.v ^' ^, "a 9 r -* °c ,AN^/U C ^■>- $ ^. ■ . & ... & . . • ' \Y e O « ^ V /4vi;-\ /via °* v > Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/suggestionstoteaOOgarr SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GEOGRAPHY BY CARL L. GARRISON PRINCIPAL OF THOMAS P. MORGAN SCHOOL WASHINGTON, D.C. :>X*c NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY The Natural Geographies By Jacques W . Redway, and Russell Hinman, Author ol the "Eclectic Physical Geography." Natural Elementary Geography. Price, 60 cents Natural Advanced Geography. Price, $1.25 Natural Brief Geography. Price, 80 cents The publication of The Natural Geographies marked anew era in th« study and teaching of geography. Some of the distinctive features which characterize this new series are: 1. A Natural Plan of Development based on physical geography and lead- ing in a natural manner to the study of historical, industrial and commercial geography. 2. Clear and distinct political maps showing correctly the comparative size of different countries, and physical maps showing relief by contoui lines and different colors, as in the best government maps. 3. Inductive and comparative treatment of subjects according to the most approved pedagogical principles. 4. Frequent exercises and reviews leading to the correlation and comparison of the parts of the subject already studied. 5 # Supplementary Exercises including laboratory work and references foi collateral reading. 6* Numerous original and appropriate pictures and graphic diagrams to il- lustrate the text. 7. Strict accordance, in method and treatment, with the recommendations of the Committee of Fifteen. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS OF GEOGRAPHY BY CARL L. GARRISON PRINCIPAL OK THOMAS P. MORGAN SCHOOL WASHINGTON, D.C. 5>©7 Wheat The fact that cold winters, hot summers, moderate rainfall, and fertile soil make possible great grain-producing regions should be dwelt on and understood, that finding like conditions elsewhere the child may look for similar crops. Collect specimens of various kinds of grain — leaf blade, head, and single grains (p. 42, Nat. EL Geog.). Compare these, know them by name, mount them, — wheat, rye, oats, barley, and maize for the Northern Section, — and have drawings made as busy work. Make a sketch map of the United States and shade in the grain region. Then follow the history of wheat from its planting through its various stages of harvest- ing and manufacture until it is flour in barrels. Follow the route of its transportation to lake or river port, or railroad center (Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, Chicago), and then (as wheat or flour) to eastern city or seaport, where per- haps the wheat is placed in elevators ready to be put on ships for further transportation across 38 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY the ocean. Have children write short stories of its changes from the seed to the loaf of bread on the breakfast table ; or of the trip from the field to a city in the East It may take several days to study the subject of wheat properly. Use a part of each day to study and have recited the names and locations of the states which produce much wheat, so that children may not only know in a general way something of the grain, its cultivation, process of transformation into flour, etc., but definitely what part of the country it grows in, and what states are the great wheat states. Keep in mind the great value of illustrations, which the children will take much interest in collecting. The classifying of them and the pasting of them into large brown-paper scrap- books make profitable busy work. Read from Carpenter's North America, begin- ning at page 164. Some time should be spent in studying rice and com in the same way that wheat is studied. For rice see Carpenter's North America, p. 120; for corn, p. 159. INDUSTRIES 39 Cotton Treat the subject of cotton (p. 54, Nat. EL Geog.\ the staple product of the South, in the same way as that suggested above for treating wheat. If home is not in the Southern Section, a specimen of the raw cotton in the boll may easily be obtained from almost any southern town. The children of a public school of the town will be glad to exchange products with children in your school, or the postmaster will probably forward a sample if stamps are sent. Tell the children the story of the difficulty of getting the seeds from the fiber, and of Eli Whitney's invention ; of the great increase in cotton growth since then. Get samples of vari- ous kinds of cotton cloth and thread and pictures of cotton mills — exteriors and interiors. If the children did not weave in the kindergarten, they will be glad to construct looms out of shallow boxes and tacks, and to weave oblongs of rags or cord, which can be sewed together to make a drapery or rug. Make a sketch map of the United States and 40 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY put in the cotton region. Have children know definitely which are the cotton-growing states and by comparison which are the wheat states. The knowledge of the thing itself, what it looks like and how it grows, is of no more importance than of where it grows.- Read from Carpenter's North America, p. 109. The Herding Industry of the West Make a connected study of the raising of cattle, hogs, and sheep, — of their food, where they are raised, etc. (pp. 43 and 59, Nat. EL Geog.\ Bring out the story of how they are driven or transported to near markets, to eastern cities, or to Europe ; or to the great slaughter- houses of Chicago or Kansas City, where the animals are killed and the meat is canned or cured or packed fresh in refrigerating cars for transportation to distant places. The eating of fresh American beef in Europe and the trans- portation of American hams and bacon to all parts of the world make interesting stories. Have children able to locate definitely the great grazing region of the country. Read descrip- INDUSTRIES 41 tion of stockyards at Chicago, from Carpenter's North America, p. 229. Market Gardening Market gardening near the great cities, and particularly in the eastern part of the country, is important, and should receive more attention than the mere mention of its existence (p. 43, Nat. El. Geog.). If possible, children should visit a market or market store and should make a list of such fresh fruits and vegetables as are contained in it, classifying the things into those transported long distances, as from Florida or California, and those grown near home. Then discuss the question of how these fresh fruits and