ; to pre- 
 pare plans of campaign, and to arrange all of the details for the 
 mobilization, movements, and concentration of troops in differ- 
 ent theatres of war, either within or exterior to the empire. 
 
220 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The duties are transacted in bureaux and sections, as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. The Central Bureau is charo;ed with all matters relating 
 to the personnel of the staff — the survey, War Academy, and 
 the Railway Regiment. It is presided over by the first adju- 
 tant of the chief of staff, who has the rank of colonel, and is 
 assisted by a captain and eight other officers. 
 
 2. The three sections and the Intelligence Bureau : 
 
 The First Section collects all information in reference to 
 the organization, tactics, armament, and mobilization, of the 
 armies of Norway and Sweden, Russia, Turkey, Austria, Den- 
 mark, Greece, and Asia. It likewise collects geographical in- 
 formation, and notes any changes in the fortifications and lines 
 of communication of any of the above countries. 
 
 The Second Section collects the same information in refer- 
 ence to Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. 
 
 The Third Section does the same in reference to France, 
 England, Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, and America. 
 
 The information collected by these sections is mostly pro- 
 cured by the military attaches at foreign courts. It is system- 
 atically arranged, and, in order that it may be of benefit to 
 the army, summaries of the armed strength of the different na- 
 tions are from time to time distributed by the sections to all 
 officers of the general staff". 
 
 Each section is presided over by a field-officer as chief, who 
 is assisted by ten or eleven other officers, and a registrar. 
 
 The " Intelligence Bureau " keeps always in readiness the 
 most recent information relative to foreign armies, and proba- 
 ble theatres of war, which is prepared by the three sections. 
 It is presided over by a field-officer, who is assisted by a regis- 
 trar. 
 
 3. The Railway Section is charged with everything pertain- 
 ing to the transport of troops and military stores by rail. The 
 officers of this section work out all the details of moving troops 
 by rail, the time required to transport them, and the lines to be 
 used in concentrating armies for war. To this end they are re- 
 quired to know the capacity of the different lines of railway 
 
GENERAL STAFF. 221 
 
 both at home and abroad, and to keep themselves posted as to 
 all new lines of railway, and also their strategic value. 
 
 The duties of this section are considered so important, in 
 view of their influence in effecting the speedy concentration of 
 armies, that all officers of the general staff are required to serve 
 in it. The chief of the section is a ff eld-officer, who is assisted 
 by twenty-six officers and a registrar. 
 
 The accessory branch, or Neben-Etat, is charged mostly 
 with scientific duties, and is entirely separate, as regards pro- 
 motion, from the general staff". The officers composing it are 
 borne either as supernumeraries of the general staff, or, if de- 
 tailed from the line, they are borne as supernumeraries in their 
 regiments. Officers of this branch are not necessarily graduates 
 of the War Academy. 
 
 The accessory branch is divided into five sections, with du- 
 ties as follows : 
 
 1. The Section of Military Jlisiori/ collects and arranges all 
 information bearing on military history, and prepares descrip- 
 tions of present and past campaigns. It is presided over by a 
 chief, who is assisted by fourteen officers. 
 
 2. The Geographical Statistical Section collects all geo- 
 graphical and statistical knowledge relating to foreign countries 
 and theatres of war, prepares reports showing their resources, 
 circulates among the officers of the general staff all statistical 
 and geographical information, and corrects to date military 
 maps of Germany and foreign countries. 
 
 A field-officer presides over the section, who is assisted by 
 two captains of the accessory branch and three attached officers. 
 
 3. The Trigo7iometrical Section is charged with the triangu- 
 lation of Prussia. 
 
 4. The Topographical Section is charged with the topo- 
 graphical survey of Prussia. 
 
 5. The Cartographical Section is charged with the prepara- 
 tion and correction of maps to date, and supplies maps to the 
 army. 
 
 The total number of officers of both branches doing duty at 
 Berlin is seventy-four. 
 
222 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The duties of the general staff with the troops are to attend 
 to the distribution and quartering of troops ; to study the lines 
 of march at home and abroad ; to regulate the marches ; to as- 
 sist in drawing up plans for manoeuvres ; the examination of 
 lines of communication ; collection of political intelligence and 
 all information procurable relating to neighboring armies ; mat- 
 ters not technical, relating to artillery and engineers ; arma- 
 ment and provisioning of fortresses ; collection of geographical 
 and topographical information ; preparation of plans of cam- 
 paign, and generally collection and arrangement of such infor- 
 mation as may be of value to their commanders in conducting 
 the operations of their troops. 
 
 To enable officers of the general staff to concentrate their 
 attention upon the higher duties of their position, and to re- 
 lieve them from the drudgery of mere routine and office work, 
 officers called adjutants are specially detailed from the line 
 for a period of from three to four years. If these officers are 
 captains, they are replaced in their regiments, and become su- 
 pernumerary ; if first-lieutenants, the number of second-lieuten- 
 ants is increased to fill the vacancies. 
 
 The general duties of the adjutants are to issue the daily 
 orders ; to regulate details for guards ; issue paroles and coun- 
 tersigns ; to prepare morning returns and reports ; to attend to 
 promotions, applications for leave, transfers, rewards and pun- 
 ishments, recruiting, and requisitions for men from the re- 
 serve ; to transact business connected with the Landwehr and 
 the organization of new levies ; and also such other details as 
 pertain to keeping the command supplied with all of the mate- 
 riel and munitions of war. 
 
 It will be observed that all of the foregoing duties are of a 
 mere routine character, demanding no special professional train- 
 ing in the officers who perform them ; yet it is only within the 
 last few years that in foreign armies they have been carefully 
 separated from duties of the general staff officer, who gives all 
 of his attention to the direction and movements of troops. 
 
 The organization of the main branch of the general staff is 
 as follows : 
 
PROMOTION. 223 
 
 1 Chief of staff — field-marshal, 
 
 19 Chiefs of section, and chiefs of staff of army corps, usual- 
 ly of the grade of colonel, 
 
 59 Field-officers, 
 
 32 Captains. 
 
 The accessory branch is composed of — 
 1 Chief of survey, ranking as a brigade commander, 
 5 Chiefs of sections, usually colonels, 
 8 Field-officers, 
 
 22 Captains. 
 
 As a means of providing officers for staff duty in time of 
 war there are annually attached to the great general staff from 
 forty to fifty officers from the line who have either passed 
 through the War Academy, or are otherwise qualified for the 
 detail. 
 
 At the end of the year's probation they pass an examina- 
 tion, and if qualified are recommended for staff employment on 
 the occurrence of vacancies. 
 
 In time of war the officers of the great general staff repair 
 to the field, where they are assigned to the staffs of the several 
 armies. 
 
 The officers of the accessory branch remain at Berlin. 
 
 PROMOTION. 
 
 Promotions are made both by selection and by seniority, no 
 precise limit being fixed. The Emperor is free to advance or 
 retard the promotion of an officer according to his pleasure. 
 
 Promotions are based upon the personal reports of all offi- 
 cers, which are forwarded every two years for the grades be- 
 low field-officer, and annually for the grades of field-officers 
 and above. Colonels make the reports in regard to the officers 
 of their regiments, and when they are adverse they are supposed 
 to notify the officers concerned. General officers make reports 
 upon the field-officers. 
 
 The reports state in detail the character, capacity, and quali- 
 fications of the officers, and are transmitted to a chief of bureau 
 at Berlin, where, after being arranged, an abstract is made out 
 
224 ARMY OF GERMANY. 
 
 for the Emperor, showing what officers merit special promotion, 
 officers who are not qualified for advancement, and also the 
 officers who are qualified for staff duty, adjutant, aide-de-camp, 
 and other detached service. 
 
 Promotion to the grade of captain is by regiment in the in- 
 fantry, artillery, and cavalry ; by battalion in the rifles ; and 
 by corps in the engineers. 
 
 Promotion to major in the infantry is regimental, but sub- 
 ject to many exceptions ; in the rifles, artillery, cavalry, engi- 
 neers, and train, it takes place by arm. 
 
 The promotion to the grades of lieutenant-colonel, and colo- 
 nel, is mostly by seniority and by arm. 
 
 The object of promotion by selection is to hasten the ad- 
 vancement of all capable and deserving officers to the respon- 
 sible grades of the army. Officers passed over once or twice 
 usually retire from the service. 
 
 PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 As in all other foreign armies, discipline is largely main- 
 tained by confiding to officers in command of regiments, bat- 
 talions, companies, and detachments, the power to administer 
 summary punishment for minor offenses. These punishments 
 consist usually of arrests, confinements, extra duty, and depri- 
 vation of control of pay. 
 
 Serious offenses are punished by sentence of court-martial. 
 
AEMY OF FEAIsrCE. 
 
 The French army was established on its present basis by 
 the laws of March 13, and December 15, 1875. 
 
 The term " cadre," as used in the law, and as applied to a 
 regiment, signifies all of the officers, hospital stewards, musi- 
 cians, clerks, armorers, tailors, shoemakers, etc., belonging to 
 the regiment. It constitutes, in fact, the framework of the regi- 
 ment, which, to be completed, requires only the addition of the 
 private soldiers who fill up the ranks. 
 
 The following table represents the strength of the army on 
 the peace-footing : 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Chasseurs h pied 
 
 Zouaves 
 
 Algerian rifles 
 
 Foreign Legion 
 
 Light infantry (Aft-ican) 
 
 Five companies of discipline. 
 
 Total . 
 
 144 
 "4 
 
 576 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 641 
 
 Depot 
 Companies. 
 
 288 
 30 
 4 
 3 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 
 236,304 
 18,240 
 10,320 
 8,505 
 2,529 
 4,143 
 1,560 
 
 281,601 
 
 Cuirassiers 
 
 Dragoons 
 
 Light cavalry 
 
 Chasseurs d'Afrique. 
 
 Saphis 
 
 Volunteer scouts 
 
 Remount cavalry 
 
 Regiments. 
 
 Field 
 Squadrons. 
 
 Depot 
 Squadrons. 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 104 
 
 26 
 
 82 
 
 128 
 
 82 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 
 I 58,100 
 
 4,148 
 
 3,477 
 
 ,0ne to each corps raised only in time of war. 
 
 8 companies 2,892 
 
 Total , 
 
 303 
 
 68,617 
 
 15 
 
226 
 
 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 ARTILLERY. 
 
 Regi- 
 ments. 
 
 Foot 
 Batteries. 
 
 Mounted 
 Batteries. 
 
 Hone 
 Batteries. 
 
 Compa- 
 nies. 
 
 Depot 
 Batteries. 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 
 Special staff of artillery 
 
 "19 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 ""57 
 
 '152 
 
 152 
 
 "57 
 
 "28 
 10 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 "ss 
 
 33 
 
 1,395 
 27,939 
 27 303 
 
 
 Artillery pontoniers 
 
 Workiuen (mechanics) 
 
 8,012 
 
 1,860 
 
 815 
 
 Train 
 
 5142 
 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 40 
 
 57 
 
 304 
 
 57 
 
 98 
 
 76 
 
 67 726 
 
 
 
 ENGINEERS. 
 
 Regiments. 
 
 Battnllons. 
 
 Companies. 
 
 Depot 
 Companies. 
 
 OfBcers and Men. 
 
 Special staff of engineers 
 
 "4 
 
 "26 
 
 "u 
 
 "4 
 
 1,354 
 10,960 
 
 Sappers and miners 
 
 Total 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 12,314 
 
 
 TRAINS. 
 
 Squadrons. 
 
 Companies. 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 12 
 
 5,743 
 
 3,649 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 20 
 
 72 
 
 9,892 
 
 
 STAFF, ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENTS, ETC. 
 
 General oflBcers ; staff and administrative departments corresponding to our adju- 
 tant-general's, quartermaster's, commissary, and medical departments ; military 
 schools ; recruiting service, remount depots, etc 
 
 Gendarmerie 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 Officers and Men. 
 
 28,657 
 
 27,014 
 
 490,321 
 
 INFANTKT. 
 
 The influence of the Franco-German War in producing 
 modifications in military organization is nowhere more percep- 
 tible than in the French infantry. 
 
 Previous to the war it was divided into infantry of the guard, 
 and infantry of the line. 
 
 The infantry of the guard was composed of — 
 
 7 Kegiments of 3 battalions of 6 companies each, with 3 
 companies as regimental depot. 
 
 1 Battalion of chasseurs a pied (rifles) of 10 companies. 
 
 1 Regiment of zouaves of 2 battalions of 6 companies each, 
 with a depot of 2 companies — numbering in all 24 battalions and 
 171 companies. 
 
 The infantry of the line was composed of — 
 
INFANTRY. 227 
 
 100 Regiments of 3 field and 1 depot battalion of 6 compa- 
 nies each (2,400 companies). 
 
 20 Battalions of chasseurs of 8 companies each (160 com- 
 panies). 
 
 3 Regiments of zouaves of 3 field and 1 depot battalion, with 
 27 companies to each regiment (81 companies). 
 
 3 Battalions of light infantry (African) of 5 companies each 
 (15 companies). 
 
 3 Regiments of tirailleurs (rifles) of 4 battalions of 7 compa- 
 nies each (84 companies). 
 
 1 Regiment of " sapeurs pompier " of 2 battalions of 6 corn- 
 companies each (12 companies). 
 
 1 Foreign Legion of 4 battalions of 8 companies each (32 
 companies). 
 
 7 Companies of discipline. 
 
 Grand total, 477 battalions, 2,962 companies. 
 
 Subsequent to the war the guard was suppressed, and, by 
 the laws of March 13, and December 15, 1875, the infantry was 
 made to consist of — 
 
 144 Regiments of the line of 4 battalions of 4 companies 
 each, with 2 companies as regimental depot. 
 
 30 Battalions of chasseurs a pied of 4 companies each, with 1 
 company as battalion depot. 
 
 4 Regiments of zouaves of 4 battalions of 4 companies each, 
 with 2 companies as regimental depot. 
 
 3 Regiments of tirailleurs (Algerian) of 4 battalions of 4 com- 
 panies each, with 1 company as regimental depot. 
 
 1 Foreign Legion of 4 battalions of 4 companies. 
 
 3 Battalions of African light infantry, the number of com- 
 panies in each being fixed by the Minister of "War. 
 
 5 Companies of discipline. 
 
 The principal change effected by the recent laws was the 
 conversion of the depot battalions of the line and other regi- 
 ments into a fourth field battalion, and the substitution of four 
 companies for six in the composition of a battalion. 
 
 The total number of battalions under the present organiza- 
 
228 
 
 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 tion is 641, total number of companies 2,904, being an increase 
 of 164 battalions, and a decrease of 58 companies. 
 
 The cadre of a company and depot company is as follows : 
 
 CADRE OF COMPANY, AND DEPOT COMPANY 
 
 Captain 
 
 First-lieutenant 
 
 Seoond-lieutenant 
 
 Total oflBcers 
 
 First-sergeant 
 
 Commissary-sergeant 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Drummers and trumpeters 
 
 Total men 
 
 Total cadre 
 
 Privates 
 
 Total depot company 
 
 Company. 
 
 Depot 
 Company. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 S5 
 
 85 
 
 In the strength of each company are included 1 shoemaker, 
 1 tailor, and 2 pioneers. 
 
 In time of war the cadre of the active companies is increased 
 by 1 lieutenant (officer of complement), 4 sergeants, 1 commis- 
 sary-corporal, 8 corporals, and 2 musicians. 
 
 The cadre of a battalion, exclusive of field, staff, and non- 
 commissioned staff, is as follows : 
 
 Officers 12 
 
 Non-commissioned officers and musicians 64 
 
 Total cadre 76 
 
 Privates 264 
 
 Total battalion 340 
 
 The cadre of a regiment is as follows : 
 
 Colonel 1 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel 1 
 
 Majors, battalion commanders 4 
 
 Major, chief of administration 1 
 
INFANTRY. 
 
 229 
 
 Surgeon, first class 
 
 Captains, adjutants 
 
 Captain, paymaster 
 
 Clothing-officer 
 
 Lieutenant, assistant paymaster. 
 
 Ensign 
 
 Surgeon, second class 
 
 Assistant surgeon 
 
 Chief musician 
 
 Total. 
 
 19 
 
 Non-commissioned staff, and non-combatants- 
 Sergeant-majors 
 
 Drum-major 
 
 Corporals, drummers, or trumpeters 
 
 Sapper-corporal 
 
 Sappers 
 
 Assistant chief musician 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant 
 
 Chief armorer 
 
 Fencing-master (sergeant) 
 
 1 Paymaster's clerk, "| 
 
 1 Assistant paymaster's clerk, ' 
 1 Storekeeper (clothing), ( 
 
 1 Commissary-sergeant, J 
 
 1 Paymaster's clerk, 
 
 Sergeants, 
 
 Corporals, 
 
 2 Clerks to clothing and ord- 
 nance officer, 
 1 Assistant fencing-master, 
 1 Hospital steward, 
 1 Train-conductor, 
 1 Master-armorer, 
 1 Master-tailor, 
 1 Master-shoemaker, 
 
 4 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 
 12 
 1 
 
 38 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
230 
 
 AEMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Privates, 
 
 1- 
 
 1 Colonel's clerk, 
 
 1 Administrative officer's 
 
 clerk, 
 1 Paymaster's clerk, 
 1 Assistant paymaster's clerk, 
 1 Clerk to clothing-officer, 
 4 Armorers, 
 3 Tailors, 
 3 Shoemakers, 
 1 Conductor of led horses, 
 1 Driver to each one-horse carriage, or pack-mule. 
 Total 
 
 Total field, staff, non-commissioned staff, etc. 
 
 rOUK BATTALIONS. 
 
 Officers 
 
 Sergeants, corporals, and musicians 
 
 Total cadre 
 
 Privates 
 
 Total of four battalions 
 
 16 
 
 93 
 
 48 
 256 
 
 "304 
 1,056 
 
 1^360 
 
 DEPOT, TWO COMPANIES. 
 
 Officers 
 
 Sergeants, corporals, and musicians . . , 
 
 Total cadre 
 
 Privates 
 
 Total depot 
 
 TOTAL REGIMENTAL CADEE. 
 
 Officers 
 
 Non-commissioned officers, etc 
 
 Total. 
 Privates. . 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 132 
 
 Ito 
 
 73 
 381 
 
 454 
 
 1,188 
 
 Total regiment 
 
 1,642 
 
BRIGADE.— DIVISION.— ARMY CORPS. 231 
 
 The organization of tlie battalions of cliasseurs, as also that 
 of the regiments of zouaves, tirailleurs, the Foreign Legion, and 
 the battalions of African light infantry, which compose the 
 nineteenth corps serving in Algeria, varies so slightly from the 
 organization of the infantry of the line, that it need not be 
 stated. 
 
 The laws establish only the cadres in peace and war, and 
 the number of privates below which the army in time of peace 
 shall not be reduced. 
 
 The number of privates in time of war is not prescribed, 
 but each infantry company may be increased in its effective to 
 4 officers, and 250 or more men. 
 
 The active army in time of war may be raised as high as 
 880,000 men. 
 
 BRIGADE. 
 
 The brigade of infantry is composed of the staff, and 2 
 regiments of infantry, numbering 8 battalions. 
 
 DIVISION. 
 
 A division of infantry consists of the staff, and 2 brigades 
 of infantry (16 battalions). 
 
 AEMT COKPS. 
 
 An army corps consists of — 
 
 1. Staff, and administrative services. 
 
 2. 2 Divisions of infantry (32 battalions), and a battalion of 
 chasseurs, which is attached to one of the brigades. 
 
 3. 1 Brigade of cavalry (2 regiments of 4 field-squadrons 
 ■each). 
 
 4. 1 Brigade of artillery, composed of 2 regiments, the first 
 of which consists of 3 foot, 8 mounted, and 2 depot batteries ; 
 the second of 8 mounted, 3 horse, and 2 depot batteries. In 
 addition, 3 companies of artillery-train. 
 
 5. 1 Battalion of engineers. 
 
232 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 6. 1 Company of volunteer scouts (raised only in time of 
 war), 
 
 1. 1 Squadron (3 companies) military train. 
 
 TERRITOKIAL COMIVIANDS. 
 
 The territory of France, for the purpose of recruiting and 
 mobilization, is divided into 18 regions, corresponding to the 
 18 army corps. 
 
 Algeria constitutes a region by itself, corresponding to the 
 nineteenth corps. 
 
 The regions are again divided into eight or more " sub- 
 divisions." 
 
 Each region, in case of mobilization, is required to provide 
 the men necessary to raise the army corps within its limits 
 to the war-footing, and to supply all needful transportation, 
 equipments, and munitions of war. 
 
 Each subdivision is required to supply the men needed to 
 raise a regiment of infantry to the war-footing, and also to raise 
 one regiment of three battalions of the army territoriale. It 
 also supplies its proportion of the personnel of the artillery, and 
 other special arms, maintained within the region. 
 
 EECRriTMENT. 
 
 The law of obligatory service obtains in France the same 
 as in other Continental countries. 
 
 The period of ser^^ce is — 
 
 Five years in the regular army ; four years in the reserve of 
 the regular army ; five years in the army territoriale ; six years 
 in the reserve of the army territoriale — making a total of 
 twenty years. 
 
 The details of recruitment are much the same as in Italy and 
 Austria. 
 
 In each subdivision there is a permanent bureau of recruit- 
 . ment, usually superintended by a retired officer of the army, 
 who, during the time so employed, receives full pay. 
 
 The bureau is composed of : 
 
 1 Field-officer, or captain, as commandant. 
 
RECKUITMENT. 233 
 
 1 Captain, ^ 
 
 1 Lieutenant, i . . ,,.,.. 
 
 o . ^ r Department of recruiting and mobilization. 
 
 1 Corporal, 
 
 ^ -r • ' , f Administrative personnel of troops of the 
 
 1 Lieutenant, >- ^ -^ • i 
 
 . ^ ' ( army territoriale. 
 
 1 feergeant, ) "^ 
 
 The bureaux of subdivisions are under the control of the 
 generals of brigade and division within their several regions. 
 
 The annual contingent, approximating 140,000 to 150,000 
 men, is divided into the "first" and "second portions," which 
 vary with the financial condition of the country. The " first 
 portion " consists of about 85,000 men, who are required to 
 serve five years with the colors ; but, in practice, are sent 
 into reserve after the expiration of four years, giving them 
 five years in reserve instead of four. The " second portion," 
 which consists of the remainder of the contingent after the de- 
 duction of the first portion, is required to serve in the ranks 
 only the time necessary to acquire instruction in the practical 
 duties of the soldier, and this period has been fixed from six to 
 twelve months. After its expiration, the men go into reserve 
 for the remainder of nine years. 
 
 The relative strength of the " first " and " second portions " 
 is fixed by the Minister of War, according to the state of 
 finances. In 1868, when the annual contingent was habitually 
 100,000 men, 68,500 were assigned to the infantry. Of this 
 number, 44,000 constituted the first portion, and 24,500 the 
 second portion. 
 
 In 1872 the annual contingent was 146,000. Of this num- 
 ber, 101,519 were assigned to the infantry, 52,272 constituting 
 the first portion, and the remainder 49,247 the second. 
 
 In 1874 the contingent was 142,168, of which number 68 
 per cent, constituted the first, and 32 per cent, the second por- 
 tion. 
 
 Deducting 9,000 non-combatants, the " first portion " in 
 1874 numbered 85,500 men, and was distributed to the various 
 arms as follows : infantry, 52,700 ; cavalry, 14,360 ; artillery, 
 
234: ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 12,550; engineers, 900; military train, 2,240; administrative 
 corps, 2,850. 
 
 The " second portion," numbering 48,278, was distributed 
 to the infantry, 37,498 ; artillery, 6,556 ; trains of artillery, 
 2,023 ; military train, 2,207. 
 
 In addition to the annual contingent, composed of men 
 drafted into the army, from 10,000 to 11,000 young men, on 
 the German principle, are allowed to volunteer for one year, 
 and the contingent is further increased by from 12,000 to 
 15,000 men, who voluntarily enlist for five years. 
 
 Assuming the average annual strength of the " first portion " 
 to be 85,200, and the " second portion " 48,000, the average 
 strength of the army in time of peace may be estimated as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 First portion (four classes) . . . 340,000 
 Second portion (one class) .... 48,000 
 Yolunteers for one year .... 10,000 
 
 Volunteers for five years (four classes) . 48,000 
 
 Foreign and Algerian troops . . . 13,600 
 
 Officers, employes, etc. .... 28,000 
 
 487,600 
 
 Deducting 10 per cent, for losses by death and disability, 
 
 the reserve will be composed approximately as follows : 
 
 First portion, five classes, of 74,250 each . 371,250 
 
 Second portion, eight classes, of 43,200 each 345,600 
 
 Yolunteers of one year, eight classes . 90,000 
 
 806,850 
 Of this number, nearly one-half are soldiers who have been 
 trained four years, while the remainder have been drilled from 
 six to twelve months. 
 
 The infantry on the peace-footing numbers, as has been 
 stated, 281,000, with the companies increased to 250 men each ; 
 the war-footing numbers 643,750. 
 
 The aiTned strength on a war-footing is estimated as fol- 
 lows: 
 
AEMY TERKITORIALE. • £35 
 
 Regular army in the field . . . 880,000 
 Battalions, batteries, etc., of the regular 
 
 army remaining in 'France . . 50,000 
 Depot troops (companies estimated at 500 
 
 each) 220,000 
 
 Army territoriale .... 560,000 
 
 Depot troops, army territoriale . . 20,000 
 
 1,Y30,000 
 
 AKMT TEKEITOKIALE, 
 
 As soon as the men complete nine years' service in the army, 
 and reserve, they are transferred for five years to the army ter- 
 ritoriale, and after its expiration are transferred for six years to 
 the reserve of the army territoriale, when their liability to mili- 
 tary duty ceases. 
 
 The army territoriale embraces troops of all arms, and is 
 organized substantially on the same basis as the regular army. 
 
 Each subdivision of the 18 regions furnishes 1 regiment of 
 infantry, composed of 3 battalions of 4 companies each, with 1 
 company as depot. 
 
 The subdivision of Aix furnishes two regiments of infantry 
 instead of one. 
 
 The cadre of the staff, and non-commissioned staff of the 
 regiments, also the cadres of the battalions and companies, are 
 identical with the corresponding cadres in the regular army, 
 except that each regiment is commanded by a lieutenant-colonel. 
 
 The troops of the other arms are furnished by region. 
 
 "When the organization is completed, the troops of the army 
 territoriale will consist of — 
 145 Regiments of infantry. 
 
 18 Regiments of artillery (one to each region). 
 
 18 Battalions of engineers (one to each region, the number 
 of companies not being fixed). 
 
 18 Squadrons of military train. 
 
 72 Squadrons of cavalry. 
 
 The number of cavalry to be raised in each region depends 
 upon the number of horses within its limits. The figure 72 is 
 
236 AEMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 based upon the supposition tliat, on the average, each region will 
 furnish four squadrons. 
 
 The law also authorizes squadrons of volunteer cavalry to be 
 raised, to be composed partly of volunteers, and partly of sol- 
 diers of the army territoriale, provided the men mount and 
 equip themselves at their own expense. 
 
 The rolls of the army territoriale are kept at the bureaux of 
 the various subdivisions, and all of the business connected with 
 its recruitment and mobilization is transacted by the officers 
 and men composing the bureaux. 
 
 OFFICERS OF RESERVE. 
 
 The officers of reserve are mostly nominated from — 
 
 1. General officers, retired, who request employment. 
 
 2. Officers of the army, and marines, retired after twenty-five 
 years' service, up to the time they would have completed thirty 
 years' service ; also such officers retired after thirty years' ser- 
 vice as request employment. 
 
 3. Officers of marines, unemployed, who desire to serve in 
 the reserve. 
 
 4. Such officers of the army, and marines, as having resigned, 
 are within the age when men are liable to nine years' service 
 in the army and reserve ; also such as having passed this age 
 request to be employed. 
 
 5. Former pupils of the Polytechnic School. 
 
 6. Volunteers of one year, and officers of the late garde na- 
 tionale. 
 
 7. Former non-commissioned officers of the army who have 
 not yet completed their period in reserve, and have been recom- 
 mended by their chiefs of corps as capable of becoming officers 
 had they remained in the army. 
 
 8. Former non-commissioned officers of the national guard, 
 still subject to duty in the reserve, who possess the required 
 qualifications. 
 
 Officers of reserve are assigned to regiments by the Minister 
 of War, and receive pay only when called to attend manoeuvres, 
 and when otherwise actively employed. 
 
OFFICERS OF THE ARMY TERRITORIALE. 237 
 
 On completing the period within which they are liable to 
 service in the reserve, they may be continued in the reserve on 
 their application, approved by the Minister of War. If they 
 possess the desired quahfications, they may also continue in re- 
 serve on their own application after the expiration of twenty 
 years' service. 
 
 OFFICERS OF THE ARMY TEKKITOKIALE. 
 
 Like the reserve, the oflBcers of the army territoriale are se- 
 lected partly from the officers of the army and marines who 
 have retired or have resigned, also from the officers of reserve, 
 all of whom pass into the army territoriale after completing the 
 nine years' service to which they are liable, unless still retained 
 in reserve. 
 
 Other officers are appointed from former non-commissioned 
 officers of the army, who have completed their nine years' ser- 
 vice, and can pass a prescribed examination. 
 
 The army register shows the names and rank of all officers 
 thus far appointed. 
 
 The grades of commandants of regiments and battalions, by 
 far the most important, have been tilled, but a large proportion 
 of the captaincies, most of the first-lieutenancies, and nearly all 
 of the second-lieutenancies, are still vacant. 
 
 Field-officers, after completing the twenty years' service, if 
 possessing the necessary qualifications, may be retained on their 
 own application till they reach the age of sixty-five ; other offi- 
 cers may be retained till they reach the age of sixty. 
 
 GENERAL OFFICERS. 
 
 The number on the active list consists of — 
 
 Major-generals 100 
 
 Brigadier-generals 200 
 
 The number of marshals is not fixed. 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 The present organization of the " etat-major," or adjutant- 
 general's department, is as follows : 
 
400 
 
 238 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Colonels 40 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels 40 
 
 Majors 120 
 
 Captains 200 
 
 Captains (archivistes) 24 
 
 The French staff presents a striking contrast with that 
 of the other great Continental powers. Originally, it was the 
 model on which all of them were based, but, having stood still 
 while others have advanced, it remains the only one in which 
 the principles of detail, and service with troops, are not recog- 
 nized. 
 
 In 1833 an effort was made to distribute the staff between 
 the infantry and cavalry, in which arms the officers were to re- 
 ceive their promotion, but the opposition was so great that the 
 project was abandoned. 
 
 Again, in 1862, the Minister of War appointed a commission 
 with a view to dissolving the staff, and distributing two-thirds 
 of its officers to the infantry and one-third to the cavalry, but 
 his purpose was never accomplished. 
 
 As a consequence, with the exception of the four years' 
 service prior to nomination as captain, an officer of the French 
 staff never sees service with the troops of the line, and thus, con- 
 fined to the atmosphere of his own corps, his principal concep- 
 tion of efficiency is the rapid transaction of official business, to 
 the exclusion of the higher duties of his profession. 
 
 In Germany, Italy, Austria, and Russia, officers continually 
 transfer from the line to the staff and the reverse, and, except 
 in Germany, when once sent back to the line may never be re- 
 called. 
 
 The staff is thus composed of the ablest officers of the army, 
 who ultimately arrive at the grade of general with an experience 
 rounded by service in every grade of the line and the staff from 
 lieutenant to colonel. 
 
 IVriLITARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 According to the law of March, 1875, the mihtary schools 
 maintained at the expense of the state consist of the — 
 
THE PKYTANEE MILITAIEE. 239 
 
 Prytanee Militaire, at La Flecbe, 
 
 Polytechnic School, at Paris, 
 
 Special Military School, at St.-Cyr, 
 
 School of Application for Artillery and Engineers, at 
 
 Fontainebleau, 
 School of Application for the Staff, at Paris, 
 School of Application for Cavalry, at Saumur, 
 School of Medicine and Pharmacy, at Paris, 
 Administrative School, at Yincennes, 
 Military gymnasia and mnsketry schools, 
 Eegimental schools in different arms of the service, 
 Schools for non-commissioned officers, 
 Schools for children of soldiers, and 
 Academy of War, in the process of organization. 
 
 THE PKYTANEE MILITAIEE. 
 
 This is a mere preparatory school, conducted on the same 
 principles as the military gymnasia in other countries. 
 
 Admission is open to boys between the ages of ten and eigh- 
 teen, preference being given to sons of officers, and to sons of 
 non-commissioned officers whose service to the country merits 
 recognition. 
 
 The expenses of education are borne in some cases wholly 
 by the parents ; in other cases, such as orphans, or having had 
 a father killed in battle, tuition is either free, or reduced one- 
 half. 
 
 In consideration of the education received, no obligation is 
 incurred to continue a military career, but special encouragment 
 is given to the pupils to prepare themselves to pass the compet- 
 itive examination for admission to the Polytechnic School, and 
 to the school at St.-Cyr. 
 
 The course of instruction embraces — 
 Arithmetic, 
 Algebra, 
 Geometry, 
 
 Descriptive geometry. 
 Trigonometry, 
 
240 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Geography, 
 
 Physics and chemistry, 
 
 French grammar and literature, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 German, 
 
 History, 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOL, AT ST.-CYE. 
 
 The object of this school is to educate cadets for commis- 
 sions in the infantry, cavalry, marines, and the staff. 
 
 Admission is exclusively by competitive examination, open 
 to all candidates between the ages of seventeen and twenty. 
 In the cases of non-commissioned officers and soldiers, the age 
 may be extended to twenty-five. 
 
 The examinations for admission, which are held annually in 
 the different departments, are both oral and written, and em- 
 brace the following subjects : 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Descriptive geometry, 
 
 Plane trigonometry. 
 
 Mechanics and physics (simply descriptive), 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Political and physical geogi'aphy, 
 
 History, 
 
 German. 
 To be admitted to the examination, a candidate must pro- 
 duce his diploma as a Bachelor of Science ' or Letters, or an 
 equivalent certificate, and he must also undergo a preliminary 
 examination, embracing a French and Latin composition ; solu- 
 tion of mathematical problems, involving the use of logarithms ; 
 solution of a problem in descriptive geometry ; drawing from a 
 model, and also rectilinear drawing. 
 
 The expense of education is paid by the cadets, at the rate 
 
 ' Equi%'alent to a diploma from the public schools, or Jycees. 
 
SPECIAL MILITARY SCHOOL, AT ST.-CYR. 241 
 
 of 1,500 francs per annum. In addition, the uniform and out- 
 fit cost from 600 to YOO francs. 
 
 Cadets whose parents are in indigent circumstances, and 
 who can establish the fact, are educated free, while others are 
 granted a reduction of one-half the usual charges. 
 The number of cadets present in 1876 was 750. 
 The organization of the cadets is in 2 battalions of 4 com- 
 panies each. 
 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces — 
 Topography, 
 Fortification, 
 Artillery, 
 
 Military administration, 
 Military art and history, 
 Military geography, 
 French literature, 
 German, 
 Hygiene, and 
 Drawing. 
 Theoretical instruction is also given in musketry-practice, 
 regulations for infantry and cavalry, and equitation. 
 
 At the end of the first year the cadets make their choice of 
 arms of service, after which the candidates for the cavalry are 
 quartered by themselves. 
 
 The practical instruction during the course is limited mostly 
 to infantry-drill, to include the school of the battalion and regi- 
 ment, and to cavalry-drill, school of the trooper. The first 
 year riding is taught twice a week ; the second year the cavalry 
 rides daily, and the infantry three times per week. 
 
 Artillery instruction is limited to twenty-six lessons or lect- 
 ures, and to the manual of field and siege guns. 
 
 The staff of the school in 1876 consisted as follows : 
 
 Commandant. 
 1 General of brigade. 
 
 SecoJicI Commandant. 
 1 Colonel of infantry. 
 16 
 
242 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Instructors of Infantry. 
 1 Major, 
 8 Captains. 
 
 Instructor of Musketry. 
 1 Captain. 
 
 Instructors of Cavalry, 
 
 1 Major, 
 
 2 Captains, 
 
 6 Lieutenants. 
 
 Director of Studies. 
 
 1 Major. 
 
 Sub-directors of Studies. 
 
 2 Captains. 
 
 Examiners for Admission. 
 2 Colonels, 
 2 Civilians. 
 
 3Iathematics. 
 1 Professor (civilian). 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 1 Professor (major), 
 
 2 Assistant professors (captains). 
 
 Topography. 
 
 1 Professor (captain), 
 
 2 Assistant professors (1 captain and 1 lientenant). 
 
 3Iilitary History. 
 
 1 Professor (captain), 
 
 2 Assistant professors (lieutenants). 
 
 Military Law and Administration. 
 
 1 Professor (captain), 
 
 2 Assistant professors (lieutenants). 
 
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 243 
 
 Fortification. 
 
 1 Professor (major), 
 
 4 Assistant professors (2 captains and 2 lieutenants). 
 
 Military Geography and Statistics. 
 1 Professor, 
 4 Assistant professors (1 captain and 3 lieutenants). 
 
 Military Literature. 
 1 Professor (civilian), 
 
 1 Assistant professor (civilian). 
 
 Oerman. 
 
 2 Professors (1 civilian and 1 captain), 
 
 2 Assistant professors (civilians). 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 3 Professors (civilians). 
 
 In addition to the above there is a chief administrative oflS- 
 cer, a paymaster, an assistant paymaster, a commissary, three 
 adjutants, a librarian, a chaplain, three surgeons, and a veteri- 
 nary surgeon. 
 
 The method of instruction, by means of lectures and inter- 
 rogations, is the same as described for the Polytechnic. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 
 
 The fame of this school is due entirely to its scientific na- 
 ture, the military instruction and discipline being of so element- 
 ary a character as scarcely to deserve notice. 
 
 The object of the school is to train pupils for the following 
 branches of the public service, viz. : 
 Artillery, military and naval. 
 Engineers, military and naval. 
 Navy, and Corps of Hydrographical Engineers. 
 Navy commissariat. 
 
244 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Civil engineers for bridges, roads, and mines. 
 Staff of the army. 
 
 Manufactm-e of powder and saltpetre. 
 Telegraphs. 
 Other departments requiring a high scientific training are 
 also open to the graduates of the school. 
 
 The organization of the school is military, and, while pur- 
 suing the course, the students are considered as belonging to 
 the active army. 
 
 The military staff of the school consists of — 
 1 Commandant, 
 
 1 Second commandant, 
 6 Captains. 
 
 The commandant and second commandant are chosen alter- 
 nately from the artillery and engineers. If the former is from 
 the artillery, the latter must belong to the engineers, and the 
 reverse. 
 
 The Educational Staff, consisting of examiners for admis- 
 sion, examiners of pupils, professors, and assistant professors, 
 is largely composed of eminent civilians, many of whom are 
 members of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 The Council of Improvement is composed of the — 
 Commandant, 
 Second commandant, 
 Director of studies, 
 3 Professors of the school, 
 
 2 Examiners of pupils. 
 
 The other members in 1876 consisted of — 
 
 1 Delegate from the Academy of Sciences, 
 
 3 Delegates from the War Department, 
 
 2 " " Navy " 
 
 1 Delegate " Department of Mines, 
 1 " " " Eoads and Bridges, 
 
 1 " " Astronomical section of the Institute, 
 
 1 " " Tobacco Department. 
 
 The Council of Improvement is charged with the initiative 
 in all matters of imj)rovement, and regulates the course of study, 
 
POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 245 
 
 subject to the approval of the Minister of War, in such a man- 
 ner as to promote the efficiency of all branches of the public 
 service, whose officers are supplied bj the graduates of the 
 school. 
 
 Admission is exclusively by competitive examination, open 
 to aU candidates between the ages of sixteen and twenty. The 
 age may be extended in the case of non-commissioned officers 
 and soldiers to twenty-five ; but such as avail themselves of this 
 extension on graduation can only be assigned to the military 
 service. 
 
 The annual expense of each pupil is 1,000 francs ; the cost 
 of the uniform and outfit is 600 francs. 
 
 Pupils who are in indigent circumstances are educated free ; 
 while for others, in reduced circumstances, the cost of education 
 is reduced one-half. 
 
 The examination for admission is both written and oral, and 
 is conducted annually in the different departments on the same 
 principles as for the school at St.-Cyr. 
 
 To be admitted to the preliminary examination, each candi- 
 date must be either a Bachelor of Science, or Letters, or possess 
 an equivalent certificate. 
 
 The subjects of examination are — 
 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 Geometry, 
 
 Trigonometry, 
 
 Descriptive geometry, 
 
 Analytical geometry, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 French, 
 
 German, 
 
 Drawing. 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces — 
 
 Descriptive geometry, 
 
 Stereotomy, 
 
 Differential and integral calculus. 
 
246 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Mechanics (solids and fluids), 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Optics, 
 
 Acoustics, 
 
 Chemistiy, 
 
 Astronomy, 
 
 Geodesy, 
 
 Architecture, 
 
 Topography, 
 
 Military art and fortification (19 lessons), 
 
 History, 
 
 French literature, 
 
 German, 
 
 Drawing — landscape, rectilinear, and mechanical. 
 The practical military instruction the first year is continued 
 six days in the week, an hour and a half being allowed for each 
 exercise, until the pupils know the School of the Soldier, and 
 the principal movements in the School of the Company, 
 
 The second year there is at least one drill a week in the 
 School of the Company. 
 
 The two classes are also united from time to time for exer- 
 cise in the School of the Battalion. They are also conducted 
 once or twice a year outside of Paris for target-practice, and to 
 execute the firings. 
 
 While the pupils wear a uniform, attend roll-calls, and are 
 imder a military rSffime, it is manifest, from the little time de- 
 voted to military subjects, both practical and theoretical, that 
 the institution cannot be regarded as a military school. It is 
 rather a mathematical or scientific school, whose fame has been 
 acquired through the extraordinary inducements offered by the 
 Government to its graduates. 
 
 Thoroughness of education has been secured by the severe 
 nature of the competitive examinations for admission, and after- 
 ward by competition among the graduates for choice of corps 
 on leaving the school. 
 
 The method of instruction pursued at the Polytechnic has 
 been imitated in nearly all of the schools of Europe. lustruc- 
 
SCHOOL OF APPLICATION. 247 
 
 tion is imparted by lecture, and the regulations prescribe that 
 each lesson or lecture shall be followed by questioning one or 
 more of the pupils from a quarter to half an hour — the lecture 
 and questioning not to exceed an hour and a half. The pupils 
 are required to take notes, and after the lecture return to halls 
 of study, where, during the day, they pass all of their time, ex- 
 cept when at lecture, recreation, or meals. These halls accom- 
 modate from eight to ten pupils, and are provided with a ta- 
 ble, blackboard, and other articles necessary to prosecute one's 
 studies. On returning to the halls, the pupils study the subject 
 of the lecture, which is usually delivered by the professor to 
 the entire class, and if necessary are assisted by additional ex- 
 planations from the assistant professors, who are called rejpeti- 
 teurs. 
 
 These officers, in addition to giving the pupils assistance, 
 question them from time to time on the various subjects, giving 
 them a mark denoting their proficiency. 
 
 The pupils are also required to submit compositions, or 
 written exercises on each subject, and at the conclusion of the 
 series of lessons they are given a general questioning on the 
 entire course. 
 
 The marks given after each questioning, as also for each 
 written exercise, drawing, and examination, are used to deter- 
 mine the relative proficiency of the class. 
 
 SCHOOL OF APPLICATION FOK ARTILLERY AND ENGINEERS. 
 
 At the conclusion of the course at the Polytechnic School 
 the graduates who are assigned to the artillery and engineers 
 are commissioned second-lieutenants, and sent to the School 
 of Application, at Fontainebleau, w^here they remain two 
 years. 
 
 The course of study is pursued in the same manner as at 
 the Polytechnic, and embraces — 
 
 Topography, 
 
 Geodesy, 
 
 Field-fortification, 
 
248 ARMY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Permanent fortification, 
 
 Military art and administration, 
 
 Artillery, 
 
 Architecture and tlieory of construction. 
 
 The professors and instructors, with the exception of a few 
 civilians, are officers of artillery and engineers. 
 
 On completing the course of instruction, the officers are as- 
 signed to their corps according to the order of merit determined 
 at the final examination. 
 
 As the course of study at the School of Application is pur- 
 sued subsequent to receiving commissions as lieutenants, it 
 will be observed that, however high may be the intellectual 
 qualifications of officers of artillery and engineers, they can 
 have but a vague idea of the value and importance of mili- 
 tary discipline, and this fact is due to the little attention 
 paid to discipline and military instruction at the Polytechnic 
 School. 
 
 The same defect exists at St.-Cyr, where the course of two 
 years is too short to train a cadet in the principles of exact obe- 
 dience and discipline, and to this defect in the two great mili- 
 tary schools of France must be largely attributed the want of 
 respect, obedience, and discipline, which was charged against 
 the army during the Franco-German War. 
 
 STAFF SCHOOL, PAKIS. 
 
 The object of this school is to train officers for the staff, 
 which is exclusively recruited from its graduates. 
 
 The number of officers admitted varies from 25 to 50. Of 
 this number 3 are reserved for graduates of the Polytechnic ; 
 the remainder are selected by competitive examination, open to 
 the graduates of St.-Cyr, and to lieutenants of the line. 
 The course of study is two years, and embraces — 
 Topography, 
 Geodesy, 
 Astronomy, 
 Geography and statistics, 
 
ACADEMY OF WAR. 249 
 
 Descriptive geometry, 
 
 Artillery, 
 
 Military art and history. 
 
 Military administration. 
 
 Fortification, 
 
 Tactics, cavalry and infantry, 
 
 Drawing, 
 
 Hippology, and 
 
 Riding. 
 At the conclusion of the course, the graduates are assigned 
 two years to infantry, and two years to the cavalry, after which 
 they are appointed permanently in the staff, with the rank of 
 captain, and return no more to the line. 
 
 Those of each class, generally ten to twelve, who are in 
 excess of the number of vacancies, remain in the line, but are 
 eligible for transfer with ofiicers of the staff when a transfer can 
 be arranged, 
 
 ACADEMY OF WAK. 
 
 This academy, in 1876, was in the process of organization, its 
 object being the same as that of the celebrated "War Academy 
 of Berlin. 
 
 Admission to it is by competitive examination. 
 
 The effect of the academy will probably be an entire aban- 
 donment of the present staff system, and a rearrangement of it, 
 whereby officers may continually pass from the line to the staff, 
 and the reverse. 
 
 By means of remaining a closed corps, the staff of France 
 has fallen behind that of other armies, as was shown in the late 
 war, when many of the officers, who were familiar only with 
 office labor and routine, were found incapable of rendering 
 valuable assistance in manoeuvring and directing armies. 
 
 With the exception of conservatism in reference to the staff, 
 the army, since its late reverses, has made immense strides in 
 organization, instruction, and discipline, and already gives evi- 
 dence that in a future struggle it may regain its former pres- 
 tige. 
 
AEMY OF ENGLAI^D. 
 
 The English army, from which we inherit our military 
 organization, laws, and customs, is so nearly like our own that 
 only its main features need be stated. 
 
 Its strength is as follows ; 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 Engineers 
 
 Colonial troops 
 
 Staff corps, and departments 
 Eeserve, officers and men . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 5,124 
 873 
 
 1,450 
 824 
 124 
 
 1,614 
 
 123,500 
 16,402 
 83,474 
 
 4,886 
 2,857 
 5,196 
 
 123,624 
 
 17,275 
 
 84,924 
 
 5,710 
 
 2,481 
 
 6,810 
 
 82,800 
 
 228,624 
 
 The infantry is composed of the guard, the line, and the 
 rifles. 
 
 The guard is composed of 3 regiments, named the Grena- 
 dier Guards, of 3 battalions ; the Coldstream Guards, of 2 bat- 
 talions, and Scots Fusilier Guards, of 2 battalions. Total, 7 
 battalions. 
 
 The infantry of the line consists of 109 regiments, of which 
 the first twenty-five contain 2 battalions each; the Sixtieth 
 Regiment, called rifles, contains 4 battalions ; the other regi- 
 ments contain but one battalion each. Total battalions, 137. 
 
 The rifle-brigade is composed of 4 battalions. 
 
 The colonial or West India troops (colored) consist of two 
 reo-iments of one battalion each. 
 
BRIGADE OF INFANTRY. 
 
 251 
 
 Total number of battalions, 150. 
 
 All of the battalions have eight companies, except the two 
 battalions of West India troops, which have nine. 
 
 The minimum strength of the battalions on home service is 
 60-1 officers and men ; the average strength in 1876 was 886 ; 
 the established strength in India is 919; in the other colonies 
 it varies from 689 to 917. 
 
 The war-strength of a battalion of eight companies is as 
 follows : 
 
 Colonel (honorary) 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel 
 
 Majors 
 
 Captains 
 
 Lieutenants and sub-lieutenants 
 
 Paymaster 
 
 Adjutant 
 
 Quartermaster 
 
 Surgeon 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 Band-sergeant 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant 
 
 Drum-major 
 
 Paymaster-sergeant 
 
 Armorer-sergeant 
 
 Regimental transport-sergeant. . 
 
 Bergeant-cook 
 
 Pioneer-sergeant 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Orderly-room clerk 
 
 Drummers 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Pioneers and artificers 
 
 Band 
 
 Privates 
 
 Drivers 
 
 Total 
 
 Total officers and men 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 40 
 13 
 20 
 902 
 25 
 
 1,0 
 
 1,09T 
 
 BKIGADE OF LNFANTKY. 
 
 The brigade of infantry in time of war consists of the 
 
 BRIGADE. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Non-commlg- 
 
 aioned Officers 
 
 and Men. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Staff 
 
 .3 
 93 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3,198 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 
 3,291 
 
 Control department (supply) 
 
 2T 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 9S 
 
 3,226 
 
 3,324 
 
 
 
252 
 
 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 DIVISION OF mFANTKY. 
 
 A division of infantry consists of tlie 
 
 staff 
 
 2 Brigades of infantry (6 battalions) 
 
 1 Battalion of rifles 
 
 1 JKegiuient of cavalry 
 
 3 Batteries of field-artillery 
 
 1 Company of engineers 
 
 1 Troop of military police (provost-guard) 
 
 INFANTRY AND AETILLKET (KESERVE). 
 
 Ammunition-column 
 
 Control department (quartermaster and commissary departments) 
 
 Veterinary department 
 
 ChaplaiDS 
 
 Total 
 
 10 
 
 196 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 813 
 
 Non-commis- 
 sioned Officers 
 and Men. 
 
 6,452 
 
 1,066 
 
 623 
 
 547 
 
 186 
 
 73 
 
 206 
 
 113 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 9,295 
 
 16 
 
 6,648 
 
 1,097 
 
 650 
 
 56S 
 
 192 
 
 75 
 
 212 
 
 123 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 ABMY CORPS. 
 
 An army corps consists as follows ; 
 
 Non-commis- 
 sioned Officers 
 and Men. 
 
 Staff 
 
 3 Divisions of infantry 
 
 1 Brigade of cavalry (3 regiments) 
 
 AKTILLEET (RESERVE). 
 
 Regimental staff 
 
 3 Batteries of horse-artillery 
 
 2 Batteries of field-artillery 
 
 3 Divisions of reserve ammunition-train 
 
 ENGINEERS. 
 
 Regimental staff 
 
 1 Company and field-park 
 
 1 Pontoon-troop 
 
 3^ Telegraph-troop 
 
 1 Troop of military police 
 
 Control department 
 
 Medical department 
 
 Veterinary department 
 
 Chaplains 
 
 Bakery-train I 
 
 Butchery -train ) 
 
 Total 
 
 19 
 
 939 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 27.SS5 
 2,072 
 
 2 
 516 
 
 3S2 
 516 
 
 1 
 
 209 
 
 813 
 
 14;? 
 
 73 
 
 277 
 
 393 
 3 
 
 i218| 
 52 i 
 
 m 
 
 31 
 
 28,824 
 2,168 
 
 537 
 896 
 534 
 
 3 
 
 216 
 322 
 149 
 75 
 
 304 
 
 '438 
 6 
 
 272 
 
 1,214 
 
 1,067 84,281 
 
 EECRDITMENT. 
 
 The basis of the English system rests on voluntc^ry enlist- 
 ment, carrying with it in time of war the payment of large 
 bounties. 
 
RESERVE— mAiTIA—VOLUNTEEKS. 253 
 
 The term of service is twelve years, with reenhstment to 
 twenty-one years, which entitles the soldier to life-pension. 
 
 RESERVE. 
 
 "With a view to supply a body of trained soldiers from which 
 to fill np the army in time of war, soldiers, after serving three 
 years in the ranks, are permitted to go into reserve, where, in 
 consideration of being liable to military duty, they receive six- 
 pence a day ; in case they are called back to the colors, they 
 also acquire a right to pension. The ultimate strength of the 
 reserve is estimated at 80,000 men. 
 
 MILITIA. 
 
 The militia is intended for local defense, but it can be or- 
 dered anywhere within the limits of the United Kingdom, and 
 is also available as garrison-troops for the fortresses of the Medi- 
 terranean. It consists of about 120,000 men, voted annually by 
 Parliament, and is organized into artillery and infantry. En- 
 listment is voluntary, and for the period of six years. The 
 officers are commissioned by the Queen, and all of the details of 
 recruitment and instruction are confided to the generals com- 
 manding military districts. 
 
 For the purpose of instruction the militia can be called out 
 from three to four weeks annually, and the period can be ex- 
 tended to eight weeks. Eegular officers can also be assigned 
 to the militia as instructors, and the soldiers in reserve may be 
 attached to it whenever called out for manosuvre. 
 
 MILITIA RESERVE. 
 
 This force, which is liable to army service in case of emer- 
 gency, numbers about 30,000 men, or one-fourth of the militia, 
 and is voted annually by Parliament. The term of enlistment 
 is for six years, for which a bounty is granted of £1 per an- 
 num. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS. 
 
 I^ext to the regular army the volunteers constitute the prin- 
 cipal bulwark in case of invasion. 
 
254 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 K They consist of approximately 180,000 men, organized as 
 
 Y infantry, and garrison artillery. The officers of volunteers are 
 /\ commissioned by the lieutenants of counties, subject to the ap- 
 proval of the Queen. The men receive their arms from the 
 Government, and are recruited and instructed under the direc- 
 tion of the commanders of military districts. 
 
 Unless granted leave, the members must be present at each 
 annual inspection. Kecruits, on joining, attend thirty drills, 
 and afterward, as a minimum, they must attend nine drills an- 
 nually. 
 
 In case of invasion, the volunteers are mobilized, and held 
 for permanent service. 
 
 YEOMAN CAVALRY. 
 
 This force consists approximately of 13,000 men, each one 
 of whom furnishes his own horse. 
 
 The force is equipped as light cavalry, drills eight days per 
 year, and is subject to be called out in cases of riot and insur- 
 rection. "When called out, the pay for each man, with his horse, 
 is sevenpence a day. 
 
 TERErrOEIAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 Following the example of Continental nations, the army 
 has recently been organized into eight army corps, which are 
 assigned to as many territorial districts. These districts are 
 divided into 70 sub-districts, of which there are 54 in England 
 and Wales, 8 in Scotland, and 8 in Ireland. 
 
 Each sub-district is the recruiting-ground of a brigade, com- 
 posed of 2 battalions of infantry of the line, 2 battalions of 
 militia, and such volunteers as belong within the district. The 
 two battalions, or regiments, when the latter contain but one 
 battalion each, alternate in foreign service, and are said to be 
 " linked." 
 
 The regiment which is abroad has its depot at the headquar- 
 ters of the home district, where the recruits are received, and 
 thoroughly trained before being forwarded. 
 
STAFF. 255 
 
 The depot is commanded by a captain, who is under the 
 orders of the colonel of the regiment. All officers serving at 
 the depot arc detailed for a period of two years. 
 
 The division into sub-districts ; the linking of regiments ; 
 the establishment of regimental depots ; and the association of 
 militia and volunteers in the same brigade with the troops of 
 the line, is an approach to both the German and Austrian regi- 
 mental systems, in which the field regiment, the depot, and the 
 Landwehr battalions, are practically united under one com- 
 mander. 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 All duty in the Adjutant-General's and Quartermaster-Gen- 
 eral's Departments of the English army is performed by officers 
 detailed from the line. 
 
 To equalize the details, no regiment of cavalry is required 
 to furnish at the same time more than one captain and one lieu- 
 tenant, and no infantry regiment more than two captains and 
 two lieutenants. 
 
 As a general rule, the tenure of staff appointments is limited 
 to five years ; and, in case of appointment on the staft' of general 
 officers and governors of colonies, an officer, after having sei"ved 
 the prescribed period, must serve two years with his regiment 
 before being eligible to a second appointment. 
 
 All officers on the staff, when their regiments are ordered to 
 India, or on active service, are required to vacate their appoint- 
 ments. 
 
 With the exception of officers of engineers, whose service 
 prior to 1870 exceeds seven years, and of all officers who have 
 proved their ability on the staff in the field, no officer can be 
 appointed on the staff as deputy assistant adjutant-general, 
 deputy quartermaster-general, or brigade-major (assistant adju- 
 tant-general of brigade), without having passed the final exami- 
 nation at the Staff College at Sandhurst. 
 
 The names of all such graduates are borne on a special list 
 in the army register. 
 
 The principles of staff duty in the English army, which find 
 
256 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 tlieir widest application in India, have already been stated, in 
 the description of the Indian army. 
 
 CONFIDENTIAL EEPOKTS. 
 
 General officers are required to make annual inspections of 
 the troops under their command, and to report upon the char- 
 acter and qualifications of all their subordinate officers. 
 
 These reports are termed " confidential," but they are re- 
 lieved from the dangers of secrecy by the requirement of the 
 regulation that, when a report is adverse to an officer, he shall 
 be informed as to its nature. 
 
 The reports are signed by both the commander of the regi- 
 ment to which the officer belongs, and by the inspecting officer, 
 and are then forwarded through the intermediate commanders 
 to the military secretary of the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 The object of the reports is to guide the Commander-in- 
 Chief in the selection of officers for promotion to higher grades 
 in the service, and for employment on the general staff. 
 
 EOYAL MILITAEY COLLEGE, SANDHUKST. 
 
 The object of this college is to affiard a " special military 
 education " to candidates for commissions in the cavalry and in- 
 fantry. 
 
 In future, the course of study prescribed at this college must 
 be pursued by all candidates for commissions in the infantry 
 and cavalry, except lieutenants of militia, and non-commissioned 
 officers recommended for promotion. 
 
 The number of cadets admitted to the college varies accord- 
 ing to the requirements of the service. 
 
 Cadets are admitted on the 10th of February, and the 1st of 
 September of each year. 
 
 Admission is granted to these classes of candidates as follows : 
 
 1. To successful candidates at a competitive examination on 
 general subjects, held before the Civil-Service Commissioners. 
 
 2. University candidates, and to graduates in arts at Oxford, 
 Cambridge, Dublin, and other universities, who must pass a 
 competitive examination. 
 
KOYAL MILITARY COLLEGE, SANDHURST. 257 
 
 3. To " Queen's Cadets," " Honorary Queen's Cadets," 
 " Indian Cadets," and " Pages of Honor." 
 
 Candidates admitted by competition are given a preliminary 
 examination before the Civil-Service Commissioners in — 
 
 1. Mathematics, including arithmetic through interest and 
 proportion, and geometry through the first book of Euclid. 
 
 2. French, German, or some other modern language. 
 
 3. Writing English correctly and legibly from dictation. 
 
 4. Elements of geometrical drawing. 
 
 5. Geography. 
 
 Candidates who pass this examination successfully are im- 
 mediately admitted to the " further examination ". in — 
 
 1. Mathematics, embracing algebra through quadratic equa- 
 tions and logarithms, geometry, plane trigonometry, and men- 
 suration. 
 
 2. English composition, tested by writing an essay, letter, 
 ov precis ; English literature, limited to specified authors; and 
 English history, within fixed periods. 
 
 3. Latin. 
 
 4. Greek. 
 
 5. French, examination partly colloquial. 
 
 6. German, examination partly colloquial. 
 
 7. Experimental sciences, viz., chemistry and heat, or elec- 
 tricity and magnetism, examination allowed by choice in one to 
 the exclusion of the other. 
 
 8. General and physical geography, and geology. 
 
 9. Free-hand drawing. 
 
 Exclusive of drawing, candidates cannot be examined in 
 more than four, nor in less than two, of the above subjects. 
 
 The proficiency of each candidate is denoted by marks, given 
 in all of the subjects of the " further examination " in which he 
 is examined, to which are added the marks procured in draw- 
 ing at the preliminary examination. The candidates are then 
 classified according to these marks, when those nearest the head 
 of the list, corresponding to the number of vacancies, are de- 
 clared successful. The age of candidates at date of competition 
 must be between seventeen and twenty-one. 
 17 
 
258 AEMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 University candidates, at the preliminary examination, are 
 examined only in geometrical drawing. The "further exami- 
 nation" is the same as for other candidates by competition, 
 already described. The age of university candidates must be 
 between seventeen and twenty-two. The number of cadetships 
 given to this class is fixed for each examination, and is filled by 
 the competitors who receive the highest marks. 
 
 The Queen's Cadets are sons of ofl^cers of the army, navy, 
 and marines, who have fallen in battle, died of wounds, or of 
 disease contracted in the service abroad, and whose families 
 have been left in reduced circumstances. The cadets are ap- 
 pointed by the Secretary of State, on the recommendation of the 
 commander-in-chief, or First Lord of the Admiralty. 
 
 Honorary Queen's Cadets are sons of ofiicers of the army, 
 navy, and marines, killed in action ; or who have died of wounds 
 within six months of the time they were received ; or who have 
 died of disease contracted through privation or exposure in the 
 field, in the presence of the enemy, within six months from the 
 time the illness was contracted. 
 
 Indian Cadets are sons of officers of the Indian military and 
 civil service, or of the East India Company, who are nominated 
 by the Secretary of State for India in council. 
 
 These three classes of cadets are the only ones admitted to 
 Sandhurst without competition, but they must pass the prelimi- 
 nary examination already described, and in the " further exami- 
 nation " must obtain such an aggregate of marks as to satisfy 
 the Civil-Service Commissioners of their general proficiency. 
 
 This examination is dispensed with in case a candidate can 
 produce a " University Certificate." 
 
 Sons of ofiicers admitted to Sandhurst pay annually from 
 £20 to £80, except Queen's Cadets, whose tuition is free. 
 
 Sons of private citizens pay £125 per year. 
 
 COUESE OF INSTKUOTION. 
 
 The following subjects are taught in the course of instruc- 
 tion, viz. : 
 
COUESE OF INSTRUCTION. 259 
 
 1. Queen's regulations, orders for the army, regimental in- 
 terior economy, accounts, and correspondence. 
 
 2. Military law. 
 
 3. Elements of tactics. 
 
 4. Field fortification, and elements of permanent fortifica- 
 tion. 
 
 5. Military topography and reconnaissance, 
 
 6. Infantry and field-artillery drill, riding, and gymnastics. 
 The course of instruction lasts but one year, and is divided 
 
 into two terms, one of which extends from the 10th of February 
 to the 15th of July ; the other from the 1st of September to the 
 20th of December. 
 
 The periods between the terms, and a fortnight at Easter, 
 are allowed as vacations. 
 
 For the purpose of discipline and instruction, cadets are 
 arranged in divisions of twenty-five each. 
 
 The method of instruction is principally by lecture, supple- 
 mented by text-books. 
 
 The practical instruction consists of riding, School of the 
 Trooper, with sword-exercise ; infantry drill, and field-battery 
 drill with drag-ropes. 
 
 An examination is held at the end of each term. 
 
 The first examination is probationary, and cadets who fail 
 lose a term. Cadets who pass the second examination are 
 arranged according to merit, and are entitled to commissions as 
 second-lieutenants in the cavalry, or infantry. 
 
 The Commander-in-Chief is .the president of the college. 
 The management of the college is vested in a governor, usually 
 general officer, who is responsible to the Secretary of War, 
 through the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 The college is inspected each year by a board of visitors, 
 appointed by the Secretary of State for War. The members of 
 the board do not hold permanent appointments, but all of the 
 members are never changed at the same time. The report of 
 the board is submitted to Parliament. 
 
 The professors and instructors are all ofiicers detailed from 
 the army. 
 
260 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The Englisli system of education for officers of infantry and 
 cavalry resembles the German, in requiring, first, a good gen- 
 eral education ; and, second, a course of purely military instruc- 
 tion. It differs from the German in not requiring from six 
 months to a year's service in the ranks previous to pursuing the 
 military course. 
 
 From 1873 to 1876 the Government tried the experiment of 
 appointing the second-lieutenants of cavalry and infantry pre-^ 
 vious to pursuing the course of instruction at Sandhurst ; but 
 the fact that the students already held their commissions, proved 
 so detrimental to study and discipline, that the scheme was aban- 
 doned, and, since 1876, the same system has been pursued, ex- 
 cept as to the nature and duration of the course, as was pursued 
 prior to 1870. 
 
 KOYAL ISHLITARY ACADEMY, WOOLWICH. 
 
 The object of this academy is to prepare candidates for com- 
 missions in the artillery, and engineers. 
 
 Admission is by competitive examinations, held semi-annu- 
 ally, by the Civil-Service Commissioners. 
 
 Candidates must be between the ages of sixteen and eighteen. 
 
 The examination, like that for Sandhurst, is divided into the 
 "preliminary" and "further examination." 
 
 The preliminary examination consists of — 
 
 1. Mathematics, embracing arithmetic, and the use of com- 
 mon logarithms; algebra, including the binomial theorem ; ge- 
 ometry, to the sixth book of Euclid ; plane trigonometry, in- 
 cluding the solution of triangles. 
 
 2. French, German, or some other modern language. 
 
 3. Writing English correctly from dictation. 
 
 4. Elements of geometrical drawing. 
 
 5. Geography. 
 
 The candidates who pass in the foregoing subjects are admit- 
 ted to the further examination, which consists of — 
 
 1. Mathematics, embracing theory of equations; analytical 
 geometry, conic sections, solid geometry, differential and inte- 
 gral calculus, statics, and dynamics. 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 261 
 
 2. English literature and history. 
 
 3. Classics, embracing both Latin and Greek, or one sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 4. French (examination partly colloquial). 
 
 5. German (examination partly colloquial). 
 
 6. Any one of the following languages, viz. : Italian, Rus- 
 sian, Spanish, or Hindostani. 
 
 7. Experimental sciences, viz. : Chemistry and heat, elec- 
 tricity and magnetism. 
 
 8. General and physical geography, and geology. 
 
 9. Free-hand drawing. 
 
 Exclusive of drawing, candidates cannot be examined in 
 more than four, nor less than two, of the above subjects ; but 
 optional examination is further permitted, embracing nearly all 
 of analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, and 
 also statics and dynamics. 
 
 The number of admissions depends upon the number of va- 
 cancies. 
 
 Sons of officers pay tuition at rates varying from £20 to 
 £80 per annum. 
 
 Sous of private citizens pay £125, or $625. 
 
 COUESE or ESrSTEUCTION. 
 
 The course of instruction lasts two years and a half, and 
 embraces the following subjects : 
 
 1. Mathematics, including a thorough knowledge of plane 
 trigonometry ; practical mechanics, with the application of ma- 
 thematics to raachineiy. 
 
 2. Field and permanent fortification, so far as suitable for 
 officers qualifying for the artillery. 
 
 3. Artillery, so far as suitable for cadets qualifying for the 
 engineers. 
 
 4. Military drawing, with field sketching and reconnais- 
 sance. 
 
 5. Military history and geography. 
 
 6. French and German, at the student's choice. 
 
262 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 7. Elementary cliemistiy and physics. 
 
 8. Drill and exercises. 
 
 In addition to tlie foregoing subjects, wliicli are obligatory, 
 cadets are permitted to study any of the following subjects, 
 viz. : 
 
 1. Higher mathematics. 
 
 2. Higher portions of fortification. 
 
 3. German, French, Italian, Kussian, Spanish, or Hindos- 
 tani. 
 
 4. Free-hand figure and landscape drawing. 
 
 5. Higher chemistry. 
 
 6. Latin. 
 
 7. Greek. 
 
 The practical instruction consists of gymnastics, riding 
 (School of the Trooper), infantry (School of the Soldier, Com- 
 pany, and Battalion), artillery, field, siege, and mortar drill ; 
 also mechanical manoeuvres. 
 
 The cadets constitute one company under the command of a 
 captain, and are arranged in five classes, according to the date 
 of their admissions. 
 
 The examinations are conducted by examiners independent 
 of the academy. 
 
 Cadets who fail at any two of the five examinations are dis- 
 missed. 
 
 To be entitled to a commission a cadet must receive one- 
 half of the maximum marks allotted in the obligatory course to 
 mathematics, mechanics, fortification, and artillery ; and one- 
 half of the aggregate marks allotted to all of the subjects of 
 the obligatory course. 
 
 The Commander-in-Chief is president of the Military Acad- 
 emy, but the immediate management is confided to a military 
 officer styled the governor, who is responsible to the Secretary 
 of War through the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 The academy is annually inspected by a board of visitors, 
 the same as the college at Sandhurst. 
 
 Appointment as professors and inspectors is open to officers 
 of all ranks. The tenure of appointment, which carries with it 
 
STAFF COLLEGE, SANDHURST. 263 
 
 increased pay, is limited to six years, witli power of reappoint- 
 ment. Professors may also be selected from civil life, but in no 
 case can the tenure of office continue after the incumbent is 
 fifty-five years of age unless recommended by the governor of 
 the academy, approved by the Secretary of State. 
 
 STAFF COLLEGE (AT SANDHUESt). 
 
 The special object of this college is to educate officers for 
 employment on the staff. 
 
 The total number of students is 40, the admission being de- 
 termined by competitive examination. 
 
 The number of vacancies each year is 20, of which number 
 3 are allowed to officers of artillery, and 2 to engineers, pro- 
 vided they are among the 20 candidates highest on the list. 
 
 On admission, unmarried officers pay an entrance-fee of £3, 
 and married officers £1 10s. as a contribution to the mess-funds, 
 in excess of their regular quarterly subscription ; they also pay 
 £3 as entrance-subscription to the college library, after which 
 no further payments are required while at the college. 
 
 To be eligible for admission, an officer must possess the fol- 
 lowing qualifications : 
 
 1. Service of not less than five years previous to examina- 
 tion, exclusive of leaves of absence in excess of the annual privi- 
 lege-leaves, which are granted to all officers. 
 
 2. A certificate from his commanding officer that the candi- 
 date is in every respect a thoroughly good regimental officer. 
 
 3. A confidential report, in answer to specific questions re- 
 garding the character, habits, and disposition of the candidate, 
 and his general qualifications for employment on the staff, to 
 be made by a board of officers consisting of the commanding 
 officer and the two next senior officers of the candidate's regi- 
 ment. 
 
 4. A certificate that the candidate, if not a captain, has quali- 
 fied for promotion to that rank. 
 
 5. A medical certificate of good health, and fitness for active 
 duties on the staff. 
 
264 ARMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 If practicable, the candidate must also serve a month on the 
 staff of a general officer, who is required to make a confidential 
 report as to his general fitness for the staff. 
 
 The following are the subjects at the competitive examina- 
 tion, with the relative value of each indicated by marks, viz. : 
 
 MARKS. 
 
 1. Mathematics, embracing arithmetic, algebra, 
 
 geometry, trigonometry, and elementary 
 
 mechanics ....... 900 
 
 2. Military history and geography . . . 900 
 
 3. French 300 
 
 4. German 300 
 
 5. Hindostani 300 
 
 6. Fortification 600 
 
 7. Military drawing 300 
 
 8. Geology 300 
 
 9. Chemistry (heat, electricity, and magnetism) . 300 
 
 Of the above subjects, arithmetic, algebra (to include equa- 
 tions of the first degree), geometry (to include the fourth book 
 of Euclid), one of the three languages, and elementary field 
 fortifications, are obligatory. The remaining subjects are op- 
 tional. 
 
 The minimum qualifying mark is 250 out of 400 allotted 
 to obligatory mathematics ; 150 out of 300 in French ; 100 out 
 of 300 in German and Hindostani ; and 50 out of 150 allotted 
 to a simple paper on field-fortification. 
 
 Examinations for the United Kingdom take place under the 
 direction of the Director-General of Military Education, in the 
 month of June. In the colonies the same printed questions as 
 are used in London are answered, in writing, before a board 
 of officers, who certify that the candidate has received no as- 
 sistance from books or otherwise. These papers are then for- 
 warded to London, where the officer's merits are determined. 
 
 The course of study lasts two years, and embraces the fol- 
 lowing subjects, viz. : 
 
STAFF COLLEGE, SANDHUEST. 265 
 
 Obligatory. 
 
 Mathematics, including mensuration ; mode of determining 
 lieiglits and distances by ground problems, and trigonometrical 
 calculations ; use of sextant, and elementary mechanics. 
 
 Fortification and field-engineering. 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 Topographical drawing, military surveying, sketching, and 
 road-making. 
 
 Reconnaissance. 
 
 Military art, history, and geography. 
 
 Military administration and law. 
 
 French, German, or Hindostani. 
 
 Riding. 
 
 Voluntary. 
 
 The two languages not selected as obligatory. 
 
 Geology, exclusive of mineralogy. 
 
 Experimental sciences. 
 
 Photography. 
 
 Military telegraphy. 
 
 Each year's course is divided into two terms, viz., from the 
 1st of February to the 15th of July, and from the 1st of Sep- 
 tember to the 15th of December. The remaining periods con- 
 stitute vacations. 
 
 Examinations are held at the end of every term. The sum- 
 mer examinations are held by the professors of the college ; the 
 winter examinations are held by examiners independent of the 
 college. 
 
 Confidential reports are also made to the Commander-in- 
 Chief, after each of the examinations, as to the qualifications of 
 each officer for staff employment. 
 
 The examination at the end of tlie second term is proba- 
 tionary. Officers who fail to receive 55 per cent, of the marks 
 allotted to the subjects, and also those who are reported upon 
 as unlikely to make efficient staff officers, are required to with- 
 draw. 
 
266 AEMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 At tlie final examination the obligatory subjects count as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Fortification, field-engineering, and artillery 6 
 
 2. Military drawing and surveying . . 2^ 
 
 3. Reconnaissance . . . . . • 4^ 
 
 4. Military art, history, and geography . . 6 
 K j Military administration . , . . .4 
 
 * ( Military law 2 
 
 6. French, German, or Hindostani . . .4 
 
 7. Mathematics 3 
 
 At the final examination, the ofiicers who have passed are 
 arranged on a list, according to the order of seniority of their 
 regiments, special mention being made of those who have won 
 honors. 
 
 Officers may be permitted to pass the final examination, and 
 thus qualify for staff duty, without pursuing the course at the 
 college. They must, however, pass a portion of the months of 
 October and November at the college, in order to be examined 
 in reconnaissance, and to be tested in the practical subjects of 
 instruction at the college. 
 
 After having passed the final examination, officers are ei- 
 ther — 
 
 1. Attached for three months during the following summer 
 to the staff of a general officer, at a camp of instruction at 
 which the three arms of the service are present. At the end 
 of this period the general makes a confidential report as to the 
 character and abilities of the officers, and also states the depart- 
 ments of the staff for which they appear to be best qualified ; or — 
 
 2. Attached during the following summer drill-season to 
 another arm of service than their own, with a view to acquire a 
 knowledge of their organization, economy, and tactics. At the 
 end of the season the commanding officers make a special report 
 as to their efficiency. 
 
 Officers of infantry and cavalry attend artillery instruction at 
 Woolwich, or some other station, for a period of two months. 
 Officers of cavalry are attached to the infantry two months. 
 
EXAMINATIONS FOR PROMOTION. 267 
 
 Officers of engineers and infantry are attached to cavalry two 
 months. Officers of artillery (horse-artillery excepted) are at- 
 tached one month. 
 
 After completing the practical instruction, the officers return 
 to their regiments, and are then eligible for appointment as — 
 
 Deputy assistant adjutant-generals, 
 
 Deputy assistant quartermaster-generals, 
 
 Brigade-maj ors (adjutant-gen erals), 
 
 Garrison instructors, 
 
 Assistant military secretaries, and 
 
 Aides-de-camp to general officers. 
 
 EXAMENATIONS FOR PEOMOTION. 
 
 Examinations for promotion to the grades of captain and 
 major are required in all arms of service. 
 
 The examination in infantry for promotion to captain em- 
 braces the following subjects, viz. : 
 
 1. Evolutions of a regiment, including skirmishing, out- 
 posts, patrols, escorts, advance and rear guards. 
 
 2. Charge of a company or detachment in every position in 
 which it may be placed, musketry instruction, orderly-room 
 work, requisitions, returns, accounts, and correspondence. 
 
 3. Queen's regulations and orders for the army. 
 
 4. Military law. 
 
 5. Elements of tactics. 
 
 6. Field fortification, and elements of permanent fortifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Y. Military topography. 
 
 Graduates of Sandhurst are exempted from examination in 
 the last four subjects. 
 
 Examination for promotion to the rank of major in infantry 
 embraces, in the field — 
 
 1. Riding. 
 
 2. Command of a regiment — 
 
 Singly on parade. 
 As part of a brigade. 
 As advance or rear guard, 
 
268 AKMY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 As outposts covering a brigade or division, 
 Skirmishing, with movements adapted to a specified 
 purpose. 
 The theoretical examination, on paper and viva voce, em- 
 braces — 
 
 , 1. Representing on a sketch, or map, of a piece of ground pre- 
 viously seen by the officer (the map being furnished to the offi- 
 cer), the disposition of a combined force of the three arms, as — 
 Advance or rear guard. 
 On outpost, 
 
 For attack and defense of a given position, such as a 
 defile, a wood, or bridge. 
 
 2. Principles of combining the movements of infantry, artil- 
 lery, and cavalry, for mutual support. 
 
 3. The forms for .demanding, and sources of supply of, am- 
 munition, fuel, and forage. 
 
 4. System of regimental orderly-room work, and correspond- 
 ence. 
 
 Graduates of the staff college are exempted from the theo- 
 retical examination. 
 
 The practical examination is conducted by the general com- 
 manding, or by an officer whom he may select. 
 
 The theoretical examination is conducted by a board of three 
 officers, one of whom is of the same arm of service as the can- 
 didate for promotion. 
 
 AGGRESSIVE POWER OF ENGLAJSTD. 
 
 The adherence of England to a military system, inherited 
 from the last century, can only be explained by her insular posi- 
 tion, and the security from invasion afforded by a powerful 
 navy. 
 
 The salient defect of her system is the non-expansive organi- 
 zation of the regular army ; and this defect, in view of European 
 complications, becomes the more apparent when it is considered 
 that nearly one-half of the regiments, batteries, and squadrons, 
 exceeding 90,000 men, are employed in India and the colonies. 
 
 Of the 150 battalions of infantry only 77 are serving in the 
 
AGGRESSIVE POWER OF ENGLAND. 260 
 
 United Kingdom, and, were these raised to the war-footing, 
 their total strength would but little exceed 80,000. 
 
 Adding to this number 20,000, drawn from the Mediter- 
 ranean and India, the force of British infantry, available for 
 aggressive purposes, would approximate 100,000 men, and in 
 this number would be included the greater part of the reserve 
 recently created. 
 
 In contrast with this force, the infantry of the great Conti- 
 nental powers, organized on the expansive principle, can be 
 raised, in round numbers, to the following war-footing, viz. : 
 
 Austria 545,000 
 
 France 700,000 
 
 Germany 495,000 
 
 Kussia 674,000 
 
 Furthermore, as the result of obligatory military service, be- 
 hind this immense force of infantry, which is supported by artil- 
 lery and cavalry in the highest state of drill and discipline, there 
 stand in readiness trained reserves, and armies of the second 
 line, largely outnumbering the total military force which Eng- 
 land can bring into the field. 
 
 "With such disparity of strength, should England assail any 
 of her formidable neighbors, we may safely anticipate that the 
 war will be followed either by the speedy reorganization of her 
 army, or by the total abandonment of the policy of armed in- 
 tervention in foreign affairs. 
 
infa:ntey tactics. 
 
 The successive improvements that have been made in fire- 
 arms during the last hundred years have been followed by a 
 gradual diminution of the depth of tactical formations, until 
 to-day the '' open order," or the formation as skirmishers, is 
 the only one adopted under the fire of the enemy. 
 
 The advantages of this order were first brought to light in 
 the "War of the Revolution, and since that time its use has 
 steadily increased in all of our wars. 
 
 Transplanted to Europe by the French officers who served 
 in our armies, it became prominent in the wars of the French 
 Kevolution, and has since been adopted in all European armies. 
 
 In the most recent development of the " open order " the 
 company, composed of 250 men, is recognized as the " fighting 
 unit ; " wdiile the battalion, composed of four companies, is re- 
 garded as the " tactical unit " — that is, the smallest body of men 
 that can be safely employed independently. 
 
 By combining in each battalion the movements of four 
 " fighting units," each one of wdiich is divided into three or 
 more smaller subdivisions, the modern system of fighting has 
 devolved upon the battalion and company commanders the tac- 
 tical skill heretofore required of brigade and regimental com- 
 manders, and has further devolved increased responsibility on 
 every subordinate rank to the private soldier. 
 
 The adoption of breech-loaders has not changed the prin- 
 ciples of strategy and grand tactics, nor has it diminished the 
 
GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. 271 
 
 number of lines in whicli armies are drawn up to give and re- 
 ceive battle. It has simply demonstrated the impossibility of 
 attacking positions in battalion columns, and, as a consequence, 
 has necessitated a division of the troops into smaller fractions, 
 which under fire can be moved with the greatest rapidity and 
 least exposure, thereby insuring the least loss of life. 
 
 The open or skirmish order has, therefore, been adopted, 
 and is employed by the first line whenever troops approach the 
 zone covered hj the enemy's fire. 
 
 The battalion being the tactical unit, the general principles 
 of the open order are, that the skirmishers shall only occupy a 
 front equal to the front of the battalion in line, and that the 
 battalion shall be divided into two parts, one of which consti- 
 tutes the " fighting line," the other the " reserve." 
 
 The fighting line is generally composed of two companies, 
 each of which is posted in two or three lines, the first being the 
 skirmishers, the second and third lines the supports. 
 
 The reserve is composed of the remaining two companies 
 formed as a half-battalion column, or as two company columns, 
 and is posted in rear of the supports. 
 
 The arrangement of the " fighting line " and the " reserve " 
 will be best understood by describing the formation and use of 
 the German and French company columns. 
 
 GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 The company is formed in three ranks ; the tallest men are 
 in the front rank ; " the most adroit and best shots are selected 
 for the third rank, because the special duties of this rank re- 
 quire these qualities ; " the distance between ranks is two feet. 
 
 The company is divided into divisions (or platoons). If the 
 divisions consist of twenty or more files, they are divided into 
 subdivisions (or half-platoons) ; the subdivisions are again di- 
 vided into sections of not less than four, nor more than six 
 files. 
 
 If the company be of full strength, it will have a front of 
 Y2 files ; each division will contain 36 files ; each subdivision 
 18 files ; and each section 6 files. 
 
272 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 The battalion consists of four companies, which are num- 
 bered from right to left. The eight subdivisions into which the 
 battalion is divided are also numbered from right to left, and pre- 
 serve their numerical designations throughout manoeuvres. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE COMPANY COLUIVIN. 
 
 (Plate 1.) The company column is formed in the following 
 manner : 
 
 Plate 1. 
 
 The battalion being in line, at the commands 1. "Form com- 
 pany column" — 2. "March," the third rank of each even divi- 
 sion of the right wing faces about, marches twelve paces to the 
 rear, halts, and faces to the front ; the first and second ranks of 
 the uneven divisions face to the left, and place themselves six 
 paces in rear of the first and second ranks of the even division; 
 the third rank of the uneven subdivisions faces to the left, and, 
 filing in front of the third rank of the even division, forms 
 with it a third division in double rank. The movement is 
 executed in the uncadenced step. The column when formed 
 consists practically of three platoons in double rank. 
 
 In the left wing the movement is similarly executed ; the 
 even subdivisions ploying in rear of the uneven subdivisions. 
 
 Each division of the column is commanded by a lieutenant, 
 who stands on the right of the front rank, and is provided with 
 its proper quota of tile-closers. The third division of each col- 
 umn is called the " shooting subdivision." 
 
 (Plate 2.) The battalion being ployed into company columns 
 consists of two company columns side by side at the centre, 
 called a half-battalion column, and of two detached company 
 columns ; the interval between the flanks of the half-battalion 
 column and the flank-company columns is twenty-four yards, or 
 equal to the front of a division. 
 
GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 273 
 
 Plate 2. 
 
 -d 
 
 J ^ ?„ ..^-■a ^ 
 
 
 4 
 
 *< ,4 
 
 
 6 i 
 
 &5 a i S 
 
 6 
 
 a. 
 
 .^ 6 6 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 S 6 S ^ 
 
 "S" 
 
 o 
 
 45 6 5 
 
 "a 
 
 6 i 
 
 ^6 i i^dli 
 
 Battalion-commander. 
 
 Adjutant. 
 
 ® Captain. 
 
 • First-lieutenant. 
 
 "^ 
 
 OS 
 
 ^a. 6 4 
 
 1^ Portepee-fiihnrich. 
 l5 Right guide. 
 & Left guide, 
 ch File-closer. 
 d* Color. 
 
 Id 
 
 
 O First second-lieutenant. 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Second second-lieutenant. 
 
 
 
 EE) Musicians. 
 
 
 
 O Third second-lieutenant. 
 
 
 
 ^ Bugler. 
 
 
 
 S Sergeant-major. 
 
 
 
 ooo Skirmishers. 
 
 
 Plate 8. 
 
 ,1 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 I ' 
 
 
 4> 
 
 2. 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 'ei 
 
 J. 
 
 6 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 t -^ 
 
 2. 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 1. 
 
 6 
 
 111- 1 
 
 
 
 ■^.'b 
 
 2. 
 
 .^=j5 
 
 
 
 u:^ 1 
 
 lie 
 
 iK 
 
 Isf 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 18 
 
274 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 (Plate 3.) The tactics provide for reducing the front of each 
 company column to half subdivisions, giving each column six 
 half subdivisions, and also for breaking into columns of sec- 
 tions — a formation which resembles our column of fours. 
 
 The company column is formed in line to the front by 
 means inverse to those used in the ployment ; the thu'd rank 
 resuming its proper place. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT OF THE COMPANY COLUMN AS SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 (Plate 4.) The German method of deployment as skirmish- 
 ers is a successive movement usually beginning with a section, 
 
 o o o o o 
 o o o o o 
 
 li 
 
 Plate 4. 
 
 ? o o o o 
 
 O O Q O O 
 
 OOOO OOOOO 
 
 OOOOOaOOOOO 
 
 or a half subdivision of the shooting subdivision, xit the sig- 
 nal " Skirmish," the section or half subdivision designated 
 moves by the flank until disengaged from the column, and then 
 
GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. , 275 
 
 moves to the front, the files obliquing to the right and left till 
 they gain an interval, usually not exceeding six paces ; the rear- 
 rank man of each file, at his option, remains in rear of his file- 
 leader, or places himself on his right or left. The remaining 
 part of the shooting division follows the skirmish-line at a dis- 
 tance of 100 to 150 yards, and acts as a support ; the first and 
 second divisions of the company column follow in rear of the 
 support at a suitable distance, usually 100 yards. 
 
 If necessary to reenforce the skirmish-line, the portion of 
 the shooting subdivision acting as a support is sent forward, 
 either by sections or all at once, the men taking the open order 
 or retaining the close order according to circumstances. 
 
 If the entire shooting division be deployed at once, the re- 
 maining two divisions in column, or in line, act as a support, 
 and, in case of need, send forward successive sections to 
 strengthen the line, until the entire company becomes absorbed. 
 
 The difficulty of manoeuvring skirmishers with a prescribed 
 interval is so great that it is not even attempted ; the skirmish- 
 ers, on the contrary, are encouraged whenever practicable to 
 assemble in sections, or " swarms," so as to avail themselves of 
 every opportunity for cover, only, however, to relinquish it, and 
 again extend, on moving to the front. The greatest latitude is 
 given to officers in command of supports, and to non-commis- 
 sioned officers in charge of sections, in ordering men to and 
 from cover. 
 
 The usual method of attack is by a series of " rushes " from 
 cover to cover, until the enemy exhausts his ammunition, or be- 
 comes demoralized, when a final rush with a shout is supposed 
 to gain the victory. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT OF A BATTALION. 
 
 (Plate 5.) When a battalion is to be deployed as skirmishers, 
 it is usually broken into four company columns, as previously 
 explained. The shooting divisions of the first and fourth com- 
 panies are deployed as skirmishers, covering the front of the 
 battalion. The remaining portions of the first and fourth com- 
 panies, called front lody, or " Yortreffen," are posted as sup- 
 
276 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 ports to their shooting subdivisions. The second and third 
 companies are held in reserve as a half -battalion column, or 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 Plate 5. 
 
 i 
 
 SupfftfTts. 
 
 Vortreffen. 
 
 "Hxmnttreffen 
 
 they may be posted with an interval of 80 or 100 yards be- 
 tween them. These companies constitute the main hody, or 
 " Hauj)ttreffen." The distance from the skirmishers to the near- 
 est supports is about 150 yards ; from the supports to the " Yor- 
 treffen," or the subdivisions of the first and fourth company col- 
 umns, 100 yards ; from the " Vortreffen " to the " Haupttreffen," 
 1 50 yards ; making a total distance of 400 yards. These dis- 
 tances, however, are entirely dependent upon circumstances, 
 and are usually regulated by the battalion and company com- 
 manders. 
 
GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN. 277 
 
 FORMATION OF THE BRIGADE. 
 
 The brigade consists of two regiments of three battalions 
 each, and for battle is preferably formed in three lines ; the 
 battalions of each regiment being one in rear of the other. The 
 first battalion is deployed as already explained. The second 
 battalion is generally divided into two half-battalion columns, 
 with an interval between them of about 250 yards, and is post- 
 ed at the same distance from the main body of the first battal- 
 ion. The third battalion is formed in " column of attack," 
 double column on the centre, and is posted about 250 yards 
 from the second line, opposite its centre. 
 
 Another formation of the brigade is in two lines : in this 
 case the battalions of the first line are deployed as before, while 
 those of the second line are either held in line, or in line of com- 
 pany columns. 
 
 The method of attack by means of the company column, 
 when considered in its relations to the battalion and brigade, is 
 as follows : 
 
 The shooting subdivisions of the first and fourth companies 
 of the first battalion press forward from cover to cover, lying 
 down when necessary, and by means of their fire drawing that 
 of the enemy. Their fire is continually increased by sending 
 additional sections to their support. If the enemy show signs 
 of giving way, the supports move forward, give their fire, and 
 then all make a rush. 
 
 If, however, the enemy resist, and continue a strong fire, 
 the first and fourth companies will ordinarily become wholly 
 engaged before approaching within 300 or 400 yards of the 
 enemy. The second and third companies in the mean time will 
 continue to approach, and, when near t^e line, will deploy in 
 close order and join in the action, firing if necessary over the 
 skirmishers, who lie down in front. The first battalion has 
 now become entirely engaged. If sufficiently strong to con- 
 tinue the action, it gains ground by fits and starts until it ar- 
 rives within 150 or 200 yards of the enemy, when the whole 
 line breaks into loud cheers, and rushes forward with the bayo- 
 
278 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 net. If the charge be repulsed, the second battalion, in half- 
 battalion columns, sometimes in four-company columns, moves 
 forward ; the first line falls back, the oflficers making every 
 eiiort to rally their men in the intervals and on the flanks of the 
 
 Plate 6. 
 
 3'*? COMPANY 
 ooooo ooooo 
 ooooooo ooo 
 4VSEC. ; a-i'SEC. 
 
 ym 
 
 tj! 
 
 ll'^&21''SEC. 
 
 2"." COMPANY 
 
 ooooo OOOiO 
 
 ooooo. ooooo 
 
 2".° SEC. 
 
 1ST SEC. 
 
 !^ S^^3T'&4T?'SE{L 
 
 y 
 
 second line ; both lines then move forward so as to give the 
 enemy as little time as possible to profit by his advantage. If 
 the first line cannot be rallied in the intervals of the second, it 
 re-forms in rear of the third. 
 
 If the first line, when wholly engaged, be not able to take 
 the enemy's position, the second line is moved to its support, 
 the company columns, if possible, being directed toward the 
 
GERMAN BATTALION FORMATIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 flanks of the skirmish-line, from which position they open a 
 flank or an oblique fire. 
 
 In reenforcing the skirmish-line, the German tactics pre- 
 
 .Plate 1. 
 
 ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo 
 ooooo ooooo^ooooo Ooooo 
 
 scribe that, when practicable, it shall be done by extending the 
 flank ; when this cannot be done the reenforcement arrives from 
 the rear, and mingles with the line. If, therefore, the company 
 
 Plate 8. 
 
 iib* aiS atbi 2(64 
 6 S 4 4 
 
 
 columns of the second line cannot form on the flanks of the 
 first line, they move forward, the skirmishers of the first line 
 forming in the intervals ; the two lines united then make a rush 
 upon the enemy, and open fire as soon as his position is carried. 
 
280 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 The first line, if repulsed before the second arrives at its sup- 
 port, forms in the intervals as before. 
 
 The combinations which may be made with the company 
 columns are almost infinite, notwithstanding the German tactics 
 favor but few movements, and these as simple as possible. 
 
 The formation of the third rank into shooting divisions ne- 
 cessitates many tactical movements in the School of the Bat- 
 talion with a view to separating the shooting divisions from the 
 remaining divisions of the battalion. 
 
 The following plates represent the principal formations of a 
 company and battalion, both in the close and open order. The 
 shooting divisions are denominated by Roman letters, the other 
 divisions are denominated by figures. 
 
 Plate 6 represents the second and third companies deployed 
 as skirmishers from column of subdivisions, or half-platoons. 
 
 Plate 7 represents all of the shooting division of a company 
 deployed from column of subdivisions. The " Vortreffen " in 
 this case is 150 yards from the skirmishers. 
 
 Plate 8 represents a battalion in line. 
 
 Plate 9 represents a battalion in line with the shooting di- 
 vision of each company formed in rear of the right division of 
 the company in the right wing, and left division of the left 
 wing. The two shooting divisions of each wing may likewise 
 be fonned in rear of its outer flank. 
 
 Plate 9. 
 8 
 
 9. 
 
 -i- 
 
 -£. 
 
 •X 
 
 6. 
 
 * 
 
 5". 
 
 -^^£ 
 
 4. 
 
 -1- 
 
 3. 
 
 r 
 
 g. 
 
 ^=: 
 
 ^- ; 
 
 IV. 
 
 -i 
 
 
 5_ 
 
 M. 
 
 J- 
 
 
 
 
 jr. 
 
 ^t 
 
 r. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plate 10 represents a "column of attack," which is formed 
 like our " double column " by ploying the right wing in column 
 of divisions (platoons) in rear of its left division ; the left wing 
 
GEEMAN BATTALION FORMATIONS. 281 
 
 is similarly ployed in rear of its right division. The distance 
 from the front rank of one division to the lile-closers of the 
 division in front is two paces. The column of attack has 
 
 8. 
 
 7. 
 
 6. _ 
 
 S. 
 
 Plate 10. 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 3. 
 
 2. 
 
 /. 
 
 
 
 • •'. — 
 
 a. 
 
 — .UA ^ 
 
 .JL- 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 '\ — 
 
 
 
 '^ ^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ■ .... ""-a. 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 ^w' 
 
 
 
 
 
 !^5 ^E 
 
 
 
 
 
 '"•■A— 
 
 -&. 
 
 "^ "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ SZ 
 
 
 
 
 ceased to be of special significance, as it is never used under 
 fire. 
 
 Plate 11 represents the column of attack formed with 
 
 s. 
 
 7- 
 
 
 C. _ 
 
 -^^ 
 
 Plate 
 
 11. 
 
 4 
 
 - » 
 
 2- 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 ';,_ 
 
 _^^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 V^ 
 
 
 
 jr 
 
 
 ■^■^ 
 
 ■■ 
 
 I- 
 
 IS:^.. 
 
 jor. 
 
 
 
 nr. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ 
 
 '"■- 
 
 
 _(: ,-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "■■J^ 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 7. 
 
 „t'' ^.■■'' 
 
 
 
 "■"^ 
 
 1. 
 
 
 
 8. 
 
 -^■'■' .-•"■' 
 
 
 
 '■^■A; 
 
 J. 
 
 B 
 
 
 ^M 
 
 M^'' 
 
 
 each company in company column. The two shooting divisions 
 of each wing may likewise be formed at the rear of the col- 
 umn ; they may also be formed at the head of the column, 
 or one division of each wing may be formed at the head, and 
 the other at the rear. 
 
 The other column formations are : 
 
 1. Column of divisions, subdivisions, and sections, at full dis- 
 tance, formed by wheeling by divisions, subdivisions, and sec- 
 tions, to the right or left. Column of subdivisions, and sections, 
 may also be formed by breaking from column of divisions, and 
 subdivisions. 
 
282 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 2. Close column of divisions, which may be formed bv 
 wheeling by divisions and closing to the distance of six paces, 
 or directly by ployment, as indicated in Plate 12. 
 
 Plate 12. 
 
 a. i^ 7. ^*_s^ 
 
 X0 J. , Ir -ft* 4 
 
 ~J^ 
 
 _a. 
 
 •*•_ 
 
 2. X® 1, 
 
 / / 
 
 i 8^ 
 
 _t_ji-' ..,.'■'■■■ 
 
 '■■-'' — '-r -^--^ 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 ^~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^*"' ,....■■■-■'■■/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —±—ii'" ..-■:/ 
 
 ..■■■■■" ..^-'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-8-"' /-■•■■■ .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^J^^lJ-- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Plate 13. 
 