vegetables are packed and got to market, — in crates, barrels, boxes, baskets and by wagons, trains, ships ; and of where they are sold, — ■ market houses, stores, the street (by peddlers), etc. See Carpenter's North America, pp. 133, 266. Forests Make a special study of the forests of the section. Collect leaves (or pictures) of the most 42 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY important trees : in the Northern Section, the pine, oak, walnut, poplar, ash. Get specimens of the wood from wood yards, planing mills, and carpenter shops, and make lists of articles made from each kind. Mount the leaves and wood specimens and preserve the lists of arti- cles made. Get pictures of lumber camps which will show how trees are felled, sawed into certain lengths, and hauled to stream or mill. Get other pictures showing how the logs are made into boards, and then into window and door frames, into furniture, etc. Make a sketch map of the United States and, when the text is read, locate the chief cities of lumber manufacture. Read from Carpenter's NortJi America, p. 184. Coal and Iron Mining The need of fuel to heat houses, to run machinery, to move railroad trains and ships, leads to the subject of coal mining (p. 47, Nat. El. Geog.). Photographs of coal mines in the Northern Section, particularly in Pennsylvania, are easy to obtain and cheap. They should INDUSTRIES 43 show the entrance to the shaft, the interior of a mine with miners at work, the car loads of coal being drawn by mules to the bottom of the shaft, the coal breakers, and the long coal trains loaded for transportation to cities far away. Get from coal dealers specimens of as many kinds of hard and soft coal as possible, and try to get a specimen of peat to show vegetable fiber. See Carpenter's North America, p. 211. Follow the story of coal mining with a very simple account of iron mining, first obtaining specimens of several kinds of iron ore, that the words (p. 47, Nat. El. Geog.) may mean something to children. Do not forget that in return for some specimens from your neighborhood chil- dren near the iron mines will gladly send you specimens. If there are iron works or foun- dries in the vicinity, take children to see them. Pictures are good, but the real thing is always much better. Make a map of the coal region of the Northern Section and add to it the Lake Superior iron region and the Alabama iron region. After reading the text of Lesson 31, p. 47, add to this map the cities which are 44 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY in the coal and iron region and use the maps thus made to review from. Read from Car- penter's North America, p. 179. It is well to stop here for a day or two and review for locations of the various resources of the section — agricultural, forest, and mining — and for the locations of the most important of the great cities connected with the resources. Manufactures Dwell on the fact that any change of an article to make it fit for man's use makes of it a manufactured article. Explain that the prepa- ration of rawhide to make leather is manufac- ture, and so is the making of leather into shoes, whether a single pair is made by one man in a little one-room shop or hundreds of pairs are made in one day in an immense building crowded with machinery and work people. The spinning of raw cotton into cotton yarn and the weaving of it into cloth are both manu- facture ; so also is the making of a single dress by a dressmaker who is perhaps at the owner's house when she makes it, or the making of INDUSTRIES 45 many hundreds of dresses in the great ready- made-clothing houses of New York or Chicago, and other large cities. Have pupils make a good-sized map of the United States, and as the lesson is read (p. 48, Nat. EL Geog.) have them put in the cities men- tioned, and lead them always to notice that the large manufacturing cities are very likely to be near a source of supply of raw material, or near coal and iron, or on a river or harbor. Each of the cities mentioned on page 49 should be definitely connected in the children's minds with a certain industry, so that when the city is mentioned to them or they meet its name in print, they will at once think of its greatest industry. So much as this may be accom- plished in the first year's use of a text-book. Commerce Let pupils look about the schoolroom and notice from the advertisements of makers' names, etc., where globe, books, maps, tables, chairs, etc., were made. Let them bring in lists of things at home which were manufactured 46 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY elsewhere, or of articles of food brought from long distances. Ask such questions as : " Why did we get these articles from so far away ? How were they brought here ? What products of our region were sold to get money to pay for them ? " Lead children to see that products from one part of the country are sold or exchanged for products or goods obtained in another part. Make children try to realize that this exchange of goods occupies a great many people all their time, and makes an industry by itself. Encourage children whose parents or friends are engaged in any branch of commerce to tell what part of the transactions they perform. Methods of transportation should be touched on. Tell the story of the transportation of some one article from home by wagon to a rail- road station, or a canal, or a city on a river; to a seaport or a lake port ; and finally by ship to another country. Pick out of the section the most important commercial cities, as (for the Northern Section) New York, Chicago, Buffalo, Philadelphia, St. Paul, Milwaukee, Duluth, St. CITIES 47 Louis, Baltimore ; and after reading again, per- haps, certain parts of the chapters on industries (Lesson 30) and on manufactures (Lesson 32), with close study of the position of these cities on the map, develop the commercial importance of such places. If the children have studied and drawn the map of the section often enough and have placed the cities correctly, the com- mercial centers are not difficult to remember. Cities In the study of any section of the United States, do not attempt to teach very many things about a number of cities, but pick out one or two of the largest and most characteristic cities and make a special study of them, as New York and Chicago in the Northern Section, New Orleans, Boston, Denver, and San Francisco. Dwell only on such features as young children can understand and appreciate. In studying New York city, for instance, show pictures of its wharves, ships in the harbor, its