 .si 
 
 Plate 13 represents the formation of column of attack from 
 
 close column of divis- 
 ions, right in front. The 
 movement is executed 
 on the fourth division, 
 which stands fast; the 
 three divisions in front 
 face to the right, move 
 forward a short distance, 
 change direction twice 
 to the right, and, when 
 the head of each arrives 
 opposite its place in rear 
 of the fourth, it executes 
 on the right into line ; 
 the four divisions in rear 
 "^^^^^^ face to the left, march by 
 
 the left flank till the rear 
 of each arrives four paces beyond the left flank of the fourth 
 
 
 ^^^^. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 J. 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 9- 
 
 
GERMAN BATTALION FORMATIONS. 283 
 
 division, then march by the right flank, and halt when the tifth 
 
 division arrives abreast 
 
 of the fourth. ^^''' ''■ 
 
 If the left be in front, ' ^^ --... 
 
 $<-., 
 
 the movement is execut- 
 ed on the fifth division 
 by mverse means. „, ^^^^ 
 
 Plate 14 represents * s y ^1^- * I 
 the formation- of close 
 
 column of divisions, ^ ^ 14 ®^" 
 
 right in front, from col- 
 umn of attack. The 
 
 fourth division stands * s ^ " -^ "^ 1 1<--' 
 
 fast : all of the other •• « * 
 
 divisions face to the ^IZZ3 
 
 right; the first, second, ^^ 
 
 and third divisions move 
 
 forward a short distance, change direction twice to the left, and, 
 
 when the right of each arrives in front of the fourth, it exe- 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 •A ' 
 
 
 7 
 
 s 
 
 XP 8. aDJ 7 JCD^ 
 
 6. 
 6. 
 
 =4= 
 
 Plate 15. 
 
 
 — 1* 2. '^ 2. ± 
 
 
 
 
 \<i t 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 t = 
 
 JJJJ.-!. 
 
 ..:::^ .- — . 6 i 
 
 ! r. L._ 
 
 
 
 
 '> A . 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 "-.:^— * 
 
 cutes on the right into line; the fifth, sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth divisions, incline to the right, move to their position 
 
284: INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 in rear of the fourth, when they halt and face to the front. 
 
 Plate 16. 
 
 OOOOO OOOOO QOOQO OQOOO 
 
 OOOOO OOOOO Of>OO0 OOOOO 
 
 O O O Q O O O O O'O <)" O O O o 
 
 OOOOO oooo.O oo. o-oo 
 
 ! i 
 
 tJOOOOOOOOOO 
 QOOOOOOOOO-O 
 
 Plate 17. 
 
 Vt. 
 
 ^v 
 
 \ 
 
 ^/ 
 
 % - 
 
 v 
 
 ^i 
 
 '^4. 
 
 K 
 
EIFLE ("jlGER") BATTALIONS. 
 
 285 
 
 rr. 
 
 ooooo ooooo oooo 
 ooooo ooooo oooc 
 
 Plate 18. 
 
 i2. 
 
 m. 
 
 E. 
 
 Plate 19. 
 
 The movement is executed on the fifth division left in front 
 by inverse means. 
 
 Plate 15 shows the deployment of 
 a close column of divisions. 
 
 Plate 16 represents skirmishers de- 
 ployed from the column of attack 
 formed of company columns. 
 
 Plate 17 represents a battalion in 
 line, covered by deploying the shooting 
 divisions of the first and fourth com- 
 panies as skirmishers. 
 
 Plate 18 represents the deployment 
 of skirmishers from line of battle. 
 
 KIFLE ("jAGEk") battalions. 
 
 All of tbe foregoing plates illus- 
 trate the movements of a company, 
 and battalion, formed in three ranks, 
 which is the normal formation of the 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 ?11 
 
 2 
 
 « 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 Pii 
 
 d 
 
 &5 
 
 
 I 
 
286 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 Plate 20. 
 
 J 
 
 infantry of the line. 
 
 Plate 21. 
 ^SJTC. jtSJETC 
 
 OOOOO OOOOO 
 
 o o o o oA o o»o o o 
 
 S&4l 
 
 j-^a 
 
 I 
 
 1^ 
 
 \/ 
 
 )2. 
 
 h 
 
 The formation of the rifle battalions is 
 in two ranks. 
 
 Each company, if it contains less than 
 sixty-four files, is divided into two divis- 
 ions and four subdivisions. The sub- 
 divisions are further divided into sections 
 of not less than four nor more than six 
 files. If the company consist of sixty- 
 four, or more files, it is divided into four 
 divisions, which are further divided into 
 subdivisions and sections as before. 
 
 The company column is habitually 
 formed of four divisions, or four sub- 
 divisions, according as the company 
 contains more or less than sixty-four 
 files. 
 
 In the rifles the company column, 
 whether formed in divisions, or sub- 
 divisions, is always formed right in 
 front. 
 
 Plate 19 represents a rifle-company 
 of two divisions formed in company col- 
 umn of subdivisions. 
 
 Plate 20 represents a rifle-battalion 
 formed in line of company columns of 
 subdivisions. 
 
FRENCH COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 287 
 
 Plate 21 shows the deployment of a company column of sub- 
 divisions as skirmishers. 
 
 FRENCH COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 The French battalions, like the German, are composed of 
 four companies. 
 
 Each company is formed in two ranks, and is normally 
 divided into four sections — the first two of which constitute the 
 first platoon, the last two the second platoon. 
 
 Each section is divided into two squads in time of peace, 
 and four squads in time of war, giving the company eight or 
 sixteen squads according as it is on the peace or war footing. 
 
 The company column is always formed on the second section 
 
 Plate 22. 
 
 E5e=^= 
 
 -^ w 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 1. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 2. 
 
 t 
 
 ! 
 
 S 
 
 b 
 
 S. 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 O Battalion-commander. 
 
 4 Adjutant. 
 
 O Sergeant-major. 
 
 @ Captain. 
 
 m First-lieutenant. 
 
 O Second-lieutenant. 
 
 i Reserve lieutenant. 
 
 a First sergeant. 
 
 t5 Right guide. 
 
 D Left guide. 
 
 d2 File-closer. 
 
 i Color. 
 
 ^S Musicians. 
 
 ,„. Skirmishers. 
 
288 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 from the right, wliicli stands fast ; the distance between sections 
 is six paces. 
 
 Plate 22 represents the formation of the company column 
 from line. 
 
 Plate 23 represents its deployment. 
 
 Plate 23. 
 
 Plate 24 represents the ployment of a company into a pla- 
 toon column ; the distance between guides is six paces. 
 
 Plato 24. 
 
 i i 
 
 2- Platoon.} i 
 
 ' IL'^ Platoon. 
 
 6 6 
 
 Plate 25 represents the formation of the company column 
 from the platoon column. 
 
 Plate 26 represents the formation of the platoon column 
 from the company column. 
 
 Plate 27 represents a battalion in line. 
 
 Plate 28 represents the battalion in line of company col- 
 umns, with an interval of twenty-four paces between the flanks 
 of companies. 
 
FKEXCH COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 289 
 
 Plate 25. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 =^= 
 
 
 1^- 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 b 
 
 2, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - — 1 1 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1" 
 
 — 
 
 □ 
 — > 
 
 3. 
 
 
 di b '. it. 
 
 2^?I>ZATOOJf 
 
 Plate 2T. 
 
 19 
 
290 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 Plate 28. 
 
 
 ^4«^ Jid^ctrs 
 
 Plate 29 shows the " battalion column " {colonne de hatail- 
 
 lon), composed of the four companies in 
 
 Plate 29. compauy columns, with the distance be- 
 
 ^ tween companies equal to the front of a 
 
 I section increased by six paces. 
 
 pi^i^»^ i Plate 30 represents the battalion in 
 
 rr*"""*^ double column, formed by placing the 
 
 I two wings in column side by side ; the 
 
 (Front of a ^wo Companies of each wing are in 
 
 seciio7iand compauv columus, oue in rear of the 
 
 Spaces. , 
 
 I i l Other. 
 
 I I Plate 31 represents the formation of 
 
 I ' the battalion column from line of cora- 
 
 *— pany columns by ployment. 
 
 ^ Plate 32 shows the same formation 
 
 ^ by the simultaneous change of direction 
 
 ^^^^^j ' of the company columns by the right 
 
 [ I \ flank. 
 
 It will be observed that the battalion 
 movements involving the company col- 
 umn are almost identical with the move- 
 ments of the column of masses, and line 
 of masses, in our evolutions of brigade. 
 
 Plate 33 represents the formation of 
 the double column from line of company 
 columns. 
 
FKENCH COMPANY COLUMN. 
 
 Plate 30. 
 
 291 
 
 [Qf^ 
 
 &" L 
 
 BAces. 
 
 
 in 
 
 3 I 
 
 \ff JOYCE'S. 
 
 Plate 81. 
 
 
 — > 
 
 <- y 
 
 III":. 
 
 go 
 
292 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 di 1 1 1 
 
 
 1 ' ^ 
 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 i 
 
 o< <■— '^ 
 
 ^" I 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 Plate 34 shows the same formation from the battalion col- 
 umn. 
 
 SKIRMISHING. 
 
 The habitual formation of the company preparatory to 
 skirmishing is in company column ; but skirmishers may be 
 deployed from line, from the platoon column, or from any other 
 formation. 
 
 The " formation de combat " or " fighting order " is in three 
 echelons, or lines, as follows : 
 
 1. Skirmishers. 
 3. Support. 
 
 2. Reenforcements. 
 
 One section, composed of 2 squads (4 on the war-footing), 
 constitutes the skirmish-line {chaine) ; another section, the reen- 
 
Plate 34 
 
 /^ 
 
 DEPLOYMENT OE A COMPANY AS SKIKMISHEES. 293 
 
 forcement {renfort) ; and the remaining two sections, tlie sup- 
 ports {soutien). The two sec- 
 tions composing the skirmish- 
 line and the reenforcement be- 
 long to the same platoon, both 
 of which remain under the com- 
 mand of the chief of platoon. 
 The supports are composed of 
 the two sections of the remain- 
 ing platoon, and are commanded 
 by its chief. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT OF THE COMPANY AS 
 SKtRMISHEES. 
 
 The distance from the skir- 
 mishers to the reenforcement is 
 150 yards, and from the reen- 
 forcement to the supports a 
 maximum not exceeding 350 
 yards (metres). 
 
 DEPLOYMENT AS SKIEMISHEES. 
 
 The squad is always the unit 
 in the skirmish-line. 
 
 To deploy a section, its chief 
 commands : 
 
 
 i<- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r "■ 1 
 
 
 L ,. '4 
 
 On such squad deploy. 
 
 Plate 35. — The squad designated, conducted by its corporal 
 as chief, marches in the direction indicated, or upon the posi- 
 tion that is to be occupied ; the other squads, conducted by 
 their corporals, move obliquely, or by the flank, till opposite 
 their intervals, when they march forward. 
 
 Each squad detaches two videttes, who precede it to recon- 
 noitre the ground over which it is to move. The distance taken 
 between squads is such that when they are deployed there may 
 
294 
 
 INFANTKY TACTICS. 
 
 be a distance of 6 paces between files, and 3 between skir- 
 mishers. 
 
 Plate 35. 
 
 o o 
 
 Vedettes 
 
 Squads : at 
 Dejiloyinff^ IntcTvals 
 
 K 
 
 \. 
 
 { 
 
 J 
 
 Seeti 
 
 To deploy the squads, the chief of section commands : 
 As skirmishers. 
 
 Each squad deploys on the centre file which moves forward ; 
 the other files gain the interval of six paces by obliquing to the 
 right and left ; the rear-rank man of each file places himself 
 on the left of the front-rank man as soon as his interval is 
 gained. 
 
 A single squad habitually deploys on its centre file, but may 
 be deployed on the file on either flank. It may also be deployed 
 by the flank, ♦ 
 
 If, instead of deploying the section into squads with inter- 
 vals, the chief desires to deploy it at once as skirmishers, he 
 commands : 
 
 On such squad, as skirmishers. 
 
DEPLOYMENT OF A COMPANY AS SKIRMISHERS. 295 
 
 Each squad then deploys as soon as it moves opposite the 
 left or right of the squad which precedes it. 
 
 Whenever a company is to be deployed the captain instructs 
 the chiefs of platoon, and section, as to the object to be at- 
 tained, and details as far as practicable the movements to be 
 executed ; he then gives to the chiefs of platoon the order to 
 begin the movement. 
 
 Being in company column the chief of the leading platoon 
 causes the leading section to deploy in squads with intervals; 
 
 Plate 36. 
 
 A 
 
 30 
 
 150 
 
 Yds. 
 
 Yed&ttes 
 
 SJnrmjsAers 
 (One Section) 
 
 Ydi 
 
 n Beinforcemcnt 
 (One Section) 
 
 300 to 
 
 350Yds. 
 
 _, Support 
 
 One Platoon, 
 (Two Sections) 
 
296 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 the rear section follows the leading one at a distance of 150 
 yards ; the chief of the rear platoon posts his two sections not 
 exceeding 350 yards to the rear of the reenforcement of the 
 skirmishers. 
 
 Plate 36 represents the company in the normal order of 
 combat. 
 
 Great stress is laid in the tactics on keeping the squads and 
 sections as distinct from each other as possible, in order that 
 the men may be under the command of their proper chiefs. 
 
 The commands are general, and are given either by voice, or 
 are transmitted by men specially selected for the purpose. 
 
 These commands are such as : 
 
 " Such section as skirmishers, reenforcement, or support." 
 
 " Such a squad or such section prolong the skirmish-line to 
 the right." 
 
 " Such section reenforce the right of the line." 
 
 " Such section form an offensive or defensive crotchet on 
 the right or the left." 
 
 METHOD OF ATTACK. 
 
 The company being in the order of combat, with videttes in 
 front of each squad, advances till the fire of the enemy begins 
 to impede the march, when the squads deploy ; the videttes, 
 chosen from the best shots of the company, open fire, and the 
 advance is continued without further change till the opposition 
 of the enemy becomes too strong, when the skirmishers move 
 forward to the line of videttes and commence a slow and de- 
 liberate fire. The skirmishers now gain ground by rushing 
 forward from one cover to another, either all at once or by 
 successive squads, the fire of those in rear protecting those in 
 front. In each position the fire is resumed, and is discontin- 
 ued only to run forward to another position still nearer to the 
 enemy. 
 
 In the mean time the reenforcement and the supports follow 
 the movements of the skirmishers, concealing themselves as far 
 as possible, and profiting by every opportunity to get cover. 
 In advancing, they are permitted to move squad by squad, file 
 
DEPLOYMENT OF A BATTALION AS SKIKMISHEKS. 297 
 
 by file, or even man by man. They thus approach the skir- 
 mishers, who are strengthened by squads sent forward from the 
 reenforcement whenever it is necessary to increase the fire. 
 Should the enemy attempt to turn the flank of the skirmish- 
 line, the supports are employed to repel the attack. 
 
 If the fire of the enemy continue too strong for the skir- 
 mishers to advance, they are gradually strengthened by the re- 
 maining squads of the reenforcement, and even by squads from 
 the supports, which have now arrived at the position formerly 
 occupied by the reenforcement. The fire is now increased, but, 
 should the enemy still resist, the remainder of the supports ad- 
 vance in closed ranks, the skirmishers fix bayonets, the drums 
 beat the charge, and all make a rush for the enemy's position. 
 If unable to reach it at a single bound, the line continues to 
 approach by successive rushes made by the whole line, or by 
 fractions, until, overcome by its fire, the enemy retires before a 
 final charge with the bayonet. 
 
 METHOD OF DEFENSE. 
 
 On the defensive, the " order of combat " is substantially the 
 same as on the offensive, except that the distances from the skir- 
 mishers to the reenforcement and the supports are diminished. 
 
 In proportion as the enemy approaches and increases his 
 fire, the skirmish-line is strengthened by squads from the reen- 
 forcement. If the enemy threaten a flank, a portion of the sup- 
 ports is deployed to repel the attack. The supports can also be 
 employed, if the opportunity offers, to attack the enemy in 
 flank. 
 
 If the enemy continue to advance, the instant he moves to 
 the assault, after having opened a severe fire on the line, the sup- 
 ports move forward, join the skirmishers, and assist in repelling 
 the attack. 
 
 DEPLOYMENT OF A BATTALION AS SKIRMISHERS. 
 
 Plate 37. — A battalion of the first line, when fighting in 
 connection with battalions on its right and left, is required to 
 cover only its own front and one-half of the intervals between 
 
298 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 it and the adjoining battalions. This space for a battalion of 
 800 men is estimated at from 300 to 350 metres. 
 
 When approaching an enemy outside of his field of fire, a 
 battalion may march in any colnmn, or formation, prescribed in 
 the tactics ; but, when it arrives at 2,000 yards from his artillery, 
 it immediately forms in the " order of combat." The battalion 
 
 Plate 3T. 
 
 Viddtes. 
 
 0000.90000 
 
 O i 
 >l 
 §i 
 
 'Dooooooooootoooiocooooooooooood 
 
 Skirmishers. 
 
 Me - info rcemenis. 
 
 ?i 
 
 Supports. 
 
 Beserve.. 
 
 commander carefully instructs the captains as to the object to be 
 attacked, and the method of attack, and then detaches two com- 
 panies, which immediately take the order of combat prescribed 
 for a company. 
 
 The skirmishers deployed by these companies form the 
 
METHOD OF ATTACK WITH A BATTALION. 299 
 
 skirmishers of the battalion ; their reenforcements form the line 
 of reenforcements of the battalion, and their supports the line of 
 supports. 
 
 The reserve is composed of the remaining two companies, 
 or one-half of the battalion, and is kept united as long as possi- 
 ble at a distance of about 500 yards from the supports. In its 
 movements it takes any formation that may best enable it to 
 cover itself from the enemy's fire. 
 
 Plate 37 represents a battalion in the normal order of com- 
 bat. The distances given are the maximum. When the ground 
 is broken the distances may be diminished, but, in order that 
 the different fractions may not engage too precipitately in the 
 action, the minimum depth of the battalion should not be less 
 than 500 yards. 
 
 In the normal order of combat for the defensive, the dis- 
 tance from the skirmishers to the reenforcements is about 100 
 yards ; from reenforcements to the supports 100 yards, and 
 from the supports to the reserve 300 yards. 
 
 METHOD OF ATTACK WITH A BATTALION. 
 
 The object to be kept steadily in view with the breech-load- 
 ing tactics is to shake the morale of the enemy by securing in 
 every stage of the advance a preponderating fire, at the same 
 time advancing in such small fractions, up to the moment of the 
 final rush or assault, as to reduce the casualties to the lowest 
 limit. 
 
 To accomplish this object the battalion forms in the order 
 of combat at 2,000 yards from the enemy's artillery. In this 
 order, with videttes in front of the undeployed squads, the bat- 
 talion moves forward to within 800 yards of the enemy's skir- 
 mishers, when their fire becoming dangerous, the squads deploy 
 as skirmishers in rear of the videttes. 
 
 During the advance up to this moment the videttes, accom- 
 panied if necessary by an officer, designate the positions that 
 may be successively occupied to advantage ; the points from 
 which fire can be opened with success, and with least exposure ; 
 also the spaces over which the troops should move either with 
 
300 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 caution, or with rapidity. They approach under cover as near 
 as possible to the enemy's position, and at all times keep the 
 battalion commander informed of everything transpiring within 
 their view. 
 
 At 800 yards the videttes open fire, and at 600 yards are 
 reenforced by the skirmishers, when the whole line joins in the 
 action. At this stage only one section, or one-fourth of each 
 of the two leading companies, has become engaged. 
 
 The line now darts forward from cover to cover, the cap- 
 tains causing the sections as reenforcements to move forward 
 in squads or all at once, according to the necessity of the case. 
 If the entire section of either company move forward, the sup- 
 ports close to 150 yards, or one section may close to that dis- 
 tance while the remaining section holds itself farther to the 
 rear. 
 
 As the opposition of the enemy grows stronger, and the 
 necessity of increasing the fire before each succeeding rush be- 
 comes more apparent, the supports approach the line, availing 
 themselves of every cover. The supports are never sent for- 
 ward to the line, except either in squads or sections, in order 
 that each unit may be kept together as long as possible. The 
 units move up to the line either in open or close order, the lat- 
 ter order being preferable when intensity of fire is desired. 
 
 The two reserve companies conform to the movements of 
 the supports, gradually diminishing their distance, and finally 
 taking the positions of the supports, when the latter move for- 
 ward to replace the reenforcements. 
 
 Up to the time that the supports replace the reenforcements 
 only one-half of the line of combat of the leading companies 
 has become engaged, and not till it becomes impossible to make 
 any further advance is the remaining half of the line of com- 
 bat, composed of the two sections in support, ordered into 
 action. 
 
 All of the movements thus far described, by means of which 
 the battalion has advanced from 2,000 yards to within from 200 
 to 300 yards of the enemy, are simply considered as the ^^ prep- 
 aration for the attackr 
 
METHOD OF ATTACK WITH A BATTALION 301 
 
 The impulse necessary to induce the skirmishers to advance 
 from one position to another has been given by reenforcing 
 them successively by squads and sections, until all of the two 
 leading companies have become engaged. But the most diffi- 
 cult part of the work still remains ; the skirmishers have been 
 reenforced until they have attained nearly the strength of a line 
 in single rank, and yet the enemy resists, and covers every inch 
 of the intei'vening space with a deadly fire. 
 
 To overcome this resistance is the object of the attach, which 
 is preceded for a few moments by a rapid fire from the entire 
 line of combat. One company of the reserve then moves for- 
 ward in line (closed ranks), when, as it joins the skirmishers, 
 they fix bayonets, the drums beat the charge, the officers cheer 
 the men, and all, shouting " Forward ! " make a rush for the 
 enemy's works. 
 
 If the distance be too great to carry the position at a single 
 bound, the line of combat, reenforced by a company from the 
 reserve, gains ground by short rushes, keeping up a rapid fire, 
 until the line arrives within 50 or 100 paces of the enemy. 
 
 The second company of reserve, the last of the battalion, is 
 now ordered into the line, and the charge is executed as before. 
 
 The second company of the reserve is kept as long as possi- 
 ble in rear so as to be ready to repulse any counter-attack of the 
 enemy, also to form a support for the skirmishers should they 
 be driven back. In any event it is only ordered into action at 
 the last instant, when it is replaced by a company sent forward 
 from a battalion of the second line, which then assumes all of 
 the duties of a reserve company. 
 
 If the attack succeed, dispositions are at once made against 
 a counter-attack. To this end the line of combat pursues the 
 enemy to a favorable position from which it can open fire, 
 while the reserve companies are rallied, and in close order move 
 forward so as to again support the skirmishers. The cavalry 
 also at this juncture may be employed to pursue the enemy, or 
 by its presence prevent him from taking the offensive. 
 
 If the attack fail, or if the position be lost by a counter-at- 
 tack, the battalion of the second line already prepared deploys, 
 
302 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 and by its resistance gives the skirmishers time to rally and take 
 position in rear. The second battalion, now in front, may re- 
 sume the attack or remain on the defensive, according to the 
 state of the enemy. 
 
 DEFENSIVE. 
 
 The normal order of combat on the defensive is the same as 
 for the offensive, except that the distances between the skir- 
 mishers, reenforcements, and other portions, are diminished. 
 
 The defense is begun by the videttes, who resist as long as 
 possible without interfering with the tire of the skirmishers, 
 who, as the enemy approaches, are successively strengthened by 
 squads and sections from the reenforcements and the supports. 
 
 As on the offensive, the reserve replaces the supports, and 
 supports the reenforcements. The squads and sections are con- 
 ducted to the line at the points most threatened, and iire by 
 volley or by file at the subdivisions of the enemy in line or in 
 mass. 
 
 The movements are so combined as to resist each successive 
 advance of the enemy by an increasing fire. The reserve must 
 therefore join the skirmishers before the final assault ; and in 
 close order fires by volley or file, according to the enemy's 
 movements. 
 
 A passive defense is forbidden as being fatal to the morale 
 of the troops; battalion commanders are therefore directed, 
 whenever practicable, to take the offensive, and the most favor- 
 able moment is that just preceding the final attack. 
 
 The counter-attack is generally made by directing a subdi- 
 vision against an exposed flank of the enemy, while the line of 
 defense in his front rapidly increases its fire. If the coimter- 
 attack succeed, the whole line of defense charges with the 
 bayonet, and seeks to drive the enemy as far as possible. 
 
 If compelled to abandon the line of defense, the battalion 
 of the second line deploys, and, when the skirmishers of the 
 leading battalion have passed to the rear, endeavors to take the 
 offensive and regain the position that has been lost. 
 
 Whenever a battalion fights separately the general disposi- 
 
COMPANY COLUMN" IN ITALY, AUSTEIA, ETC. 303 
 
 tions are the same as when operating in connection with other 
 battalions, the principal difference being an increased front, and 
 the consequent necessity of so posting the fractions as to give 
 prompt assistance to the part of the skirmish-line most threat- 
 ened. 
 
 DISPOSITIONS AGAINST CAVALRY. 
 
 Any formation, with breech-loaders, against cavalry, is re- 
 garded as good, provided the men can bring their fire to bear at 
 good range. 
 
 The " column against cavalry " executed by each company 
 column is the most usual formation. 
 
 To form the column, the front section halts; the fourth 
 closes up to the third, halts, and faces to the rear ; the inter- 
 vals between the first and second, and second and third sections 
 are filled by files designated from the second and third sections, 
 which wheel to the right and left. 
 
 If the battalion be in battalion column, or line of company 
 columns, the companies, if there be time, are first posted in 
 echelon, and then form columns against cavalry. 
 
 A battalion in line, if surprised, breaks a crotchet to the 
 rear, and receives the charge in line. 
 
 COMPANY COLUMN IN ITALY, AUSTEIA, AND EUSSIA. 
 
 The company column in Italy, Austria, and Russia, as in 
 France, varies so slightly from the German, from which it was 
 derived, that its formation and use need not be described. 
 
 Plate 38 represents a regiment of the Russian Guard in the 
 order of combat at the manceuvres near Krasnoe Selo in Au- 
 gust, 1876. 
 
 The distances between the first battalion and the other bat- 
 talions, at first well regulated, gradually diminished until the 
 company columns, and even the battalion in mass, without de- 
 ploying, were found immediately in rear of the skirmish-line. 
 
 At the mano3uvres near Peterhoff, at one stage of the attack, 
 a portion of the offensive party was formed in four lines of bat- 
 tle ; the leading Ihie fired into the company columns, and col- 
 
304 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 umns in mass, of the retreating enemy at a distance of 50 
 yards. 
 
 Plate 88. 
 
 ^1^7:BATT4rT01^ASStaRMISnERS 
 
 yvima coMBmitESERVii 
 
 ZVBATTALtOTr 
 
 IK 
 
 4t€0MR COLUMNS 
 
 3?BATTALI0N 
 
 IN 
 
 *t COMB COLUWfS 
 
 « "V BATTALION IN 
 CLOSE COLVMN OF COMPANIES 
 
 Plate 39. 
 
 Plate 39 represents tlie formation of a regiment of the line 
 
EUSSIAN SKIRMISHING FORMATIONS. 305 
 
 of three battalions, of five companies each, as seen at the Camp 
 of Instruction at Moscow in 18T6. The three battalions are in 
 line, each covered by its fifth company as skirmishers. 
 
 Plate 40. 
 
 nafiOQeoo-»* 
 
 Plate 40 shows the regiment in readiness to fire, the skir- 
 mishers having fallen back to the intervals between battalions. 
 
 Plate 41. 
 
 ITSAFT? 2PSAT7^ SFMiTTTT 
 
 Plate -il shows the fifth company of each battalion as skir- 
 
 Plate 42. 
 
 ^^.BATTAIIQN Z^JCATTAU^OJ^ J^JtATTOLIOfr 
 
 mishers ; the first and fourth in support, in line ; the second 
 and third in company column of two platoons each. 
 
 20 
 
306 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 Plate 42 represents the skirmishers reenforced by the ad- 
 vance of the first and fourth companies. 
 
 Plate 43. 
 
 Plate 43 represents the skirmishers further reenforced by 
 the second and third companies in company column, which on 
 arriving on the line close up in four ranks ; the first and sec- 
 ond ranks fire kneeling, the third and fourth standing. 
 
 ENGLISH SKIKMISHING. 
 
 By the English tactics, skirmishers, in the School of the 
 Battalion, may be deployed either from column, or from 
 line. 
 
 The columns principally used are : 
 
 The " quarter column," or column of companies foimed by 
 ployment, or by wheeling and closing in mass. 
 
 The " half-battalion column," formed by ploying the com- 
 panies of each wing in mass in rear of either flank com- 
 pany. 
 
 The " double column," formed by ploying the companies m 
 rear of the two centre companies. 
 
 The principles of the deployment are illustrated in the fol- 
 lowing plates : 
 
 Plate 44 represents the deployment of a battalion of ten 
 companies from " quarter column." The first company deploys 
 from its centre ; the second prolongs the line to the right ; the 
 third to the left; the fourth, fifth, and sixth companies are 
 posted as supports ; the remaining four companies, in column, 
 are held in reserve. 
 
 Plate 45 represents the deployment of a battalion of six com- 
 panies from " quarter column." The first company deploys to 
 the right ; the second prolongs the line to the right ; the third 
 and fourth act as supports ; while the fifth and sixth, in column, 
 act as reserve. 
 
ENGLISH SKIRMISHING. 
 
 307 
 
 Plate 44. 
 
 aooooo 
 ■\ 6 
 
 Ci] 
 
 
 \^A. 
 
 /^' 
 
 ^ 
 
 / s. 
 
 /T 
 
 // 
 
 ri ! " ' 
 
 1. 
 
 Plate 45. 
 
 300oooOOOoggooo„oOO.OaooooO°ooo99oo oO°oooooo^ 
 
 ^ t ^ ^ 
 
 4 .i. 
 
 
 / 4 
 
 z-y 
 
 
 
308 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 Plate 46 represents the deployment of a battalion of eight 
 companies from line. The second company deploys to the 
 
 Plate 46. 
 
 // L'W ^. 
 
 
 
 ^ 7 
 
 
 Plate 47. 
 
 00 (,oO°°°'.°°oooo"'°°9.0oo.,o-oooQoaOOoc 
 
 6 ti g ^ ^ 
 
 / 
 
 ^^ 
 
 _* / 
 
 j M 
 ///■ 
 
 B_ &\ ^V -rv-'a '-^ / r 
 
 right ; the first prolongs the line to the right ; the third and 
 fourth are posted in support ; the remaining companies ploy 
 
ENGLISH SKIRMISHING. 
 
 309 
 
 into a half-battalion column, in rear of the fifth, and are con- 
 ducted in column to their place in reserve. 
 
 Plate 47 represents the deployment of a battalion of six com- 
 panies from line. The first company deploys to the right ; the 
 second prolongs the line to the left ; the third and fourth move 
 
 Plate 48. 
 
 _ ABOUT 
 
 4joa'FA.cSs ' 
 
 30,0 00000000000000000000000000000 
 
 1 o o.oBo o oo.o"o:oo.o.oo o o o o o o o o a o'p'Aoo o» 
 
 lt94j 
 
 i 
 
 MAiKBonr 
 
 "wttb: cozobs. 
 
 N9I 
 
 
 to their positions in support ; the fifth and sixth, in column, act 
 as reserve. 
 
 Plate 48 represents a battalion of eight companies in fight- 
 ing formation. 
 
 Plates 49, 50, and 51, represent the successive changes of 
 formation while advancing to a position within 150 or 200 
 yards of the enemy. The final attack is made by the advance 
 of the entire battalion in one general line. 
 
 Plate 52 represents the order of combat of a division of in- 
 fantry, composed of two brigades of three battalions each, at the 
 Camp of Instruction at Delhi, India, in 1876. 
 
310 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 In the formation, the leading battalion of each brigade, 
 which constitutes the line of combat, is arranged in three lines. 
 
 OO^OOOooOOOooocoOl 
 
 N?3. 
 
 ^^ o 
 
 N?-l: 
 
 Plate 49. 
 
 A 
 
 ABOVT 
 '400PACES'.' 
 
 g 
 
 « N?l. 
 
 01 
 
 lis, 
 
 N?2. 
 
 JJ 
 
 V __ 
 
 mmnboik: 
 
 Plate 50. 
 
 ABOUT 
 
 4J6dpAcEs'.' 
 
 The first and second lines are each formed by two companies. 
 
ENGLISH SKIEMISHING. 
 
 311 
 
 deployed as skirmishers, with a distance between them of 200 
 yards. The third Hne, which constitutes the supports, is formed 
 
 Plate 52. 
 
 2?jsrtgad:e:. 
 
 l'.'SJ!I&AZ>E. 
 
 ooP99000QQQoao°ooooaoaooooooooo<'o.ooo<}OOoaaQooooocoOQo 
 2 CCaOiAArii^S S C02itPAiaE,$r. 
 
 Ooo oDOOQoaooooooooooooooooooooOOooQO oaoocioc>ooooQoooOQr 
 SCOMmNIES. 2COMFiAJVIE'S. 
 
 itCOMP-AN^LPS. 
 
 (t COMRAIVIES. 
 
 -2?SATTALI0N. 
 
 -.ZVJMrTMJaN', 
 
 .,a?SATJ^LI02^. 
 
 '.S^SATTALmX 
 
 by the four remaining companies of the battalion, which are 
 posted in line with intervals, at a distance of about 200 yards 
 from the second line. 
 
312 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 The second and third battalions are formed in column of 
 double companies, the distances between them and the line of 
 combat varying with the nature of the ground. 
 
 Plate 53 represents the formation of a brigade for an attack 
 on the villages of Badlee Serai and Azadpore during the ma- 
 noeuvres near Delhi in 1876. 
 
 The formation consisted of two heavy lines of skirmishers, 
 supported by two battalions in line of battle. 
 
 In the English system, as in the German, ground is gained 
 
 Plate 53. 
 
 O O o 
 
 by a series of rushes, usually preceded by reenforcing the skir- 
 mish-line and increasing the fire. 
 
 The disposition of the supports shows that quarter, half, or 
 full companies can be sent to a flank, or to any part of the line, 
 while the arrangement of the rear battalions in line, and double 
 column of companies ready for deployment, shows that the de- 
 ployed line is still adhered to as the best and safest formation 
 to stem retreat when the skirmishers are forced back. 
 
 Our own system of skirmishing, like the English, is adapted 
 to a battalion of ten companies. The skirmishers may be de- 
 ployed both from line and from column, and are posted in one 
 or two lines, with supports in one or in two lines in the rear. 
 
 The unit of " four" corresponds with the " section " of the 
 German, and " squad " of the French tactics. 
 
GENERAL REMARKS ON SKIRMISHING. 
 
 313 
 
 The system also provides a single rank, -which can be used 
 offensively or defensively, and also a deployment by numbers, 
 whereby, if necessary, eight successive lines of skirmishers may 
 be advanced from a battalion in line, thus enabling the entire 
 battalion to advance in skirmishing order. 
 
 Three of these lines of skirmishers, and even four, may ad- 
 vance, leaving the battalion still in line ready to support the 
 skirmishers if successful, or to receive them if repulsed. 
 
 Plate 54 illustrates this method of deployment : 
 
 21 
 
 3\ 
 I I 
 
 4tSJ8i 
 
 ■.mwAW,K;yMiU'.!,\K-A',!!T 
 
 Plate 54. 
 
 ^ H ^ B 
 
 i32J 
 
 ■■•vv .\:.v V"\ ^ i-vrx ^^'■'>iv^\ iwnwm 
 
 VM I I 1^^ I I VA'x I \ 1 ^;;. I I v;:\ i \ b,i i i v.,\ i i i^,i i I K>1 I I J 
 
 GENEKAL KEMAJRKS ON THE OPEN OEDEE OF FIGHTING. 
 
 If the method of fighting in open order be cursorily exam- 
 ined, it will be observed that the real attack is only made after 
 the skirmishers have been reenforced to such a degree as to 
 form a line of battle. 
 
 It will be further observed that, as the company column is 
 generally disintegrated on arriving within 600 yards of the ene- 
 my, it is in reality less an essential feature of the open order, 
 than a necessity resulting from the organization of large com- 
 panies, the subdivision of which for manoeuvres is indispensa- 
 
314 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 ble. Once divided into two, or four divisions or sections, the 
 company column follows naturally, the same as the battalion in 
 mass in the evolutions of a brigade. 
 
 With a battalion of eight or ten companies, subdivisions may 
 be dispensed wnth, and, so long as this organization is retained 
 
 Plate nn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i — 
 
 JOU 
 
 
 in England and America, the company column will not there- 
 fore become a necessity ; but, should we adopt the regimental 
 system of three battalions, of four companies each, all of the 
 advantages claimed for the company column can be secured by 
 adopting the double column of fours for each company. 
 
 This formation, already employed in our " Cavalry Tactics," 
 par. 839, is equally applicable to large and small companies ; is 
 
 Plate 56. 
 
 OOOCOOO OO 00 
 
 00000 OOO OO oooooo o 
 
 ■'^v 
 
 ..-V. 
 
 better adapted to our topography than the company column, and 
 is also susceptible of more simple and varied application. 
 
 Plate 55 represents a battalion of four companies formed in 
 line of double columns. 
 
 Plate 56 represents a battalion with two lines of skirmishers 
 deployed by numbers ; the lines A, B, and (7, show the posi- 
 
GENERAL EEMARKS ON" SKIRMISHING. 315 
 
 tions that may be occupied by a company, according to its 
 deployment from the double column to the front, to and on the 
 right or to and on the left. 
 
 The theoretical use of the company column has been suffi- 
 ciently described ; but how far it will be modified by future 
 wars has yet to be determined. It is possible that for battalions 
 of the first line on the offensive it may supersede the line of 
 battle, but on the defensive, particularly in a country like ours, 
 where rifle-pits can be constructed in a few minutes, its use in 
 preference to a deployed line would invite disaster. 
 
 In all the later campaigns of the war the history of our tac- 
 tical movements could be frequently traced by the lines of aban- 
 doned trenches, which were often provided with abatis and head- 
 logs, underneath which were horizontal loop-holes for musketry. 
 A line, even a single rank, unshaken by fire while moving into 
 position, could calmly await behind them the approach of the 
 enemy's skirmishers, and bid defiance to the successive fractions 
 sent to their support. 
 
 In such cases, the general system adopted was to press up 
 the skirmishers toward the enemy's works, seek a position for 
 fresh troops so near that an attack would give promise of suc- 
 cess, and then charge in one or more lines. 
 
 By the German system the charge is practically made in 
 line ; only, however, after the courage of the men has been grad- 
 ually exhausted by repeated rushes, and exposure to the ene- 
 my's fire. 
 
 The feature of the open order of fighting which should 
 engage our most serious attention is the subdivision of the bat- 
 talions and companies into constituent parts, or fractions, each 
 one of which must have its appropriate commander. 
 
 In the new system the major assumes the functions of a 
 brigade commander ; a captain requires the knowledge and skill 
 of a colonel ; a lieutenant performs the duty of a captain ; a 
 sergeant takes the place of a lieutenant, and a corporal, no lon- 
 ger required to simply fire his musket, takes command of a 
 squad or section. 
 
 To all of these grades latitude is given in the management 
 
316 INFANTRY TACTICS. 
 
 of their commands imder fire, and hence an error of judgment 
 in any one may initiate a movement that may lose a battle. 
 
 In Europe the success of the company column is acknowl- 
 edged to depend on good captains, and, that they may be sup- 
 ported throughout, the Governments not only thoroughly train 
 the commanders of each squad, but, having trained them, they 
 offer to their non-commissioned officers special inducements to 
 remain in the service. 
 
 The fact that the Continental powers find it necessary to 
 train each officer, and non-commissioned officer, for his special 
 duty, should impress us with the importance of providing in 
 time of war at least one trained officer to command every com- 
 pany and battalion. 
 
CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The true object to be kept in view in studying European 
 military organization is to present those features which are 
 common to all armies, and to indicate those which we should 
 adopt as indispensable to the vigorous, successful, and himiane 
 prosecution of our future wars. 
 
 These features, or general principles, may be briefly stated 
 en resume as follows : 
 
 1. To enable a nation to put forth, in the hour of danger, 
 its greatest military strength, every citizen, in consideration of 
 the protection extended to his life and property, is held to owe 
 military service to his government. 
 
 2. Every nation maintains a regular army, which constitutes 
 the chief bulwark in case of invasion, and almost the sole in- 
 strument for waging wars of aggression. 
 
 3. For the purpose of equalizing the burdens of military 
 service, and of facilitating the rapid equipment and mobiliza- 
 tion of troops, each country is divided into military districts, to 
 which are permanently assigned army corps, divisions, brigades, 
 regiments, and battalions, which draw from the districts all of 
 their recruits, both in peace and in war. 
 
 4. The army is maintained on two distinct footings — one of 
 peace, the other of war. 
 
 5. The relative size of the army, on the peace and war foot- 
 ings, is determined by political considerations, and the financial 
 
318 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 resources of tlie country. As a rule, the army on the peace- 
 footing is about one-half as large as on the war-footing. 
 
 6. The army on the peace-footing is but a school of training 
 to prepare officers and men for efficient service in time of war. 
 
 T. The term of military service is so divided that those men 
 who happen to be drafted shall serve from three to four years 
 with the colors ; then pass into reserve from four to five years 
 — subject at any moment to be recalled to the colors ; then into 
 an army of the second line, called " Landwehr," " militia mo- 
 bile," or " army territoriale ; " and, lastly, into a body as yet 
 unorganized, termed "Landsturm," "militia territoriale," or 
 " reserve of the army territoriale." The total length of mili- 
 tary service varies in diiferent countries from twelve to twenty 
 years, and usually begins with the twenty-first year of age. 
 
 8. By requiring men, after serving from three to four years 
 with the colors, to remain from four to five years subject to re- 
 call to the ranks, the Government forms a reserve of trained 
 soldiers, by means of which it can raise the army immediately 
 to the war-footing, and still have a supply of disciplined men 
 to fill the vacancies occasioned by battle and disease. 
 
 9. In addition to the reserve of trained soldiers, who may 
 not be able to fill all the vacancies occasioned by a prolonged 
 war, there is maintained, as in Germany, and Italy, a second 
 body of men, termed the " ersatz reserve," whose training has 
 been limited to two or more months. 
 
 10. Officers of reserve, or complement, are provided in time 
 of peace, who, in time of war, join the army, and serve to raise 
 the nmnber of officers to the war standard. 
 
 11. To support the regular army, and, when necessary, to 
 reenforce it, the Landwehr, composed of troops of all arms, is 
 organized into an army of the second line. This army is largely 
 made up of soldiers who have previously been trained with the 
 colors, and is officered by former officers of the army, or by 
 officers specially educated for their position. 
 
 12. Every regiment of infantry, artillery, cavalry, and en- 
 gineers, has a depot, which, in time of war, receives, drills, and 
 forwards to the regiment, the men called in from the reserve. 
 
CONCLUSIONS. 319 
 
 13. The time required to make an efficient cavalry-man is so 
 great that the cavalry is maintained continually on the war- 
 footing. 
 
 14. No officers are commissioned in the army without either 
 graduating at a military school, or by promotion from the 
 ranks, after pursuing a professional course of study, followed by 
 a qualifying examination. 
 
 15. A War Academy is specially created to educate officers 
 in the art of war, and to prepare them for the staff, and to hold 
 high command. 
 
 16. The general staff, corresponding to our Adjutant- 
 General's Department, which demands the highest profes- 
 sional training, and the widest experience, of any staff depart- 
 ment in the army, is organized in such a manner that the 
 officers constantly pass from the line to the staff, and the 
 reverse. They thus keep in sympathy with the troops, know 
 their wants and fighting qualities, and, furthermore, know 
 how to manoeuvre them in nearly every emergency that may 
 arise. 
 
 17. To enable the Government to profit by the best talent in 
 the army, rapid promotion, either by entering the staff corps or 
 by selection, is provided for all officers who manifest decided 
 zeal and professional ability. 
 
 18. To enable the Government to know the qualifications of 
 its officers, either annual or biennial reports are required from 
 commanding officers, showing the zeal, aptitude, special qualifi- 
 cations, and personal character, of every subordinate under their 
 command. These reports are not secret or confidential. On the 
 contrary, when a commanding officer reports adversely upon an 
 officer, the latter is notified, in order that he may amend his 
 conduct. In Austria the officer has a right, and in every other 
 country should have the right, to know what his record is at 
 the War Department. 
 
 19. Officers are maintained for the sole benefit of the Gov- 
 ernment. If, therefore, an officer is ignorant or incompetent, 
 the Government, by means of personal reports, and special ex- 
 aminations, can stop his promotion, and thus prevent injury to 
 
320 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 the service, which directly increases with the size of his com- 
 mand. 
 
 20. To keep regiments, batteries, and squadrons, up to their 
 fighting strength, detached service is avoided by setting aside in 
 each organization the number of non-combatants known to be 
 necessary, such as artificers, teamsters, etc., who are never count- 
 ed in the fighting strength. The evil of detached service is 
 further avoided by the complete organization, on an indepen- 
 dent footing, of the difierent stafi" departments, and administra- 
 tive services, and especially by separate organization of artillery 
 and general military trains. 
 
 21. The morale of troops in the field is maintained by con- 
 stantly filling the vacancies occasioned by death and disease, 
 partly by men who have formerly served with the colors, and 
 partly by recruits who have had more or less military instruc- 
 tion at depots, and camps of instruction. 
 
 22. The Government increases its chances of success, and 
 promotes economy, by keeping the battalions in the field up to 
 their war strength. The old soldiers teach the new, while offi- 
 cers already accustomed to battle know how to lead their troops 
 into action with the least loss of life, and the best assurance of 
 victory. 
 
 23. Only when the troops of the regular army become de- 
 pleted, or outnumbered, does the Government call out the 
 army of the second line, which, with special foresight, has been 
 organized, and is led to battle by officers, many of whom have 
 had service in the regular army, in both peace and war. 
 
 24. Discipline is principally maintained by granting to com- 
 manding officers of every grade, and even to non-commissioned 
 officers, the power to inflict, within certain limits, summary 
 punishment for all minor offenses. 
 
 As the reward of the application of these principles, Prus- 
 sia, in 1866, was enabled to dictate terms of peace to Austria, 
 after a short campaign of six weeks ; while, in 1870, between the 
 15th of July and the 1st of September, Germany mobilized her 
 forces, crossed the frontier, overwhelmed a great army, forced it 
 to seek the shelter of its fortresses, securely invested it, captured 
 
CONCLUSIONS. 321 
 
 an Emperor, at the head of a relieving army, and destroyed 
 what was supposed to be the strongest military empire on the 
 globe. 
 
 In the Anstro- Prussian War, the Prussian loss in killed, and 
 died of wounds and of disease, was 10,8T7 ; in the Franco-Ger- 
 man War, the total German losses were 40,881, 
 
 If we now compare our military policy during the first cen- 
 tury of the Republic with the present military policy of Euro- 
 pean nations, we shall find that the difference lies principally in 
 this — that, while they prosecute their wars exclusively with 
 trained armies, completely organized in all of their parts, and 
 led by officers specially educated, we have begun, and have 
 prosecuted, most of our wars with raw troops, whose officers 
 have had to be educated in the expensive school of war. As 
 the result of this policy, the duration of our wars has been as 
 follows : 
 
 War of the Revolution ... 7 years. 
 
 War of 1812 2^ " 
 
 War with Mexico .... 2 " 
 
 War of the Rebellion . . . 4 " 
 
 The total number of men called out in these different wars 
 was as follows : 
 
 War of the Eevolution. 
 
 Continentals 231,771 
 
 Militia 164,087 
 
 Total .... 395,868 
 
 War of 18m. 
 
 Regulars ...... 38,186 
 
 Militia 458,463 
 
 Volunteers . . . • 10,110 
 
 Rangers 3,049 
 
 Total .... 509,808 
 
 21 
 
322 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 War with Mexico. 
 
 Regulars 26,922 
 
 Yohmteers 73,532 
 
 Total .... 100,454 
 
 War of the Rehellion. 
 
 Eegulars 46,679 
 
 Volunteers and militia . . . 2,637,080 
 
 Total .... 2,683,759 
 
 The figures for the Revolution are taken from the report of 
 the Secretary of War, made to Congress in 1790, in which, for 
 want of accurate returns, the estimate for the militia is con- 
 jectural. 
 
 The figures for the War of 1812 are taken from the records 
 of the Third Auditor's office, which show that the total number 
 of militia, volunteers, and rangers, who were regularly discharged 
 amounted to 471,622. The strength of the regular army is taken 
 from the return for September, 1814, when it numbered 38,186, 
 and, therefore, falls below the total number called out. 
 
 The figures for the war with Mexico were furnished by the 
 adjutant-general to Congress. 
 
 Those for the Rebellion are taken from the report of the 
 provost-marshal-general for 1865. According to the figures 
 of the adjutant-general, the number of volunteers of all classes 
 who enlisted between April 12, 1861, and April 19, 1865, and 
 were regularly discharged, was 2,234,421, their average service 
 being twenty-eight and seven-tenths months. 
 
 In the War of the Rebellion, our losses in killed, and died 
 of wounds and disease, according to the report of the surgeon- 
 general, were 304,369. The losses of the Confederates, as 
 nearly as can be determined, were between 200,000 and 250,000 
 men, making the total number of citizens who perished in the 
 war exceed half a million. 
 
 In order to diminish the disparity in the loss of life, due to 
 
CONCLUSIONS. 323 
 
 the difference between our military policy and the military policy 
 of Europe, two plans suggest themselves, either of which, if ma- 
 tured in time of peace, and adhered to in time of war, will enable 
 us to prosecute our future campaigns with economy and dispatch. 
 
 The first plan is to so organize, localize, and nationalize the 
 regular army that, by the mere process of filling its cadres, it 
 may be expanded to such proportions as to enable it, without 
 other aid, to bring our wars to a speedy conclusion. 
 
 The second plan is to prosecute our future wars with vol- 
 unteer infantry, supported by the regular artillery and cavalry, 
 apportioning the ofiicers of the regular army among the volun- 
 teers in such a manner that all of the staff departments, and, if 
 possible, all of the companies, battalions, brigades, and higher 
 organizations, shall be trained and commanded by officers of 
 military education and experience. 
 
 Both of these plans, to be efficacious, must rest on the same 
 foundation, viz. : 
 
 1. The declaration, that every able-bodied male citizen, be- 
 tween certain ages, owes his country military service — a prin- 
 ciple thoroughly republican in its nature, as it classifies in the 
 same category, and exposes to the same hardships, the rich and 
 the poor, the professional and non-professional, the skilled and 
 unskilled, the educated and uneducated. 
 
 2. The division of the country into military districts and 
 sub-districts, apportioning to them certain military organiza- 
 tions, whose cadres shall be recruited within the limits assigned. 
 
 3. The abandonment by the Government of all payment of 
 bounties, relying upon its right to draft men into the service 
 whenever a district fails to furnish its quota. 
 
 4. The assumption by the Government of the recruitment 
 of its armies through the medium of the Provost-Marshal-Gen- 
 eral's Department, as was done by both Governments toward 
 the close of the late war. 
 
 5. The inauguration of all of the machinery for enrolling 
 and drafting, the moment war is declared. 
 
 6. The organization of regiments in all arms of service, as 
 in Europe, with depots representing them in the districts to 
 
324 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 which they belong, upon which depots requisitions shall be 
 made by regimental commanders whenever vacancies are to be 
 filled. It should be the duty of each depot to receive, arm, 
 equip, and train all the recruits who volunteer, or are drafted, 
 and to forward them to their regiments ; also, whenever recruits 
 are wanted, or men desert, to notify the provost-marshal of the 
 district that the quota is deficient, in order that the number 
 may be immediately supplied by volunteering, or drafting. 
 
 7. All commissions to be issued by the President, appor- 
 tioning the extra appointments among the States, or military 
 districts, according to the number of troops furnished. 
 
 8. All commissions in the expanded organization to be pro- 
 visional for the war ; one-third of the promotions to be reserved 
 for distinguished skill and gallantry in battle, and to be made 
 only on the recommendation of military commanders in the 
 field, or upon the report of boards specially appointed to inves- 
 tigate the act of skill, or gallantry. 
 
 9. Promotion of all ofiicers, after expansion, to be made on 
 two lists — one being that of the regular arm of service, or staff 
 department, to which the ofiicer belongs ; the second being the 
 provisional list in the arm of service to which he is apportioned. 
 Each ofiicer, on the contraction of the army, to return to duty 
 with the rank attained in the regular list. One-third of the 
 promotions in the regular list to be regarded as original vacan- 
 cies, to be filled by selection from the provisional list, no ofiicer 
 on the regular list being advanced more than one grade at a 
 time ; all promotions to the grade of second-lieutenant in the 
 regular list to be made from cadets graduating from the Mili- 
 tary Academy, and from lieutenants on the provisional list. 
 
 JSTeither of the above plans can be successfully executed, nor 
 can any other plan be devised for prosecuting our wars with 
 economy of life and treasure, without special legislation looking 
 to the increased efiiciency, and radical reorganization of the 
 army. 
 
 THE STAFF. 
 
 The chief object to be kept in view in the proposed reor- 
 ganization is that the army in time of peace shall be simply a 
 
THE STAFF. 325 
 
 training-school to prepare officers for staff duty, and to hold 
 high command ; and to this end it is indispensable that an in- 
 terchangeable relation be established between the staff and tlie 
 line. 
 
 The permanent officers of the different staff departments 
 should be limited to the grades of major and above, all of the 
 captains and lieutenants being so many supernumerary officers 
 of the line, detailed from two to four years, with a legal pro- 
 vision that, after each detail, the officer serve with the troops, 
 either in his own or another arm of service, for a period at 
 least equal to one-half of the time he was detached. 
 
 To insure the success of the principle of detail, the first con- 
 dition must be that the officers needed for staff duty shall he 
 sti,pernumera7'y, or in excess of the number required to fill all 
 the regiments of the line to their complement. It was in con- 
 sequence of the effort to economize in the staff at the expense 
 of the line, that the otherwise excellent law of 1821 proved a 
 failure. 
 
 It will be remembered that by this law the Ordnance De- 
 partment was merged with the Artillery, and made to consist 
 of four supernumerary captains, and such other officers as might 
 be necessary, who were to be detached from the artiller3% 
 
 In the Quartermaster's Department, the ten assistant quar- 
 termasters were to be detailed from the line, wath an extra com- 
 pensation of twenty dollars per month. In the Commissary 
 Department, the chief was the only permanent officer ; the 
 assistant commissaries, limited to fifty, were all officers of the 
 line, who were given an extra compensation, varying from ten 
 to twenty dollars per month. The officers detailed in the 
 Quartermaster's and Commissary Departments were required 
 to do duty, when necessary, in both departments. 
 
 The number of vacancies made in the line by the execution 
 of the law (as many as thirty officers of artillery being required 
 in the Ordnance Department) was alone sufficient to insure a 
 fatal result. All of the reports from the chiefs of staff de- 
 partments, in addition to urging a permanent organization, 
 dwelt upon the evils of detached service. The absence, too, 
 
326 CONCLUSION'S. 
 
 of so many officers from tlieir regiments, caused dissatisfaction 
 in the line, and as companies were sometimes entirely stripped 
 of their officers, repeated applications had to be made for their 
 return to duty. This produced a reaction in favor of perma- 
 nent staff corps, and accordingly the Ordnance Department was 
 reestablished in 1832, and the Quartermaster's Department in 
 1838. The change in the two departments was coincident with 
 the Black-Hawk and Florida Wars, the latter of which was so 
 destructive of life as to require that every officer on staff duty, 
 who could be spared, be returned to his regiment. In the 
 Commissary Department the principle of detail was continued 
 till 1866. 
 
 The failure of the law of 1821, it will be perceived, was 
 partly due to the want of a certain number of permanent 
 officers in each staff corps, but more especially to that pro- 
 vision by which the staff could only be made efficient at the 
 expense of the line. 
 
 Should we decide to reorganize our staff departments so 
 that each shall be composed partly of permanent officers, and 
 partly of supernumerary officers of the line, detailed for a 
 term of years, we may assure ourselves that we are making no 
 rash experiment by recalling the facts previously stated, viz. : 
 That in India all of the officers in the Adjutant-General's De- 
 partment, Quartermaster-General's Department, Ordnance De- 
 partment, all brigade majors, fort adjutants, personal staff 
 officers, and garrison instructors, are detailed for a period 
 usually limited to five years ; that in England all officers in 
 the Adjutant-General's Department and Quartermaster-Gen- 
 eral's Department are detailed for the same period ; that in 
 Austria all of the officers of the Adjutant-General's Depart- 
 ment belong to the line of the army in which they receive 
 their promotion ; and that in Italy, Germany, and Russia, no 
 officer, even after receiving a permanent appointment in the 
 staff, is exempt from service with the troops. 
 
 To the War Academy, and to the principle of requiring 
 every officer of the staff to serve with troops in the line, before 
 each following promotion, is ascribed the brilliant success 
 
ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. 327 
 
 acliieved by the German staff in the Austro-Prussian, and 
 Franco-German Wars. 
 
 PERSONAL EEPOETS. 
 
 To secure tlie success of the principle of staff" detail, the 
 selection of officers for staff duty, like the promotions by selec- 
 tion in foreign services, should be based upon a system of 
 personal reports. 
 
 These reports should be made annually by post commanders, 
 and should set forth in full the military and moral character of 
 their officers, stating their zeal and aptitude for the profession, 
 attention to duty, and qualifications for any special employment. 
 
 In the navy, the system of personal reports is applied with 
 admirable success. This enables the department to know the 
 character and qualifications of its officers, and furnishes a basis 
 for the selection of officers for all of the varied and important 
 duties that can be committed to their charge. 
 
 But in the army no such system exists, and, as a consequence, 
 officers who evade the performance of duty, and are alike igno- 
 rant of tactics and regulations, are too frequently detailed on 
 detached service, while the officer who faithfully performs his 
 duty may be left to perpetual banishment on the frontier. 
 
 These personal reports should be forwarded through regi- 
 mental and department commanders for indorsement, and 
 transmitted to a bureau in the office of the General of the 
 Army, where, being systematized and arranged, the Govern- 
 ment could ascertain the qualifications of every officer in the 
 service. 
 
 By making a rule that no officer shall be detailed from 
 the troops whose conduct has been unsatisfactory to his com- 
 manders, the principle of detail would effect a revolution in the 
 army, and would offer a career which every officer of merit 
 could pursue with zeal and ambition. 
 
 adjutant-geneeal's department. 
 
 The chief object of the Adjutant-General's Department, as 
 administered in Europe, is to aid in the control and direction 
 
328 COXCLUSIOI^S. 
 
 of armies ; and so important is this mission, as we have already- 
 seen, that every great nation has established a War Academy 
 for the education of its generals, and the instruction of the staff 
 officers, who are to advise and assist them. 
 
 The corner-stone of the European staff system is the War 
 Academy, and next in importance is the constant interchange 
 between the staff and the line. 
 
 This interchange enlarges the experience of staff officers, 
 keeps them in sympathy with the troops, enables them to know 
 their wants, to be familiar with their discipline, to know the 
 reliance that can be placed upon them for attack and defense, 
 and finally enables them, by occupying successive grades in the 
 line, to prepare themselves for the high commands, which are 
 the certain rewards of superior skill and ability. 
 
 The War Academy, and the staff and the line, thus consti- 
 tute the school of instruction for all of the great commanders 
 of Europe, no less than for the staff officers whose province it 
 is to assist them. 
 
 To qualify staff officers for this trust, their employment, in 
 time of peace, is made to conform as nearly as possible to their 
 occupation in war. The adjutant-general of a division, instead 
 of engrossing himself with the routine of papers, devotes his 
 time to studying strategy, grand tactics, military history^, and 
 the movements of armies. 
 
 The chief of staff of a corps necessarily devotes some of his 
 time during peace to the papers and business he must submit 
 to his general ; but, in time of war, all work in the office is 
 devolved upon adjutants, and aides-de-camp, who are detailed 
 from the line, while the chief of staff occupies himself in the 
 management and direction of the troops, in the study of maps, 
 and in the collection of such military^, geographical, and sta- 
 tistical information as may be useful to his commander. In 
 battle, he sends a staff officer to each division commander, ac- 
 companied by orderlies, who bring back reports of the progress 
 of the fighting. 
 
 The aim of the staff officer, in peace and in Avar, is to qualify 
 himself for the discharge of his duty in battle. And, with this 
 
ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. 329 
 
 idea paramount in liis mind, he looks upon the drudgery of 
 official routine with little less than contempt. 
 
 The strength of this feeling in the German army is forcibly 
 illustrated by the remark of an officer, greatly distinguished as 
 the chief of staff of a coi'ps in the battles around Metz, who, on 
 being asked by me if, during the war, he attended to the paper- 
 work of his office, made the reply, " No ! I preferred to sleep." 
 In explanation, he added that he would not suffer himself to 
 become entangled in work which inferior officers could perform 
 equally well, lest he might neglect the higher mission of assist- 
 ing and directing the movements of troops. 
 
 This theory of the true employment of a staff officer finds 
 its origin at Berlin, where the chief of staff of the army, as- 
 sisted by able subordinates, elaborates the orders for mobiliza- 
 tion and concentration, and prepares plans of campaign, which, 
 carried speedily into execution, have won for his Government 
 imperishable renown. 
 
 That these plans of campaign were based on no guess-M'ork 
 we have ample proof in the fact that the able officer in charge 
 of the section for collecting military statistics in reference to 
 France, reported 250,000 men as the largest force she could 
 assemble on her frontier within two weeks after a declaration 
 of war. 
 
 The exactness of this estimate, confirmed by subsequent 
 events, enabled the famous chief of staff. General von Moltke, 
 to make all of his preparations ; and, when war was declared, 
 having no further duties at Berlin, he distributed the officers 
 of the general staff to the various armies, when all locked up 
 their desks, and repaired to the field, to take part in the mili- 
 tary achievements which astonished the world. 
 
 To make possible such results we must abandon our system, 
 and consolidating the Adjutant-General's and Inspector-Gen- 
 eral's Departments, we should adopt an organization like the 
 following : 
 
 The Adjutant-General's Department, in time of peace, to 
 consist of — 
 
330 COXCLUSIONS. 
 
 1 General, 
 6 Colonels, 
 6 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 12 Majors, 
 12 Captains. 
 
 The grades above captain to be permanent, each major being 
 required to serve a term of three years in the line before being 
 promoted to lieutenant-colonel, his place during the interval 
 to be filled by a major from the line. The grade of captain to 
 be filled by the detail of captains from the line for the period of 
 two yeai-s, during which time they should learn to perform the 
 ofBce-work at the headquarters of our diff'erent military divis- 
 ions, and departments. 
 
 Promotions to major to be limited to those officers who 
 have served two years on detail in the department ; to be 
 selected by competitive examination, or by the simpler method 
 of selection, from the number of such ofiicers as have received 
 the special certificate of the adjutant-general, approved by the 
 General of the Army, setting forth that these ofiicers while serv- 
 ing in the department have merited the special approbation of 
 their superiors. 
 
 The above organization is based on the consideration that, 
 as in all modern armies, the Adjutant-General's Department 
 should be divided into several sections or bureaux : 
 
 The first section should conduct general correspondence, 
 and be the common medium for the Secretary of "War, and the 
 General-in-Chief, to communicate their orders and instructions 
 to the army. 
 
 The second and third sections, as now practically organized, 
 should be under the Secretary of War, for the purpose of exam- 
 ining and correcting the rolls and returns of the army, and to 
 assist him in the discharge of the ministerial duties of his office. 
 
 In addition to these sections there should be three others, 
 under the General of the Army : 
 
 The first of these sections should be charged with the col- 
 lection of information and statistics relating to all foreign ar- 
 mies, but especially in reference to Mexico, Canada, and Cuba. 
 
ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S DEPARTMENT. 331 
 
 The duties of the second section should be to write the 
 military history of our wars, both Indian and civilized, thereby 
 enabling our future officers to become familiar with the peculi- 
 arities of American fighting. 
 
 The third section should be charged with the arrangement 
 of the individual history of the officers of the army, based upon 
 the personal reports, and the part they have taken in campaigns 
 and battles. 
 
 The establishment of a statistical section would enable the 
 General of the Army to have statements in readiness show- 
 ing the exact military resources of our neighbors, upon which 
 calculations could be based as to the number of troops required 
 for any given campaign. 
 
 The number of officers given in the proposed organization 
 is based upon the present division of the country into the three 
 geographical divisions, and ten departments, each of which re- 
 quires a permanent officer as chief of staff ; and, further, upon 
 the assumption that from one to two permanent officers will be 
 required to superintend each section, and the sub-sections, into 
 which they may be divided. 
 
 In time of peace the chiefs of staff" of military departments 
 (mostly majors) should be encouraged to study the art of war ; 
 to instruct the captains on detail in both the practical and theo- 
 retical duties of a staff officer ; and, when not engaged in this 
 labor, they should be sent to inspect the troops of the depart- 
 ment, or division, thereby keeping themselves and their gen- 
 erals informed as to the discipline, instruction, and condition, 
 of their commands. 
 
 By thus emancipating themselves from the routine of paper- 
 work, this system, and this only, will enable ns in future wars 
 to provide competent chiefs of staff, who have been so sadly 
 needed in all of our past wars. 
 
 The distribution above contemplated requires — 
 
 1 Adjutant-general, 
 
 6 Colonels, chiefs of section, 
 
 3 Lieutenant-colonels, assistant chiefs of section, 
 
 3 Lieutenant-colonels, chiefs of staff, military divisions. 
 
333 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 2 Majors, assistant chiefs of section, 
 
 10 Majors, chiefs of staff, military departments, 
 
 12 Captains, assistant adjutant-generals, under instruction at 
 division and department headquarters. 
 
 Comparing this organization with the number of officers 
 now in the Adjutant-General's and Inspector- General's Depart- 
 ments, which is as follows — 1 general, 6 colonels, 5 lieutenant- 
 colonels, and 12 majors — we need for the inauguration of the 
 new system the addition of but 1 lieutenant-colonel, and 12 
 captains. 
 
 In time of war, the Adjutant-General's Department should 
 consist provisionally of the necessary number of officers for bu- 
 reau-work at "Washington, and an additional number for the 
 field, at the rate of — 
 
 1 Major, chief of staff, aud 1 captain for each brigade, 
 
 1 Lieutenant-colonel, chief of staff', and 2 captains for each 
 division, 
 
 1 Colonel, chief of staff, 1 lieutenant-colonel, and 3 captains 
 for each corps, 
 
 1 General, chief of staff, Avith the necessary number of field- 
 officers and captains for each army. 
 
 The chief of staff of every command should be an officer 
 who has been trained in the Adjutant-General's Department ; 
 and the same, in an army of small numbers, should apply to 
 the other staff officers ; but, in case of a great war, the cap-, 
 tains might be appointed from among officers whose general 
 education specially qualifies them for the duties of such a posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Under this organization, the chiefs of staff of corps, and 
 armies, would be enabled to devote themselves to the study of 
 maps, and to the collection of such geographical and statistical 
 information as would enable them to assist in directing the 
 movements of troops ; while their assistants would perform the 
 work of adjutant-generals, inspector-generals, and mustering 
 officers, done heretofore by officers of separate departments. 
 
 The value of this unity of action the first war could not fail 
 to demonstrate. 
 
QUARTERMASTER'S DEPARTMENT. 333 
 
 qtjaktekmastek's department. 
 
 This department, as at present organized by law, consists 
 of— 
 
 1 Brigadier-general, 
 6 Colonels, 
 10 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 12 Majors, 
 30 Captains. 
 To reorganize the department on the principle of detail, the 
 law need only prescribe that the 30 captains shall be distributed 
 as so many supernumeraries to the infantry, artillery, and cav- 
 alry ; the 30 captaincies in future to be filled by captains, or first- 
 lieutenants, detailed from the line for the period of four years. 
 The promotions to the grade of major should be made on 
 the same principles as in the Adjutant-General's Department. 
 
 In time of war, the department should be provisionally in- 
 creased by the addition of the necessary number of officers : 
 the chief quartermasters of corps and armies, and those in com- 
 mand of all of the great depots to be officers who have been 
 trained in the department ; all captains in great wars to be ap- 
 pointed from civil life. 
 
 SUBSISTENCE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 This department to consist of the same number of officers as 
 at present, viz. : 
 
 1 Brigadier-general, 
 
 2 Colonels, 
 
 3 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 8 Majors, and 
 
 12 Captains. 
 The grades of major and above to be permanent ; the cap- 
 tains to be distributed as supernumeraries in the line, the cap- 
 taincies afterward to be filled by detail from the line for the 
 period of four years. Promotion to major to be by selection 
 from the officers who have been on detail, or trained in the de- 
 partment. 
 
334 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 In time of war, a sufficient number of officers to be provi- 
 sionally appointed to perform bureau, depot, and field duty. All 
 chief commissaries to be appointed from officers of experience, 
 in the department ; division and brigade commissaries to be ap- 
 pointed from civil life. 
 
 PAT DEPARTMENT. 
 
 As reorganized on the principle of detail, this department 
 should consist of — 
 
 1 Brigadier-general, 
 6 Colonels, 
 6 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 12 Majors, 
 30 Captains. 
 The grades of major and above to be permanent ; no pro- 
 motions to be made to the grade of major till the number is re- 
 duced below twelve ; the captains to be supernumeraries, de- 
 tailed from the captains and first-lieutenants of the line for the 
 period of four years. 
 
 Promotions to the grade of major to be made by selection 
 from the captains who have been detailed in the department. 
 
 The war organization to consist provisionally of the neces- 
 sary number of officers ; all chief paymasters to be selected 
 from officers trained in the department; all field paymasters to 
 be appointed from civil life. 
 
 SIGNAL CORPS. 
 
 This corps should consist of — 
 1 Colonel as chief, and 
 20 Lieutenants. 
 The lieutenants should be detailed from the line for a period 
 not exceeding four years. In time of war, the department 
 should consist provisionally of the necessary number of officers 
 of all grades, those in the grade of major and above to be se- 
 lected from officers who have been trained in the corps. 
 
ARTILLERY AND ORDNANCE. 335 
 
 ARTILLERY AND ORDNANCE. 
 
 These corps to be merged, with a chief having the grade of 
 brigadier-general. 
 
 The artillery to consist of the same number of officers and 
 men as at present, organized into a corps ; or retaining the 
 present regimental formation, with Hneal promotion. 
 
 The Ordnance Department to consist, under the chief of 
 artillery and ordnance, of — 
 5 Colonels, 
 
 5 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 10 Majors, 
 
 15 Captains, and 
 15 First-lieutenants. 
 
 The grades of major and above to be permanent ; the 
 captains, and lieutenants, to be supernumerary officers of artil- 
 lery, detailed for the period of four years. 
 
 Promotions to the grade of major to be made by selection 
 from the captains who have been detailed in the department. 
 
 In time of war, the necessary number of officers to be pro- 
 visionally added for service at arsenals, the duties of ordnance- 
 officers in the field being performed under the direction of the 
 chiefs of artillery of armies, corps, and divisions. 
 
 ENGINEERS. 
 
 This corps should consist, as at present, of — 
 
 1 Chief of engineers, with rank of brigadier-general, 
 
 6 Colonels, 
 
 12 Lieutenant-colonels, 
 
 24 Majors, 
 
 30 Captains, 
 
 26 First-lieutenants, and 
 
 10 Second-lieutenants. 
 The grades of captain and above to be permanent. First 
 and second lieutenants to be supernumeraries of the line, de- 
 tailed for a period of four years. 
 
 Promotions to the grade of captain to be made by competi- 
 tive examination prescribed by the chief of engineers, the ex- 
 
336 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 aminations to be held every four years, and to be open to all 
 first-lieutenants who have been detailed in the department. 
 
 RESULTS OF A SYSTEM OF STAFF DETAIL. 
 
 If Congress, in its wisdom, should see fit to inaugurate this 
 system, giving it a trial for eight years, we would have, at the 
 end of that period — 
 
 48 Captains, trained as assistant adjutant-generals, 
 60 Captains, trained as assistant quartermasters, 
 24 Captains, trained as commissaries of subsistence, 
 60 Captains, trained as paymasters, 
 40 First-lieutenants, trained as signal-officers, 
 30 Captains, trained as ordnance-officers, 
 30 First-lieutenants, trained as ordnance-ofiicers, 
 52 First-lieutenants, trained as engineers, 
 20 Second-lieutenants, trained as engineers. 
 Making a total, in eight years, of 364 officers in the line 
 who would have received an education in the staff". 
 
 DETACHED SERVICE. 
 
 But still greater results can be attained if Congress, in ad- 
 dition, will limit the period for which captains, and lieutenants, 
 can be absent from company duty. 
 
 For want of such a system a second staff, nearly permanent, 
 has sprung up in our army, composed of officers on signal-duty, 
 aides-de-camp, and other officers on various kinds of detached 
 service, some of whom have never joined their companies. 
 
 Besides these positions, there are others in the service which 
 afford to the occupants rare opportunities for acquiring pro- 
 fessional information, such as the command of a light battery, 
 regimental adjutant, and regimental quartermaster, in which 
 the tenure of appointment is indefinite, and often extends from 
 ten to fifteen years. 
 
 Were the law to limit the appointment of the 29 aides-de- 
 camp, 5 light-battery commanders, 40 regimental adjutants, and 
 40 regimental quartermasters, to four years, we would have at the 
 end of the next eight years, including the present incumbents — 
 
INFANTRY. 337 
 
 87 Officers, trained as aides-de-camp, 
 
 15 Captains, trained as light-battery commanders, 
 
 120 Lieutenants, trained as regimental adjutants, and 
 
 120 Lieutenants, trained as regimental quartermasters. 
 
 Applying the same limit, we would have, in addition to the 
 above, nearly as many officers who would have had experience 
 as instructors at the Military Academy, and professors of science 
 and tactics at various colleges. 
 
 If to these officers we add the number trained under the 
 proposed system of staff detail, we could soon boast, India not 
 excepted, that our officers possess the most varied experience of 
 any army in the world. 
 
 Such a system, based upon personal reports, would soon 
 break up any tendency to idleness and dissipation, and would 
 give to every officer of zeal and ability the opportunity to per- 
 fect himself in nearly every branch of his profession. 
 
 In war, officers of such varied experience would adapt them- 
 selves either to regulars, or volunteers, and if placed in high 
 commands would give us results that must forever be impos- 
 sible so long as we adhere to a military system which has been 
 abandoned by every nation in Europe. 
 
 INFANTET. 
 
 In determining the organization of the line of the army, 
 wisdom forbids that we should ignore the strength and mili- 
 tary resources of our neighbors. Keeping in remembrance that 
 under the system of mixed troops we employed more than 
 100,000 men in the Mexican War, and a half-million of men in 
 the War of 1812 ; that Spain has already sent out more than 
 160,000 men to suppress the Cuban insurrection, prudence sug- 
 gests that, independent of reserves, our peace establishment 
 should be capable of expansion to at least 150,000 men. 
 
 To obtain this result, the peace organization of the infantry 
 should consist of the present 25 regiments, formed in 2 battal- 
 ions of 4 companies each, with the 2 remaining companies as 
 a regimental depot. 
 
 22 
 
338 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The field, staff, and non-commissioned staff of a regiment, on 
 the peace-footing, should be as follows : 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 DEPOT. 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel (battalion-commander) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Regimental adjutant (captain) 
 
 
 
 
 Battalion adjutants (first-lieutonants) 
 
 
 Battalion quartermasters (first-lieutenants) 
 
 
 Regimental sergeant-major 
 
 
 Regimental quartermaster-sergeant 
 
 
 Battalion sergeant-majors 
 
 
 Battalion quartermaster-sergeants 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Company on a Peace-footing. 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Mun. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Captain 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 'i 
 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 First-sergeant 
 
 1 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 Musicians . 
 
 2 
 
 Artificers 
 
 2 
 
 Wagoner 
 
 1 
 
 Privates 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 Battalion on the Peace-footing. 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Field-ofificer (commandant) 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 '4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 'i 
 1 
 
 '4 
 
 16 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 160 
 
 218 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant 
 
 
 Captains 
 
 4 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 4 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 16 
 
 Corporals 
 
 16 
 
 Musicians 
 
 8 
 
 Artificers 
 
 8 
 
 Wagoners 
 
 4 
 
 Privates 
 
 160 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 283 
 
 
 
INFANTRY. 
 
 339 
 
 
 DepoirComjpany on 
 
 Peace-footing. 
 
 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Serg"eants 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Depot on the Peace-footing. 
 
 Field-officer (commandant) 
 
 Captains 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 Second-lieutenants 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Aggregate 
 
 The following table shows the organization of a regiment of 
 two battalions, wath its depot-cadre, on a peace-footing : 
 
 Colonel 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel 
 
 Majors 
 
 Eegimental adjutant 
 
 Regimental quartermaster 
 
 Battalion-adjutants 
 
 Battalion-quartermasters 
 
 Regimental sergeant-major 
 
 Regimental quartermaster-serg't. . 
 
 Battalion sergeant-majors 
 
 Battalion quartermaster-sergeants 
 
 Captains 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 Second-lieutenants 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Artificers 
 
 Wagoners 
 
 Privates 
 
 Total 
 
 FIELD, 8TAFF, AND 
 
 TWO BATTALIONS. 
 
 DEPOT. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 AGGRE- 
 GATE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 M 
 
 en. Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 'i 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 320 
 
 
 
 
 820 
 
 820 
 
 83 
 
 438 
 
 7 
 
 
 22 1 40 
 
 460 
 
 500 
 
 Afi'gregate, 25 regiments on peace-footing, 12,500. 
 
3i0 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The number of privates in each depot-company wodd aver- 
 age a little less than 40, and would depend upon the number of 
 men required to keep each of the battalions of the regiments up 
 to their authorized strength of 218 enlisted men. 
 
 WAR ORGANIZATION OF INFANTRY. 
 
 As the infantry is more easily improvised, and made efficient, 
 than artillery and cavalry, it is in this arm of the service that 
 the principle of expansion should find its widest application. 
 
 On the war-footing, each regiment of infantry should, there- 
 fore, consist of two, three, or four battalions, and a depot, ac- 
 cording as the army is to be raised to 50,000, 75,000, or 100,000 
 men. 
 
 The following table shows the field, staif, and non-commis- 
 sioned staff, required for a regiment on a war-footing of two 
 battalions. 
 
 By adding 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1 quar- 
 termaster, 1 sergeant-major, and 1 quartermaster-sergeant for 
 each additional battalion, it will likewise represent the field 
 staff and non-commissioned staff' for a regiment of three and 
 four battalions : 
 
 
 2 BATTALIONS. 1 
 
 DEPOT. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Aggre- 
 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 gate. 
 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 
 'i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 'i 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 8 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 Regimental adjutant (captain) 
 
 Eeffimental quartermaster (capt.). 
 
 1 
 1 
 8 
 
 
 3 
 
 Regimental sergeant-major 
 
 Regimental quartermaster-serg'''t. . 
 
 Battalion sergeant-majors 
 
 Battalion quartermaster-sergeants. 
 
 1 1 
 1 1 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 8 ' 22 
 
 
 3 Battalions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 1 8 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 
 4 Battalions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 1 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 22 1 12 
 
 34 
 
INFANTRY. 
 
 341 
 
 Company on a War-footing. 
 
 Captain 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 Second-lieutenants. 
 
 First-sergeant 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 A rtificers 
 
 Clerk 
 
 Privates 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 5 
 
 242 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 The sergeants and corporals are arranged on the basis of one 
 corporal to each set of fours, and one sergeant to every two sets 
 of fours, or one to every eight and sixteen men respectively. 
 
 Battalion on a War-footing. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonel 
 
 Major 
 
 Adiutant 
 
 Quartermaster 
 
 Sergeant-maior 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant . 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Captains 
 
 First-lieutenants 
 
 Second-lieutenants 
 
 First-sergeants 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Artificers 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Privates 
 
 Aggregate 24 
 
 4 
 
 800 
 
 974 
 
 4 
 
 800 
 
 The allowance of two field-officers to each battalion is based 
 upon the known moral superiority which rank carries with it; 
 upon the great loss of life in these grades, as established in our 
 late and more recent wars ; and also the demands for detached 
 service, which constantly occur in campaign. 
 
342 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 Depot CoTnpany on War-footing. 
 
 Captain 
 
 First-lieutenant. . . 
 Sucond-lieutenant 
 
 First-sergeant 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Aggregate . 
 
 2T 
 
 The number of officers and men is based upon the demand 
 for instructors for the raw recruits. The recruits, or privates, 
 who would be attached to each company until sent to the field, 
 would probably vary from 100 to 300. 
 
 Depot on a War-footing. 
 
 Field-ofBcer. 
 
 Adjutant. 
 
 Quartermaster 
 
 Sergeant-major 
 
 Quartermaster-sergeant. 
 Captains. 
 
 First-lieutenants. . . 
 Second-lieutenants. 
 First-sergeants. . . . 
 
 Sergeants 
 
 Corporals 
 
 Musicians 
 
 Aggregate 13 
 
 The following table shows the strength of a regiment with 
 its depot, on a war-footing of two, three, and four battalions : 
 
 
 2 BATTALIONS. 
 
 3 BATTALIONS. 
 
 4 BATTALIONS. 
 
 REGIMENT. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Eegimental and battalion field, 
 staff, and non-commissioned 
 staff, including 6 clerks for regi- 
 mental headquarters and 4 for 
 each battalion headquarters 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 1,936 
 
 31 
 1,9V6 
 
 15 
 60 
 
 26 
 
 2,904 
 
 41 
 
 2,964 
 
 19 
 
 "so 
 
 32 
 
 3,872 
 
 51 
 
 Twelve companies 
 
 Sixteen companies 
 
 8,952 
 
 DEPOT. 
 
 Field, staff, and non-commisM staff. 
 
 51 
 
 3 
 10 
 
 64 
 
 1,956 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2,007 
 
 5 
 64 
 
 75 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 2,930 
 
 2 
 54 
 
 3,005 
 
 5 
 64 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 8,904 
 
 S 
 
 54 
 
 4,008 
 
 5 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 2,012 
 
 2,076 
 
 88 
 
 2,986 
 
 3,074 
 
 112 
 
 8,960 
 
 4,072 
 
 
 
COMPLEMENTAEY OFFIOEES. 343 
 
 The aggregate field strength of the present twenty-five regi- 
 ments, raised to the war-footing, would therefore be for — 
 
 Two battalions 50,175 
 
 Three battalions 75,075 
 
 Four battalions 100,075 
 
 OFFICERS FOE THE WAR-FOOTING. 
 
 Deducting the number of officers the infantry would lose 
 by promotion in the expanded war organization of the staff, we 
 could send every company into action, on the basis of 50,000, 
 with at least two officers of military experience to train and 
 command it. Expanded to 75,000, and to 100,000 if necessary, 
 we could still furnish an experienced captain to each company, 
 and by a system of lineal promotion, and by promotion by selec- 
 tion, the command of companies could be confided to trained 
 officers till the lieutenants appointed from civil life would be 
 able to replace them. 
 
 COMPLEMENTARY OFFICERS. 
 
 The extra lieutenants required to raise the infantry com- 
 panies to the war standard, should, as far as practicable, be 
 selected in time of peace, and, as in other countries, their names 
 should be borne on the Army Register below the grade of second- 
 lieutenant. 
 
 There are several classes from which we can draw such 
 supply : 
 
 The first class embraces all non-commissioned officers of the 
 army, who, on quitting the service, can pass a special examina- 
 tion to be prescribed for officers of complement ; their appoint- 
 ments to be distributed at large. 
 
 The second class embraces such graduates as have pursued 
 the course of military instruction at colleges where officers of 
 the army are detailed as professors of tactics, at an expense to 
 the Government on account of their salaries of about $20,000 to 
 $30,000 per annum. 
 
 The utilization of this expense by the Government, it is more 
 than probable, would supply us with a class of officers such as 
 
344 CON'OLUSIONS. 
 
 we have never seen in our army during any past war; and 
 being assigned to the regiments whose depots are within their 
 several States, their appointment would tend to nationalize the 
 army in the same manner as the present system of appointing 
 cadets to the Military Academy. 
 
 The third class embraces the graduates of Military Acade- 
 mies, like those of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Yermont, as- 
 signed as above. 
 
 The fourth class embraces such officers of the national guard, 
 or militia, as can pass the prescribed examination ; their ap- 
 pointments being assigned as already explained for the gradu- 
 ates of colleges, and Military Academies. 
 
 Not till such a system is adopted will an American army 
 ever be able to show its prowess, nor will we be able to avert 
 the extravagance, and bloodshed, which inhere in our system. 
 
 CAVALKY. 
 
 Keeping in mind the fact that the 60,000 to 80,000 cavalry 
 maintained from the beginning to the end of the rebellion, did 
 not become really efficient till the battle of Beverly Ford, in 
 1863, after it had been trained for nearly two years ; that the 
 expense of supporting it is doubly if not trebly as expensive as 
 infantry — we ought from our own experience to follow the ex- 
 ample of European nations, and as far as practicable maintain 
 our future cavalry either on a war-footing, or else on a basis 
 capable of such expansion as to meet quickly the demands of 
 war. 
 
 PEACE-FOOTnSTG OF CAVALRY. 
 
 Adopting the model presented for tlie infantry, each of the 
 ten regiments of cavalry should be organized into three bat- 
 talions, and a depot ; one battalion to consist of four companies, 
 the other battalions of three companies each ; the remaining 
 two companies forming the depot, to be stationed in the State 
 whence the regiment is to draw its men and horses. 
 
 Already having five field-officers available for the command 
 of each battalion and depot, as also a regimental adjutant and 
 quartermaster, the only extra officers required for the peace- 
 
CAVALRY. 
 
 345 
 
 footing are three battalion adjutants, and three battalion quar- 
 termasters. 
 
 If we ultimately fix the enlisted strength of the ten com- 
 panies which constitute the battalions at sixtv-two men, the 
 same as allowed by Congress after the reduction in 1842, the 
 strength of each regiment would be as follows : 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Field and staff 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 6 
 
 "s 
 
 620 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 
 8 
 
 Three battalions (IK companies) 
 
 650 
 
 Depot (2 companies) 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 650 
 
 699 
 
 
 
 Aggregate ten regiments, 6,990. 
 
 WAK ORGANIZATION OF THE CAVALRY. 
 
 In this organization, the enlisted men should be increased 
 to 100 per company, including 1 first-sergeant, 6 sergeants, and 
 8 corporals ; the oflicers should consist of 1 captain, 2 first-lieu- 
 tenants, and 1 second-lieutenant. 
 
 By adding an extra company to the two battalions of three 
 companies each, the strength of a regiment, on the war-footing, 
 would be according to the following table : 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Field and staff 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 8 
 
 "'8 
 
 18 
 
 1,200 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 1,248 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 1,256 
 
 1,825 
 
 
 
 Total ten regiments, 13,250. 
 
 This force of 13,250 we could send into the field with two 
 trained oflScers to lead every company. Further, by adding two 
 more companies to each battalion, an organization permitted by 
 the tactics, we could increase our cavalry to 19,490, and still 
 have a regular officer at the head of every company. 
 
 This force would exceed by more than 3,500 the number of 
 
3i6 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 cavalry led by Sheridan at Five Forks, and by more than 7,000 
 the number led by Wilson from the Tennessee to the Ocmulgee, 
 although at that time we had more than 85,000 cavah-y on our 
 rolls. 
 
 The officers of this force, both regular and complementary, 
 should be provided as explained for the infantry, the provi- 
 sional list being kept at the War Department in a state of con- 
 stant readiness for a battalion oi'ganization of either four, or six 
 companies. 
 
 PEACE ORGANIZATION OF THE ARTILLERY. 
 
 The immense expense of the materiel of artillery, and the 
 professional training necessary to make artillery formidable, re- 
 quire that this arm of the service, even more than the cavalry, 
 should be maintained on a basis capable of immediate expansion. 
 
 It should therefore consist of the present number of bat- 
 teries, organized into a corps, or of the five existing regiments, 
 organized into three battalions of three batteries each, with two 
 batteries as a depot ; the light battery being assigned to one 
 of the three battalions. 
 
 If to the present number of officers we add three battalion 
 adjutants, and quartermasters ; fix the enlisted strength of each 
 battery at 1 first-sergeant, 4 sergeants, 4 corporals, 2 artificers, 
 2 musicians, and 42 privates, which is but one greater than al- 
 lowed by the law of 1842; and allow each light battery an 
 enlisted strength of 1 first-sergeant, 6 sergeants, 4 corporals, 
 2 musicians, 2 artificers, 1 wagoner, and 64 privates, the same 
 as was allowed before the last order for reduction, the peace 
 organization of a regiment would be as follows : 
 
 REGIMENT. 
 
 Field and staff 
 
 Non-commissioned staff 
 
 Three battalions (9 companies). 
 
 Light battery 
 
 Depot (2 companies) 
 
 Total 
 
 Aggregate Ave regiments. . 
 
 86 
 5 
 
 62 
 
 495 
 80 
 22 
 
 531 
 
 85 
 
 8,025 
 
 3,335 
 
ARTILLERY. 347 
 
 On the assumption that the Artillery and Ordnance should 
 be consolidated under a common chief, the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment being composed of a sufficient number of permanent 
 officers, to insure the uniform operation of the department, the 
 depots of the several regiments of artillery should be located 
 at the great arsenals where they would not only be able to 
 protect the Government property, but would also find at hand 
 the facilities and means for instructing recruits in the use and 
 manoeuvres of all the guns employed in the service. 
 
 A still better organization of the artillery would be to make 
 one battalion in each regiment to consist of two light batteries; 
 the remaining two battalions to consist of four batteries each. 
 This would increase the aggregate enlisted strength of the five 
 regiments only 125 men. 
 
 With this organization, limiting the service of a light bat- 
 tery to two years, every battery in each regiment could serve 
 as light artillery every ten years. 
 
 WAK ORGANIZATION OF THE AETILLEEY. 
 
 While it is the function of the artillery in every country 
 to provide batteries for the field, and for the attack and de- 
 fense of fortified places, our attention in time of war should be 
 concentrated almost exclusively on the light artillery, which, 
 by its precision and steadiness, should be able to inspire con- 
 fidence in the other arms of service ; and particularly should 
 this be our purpose so long as it is our policy to rely at first 
 on raw troops. 
 
 Allowing as a liberal calculation four guns to a thousand 
 men, if we add 13,000, the proposed war strength of our cav- 
 alry, to 50,000, 75,000, and 100,000, representing the war 
 strength of the infantry on the three different footings, the 
 three armies of 63,000, 88,000, and 113,000 would require 42, 
 58, and 75 batteries respectively. 
 
 The batteries for the first army could be instantly furnished 
 by mounting forty-two batteries, while by increasing the en- 
 listed strength of each of the remaining eight batteries to 250 
 men, there would be a battalion of 1,000 men available as 
 
348 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 heavy artillery for each of the two corps, into which the army 
 would be divided. 
 
 To provide for the second and third armies, organized into 
 two and three corps, the artillery should be increased by divid- 
 ing, and converting, as many of the existing batteries as neces- 
 sary into two batteries each. This would give nearly two 
 trained officers to each battery, besides a nucleus of experienced 
 non-commissioned officers and privates, whose example would 
 soon convert new recruits into veteran soldiers. 
 
 By this method thirty batteries would form the fifty-eight 
 light batteries required for the second army ; the remaining 
 twenty batteries, increased to 250 men each, would form five 
 battalions of 1,000 men, available as heavy artillery, either for 
 service in the field, or for the defense of our sea-coast fortifica- 
 tions. 
 
 For the third army thirty-eight batteries would form the 
 seventy-five light batteries, while by converting the remaining 
 twelve batteries into two batteries of 250 men each, we would 
 have six battalions of 1,000 men each, available as before for 
 service in the field, or for fortress-defense. 
 
 "Without stopping to enumerate the organizations of trains, 
 but simply allowing to each army 1 brigadier-general, as chief 
 of artillery, with 6 staff officers ; two or three extra colonels 
 specially selected as chiefs of artillery of corps; one half as 
 many lieutenant-colonels as there are battalions, the remaining 
 battalions to be commanded by majors ; further, allowing to 
 each chief of artillery of a corps a staff consisting of 1 adjutant, 
 1 aide-de-camp, 1 quartermaster, and 1 ordnance-officer — an adju- 
 tant and quartermaster likewise being allowed to each battalion 
 — the approximate strength of the artillery on the three differ- 
 ent war-footings would be as follows : 
 
 Artillery for an Army of 63,000 Men. 
 
 Chief of artillery (brigadier-general) . 
 
 Staff 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Colonels of refriments 
 
 Colonels, corps chiefs of artillery 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
ARTILLERY. 
 
 349 
 
 COMMANDANTS OF BATTALIONS AND DEPOTS. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels 
 
 Majors 
 
 Regimental. 
 Corps. 
 
 Battalion and depot. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED STAFF. 
 
 Eegimental. 
 
 Corps 
 
 Battalion and depot. 
 
 Kegimental . 
 Battalion . . . 
 
 FIELD-ARTILLERY. 
 
 13 Battalions, 42 batteries (light and horse) . 
 
 HEAVY ARTILLERY. 
 
 2 Battalions (8 companies). 
 Depots (10 companies) 
 
 Aggrejirate . 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 40 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 
 30 
 60 
 
 210 
 
 6,-342 
 
 40 
 50 
 
 2,000 
 210 
 
 392 
 
 8,708 
 
 10 
 
 s 
 
 40 
 
 6,552 
 
 2,040 
 260 
 
 9,100 
 
 Artillery for an Army of 88,000 Men. 
 
 RANK. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Aggre- 
 gate. 
 
 Chief of artillery (brigadier-general) 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 ■"5 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 300 
 
 100 
 522 
 
 "'12 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 80 
 
 9,600 
 
 5.000 
 14,796 
 
 1 
 
 Staff 
 
 6 
 
 Clerks 
 
 12 
 
 Colonels of regiments 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 COMMANDANTS OF BATTALIONS AND DEPOTS. 
 
 15 
 
 
 15 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 60 
 
 NON-CO.M.MISSIONED STAFF. 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 Battalion and depot 
 
 CO 
 
 CLERKS. 
 
 80 
 
 Battalion 
 
 80 
 
 FIELD-ARTILLERY. 
 
 15 Battalions, 60 batteries (light and horse) 
 
 9 900 
 
 HEAVY ARTILLERY. 
 
 5,1 OJ 
 
 
 15,818 
 
350 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 Artillery for an Army of 113,000 Men, 
 
 Chief of artillery (brigadier-general) . 
 
 Staff. 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Colonels of regiments 
 
 Colonels, corps chiefs of artillery 
 
 COMMANDANTS OF BATTALIONS AND DEPOTS. 
 
 Lieutenant-colonels 
 
 Majors 
 
 Regimental 
 
 Corps 
 
 Battalion and depot. 
 
 NON-COMMISSIONED STAFF. 
 
 Regimental 
 
 Corps 
 
 Battalion, and depot. 
 
 Eegimeutal. 
 Battalion — 
 
 FIELD-AETILLERT. 
 
 19 Battalions (76 batteries, light and horse) . . 
 
 HEAVY ARTrLLEET. 
 
 C Battalions (24 companies). 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 1 
 6 
 
 "5 
 3 
 
 "12 
 
 18 
 17 
 
 
 10 
 12 
 70 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 70 
 
 
 SO 
 
 100 
 
 380 
 
 11,470 
 
 120 
 
 6,000 
 
 642 
 
 17,698 
 
 Ags-Te- 
 gate. 
 
 80 
 lUO 
 
 11,850 
 
 6,120 
 18,340 
 
 To officer efficiently this force of artillery, all regular 
 officers should be advanced on the provisional list, the vacancies 
 at the bottom being filled by graduates of the Military Academy ; 
 by promotion of deserving non-commissioned officers of the 
 army ; and as far as practicable by graduates of military uni- 
 versities and colle2:es. 
 
 EECAPITULATION OF THE INPANTRT, CAVALET, AND ARTILLERY, 
 ON THE FOOTING OF PEACE AND OF WAR. 
 
 Peacefooting. 
 
 ABM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Regiments. 
 
 Battalions. 
 
 Depots. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 AgK™pat«. 
 
 
 2.5 
 10 
 5 
 
 .50 
 80 
 15 
 
 95 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 l,ono 
 
 490 
 310 
 
 11,500 
 6,500 
 8,025 
 
 12.500 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 6.900 
 8,385 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 40 
 
 1,800 
 
 21,025 
 
 22,825 
 
RECAPITULATION. 
 
 351 
 
 
 War-footing. — First Basis. 
 
 
 
 ARM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Ruglments. 
 
 Battalions. 
 
 Depots. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 25 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 30 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 1,600 
 690 
 892 
 
 50,800 
 12,560 
 
 8,708 
 
 51,900 
 18,250 
 9 100 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Artillery 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 40 
 
 2,682 
 
 71,568 
 
 74,250 
 
 War-footing — Second Basis. 
 
 ARM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Regiments. 
 
 Battalions. 
 
 Depots. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 Infantry 
 
 25 
 10 
 5 
 
 75 
 30 
 20 
 
 25 
 10 
 5 
 
 2,200 
 690 
 522 
 
 74,650 
 12,560 
 14,796 
 
 76,850 
 18 250 
 
 
 
 15 318 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 125 
 
 40 
 
 8,412 
 
 102,006 
 
 105,418 
 
 Warfooting — Third Basis. 
 
 ARM OF SERVICE. 
 
 Regiments. 
 
 Battalions. 
 
 Depots. 
 
 Officers. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 481 
 25 
 
 25 
 10 
 5 
 
 2,800 
 980 
 642 
 
 99,000 
 18,560 
 17,698 
 
 101,800 
 
 
 19,490 
 
 
 18,840 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 173 
 
 40 
 
 4,372 
 
 135,258 
 
 189,630 
 
 If to the number 139,630 be added the staff departments, 
 military trains, signal corps, ambulance corps, etc., each of 
 which should have its special organization, the total strength of 
 the army would considerably exceed 150,000. 
 
 In addition, by increasing the number of privates in the 80 
 depot companies to 300 each, there would be 20,000 men re- 
 ceiving instruction, who would be available to fill vacancies. 
 
 A comparison of our present inexpansive organization with 
 the proposed peace establishment shows that we can effect the 
 transformation by the addition of 210 officers to the 1,589 
 already existing, while the number of enlisted men as compared 
 with the number 23,135, now allowed to the three arms of ser- 
 vice, can be reduced by 2,110. 
 