bridges connecting the boroughs, its high build- ings, factories, elevated, surface, and under- 48 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY ground railways, big stores, parks, recreation piers, etc. Dwell particularly on its wonderful harbor, the Hudson River, the Erie Canal and what is brought down it, the many railroads coming to the city ; the fine farm lands of the state and of Pennsylvania, and the proximity of the Pennsylvania coal fields ; the great manu- facturing cities near, and the transportation of their products to New York to be sent by ships to foreign countries. Try to have children understand why New York or any other great city studied has grown to be so important. The Northern Section The treatment of the Northern Section hasbeen outlined by using it to exemplify the treatment of the home section (pp. 34-48 of this manual). If the Northern Section is the home section, the other sections would be taken up as follows. The Northeastern Section (p. 51, Nat. El. Geog.) Compare each new section with those studied before it, as to climate, rainfall, soil, and produc- SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 49 tions, and then make a particular study of its most characteristic industries, as cotton manu- facture in New England. Review the study of cotton (p. 39 of this manual) and add to it such topics as where it is obtained ; how it is brought to New England, and to the mills ; where it goes as cloth from the mills (south, west, to Europe, and to the West Indies). Treat wool and boots and shoes as fully as cotton. The New England fishing industry should have special study, as a new topic, but not a great amount of time should be spent on it. Follow some such outline as the following : — Kinds of Fish Caught — cod, mackerel, her- ring. Methods of Catching — by trawls, seines, nets. Methods of Preserving — drying, smoking, in brine, in oil. Finish the study of a section by a compari- son of the characteristic physical features, productions, and industries of all the various sections so far studied. 50 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY The Southern Section For study of cotton see page 39 of this man- ual and for herding see page 40. Make a special study of sugar and rice. For sugar read from Carpenter's North America, p. 143. Review also coal and iron, p. 42 of this manual. The Plateau Section Irrigation in connection with agriculture, herding, and mining are the most important topics of the Plateau Section. Use the pictures on page 63, Nat. El. Geog., and page 37, Nat. Adv. Geog., for description of methods of irriga- tion, and get other pictures to illustrate in a simple way gold and silver mining. See also Carpenter's North America, pp. 262 and 239, 241, 248. The Pacific Section The fruit, the forests, and the salmon fish- eries are the chief new topics of study in the Pacific Section. At the end of the study of the various sec- tions give a comparative review by as simple SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 51 an outline as that for the summing up of a sec- tion (p. 36 of this manual), taking perhaps a day to each of the four topics. Do not ex- pect every pupil to know all the place geog- raphy that may have been taught him ; but his definite knowledge of the United States should include about one hundred and twenty-five geo- graphical features — their names and locations — as follows : — States and territories 50 Cities not more than 40 Relief features about 10 Rivers about 12 Lakes 6 Capes and indentations of the coast . about 7 125 Minor Countries of North America Do not spend too much time or go into too great detail in the study of Canada, Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Use the United States as a standard of compari- son. At the end, give a brief review of North America as a whole. 52 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY The Other Grand Divisions The study of each new grand division should be begun with reference to the globe, that it may be placed definitely in relation to other grand divisions and located as to zones. For instance, in beginning the study of South America use the globe and ask : " In what hemisphere is North America ? South Amer- ica ? In what zone is the greater part of North America ? Of South America ? " Before beginning the text-book study of a new grand division some teachers find it an excellent plan to lead pupils to make use of the knowledge they have gained of North America in general, and the United States in particular, as follows : — " Compare maps, pp. 22 and 72. On which side of North America are there high moun- tains ? On which side of South America ? What part of the United States has very little rainfall? (map, p. 40). What is the reason? (p. 40). In the southern part of South America the winds blow mostly from the northwest THE OTHER GRAND DIVISIONS 53 and west. On which side of the high moun- tains in the southern part of South America do you think the most rain falls ? " This is not a guessing game. The pupils should know why they think that the most rain falls on the west side, and why they think that there is little rainfall on the east side, — the reason being, of course, that the winds get their moisture from the Pacific Ocean, and lose it as they are chilled in crossing the mountains. In a similar way the teacher may bring out the fact that in the torrid zone, where winds blow from the east, there is much rain in the region east of the high mountains, and little rain west of them. Teachers may also find it well to extend this method to the study of the productions of a new grand division : — " What grains (wheat, rye, oats, etc.) are raised in about the middle of the temperate zone of North America? In which part of South Amer- ica do you think the same grains might be cultivated ? In which part of North America do cotton, sugar, and tropical fruits grow ? In 54 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY which part of South America would you expect to find tropical productions ? " It is a good plan to make a list on the black- board of the conclusions which children make about rainfall, productions, etc., in the preliminary study of a new grand division, and to leave them there until the text has been read. Finding that a conclusion has been properly drawn is very gratifying to a child, and leads to further effort. If it is not verified, try to find out why. In the study of individual countries of a con- tinent, whenever possible, compare with a like part of the United States. Try to have pupils remember general conditions