 But dispensing with the battalion adjutants and quarter- 
 
 > Six companies to eacb battalion. 
 
352 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 masters — a measure that would be unwise considering tlie value 
 of trained officers in war — the number of additional officers can 
 be reduced to the twenty-five majors required to place the field- 
 officers of infantry on the same footing as the artillery and 
 cavalry. The additional cost, however, of the 210 officers, 
 would be more than compensated by saving the pay of 2,110 
 enlisted men, and would thus make the reorganization a meas- 
 ure of economy. 
 
 If the expansive system be adopted, and the President be 
 authorized within certain limits to increase the enlisted strength 
 of the army, we can vary the war-footing anywhere from the 
 peace establishment of 22,825 to 139,630, by simply increasing 
 the privates of the companies, or any part of them, between the 
 limits fixed for peace and for war. 
 
 The exact strength of the companies, and the number of 
 troops required in any international emergency, should be left 
 to the calculation of the officers in the Bureau of Military Statis- 
 tics, under the General of the Army, who thus, at any moment, 
 would be prepared to report to the Secretary of War the num- 
 ber of the enemy's troops to be overcome, and the organization 
 best adapted to accomplish that object. 
 
 However great may be the advantages of the proposed or- 
 ganization, we must not overlook the fact that the success of 
 the three and four battalion systems wholly depends upon its 
 connection with a depot, territorial recruitment, and, in case of 
 necessity, obligatory military service. 
 
 The two-battalion system was adopted in all arms of service 
 in 1811, but the first law after the declaration of war in 1812, 
 reduced the regiments of infantry from two battalions to one. 
 For want of recruits, too, the new regular regiments of three 
 battalions each, authorized at the beginning of the late war, 
 could not be raised, while in 1864 nearly all of the three-battalion 
 regiments of heavy artillery were consolidated as soon as the 
 vacancies occasioned by field-service could no longer be filled. 
 
 From this experience we may, therefore, conclude that, if we 
 adopt the three-battalion organization in peace, we shall have to 
 abandon it in time of war, unless in connection with it we estab- 
 
LINEAL PROMOTION. 353 
 
 lish a depot, and a system of recruitment whicli shall insm-e a 
 steady supply of reserve troops. 
 
 LINEAL PKOMOTION. 
 
 An important feature of an expansive peace organization 
 should be lineal promotion in each arm of the service. 
 
 The opposition to such promotion is based upon the sup- 
 posed destruction of regimental esj^rit de corps ; but the devel- 
 opment of this feeling requires that the companies of a regi- 
 ment shall serve together, and, what is more important still, 
 that the regiment shall be excited to emulation by serving with 
 others in the same brigade, or division. These conditions, which 
 always exist in war, cannot exist with us in time of peace, be- 
 cause of the small size of our army, and the vast extent of our 
 territory. Furthermore, desirable as it may be to cultivate this 
 regimental feeling, it may be entirely absorbed in the pride and 
 satisfaction of belonging, as in the German army, to the " corps 
 of officers." 
 
 But whatever advantage may be claimed on the side of esprit 
 de corps, it is more than counterbalanced by confining an officer 
 from twenty to thirty years to the same regiment, whereby, if 
 he remain continually with it, his knowledge of the army may 
 be limited to the few associates he met on joining the service. 
 
 The present system likewise produces great inequality, if 
 not injustice, as in some regiments officers are well up in the list 
 of first-lieutenants, who received their appointments within the 
 last two or three years, while other officers, entering the array 
 eight or nine years before them, are still second-lieutenants. 
 
 Aside from the personal aspects of the case, lineal promotion 
 is to be desired as the means of enlarging an officer's experience, 
 and of keeping up his interest in his profession — a result which 
 may be procured by adopting a system that may require him to 
 serve as second-lieutenant of one regiment in Texas; as first- 
 lieutenant of another in Oregon ; as captain of another in Ari- 
 zona; as major of another in Kew York ; as lieutenant-colonel 
 of another in Kansas; as colonel of another in Georgia. 
 
 This variety of service, extended knowledge of the geography 
 
 23 
 
354 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 of the country, enlarged acquaintance with the officers of the 
 army, and association with the people of different States and 
 sections, could not fail to inure to the advantage of the Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Again, lineal promotion is to be desired as a stepping-stone 
 to examination for promotion, as thereby an officer who fails to 
 pass his examination can be held at the head of the list, while 
 others, more meritorious, can be advanced above him. Already 
 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains, are on the 
 same general list for promotion ; and, as it belongs to these offi- 
 cers to maintain the tone and dignity of the service, all that is 
 needed is to add to the list the iirst and second lieutenants. 
 
 If this be accomplished, all officers in future wars, whether 
 they receive jDrovisional commissions in the expanded organiza- 
 tion, or remain in the regiments not raised to the war-footing, 
 will receive a due share of promotion. It will also enable us to 
 discard the brevet, and, by reserving not to exceed one-third of 
 the promotions for selection for distinguished skill and gal- 
 lantry in battle, we can secure to brave and skillful officers the 
 same substantial reward as is now guaranteed to officers of our 
 navy, and to officers of nearly all foreign armies. 
 
 EXAMINATION FOR PROMOTION. 
 
 This principle already exists in the medical corps, the corps 
 of engineers, and ordnance. 
 
 By the laws applicable to the engineers and ordinance, no 
 officer below the rank of field-officer can be promoted to a higher 
 grade without being " examined and approved " by a board of 
 three officers senior to him in rank. If the officer fail at the 
 examination, his promotion is suspended for a year, when he is 
 again reexamined. In case of failure on reexamination, the law 
 prescribes that the officer " shall be dismissed from the service." 
 
 In the na^-y the law is still more explicit, and better adapted 
 to protect both the interest of the Government, and the officers 
 concerned. 
 
 Its first and second provisions prescribe that, except in case 
 of wounds received in the line of his duty, no officer shall be 
 
EXAMINATION FOR PROMOTION. 355 
 
 promoted in the active list of tlie iiaTv " until he has been ex- 
 amined by a board of naval surgeons, and pronounced physically 
 qualified to perform all his duties at sea." 
 
 Another section prescribes that " no line officer below the 
 grade of commodore, and no officer not of the line, shall be pro- 
 moted to a higher grade in the active list of the navy until his 
 mental, moral, and prof essional fitness to perform all of his du- 
 ties at sea have been established to the satisfaction of a board 
 of examining officers appointed by the President." 
 
 By another section of the law the examining board must con- 
 sist of three members senior in rank to the officer to be exam- 
 ined. The board is also authorized to take testimony, the wit- 
 nesses being examined under oath, and " to examine all matter 
 on the files and records of the Navy Department relating to any 
 officer whose case may be considered by them." 
 
 The officer who is to be examined is also authorized to be 
 present before the board, and to submit a sworn statement of 
 his case. 
 
 At the conclusion of the examination, the report of the 
 board; all of the testimony; and the information relative to 
 the officer on file at the Navy Department, which is based on 
 an excellent system of personal reports, are forwarded to the 
 President for his approval, or disapproval. 
 
 If qualified for promotion, the board reports as follows : 
 
 " We hereby certify that has the mental, moral, 
 
 and professional qualifications to perform efficiently all the 
 duties, both at sea and on shore, of the grade to which he is to 
 be promoted, and recommend him for promotion." 
 
 If the officer fail, he is suspended for a year with correspond- 
 ing loss of date, when, in case of failure on reexamination, he is 
 dropped from the service. 
 
 Another excellent section prescribes that — 
 
 " Any officer of the navy may, by and with the advice and 
 consent of the Senate, be advanced, not exceeding thirty num- 
 bers in rank, for eminent and conspicuous conduct in hattle, or 
 extraordinary heroism.''^ 
 
 The law of the navy which has done so much to elevate and 
 
356 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 improve tliis brancli of the public service, deserves all tlie more 
 consideration from the fact that it was passed in 1864, after 
 three years of war had demonstrated to the satisfaction of the 
 people and Congress that ignorant, incompetent, and dissipated 
 officers, should no longer jeopardize the interests of the Govern- 
 ment by obstructing the promotion of others better qualified to 
 command. 
 
 In the application of such a law to the line of the army, the 
 following recommendations are submitted : 
 
 1. That every second-lieutenant be examined at the expira- 
 tion of five years from the date of his appointment ; that his 
 examination be conducted by a general board appointed by the 
 President ; or, if the expense of mileage, and loss of time, be 
 deemed objectionable, then the boards to be appointed in each 
 department either by, or on the recommendation of, the depart- 
 ment commander. 
 
 2. That all records, or j)ersonal reports, relative to the officer 
 be submitted to the board, with a further personal report signed 
 by a board of one field-officer and two captains of the regiment 
 to which the officer belongs, certifying as to the " mental, moral, 
 and professional qualifications" of the officer as evinced during 
 his five years' probation. 
 
 3. That the examination of the officer in the tactics of his 
 arm, in regulations, interior economy of a company, and military 
 law, the proceedings and practice of courts-martial, be in writ- 
 ing ; and that the officer be required to demonstrate before the 
 board his ability to drill a squad, a platoon, and company, in 
 all the movements prescribed for his arm of the service, 
 
 4. That all first-lieutenants before promotion shall be exam- 
 ined, so far as personal reports and reports from a board of the 
 officers of their regiments are concerned, in the same manner as 
 second-lieutenants ; and that, in addition, all first-lieutenants of 
 artillery be required to pass, in writing, an examination in the 
 course of study pursued at the Artillery School ; or, in lieu 
 thereof, show a certificate from the staff of the school that 
 they have satisfactorily passed such examination at the conclu- 
 sion of their course of study when students at the school. 
 
EXAMINATION FOR PROMOTION. 357 
 
 The practical examination should consist in manosuvi'ing all 
 of the guns in service ; ability to drill a light battery ; and, in 
 infantry, to drill a battalion, both in close order and as skir- 
 mishers. 
 
 For first-lieutenants of cavalry and infantry the theoretical 
 examination, so long as they are not provided with a course of 
 instruction like that pursued at the Artillery School, should be 
 modified according to the few advantages for professional im- 
 provement which they now possess. Their practical examina- 
 tion should embrace all of the movements of a company and 
 battalion prescribed in the tactics of their arms. 
 
 5. That captains be subjected in regard to mental and moral 
 qualifications to the same scrutiny as lieutenants, and that their 
 further examination be mostly of a practical character, extend- 
 ing to the manoeuvres of a battalion and regiment, and also to 
 outpost duty, and combinations of the three arms of service. 
 
 6. That all of the proceedings of the examining board, with 
 copies of personal reports, be forwarded to the President for 
 his approval. 
 
 7. That in case a second-lieutenant fails in the examination, 
 his name be dropped from the rolls of the army. 
 
 8. That if a first-lieutenant fail in moral qualifications, his 
 name be dropped from the rolls of the army ; but, if he fail on 
 the theoretical or practical examination, that his promotion be 
 stopped for a year, with loss in date of commission, when, if he 
 fail on reexamination, he be dropped from the service. 
 
 9. That if a captain fail in moral qualifications, he be dropped 
 from the service ; while, if he fail on the theoretical or practical 
 examination, his promotion be stopped for a year with loss in 
 date of commission ; if he fail on reexamination, that he be held 
 at the head of the list of captains, till, on serving twenty or 
 twenty-five years, he can be retired on half or three-quarters pay. 
 
 The first of the foregoing recommendations is based on the 
 fact that the military and moral character of young officers gen- 
 erally develops within the period of five years. If, during this 
 period of probation, a second-lieutenant shows inattention or 
 indifference to duty, and particularly if he shows an inclina- 
 
358 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 tion to drunkenness, or gambling, he should, in the interest of 
 the Government, be dismissed from the service. 
 
 The second recommendation, in giving a hrst-lieutenant a 
 another chance for promotion, except in case of moral disquali- 
 fications, recognizes the justice of not turning an officer adrift 
 in the world to begin a civil career after the years of greatest 
 hope and ambition have been spent in Government service. 
 
 The third recommendation would enable boards to stop the 
 promotion of officers whose moral qualifications are unobjection- 
 able, but who, for lack of practical talent, frequently obstruct, 
 if they do not stop, the instruction of their commands. 
 
 DISCIPLESTE. 
 
 In no country should the military code be prepared with 
 greater care than in our own ; yet, adhering to articles of war 
 passed in 1806, nearly three-quarters of a century ago, the 
 officers of our army are constantly compelled to resort to arbi- 
 trary punishments, while those of other countries can administer 
 military justice in exact conformity with law. 
 
 In India, Italy, Russia, Austria, and other countries, the 
 minor punishments, which, in our army, can only be inflicted 
 by regimental, garrison, and field-officers' courts, can be imposed 
 by all regimental and battalion commanders ; while others, still 
 smaller in degree, can be administered by captains, lieutenants, 
 and even non-commissioned officers. 
 
 The objection to our system is that it is practicable only at 
 regimental headquarters, and at large posts, where either a field- 
 officer is available ; or the presence of a surgeon, a quartermaster, 
 or a hospital-steward, is sufficient to convert the garrison into a 
 " mixed " command. 
 
 If a captain with his company be on detached service, and ab- 
 sent from all superior authority for months, the only legal pun- 
 ishment he can inflict is confinement. As this cripples the 
 command, and enables the culprit to escape military duty, be- 
 sides being no adequate punishment for the many minor of- 
 fenses that are continually committed, the captain finds that 
 either his authority and the discipline of his company must be 
 
DISCIPLINE. 359 
 
 relaxed, or else that lie must take piinisliment into his own 
 hands. Confronted on one side by a law giving him no author- 
 ity, and on the other by the law of necessity, which frequently 
 will brook no delay, he is compelled, to choose the lesser evil, 
 and therefore administers summary punishment. 
 
 The defect of the law was so conspicuous during the Kevo- 
 lution that Washington, on the 3d of Februaiy, 1781, wrote to 
 the President of Congress : 
 
 " There is one evil, however, which I shall particularize, resulting 
 from the imperfection of our regulations in this respect. It is the 
 increase of arbitrary punishments. Officers, finding discipline can- 
 not be maintained by a regular course of proceeding, are tempted 
 to use their own discretion, which sometimes occasions excesses, to 
 correct which the interests of discipline will not permit much rigor. 
 Prompt and arbitrary punishments are not to be avoided in an 
 army ; but the necessity for them will be more or less in propor- 
 tion as the military laws have more or less vigor." 
 
 Notwithstanding the evils of arbitrary punishments, they 
 have, for want of a modification of the law, been continued as 
 a necessity up to the present moment, and in war have been 
 more often the rule than the exception. 
 
 During the rebellion there was scarcely a regiment in which 
 corporal punishment, in some form, was not daily administered. 
 And this arose from no desire to violate the law, but from a ne- 
 cessity, to which many of our representatives in Congress can 
 testify. 
 
 Even the expedient of the field-officer's court failed of its 
 object ; for, when troops were on marches, there was no time 
 to take evidence, and make out proceedings. "When, therefore, 
 stragglers and marauders returned to their regiments, the colo- 
 nels adopted the sure and expeditious process of pronouncing 
 a punishment, which, being brief in its character, allowed the 
 offender to be restored speedily to duty. 
 
 But, in addition to the impracticability of the present sys- 
 tem, it operates with no uniformity. At the same post one 
 garrison court-martial may sentence a man for drunkenness to a 
 
360 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 fine of two dollars ; another court, the day after, and for the 
 same offense, may inflict imprisonment on bread-and-water, and 
 loss of a month's pay. 
 
 All of these irreojiilarities can be corrected bv a law fixinsr 
 the limits within which minor punishments can be inflicted by 
 all commanders of regiments, battalions, companies, and de- 
 tachments. 
 
 By this method the commanding officer, like a police-judge, 
 can hold his court every morning, hear the evidence, and pro- 
 nounce sentence, which, as in the English and other armies, on 
 being entered upon a defaulters' book, becomes a part of the 
 history of each offender. 
 
 The cheerfulness with w^hicli our officers and men within 
 the past year have endured hunger and cold, have performed 
 marches unprecedented in length, and have fought a well-armed 
 foe often ten times their number, affords conclusive proof that 
 the discipline of our troops is not surpassed by that of any 
 other army. But this only furnishes an additional reason for 
 enabling our officers in future to regulate their authority in 
 strict conformity with law. 
 
 MILITARY EDUCATION. 
 
 If we consider the sole object of our Military Academy to 
 be the qualification of officers to receive commissions in the 
 army, we may justly claim that our system of preparatory train- 
 ing is superior to that in any other country ; and the reason for 
 this superiority may be made to appear by a very brief com- 
 parison. 
 
 In Germany, a member of the Cadet Corps, after six to 
 seven years of study, pursues the mathematical studies taught 
 to the cadet at our Academy in his first year. 
 
 In France, the course of study at St.-Cyr for officers of in- 
 fantry and cavalry is but two years ; in Russia, three years ; in 
 Austria, four years ; in England, one year ; at West Point, it 
 is four years. 
 
 At the Ecole Polytechnique, the most celebrated in Europe, 
 where there is scarcely any military training and discipline, the 
 
MILITARY EDUCATION. 361 
 
 cadets pursue ouly the same scientific subjects as are taught at 
 West Point. 
 
 As to thoroughness of instruction, the general practice on 
 the Continent is for the professor to deliver lectures to entire 
 classes, numbering often a hundred or more ; after which the 
 cadets are questioned by interrogators once or twice a week, 
 perhaps not oftener than once in two weeks. In such cases 
 the cadet is frequently told when he will be questioned, and 
 also the particular subject on which he will be questioned. 
 
 At West Point, on the contrary, in the important subjects 
 like mathematics, analytical mechanics, astronomy, and engineer- 
 ing, the classes are divided into sections of ten to twelve cadets, 
 and these sections, under the supervision of the professor, are 
 each in charge of an instructor, who devotes an hour and a half 
 to its recitations daily, Sundays only excepted. By this division 
 into sections, which is the sole secret of the thorough mental 
 training at West Point, the cadet recites from four to six times 
 per week, while the foreign cadet may escape weeks at a 
 time. 
 
 At West Point the standard of examination is so high that 
 from thirty to fifty per cent, of the different classes fail to grad- 
 uate ; abroad, the demand for officers is so great that rarely 
 more than three or four per cent. fail. 
 
 But it is not alone for its scholastic thoroughness that our 
 Academy is renowned throughout the world. The secret of its 
 success is found in the law of 1812, which prescribed that the 
 cadets shall " be trained and taught all the duties of a private, 
 non-commissioned officer, and officer." 
 
 Combining this practical with the theoretical course, we 
 have been able, at our Academy, to train officers equally for 
 engineers, for ordnance, for infantry, for artillery and cavalry, 
 and have given the cadets such a competent knowledge of all 
 the arms of service that in the late war they were transferred 
 from one arm to another, frequently serving in all three, with a 
 success and distinction that challenged foreign admiration. 
 
 In all of the academies abroad for educating officers of in- 
 fantry and cavalry, little or no effort is made to teach them any- 
 
362 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 thing pertaining to the science of artillery, or engineering ; much 
 less are they taught the tactics and evolutions of other arms. 
 
 At West Point the practical education of a cadet begins as 
 an infantry- soldier, and he is successively carried through every 
 school to that of the brigade, serving progressively as private, 
 non-commissioned officer, and officer. In cavalry he begins 
 with the School of the Trooper, and in the course of three years 
 is carried through the Schools of the Platoon, and Company, 
 until he learns all of the duties from private to lieutenant, both 
 mounted and dismounted. In artillery he begins as a cannoneer, 
 and successively learns all of the duties from private to chief of 
 platoon in both light and horse artillery ; not only that, but, on 
 going into heavy artillery, he is made familiar with the loading, 
 firing, and manoeuvres of all kinds of heavy ordnance, from an 
 8-inch mortar to a 15-inch gun. 
 
 The cadets, who each year are inspected by their congres- 
 sional patrons, perform before them a variety of military manoeu- 
 vres in engineering, and all arms of the service, which is no- 
 where approached, or even attempted, in Europe. 
 
 This peculiarity of the Academy has been studied by all 
 foreign officers visiting West Point, who have frequently re- 
 ported to their governments the admirable advantages of com- 
 bined instruction for all arms. 
 
 So well are these advantages understood that we can point 
 with pride to our Academy as the model adopted by the French 
 commission for the education of officers of the modern army of 
 Japan. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the superior preparatory education we 
 have secured to a portion of our officers, we have not as yet, 
 except in the artillery, provided for them the means for acquir- 
 ing a theoretical and practical knowledge of the higher duties 
 of their profession. 
 
 Abroad, it is the universal theory that the art of war should 
 be studied only after an officer has arrived at full manhood, and 
 therefore most governments have established post-graduate in- 
 stitutions for nearly all arms of service, where meritorious offi- 
 cers, from whatever sphere they may enter the army, may study 
 
MILITARY EDUCATION. 363 
 
 strategy, grand tactics, and all the sciences connected with mod- 
 ern war. 
 
 These institutions for the training ot the staff are known as 
 war academies, war schools, and staff colleges ; for the artillery 
 and engineers and cavalry they are know^n generally as schools 
 of application, or as advanced artillery and engineer courses. 
 
 Our first approach to this system of post-graduate education 
 was made in 18G7 by the General of the Army, when by Gen- 
 eral Order No. 99, of E"ovember 13th, he established at Fort 
 Monroe a school designated as the 
 
 "artillery school of the united states army." 
 
 The school was organized w^ith a staff consisting of 1 colo- 
 nel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, and 1 major, 5 instructors, who are 
 captains of the five companies which constitute the permanent 
 garrison. The two first and two second lieutenants of these 
 companies, which are selected from the five regiments of ai^til- 
 lery, compose the class of officers under instruction. 
 
 Up to November 10, 1875, the course of theoretical and prac- 
 tical instruction was for one year ; but by General Orders No. 
 92, from the War Department, of that date, the course was en- 
 larged and extended to two years, to take effect in May, 1876. 
 
 The advantage of this institution to the artillery may be in- 
 ferred from the nature of the course of instruction. 
 
 The theoretical course embraces, according to the programme, 
 the study of — 
 
 Light Artillery. — Manual of the piece; service of mitrailleur; 
 mechanical manoeuvres ; school of the battery dismounted ; forma- 
 tion of battery mounted, including " to unpark " and " to park." 
 
 Heavy Artillery. — Service and mechanical manoeuvres of guns, 
 howitzers, and mortars ; methods of constructing and laying plat- 
 forms; construction and use of hydraulic and other jacks, gun-lifts, 
 sling-carts, trucks, cradles, gins, and all implements used therewith ; 
 use of pulleys, and methods of knotting, splicing, and lashing ropes. 
 
 Science of Artillery. — Gunpowder and other military explosives ; 
 projectiles, cannon, small-arms ; gunnery; loading, pointing, dis- 
 charging ; kinds of fire ; effects of fire and projectiles ; manner of 
 
3G4 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 determining time of flight and range of projectiles; description of 
 velocimeters and densimeters ; method of inspecting cannon ; em- 
 ployment of artillery in war; war-rockets ; electricity; telegraphy, 
 as far as artillery necessities require ; signaling, and defensive tor- 
 pedoes. 
 
 Infantry. — School of the company; school of the battalion, and 
 ceremonies. 
 
 Mathematics. — Algebra to discussion of quadratics involving 
 but one unknown quantity; geometry (plane), to embrace regular 
 polygons, and measurement of the circle ; trigonometry (plane). 
 
 Engineering. — Mensuration; permanent fortification ; surveying 
 and leveling ; military bridges ; military reconnaissance ; descrip- 
 tion of surveying, plotting, and drawing instruments ; castramen- 
 tation. 
 
 Law. — Military law and courts-martial ; international law ; con- 
 stitutional law, and Constitution of the United States. 
 
 History and Strategy. — Universal history; operations of war ; 
 military logistics. 
 
 The course of pi'cactical exercises comprises — 
 
 Artillery. — Drill; target-practice; mechanical manoeuvres; lay- 
 ing platforms ; inspection of cannon, projectiles, and powder ; deter- 
 mination of ranges, velocities, and pressures; duty of the labora- 
 tory; use of electric telegraphy (as far as it relates to artillery), 
 and signal-apparatus ; preparation of written essays. 
 
 Infantry. — Drill. 
 
 Engineering. — Tracing and profiling field-work; construction of 
 siege-batteries, and cover for field-guns; surveying and leveling; 
 use of sextant and telemeters; military reconnaissance and map- 
 ping; preparation of written essays. 
 
 History and Strategy. — Preparation of written essays. 
 
 Official Papers. 
 
 The details of the practical exercises are as follows, viz. : 
 
 Artillery. — Drill of the field-battery, dismounted ; " service of 
 the piece " of each kind in use in the land-service of the United 
 States; target-practice with the same ; use of mortar-wagon, sling- 
 carts, trucks, cradle, skids, blocks, railway-trucks, and movable 
 track for transporting artillery ; use of gins, and gin as shears ; of 
 
MILITARY EDUCATION. 365 
 
 Laidlej's gun-lift; of hydraulic and other jacks; and generally of 
 all machines and appliances employed for artillery purposes, and of 
 the various methods of combining and applying them in any opera- 
 tion required in placing or removing the armament of permanent or 
 field works; use of pulleys and of knottings, splicings, and lashings 
 of ropes, applicable to artillery operations ; use of instruments for 
 determining velocity, pressure, time of flight, and range of pro- 
 jectiles ; analysis of gunpowder ; use of densimeter ; inspection 
 of cannon and projectiles ; fabrication of rockets, time-fuses, quick 
 and slow match; determination of muzzle velocities of cannon; ap- 
 plication of formula to gunnery; methods of discharging cannon 
 by means of electricity, under various conditions; use of chrono- 
 scope and chronograph; charging, planting, and exploding defensive 
 torpedoes ; discharging cannon by electricity; signal and electric 
 telegraphing ; linear drawings of such artillery machines and imple- 
 ments as do not appear in the artillery course of studies (these 
 drawings to be executed rapidly and freely, but still with accu- 
 racy to scale) ; and preparation and public reading of written 
 essays. 
 
 Infantry. — Drill in bayonet-exercise ; school of the company 
 and battalion, and practice of ceremonies. 
 
 Engineering. — Method of laying out camps ; tracing and profil- 
 ing field-works ; construction of siege-batteries and cover for field- 
 guns; construction of earthen magazines, bomb-proofs, and traverses; 
 surveying and leveling ; use of sextant and telemeters; military re- 
 connaissance and mapping ; and preparation and public reading of 
 written essays. 
 
 History and Strategy. — The preparation and public reading of 
 written essays. 
 
 Official Papers. — Making-out of muster-rolls ; inventory and 
 inspection reports ; monthly company returns ; return of ordnance 
 and ordnance-stores ; clothing receipt-roll, and records of target- 
 practice. 
 
 The system of instruction when perfected so as to employ 
 to the best advantage the increased time now allowed, will 
 give our officers of artillery facilities for procuring a theoreti- 
 cal and practical knowledge of their arm not equaled in any 
 army of Europe. 
 
366 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The time, too, devoted to history, strategy, law, and the art 
 of war, will obviate, so far as the artillery is concerned, any 
 necessity for a war academy. 
 
 INFANTRY AND CAVALRY SCHOOLS. 
 
 The success which has already attended the Artillery 
 School suggests that we should establish schools, with similar 
 constitution, for the infantry and cavalry — one to be located at 
 Atlanta, and the other at Fort Leavenworth. 
 
 In order still further to increase the usefulness of the schools, 
 at least two officers from each regiment should be permitted to 
 attend the course of instruction; and to stimulate their zeal, 
 those who distinguish themselves should be rewarded, after 
 graduation, by detail in some of the staff departments. By 
 establishing these schools, w^hich will require no special appro- 
 priation, our system of military education will be made to com- 
 ply with the most recent demands of military science. 
 
 MILITARY PROFESSORSHIPS. 
 
 Allusion has already been made to military colleges, as one 
 means of providing officers of complement for an expansive 
 organization ; but as yet the country, except in a general way, 
 has derived no benefit from the excellent law which permits the 
 President to detail an officer of the army to act as president, 
 superintendent, or professor, at any college " having capacity to 
 educate, at the same time, not less than one hundred and fifty 
 male students." 
 
 As these colleges are supposed to be located according to 
 population throughout the United States, they can be made 
 to provide officers of complement far superior in general attain- 
 ments to those afforded by the system of volunteers for one 
 year adopted in foreign countries. To this end, as the Govern- 
 ment expends from twenty to thirty thousand dollars a year in 
 providing the colleges with military professors, it ought to pre- 
 scribe a uniform programme of theoretical and practical instruc- 
 tion, and to decline to furnish a prof essor unless the programme 
 be accepted. 
 
NATIONAL VOLUNTEERS. 367 
 
 Having pursued this course of military instruction, such of 
 the graduates as may volunteer, should have their names 
 inscribed in the Army Register, to be borne there as officers of 
 complement until they resign, or attain the age of thirty-five. 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF MILITAEY EDUCATION. 
 
 In all foreign war departments there is a Bureau of Military 
 Education, presided over by an officer styled the Superintend- 
 ent, or Director of Military Education. 
 
 Through this bureau all of the business connected with the 
 various military academies and schools is transacted. 
 
 Should such a bureau be established in our War Depart- 
 ment, one of the duties of the chief, in addition to inspecting 
 our army schools, should be to inspect the colleges to which 
 military professors are attached. 
 
 NATIONAL VOLUNTEERS. 
 
 It has been the theory of our Government, from its foun- 
 dation, to dispense, as far as possible, with a regular army, and 
 to substitute in its place a well-organized militia, thus convert- 
 ing ourselves into an " armed nation." 
 
 The fact, however, that the active militia numbers but 
 90,000, and that the States, collectively, appropriate scarcely 
 a million dollars for its support, while many make no appro- 
 priation whatever, affords conclusive evidence that the expec- 
 tations based upon the militia cannot be realized, and that, if 
 we would prosecute our national wars with dispatch, we must 
 adopt an expansive organization. 
 
 But were such an organization actually adopted, the prepos- 
 session in favor of the use of volunteers is so strong in the 
 popular mind as to endanger its being set aside at the first 
 outbreak. In connection, therefore, with the adoption of any 
 definite peace establishment, based on the expansive principle, 
 the people must be led, as in all foreign countries, to regard the 
 army as the only true field for the exercise of courage and 
 patriotism. 
 
368 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 And this can possibly be done by organizing, in connec- 
 tion witli each of the twenty-five regimental depots for in- 
 fantry, one or two battahons of National Yolunteers, which 
 in time of war we could unite with the two battalions of the 
 regular regiment, giving us twenty-five regiments of four bat- 
 talions each. 
 
 The battalions of national volunteers should be organized 
 into four companies each, with three lieutenants to each com- 
 pany ; all of the officers being appointed by the President. 
 The captains, in view of the experience required to command 
 a company of two hundred and fifty men, should be officers of 
 the regular army, who would join their companies when war is 
 declared. 
 
 In order to insure these battalions proper training and in- 
 struction, the commandants, and adjutants, should be selected 
 from the regular officers serving at the depot. 
 
 In connection with the depot there should be provided 
 armories for depositing arms, and drill-rooms for drilling both 
 the volunteers, and regulars. 
 
 These battalions, in addition to the title of National Yolun- 
 teers, should be designated in the Army Register as Third or 
 Fourth Heserve Battalion (such) United States Infantry. 
 
 The adoption of this system would at once tend to nation- 
 alize and popularize our army. In case of war, the impulse of 
 cuch men as could not find places in the two battalions of 
 national volunteers, would be to enlist in the two battalions of 
 the regular regiment. The whole regiment would thus be- 
 come volunteers, would go forth with the sympathy of the 
 entire community, and differ only from the volunteer regiments 
 of the late war in having at the beginning trained officers to 
 lead every company. 
 
 The first cost of establishing forty regimental depots, 
 twenty-five of which to be adapted to the use of the national 
 volunteers, w^ould not exceed from ten to fifteen million dol- 
 lars. 
 
 The maintenance of the two hundred companies, with a 
 maximum of one hundred men to each, exclusive of arms and 
 
NATIONAL VOLUNTEEES. 369 
 
 clothing, would be about six hundred thousand dollars per 
 annum. 
 
 Tins estimate is based upon extra pay being allowed to the 
 commandant and adjutant of each battalion ; upon the require- 
 ment that there shall be an encampment of ten days each year, 
 and also thirty drills in the armories ; that in camp the officers 
 shall receive four dollars, and the enlisted men two dollars, per 
 day ; and that for each drill in the armory each officer shall 
 receive one dollar, and each enlisted man twenty-five cents. 
 
 By increasing this appropriation to one million dollars an- 
 nually, additional companies could be formed in towns not 
 occupied by the regimental depots, sufficient to raise this force 
 on the peace-footing to 40,000 men. 
 
 The impossibility of forming a trained reserve as in Europe, 
 and the certainty that the States cannot be relied upon to sup- 
 port a mmierous and well-organized militia, even with the aid 
 of the two hundred thousand dollars appropriated annually by 
 the Government, should impress us with the importance of de- 
 vising some method whereby both in peace and in war we may 
 have a national force ready to increase, and support, our troops 
 in the field. 
 
 During the late riots, had there been available from twenty- 
 five to fifty battalions of national volunteers, commanded by 
 regular officers, it is possible, and probable, that much of the 
 bloodshed and loss of property might have been avoided. 
 
 In drawing my conclusions, I have not been influenced by 
 comactions as to what plans may, or may not, be adopted ; but 
 recognizing, in the fullest degree, that our present geographical 
 isolation happily relieves us from the necessity of maintaining a 
 large standing army, I have sought to present the best system 
 to meet the demands of judicious economy in peace, and to 
 avert unnecessary extravagance, disaster, and bloodshed, in time 
 of war. 
 
 Should we recoil before the small expenditures required to 
 give us most of the advantages of an expansive peace estab- 
 lishment, we ought to bear in mind that in interest alone on 
 our national debt, mostly accumulated as the fruit of an expen- 
 
 24 
 
370 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 sive military policy, we have paid in the last ten years more 
 than eleven hundred and fifty millions of dollars. 
 
 The organization of national volunteers would give us in 
 time of peace a regular army, a reserve, and the militia, and 
 would enable us in time of war to prosecute our campaigns 
 with vigor and economy, and with that regard for human life 
 which becomes a free people. 
 
 Emory Upton, 
 Brevet Major- General JJ. S. Army. 
 
LETTERS FROM ASIA. 
 
Iisr September, 1874, tlie General of the Army visited the 
 Military Academy at West Point, and, while conversing upon 
 his recent trip to Europe, and the Caucasus, suggested to me 
 the advantage to the service of a military tour through Asia, 
 which had been offered to him and another officer immediately 
 after the Mexican War. 
 
 The object of the tour was to make military observations, 
 which were to be submitted to the Government in an official 
 report. 
 
 While traveling in Asia I kept a journal, or diary, in the. 
 form of letters to members of my family. 
 
 The letters were written with no idea of publication, and 
 make no pretension to novelty, or to a graphic description of 
 the many objects and scenes in the Eastern world which might 
 interest the general reader. They simply convey a few im- 
 pressions of the things which most interested me at the time, 
 and are only given to the public in response to the requests of 
 friends who have read them. 
 
LETTEES EEOM JAPAK 
 
 Yokohama, August 27, 1875. 
 
 We left San Francisco on the 2d of August, 1875, on the 
 steamer Great Republic, cominanded by Captain Cobb, On the 
 26th, having scarcely encountered a ripple in our passage, we ar- 
 rived off the shores of Japan, 
 
 You can imagine that the sight of land, after twenty-three 
 days at sea, was a feast to the eyes. 
 
 As we approached the coast, mountains about three thousand 
 feet high were on our right, while on our left expanded the never- 
 ending Pacific. 
 
 The day was beautiful ; Japanese junks, with their white sails, 
 dotted the mouth of the bay, and, scudding before the wind in dif- 
 ferent directions, imparted an air of busy trafiSc to the scene. 
 Some of them were propelled by oars, manned by strong, hearty 
 fellows who, as we approached, gave us a lesson in economy, for 
 the only clothing they wore was a breech-cloth at the loins. 
 
 In front of us as we steamed toward the entrance of the bay 
 of Yedo was Fusi Yama, the sacred mountain of Japan. Its base 
 was hidden by a bank of fog, while its summit, towering amid the 
 clouds, stood out lofty and grand two miles and a half above the 
 sea. As we proceeded up the bay the clouds disappeared, unfolding 
 to us the graceful proportions of the mountain, which loomed up like 
 an immense cone fourteen thousand feet high. The affection with 
 which the volcano is cherished is shown by the fans, boxes, etc.. 
 
374 LETTERS FEOM JAPAN. 
 
 which generally have " Fusi Yama " as the feature of their decora- 
 tions. 
 
 To us was given the opportunity of witnessing one of the 
 gorgeous sunsets of the East. To the right of Fusi Yama was a 
 low range of mountains, capped by clouds tipped with gold. Be- 
 tween these and Fusi Yama the rays of the sun played upon a 
 gauzy mist, making the entire mountain at one instant look Uke a 
 mass of molten iron, at another like a beautiful amethyst, at an- 
 other like an opal, after which it passed through the shades of 
 light and dark blue, and finally blended with the darkness. 
 
 Our progress up the bay showed us we were among a busy peo- 
 ple. The mountains were terraced from the bottom to the top, 
 making every inch available for cultivation. All along the bay, 
 villages, as at Naples, dotted the shore, twelve or more being visi- 
 ble at one time. At 7.30 we dropped anchor. In an instant the 
 water was covered with small craft of all descriptions. Men-of- 
 war sent their launches for the mail, while runners for the hotels 
 thrust their cards thick and fast upon the travelers. 
 
 We were taken ashore in one of the small boats belonging to 
 the agent of the Pacific Mail, and when we reached the wharf a 
 new sensation awaited us. There were no noisy hackmen about, 
 making the night hideous by their cries and cracking whips, but 
 arranged in front of us was a line of large baby-carriages, with 
 wheels about three feet high. Into these vehicles we stepped. 
 A horse without harness grasped the thills, and, with a Chinese 
 lantern dangling as a headlight, we started furiously up the street, 
 the tawny legs of the swift Japanese giving us a speed that would 
 have shamed an American hackman. 
 
 When we arrived at the International Hotel the modest sum 
 of six cents was claimed by the man who had drawn us and our 
 hand-bags a distance of fully half a mile. The jin-ricJc-shah is 
 the modern conveyance of Japan. It is generally drawn by one 
 man, but, when distances of forty to sixty miles are to be trav- 
 ersed in a day, a second man, throwing a cord over his shoulder, 
 pulls tandem, or else pushes in rear. The seat is very comfortable, 
 and, were it not for the fact that one's ease is purchased at the ex- 
 pense of a fellow-creature, no conveyance for short distances could 
 be more desirable. The tariff is twelve cents per hour, which leaves 
 no excuse for walking. 
 
LETTERS FEOM JAPAN. 375 
 
 The weather is excessively hot. White is the prevailing color 
 worn by the gentlemen, and is used even as full dress. It would 
 be idle to describe a Japanese town ; one must be seen to be ap- 
 preciated. The people seem to be gay and light-hearted, the men 
 all muscular and fleet of foot, while the women are small, grace- 
 ful, and not without beauty. 
 
 Yedo, August 31, 1875. 
 
 We left Yokohama yesterday at 8.15 A. m., and arrived here at 
 9.15. After depositing our baggage, we went at once to call on Mr. 
 Bingham, our minister, who is to procure us facilities for visiting 
 objects of military interest. In the evening he came and drove us 
 to the " Sheba," the burial-place of the Tycoons. The gateway 
 is a lofty edifice, with a double roof, one above the other, after 
 the manner of the pagoda. It is of wood, painted red, and is 
 nearly two hundred years old. The tombs, six in number, are 
 marvels in architecture ; each consists of a series of buildings, one 
 in rear of the other, crowned by the peculiar concave roofs of East- 
 ern temples. Each edifice in the sunlight appears like a glittering 
 mass of bronze and gold. 
 
 The ceilings are frescoed with gold, and the altars are literally 
 covered with platings of the precious metal. Birds, dragons, and 
 animals of all kinds, are delicately carved, and give an effect at 
 once graceful and of surpassing beauty. In a room of one of the 
 series of temples dedicated to the sixth Tycoon, one hundred 
 varieties of flowers are carved in the panels of the ceiling, while one 
 hundred kinds of birds nestle among the flowers ; but, what is more 
 remarkable, each panel is carved from a single piece of wood, 
 through which the light plays as through a filigree of gold. 
 
 Photographs which I have purchased show the perfection of 
 the art employed to do honor to the ashes of departed greatness. 
 
 It may be interesting to know how we pass our time, so I will 
 give you a slight idea in the form of a journal. 
 
 To-day, Dr. Murray, Commissioner of Education, called and in- 
 vited General Forsyth, Major Sanger, and myself, to spend a couple 
 of days with him, which invitation we accepted. In going to his 
 residence he drove us to the great temple of Asakusa. Passing 
 through a gateway, a vast edifice in itself, we proceeded up a broad 
 pavement, ascended the steps and entered the temple, which pre- 
 
376 LETTERS FEOM JAPAN". 
 
 sented a vivid picture of the temple of Jerusalem when cleansed by 
 the Saviour, There were the doves, the booths, the tables of the 
 monej'-changers, and there was the treasury into which the people 
 cast their gifts. The devotees having made their offerings, ad- 
 vanced to the altar, rang a bell to summon the god, prostrated 
 themselves before the image of Buddha, uttered their prayers, loi- 
 tered within the courts, and then departed. Near by was a wooden 
 image of the God of Pain. Any one who was sick would go up to 
 it, prostrate himself, say his prayers, touch the image on the spot 
 corresponding to the seat of his malady, and then, rubbing the dis- 
 eased parts, would rise, supposing the god would grant relief. The 
 poor image, sans eyes, sans teeth, and sans nose, showed some of 
 the prevailing diseases of the country. 
 
 After visiting the many side-shows which surrounded the tem- 
 ple, we drove through a magnificent park to Dr. Murray's, where 
 Mrs. Murray received us with Eastern hospitality. 
 
 September 1st. — To-day Mr. Bingham drove us through the 
 Hamogoten, or garden surrounding one of the Mikado's palaces. 
 These grounds, which have been much extolled, consist of lakes 
 and groves, but are not particularly beautiful. In the evening 
 Mrs. Murray gave us a dinner, at which were present General 
 Legendre, Mr. House, Mr. Mori, late Japanese minister at Wash- 
 ington, and General Yamada, who came to West Point at the time 
 the Japanese embassy visited America. 
 
 Septemher 2d. — Dr. Murray drove us to the agricultural farm 
 established by General Capron, to show the Japanese modern agri- 
 culture. As they have fields which have yielded annual crops for 
 the last fifteen hundred years, it is evident that they lack little in 
 the art of agriculture, and that all that can be done is to intro- 
 duce labor-saving machines. In the evening Mr. Bingham enter- 
 tained us at dinner, and at 11.15 P. M. we left for Yokohama. 
 
 Septemher Sd. — At 6.30 a. m. we took jin-rick-shah for Kama- 
 kura and Daibutzu. The landscapes were picturesque and beauti- 
 ful, and the journey across the country gave us a good opportunity 
 of seeing Japanese farming. Rice is the principal crop, and, in 
 terraces, arranged for flooding, is cultivated to the very hill-tops. 
 
 The Daibutzu is a mammoth image of Buddha in the state of 
 " Nirvina," or serene happiness and contemplation. The statue is 
 in bronze, and represents Buddha in a sitting posture, on a lotus- 
 
LETTERS FROM JAPAK S77 
 
 flower. It is forty-four feet high, eighty-seven and a half feet in 
 circumference, face eight feet, eyes three feet, ears six feet long, 
 thumbs three and a half feet in circumference, diameter through 
 the knees thirty-four feet. The expression, true to its intention, 
 represents the god in self-satisfied repose. Near by a polite priest 
 receives gifts from the visitors. 
 
 On our way to and from the image, we walked up a few hills, 
 and, with this exception, the two men, going at a dog-trot, drew each 
 of us in our jin-rick-shahs not less than twenty-five miles. On fin- 
 ishing my toilet, after returning to the hotel, the first man who pre- 
 sented himself to draw me to the station for Yedo was one of the 
 men who had been to Daibutzu. Seating myself in his jiu-rick- 
 shah, he started ofi" at a brisk run, and did not slacken his pace till 
 he reached the depot, a mile distant. For this service he would 
 have been glad to receive ten cents, but on doubling the amount 
 his expression surpassed even that of the great image. 
 
 September Ifth. — In the afternoon, Mr, Stevens, Secretary of 
 Legation, gave us a dinner at a Japanese tea-house. On our ar- 
 rival we were asked to take off our shoes, which are never permitted 
 to be worn in a Japanese house. In our stocking-feet we mounted 
 to the second story, where mats being provided, we sat down d la 
 Turque. Four beautiful singing and dancing girls welcomed us 
 with a sweetness and grace peculiar to Japan. The " chow " then 
 commenced with fish-soup, followed by fish boiled ; fish raw (some- 
 times cut from the fish while alive) ; fish boiled, smothered in sweet- 
 meats ; then fish with sauce and chestnuts, with still other prepara- 
 tions of fish to the end of the dinner. Between, and during the 
 courses, we had saki, the great beverage of Japan, distilled from 
 rice. During the service the four girls played on an instrument 
 like a banjo, and sang, making a squeaking noise through the 
 nose and teeth. Two of them also danced very gracefully, the 
 dance consisting simply of pantomime, graceful motions and posi- 
 tions. After the dinner, which lasted about three hours, jugglers 
 entertained us with tricks of various kinds. 
 
 Yedo, Sejjtemher 8, 1875. 
 
 We are having a delightful time, never better. Socially, we 
 are dined and tiffined (breakfasted) a little too much — a sure indica- 
 tion, however, of a large-hearted, generous hospitality. The coun- 
 
378 LETTERS FROM JAPAN. 
 
 try is beautiful, and every landscape is a solace to the eyes. The 
 people are amiable, and so polite as to make us wish we could imi- 
 tate their manners. The servants are the best. Houses are never 
 locked, trunks are left open, jewelry and " curios " exposed, and 
 yet nothing is stolen. It is rather startling to a foreigner in a 
 hot day to see so many bare heads, bare arms, bare bodies, and 
 bare legs, and, as one ordinarily judges of the density of a 
 crowd by the upturned faces, this sans-souci exposure of the per- 
 son gives to a street the appearance of being alive with human 
 beings. You must not imagine that all the Japanese go about in 
 this manner; many, and by far the greater majority, wear dresses 
 and robes very becoming. The children especially seem to enjoy 
 the liberty of dress ; up to four and five years of age they run about 
 without regard to appearance. On our way to the great image, 
 they stood naked in rows on the sides of the streets, and continually 
 saluted us with the welcome " Ohio, ohio ! " 
 
 Indifference to the exposure of the person is most clearly shown 
 in the national habit of bathing. At Yokohama we visited a pub- 
 lic bath-house, and, by mistake or intention of the guide, were 
 taken into a large compartment where women and children con- 
 tinued to bathe as if unconscious of our presence. 
 
 We would have been shocked at our intrusion had we not in- 
 stantly observed men and boys bathing in an adjoining apartment, 
 with only a railing for a partition. 
 
 Steamer Costa Eica, between Nagasaki and Shanghai, ( 
 
 September 23, 18T5. ' 
 
 On the 8th we were given a review of the troops at Yedo. It 
 rained nearly all night, rendering it necessary to defer the ceremony 
 till 9 A. M. On arriving at the Champ de Mars, we found four bat- 
 talions of infantry belonging to the Imperial Guard, two battalions 
 of non-commissioned officers belonging to the military school for 
 non-commissioned officers, and two squadi'ons of cavalry. All these 
 troops marched and manoeuvred creditably. 
 
 The IMinister of War received us at the review, and after it was 
 over invited us to meet him at breakfast (tiffin) in the grounds be- 
 longing to the late Prince Meto. 
 
 From the review we went to the castle, where we found a school 
 of instruction in practical engineering, for both officers and non- 
 
LETTERS FROM JAPAN. 379 
 
 commissioned officers. Batteries, rifle-pits, redoubts, trous-de-loup, 
 and everything pertaining to field-intrenchments, were constructed 
 and explained in theory to the apt scholars who are to direct the 
 modern sieges of Japan. 
 
 The castle consists of three or more walled inclosures, one rising 
 within the other, the massive masonry of each commanding every- 
 thing exterior to it. Each wall is surrounded by a wide moat filled 
 with water, on which floats the lotus, now in blossom. The lotus 
 is a magnificent flower, almost sacred to the Japanese, as you will 
 see from its association with the colossal images of Buddha, which 
 usually sit upon it. 
 
 The grounds of the inner castle, where formerly was the resi- 
 dence of the Tycoon, are superior to any I have yet seen ; artificial 
 cascades, ponds, and lakes ; avenues of trees, hundreds of years old; 
 groves of bamboo ; a suspension -bridge spanning a moat eighty feet 
 deep ; picturesque edifices crowning the angles of the lofty walls, 
 make up a variety of scenery of which no modern park can boast. 
 
 It is hoped that the Mikado will build his palace in these ancient 
 grounds ; if not, a few years will insure the demolition of the 
 walls, and the destruction of the trees. In fact, much of their 
 former grandeur has already disappeared, so great is the mania for 
 tearing down everything reminding the people of the former gov- 
 ernment of the Tycoons. 
 
 From the castle we went to the artillery-grounds, to witness a 
 review of three batteries ; thence went to the arsenal, where we saw 
 Japanese apprentices learning all the varieties of work in wood and 
 iron necessary to make arms and munitions of war. 
 
 The buildings are in process of construction, but some are fin- 
 ished, and supplied with machinery. Alreadj^ the wood-work of 
 small-arms is manufactured at the arsenal, and Enfield muzzle- 
 loaders are converted into Albini breech-loaders. 
 
 From the arsenal we went into the grounds of Prince Meto, 
 which will be surrounded by the arsenal, and, through the good 
 taste of the French officers, will be preserved in all their beauty. 
 
 Here, on the border of an artificial lake, we again met the Min- 
 ister of War. 
 
 In a Japanese house, one hundred and eighty years old, a deli- 
 cious French breakfast was served. The grounds, although very 
 small, are so laid out as to give an idea of great extent. Winding 
 
380 LETTERS FROM JAPAN. 
 
 walks, mounds, miniature lakes, brooks, falls, and temples, present a 
 picture of beauty, and testify to the perfection attained in land- 
 scape-gardening. 
 
 On our return toward the hotel, we visited the barracks of the 
 Imperial Guard. They are lofty brick buildings, inclosing a square 
 court as large as the grass plain at West Point. The Japanese 
 tidiness was again proved by the soldiers who luxuriate in warm 
 baths. 
 
 On the 10th of September we visited the Military Academy^ 
 accompanied by the French officers. Two years have sufficed to 
 construct the buildings and place the academy, modeled after West 
 Point, in running order. We heard recitations in geometry and 
 trigonometry, saw riding in the riding-hall, and were given a review 
 of the corps of cadets, which was but six months old. 
 
 From the academy we went to the gymnasium and school of 
 musketry, where were assembled officers and non-commissioned offi- 
 cers from every regiment in the empire, who, as soon as they learn 
 the practical course, return to their regiments as instructors. 
 
 We saw them perform many gymnastics, and were well pleased 
 with our observations. Japan, beyond doubt, will be the first power 
 in the East. She has gone too far forward to recede. The railroad, 
 telegraph, and steamboat, are uniting her people, while on every 
 hand there is a manifestation of increasing knowledge and power, 
 which gives an earnest of what she will do in the immediate 
 future. 
 
 We left Yedo on the 10th, and at 4 P. M. sailed on the Golden 
 Age for Hiogo, or Kobe, where we arrived at 12 p. M. on the 
 13th. 
 
 We went ashore at 9 a. m. on the 13th, and without delay took 
 the 11.30 train for Osaka, twenty-two miles distant. At 6 p. m. we 
 took a boat for Kiyoto. The boat was poled by six men, three on a 
 side, who, as they ran from front to rear on all-fours, pushing 
 against their poles, looked like so many monkeys. 
 
 The twilight ride up the Yodogawa, through the heart of 
 Osaka, gave us new views and many interesting scenes. Lights 
 lined the shore, bridges at short intervals crossed the river, over 
 which darted, like will-o-the-wisps, the fleet-footed jin-rick-shah 
 men with their lanterns, Avhile boats of every size and description 
 moved up and down in unending succession. No sooner had we 
 
LETTERS FROM JAPAN. 381 
 
 left the city than our boat approached the shore, when, splashing 
 into the water, one after another, our boatmen forsook their poles, 
 seized a rope, clambered up the steep bank, and, ajjpearing on a 
 tow-path, began to drag us up the stream. 
 
 We spent an almost sleepless night combating fleas and mos- 
 quitoes, and watching the movements of our boatmen. 
 
 At times, as they appeared and disappeared in the bushes, 
 they looked like Indians seeking our scalps, but lively talk, and 
 merry laughs, told plainly who were having the best of the night 
 vigils. All night long they toiled, alternately poling and towing, 
 until daylight, when we arrived at Fujimi, where we took jin-rick- 
 shahs, and, after a ride of seven miles through a continuous street, 
 arrived at Kiyoto. 
 
 Until 18G8, Kiyoto, for more than eleven hundred years, had 
 been the capital of the Mikado, the spiritual Emperor of Japan. 
 He represented a dynasty of twenty-five hundred years, and was 
 regarded by his people with a reverence due to a god. At Yedo, 
 for seven hundred years, the Tycoons, under the Mikado, had 
 wielded the temporal power of the empire. The revolution of 1868 
 overthrew the Tycoons, and made the Mikado actual emperor of his 
 country. He then moved his capital to Yedo. 
 
 Kiyoto is at the head of the Yodogawa Valley. Skirted on 
 three sides by mountains, it basks in the sunshine of eternal spring. 
 Grand old temples lift their venerable heads far above the trees, 
 and in solemn stillness look down upon a city given to idolatry. 
 Like all cities, its bouses are mostly one and two stories high. 
 Here and there is a "Godown," built fire-proof, into which people 
 carry their treasures, when large conflagrations sweep over the city. 
 It is expected in Japan that a city will be destroyed by fire about 
 every fifteen years. 
 
 This would be discouraging iu America, but here the houses are 
 cheap and combustible, and are rebuilt almost as quickly as they 
 burn down. 
 
 We visited several temples at Kiyoto. At one we saw wor- 
 shipers kneeling, while in front of the altar two priests intoned the 
 prayers, lighted the candles, and performed other ministi'ations. 
 In another were one thousand images of Buddha, while in a third 
 the bust of this deity was sixty feet high. 
 
 On the 15th we took horses and went to Lake Biva, eight miles 
 
382 LETTERS FROM JAPAK 
 
 off. Our route was along the Tokiado, or great road, which en- 
 circles the island of Nippon. We last saw it three hundred miles 
 off near Yokohama. At Kiyoto, as near Yedo, it was a scene of 
 busy life. We met carts, horses, and bulls, laden with heavy bur- 
 dens, and vast numbers of men and women walking under large 
 umbrellas. The women are particularly graceful and attractive. 
 Their costume is a single garment, a loose, flowing robe, open in 
 front, yet so secured by a broad sash as to conceal the person. The 
 sash is tied behind the back, in a large bow six or eight inches 
 wide. Sometimes they wear an underskirt of bright scarlet, the 
 overskirt being looped up so as to reveal a brilliant combination of 
 colors. 
 
 But to return to Lake Biva. It is a picturesque sheet of water, 
 surrounded by mountains sloping gently to its shores, which are 
 studded with villages and small cities. The country is amazingly 
 fertile. Tea and rice are cultivated in terraces from the bottom to 
 the tops of the hills and mountains, which look upon its placid 
 waters. The lake was dotted over with small fishing-boats, while 
 here and there a line of dark smoke pointed out the small steamers 
 which ply as ferries from shore to shore. 
 
 As we stood in the court of a temple overlooking the scene, the 
 familiar notes of the bugle fell upon our ears, and, turning to the 
 left, we saw the handsome barracks of a regiment. Here, as on 
 the banks of the Hudson, preparations for grim-visaged war resound 
 from hill to hill. 
 
 We breakfasted in a tea-house on the shore of the lake, and, 
 as elsewhere, had to remove our shoes, lest we should soil the 
 spotless mats. 
 
 Durino- our ride to and from the lake, bettos ran at full speed 
 ahead of us, and cleared the way. There seemed to be no limit 
 to their endurance, and when we returned they appeared as fresh as 
 when we started. 
 
 We returned from Kiyoto to Osaka in a steamer, about as large 
 as a teapot. The three first-class passengers occupied the front of 
 the cabin, and were separated from the second-class by a string 
 stretched from side to side. As the width of the partition did not 
 materially affect our vision, we could see behind us a tangled mass 
 of arms and legs, the bodies of our fellow travelers being twisted 
 and contorted into all kinds of positions. One incident only marked 
 
LETTERS FEOM JAPAK 383 
 
 our descent of the Yodogawa. The steamer in trying to land ran 
 violently against the bank, crushing a small boat. Women, naked 
 to the waist, forsook their work, and instantly lined the shore, won- 
 dering at the havoc we had made. 
 
 The steamer bounded off like a rubber ball, and finally, having 
 transferred to another boat the one passenger who had caused the 
 trouble, proceeded majestically down the river. The women, polite 
 till the last, remained on the shore till we were lost to sight. 
 
 Friday and Saturday, the 17th and 18th, we spent at Osaka, 
 visiting the castle, and inspecting the troops. 
 
 The castle is a vast mass of masonry, nearly one hundred feet 
 high, the three inclosures, as at Yedo, rising one above the other. 
 From the top of the inner castle a magnificent view of the Yodo- 
 gawa Valley is obtained, extending nearly to Kioto toward the 
 north, and to the sea toward the south. 
 
 Osaka is the headquarters of the fourth military district, in 
 which three regiments, of two battalions each, are stationed, one 
 regiment being at Lake Biva, The troops were drilled before us 
 in the French tactics, and did very creditably. 
 
 Tuesday morning, at three o'clock, we started on the steamer 
 Costa Rica for Shanghai. 
 
 The sail to Nagasaki through the Inland Sea was the most 
 beautiful I have ever seen. The sea is two hundred and eighty 
 miles long, and from four to twelve miles broad. Its shores are 
 bounded by mountains from one thousand to seven thousand feet 
 high, while the sea is studded with rocks and islands, sometimes 
 two thousand to three thousand feet above its level. The conical 
 shape prevails among the islands, many of them resembling in grace 
 of outline the sacred Fusi Yama. Some of the peaks are covered 
 with a fringe of trees, others with a crown of verdure, while the 
 slope descends in cultivated terraces to the base, where nestle the 
 thatched roofs of villages and hamlets. 
 
 In the distance we could see castles perched on rocks, looking 
 down menacingly upon the cities at their feet. But the sea cannot 
 be described. Overspread by an Italian sky, it combines and sur- 
 passes the Hudson with its Highlands, the St. Lawrence with its 
 thousand isles, and Lake George with its mountain-peaks. As the 
 steamer glided through the tortuous channels, each turn of the 
 wheel gave fresh delight, yet shadowed with regret that the fleet- 
 
384 LETTERS FROM JAPAK 
 
 ing scenes of beauty were every moment becoming themes of recol- 
 lection. Anticipation, enjoyment, remembrance of ever-varying, 
 ever-changing views — such was our voyage on the Inland Sea. 
 
 Nagasaki was the first place we made after leaving Hiogo. 
 Picturesque, encircled by mountains two thousand feet high, it 
 appeared a fitting haven after the beauties of our voyage. As we 
 approached its entrance, we passed Papenburg Rock, from the 
 summit of which, about two hundred years ago, four thousand Chris- 
 tians were thrown into the sea. A few miles from Nagasaki is a 
 boiling spring, in which it is said thousands were put to death. 
 
 At Nagasaki, September 23d, we left the Land of the Rising 
 Sun. 
 
 To-day we are on the Yellow Sea, and to-morrow morning shall 
 be at Shanghai. From San Francisco to the present moment, a 
 glass placed on the edge of a table would not have been disturbed 
 by the gentle billows, which have borne us up, and cai-essed the 
 bows of our floating palaces. 
 
LETTEES FEOM CHIE"A. 
 
 Steamer Shing-King, Gttlf of Pee-che-lee, | 
 October 1, 1875. i 
 
 My last letter closed with our arrival at Shanghai. The coast 
 of China, off the mouth of the Yang-tse River, is like that of the Mis- 
 sissippi, low, flat, and monotonous, with a vegetation verging on the 
 semi-tropical. " Shanghai is on the Hwang-pu, about twelve miles 
 from the Yang-tse. It is one of the treaty ports to which foreign- 
 ers are admitted, hence its importance. From the deck of the 
 steamer, as we ascended the Hwang-pu, we could overlook the ad- 
 joining fields covered with rich crops. 
 
 On the left bank of the river the Chinese are throwing up long 
 lines of batteries, as if to intimidate the foreigners by threatening 
 their communications. The approach to Shanghai is impressive. 
 Tall massive buildings lift their heads far above the trees, and look 
 out upon the river teeming with life. Here are English, French, 
 German, American, and Japanese steamers and sailing-vessels, dis- 
 charging and receiving their cargoes, giving occupation to innumera- 
 ble sampans and lighters, which ply between the vessels and wharves. 
 Each sampan has two large eyes painted on the bows, and these are 
 held responsible that no collisions occur. The Chinese junk is a 
 great, clumsy structure, with square bows and stern, both pointing- 
 heavenward. As in the small sculls, eyes are painted on the bows 
 two or more feet in diameter. Above the town these junks are 
 anchored in lines parallel to each other, presenting to the eye a 
 sea of masts. The European part of Shanghai is beautiful. The 
 25 
 
386 LETTERS FROM CHINA. 
 
 architecture is that of the Italian villa, modified and combined 
 with porticoes and piazzas. The great business-houses are on the 
 Bund, a broad street with buildings only on the inland side, over- 
 looking the harbor. Here the merchant princes have established 
 themselves in Oriental splendor. 
 
 The dwellings of these merchants are generally by the side of 
 their places of business, and are palatial in their appointments, due 
 in part, perhaps, to the fact that, in former times, when there were 
 no hotels, they had to entertain all travelers. The night of my 
 arrival, having letters to Russell & Co., I was invited to dine. As in 
 Japan, the real breakfast is at twelve, the dinner is served at eight, 
 and consists generally of seven or eight courses. 
 
 The Chinese part of Shanghai is densely crowded. The streets 
 are packed with human beings all clad in blue. In Japan, the jin- 
 rick-shah amused us ; here it competes with the wheelbarrow. 
 This vehicle is impelled by a man who supports most of its weight 
 by means of a strap passing over the shoulders. If wheeling one 
 Chinaman, who always sits on one side instead of in the rear of the 
 wheel, he cants the barrow till the centre of gravity of the human 
 freight is above the track of the wheel, and, distorting his lips and 
 shoulders to preserve the equilibrium, pushes his load laboriously 
 along. The lazy Chinaman who rides at the expense of his fellow- 
 man, spreads his fan, protects his face from the sun, and looks like 
 a contented monkey. I have seen as many as three on the wheel- 
 barrow, giving the poor man all he could do to stand under his load. 
 The Chinese women are taller and stouter than the pretty Japanese. 
 They dress their hair much in the same style, and are fond of gaudy 
 head-ornaments. I saw but one woman Avith tiny feet, who hob- 
 bled along the street, a victim of the inexorable laws of fashion. 
 
 We left Shanghai at 2 a. m. on the 27th for Peking, and yes- 
 terday stopped two hours at Che-fu, where Dr. Nevius resides. 
 I went ashore, but found, to my regret, that he was on a missionary 
 tour in the interior. The town is a desolate one, streets narrow, 
 gutters filthy, and reeking with blue mud ; the men dirty, ill- 
 dressed, and squalid. In buying a curio, I dropped my purse; 
 the gold and silver coins jingled on the pavement, but no one 
 in the crowded street sought to molest me, or take what was 
 not his own, I gathered up the pieces, hurried from the scene, 
 and, thankful for a breath of pure air, returned to the ship. 
 
LETTERS FROM CHINA. 387 
 
 Peking, October 5, 1875. 
 
 My last letter was written on the gulf of Pee-che-lee, en route 
 to Tien-tsin, where we arrived on Saturday morning, October 2d. 
 
 Tien-tsin is a city of about four hundred thousand inhabitants, 
 one-half of whom reside outside of the walls. The houses are most- 
 l}'^ of mud ; the streets are unpaved, narrow, filthy, and redolent of 
 bad odors. To one who has seen the worst streets of New York, a 
 comparison therewith would convey but a slight idea of Tien-tsin. 
 Squalid men and women, half-famished dogs gnawing offal from 
 the butcher-shops and the kitchen, hogs wallowing in the gutters, 
 and rooting up their malarious contents, carts, wheelbarrows, mules 
 and donkeys — voild Tien-tsin ! The city, in 1870, acquired an un- 
 enviable reputation through the massacre of the French mission- 
 aries. 
 
 We left Tien-tsin on the morning of the 3d on ponies for Peking, 
 distant eighty miles. The country throughout is a level plain, inter- 
 spersed here and there with groves of trees. The Peiho frequently 
 overflows its banks, and then for miles the country becomes a vast 
 lake. The same thing happens along the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse. 
 The deposit of these three rivers has compelled the sea to recede 
 until forty-five thousand square miles have been added to the terri- 
 tory of China, an area almost equal to the State of New York. The 
 waters of tlie Yellow Sea hold clay and alluvium in suspension, the 
 deposit of which annually increases the shoal Avater, and gradually 
 advances the low, thread-like line of the encroaching coast. 
 
 In many respects, the country which we traversed resembles 
 the prairies of Illinois, even to its cornfields ; but here the poverty 
 is apparent, from the fact that the corn-stalks are dug up for 
 fuel. The villages are all composed of mud-huts, roof and wall 
 alike, which in floods and heavy rains often wash down and disap- 
 pear. In going through one of the villages, a member of our party 
 sought to change a silver dollar. He was told it was too large a 
 coin to circulate in that town, and retired with his ideas of Chinese 
 wealth essentially modified. 
 
 The roads, with time, have become sunken below the surface of 
 the fields, and frequently look like canals. The covered cart is the 
 principal vehicle. It is drawn hy one or two mules, in the latter 
 case driven tandem. With cushions, and good roads, it is quite 
 
388 LETTERS FPwOM CHINA. 
 
 comfortable, but with bad roads it becomes an engine of torture. 
 Our hotel at night was a curiosity. We rode into a square court, 
 inclosed by low, one-story buildings. In the centre the mules were 
 hitched, and around them the carts were i^ai'ked. When we were 
 shown into our room we found it had a clay floor. At one end was 
 a stone platform, about two feet high, on which to place our beds. 
 This platform is usually heated at night, giving one the novel sen- 
 sation of sleeping on an oven. 
 
 On the 4th we resumed our march at 5 a. m., sending the carts 
 off at 3.30. All day the country was like that already described. 
 At 5 P. M. we came to the walls of the famous city of Kublai Khan. 
 They are between fifty and sixty feet broad at the top, with square 
 bastions like buttresses projecting as flank defenses on the exterior 
 side. On the top is a crenelated parapet-wall, behind which archers 
 discharged their arrows in olden times, but which would now serve 
 as a defense for riflemen. There is also an inner parapet-wall 
 adapted to use against the city. Over the gate which we ap- 
 proached there was a lofty, imposing structure, crowned by a 
 double roof. The efi'ect of these massive Tartar walls, so like 
 the defenses of Babylon and Nineveh, was somewhat diminished 
 by the sight of a poor mule, struggling and floundering in a great 
 mud-hole in the middle of the main highway leading to one of the 
 gates of the city. Through the gate, by which we entered as 
 through a funnel, lines of carts, mules, donkeys, camels, coolies, and 
 lastly dusty travelers, eagerly pressed into the city. Within the 
 walls no marble palaces greeted our vision. We were only in 
 the Chinese city, which is separated from the Tartar city by an- 
 other great wall, with gates more formidable than those we had 
 already passed. Finally, we entered the Tartar city, and, tired out 
 with our two daj's' ride of eighty miles, were glad to find rest at 
 a forlorn hotel, where we soon received an invitation from our 
 minister, Mr. Avery, tendering us the hospitality of the legation. 
 
 The city is not much of an improvement on Tien-tsin. There 
 are no pavements nor sidewalks. The dust is insufi"erable, and the 
 water, coming from the wells sunk in the ruins of centuries, is so 
 hardened with lime as to be intolerable either for drinking or 
 washing. This deprivation of itself is sufiicient to make it a sacri- 
 fice to live in Peking. The city is well laid out on a square plan 
 with broad avenues, but the buildings consort badly with the grand 
 
LETTERS FROM CHINA. 389 
 
 plans of the founder. They are mostly one story high, and built of 
 a grayish brick. The fronts of many of the stores are covered with 
 gilded filigree-work, which soon tarnishes and turns black. The 
 people are badly clad, some with cotton, others with silk, others 
 with sheep-skins. Many of them appear half naked, and all are 
 very dirty. 
 
 October 5th. — We went to see the white elephants, presented 
 to the emperor as tribute from the King of Burmah. On our 
 return a walk on the wall gave us a good view of the palaces of the 
 Forbidden City, and also of the mountains to the north and west 
 of Peking. 
 
 October 6th. — We called with Mr. Avery upon the English, 
 German, Russian, French, and Spanish ministers. In the afternoon 
 we went to the Hall of the Astronomers, and the Temple of Con- 
 fucius ; also the Lama Temple, containing a standing image of 
 Buddha seventy feet high, 
 
 October 7th. — We visited the Temple of Heaven, where the 
 emperor worships once a year, and also the Altar of Heaven, where 
 he offers an annual sacrifice. 
 
 October 8th. — Breakfasted with Mr. Holcombe, a missionary, 
 now interpreter and Acting Secretary of Legation, and attended 
 prayers in a Chinese chapel. The Chinese sang " Am I a soldier 
 of the Cross ? " to the tune of " Arlington." 
 
 At 3 p. M. we were received by Prince Kung, and the Tsungli 
 Yamen, or cabinet, composed of all the ministers of the difi'erent 
 departments. On arriving at the Foreign Department we rode 
 through a large door, into a small court, where we dismounted. 
 We then passed into another court, where four of the ministers 
 welcomed us by folding and shaking their own hands. They led 
 us into a third court, where Prince Kung, the regent, received 
 us, shaking his own hands, like the others. This ceremony over, 
 we entered a room in which there was a round table, covered 
 with fruits and confectionery. Plain, square, cushioned stools 
 were provided for seats. Prince Kung, the son and brother of 
 an emperor, and uncle of two emperors, took the head of the 
 table, having four ministers on his right. Mr. Avery sat at the 
 left of the prince, then came myself, Forsyth, Sanger, and Mr, Hol- 
 combe, Acting Secretary of Legation, The interview began by Mr. 
 Avery, who told the prince in the usual form that he hoped he was 
 
390 LETTERS FROM OHmA. 
 
 well, etc. The prince immediately asked where we had come from, 
 and what we thought of China. The conversation took a wide 
 range, military, among other matters, being discussed. He was 
 particularly anxious that we should see Li Hung Chang, the vice- 
 roy, or governor-general, of the province of Chihli, and generalis- 
 simo of the forces. The Secretary of War was the jolly member 
 of the board, and continually proposed healths which were drunk 
 with saki. During the interview the fruits and confections grad- 
 ually disappeared. The prince was in good-humor, and laughed 
 repeatedly. His health being offered by one of the party broke 
 up the seance, when, accompanying us into the court where he had 
 welcomed us, he shook his hands and retired. The ministers saw us 
 to our horses, and, after we had mounted, bowed and returned to 
 their offices. We were all much pleased by the manifest cordiality 
 of the reception, which Mr. Avery said he had never seen equaled. 
 
 October 10th. — Mr. Avery received notice that Li Hung Chang 
 would call upon him, and our commission, at 10 o'clock. At 10.30 
 he came in a chair borne by coolies, preceded and followed by foot- 
 men. He is a man of fine stature and personal appearance, and 
 strode into the legation like a king. In China all official visits 
 are accompanied by refreshments, so Mr. Avery had a large table 
 covered with fruits and sweetmeats. The viceroy was in excellent 
 humor, and prolonged his call an hour and a half. As generalissimo 
 of the forces of the empire he was inquisitive about military affairs ; 
 admitted the feeble condition of China, the necessity of a military 
 academy, and the organization of a large army. With him, there- 
 fore, as with Prince Kung, we enlarged upon the fine military or- 
 ganization of Japan as the surest way to stimulate them to action. 
 
 October 11th. — Mounted on ponies, and accompanied by Mr. 
 and Mrs. Avery, who rode in mule-litters, we started for the Great 
 Wall ; and, carrying all our provisions and bedding with us, spent 
 the night at Nankow. The next morning we started on mules 
 and donkeys at 7, and arrived at the Great Wall at 11 A, M. 
 
 The wall is from fifteen to thirty feet high, fifteen feet wide at 
 the top, with towers here and there as places of refuge. The facing 
 of the wall is of hewed granite ; the coping, covering, exterior cren- 
 elated parapet, interior parapet, and the towers, are of brick. We 
 climbed two towers perched on the tops of rugged peaks, and from 
 these could see the wall stretching away across hills and valleys 
 
LETTEES FEOM CHINA. 391 
 
 along sharp rugged crests, appearing and disappearing over the 
 highest mountains, as if nothing in Nature could daunt the intre- 
 pidity of its founders. 
 
 It is only when one asks how without gunpowder the hewed 
 granite could be procured, and considers the cost of transportation, 
 that an idea can be formed of the immense expense an empire 
 was willing to incur to raise an inanimate barrier against the bar- 
 barians who finally subdued it. Had the same amount of money 
 been spent in building a few fortresses, and in perfecting military 
 organization, it is more than probable that to-day the Tartars would 
 not govern a nation superior to them in all of the elements of civ- 
 ilization. 
 
 After inspecting the wall, we picked our way back through the 
 rugged pass, which was obstructed by hundreds of camels going 
 and returning from Mongolia ; spent the night at Nankow, and the 
 next day went to the Ming Tombs. These monuments, eleven 
 in number, commemorate the reigns of the ablest monarchs China 
 has ever had. They are too grand to be described in few words, so 
 I will pass over them. On leaving the tombs we passed along the 
 avenue famed for the double row of statues, life-size, of elephants, 
 camels, horses, lions, etc. 
 
 On approaching them the mules became frightened and upset 
 the litters, but fortunately Mr. and Mrs. Avery had got out to walk, 
 and thus escaped injury. 
 
 The next day, October 13th, we returned to Peking, visiting eii 
 route the grounds and ruins of Wan Shushan, the summer-palace 
 of the emperors, which was burned in revenge by the allies after 
 the capture of Peking. 
 
 On the 16th of October, the date of our departure from Peking, 
 we witnessed the funeral of the late emperor. His remains were 
 carried in a catafalque covered with rich yellow silk, borne on the 
 shoulders of one hundred and twenty-eight men. Behind was an- 
 other catafalque, containing the remains of the empress who, from 
 grief it was supposed, had committed suicide. 
 
 The procession, with the usual accompaniment of banners, was 
 composed of all the officers of state, civil and military ; of cavalry 
 armed with the bow and arrow ; and of many thousand coolies fol- 
 lowing and flanking the column with provisions and camp-equipage 
 for their august masters. All along the route from the capital to 
 
392 LETTERS FROM CHINA. 
 
 the tomb dense crowds of people looked upon the ceremony, and 
 were repeatedly driven back by the guards, who flanked the column. 
 At Tung-Chow, where we saw the procession, we dined with Mr. 
 Sheffield, an American missionary, and then took boats for Tien- 
 tsin. 
 
 I am sure, could any one visit the modest household of this 
 preacher of the gospel, he would not join in the accusation against 
 the missionaries that they make themselves comfortable; nor would 
 he begrudge these worthy people the possession of a single spot 
 reminding them of the land they have forsaken. 
 
 On the 18th we arrived at Tien-tsin, and at once went on board 
 the steamer Shing-King, where Captain Hawes gave us a warm 
 welcome. 
 
 Shanghai, Sunday, October 24, 1875. 
 
 My last finished with our arrival at Tien-tsin on the 18th. This 
 brick and mud city is the capital of the province of Chihli, of 
 which Li Hung Chang, one of the ablest men in the empire, is 
 viceroy or governor-general. The only object of military inter- 
 est is the arsenal, built by an Englishman named Meddows. It is 
 inclosed by an earthen wall or parapet for defense, and occupies 
 a mile square. At present only Remington cartridges, powder, and 
 shells, for cannon of different calibre, are manufactured, but ma- 
 chinery for Remington rifles is being erected. In visiting any 
 official in China, you are invited into a room simply furnished with 
 round and square tables, stools, or mats, and are then invited to 
 take tea, which is alwa3^s clear and of rare flavor. This ceremony 
 completed, you can proceed to business. After our inspection of 
 the arsenal, we were invited to dine with the quartermaster-gen- 
 eral of the viceroy. Putting ourselves in full dress, and accom- 
 panied by Mr. Pethick, vice-consul, as interpreter, we entered the 
 walled city, and arrived at his yamen about 4 p. M. The furniture 
 of the dining-room was the same as I have already described, all the 
 dishes being served on a round table, without a table-cloth. We 
 were provided both with chopsticks and knives and forks, but the 
 dinner was exclusively Chinese. The courses were so many, and the 
 dishes so numerous, that I cannot do better than give you the bill- 
 of-fare of a dinner we ordered at a Chinese restaurant at Peking, 
 as the most faithful approach I can make to a description : 
 
LETTEES FROM CHINA. 393 
 
 1st Course. — Tea. 
 
 2d Course. — Fruits and sweetmeats, viz. : lotus-seed fried ; 
 water-melon seed; green dates; prunes; apples dried in honey; 
 English walnuts ; fresh apples ; pears and grapes. — This course re- 
 mained on the table throughout the dinner. 
 
 Sd Course. — Shrimps ; Mongolia ham, boiled and served in thin 
 slices ; chicken ; wine made of rice. The wine is served hot, in 
 small glasses. Each time the servant passes it, if any remains in 
 the glasses, it is poured back into the common reservoii", and again 
 poured back into the glasses. This is another instance of Chinese 
 economy. 
 
 J^th Course. — Pickled eggs ; pickled lotus-root. Skin of ducks' 
 feet boiled ; pickled sea-weed. The eggs are buried for years in 
 clay and salt, and undergo a species of decomposition, making 
 them, when exhumed, resemble a dark, gelatinous substance. In 
 Chinese cookery articles are always pickled in salt, never in vinegar. 
 
 6th Course. — This course was preceded by changing our paper 
 napkins, and consisted of plovers' eggs, stewed with sharks' fins, 
 and curdled milk (delicious) ; duck ; kidneys ; sea-weed jelly, and 
 bamboo-shoots. 
 
 6th Course. — Fish-sinew soup; mushroom and water-chestnut 
 stew ; stewed fish ; tripe ; stewed prawns ; chicken stewed in jelly. 
 
 7th Course. — Duck smothered in jelly (delicious) ; jelly pate ; 
 fluid fat-meat hash. 
 
 8th Course. — Skin of ducks' feet stew ; stewed mushrooms ; 
 stewed snails. (We bound ourselves to taste of every dish.) 
 
 9th Course. — Fish smothered in vinegar and jelly (good). 
 
 10th Course. — Meat dumplings ; onion omelette. 
 
 11th Course. — Vermicelli-soup. 
 
 12th Course. — Stewed chicken ; vegetable soup with hashed 
 meat balls ; pork smothered in flour. 
 
 13th Course. — Rice-soup ; boiled rice ; bullocks' blood thick- 
 ened; salt pickles. 
 
 IJfth Course. — We go to another table, and are served with tea 
 and cigars. 
 
 The dishes are generally brought on in small bowls, one or more 
 at a time. Each guest dips his chopsticks into the common dish, 
 and eats directly from it, or transfers what he wants to a small 
 saucer, provided for the purpose. 
 
394 LETTERS FROM CHINA. 
 
 The dinner with the quartermaster-general was interspersed with 
 conversation on guns, cannon, tactics, army organization, etc. 
 
 The saki, as harmless as boiled milk, flowed freely. Our ami- 
 able host proposed healths often, and after each one showed us 
 the bottom of his glass. When we arose from dinner it was quite 
 dark. Four soldiers Avith lanterns lighted us home, running swiftly 
 before our horses. As we came into the street an enterprising re- 
 porter of a Chinese paper sought to interview us, and, I have no 
 doubt, gave an amusing description of the foreign visitors. 
 
 This dinner was only preliminary to another. At 8 o'clock we 
 dined with Captain Fyffe, and the officers of the United States 
 steamer Monocacy. These naval heroes were rather forlorn over 
 the prospect of being frozen up for three months in the Peiho. 
 Since the Tien-tsin massacres foreign gunboats stay at Tien-tsin 
 summer and winter. 
 
 October 30th. — We left Tien-tsin at 8 A. m., and arrived at the 
 Taku forts at the mouth of the river at 2 P. M. Here we went 
 ashore to inspect the fortifications. Word had preceded us, so 
 when we arrived everything was in readiness. Flags floated upon 
 the parapets of all the forts, while at the wharf, and along the route 
 to the quarters of the commanding general, no less than a hundred 
 banners floated from the staffs, supported by faithful soldiers of the 
 empire. 
 
 " Terrible as an army with banners," was our first impression — 
 nevertheless, without palpitation, we landed, rolled ourselves into 
 carts, and proceeded along the line of troops. 
 
 A battalion of ten companies was paraded, the companies pre- 
 senting arms successively as we passed. On approaching the sally- 
 port, a salute of three guns, the highest in the empire, was fired. 
 Troops without arms were arrayed in line in front of the general's 
 quarters, who came out, shook his own hands, then shook ours, and 
 invited us to enter his quarters. Having been served with tea, we 
 went to see the fort, which is of mud, or clay, made hard by pound- 
 in"-. Three or four Krupp guns, mounted on cavaliers, overlook all 
 the other guns of the fort. A German, Mr. Le Myer, instructs the 
 Chinese in the use of these monsters. It was in front of these forts, 
 clumsy as they appear, that three or four English gunboats were 
 sunk years ago. An attack from the sea-front was also bloodily 
 repulsed. On another occasion these forts were taken from the 
 
LETTERS FROM CHINA. 395 
 
 rear, which the Chinese regard as a very cowardly proceeding. 
 After looking at the fort we had taken our seats for another Chi- 
 nese dinner, but the whistle of the steamer brought our visit to a 
 close. We went back amid the display of banners, the roar of can- 
 non, and the clangor of trumpets. 
 
 Throughout our visit we have been treated courteously by all of 
 the authorities. Prince Kung and the foreign ministers received 
 us three days after our arrival. The viceroy, Li Hung Chang, 
 called on us at the American legation, and sent his secretary, who 
 goes as associate minister to England, to receive us at the arsenal 
 and the forts. From this you can see that our official experience 
 has been delightful. 
 
 Steamee Kashgae, November 13, 1875. 
 
 To-day finds us en route from Hong-Kong to Singapore ; and, 
 as at sea Ave have plenty of time, I must take up the thread of our 
 travels, which was interrupted at Shanghai. On October 26th I 
 went up the Yang-tse River as far as Chinkiang, one hundred and 
 fifty miles from the mouth. At this point the Grand Canal crosses 
 the river, making Chinkiang a great commercial centre. The river 
 is muddy like the Mississippi, and at some points is ten miles wide. 
 At Chinkiang there is little of interest, except an iron pagoda, claimed 
 to be seventeen hundred years old. I saw a few troops, dirty and 
 ragged, armed with the old smooth-bore musket. The hills around 
 the city are covered with the graves of the soldiers killed in the 
 Taiping rebellion. A conical mound about three feet high marks 
 each resting-spot. On tlie side of a sunken road, one of the coffins 
 projected. Upon it the surviving friends sometimes place rice for 
 the deceased. After his spirit is refreshed, beggars, and even dogs, 
 cat what is left. I returned to Shanghai on the 28th, and on the 
 29th took the beautiful steamer Ava, of the French Messagerie, for 
 Hong-Kong, where we arrived Monday, the 1st, at 6 A. m. The 
 voj'age was pleasant, though somewhat rough. For the first time, 
 since leaving San Francisco, we were compelled to use racks at 
 the table. On November 1st we visited our consul, Mr. Bailey, 
 and arranged to call upon the governor, and General Colborne, 
 commanding the forces. The governor was too ill to receive us, 
 but we had a pleasant interview with the general, who invited us 
 to tiffin the next day — a pleasant occasion, at which we met several 
 
396 LETTERS FEOM CHINA. 
 
 officers of the Eightieth Regiment. Wednesday, November 3d, we 
 took the steamer for Canton, arriving there at 3 P. M. Mr. Geary 
 gave me a letter to his house at Canton, where all three of us were 
 entertained by Mr. Talbot, 
 
 November Jfth. — We visited in the morning several curio-shops, 
 where no end of beautiful objects were presented for purchase. 
 The china-shops were particularly fascinating. In the afternoon 
 we visited the arsenal, and saw them making guns of varied de- 
 scriptions, among them breech-loading Spencer and Remington 
 rifles, six or more feet long, with a calibre of one inch. On visiting 
 the house of the superintendent, we saw for an instant his three 
 wives, who were gaudily painted. He offered us wine, and seemed 
 pleased that we had come to admire his works. 
 
 On our return we visited the Honan Temple, where, among 
 other things, they keep sacred pigs, so fat that they can scarce- 
 ly walk. In one of the priest's rooms was a sewing-machine, 
 an evidence that foreign improvements are gradually being intro- 
 duced, 
 
 November 5th. — We visited the house of a wealthy Chinese 
 merchant. It was very large, and had many reception-rooms, most 
 of them being furnished with black-wood, marble-top tables, and 
 chairs. The partitions were frequently of carved wood and stained 
 glass. The ladies' apartment we were not permitted to see. From 
 the house we went to the military examinations, which consisted of 
 tests in archery. 
 
 The Temple of Horrors is another place of interest. It is open 
 to the people, who are permitted to see the different forms of pun- 
 ishment administered in the empire. The figures are life-size. 
 
 One represented a man being sawed in two from head to foot. 
 He stands bound between planks, one in front, another in rear ; 
 two men with a cross-cut saw then begin at the top of the skull, 
 and probably kill their victim at the first or second stroke. 
 
 Another represents a man on his face receiving the bamboo. 
 Three hundred blows usually paralyze the lower limbs, and gen- 
 erally prove fatal, 
 
 A third figure represents beheading, quick and painless. 
 
 A fourth represents a man sitting under a red-hot bell, which is 
 lowered over him, thus roasting him alive. 
 
 A fifth is a fiffure boilino- in a caldron of hot water or oil. 
 
LETTERS EEOM CHINA. 397 
 
 A sixth is the figure of a man whose bones are being broken by 
 a weight repeatedly falling upon him. 
 
 Another punishment, not represented, is cutting a man to pieces 
 by inches, and consists of cutting out small pieces of flesh from 
 time to time, from diflPerent parts of the body, until the man dies. 
 
 Such are some of the cruelties still practised under Confucian 
 civilization. 
 
 From the temple we went to a prison, where we saw poor, half- 
 starved creatures, covered with sores and vermin, who may languish 
 for years before being tried ; and thence went to a court and wit- 
 nessed a trial. The prisoner, bound with chains, kneeled before 
 three judges, and, with face bowed to the ground, not daring to 
 look at his accusers, answered the questions put to him. He 
 was accused of stabbing, which he admitted ; had he not done so, 
 it is probable that he would have been whipped till he confessed. 
 The knife he used was produced, and looked at by his judges, who 
 made a report to the prefect, by whom sentence was pronounced. 
 
 These were some of the things we saw at Canton, which we 
 left on the 6th, arriving at Hong-Kong at 3 P. M. 
 
LETTERS FEOM IISTDIA. 
 
 Point de Galle, Ceylon, November 25, 1875. 
 
 We left Hong-Kong November 11th, on the steamer Kash- 
 gar, and arrived at Singapore on the 16th. The situation of the 
 city near the extreme southern point of Asia, within two degrees of 
 the equator, makes it a great distributing point from which steam- 
 ers proceed to Hong-Kong, the Philippine Islands, Java, Australia, 
 Calcutta, and Ceylon. Being a focal point for business, it is no 
 less so for races. There you have the ubiquitous Chinese, the 
 ruddj'-faced Englishman, the copper-colored Malay, the swarthy 
 Hindoo, the olive-colored Portuguese, and many other nationali- 
 ties. The government is English, the architecture European, modi- 
 fied to suit the tropics. The weather is not so hot as it is many 
 degrees to the north. Longer nights and frequent showers cool 
 the air, and make the climate habitable for men of all nations. 
 
 You need only glance at the map to see the far-reaching — you 
 might say overreaching — foresight of the English Government. 
 Recognizing the vast wealth of the East, and the importance of 
 opening up all of Asia for her manufactures, she has seized every 
 strategic point commanding the channel of commerce from West- 
 ern Europe to Eastern Asia. Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Perim, com- 
 manding the only channel at the mouth of the Red Sea ; Ceylon, 
 Penang, Singapore, and Hong-Kong — are all in her possession. 
 
 Wherever there is a strait, she lays her iron grasp upon it. Her 
 acquisition of Perim was interesting. A French naval commander, 
 it is said, was sent to seize it in the name of his government. Be- 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 399 
 
 ing invited to dine on board a vessel in an English squadron, he 
 indiscreetly revealed his mission, when an officer at the table recol- 
 lected to have forgotten something, excused himself, and, while the 
 Frenchman was I'egaled with wine, dispatched a ship to capture 
 the barren rock, the importance of which had not before occurred 
 to them. When the Frenchman arrived he found the cross of St. 
 George floating over the coveted prize, and with it the command 
 of the Red Sea, and the Suez Canal, had passed into the hands of his 
 hereditary enemies. 
 
 With all their diplomacy, one cannot fail to admire English 
 pluck and enterprise. In the East her foundations are of granite. 
 At every seaport her government or consular buildings loom up as 
 emblems of her mighty power. The heathen look upon them and 
 tremble ; while Europeans and Americans are made to feel that, 
 however great may be their countries, in Asia they must take 
 a subordinate position. 
 
 We left Singapore at 4 p. m, on the 17th, sailed through the 
 straits of Malacca, and arrived at Penang at 10 A. m. on the 19th. 
 It is a city of about 60,000, mostly natives and Chinese. We drove 
 through tropical scenery to a waterfall about 400 feet high, the 
 only object of interest in the place. The celebrated Banca tin- 
 mines are near Penang. The Hindoos at Penang are the hand- 
 somest men in figure we have yet seen. Tall, erect, lithe, clean- 
 climbed, they are models of symmetry and action. 
 
 We sailed from Penang on the 20th, about 9 P. m., and on 
 the 21st, in the bay of Bengal, crossed the antipodes of Willow- 
 brook and Batavia. The bay was as placid as a lake, but the 
 weather was hot, compelling us to sleep on deck. We arrived here 
 yesterday, the 24th, and in a drive to Waka Walla, the only point 
 of interest, passed the banana, the cocoanut, the nutmeg, the cin- 
 namon, the clove, and other fragrant trees, which reminded us that 
 we were in the land of spices. 
 
 Delhi, December 10, 1875. 
 From Ceylon we sailed to Bombay, where the only special ob- 
 ject of interest I visited was the Hospital for Lepers. But the 
 form of leprosy was not that as " white as snow " described in the 
 Scriptures ; it appeared rather to be a decomposition of animal 
 tissue, resulting in loss of the fingers and toes, and even of the hands 
 
400 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 and feet. Nothing but the desire to see so ancient a disease 
 tempted me to look upon these hopeless unfortunates. 
 
 December 2d. — We lunched with Sir Philip Woodhouse, Gov- 
 ernor of the Bombay Presidency, and at 6.30 p. m. left for Delhi. 
 
 Providing ourselves with wraps and pillows, we passed a com- 
 fortable night in the compartment-cars, which are so arranged as 
 to give each passenger a lounge to himself. The morning of the 
 3d we found ourselves on the great plains of India, over which we 
 have already traveled two thousand miles. 
 
 The country is entirely different from what I had anticipated. 
 Far from being tropical in its vegetation, over the route we have 
 traveled {via Allahabad), it resembles the plains of Illinois. Here 
 and there groups of trees, looking like the live-oak of the South, 
 diversify the landscape, and give to the country the appearance of 
 a vast park. A small portion of the soil is cultivated, and, but for 
 the censuses carefully taken by the English Government, we could 
 not believe that India possesses a population of more than two 
 hundred millions. Even the valley of the Ganges is sparsely set- 
 tled, its mud-villages appearing at great distances from each other. 
 After two days' ride in the cars we arrived on the evening of the 
 4th at Lucknow, famous for its siege during the mutiny of 1857. 
 We spent Sunday the 5th at Lucknow, and on the 6th visited the 
 Memorial Garden, and Church, at Cawnpore. In the garden is a 
 statue of the Angel of Mercy placed over the well, into which were 
 cast the remains of about two hundred and fifty women and chil- 
 dren who were rciassacred by the mutineers. 
 
 Leaving Cawnpore at 2.30 P. m., we arrived at Agra at 11.30 
 p. M. On the morning of the 7th we visited the fort, which is by 
 far the grandest mass of masonry I have ever seen. Its walls, built 
 of red sandstone, are seventy feet high, and are flanked with circu- 
 lar bastions, giving it a contour of grace, strength, and grandeur. 
 Within its inclosure are the palaces of the Mogul emperors, also the 
 celebrated Pearl Mosque. From the fort we drove to the Taj-Mahal, 
 a tomb of white marble built by the Emperor Shah Jehan in mem- 
 ory of his wife. It stands on the banks of the Jumna, so beautiful 
 in design and proportion as to excite the admiration of the world. 
 In traveling in the East, no less than in Europe, one sees that all 
 of the noblest works of art have been inspired by religion and love. 
 
 In the afternoon of the 7th we drove over to Futtehpore 
 
LETTEES FROM INDIA. 401 
 
 Sikree, a distance of twenty-one miles, where we spent the night 
 amid the ruins of the city founded by the great Akbar. On the 
 8th we returned to Agra, visiting en route the tomb of Akbar, 
 saw again the Taj by moonlight, and left at 10 p. m. for Delhi. 
 
 On arriving at Allygur I left Forsyth and Sanger, who con- 
 tinued on to Delhi, while I went to Moradabad to see Miss , 
 
 and deliver to her the presents sent to her by her mother and friends. 
 She is doing a noble work as a medical missionary, has her dispen- 
 sary in the city, and visits all the sick women who send for her. 
 On my way back I stopped an hour at Chundowsee, where the 
 Methodist Mission was holding its annual conference. Mr. Parker 
 met me at the depot, and drove me to the camp where services were 
 just closing. In a large tent were gathered about seventy con- 
 verted Hindoos and Mohammedans, of whom thirty-five were minis- 
 ters. After service I went to Mr. Parker's tent, and was warmly 
 welcomed by all the members of the mission, ladies and gentlemen. 
 Their zeal and devotion, and the success which is attending them 
 in establishing schools, circulating the Scriptures, and especially in 
 forming a native ministry, afford encouraging evidence that Chris- 
 tianity is steadily advancing in India. 
 
 Leaving Chundowsee at 9.20 I arrived here this morning at 
 
 7.30. 
 
 Delhi, December 17, 1875. 
 
 Upon arriving at Delhi on the morning of the 7th, Major Sanger 
 was dispatched to Lord Napier's headquarters with the letter of 
 General Sherman, to ascertain at what hour we could call and pay 
 our respects. The message was answered by Captain Kennedy, who 
 came to our hotel, and invited us to dine with Lord Napier in the 
 evening. We found him in camp, most comfortably established, 
 bright fires crackling on the hearths, the tents being furnished with 
 sofas and easy-chairs. Ladies lent their graceful presence, making 
 us feel that we were in a palace rather than a camp. Lord Napier 
 is a splendid soldier, and a man of most easy and affable manners. 
 The dinner was served as nicely as in permanent quarters. 
 
 The next day we were invited to accompany the " Chief," as the 
 staff officers designate their commander, to a review of a division of 
 infantry. The appearance of the men was excellent. British and 
 native infantry stood side by side, the latter emulating the pre- 
 cision and steadiness of their white comrades. The marching, both 
 26 
 
402 LETTERS FROM: INDIA. 
 
 in quick and double time, was exceedingly good ; while the alter- 
 nation of the helmet and turban imparted peculiar interest to the 
 scene. This review, short as it was, showed us the perfection of 
 English discipline, which I have always admired. The men in 
 ranks stood firm, and would no more have raised a hand than a cadet 
 at inspection. After the review we witnessed a supposed attack 
 of a village, according to the Prussian system. The skirmishers 
 went forward in successive lines, rushing from position to posi- 
 tion, as if thus, under the fire of an enemy, they could be made 
 to obev every impulse of their leaders. 
 
 Sunday, 12th. — I attended morning and evening service at St. 
 James's church. The observance of the Sabbath is a noticeable 
 feature in the English army. There is no Sunday-morning inspec- 
 tion, neither morning nor evening parade. Instead of these military 
 exercises, there is a church parade, attended by all of the men. 
 The members of different denominations are then marched to their 
 several churches ; after which, the only duty of the day is attend- 
 ance at roll-call. 
 
 Notwithstanding this absence of display, discipline of the high- 
 est type prevails — so high, in fact, that a second holiday per week 
 (Thursday) does not seem to impair it. 
 