of sections rather than isolated facts about single countries. The ability to gain information readily from the printed page is a necessary basis, not only for the study of advanced geography, but also for the study of nearly all other subjects in the school course. Too much care can not be given to the guidance of pupils in the acquirement of this art. Before the pupil reaches the end of his Elementary Geography he should have learned, from practice in daily recitations, how THE OTHER GRAND DIVISIONS 55 to find for himself the answers to given ques- tions by reading the text that contains the in- formation. Also, after he has studied a lesson from the text, he should be able to recall the information gained, and give the gist of it (in a manner showing that he understands it, and that he is not merely repeating memorized words) by the aid of a list of topics, such as are given at the ends of lessons in the Nat. EL Geog. At the end of the work with the elementary text-book, give a review of the world which shall include: (1) the manners and customs of different peoples ; (2) the important products of the great countries of the world; (3) the ex- change of products between these countries ; and (4) a very short account of the principal trade routes of the United States and other countries (across the Atlantic between the United States and Europe, across the Pacific between the United States and China and Japan, and between the United States and South America). Do not expect the pupil to remember all the place geography that he studies ; but at the 56 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY end of the work with the Elementary Geog- raphy he should know definitely the names and locations of about four hundred geographical features, as follows : — Oceans, continents, and grand divisions 13 North America : Natural features (mountains, rivers, lakes, islands, capes, bays, etc.) . about 60 Countries (5), the states and territories of the United States (50), and cities (45) 100 South America : Natural features about 12 Countries (11) and cities (10) 21 Europe : Natural features about 40 Countries (22) and cities (23) 45 Asia : Natural features . about 30 Countries (16) and cities (14) . 30 Africa : Natural features about 20 Countries (19) and cities (6) 25 Australia, East Indies, etc. : Islands (9) and cities (3) 12 408 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 57 Geography in the Higher Grades If geography has been well taught in the lower grades, pupils should have, when they begin its study from an advanced book in the higher grades, a pretty definite knowledge of the shape of the earth, its rotation on its axis, and the consequent change from day to night. They will know that from equator to poles the climate becomes colder because north and south from the equator the rays of the sun fall less vertically on the earth. They will know what kinds of plant life to associate with each zone, and they will have a definite knowledge of the most important physiographic features of each grand division. They will have learned to associate certain conditions of climate, soil, and situation with increasing density of population, and certain other physical conditions with scarcity of inhab- itants; and conversely where there are large numbers of people or where population is sparse, to look for reasons. They will have become somewhat acquainted with the various peoples 58 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY of the earth and with the great trading centers of the world, and they will know by name and location a large number of cities in the United States and some of the great capitals and trade centers of the rest of the world. All this they will know in a simple way but logically and defi- nitely and with a keen interest in the subject and a strong desire to learn more. Neverthe- less in beginning the study of advanced geog- raphy it is well to give a rapid review of such facts as will make what follows clear and reasonable. Establish beyond a possible doubt the form of the earth, by careful and simple proofs such as are recommended on page 5, Nat. Adv. Geog. It is as important and necessary that pupils at this stage of their progress should have globes as it was several years ago, and that all this preliminary work should be taught or re- viewed, globe in hand, and with as much care as if -they were hearing it for the first time. But demand of them clearer thought, prompter following of your explanations, greater ability LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 59 to reason, and good English in which to clothe their thought. It is not a waste of time to teach again the rotation of the earth, and the cause of day and night, by rotating a globe in front of a light. Teach as if new (pp. 6, 7, Nat. Adv. Geog.), axis, poles, and equator. Make the pupils realize that not only the succession of day and night, but the measure of time and the determination of direction, depend upon the earth's rotation. Whenever a difficult subject is taken up, the lesson should be taught first orally, as in the lower grades, before the corresponding part of the text-book is read by the pupils. Now is the time to introduce the subject of latitude and longitude. It is not necessary or advisable to teach it before. Let pupils work out the subject on wooden balls, putty balls, or even clay balls. Have the north and south poles and the equator scratched in. Divide the space between the equator and the north pole into nine equal parts, and make circles parallel to the equator through the division marks. Divide the space between the equator and the 60 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY south pole in the same way, and since latitude is reckoned always from the equator, call the equator o° and number the parallels by tens to the poles. The latitude of each pole is 90 . By this method it is made plain that the parallels are circles, and that any place on a certain parallel is exactly as far north or south of the equator as any other place, or every other place, on that parallel. Ask many questions like these : "A place on the third of your parallels north of the equator is in what latitude ? On the fifth ? On the eighth ? If a place is halfway between the parallels of 40 and 50 , in what latitude is it?" Develop the idea of degree. " If a place is one degree north of the equator, in what latitude is it ? If it is one degree south of the north pole, in what latitude is it ? If it is two degrees south of the fourth parallel south of the equator, in what latitude is it ? " Have much practice in reading the latitude of places on the globe. Present longitude in a way something like this : " We can not yet tell exactly where a place LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 6l is in relation to other places unless we have some way of determining how far it is east or west of the other places. " On your globe (ball) draw a direct line from the north to the south pole, crossing the equator at right angles, and continue it to the north pole again. This line makes a circle. Number one of the places where it crosses the equator o and the other 180. Find circular measure in your arithmetics. A circle is divided, we see, into 360 ; a half circle into 180 . Divide each half of the equator into nine equal parts. How many degrees are there in each part ? Number the parts from the o line to 180 in one direction and then from the o line in the other direction. You will notice that 180 marks the middle from each way. The whole circle of the equator is thus divided into 360 . Through each of the dividing marks, 20 , 160 , 40 , 140 , etc., draw a circle from pole to pole. Because it is midday at exactly the same moment on any one of these lines from the north pole to the south pole, the lines are called meridians. This east and west measurement is called longitude. 62 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY "The world usually takes the meridian of Greenwich (part of London, p. 120, Nat. Adv. Geog.) as the meridian of o, or the prime meridian. Everything east of it to 180 is in east longitude and everything west of it to 180 is in west longitude." Let the pupils use a globe to answer ques- tions such as the following : " Through what countries does the meridian of o° pass ? Through what ocean does the meridian of 180 pass? Which grand divisions lie wholly in longitude west from Greenwich ? Which grand divisions lie partly in east and partly in west longitude ? Give approximately the latitude and longitude of Washington, London, San Francisco, Rome, Valparaiso, Melbourne, Panama, Manila, Cape Town, Alexandria (Egypt), Quito, Cape Horn, Singapore, etc." Having worked out the subject with balls and globe, and not until then, read the text and have pupils answer all questions in it, but do not expect them to remember the lati- tude and longitude of places. COLORED RELIEF MAPS 63 Maps on which Relief is indicated by Contour Lines and by Color The reading and understanding of such relief maps as the Nat. El. Geog. contains (pp. 22, 72, 87, etc.) is easy, but the change to maps in which variations of relief are indicated by con- tour lines and color (Nat, Adv. Geog., pp. 8, 16, 44, 48, etc.) is more difficult The subject should be taught experimentally. Make a clay, putty, or papier-mache relief map or model of North America in a pan, pour in water to represent the surrounding sea, and draw a map of this miniature grand division. Then pour in more water, by degrees, and within the original map make several maps of the parts unsubmerged at several stages of the deluge. When colored, the various maps made will exemplify the method of showing elevations by contour lines. It is a good plan to compare such a map as that on page 22 of the Nat. El. Geog. with that on page 44 of the Nat. Adv. Geog. to let pupils see that they really stand for the same thing, but that the relief as shown in color and contour line 64 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY tells much more of the story, and tells it more definitely. For instance, on the map, p. 22, Nat. EL Geog., the space between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains in the United States seems to be an almost un- broken plain with only slight variations in alti- tude : whereas on page 44 or 48 of the Nat. Adv. Geog. we understand by means of the con- tour lines that along the eastern edge of the deepest buff color the land is high, reaching along this line an altitude of six thousand feet above sea level ; that from this six-thousand- foot line east to the eastern edge of the next lighter shade there is a decrease in height to four thousand feet ; that about two hundred miles farther east the greatest height is two thousand feet ; and that east of this there is a far more gradual descent to the level of the Mississippi River. The Upheaval of the Land It is essential to have the pupils understand not only that the surface of the earth is irregu- lar, — that is, that some parts " bulge out slightly, THE UPHEAVAL OF THE LAND • 65 forming regions of elevation, while other parts are slightly sunken, forming regions of depres- sion" (p. 9, Nat. Adv. Geog.), — but also that the earth is not stable, that is, remaining at the same height above the sea. Instead it is in many places actually rising or sinking at the present time. Along the New Jersey coast, for instance, the land is sinking at the rate of about two feet in a century, while along the California coast it is rising at about the same rate. Dur- ing the course of a good many centuries these movements up and down may change very much the outlines of the continents. Indeed, "if the surface of the sea were to sink one mile lower than its present level " (Question, p. 9), what are now three separate continents with all the large islands of the world would be a single great region of elevation, as is very clearly shown by the star-shaped map, p. 8. Keep this presentation of the upheaved earth very simple, that the pupil may have a right concept of the surface of the earth : (1) That a great continental plateau (p. 9) appears above the ocean chiefly in the northern hemisphere. 