 JfondaT/, December 13th. — Attended a review of the division 
 of artillery at Bussunt. The distance from Delhi to Bussunt is ten 
 miles, which we drove in a carriage, with the understanding that 
 horses would be supplied us on our arrival. But here one of those 
 contre-temps occurred which often lose battles. Both our own horses, 
 and those of Lord Napier, had gone astray, having gone to Bussai 
 instead of Bussunt. We, however, pushed forward, and on arriving 
 at the grounds were supplied with another mount. The artillery 
 consisted of eleven batteries, both horse and mounted ; and, what 
 was more novel still, there was an elephant-battery. These huge 
 beasts dragged along the forty-pounder siege-guns like so many toys. 
 But the objection to them is, that no persuasion can make them 
 stand fire ; so, behind each gun follow nine or ten yoke of oxen, 
 which replace the two elephants on approaching the field of battle. 
 This of course doubles the expense, and should suggest the dis- 
 continuance of so needless a luxury. After the review, a mimic 
 artillery-duel took place, half of the batteries being assigned to a 
 defensive position, while the other half attacked. 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 403 
 
 Tuesday, December lUh. — We left Delhi at 4.20 p. m. on an 
 expedition to the Himalayas. At 11 p. m. we arrived at Saharun- 
 poor, where our party of five took carriages for Rajpore. These 
 garries, as they are called, are arranged so that the traveler can 
 extend himself to his full length, enabling him, as the roads are 
 smooth, to get a good sleep. After much vociferation, and a firm 
 refusal on our part to pay in advance the expenses of a round-trip 
 to Rajpore and return, our procession consisting of an omnibus 
 containing General Forsyth and Major Sanger, and three garries, 
 in which Mr. Gillette, of England, Mr. Cryder, of New York, and 
 myself were esconced, began to move. 
 
 As we had but two days to go to the mountains and back, 
 it was important to reach Rajpore by 7 A. M. Our first difficulty 
 was, that each relay of ponies was balky. After much coaxing, 
 whipping, pushing, and shouting, the obstinate creatures, from 
 standing stock-still, would break into a full gallop. With each 
 burst of enthusiasm from the ponies, we cherished the hope of 
 arriving at Rajpore at daylight, but were doomed to disappoint- 
 ment. Toward morning I heard confusion of tongues, and, look- 
 ing out of my garry, perceived that the ponies had disappeared, 
 and that I was being drawn up the mountain by coolies. In 
 some of the other garries, oxen had been substituted. This was 
 not so bad, for, by means of twisting their tails and tickling their 
 backs, these little bullocks can be made to trot four or five miles 
 an hour. Daylight found us out of temper and fifteen miles from 
 Rajpore, but in front of us was the beautiful valley of the Doon, 
 with its groves of bamboo, orchards of banana, and fields of 
 tea. Beyond was a range of hills, 7,000 feet high, covered with 
 patches of white, which we took to be snow, but afterward found 
 to be the villages of Mussoorie and Landour. In the presence 
 of so much beauty our better feelings prevailed, and we traveled 
 joyfully onward to Rajpore, arriving there at noon. Here we 
 breakfasted, and, taking ponies, immediately set out for Landour. 
 The road, which was well made but very steep, zigzagged up the 
 mountain along the edge of precipices and around bold headlands, 
 offering us a succession of enchanting views. With each elevation 
 the scene changed. Behind us was the valley of the Doon, with 
 its streams looking like threads of silver winding across the plain ; 
 still farther was the range of hills a thousand feet high, separat- 
 
404 LETTEES FROM INDIA. 
 
 ing the valley from the great plains beyond ; above were the 
 lofty peaks we must crown before the grand view would burst 
 upon us. Our ponies pushed on bravely. In seven miles they 
 were to climb six thousand feet, equal to the height of Mount 
 Washington. 
 
 At 4 P. M. we arrived at Mussoorie and Landour. Here, after 
 taking refreshments, the proprietor of the hotel kindly offered to 
 be our guide. Following him, we threaded the tortuous streets of 
 the villages, until he brought us to a crest, whence, without prepa- 
 ration, the whole range burst into view. We were chained to the 
 spot. At our feet was a valley, almost a chasm, thousands of feet 
 deep ; and twenty miles away rose the peaks of the Himalayas nes- 
 tling in the clouds. Clad in white, reposing in solitude and grand- 
 eur, they stood before us the mighty witnesses of Him whose 
 power is infinite and whose ways are past finding out. Reverently, 
 I could not but feel " the heavens declare the glory of God, and 
 the firmament showeth his handiwork." 
 
 After the startling emotions of the first view had subsided, we 
 proceeded to the highest peak in Landour (7,300 feet) to witness 
 the sunset. Behind us, toward the setting sun, were the great 
 plains, enveloped in purple mist, in which the waters of the Jumna 
 sparkled like the fire of an opal. Below us were the white bunga- 
 lows of English residents, who seek health in the hills, perched on 
 the peaks, and half concealed by the spreading trees, which added 
 their verdure to the charm. To the eastward, extending sixty or 
 eighty miles, stood the mighty monarchs, bathed in pinkish light, 
 up whose flanks the lengthening shadows crept, until the peaks and 
 fleecy clouds alone caught the last rays of departing day. 
 
 The next afternoon, on our departure from Saharunpoor, sixty 
 miles from the range, we had our last view. From that distance 
 the mountains loomed up among the clouds, enabling us to realize 
 their great height of five miles above the sea. 
 
 Friday, Ylth. — We witnessed a grand cavalry review of thirteen 
 regiments. They marched past first at a walk, in column of squad- 
 rons, then countermarched and passed at a trot. After which, they 
 deployed into line and swept by at a gallop. The turban and the 
 helmet ; the elephants, with purple caparison, bearing spectators ; the 
 camels grazing in the distance ; the ruins of Delhi — gave us a com- 
 bination of Oriental and Occidental scenes to be found only in India. 
 
LETTERS FEOM INDIA. 405 
 
 Saturday, l%th. — We left Delhi at 11 a. m., and arrived at Cal- 
 cutta on Monday, the 20th. 
 
 General Litchfield, United States consul-general, met us at the 
 depot, and we are now enjoying his generous hospitality. 
 
 Calcutta, December 23, 1875. 
 
 Everything here is in excitement in anticipation of the visit 
 of the Prince of Wales. The evening of our arrival we attended a 
 Hindoo reception given by two nawabs. It did not differ from 
 a European reception, except that there were some native singers, 
 who, sitting on the floor, entertained us with a succession of plain- 
 tive nasal sounds not at all agreeable to the ear. 
 
 On the 22d we lunched at Government House. After lunch we 
 were presented to his Excellency the viceroy. Lord Northbrook. 
 He is an exceedingly affable man, a ready talker, and, belonging to 
 a business family — the Barings, of London — showed himself au 
 courant with affairs, whether civil, military, or commercial. 
 
 He soon decided our future plans. The unsettled condition of 
 Afghanistan bars that route, while, were we able to go to Kash- 
 gar, the passes would not bo oj^en before May or June. The only 
 route now open is that through Persia. The viceroy told us we 
 should have invitations to all the ceremonies in honor of the Prince 
 of Wales, and that if any failed to reach us it would be purely 
 accidental. The interview lasted about half an hour, and I need 
 not say we retired well pleased with the ruler of nearly two hun- 
 dred and fifty millions of people. 
 
 From Government House we drove to the residence of the 
 lieutenant - governor of Bengal, Sir Richard Temple, who rules 
 sixty-three millions of people. Even colonels of the army, as civil 
 commissioners, rule as many as five millions, equal in number to 
 the population of the State of New York. Such aro the capa- 
 cities of the civil and military service in India. 
 
 December 22d. — We visited Fort William, and inspected the 
 armory and barracks. The latter are the best in India, and show 
 what care the Government takes of its soldiers. The men per- 
 form military duty only. The policing is done by coolies, the cook- 
 ing is done by coolies, and, when the tired soldier seeks his rest at 
 the end of the day, a coolie works his punka, and fans him to sleep. 
 In hot weather, screens are hung before the doors of the quarters. 
 
406 LETTEES FEOM INDIA. 
 
 and these are kept wet by coolies. The rapid evaporation of the 
 water cools the temperature within sufficiently to make life endur- 
 able. 
 
 While on the subject of coolies, I may as well speak of servants 
 generally. At one house where we dined, twenty-four were em- 
 ployed. Of these, six found occupation in and about the kitchen, 
 and a large number about the stables, one to each horse. 
 
 At another house thirty-nine servants, all men, constituted the 
 domestic household. This horde was not fed by the employer. 
 Each received about three dollars per month, and provided for 
 himself. 
 
 The evening of the 22d vve dined at Government House. The 
 viceroy gave me the seat on his right, and throughout the dinner 
 entertained me with conversation on every variety of subject. Af- 
 ter dinner the company ascended to the drawing-rooms, and there 
 we saw the viceroy receive several of the maharajas. These chiefs 
 came into the room in gorgeous robes, their turbans glittering with 
 diamonds. It was Europe and Asia again face to face. The native 
 princes displayed their plumage like peacocks ; the ruler of India, 
 attired in a plain black suit, moved among them as modestly as his 
 humblest guest. 
 
 December 23f7. — In the afternoon we went to the landing to 
 witness the reception of the Prince of Wales. As on the evening 
 before, the native chiefs were the special objects of attention. At- 
 tired in their richest apparel, they stood resplendent, glittering in 
 the sun. Patiala wore a turban which alone was valued at half a 
 million dollars. About his head were festooned strings of dia- 
 monds; among them, those formerly belonging to the Empress 
 Eugenie. Any one of the precious ornaments he so lavishly dis- 
 played would have been a modest fortune. Pearls and emeralds 
 also decked his clothes, enabling him to stand from head to foot a 
 monument of Oriental splendor. 
 
 Other chiefs emulated, but did not surpass Patiala. Some had 
 their robes embroidered in gold, others in pearl and turquoise. 
 Above their heads glistened sprays of diamonds, while here and 
 there huge solitaires twinkled like the stars. Among the chiefs 
 stood one of commanding stature, gorgeous in his robes, but, Naa- 
 man-like, a leper. 
 
 At 4.30 p. M. the prince left his ship under a royal salute from 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 407 
 
 the fleet. On reaching the wharf an address was presented, to 
 which he replied. He was then conducted to the platform, where 
 the native princes and other dignitaries were presented, after which 
 he immediately left for Government House. Thousands of people 
 turned out to welcome him. After he had gone, Patiala and his 
 friends staid upon the platform, and with evident satisfaction per- 
 mitted the people, as many as liked, to gaze upon a sight that will 
 never be repeated. On retiring from the landing, at his request, I 
 was presented to the Maharajah of Cashmere, who invited us to 
 visit him at his capital. 
 
 In connection with this display, another scene deeply impressed 
 me. A native woman fainted, and, as the throng passed by, I saw 
 a frail girl bending over her, administering restoratives, whom I 
 recognized as Miss W , a young missionary from Brooklyn. 
 
 December 24iA. — The city was illuminated in honor of the Prince 
 of Wales. From the Maidan, a great park, the public buildings 
 and private residences were revealed in outline, making Calcutta, 
 indeed, appear the City of Palaces. For miles the streets were a 
 blaze of light. On each side wire was stretched like telegraph- 
 lines, from which, at intervals of six or eight inches, were hung 
 small white and colored glasses, filled with oil and floating wicks. 
 Other wires, similarly prepared, hung in festoons from those already 
 described. The carriages thus moved through an avenue of light. 
 Here and there triumphal arches spanned the streets ; while illumi- 
 nated trees, gateways, and other devices, increased the efi"ect. All 
 along the line, the streets w^ere packed with people clad in white. 
 Some of them stood on distant house-steps, and looked like spectres 
 unmoved by the display. Mohammedan and Hindoo gazed calmly 
 upon the small procession of Europeans who, like conquerors, en- 
 joyed the scene. No mark of enthusiasm was shown. We passed 
 quietly through the flickering light, and, after a drive of five miles, 
 returned to the home of our consul. 
 
 Delhi, January 9, 1876. 
 
 On Monday, the 27th of December, we were invited to a 
 garden-party at Sir Richard Temple's, to meet the Prince of 
 Wales. There were about a thousand people present, who walked 
 up and down the grounds, the scene reminding me of the Saturday 
 afternoon promenades on the plain of West Point. There was a 
 
408 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 band in attendance, and a dance by native men and women. The 
 grounds were beautifully illuminated. During the afternoon Sir 
 Richard Temple presented me to the prince, who charmed us all by 
 his affable manners. 
 
 In the evening there was a ball at Government House, attended 
 by at least fifteen hundred people. The prince opened the ball 
 with Miss Baring, daughter of the viceroy, and in their set, and 
 the sets adjoining, were all the dignitaries of the Government, from 
 the viceroy down. The dancing could not be complimented — too 
 much hopping, even in the waltz, to be graceful. 
 
 At 3 P. M. on the 28th we attended the levee of the Prince of 
 Wales. The crush was about the same as at Washington at the 
 President's reception, and differed from it only in this — that the 
 prince, standing on a slightly-raised dais, bowed to each visitor, 
 instead of offering his hand. In the evening the natives gave a 
 fete at Belgatchie, consisting of singing, dancing, and fireworks. 
 All of the distance from Government House to they^^e, four miles, 
 was illuminated as on the 24th. 
 
 December ^iSHh. — We were invited to dine at Government 
 House. The guests were received by an aide-de-camp in waiting, 
 in full dress. After all had assembled, the viceroy and his daugh- 
 ter came in at one door, and were presented to the guests. 
 
 A few minutes after, the prince came in by another entrance, 
 preceded by the lords of his suite. As he passed, he bowled 
 to some, and gave his hand to others, among them myself. He 
 then gave his arm to Miss Baring, and at once went to the table. 
 The dinner was served on silver throughout ; sixty-two servants, one 
 to each plate, stood motionless behind the guests, while as many- 
 more served the courses. After dinner the company ascended to 
 the drawing-rooms, where the prince received the maharajas. 
 
 On the 1st of January, the finest ceremony of the series occurred. 
 It was the investiture of the Grand Star of India. The Prince of 
 Wales opened the chapter, and conferred the order G. S, I. on 
 several native chiefs. The assemblage was exceedingly brilliant. 
 By the prince's special direction we were given seats among the 
 members of his suite. Luncheon at Government House on the 1st 
 finished the series of entertainments. 
 
 We left Calcutta on the evening of the 2d, and arrived at Be- 
 nares on the evening of the 3d. The sacred city of the Hindoos is 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 409 
 
 wholly given to idolatry. Their gods, however, seem to be more 
 spiritual than those of the Chinese, inasmuch as the offering is 
 more frequently flowers than food. 
 
 The view of the city from the Ganges is imposing, but within 
 all is dilapidation and. squalor. Every morning the Hindoos are 
 expected to bathe in the Ganges, and in vast crowds throng the 
 river-bank. The women walk in without undressing, and, on com- 
 ing out, change the wet for dry clothing in so dexterous a manner 
 as to avoid the slightest exposure. 
 
 At one point of the river our boat put in shore, where we be- 
 held a peculiar sight. Two large fires were burning, each made of 
 wood nicely corded. At a slight distance several natives were 
 squatted in a semicircle, evidently enjoying the heat on so crisp a 
 morning. Immediately in front others were bathing with careless 
 indifference. 
 
 The guide pointed to the fires, and told us each was a funeral- 
 pyre. We were witnessing unconsciously the cremation of two 
 Hindoos, whose dearest object in life is to have their ashes mingled 
 with the sacred waters of the Ganges. We left Benares on 
 the evening of the 4th, and reached Delhi on the evening of 
 the 5th. 
 
 On the 8th we witnessed a review of all the troops at Delhi : 
 cavalry, infantry, and artillery, native and European, presented a 
 superb appearance. The infantry passed in quick time ; the cavalry 
 and artillery passed at a walk, trot, and gallop. There was not the 
 slightest check in the marching, nor apparently a single fault in 
 manoeuvre. In riding around the lines, the chargers of Lord 
 Napier and a maharajah collided while leaping a ditch, causing 
 Lord Napier to fall, and break his collar-bone, but, concealing his 
 injury, he remained on the field till the review was over. 
 
 Ra^ul Pindee, January 20, ISYB. 
 
 January 11th. — In the morning, the prince made his entry into 
 Delhi. From the railway-station to his camp, a distance of four 
 miles, the road was lined with troops on both sides, but the Orien- 
 tal feature of his entry was reserved near his camp, where he 
 passed through an avenue of twenty-two elephants brilhantly 
 caparisoned. The embroidery on the housings of these immense 
 beasts was of heaviest gold, and nearly two feet wide. 
 
410 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 In the afternoon we attended a reception given by the prince, 
 at his camp, to the officers of the army at Delhi, and in the evening 
 were invited to a reception in his honor, given by Lord Napier at 
 army headquarters. On both occasions the array of uniforms was 
 exceedingly brilliant. 
 
 Wednesday, 12th. — The great review, for which the troops 
 had been preparing a long time, took place. It was a superb spec- 
 tacle, resembling the reviews we saw before going to Calcutta. 
 We rode around the lines in the suite, and, as before, had a fine 
 opportunity to witness the steadiness of the troops, both native 
 and European. 
 
 The prince was mounted on a black stallion, which stood like a 
 statue while the cavalry, in helmets and turbans, swept furiously 
 past; but unmoved as was the horse, when the elephant-battery 
 came shuffling along, and the huge beasts threw up their trunks, 
 as a royal salute, the rider could not suppress a broad smile at their 
 act of civilit}'. 
 
 After the review, colors were presented to two regiments, which, 
 during the mutiny, signalized their loyalty to the Government. 
 
 In the evening a ball was given in the Dewan Khass, at the fort. 
 This was the Hall of Audience, built by the Mogul emperors, where 
 used to be the " Peacock Throne," so famous for its costliness and 
 elegance. The edifice is of white marble, and consists simply of 
 a massive roof, supported by parallel rows of square and rectangu- 
 lar columns, heavily gilded, and inlaid with precious stones. The 
 effect is one of great richness, and so enchanted was the emperor 
 that, in the central arcade, he had placed the inscription mentioned 
 in " Lalla Rookh," " If there is a paradise upon earth it is this, 
 it is this ! " Could he have looked through the mists of centuries, 
 and seen the future King of England dancing in his marble halls, 
 no doubt, like Belshazzar, his face would have blanched and his 
 knees smote together. 
 
 Thursday, 13th. — The troops to act on the offensive in the ma- 
 noeuvres moved out eighteen miles on the Kurnaul Road, Having 
 been invited, I w^ent out with them provided for a two days' cam- 
 paign, and was the guest of Colonel Watson, commanding the 
 cavalry. The manoeuvres were limited to six hours on each of 
 the two following days. 
 
 Friday, IMh. — The troops moved promptly forward. Making a 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 411 
 
 mountain of a mole-hill, a canal about twelve feet wide was re- 
 garded as formidable an obstacle as a great river. So the cavalry 
 started off at a trot, and gallop, for six or eight miles, to seize 
 bridges which the enemy did not care to destroy. The infantry, 
 without much opposition, moved straight down the road to within 
 seven miles of Delhi. 
 
 An exploit which was regarded as particularly brilliant on the 
 part of the offensive, was to mount eighty infantry on the caissons of 
 the artillery, and to send them at a fast trot to the bridge over the 
 canal eight miles in advance of the camp of the army. In the same 
 situation we would have sent a company of cavalry, which, in the 
 event of opposition, would have dismounted and fought on foot, 
 and would have thought no more of it. In India, however, few 
 officers appreciate the true use of cavalry, so infantry had to be 
 mounted on artillery-carriages for an exploit which legitimately 
 belonged to cavalry. 
 
 Saturday^ 15th. — The battle raged along the whole line. The 
 cavalry of the right wing crossed over to the left, joined that 
 of the left wing, and, Avithout scouts or skirmishers, advanced 
 in mass to viathin fifteen hundred yards of two of the enemy's 
 batteries, when, the latter opening fire, an umpire rode up and 
 declared fifty per cent, of the cavalry killed or wounded. This un- 
 expected decision finished the cavalry for the day. 
 
 The infantry advance was no less unfortunate. The leading 
 brigade, in order of battle, moved straight down the road toward 
 a small village, held as an outpost by the enemy. The commander 
 marched his brigade mostly in double time, neglected several op- 
 portunities to turn the enemy's flank, but finally took the village 
 in consequence of a flanking force sent in farther to his right. 
 The enemy then fell back a few hundred yards to Azadpore, which 
 was his main position. Without reconnoitring, the pursuing force 
 fell upon this position with all its might and main, and, as the ene- 
 my was so posted as to bring two lines of fire upon him, one being 
 above the other, his attack was soon badly repulsed ; and again an 
 inexorable umpire declared nearly half of the troops hors de combat. 
 
 A force trying to turn the enemy's right centre, moved so as to 
 be enfiladed by the enemy's artillery on the heights near Delhi, 
 and, when it got into position, Avas met in the same stern man- 
 ner by two lines of fire. 
 
412 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 Farther to the right another division found itself in a flat, open 
 field, with walled inclosures, strongly held, staring it in the face. 
 These the commander wisely refrained from attacking. The ene- 
 my's left, facing the canal, could easily have been turned ; but 
 moving in straight lines is so much simpler that the generals, as 
 has frequently occurred in all wars, took not only the easiest but 
 the shortest route to inevitable defeat. 
 
 Between the infantry at Azadpore and the cavalry there was an 
 interval of nearly two miles. The infantry being repulsed, had the 
 enemy advanced nothing could have saved the offensive army from 
 destruction, as the cavalry was beyond reach, and could not have 
 come to the support of his hard-pressed infantry. 
 
 At the conclusion of the manoeuvres, I rode back to the city, 
 where I found General Forsyth and Major Sanger. On Friday, the 
 first day of the manoeuvres, we were invited to dine with the Prince 
 of Wales at his camp ; but, as I was with the offensive, they Avent 
 alone. During the manoeuvres, they rode in his suite, and also 
 lunched with him. But this was not all. In order to show his 
 consideration for us as American officers, he gave an extra dinner, 
 to which we were invited, on which occasion he gave me the seat 
 on his right. 
 
 As we entered his tent he came forward with a smile, and re- 
 marked, " Caught you at last." During the evening he was very 
 affable ; spoke with gratification of his visit to America, and of the 
 friendly relations between the two countries ; and, when we took 
 our leave, gave each of us a print of himself and the princess. 
 
 Monday, the 18th, we paid our parting calls ; and in the even- 
 ing started for PeshaAvar. Tuesday at three we arrived at Lahore, 
 and at six arrived at Wizirabad, where we took carriages for Gooj- 
 rat. Wednesday we skirted the Himalayas, and this morning at 3 
 A. M. (January 20th) arrived here, where we are compelled to lie 
 over a day for want of conveyance. We are now in the Punjab 
 (Five Rivers — Sutlej, Ravee, Chenab, Jhelum, and Indus), It is a 
 beautiful country, well watered, but in summer terrifically hot. 
 
 Rawul Pindee, January 27, 1876. 
 We left Rawul Pindee, by a government conveyance, at 8 a, m., 
 on the 21st, and arrived at 4.30 p. m. at Attock, which is at the 
 junction of the Indus and Cabul Rivers. The two streams unite in 
 
LETTERS FROM INDIA. 413 
 
 a large plain, apparently with the view of forcing their way 
 through a range of hills which crosses the Indus immediately be- 
 low the junction. A Mussulman fort, built by Akbar, dominates 
 the rivers, and in its day was a formidable obstacle to barbarian 
 invasions. 
 
 Continuing our journey, we arrived at Peshawar at 3 a. m. on 
 the 22d. After breakfast we called upon Colonel Yorke, who re- 
 ceived us very kindly. In the afternoon he turned out the Twen- 
 tieth Punjab Infantry, and the Fourteenth Native Infantry, for our 
 inspection and review. These men are mostly recruited in the 
 vicinity, and many of them are wild Afghans, who, in their love for 
 fighting, make no distinction between their own people and other 
 hostile tribes. 
 
 Sunday we attended the garrison church, and walked through 
 the old native city. The latter resembled many of the cities we 
 saw in China, except that the inhabitants were more squalid in 
 appearance. If you could see the mud-houses of the Hindoos, 
 without windows or furniture, filled with smoke and filth, you 
 would realize that poverty is unknown in America. In these 
 wretched huts many men live who are quite wealthy, not having 
 learned that it is unnecessary to conceal their wealth from their 
 English masters, as they were wont to do under their native rulers. 
 
 3Ionday, 24:th. — Major Omaney organized for us an expedition 
 to the Khyber Pass. Accompanied by him and several English 
 officers, we proceeded to Jumrood, the frontier post of the English, 
 thirteen miles from Peshawar, where we were met by one hundred 
 and fifty armed Afghans from across the border. 
 
 Half-clad in sheep-skins, wearing the turban, and armed with 
 matchlocks, swords, pistols, and knives, a worse-looking set of cut- 
 throats it is difficult to imagine. A general discharge of fire-arms 
 from the parapet of the old fort of Jumrood signalized our approach. 
 Here we took horses, and with our murderous-looking escort started 
 for the pass, two miles off. We all thought how easy it would be 
 for these fellows to close the pass and turn upon us ; and our con- 
 fidence was not increased by the sight of a murdered Afghan, whose 
 grave was being dug by the road-side, and whose murderer, in re- 
 taliation, had bitten the dust before our return. 
 
 Such is their life. Claiming to be descendants of the " lost 
 tribes of Israel," they mercilessly enforce the law, "Eye for an 
 
4:14 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 eye, and tooth for a tooth." If a man is shot or stabbed, his friends 
 hunt down the murderer like a wild beast. 
 
 These are the characteristics of the many tribes to whose tender 
 mercies we would have committed ourselves, had we endeavored 
 to cross Afghanistan against the counsel of the viceroy. They 
 acknowledge no law, and are as independent of the Emir of Cabul 
 as they are of the English. The latter they have been taught to 
 fear, hence they rarely make forays upon the villages under Eng- 
 lish protection ; but between each other, village against village, 
 and family against family, are often arrayed in deadly hostility. 
 In their faces there is no gleam of compassion, and they look as 
 if to fire at a man from ambush, or to stab him in the dark, would 
 be the greatest of secret pleasures. As we rode in the midst of 
 the rabble we could see old men, and even boys of twelve and 
 thirteen, bearing the deadliest weapons. From the cradle to the 
 grave, war and bloodshed appear to be their occupation ; and even 
 in cultivating the soil they never quit their weapons, lest every 
 bush conceal an enemy. 
 
 The entrance to the pass was like a gateway between two cliffs, 
 about one thousand feet high. Inside we ascended the gravelly 
 bed of a dry stream, and then, taking a fine road, constructed by 
 the English in 1841, we penetrated about three miles and a half, 
 when the civil commissioner thought he had gone as far as was 
 prudent. The mountains were treeless and verdureless, resembling 
 those about Salt Lake. 
 
 On our return to Jumrood an excellent lunch awaited us, after 
 which our Afghan friends amused us with feats of marksmanship. 
 They proved that, with the old flint-lock musket, a bottle could 
 readily be hit at one hundred and fifty yards. The day was a most 
 pleasant one, and in interest was worthy of being classed with the 
 day we visited the Nankow Pass, and the Great Wall of China. 
 
 Tuesday^ 25th. — The whole garrison, consisting of two British 
 and four native regiments of infantry, two native cavalry regi- 
 ments, and three batteries of artillery, was turned out for re- 
 view. The blending of uniforms and colors I have already de- 
 scribed at Delhi; but here the picturesqueness was increased by 
 the proximity of the mountains which, like a horseshoe, almost en- 
 circled us. 
 
 Above and beyond the troops were the Hindoo Koosh, fifteen 
 
LETTEKS FROM INDIA. 415 
 
 thousand feet high, completely covered with snow ; while, in the 
 gardens at our backs, could be culled the sweet lemon, and roses, 
 almost in full bloom. 
 
 Peshawar lies almost in the centre of a plain, fifty by sixty miles 
 square ; and, being nearly surrounded by mountains, is one of the 
 hottest and most unhealthy places in India. British regiments 
 are required to remain in it but one year. The Seventeenth Regi- 
 ment, seven hundred strong, have all had chills and fever except 
 eight men, and over three hundred were sick at one time. 
 
 Alexander wintered in the valley of Peshawar, then covered 
 with forests, and the home of the rhinoceros. It was also in the 
 devastating path of Tamerlane. To-day, under the English, it 
 knows more peace and prosperity than in all the ages since Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 We left Peshawar on Wednesday, the 26th, at 9 a. m. ; stopped 
 at Attock, where we " tiffined " with officers of the artillery, and 
 resuming our journey arrived here, where for want of horses we are 
 again detained. We shall, however, get off to-morrow, and then 
 shall make our way almost directly to Bombay. 
 
 Bombay, February 6, 1S76. 
 
 We left Rawul Pindee at 12 p. m. on the 27th of January, and 
 arrived at Wizirabad at 6 p. m. on the 28th. From there it was 
 our intention to go to Jumoo, to visit the Maharajah of Cashmere, 
 who invited us at Calcutta ; bvit a telegram apprised us that we 
 could not go beyond Sealkote, in consequence of the cholera which 
 had broken out at the capital. We therefore reluctantly set our 
 faces toward Bombay, stopping over a few hours at Lahore and 
 Allahabad. 
 
 The latter city is at the junction of the Ganges and Jumna, both 
 sacred rivers among the Hindoos. On the day of our visit there 
 was a religious festival, when, according to custom, everybody is 
 expected to bathe at the junction of the rivers. Immense crowds 
 of men, women, and children, lined the shores ; while going to 
 and from the city were streams of people, some believing they 
 had washed away their sins, others hurrying to secure absolution. 
 Those who had bathed had to walk back in a blazing sun aniid 
 clouds of dust, yet to their ignorant minds they were free from 
 pollution, and returned on their way rejoicing. 
 
416 LETTERS FROM INDIA. 
 
 From Allahabad to Bombay we had a pleasaut ride. The 
 Begum of Bhopal, whom we saw at Calcutta with a large number 
 of retainers, traveled in our train. At Jubbulpoor she was received 
 Avith military honors, and in a palanquin disappeared from our view. 
 
 The stations on the line of railroad from Bombay to Jubbulpoor 
 are models of beauty. They are literally embowered in vines and 
 flowers ; and so pleasing is the effect upon the parched and dusty 
 travelers that the company gives a prize to the station-master who 
 presents the finest display. 
 
 We arrived at Bombay at 11.45 on the 29th, two months to a 
 day from the time we left it, and are delighted with a tour that 
 has been but a succession of pleasures. Everywhere we have been 
 treated with special consideration as Americans, and every avenue 
 of information has been freely thrown open. We have been per- 
 mitted to see the great work England is doing in educating and 
 fitting a people for freedom. Railroads, telegraphs, churches, and 
 schools, are sure pledges of a bright future for India, and we cannot 
 leave without hoping that England may preserve her sway till, in 
 the order of Providence, she shall have accomplished the mission 
 she was called to perform. 
 
LETTEES FEOM PEESIA. 
 
 Bunder Abbas, Persia, February 20, 1876. 
 
 "We left Bombay, Friday, February 11th, at 6 p. m,, on the 
 steamer Umbala, for Bushire. 
 
 Monday, the 14th, we arrived at Kurrachee. The city contains 
 about seventy thousand people, and lies in a low, flat plain, about 
 twenty miles from the mouth of the Indus. The country back of 
 the city is almost barren ; yet, within, irrigation produces fine crops, 
 and shows that only water is required to make the desert beautiful 
 as a garden. Behind the city there is a range of verdureless hills, 
 rising to eight hundred or a thousand feet. The harbor contained 
 no less than eight steamers the morning we arrived, and we were 
 naturally puzzled as to the reason for such a commercial appear- 
 ance. It lies, however, in the fact that the port is the outlet for 
 the valle}' of the Indus, which is navigable as far up as Moultan. 
 
 Tuesday, at 11 A. m,, we sailed for Muscat, where we arrived on 
 the morning of the 18th. The harbor is a small bay, protected on 
 each side b}^ precipitous rocks from three to five hundred feet high, 
 which are crowned with castles bristling with cannon. 
 
 The city lies at the head of the bay, as in the neck of a funnel, 
 and looks more like a place in Europe, in the middle ages, than 
 the capital of an Oriental despot. The front of the city, and also the 
 castles, were built by the Portuguese, when it was in their posses- 
 sion, who lost the city in a general massacre resulting, it is said, 
 from the effort of the ruler to marry a native woman in defiance of 
 the precepts of her religion. 
 27 
 
418 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 Squeezed between barren, broiling rocks, on which the eye 
 seeks in vain for verdure, the city claims geographically the benefit 
 of both a tropical and temperate climate. It lies on the tropic of 
 Cancer — an imaginary line which assumes a painful reality when, in 
 summer, the torrid winds, sweeping across it, keep the thermometer 
 at 108° night and day. 
 
 The only place of interest, as in most Asiatic towns, is the 
 bazaar in which the tradesmen expose for sale the few wares and 
 curiosities of the country. 
 
 We brought letters to Colonel Miles, the political agent of 
 Great Britain, who received us kindly and invited us to lunch. But 
 the great object of interest was our visit to the Sultan, or Imaum. 
 On expressing a desire to pay our respects, the colonel sent a note 
 to the palace, receiving in reply an appointment for 2 P. M. At that 
 hour we proceeded through a narrow alley to the palace, which we 
 approached from the rear. As the door was thrown open, an Ara- 
 bian lion glared at us from his cage on the left. A couple of 
 horses stood on our right, while in front about a dozen ragamuffins, 
 with knives, and arms of the oddest pattern, awaited to do us mili- 
 tary honor. 
 
 On entering the court, his majesty sent his regrets that, in 
 consequence of lameness, he was not able to receive us at the foot 
 of the stairs. This flattering explanation having been interpreted, 
 we mounted the rickety stairway, and at the top were met by the 
 Sultan, who shook us cordially by the hand, and motioned us 
 into an adjoining room. The furniture of the room was very 
 simple, consisting of a green covered table in the centre, a sofa, and 
 some chairs, arranged with military precision against the walls. 
 
 The Sultan wore a turban, a gray gown extending from his 
 head to his feet, a white under-garment richly embroidered, and 
 sandals which exposed his well-shaped bare feet. 
 
 His face is said to be the handsomest in Asia, but this I think 
 an exaggeration, or at least a compliment to kingly vanity. He 
 was, however, fine-looking, with a high forehead, arched eye- 
 brows, aquiline nose, firm mouth, and patriarchal beard. A feel- 
 ing of sadness seemed to overspread his countenance, which could 
 be accounted for by his meditation on the lives of his predecessors, 
 most of whom have died by violence ; or by reflecting on his own 
 experience, which has not been devoid of danger. 
 
LETTEES FROM PERSIA. 419 
 
 Only a few weeks since he was compelled to flee to Persia ; was 
 reinstated through the kind offices of England, and again finds 
 himself tottering on his throne, not knowing what moment some 
 bloodthirsty wretch may dispatch him. 
 
 The conversation was not very edifying. We told him we had 
 come from America, and, having learned accidentally that morning 
 that we had a treaty with the Imaum of Muscat, we expressed 
 the hope that the relations of the two countries might remain 
 cordial. He then began to inquire about India, the Franco-Ger- 
 man War, and particularly the war between the Khedive of Egypt 
 and his brother the Sultan of Zanzibar. We told him that the 
 armies of the Khedive had been repulsed. He said, for a great 
 man with a great many soldiers, to attack a small man with a few 
 soldiers, was mean and cowardly, and, as this accorded with our 
 ideas as soldiers, we gave a formal assent. 
 
 During the course of the interview refreshments were served. 
 The first consisted of a confection looking like cocoanut-candy, then 
 followed cofi"ee, after which the servant brought in four very large 
 glasses filled with a transparent sweet fluid like sherbet. Polite- 
 ness only requires one to take a sip ; but some persons, thinking this 
 would not be a suitable appreciation of hospitality, have been known 
 to drink the entire glass, and have been very sick for their pains. 
 
 After removing the sherbet, the servant returned with a large 
 server on which was a very small vial. For an instant I was puz- 
 zled, but recollecting that we were in the land of cassia, myrrh, 
 and frankincense, a fortunate intuition suggested an Arabian per- 
 fume, so, placing the end of my finger in the neck of the vial, I wet 
 it, and immediately stroked my mustache. The delicious odor of 
 attar of roses soon filled the room, and, enveloped in perfume, we 
 thanked his majesty for his kind reception, and took our departure. 
 
 We left Muscat Friday, at 7 p. m., and arrived here at 9 A. m. 
 this morning (20th). At this port Alexander was met by his fleet 
 about 325 b. c. The country has the same sterile aspect as at 
 Muscat. The mountains a few miles in the interior rise to ten 
 thousand feet, and are now capped with snow. 
 
 Shieaz, Persia, March 6, 1876. 
 
 From Bunder Abbas avc went to Linjah, where we arrived at 
 1 p. M. on the 21st of February. The town is a squalid-looking 
 
420 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 place, scarcely distinguishable from tlie gray coast-line, and from 
 the clay-colored mountains rising in the rear. We called on the 
 sheik, and afterward visited the wells, and saw where he had walled 
 in, and left to die, a thief, who had stolen one of his horses. This 
 is not an uncommon punishment in Persia. They frequently com- 
 pel the culprit to build his own tomb, which is just large enough 
 for him to stand inside, and then placing him in it, head downward, 
 pour it full of liquid lime. Death in this manner is almost instan- 
 taneous. The feet are allowed to project, where they remain as a 
 terror to evil-doers, until they drop off from decay. 
 
 Another punishment, inflicted for minor offenses, is beating the 
 bottom of the feet with sticks. This is done so mercilessly in some 
 instances as to beat off the toes, and leave the offender a cripple 
 for months. 
 
 The only European at Linjah was the agent of the British 
 India Steamship Company, whom we took on board, a wretched 
 sufferer from rheumatic fever. From Linjah we went to Bahrein in 
 Arabia, where we arrived at 1 p. m on the 23d. The town is on an 
 island, and is celebrated for its pearl-fisheries. We endeavored to 
 buy a few pearls, but found that during the fishing-season experts 
 from the jewelers at Bombay had purchased the valuable ones, and 
 sent them to India and Europe. 
 
 We left Bahrein on the morning of the 24th, and, sailing almost 
 due north, reached Bushire at 10 A. m. on the 25th. Captain Camp- 
 bell, commander of the British gunboat, came on board to call 
 on us, and sent us ashore in his boat. We thence proceeded on 
 horseback to the British residency, where we were delightfully 
 received and entertained by Colonel and Mrs. Ross. This bi'ave 
 little woman has followed her husband to all his stations on the 
 Persian Gulf, and wherever he has been has made him a home that 
 has been admired by all who have had the good fortune to visit 
 them. 
 
 The city lies on a flat peninsula of sand, and from the sea pre- 
 sents an imposing appearance ; but a nearer approach, like that of 
 Muscat, dispels the illusion, for it is built of rubble-stone and mud, 
 with streets so narrow as to be easily roofed over, thus excluding 
 the sun. We remained at Bushire Saturday and Sunda}^, complet- 
 ing our outfit for the long journey of more than a thousand miles 
 on horseback. All superfluous baggage had to be sent off to Naples. 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 421 
 
 My kit, when made up, consisted of an undress uniform, a dark 
 winter suit, half a dozen collars, half a dozen handkerchiefs, one 
 change of under-clothing, half a dozen stockings, and a folding 
 dressing-case. These articles are wrapped in several parcels, and 
 are carried in saddle-bags made of Persian carpet, which are slung 
 over the horse's back in rear of the saddle. The bedding consists 
 of one comforter, a pillow, and a tick, which is filled with chopped 
 straw at each station. 
 
 Our riding-suit is made of dust-colored corduroy. The coat is 
 a short plaited frock, full of pockets ; trousers cut tight like riding- 
 breeches ; leggings to the knee, and shoes, are made of brown 
 leather. This suit, which we all wear, has been admired as the 
 best traveling-dress that has been seen in Persia. All of the above 
 outfit, after leaving Shiraz, is to be carried on the horses we ride. 
 
 For the trip to Shiraz we took three horses and six mules. The 
 Persian saddle which we rejected, having English saddles of our 
 own, covers the horse from his shoulders to his hips ; the skirts 
 are four inches thick, and the hideous, unsightly thing weighs not 
 less than sixty pounds. To carry these three saddles, used as pack- 
 saddles, required an extra mule. Our entire train consisted of 
 three horses and six mules. The route at times not having been 
 free from robbers, we each carried a carbine and revolver. 
 
 All of our arrangements having been completed, we took leave 
 of Colonel and Mrs. Ross, and at 11.30 A. m on the 28th of February 
 commenced our march. Several gentlemen escorted us a short dis- 
 tance out of the city, and Dr. Andreas, of the German scientific 
 expedition, at our invitation, accompanied us to our first halting- 
 place. 
 
 The road from Bushire, for about fifteen miles, is through 
 sand, overflowed by the sea at high tide. The next few miles the 
 land is fiat, with here and there a patch of barley. With this 
 exception, the only vegetation is a low sage-bush, which half covers 
 the soil, and gives the ground a gray, mottled appearance. The 
 date-palm appears here and there, wherever water is found. It 
 being quite hot, the air rose tremblingly from the plain, giving rise 
 to mirage, not so dazzling as to people the waste with villages and 
 groves ; yet, apparently, we saw lakes where no water existed, while 
 the black tops of the date-palms seemed to stand trunkless, sus- 
 pended above the horizon. 
 
422 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 The first night we spent at Ahmadi in a handsome caravansary. 
 These structures take the place of hotels throughout Asia, and in 
 Persia are built by rich extortioners, who thus hope to smooth their 
 way heavenward. They are built in the form of a square, usually 
 one story high, and are entered through a pointed arched gateway. 
 In the centre of the court is a raised platform, about three feet high, 
 upon which saddles and packs are deposited. Facing the court on 
 all four sides are a number of arched recesses, with an aperture 
 at the back of each leading into a dark room. These rooms, to 
 which the arched recesses serve as parlors, are the only accom- 
 modation the traveler can hope for. In the centre of each is a 
 hole in the floor, about the size and depth of a hat. This serves 
 for a fireplace, and, as there is no chimney, the smoke rises to the 
 blackened ceiling, and thence descends to plague the eyes and noses 
 of the occupants. If no felt has been provided by the traveler to 
 cover the aperture for the door, he must sleep i<i communication 
 with the open air, no matter how cold. 
 
 In the angles stabling is provided for the animals. The best 
 caravansaries usually have a room over the arched gateway, and 
 also above the centres of the other sides. Even with this advan- 
 tage there is no approach to luxury ; yet the Persian who, doubt- 
 less, has never seen anything better, looks upon them as the per- 
 fection of rest for the traveler. 
 
 We were most fortunate in securing a servant who speaks a 
 little English. He had just made the trip from Teheran with Mr. 
 and Mrs. Arnold, of London, whom we met at Bunder Abbas. 
 Without him we would have been in a sorry plight, as not another 
 servant was to be found in Bushire. His mess-kit is so small as to 
 be carried in a pair of saddle-bags, and yet, with the small fire be- 
 fore described, he manages in a few minutes to gives us an ome- 
 lette, or a stew, to which no reasonable man can object. The night 
 of the 29th we stopped at Ddliki, near the foot of the mountains. 
 A short distance from the village we passed several sulphur and 
 naphtha springs. 
 
 March \st. — We clambered up the mountain-paths to the plain 
 Konartakteh, eighteen hundred feet above the sea, thence still 
 higher to the plain of Kamaraj, twenty-nine hundred feet above 
 the sea. The mountains consisted simply of the upturned edges 
 of stratified rock, the inclination of the strata being 45°, while the 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 423 
 
 broken faces were frequently almost vertical. Near the summit of 
 the pass, or Jcotal, leading to Kamaraj, we saw vast quantities of 
 gypsum. The mountains were all treeless, but small patches of 
 grass were here and there visible. 
 
 March 2d. — "We left Kamaraj at 6 A. m., and spent the night 
 at Kazeroon. When about three miles from the city we were met 
 by the governor and a large body of horsemen, who escorted us to 
 the governor's house. As we approached his gate a man struck o£E 
 the head of a lamb, and, holding it up, exclaimed, " Welcome in 
 the name of the Prophet ! " 
 
 On our way in we were entertained with feats of horsemanship. 
 Two men caracoled backward and forward across the road, leaping 
 ditches and hedges, and firing their guns and pistols at each other. 
 All this time the calaon, or pipe, about two and a half feet high, 
 was kept circulating. Being in a complimentary frame of mind, I 
 admired the governor's horse. He immediately gave him to me, 
 and insisted on my taking him, but that was impossible, which, 
 I half suspected, he knew before making the generous offer. On 
 entering his house breakfast was served in a room overlooking the 
 court. It consisted first of sweetmeats, which were delicious ; then 
 melons and fruits ; and, lastly, chickens, game, and meats. The 
 cooking was good, and far superior to that of China and Japan. 
 
 At the breakfast there was present Saj^ed Mahomet, a descend- 
 ant of the Prophet. Like the descendants of Confucius, those of 
 the Prophet are highly honored, and are insured a comfortable liv- 
 ing. The one before us must have stood six feet four in his stock- 
 ings. When sitting his beard reached to his girdle. On his head 
 he wore a green turban, the sign of his lineage. With a high fore- 
 head, arched eyebrows, aquiline nose, and flowing beard, he lacked 
 only the frost of age to make him the perfect type of the patriarch. 
 
 When breakfast was finished, the governor escorted us to a 
 house in a large orange-grove, where we were allowed to refresh 
 ourselves, after which tea was served in the garden. Toward even- 
 ing we returned to the governor's house, where we dined. After 
 dinner, which did not differ much from the breakfast, we went back 
 to our quarters in the grove, and at daylight were off for Shiraz. 
 
 Two steep kotals brought us to the plain of Dashtiarjan, nearly 
 six thousand six hundred feet above the sea. The night we spent at 
 the telegraph-office. As I have already written you, the Anglo-In- 
 
424 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 dian telegraph runs along the entire route from Bushire to Teheran. 
 It is splendidly constructed, with cast-iron poles. Every forty or fifty 
 miles there is a telegraph-office, and an operator who speaks Eng- 
 lish. At these offices we were kindly received and hospitably en- 
 tertained. All along our line of march we had only to look at the 
 telegraph-line, to remind us of the civilization to which we were 
 hastening. In mountain-passes, where the poles were perched on 
 dizzy heights, and the wires spanned gracefully the intervening 
 chasms ; or on the plains, where for miles the poles could be seen 
 growing shorter and shorter, till lost in a point of the horizon, we 
 felt that we were not alone, and that our mute companion, though 
 silent to us, was transmitting messages to hundreds of people in 
 Europe, Asia, and even distant America. 
 
 We left Dashtiarjan at 5.55 A. m. on the 4th, and arrived at Shiraz 
 at 6 P. M. Mr. Walker, the superintendent of the telegraph, came 
 out to meet us, and made us very comfortable at his house. The 
 pleasure of our visit was increased on account of his having a 
 brother. Captain Fergus Walker, in the First Infantry. 
 
 Shiraz lies in a valley about forty miles long and twelve broad. 
 Around the city the soil is well cultivated, but nearly nine-tenths 
 of the land is suffered to lie idle. We called on the governor, who 
 is a brother-in-law of the Shah, and had a particularly pleasant 
 interview, as he spoke French fluently, enabling us to dispense 
 with an interpreter. 
 
 The only objects of curiosity at Shiraz are the tombs of the 
 great poets Saadi and Hafiz. We were also shown a stream, about 
 two feet wide, which the former has made immortal. These three 
 objects, and a walk through the bazaar, constituted all of our sight- 
 seeing at Shiraz. 
 
 Teheran, March 19, 1876. 
 
 We left Shiraz on Monday the 6th at 3 p. m., on chapar-horses 
 for Ispahan, and passed the night in a chapar-khanah at Zirgan. 
 Mr. Walker and several friends accompanied us a few miles on our 
 road, and then left us to our new experience in Persian travel. 
 There are no railroads, as you well know, in Persia ; nor have we 
 seen a wheeled vehicle of any description from Bushire to Teheran. 
 As a substitute, there are lines of post-horses established on all the 
 main routes centring at the capital. 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 425 
 
 The distance between stations is from sixteen to twenty-eight 
 miles. At each station there are from three to five chapar-horses, 
 and such horses as are only to be met in Persia. Foundered, ring- 
 boned, and spavined, they often start off on three legs ; but, on 
 warming to their work, they gradually get the use of the fourth, 
 and then, breaking into an ambling gait, canter almost without a 
 stop from one station to another. It hardly does to speak of their 
 backs. The hard, inflexible Persian saddle, which looks like the 
 roof of a small house, has made them so sore that it is far pref- 
 erable to ride them in winter than summer. To the above defects 
 must be added another which involves some peril to the rider, 
 and that is, that they are knee-sprung and frequently stumble. 
 Each one of us got a fall — horse and rider tumbling into a heap — 
 yet we all escaped without a bruise or a scratch. 
 
 The stations are called chapar-khanahs, and are built exclusively 
 of mud. In form they are like the caravansaries, with the excep- 
 tion that they have small, round towers at the angles, and that there 
 is a single room over the arched gateway for the accommodation of 
 travelers. 
 
 As you enter this room, through an aperture for a door, which 
 has to be stopped with a felt or a blanket, the view of its mud floor, 
 mud walls, and mud ceiling, is nowise cheering or encouraging. 
 Presently the servant appears with a light, spreads your bedding, 
 and then brings in a soup, and some kind of a stew, which he calls 
 your dinner. After you have eaten it — sitting cross-legged like 
 a Turk — the only resource left is sleep. 
 
 Our cook was remarkable for the variety of uses to which he 
 could apply the few articles composing our kit, a quality we had 
 overlooked until one day we discovered that the soup had been 
 served in our wash-basins ! Fortunately our appetites had been ap- 
 peased, but from that time we requested him to exert his ingenuity 
 in other directions. 
 