66 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY (2) That the upheaved surface of this continen- tal plateau is called highland or lowland (p. 10), according as it is higher or lower than a half mile above sea level. (3) That the coasts of the upheaved part of the continental plateau have, in the past, been at times higher and at times lower than they are now (p. 10), and that these changes are still taking place. (4) That wherever, in the uplift of the continental plateau, rock layers have been pushed up until they are bent or broken and the harder parts of the rock folds have been left projecting high above the surrounding country, there mountains have been formed (p. 11). (5) That incidental to the up- lift and sinking of the earth's surface, earth- quakes occur and volcanoes are formed. The Wearing Away of the Land Following the study of the upheaved part of the surface of the globe should come the rather more detailed study of the wearing away of the land (p. 12, Nat. Adv. Geog.). It is very diffi- cult indeed even for trained geographers to realize fully the tremendous cumulative effects THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND 6/ of the erosive action of the elements on the surface of the land ; to remember that most of the valleys which they see have been made by erosion, that each valley was once filled with earth and rock up to the height of the border- ing hills and beyond, and that all the washed- away material was disintegrated by the elements and carried away by the streams. It is many times more difficult to impress children with the tremendous force of erosion and the changes which have been and are con- stantly being made in the appearance of the land by the various erosive forces, but unless this is accomplished they will not appreciate the great value of the study of how the land wears away. Much of this can be learned by observation of the natural forces constantly at work. Have the pupils watch a bank on a rainy day, and cause them to notice how the rain washes down some of the earth from the bank (erosion) and how the washed-down earth is deposited at the foot of the bank as detritus. Have them notice how on a windy day the dust flies about 68 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY and how thick a layer of it (detritus) is deposited on window sills and furniture ; and tell them to think what an amount must be shifted about in a dry sandy region, where it may travel long distances through the air. Show pictures of dunes of the New Jersey or French coasts, or on the shores of the Great Lakes. Obtain some specimens of weathered rock from some road or bank cutting or from a field, or notice the crumbling of rock on some part of a building which is weathering. Study under a magnifying glass a handful of soil from the top of some bank. It will be found to consist of small pebbles, broken bits of rock, little pieces of wood, decayed leaves, etc., mingled so as to form soil (p. 13). Whenever the subjects of ground water, streams, and lakes can be worked out in the field, use book lessons only to supplement the field study. When field lessons are impossible, give such lessons with the sand board, draw- ings, and pictures before using the book. In the study of deposits of springs, photographs and specimens of stalactites and stalagmites are THE WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND 69 to be obtained at very slight cost from any of the famous caves of the country. A river system can be seen in miniature on any rainy day in a gently sloping bank. It is an easy and interesting experiment to dam a slow-moving stream when a shower is near its end, in gutter, or ditch, or gully, and form thereby a lake (p. 15). Such a map as that on page 16 is an excellent one from which to study the location of the chief highlands and river systems of the world in their mutual relation, and should be used not only here in the special study of divides and slopes, but also when the study of a new grand division is begun, to establish again its position and its location and relief on the great continental plateau. Divides and Slopes (p. 17) may be found on sloping fields or banks and should be made on the sand board before the great continental slopes are studied. Work of Streams (p. 17). — If there are in the neighborhood any stream features which can be seen and studied so as to show one of the JO ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY processes of wearing away the land, by all means take the class to see them. A creek, a small river, rapids, or cascades should be visited if it is possible. Watch a stream after a rain and notice how much detritus it carries. Multiply in imagina- tion the amount of detritus which one stream carries during one storm and deposits after it by the number of streams affected by this storm, and then by the number of storms in a year, and try to picture the vast amount of soil transported during storms in all parts of the world. In this way are formed sand bars, deltas, and flood plains (pp. 18-19). All these perform a most important part in the economy of the world, for on some of the deltas and flood plains are found the greatest populations. Glaciers While reading the lesson on glaciers (p. 19, Nat. Adv. Geog.) it is well to have pupils see how much the surface of the northern part of the United States was changed by the old glacier TIDES 7 1 which covered it. Turn to the map on page 48 and notice the part of the country which was covered by the glacier (the part covered with tiny dots on the map). Then turn to the map on page 62 and have the pupils notice the great number of lakes scattered over Maine, and tell them that the lakes represented on the map are only a few of those actually in the state, all of them caused by the glacier. Tides The subject of tides (p. 20, Nat. Adv. Geog.) is very complicated and difficult to understand. No attempt should be made in elementary schools to go into it at all deeply. It is suffi- cient for pupils to understand : — 1. That the ocean water slowly rises along most coasts for several hours, and then for several hours as slowly recedes — this regular alterna- tion causing high tide and low tide. 2. That about twelve and one half hours intervene between two successive high tides or two successive low tides. 3. That the amount of rise and fall varies at 72 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY different places — at some places it is but a few inches, at others thirty or forty feet. 4. That the tides are caused chiefly by the attraction of the moon, which forces the surface of the sea into a broad, low wave. This wave follows the moon across the sea and thus causes the water to rise and fall on the coasts. In harbors where the rise of the tide is many feet, wharves must be built to provide for the change of water level. Sometimes great docks are so built and inclosed that ships can be kept at a level in them. The Rocky Layers of the Land From the study of erosion there should nat- urally follow a consideration of what becomes of the immense amount of the earth's material which is transported from the land to the ocean or the bottom of some great lake, and the changes that these masses may undergo (p. 22, Nat. Adv. Geog.). The reading of this lesson will have a real in- terest for the pupils if the teacher will get speci- mens of sand, sandstone, quartz rock (quartzite) THE ROCKY LAYERS OF THE LAND 73 shale, slate, limestone, chalk, marble, and as many varieties of the coals as it is possible to obtain. It is well to stop at this point and sum up very briefly (as below) the great features of the building up of the land and those which are wearing it down. Help pupils to look for causes and to draw such conclusions from the study as will enable them to understand what condi- tions make certain sections of the earth better fitted for man's abode than others. UPHEAVAL AND WEARING AWAY OF THE LAND Nat. Adv. Geog., pp. 9-22 A. Surface of the earth is divided into : — 1. Regions of depression — filled by deep sea. 2. Regions of elevation, or " continental plateau. 1 ' (a) Dry land. (b) Bottom of shallower parts of sea — the parts where the water is less than a mile deep. B. The dry land : — 1. Great highlands of the earth. They are brokenly continuous, forming a great horseshoe curve from Cape Horn to Cape of Good Hope. . 2. Broad lowlands of the earth. Most of them are inside the great curve of the highlands ; the lands sloping to the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. 74 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY C. Coast lines : — 1. Changes. (a) Have changed in the past by elevation or depression of surface of the continental plateau. (d) Are still changing, but very slowly. 2. Kinds. (a) Sinking coasts are irregular — Atlantic and Arctic coasts. (b) Rising coasts are regular — Pacific coast of America. D. Mountains. That part of the dry land which is made from rock layers which have been bent and folded or broken. Incidents of mountain folding are : — ■ i. Earthquakes. 2. Volcanoes. E. The wearing away of the land. The wearing down of the land is accomplished by : — 1. Changes of weather — which cause expansion and contraction of rock surfaces, thus loosening them. Gravity draws loose pieces of rock down in- clines. 2. Winds — which move detritus long distances, much of it to lower levels ; — but on sandy coasts they may form hills and cause those hills to travel inland^ 3. Water. (a) Rain — which washes away loose soil, and THE SEASONS 75 by its expansive force when* freezing breaks off particles of rain-soaked rock. (b) Underground water — which may dissolve mineral matter and bring it to the surface. (c) Surface streams — which frequently cut deep and wide valleys, carry much detritus, and form sand banks, bars, deltas, flood plains. (d) Glaciers — accumulated masses of snow and ice which move over the land, widen and deepen valleys, and lower hills over which they travel, and finally deposit huge masses of rock which they have gathered up in their course. (^) Waves and tides — which break up rocky cliffs, carry some sand out to sea, and form barrier beaches, spits, and hooks. F. The material worn away : — 1. The deposition of rock layers. 2. Their formation into stones of various kinds. 3. The formation of coal in buried swamps. The Seasons The whole subject of the earth's orbit, the inclination of the axis of the earth, and the change of seasons, is very difficult for children to understand. It should never be taught at first from the text, but should be demonstrated j6 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY by some simple apparatus which the pupil him- self may assist in using. Every school should have a planetarium for this purpose, but if a teacher has none, she should substitute other devices. Have a good-sized gilt ball suspended from the ceiling or set up on a stake in the yard to represent the sun. It should be fixed at a height of three or four feet. Then draw on the floor or yard, with the gilt sun as center, a circle to represent the approximate shape of the earth's orbit. Let a pupil take a globe, with the zones clearly marked on it, hold it with the axis tipped at approximately the angle of 23J away from the perpendicular, and walk slowly round the circle, maintaining the 23 |-° angle, and keeping the axis tipped always toward the same side of the room or yard (first illustration, p. 23, Nat. Adv. Geog.). When the pupils can do this successfully, and they understand what the earth's orbit is, and that the inclination of the earth's axis prac- tically does not vary in amount or direction, they are ready to study the change of seasons. It is advisable to have four globes (the cheap THE SEASONS 77 twenty-five cent variety answer every purpose), and to have ready to fit over them as many semispherical, dark-colored caps. Make the caps of dark brown or black lining cotton, after the pattern of the covering of a baseball, and of the size of the globes you mean to use. The caps will show clearly the shadowed half of the earth, as the dotted part of each repre- sentation of the globe does in the second illus- tration on page 23. Start with the globe in the position in which the earth is -in relation to the sun at the season when the lesson is taking place, say December 21, when the north pole is farthest away from the sun, and the south pole is within the lighted half of the earth. Put the shadow cap on the globe so that the North Frigid zone is covered (in shadow) and the South Frigid zone is exposed to light (the winter solstice picture, p. 23). Rotate the globe on it axis within the cap, and show : — 1. That north of the Arctic Circle the earth is now in darkness the whole day (twenty-four hours) long, or both day and night. 78 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 2. That the region round the south pole is lighted both day and night. 3. That the sun's rays are falling most di- rectly on the southern half of the earth, where it is summer. Mark December 21 on the floor where the child stood. Walk a quarter of the way around the circle, shifting the cap as in the illustration until it touches both poles, March 21. Rotate the earth again on its axis, and children will see very readily that at this date the days are every- where the same length, twelve hours long, and that the shadow comes just to the poles. The sun's rays are now falling perpendicularly on the equator. Mark the place on the floor March 21. Walk round the next quarter of the circle, shifting the cap, and the class will see that the North Frigid zone is now within the lighted part of the earth both day and night, and that the sun's rays are now falling most directly on the region a little north of the equator. Mark June 21. THE SEASONS 79 Walk round another quarter, and show that the earth is lighted as it was in March, and that days and nights are again everywhere twelve hours long. This marks September 21. Complete the journey. Having made the journey round the earth's orbit, let four pupils take places in the orbit at the dates, each holding a globe, with the shadow caps properly