 From Zirgan we went to the ruins of Persepolis, the ancient 
 capital of the empire. The city was situated at the junction of 
 five fertile valleys, and was surrounded with snow-capped mountains. 
 
 The ruins consist of the lower stories of the palaces of Darius 
 and Xerxes, the Hall of Xerxes, and the propyleea of Xerxes. They 
 stand on three terraces of different elevations, the walls support- 
 ing the terraces being about fifty feet high. The outside walls. 
 
426 LETTEES FROM PEESIA. 
 
 which face the plain, are composed of large blocks of limestone, 
 which required no little engineering skill to place one above the 
 other. From the top of the walls the terraces extend back three 
 or four hundred yards to the mountains, which rise precipitously in 
 the rear. A broad, double staircase, up which our horses clambered, 
 leads from the plain to the terraces. On the inner walls of the 
 staircases, processions of men and beasts are sculptured in bass- 
 relief ; also in the gateway and on the sides of the doors of the pal- 
 aces combats between men and beasts are represented in the same 
 manner. 
 
 In the propyleea of Xerxes, beneath one of the huge winged 
 lions, carved in large letters, was the name " Stanley — New York 
 Herald." The names of British embassadors, and many other 
 visitors, are also written or carved conspicuously on the columns 
 of the different edifices. The grandest building must have been 
 the Hall of Xerxes, which consisted of a massive roof supported 
 by seventy-two columns, each seventy feet high and six feet in 
 diameter. 
 
 Alexander visited Persepolis, and it is supposed burned its pal- 
 aces. Behind the ruins, excavated in solid rock, are several tombs. 
 The tomb of Darius is said to be at Nakh-i-Rustam. It consists 
 of a Greek cross, sculptured in the face of a vertical cliff about two 
 hundred feet high. In the centre of the cross a door leads into 
 a gallery excavated parallel to the horizontal arm. From the inner 
 face of the gallery, if like the one we entered at Persepolis, three 
 arched recesses are excavated, each of which contains two graves 
 sunk beneath the floor. Above the door, on the horizontal arm, 
 there are two tiers of human figures in bass-relief. At the top of 
 the vertical arm there is a figure of the sun, and below it an altar 
 of fire. Standing in front of the altar, a bow in his hand, the king 
 adores the source of light and heat. To-day in Teheran the fire- 
 worshipers render the sun the same homage as in the days of 
 Cyrus, Neither Christianity, nor astronomy, nor the persecuting 
 power of Mohammedanism, has sufficed to turn them from their 
 ignorant worship. They move among the Persians probably the 
 only true descendants of the people who lived twenty-four cen- 
 turies ago when the empire was at the zenith of its power. 
 
 Leaving Persepolis and Nakh-i-Rustam we passed on to Saidan, 
 where we spent the night. 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 427 
 
 Wednesday^ Sth. — We proceeded to Dehbid. On our way we 
 passed the tomb of Cyrus. It stands in a large plain about six 
 thousand feet above the sea, surrounded by low mountains. The 
 tomb, which looks like a small, one-story rectangular house, with 
 massive roof and eaves, rests on a pyramidal pedestal, the steps of 
 which are composed of blocks of marble nine feet long and three 
 feet high. Around the base of the pyramid are fragments of col- 
 umns which probably supported a stone roof above the tomb. Not- 
 withstanding this edifice has disappeared, the elements for centuries 
 have beaten in vain against the mausoleum of the great king. His 
 sarcophagus is gone, his ashes are scattered to the winds, but his 
 sepulchre still stands, almost the only monument of the greatness 
 of his reign. 
 
 Near by is a solitary column about fifty feet high, and a high 
 wall, the end of a hall, the only remains of the city of Passargar- 
 dae. Among the many visitors to the tomb of Cyrus was Alexan- 
 der. Unlike visitors at Persepolis, he did not inscribe his name 
 thereon, but wrote it in blood from the gulf of Issus to the valley 
 of the Indus. 
 
 Leaving Dehbid at 6 A. m., we spent the night of the 9th at 
 Abadeh, the night of the 10th at Kumesheh, and arrived at Ispa- 
 han at 3.30 P. M. on the 11th, where we were the guests of Mr. 
 Bruce, an English missionary. This brave man has had a hard 
 time among the Armenians and Mussulmans. Four times he has 
 been shot at, but still continues to work in the hope of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Ispahan lies in a large plain, with mountains rising in every di- 
 rection. The soil is cultivated exclusively by irrigation, not only 
 by artificial streams brought along the surface of the ground, but 
 by subterranean streams brought from the mountains miles away. 
 
 To dig one of these streams, they sink a well near the base of 
 the mountains till they find a spring of living water large enough 
 to supply a stream three or four feet wide and a foot in depth. The 
 first well is sometimes as many as three hundred feet deep. Having 
 found water, they sink other wells, about every hundred feet, along 
 the line of the proposed stream, the bottoms of which are on the 
 same level as the first. A channel is then dug from the bottom of 
 one well to another until, as the wells gradually decrease in depth, 
 the water is brought to the surface miles from the source. On leav- 
 
428 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 ing Ispahan we followed one of these comiauts, as they are called, 
 for forty miles. 
 
 As soon as the water is brought to the surface it is conducted 
 in ditches to the small fields, varj'ing in size from one hundred to 
 one thousand or two thousand square feet. For the purpose of 
 being flooded, the fields are separated from each other by a raised 
 furrow about a foot high. It is only after seeing the immense 
 labor the poor people of Persia have to perform before receiving a 
 grain from the soil, that one can appreciate the blessing of living 
 in a country of rains and fruitful seasons. 
 
 At Ispahan we called upon the governor, who, although the eldest 
 son of the Shah, is not the heir to the throne, as he was not born of 
 a princess. The heir is Governor of Tabriz, but is now in Teheran, 
 where he has come to pay his respects to the Shah, on the open- 
 ing of the New Year. 
 
 From Ispahan we came through to Teheran in four days, stop- 
 ping the first night (13th) at Soh. The 14th we crossed the pass 
 of Kohrud, eight thousand eight hundred feet above the sea. Not- 
 withstanding the elevation and snow, we suffered more from the 
 heat, and reflection of the sun, than on any day since leaving Bu- 
 shire. The night of the 14th we spent at Kashan. The night of 
 the 15th at Pul-i-dilak ; and on the 16th, at 5.30, arrived at the Brit- 
 ish legation in Teheran. 
 
 The last two days from Ispahan we rode one hundred and sixty 
 miles ; on the other days we averaged from fifty to seventy. 
 
 The country from Bushire to Teheran is the most arid I have 
 ever seen, and the poverty of the people passes description. Dur- 
 ing the famine of 1871-'72 one-fifth of the population — more than 
 a million souls, perished from starvation. In some villages and 
 districts every man and beast perished. The people were so hun- 
 gry that, when dogs were shot in the streets, they tore them to 
 pieces and devoured their flesh raw. Even in Teheran the dead 
 were allowed to decay in the streets. In some places children fell 
 victims to the hunger of their parents. 
 
 On our way to Shiraz I visited a village. It consisted of a low 
 stone shed, inclosing a court about one hundred feet square. In 
 the centre of the court was a huge pile of manure, and several stag- 
 nant pools of discolored water. The rooms which faced the court 
 were not more than ten feet square, and were without beds, win- 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 429 
 
 dows, or floors. The people sleep on felts and skins, spread on the 
 ground, and, to make up as much as possible for the want of fire, 
 they bring their sheep and calves into their rooms to avail them- 
 selves of their animal heat. In the stalls I have described, which we 
 would not use for the meanest of domestic animals, were crowded 
 together one hundred and fifty men, women, and children, the pict- 
 ure of misery, filth, and despair. 
 
 This village was but one of many we passed along our route. 
 "We saw several which had been completely depopulated by the 
 famine. Ruin everywhere prevailed. Even a large portion of Ispa- 
 han, which two hundred years ago was a city of several hundred 
 thousand people, was a heap of rubbish and deserted walls. Most 
 of the houses, including the roofs, are built of mud mixed with 
 straw. 
 
 In cities like Shiraz and Ispahan the bazaars are built of brick, 
 the streets being completely arched over, so that when one ap- 
 proaches the city he enters a tunnel, and emerges at a point sev- 
 eral hundred yards away. On each side of the street, within the 
 arcade, every article of merchandise is exposed to the best advan- 
 tage. The salesmen sit cross-legged awaiting customers. If so 
 fortunate as to be driving a bargain, a fierce discussion at once 
 ensues, in which everybody is free to participate. Between the 
 booths, an incessant crowd of people, horses, mules, camels, and 
 donkeys, move up and down, but never in a hurry. The measured 
 sound of bells, swinging slowly from one side to the other beneath 
 the necks of camels, tells of the arrival of caravans from distant 
 parts of the empire. 
 
 No heavy stages or express-wagons are seen lumbering through 
 the streets. As you crowd your way along, with perhaps the Mo- 
 hammedans cursing you, and the camels gazing at you with their 
 meaningless brown eyes, you feel that you are in a strange land in 
 the far East, 
 
 In the days of Ahasuerus, Haman asked for the extermination 
 of the Jews, and the king granted his request. Queen Esther, at 
 the peril of her life, begged for her people ; and, when Haman 
 had met his fate, the king sent orders to the Jews to defend them- 
 selves. He could not revoke his first law, but the second gave 
 courage to the Jews, and when assailed they slew five hundred peo- 
 ple within the palace. To-day, the Shah could sport in the same 
 
430 LETTERS EEOM PERSIA. 
 
 manner with the lives of his people. Here, as in China, monarchy 
 and absolutism culminate, and corruption is the order of the day. 
 Even the Shah takes bribes, and Avhen he wishes to extort money he 
 announces a visit to some distant province, in order that the gov- 
 ernors and officials may buy him off, rather than incur the expense 
 of entertaining him. When he travels, his soldiers, like a swarm 
 of locusts, devour the sustenance of the people. 
 
 Governorships are bought and sold ; and, when the revenue is 
 not forthcoming, the people are squeezed till they yield the last 
 farthing. 
 
 Teheran, MarcJi 25, 1876, 
 
 It was our intention, when we arrived on the 16th, to leave on 
 the 20th. Mr. Thompson, who desired that we might have the 
 pleasure of meeting the society of Teheran, has given two dinners, 
 to which were invited many of the Europeans in the city. Nearly 
 every European in Teheran holds some official position, either at 
 one of the legations, or in connection with the Anglo-Indian tele- 
 graph, which belongs to the Government. At the first dinner were 
 present the charges cV affaires of Russia and France, and some of the 
 instructors of the Shah's army. At the second dinner the Austrian 
 and Turkish ministers were present, and we also had the pleasure 
 of meeting Mr. and Mrs. Bassett, and Mr. Potter, of the American 
 mission, who are highly esteemed by all of the European residents. 
 
 The 21st of March is the New-Year's-day of the Persians, and, 
 like the custom in Europe and America, the Shah celebrates the 
 occasion by giving a public reception. Being under the protection 
 of the English minister, we were invited to accompany the diplo- 
 matic corps. 
 
 At twelve o'clock the various legations assembled in an upper 
 room of the palace, where they were received by the prime-minis- 
 ter, who wore a scarlet uniform, heavily embroidered with gold. 
 The uniforms of the various members of the legations were scarcely 
 less brilliant, their breasts being covered with sparkling crosses and 
 decorations, arranged in double and triple rows. In this room tea 
 and coffee were served, and the tall calaon, or Persian pipe, made 
 several revolutions, as many as desired smoking it one after the 
 other. 
 
 By an article in all of the treaties, at every interview with the 
 Shah, the foreign representatives have to wear galoches, or over 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 431 
 
 shoes, which are removed just before entermg his presence. It is 
 a partial concession to Persian custom, which requires everybody 
 to remove his shoes before stepping on a carpet. 
 
 The Shah having signified his readiness to receive the diplo- 
 matic corps, galoches were resumed, when, descending from the 
 room before described, the procession moved through two courts 
 into a large garden, overlooked by the hall of audience. If the 
 Shah had presented himself at the window, he would have been 
 saluted, but, as he did not show himself, galoches were removed, 
 and everybody began to ascend the high steps of the Persian 
 stairs. At the top was a door immediately leading into the Shah's 
 presence. On entering it, all saluted ; advanced half-way, saluted 
 again ; and, finally, a third time on arriving near his majesty's per- 
 son. The ministers then arranged themselves in first line. 
 
 Count Dubsky, the Austrian minister, who is the dean of the 
 corps, made a short address in French, in the translation of which 
 his Oriental secretary completely broke down. The Shah relieved 
 the awkwardness by immediately entering into conversation with 
 the ministers, asking them how they were, if their sovereigns were 
 well, and several other commonplace questions. 
 
 During this exchange of civilities I had ample opportunity to 
 examine the Shah's dress. He wore a dark, almost black coat and 
 trousers, and black cap. On his coat were six horizontal and two 
 vertical rows of diamonds, each row containing not less than nine 
 or ten solitaires as large as the ball of one's thumb. There were 
 also two vertical rows of rubies, each ruby being not less than 
 an inch and a half long. His epaulets, including the pendent part, 
 ordinarily made of gold bullion, and the scabbard of his sword, 
 were completely studded with diamonds, and presented a mass of 
 white light. Over his shoulders he wore a blue sash, on which, 
 near the centre of his breast, a star of diamonds, three inches in 
 diameter, sparkled like an immense cluster. A spray of diamonds 
 on his plain black cap completed his apparel. Behind him was the 
 seat of the celebrated Peacock Throne of Delhi, which was cap- 
 tured by Nadir Shah, and sent to Teheran, about one hundred and 
 fifty years ago. It was thickly studded with precious stones, but 
 was at such a distance that I could not distinguish them. 
 
 From the survey of so much magnificence my attention was 
 attracted by the voice of Mr. Thompson, who, addressing his 
 
432 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 majesty in Persian, said he had the honor to present three Amer- 
 ican officers, and then introduced us severally by name. The Shah, 
 who held a pair of gold spectacles in his hand, leveled them upon 
 us. He asked us when we arrived ; if the soldiers of Japan wore 
 the European uniform ; if China had an army ; and if General 
 Grant were our President. His conversation, which the diplo- 
 matic corps regarded as very gracious, did not long interrupt my 
 survey of the surroundings. 
 
 The room was Eurasian in appearance. The floor was inlaid, 
 and European paintings decorated the walls and columns. The 
 ceiling was highly painted, after the manner so common in Asia. 
 
 When the Shah signified that the audience was at an end, every 
 one saluted, and then, with more or less dexteritj', retreated back- 
 ward, stopping and saluting twice as at the beginning. 
 
 We bad deferred our departure from Teheran one day in order 
 to witness this ceremony ; and, Avell out of the Shah's presence, 
 were happy in the thought that the morrow would see us on our 
 way to Constantinople. But, as we were about to descend the 
 stairs, the prime-minister came to me, and, addressing me in French, 
 told me that his majesty desired us to stay and witness the manoeu- 
 vres that would take place the following week. As it would have 
 been a breach of etiquette not to comply, I promptly accepted the 
 invitation ; and so, contrary to our wishes, we found ourselves de- 
 tained for another week. But we cannot complain. Everybody 
 in Teheran has contributed to the pleasure of our visit, and spared 
 no pains to give us agreeable entertainments. 
 
 After the reception was over for the diplomatic corps, we were 
 conducted to a room where we could see the grand salam, or pub- 
 lic reception. As the Shah took his seat on a throne facing a large 
 court, the bands struck up, and the guns thundered a salute. The 
 oldest prince then read an address, to which the Shah replied, and 
 then followed a poem. Afterward there was a distribution of 
 money to the people, who crowded the court — a silver piece of the 
 value of a penny being given to each person as a souvenir of the 
 occasion. The Shah, having smoked the calaon, came down from 
 the throne, walked off in state, and disappeared amid the clangor 
 of trumpets, and the strains of martial music. The salam being 
 over, we returned to the legation. 
 
 On the 22d of March, M. de Belloy, the French charg'e cVaf- 
 
LETTEKS FROM PERSIA. 433 
 
 f aires, gave a breakfast in one of the Shah's gardens near Reh, after 
 which we had some coursing. We caught only four of the seven 
 hares that were started. Mounted on a good horse, I enjoyed the 
 chase, but my sympathies were always with the hare, and I secretly 
 rejoiced whenever he escaped. 
 
 On the 23d, while we were at dinner, Mr. Thompson received 
 notice, through an aide-de-camp, that the Shah desired to give us 
 a private audience the next day at twelve o'clock. We according- 
 ly went, and found his majesty promenading in the large garden 
 in front of the hall of audience. Dr. Tholozan, his French physi- 
 cian, accompanied us as interpreter. 
 
 Having made the usual salutations, the Shah began an ejacula- 
 tory and inquisitive conversation, lasting at least an hour. He 
 asked us where we were from ; the population of New York and 
 Washington; when our presidential election would take place; the 
 extent of our railroads ; the size of our army ; and the time it took 
 us to go to Japan. All this, however, was preliminary to the real 
 object of the interview, which was to acquire information about 
 American fire-arms. In regard to them he showed great interest, 
 and well he might ; for, when in Europe, more than forty thou- 
 sand breech-loaders were palmed off on him which were perfectly 
 worthless. 
 
 He brought out a Henry-Martini, and showed us its action. 
 We regretted not having our arms with us, but I told him we had 
 a revolver at the legation, and that I would be happy to present it 
 to him, which he accepted. During the conversation he strolled 
 through the garden, charging us with a great number of commis- 
 sions — among them, the expression of his regrets that our Govern- 
 ment was not in diplomatic relations with him ; to write Roach & 
 Co., of Chester, Pennsylvania, asking the cost of a vessel that 
 would serve for peace and for war ; also to write the Colts, of 
 Hartford, Smith & Wesson, of Springfield, and the Remingtons, to 
 ascertain their prices for Gatling guns, revolvers, and carbines. 
 
 All this may amount to nothing, but I have been told that the 
 revolver, which has been tried in the presence of the Shah, pleased 
 him so highly that he has resolved to order several thousand for his 
 officers and non-commissioned officers. The interview was very 
 pleasant. The Shah laid aside all reserve, and laughed and chatted 
 freely. He wore a plain, dark uniform, with no other ornamenta- 
 28 
 
434 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 tion than a sword and sword-belt, covered with diamonds. The 
 contrast between the public and private reception was so marked 
 that we all returned charmed with our visit. 
 
 TiFLis, April 15, 1876. 
 
 On the 28th of March we attended the manoeuvres and reviews 
 of the garrison at Teheran. The troops were formed on the race- 
 course, about two miles west of the city, the infantry in front, the 
 artillery distributed along the line, and the irregular cavalry in the 
 rear. As we had delayed our departure a week to witness the 
 review, and had been specially invited by the Shah, we were told 
 that no pains would be spared to impress us with the efficiency and 
 appearance of the Persian army. 
 
 The Persian troops owe all of their knowledge of the military 
 art to the presence of five or six European instructors. The senior 
 of these, General Andrini, an Italian, presided at the manoeuvres. 
 The infantry was formed in four ranks, of which the first and sec- 
 ond fired kneeling, the third and fourth standing. 
 
 The principal manoeuvre consisted in advancing a line of 
 skirmishers, supported by a line of battle in double rank, behind 
 which, at intervals of forty or fifty yards, were posted a number of 
 companies, also formed in double rank. When the fire became too 
 severe for the skirmishers, they fell back to the line of battle, which 
 fired kneeling ; the companies in rear advanced to the line, and, 
 pouring their fire over the heads of the men in front, gave the 
 finishing stroke to an already staggering enemy. On the left, the 
 irregular cavalry, which knew nothing of line or column, charged in 
 swarms, firing at full speed, and raising a great cloud of dust. 
 
 We witnessed the review from the grand stand, where, previous 
 to his arrival, the Shah kept everybody waiting for two or three 
 hours. Several of the ladies of the harem, closely veiled, and 
 attended by eunuchs, were present to witness the display. After 
 the Shah had ridden along the lines, he came up in front, and 
 asked if the American officers were present, and, being assured 
 that they were, the troops began to march past. 
 
 The irregular cavalry marched in squads of five and six, and, 
 when in front of the Shah, nodded, as a salute. After passing the 
 stand, the troops broke ranks, and straggled back to the city, min- 
 gling with the throngs that were returning from the sight. 
 
LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 435 
 
 At the conclusion of the review, we took leave of the Shah, 
 whose ruling thought was the fire-arms, of which he spoke at the 
 private audience. He asked if we had written to the parties, and, 
 when we told him we had, he seemed much pleased. 
 
 On the 29th we took leave of Mr. Thompson, and the good peo- 
 ple at the legation, and, accompanied for some miles by several 
 gentlemen of the city, we started for Tabriz, distant three hundred 
 and fifty miles, which we rode in five days. The first half of the 
 distance the horses were the worst we had had in Persia. But, 
 being forced to ride them, we had this consolation — that, with the 
 English saddle, the poor beasts suffered less than they had for 
 weeks with the Persian engines of torture. The last half of the 
 distance the horses were excellent, and we made the stages with 
 comfort. In crossing the Kaflan Pass, about eighty miles from 
 Tabriz, we saw, for the first time, crops raised by the rains instead 
 of irrigation, 
 
 Tabriz is in a fertile valley, and contains about one hundred 
 thousand inhabitants. It is like all other Persian cities — built of 
 mud and brick, without a single edifice to attract attention. We 
 stopped with Mr. Easton, an American missionary, who came on 
 with us to Tiflis. The mission consists of himself and wife, and a 
 Miss Jewett, but he has come on to Tiflis to meet other friends, 
 who are on their way to join them. We staid at Tabriz but one 
 day ; called on the governor, and were invited to breakfast and 
 shown great kindness by the French consul. 
 
 On the 5th, at 5.30 p. m., we started for Tiflis, and on the 6th, 
 at about the same hour, arrived at Julfa, the frontier of Persia. 
 Our last day's ride was eighty miles, or a distance greater than from 
 Syracuse to Rochester, while the average during our eleven hun- 
 dred miles ride was between fifty and sixty per day. 
 
 Our food consisted principally of boiled eggs, tea, milk, honey, 
 boiled chicken, and Persian bread. The latter is unleavened, and 
 is baked in the shape of long, thin slabs. The Persians do not 
 know the use of the knife and fork, and instead eat with the thumb 
 and first two fingers. 
 
 At Julfa we crossed the Araxes, the boundary between Persia 
 and Russia. On the one side stood the cheerless chapar-khanah, 
 with its mud walls and floors ; on the other stood the Russian 
 post-station, the first modern stone building we had seen since 
 
436 LETTERS FROM PERSIA. 
 
 leaving Bombay. We had enjoyed our ride through Persia, we 
 had seen its misery and decay, and were ghid enough to be once 
 more under the protection of a progressive nation. 
 
 At Julfa a four-seated, covered carriage awaited us, which had 
 been sent from Tiflis. Bidding adieu to chapar-horses, we en- 
 tered our carriage, and on the morning of the 7th continued our 
 way to Tiflis. 
 
 The first village of interest on our route was Nakh-i-chewan, 
 where, according to tradition, Noah descended from Ararat. Tra- 
 dition likewise points to his tomb. It is situated in an Armenian 
 cemetery, is built of brick, and octagonal in shape. A flight of 
 stairs leads down to a vault, supported by a pillar in the centre, at 
 the base of which there is a small fireplace. Here Armenians come 
 on picnics, cook their food, and, after the feast, as a matter of de- 
 votion, break their plates, and destroy everything that remains. 
 
 All the next day we traveled in the direction of Mount Ararat, 
 and toward evening crossed the Araxes, and spent the night at a 
 Cossack post near its base. This station looked as lonely and forlorn 
 as a post in Arizona. On presenting ourselves, we at once expe- 
 rienced all of the inconveniences of being among a people with whom 
 we could not speak, or communicate. I tried French in vain. We 
 were first taken to the adjutant, who was seated at a table in the 
 open air, drinking a cup of tea. This sphinx-like individual, although 
 told by our conductor that we were American officers, kept his seat, 
 gave us no salutation, and, when he found we could not communi- 
 cate with him in his native tongue, sent us on to the doctor, but 
 with no better success. Sanger now came to the front, and, by a 
 happy accident, discovered that the armorer was a German, whom he 
 made to understand that we wished to stay all night, and the next 
 morning make a partial ascent of the mountain. This sub-officer 
 at once conducted us to the sutler's store, where, as at all posts, 
 we found a crowd of soldiers, some of whom were playing billiards. 
 They immediately laid down their cues, and retired, when, being 
 sorry to interrupt their amusement, we spread our comforters and 
 pillows, and installed ourselves in the billiard-room for the night. 
 
 The next morning we mounted Cossack horses, and began the 
 ascent ; but the rain almost immediately obscured the greater part 
 of the mountain, so, on approaching within a few hundred feet 
 of the snow-line, we relinquished the attempt, Ararat, like Vesu- 
 
LETTER FROM THE CAUCASUS. 437 
 
 vius and Fusi Yama, is a volcanic mountain, rising like a graceful 
 cone from the midst of a large plain. Its height is seventeen 
 thousand feet. On its southeastern slope stands Little Ararat, 
 also a perfect cone, eleven thousand feet high. A graceful curve 
 connects the bases of the cones, which were wrapped in their snowy 
 mantle. Little Ararat frequently stood out in all its beauty ; but 
 far above its head Great Ararat veiled itself in the mystery of the 
 clouds. Only once, by moonlight, did we see the summit. For 
 a hundred miles we skirted its base, hoping the sun would dis- 
 pel the storms that enveloped its form, but in vain. On looking 
 back from the last point whence it was visible, we could only see 
 black, surging clouds. 
 
 Descending the slope in the rain, we returned to the Cossack 
 post, and, recrossing the Araxes, arrived at Erivan on the evening 
 of the 9th. The next day we began to climb the mountains, 
 passed a picturesque lake five thousand feet above the sea, traveled 
 all night, and arrived at Titlis at 5.30 P. M. on the Hth, exactly 
 two months from Bombay. 
 
 Tiflis contains about one hundred and twenty thousand inhabit- 
 ants, and lies in a fertile valley, the waters of which flow into the 
 Caspian. It is the capital of the Caucasus, of which the Grand-duke 
 Michael is governor. It was here that General Sherman terminated 
 his travels to the eastward, which suggested the tour we have just 
 completed. 
 
 Black Sea, Ajiril 30, 1876. 
 
 On Saturday, the 15th of April, while at Tiflis, we were present- 
 ed to the grand-duke. He received us very cordially, spoke English 
 well, and kindly showed us over his palace. 
 
 After the presentation we visited the military school for officers, 
 the model company of infantry, composed of soldiers from every 
 regiment in the Caucasus, and also the Military Club. In the even- 
 ing we were invited to attend the services at the cathedral, which 
 consisted mostly of processions, chants, and incense. In recogni- 
 tion of the resurrection, the occasion is made one of joy, and is at- 
 tended by all of the officers in full dress. The priests never shave 
 or cut their hair, which hangs some distance down the back, giving 
 them when old a patriarchal appearance. 
 
 Conspicuous above all of the congregation was the Grand-duke 
 
438 LETTER FROM THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 Michael — a tall, handsome man, beside whom stood his son, seven- 
 teen years old, still taller than his father. At the conclusion of the 
 services the archbishop held in his arms a cross, which the members 
 of the congregation successively kissed. They then kissed the arch- 
 bishop three times, twice on the left cheek and once on the right. 
 The three kisses were typical of the Trinity. The grand-duke 
 was the first to perform this ceremony ; after which he took his 
 stand near one of the large pilasters of the church; when, after 
 kissing the cross and the archbishop, his generals successively ap- 
 proached, kissed him, and were kissed in return. This custom, 
 strange as it may seem, is the usual one in Russia. At the railway- 
 stations it is common to see men kiss as affectionately as husband 
 and wife. 
 
 On Easter-Sunday we were invited to a reception and lunch at 
 the palace, at which were present most of the dignitaries of church 
 and state. 
 
 Easter-Monday we dined at the palace. The dinner was charm- 
 ing, due, in a large degree, to the presence of six children who, 
 with the exception of an infant, constituted the whole family. 
 The grand-duchess, a lovely woman, looked with affection and pride 
 upon her family, and especially upon a beautiful daughter of six- 
 teen, who will soon grace the courts of Europe. 
 
 From Tiflis there are two ways of reaching Constantinople; one 
 via Poti and the Black Sea; the other via Vladi-Kavkas, the Crimea, 
 and thence by the Black Sea. As the latter route would permit us 
 to pass through the country of the Cossacks, and at the same time 
 cross the Caucasus, we chose it, and left Tiflis on the morning of 
 the 18th. 
 
 The road from Tiflis to Vladi-Kavkas, in construction and for 
 scenery, is one of the grandest in the world. It is macadamized 
 throughout ; and, as it zigzags up the mountains along the edges 
 of steep precipices, it gives a succession of magnificent views. It 
 crowns the summit at an elevation of eight thousand feet. Here 
 we found the snow on each side of the road from fifteen to twenty 
 feet deep. The road had been dug out through huge drifts that 
 stood up like perpendicular walls on each side. 
 
 The night of the 18th we spent at Kasbeck, at the foot of Mount 
 Kasbeck, sixteen thousand feet high. The next morning for a mo- 
 ment we saw its lofty peak, which was quickly enveloped by surging 
 
LETTER FROM THE CAUCASUS. 439 
 
 clouds. The descent was through a pass unequaled in Europe. The 
 walls on each side rose almost perpendicularly to a height of two or 
 three thousand feet, reminding us of the great chasm of the Yose- 
 mite. The road in many places was hewed out of the solid rock, 
 and was full of picturesque turns and surprises. 
 
 At the end of the pass we came out of a magnificent gateway, 
 and before us lay the great steppes of Russia as smooth and as fer- 
 tile as the prairies of Illinois. I had never before fully understood 
 the meaning of steppes. I had supposed them to be rather ele- 
 vated, desolate tracts, across which the wind howled piteously, and 
 where the cold in winter was of arctic fierceness. But here all was 
 explained in a moment. 
 
 From Vladi-Kavkas, where we took the railroad, on the 20th, 
 to Rostoif, thence to Losovai and Simferopol in the Crimea, a dis- 
 tance of six hundred miles, the country was exactly like the plains 
 of Illinois, Kansas, and Iowa. Sparsely populated, hundreds and 
 thousands of square miles, which have never been cultivated, invite 
 the immigrant as in our own great West. It only needs their 
 labor to make Southern Russia one of the most fertile and popu- 
 lous countries in the world. 
 
 At Vladi-Kavkas we visited the military school, and also wit- 
 nessed feats of horsemanship by the Cossacks. They are certainly 
 wonderful riders, far excelling anything we saw in India and Persia. 
 A skirmish-line made their horses lie down, fired from behind them, 
 and, when the enemy charged, they rose, mounted, and disappeared 
 like the wind. They also threw themselves out of their saddles, 
 simulated the rescue of wounded comrades, and, hanging by one 
 leg over the horse's back, scraped the ground for a hundred yards, 
 the horses moving at full speed. 
 
 After the riding, the governor, with whom we dined, invited us 
 back to his palace, where the Cossacks entertained us with dancing 
 and music. 
 
 After a short stay at Vladi-Kavkas we again took the cars. The 
 road, built by government subsidy for military purposes, has already 
 developed the country, and villages are springing up along the line, 
 the same as in America. We reached Rostoff on the 21st, at 9 A. M., 
 and left at 4 P. m. Mr. Martin, an Englishman who is our consu- 
 lar agent, gave us a cordial reception. His warehouses and yards 
 were filled with steam-thrashers, ploughs, American horse-rakes, and 
 
440 LETTER FROM THE CAUCASUS. 
 
 other agricultural imjDlements, showing that the spirit of improve- 
 ment has already taken hold of the people. 
 
 The city is at the mouth of the Don, and has grown so rapidly 
 as to gain for it the nickname Chicago. With a great fertile coun- 
 try at its back, it certainly has a fine future. The Don, where we 
 crossed it, was five miles wide. Below the railroad it expands and 
 forms the head of the Sea of Azof. 
 
 At one point the Don and the Volga are but a few miles apart. 
 A canal across the isthmus would enable Rostoff to become a port 
 of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Leaving Rostoff on the 31st, we arrived at Sevastopol on the 
 23d. Here we reached the traveled routes of Europe, and, as the 
 rest of our journey will be through countries too well known to 
 need description, here must end this series of letters. 
 
I ]sr D E X. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aggressive power of England 268 
 
 Armies : 
 
 Austria 161 
 
 China 13 
 
 England 250 
 
 France 225 
 
 Germany 191 
 
 India 33 
 
 Italy 98 
 
 Japan 1 
 
 Persia 88 
 
 Russia 146 
 
 Armies (strength of): 
 
 Austria 161-2 
 
 China 19 
 
 England 250 
 
 France 225-6 
 
 Germany 191-2 
 
 India 33-4 
 
 Italy 98 
 
 Japan 8 
 
 Russia 147 
 
 Army territoriale (France) 235 
 
 Arms (Persia) 91 
 
 Artillery (strength of): 
 
 Austria 161-2 
 
 China 16 
 
 England 250 
 
 France 226 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Germany 191-2 
 
 India 3-34 
 
 Italy 98 
 
 Japan 8, 10 
 
 Persia 91 
 
 Russia 147 
 
 United States (proposed). . . 346-50 
 Administrative corps (Italy) 100 
 
 Baniiermen (China) 17 
 
 Battalion (organization of) : 
 
 Austria 163 
 
 England 251 
 
 France 228 
 
 Germany 193 
 
 Italy 102 
 
 Japan 9,10 
 
 United States (proposed peace- 
 footing) 338 
 
 United States (proposed war- 
 footing) . . 341 
 
 Battalion formations (German). . . 280-4 
 
 Battalions of instruction (Italy). . . . 120 
 Barracks : 
 
 India 68 
 
 Japan 11 
 
 Bazaar (India) 59 
 
 British army (India) 65 
 
 Bersaglieri (Italy) 104 
 
442 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Brigade : 
 
 Austria 166 
 
 England 251 
 
 France 231 
 
 Germany 194 
 
 Italy 105 
 
 Russia 150 
 
 Cavalry (strength of) : 
 
 Austria 161-2 
 
 China 15 
 
 France 225 
 
 England 250 
 
 Germany 191-2 
 
 India 33-4 
 
 Italy 98 
 
 Japan 8, 10 
 
 Persia 90 
 
 Russia 14V 
 
 United States (proposed). . . . 344-6 
 
 Civil and military authorities (In- 
 dia) 51 
 
 Company (organization of): 
 
 Austria 163 
 
 France 228 
 
 Germany 193 
 
 Italy 101 
 
 Japan 10 
 
 Russia 149 
 
 United States (proposed peace- 
 footing) 338 
 
 United States (proposed war- 
 footing) 341 
 
 Conclusions 317-70 
 
 Corps : 
 
 Austria 166 
 
 England 252 
 
 France 231 
 
 Germany 195 
 
 Italy 105 
 
 Russia 150 
 
 Company column : 
 
 French 287-91 
 
 German 271-75 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Austria 303 
 
 Italy 303 
 
 Russia 303 
 
 Deployment of a battalion as skir- 
 mishers : 
 
 English 306-12 
 
 French 297 
 
 German 275 
 
 Russian 304-6 
 
 Deployment of company column as 
 skirmishers : 
 
 French 293 
 
 German 274 
 
 Deployment by numbers (United 
 States) 313 
 
 Detached service (United States). . . 336 
 
 Detail (staff) : 
 
 Austria 189 
 
 England 255 
 
 Germany 218-19 
 
 Italy 140 
 
 India 43 
 
 United States (results of). . . 336-7 
 
 Depot : 
 
 Austria 161-5 
 
 England 254 
 
 France 228, 230 
 
 Germany 199-201 
 
 Italy 103 
 
 United States (peace-footing). . 339 
 " " (war-footing). ... 342 
 
 Discipline : 
 
 Austria 181 
 
 China 21 
 
 Germany 224 
 
 India 61, 77 
 
 Russia 159 
 
 United States 358 
 
 Distribution of troops (India) 81 
 
 Division : 
 
 Austria 166 
 
 England 252 
 
 France 231 
 
INDEX. 
 
 443 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Germany 194 
 
 Italy 105 
 
 Russia 150 
 
 Examinations for : 
 
 Bengal staff corps 38 
 
 Native languages (India) 41 
 
 Examination for promotion : 
 
 Austria 183-9 
 
 England 26'7 
 
 United States 354 
 
 "Ersatz" reserve: 
 
 Austria 16*7 
 
 Germany 199 
 
 Italy 109 
 
 Freneli company column 28*7-91 
 
 Furlough-list : 
 
 Germany 199 
 
 India 47 
 
 Garrison instruction (India) 40 
 
 General list (India) 36 
 
 General officers (France) 226 
 
 General remarks : 
 
 China 29 
 
 India 15 
 
 Persia 93 
 
 Tactics 313 
 
 German company column 271-8 
 
 Governor-generals (China) 26 
 
 Honors (China) 24 
 
 Hospitals : 
 
 India 72 
 
 Japan 11 
 
 Infantry : 
 
 Austria 162 
 
 China 15 
 
 England 250 
 
 France 226-31 
 
 Germany 192 
 
 PAGE 
 
 India (native) 54 
 
 " (British) 65 
 
 Italy 101 
 
 Japan 9 
 
 Persia 88 
 
 Russia 149 
 
 United States 337-43 
 
 Infantry tactics 270 
 
 Invasion of India 84 
 
 Jiiger battalions, German 285 
 
 Landwehr : 
 
 Austria 168 
 
 Germany 201 
 
 Landsturm (Germany) 203 
 
 Languages (native) 41 
 
 Lineal promotion (United States).. 353-4 
 
 Military districts (Italy) 106 
 
 Military education (United States) 360-66 
 Mihtary professorships (United 
 
 States) 366 
 
 Militia (England) 254 
 
 Militia reserve (England) 254 
 
 Militia mobile (Italy) 112 
 
 Militia territoriale (Italy) 114 
 
 Movable columns (India) 63 
 
 National volunteers 367 
 
 Non-commissioned officers : 
 
 Germany 204 
 
 Italy 123 
 
 India (native) 57 
 
 Russia 151 
 
 Officers : 
 
 Army territoriale (France) 237 
 
 India (European) 34 
 
 " (native) 56 
 
 Persia °" 
 
 Reserve (complement) United 
 
 States 343 
 
444 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Officers: 
 
 Reserve (France) 236 
 
 (Germany) 198 
 
 " (Italy) 116 
 
 Landwehr (Germany) 202 
 
 Militia mobile (Italy) 114 
 
 Old cadre-list (India) ST 
 
 Pay: 
 
 India (staff) 45 
 
 " (native regiment) 57 
 
 " (British regiment) 74 
 
 Persia 92 
 
 Personal reports : 
 
 Austria 183-7 
 
 England.. 256 
 
 United States 327 
 
 Promotion : 
 
 Austria 183-9 
 
 England 267 
 
 Germany 223 
 
 India 46 
 
 Italy 142 
 
 Russia 158 
 
 Probation staff (India) 43 
 
 Punishments : 
 
 Austria 181 
 
 China 23 
 
 Germany 224 
 
 India 61 
 
 Russia 159 
 
 United States 358-60 
 
 Recruitment : 
 
 Austria 166 
 
 England 252 
 
 France 232 
 
 Germany 196 
 
 Italy 108-12 
 
 Regiments (organization of) ; 
 
 Austria 164-5 
 
 England 250 
 
 France 228-30 
 
 Germany 194 
 
 PAGE 
 
 , ,. ( British 65 
 
 India ^ 
 
 / Native 54 
 
 Italy 102 
 
 Japan 9 
 
 Persia 89 
 
 Russia 150 
 
 United States : 
 
 ^ . ( Peace-footing .... 339 
 
 Infantry i „r c .■ o.o 
 
 ' ( War-footmg 342 
 
 , ^ Peace-footing 345 
 
 ^'^^"''•yj War-footing 345 
 
 Artillery 346 
 
 Recreation (India) 67 
 
 Reserve : 
 
 England 253 
 
 Germany 197 
 
 Reserve (obligations of) ; 
 
 Germany 202 
 
 Retirement (India) 46 
 
 Rewards (India) 59 
 
 Schools (men) : 
 
 Austria 169-70 
 
 Germany 203-4 
 
 Italy 117-18 
 
 School of Musketry and Gymnas- 
 tics : 
 
 Japan 5 
 
 Schools (non-commissioned offi- 
 cers) : 
 
 Austria 170-2 
 
 Germany 204-5 
 
 Italy 119-22 
 
 Japan 5 
 
 Schools (officers) : 
 
 Application (artillery and engi- 
 neers, Austria) 177-8 
 " (artillery and engi- 
 
 neers, France). . 247 
 " (artillery and engi- 
 
 neers, Italy). ... 134 
 " (artillery, United 
 
 States) 363-65 
 
 Cadet Corps (Germany). . . 209-211 
 
iin)EX. 
 
 445 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Central infantry and cavalry 
 (Austria) 180-1 
 
 Infantry and cavalry (United 
 States) 366 
 
 Military Academy (infantry and 
 cavalry, Austria) lli 
 
 Military Academy (artillery and 
 engineers, England) 260-3 
 
 Military Academy (artillery and 
 engineers, Italy) 133 
 
 Military Academy (infantry, cav- 
 alry, artillery, and engineers, 
 Japan) 3 
 
 Military Academy (infantry, cav- 
 alry, artillery, and engineers. 
 United States) 360 
 
 Military Technical Academy 
 (artillery and engineers), 
 Austria 176 
 
 Military College (preparatory), 
 Austria 1*72 
 
 Military Colleges (preparatory), 
 Italy 128 
 
 Military College (infantry and 
 cavalry), England 256-60 
 
 Military Schools (infantry and 
 cavalry), Italy 131 
 
 Military Schools (infantry and 
 cavalry), France 240 
 
 Military Schools (artillery and 
 engineers), Russia 155-6 
 
 Military Schools (infantry and 
 cavalry), Russia 151-4 
 
 Military Technical School (pre- 
 paratory), Austria 173 
 
 Normal School (infantry), Italy. 134 
 " " (cavalry), " 136 
 
 Prytanee Mihtaire (preparatory), 
 France 238 
 
 Polytechnic (artillery and engi- 
 neers), France 243 
 
 Staff College (England) 263-6 
 
 Staff (application), France 248 
 
 War Academy (statf ), Austria . 179 
 
 PAGE 
 
 War Academy (staff), France .. 248 
 " " " Germany 
 
 213-18 
 " " " Italy.... 136 
 
 " " " Russia.. 15*7 
 
 War Schools, Germany 208 
 
 Skirmishing : 
 
 French 292-303 
 
 German 274-80 
 
 English 306-12 
 
 Russian 303-6 
 
 United States 312-15 
 
 Staff: 
 
 Austria 189-90 
 
 England 255 
 
 France 237-8 
 
 Germany 218 
 
 Italy 99 
 
 Japan 8 
 
 United States : 
 
 Adjutant - General's Depart- 
 ment 327-32 
 
 Engineers 335 
 
 Ordnance 335 
 
 Pay Department 334 
 
 Quartermasters Department. 333 
 Subsistence Department.. . . 333 
 
 Signal Corps . 334 
 
 Staff Corps : 
 
 Bengal 37 
 
 India 36 
 
 Staff probation (India) 43 
 
 Sundays (India) 68 
 
 Superintendent of Military Educa- 
 tion 367 
 
 Supplies : 
 
 China 24 
 
 India 64 
 
 Tactics : 
 
 China 20 
 
 Infantry 270 
 
 Japan 12 
 
 Tenure of staff appointments (India) 43 
 
446 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Territorial commands : 
 
 England 254 
 
 France 232 
 
 Germany 195 
 
 Italy 105 
 
 Russia 151 
 
 Transportation : 
 
 Cliina 25 
 
 India 62 
 
 Unemployed list (India) 3*7 
 
 Volunteers : 
 
 England 253 
 
 Italy 115 
 
 Volunteers for one year : 
 
 Germany 205 
 
 Italy 115 
 
 United States (national) 3G7 
 
 War Department : 
 
 China 13 
 
 Japan 6 
 
 Variety of service (India) 48 Yeoman cavalry (England) 254 
 
 THE END^ 
 
APPLETONS' 
 
 AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 NENA/' REVISED EDITION. 
 
 Entirely rewritten by the ablest writers on every subject. Printed from new 
 type, and illustrated with Several Thousand Engravings and Maps. 
 
 The work originally published under the title of The New American Cyclopedia was com- 
 pleted in 1863, since which time the wide circulation which it has attained in all parts of the United 
 States, and the signal developments which have taken place in every branch of science, literature, 
 and art, have induced the editors and publishers to submit it to an exact and thorough revision, and 
 to issue a new edition entitled The American Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Within the last ten years the progress of discovery in every department of knowledge has mada 
 a new work of reference an imperative want 
 
 The movement of political affairs has kept pace with the discoveries of science, and their fruitful 
 application to the industrial and useful arts and the convenience and refinement of social life. Great 
 wars and consequent revolutions have occurred, involving national changes of peculiar moment. 
 The civil war of our own country, which was at its height when the last volume of the old work 
 appeared, has happily been ended, and a new course of commercial and industrial activity has beeu 
 commenced. 
 
 Large accessions to our geographical knowledge have been made by the indefatigable explorers 
 of Africa. 
 
 The great political revolutions of the last decade, with the natural result of the lapse of time, 
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UNITED STATES ARMY TACTICS. 
 
 Headquarters of the Army, I 
 Washington, July 17, 1S73. ) 
 
 General Orders No. 6. — The following order, received from the TVar Department, Is pub- 
 Hsbed for the information and guidance of the Army: 
 
 War Department, 
 Washington City, Juhj 17, 1873, 
 
 4 
 
 The re-\ision of Upton s Infantry Tactics by the author, and the Tactics for Artillery and Cav- 
 alry [iuclnding- the proceedings of the board — Major-Gcneral Scbofleld. President — instituted by 
 General Orders No. GO, Headquarters of the Army, Adjutant-General's OfiBce, series oflbG'.i], assimi- 
 lated to the Tactics for Infantry, pursuant to instructions from the General of the Army, by — 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel Emory Upton, 1st Ai'tillery, Instructor of Tactics, U. S. Military Academy; 
 
 Captain Henry A. Du Pont. 6th Aj-tiUery, commanding- l?attery '■ F," 5th Artillery; 
 
 Captain John E. Tourtellotte, 7th Cavalry, Colonel and Aide-de-Camp to the General ; 
 
 Captain Alfred E. Bates. 2d Cavalry, Assistant Instructor of Cavalry Tactics, U. S. Military 
 Academy — 
 
 — having been approved by the President, are adopted for the instruction of the Army and 
 Militia of the United States. 
 
 To Insure uniformity, all exercises, evolutions, and ceremonies not embraced in these Tactics 
 are prohibited, and those therein prescribed will be strictly observed. 
 
 WM. W. BELKNAP, Secretary of War. 
 By command of General Sherman. 
 
 WILLIAM D. WHIPPLE, Assistant Adjutant-General. 
 
 INFANTRY TACTICS, Double and Single Rank. Adapted to American To- 
 pography and Improved Fire-arms. By Brevet Major-General Emory Upton, U. 8. Army. 
 Kevised'edition, 1 vol., bound in leather, wth clasp. Price, $2.00. 
 
 CAVALRY TACTICS, United States Army, assimilated to the Tactics of Infantry 
 
 and Artillery. 1 vol., bound in leather, with clasp. Price, $2.00. 
 ARTILLERY TACTICS, 
 
 1 vol., bound in leather, -with clasp. Price, $2.00. 
 
 A COLLECTION OF TACTICAL STUDIES, 
 
 TRANSLATED AND PUT TOGETHER BY 
 
 WYLLYS LYMAN, Brevet Major U. S. A. 
 1 vol., ISmo. Cloth. Price, $1.25. 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 II. INFANTRY TACTICS OF DETAIL. From the French of Captain ^mile 
 Poirot. 
 
 III. GERMAN COMPANY COLUMN AND AUTUMN MANOEUVRES, 1873. 
 
 IV. ENGLISH FORMATIONS FOR ATTACK. 
 
 '•Napoleon's maxim was that, to hold supeiiority, a people must change its tactics ever)' ten 
 years. The following pages illustrate the force of this maxim in the tentative and progressive char- 
 acter of the formations and movements most employed abroad to-day. In the words of the distin- 
 guished French .staff-officer. Colonel Lew.al, ' Progress is Hfe, the Hatu g-i/o is the death of armies, 
 and, what is worse, of nations. Tactics must change in form from age to age. and at epochs rela- 
 tively very near. It is an incessant childbirth'. We may dejilore these perpetual mutations, but 
 we cannot escape them ; it is the modern law. We must follow the movement which draws us on. 
 It would bo better to pl.acc ourselves at its head and direct it. In tactics it will not suffice to imitate, 
 to keep abreast of others, scrvileU' to copy institutions or methods ; new appUcations must be sought 
 without ceasing, and we nmst guard well against clinging to transient and vari.able forms.'' Tha 
 recent revision and assimilation of our own sj'stem for all arms, lends new and immediate intere*' 
 and invportance to this comparative analysis.""'— £'.i;^rac^ /row Preface. 
 
 J\%w Yovh: D. APPLETO.Y S^ CO., Publishers, 
 
 84.9 & SSI BROADWAY. 
 
 X 
 

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