adjusted, and have them describe the appearance of the earth in relation to the sun's rays at each of these seasons. The pupil standing at the place marked December 21, for instance, may say : — " At this date, December 21, the North Frigid zone gets no sunlight at all during one revolu- tion of the earth, while the South Frigid zone gets the sun's rays during one whole revolution ; therefore I have adjusted the cap, which stands for the shadow, so that it entirely covers the North Frigid zone, and leaves the South Frigid zone wholly in the light." Explain that the two circles 23J from the poles are called polar circles, — in the north Arctic and in the south Antarctic, — and that 80 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY the regions beyond these circles and toward the poles are called the Frigid zones. Explain that on the date December 21 the sun's rays fall directly (perpendicularly) 23|° south of the equator, and on June 21 they fall perpendicularly 23^° north of the equator, and that the circles 23J from the equator are the boundaries of the Torrid zone, because these are the farthest limits north and south where the sun's rays ever fall perpendicularly. The Temperate zones, where the sun's rays never fall at any season perpendicularly and where no region lies either in sun or in shadow for a whole day (twenty-four hours), are between the Frigid and Torrid zones. Heat Belts It should be made very clear to pupils that the boundaries of the zones are determined by the sun's rays on December 21 and June 21 (the polar circles each marking the horizontal and the tropics each marking the vertical rays on one of those dates), but that the real distri- bution of temperature at the various seasons is HEAT BELTS 8 1 more accurately shown by the maps of the Heat Belts. The temperature of a region is modified by several things : — 1. The distance north or south of the equator as explained in the lessons on zones. 2. The elevation above sea level (p. 24, Nat. Adv. Geog.). 3. The irregular distribution of land and water over the earth. The most important conclusion to be drawn from the study of the heat belts is that in each hemisphere, northern and southern, the hot belt in the summer (July in northern ; January in southern) extends much beyond the tropic of that hemisphere, and especially is this true over the continents. In summer in the northern hemisphere the cold belt disappears entirely from that hemisphere. In winter in the northern hemisphere the cold belt extends far south of the Frigid zone, particularly over the land masses. Go carefully over this work, and have much map drawing with locating of heat belts in 82 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY summer and in winter to make the pupils see how different they are at the two seasons, and discuss the advantages to the northern hemi- sphere of having the heat belts of summer extend so far north over the continents. Most crops grow only in the summer time, hence there is a much greater area where many people can be supported. Winds While the study of such intangible and appar- ently capricious phenomena as the winds is necessarily difficult for children, and anything like a complete study is unnecessary at this stage of their education, yet certain simple under- lying principles can be understood and applied quite well enough to give the subject interest. Try some simple experiments to establish the fact that warm air is lighter than cool air and hence is displaced by it. Tear some tissue paper into very narrow strips and hold them near the lower opening of a lighted lamp. They will be drawn toward the lower opening by the cool air rushing in to displace the warm air in the chimney. Hold them over the top of the WINDS 83 chimney and observe that they are carried up- ward by the heated air which is forced up the chimney by the rushing in of the cooler air below. " When there is a fire on the hearth, why do the sparks and smoke go up the chimney ? " With a thermometer test the temperature of the air under a stove and then over it ; and lead the children to tell that the cool air being heavy sinks to the floor and displaces any warm air there, forcing it to rise. If cooking is taught in your schools, the cooking teacher may give a lecture on the draughts of the stove that will help you much in this work. Open a window at the bottom on a cold winter day, sit at some distance from it, and you will notice the cold air first on your feet, because the cold air drops to the floor. If you wish to ventilate the room thoroughly, lower also some other window from the top, and the warm air will go out because it is pushed up by the in- draught of the cold air. From these simple experiments and explana- 84 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY tions pupils can easily understand that heavy air from cooler regions is continually moving as winds toward the warm equatorial air and forcing it to rise along the heat equator. These steady winds which blow constantly toward the heat equator, from both the northern and the southern hemisphere, are called the Trade Winds (p. 25, Nat. Adv. Geog.). These winds would blow straight from the north and south were it not for the rotation of the earth, which causes them to approach the equator from the northeast in the northern and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere. Belts of calms and westerlies are best taught as facts with but little explanation. Monsoon winds are most easily understood as the winds which prevail over the northern part of the Indian Ocean and over the East Indies in summer. At this season the heat equator lies far to the north of this region and instead of the northeast trade wind a steady wind from the southwest or south prevails. This seasonal wind is called the southwest monsoon. In winter the northeast trade wind LIFE 85 (sometimes called the northeast monsoon) pre- vails. (See upper map, p. 25, Nat. Adv. Geog.) Life The lessons on the plant and animal life and the races of mankind of the various regions of the world (pp. 28-35, Nat. Adv. Geog.) are in- tended for reading lessons and should be made the period for much outside reading, for the study of the text-book and its illustrations, and for the collecting of outside illustrations and information. Encourage pupils to talk and to ask questions and have them make outlines and connected discourses on the salient features of each chapter after it has been read and discussed, so that the work may amount to something more . definite than a vague reading with no end in view. The black headings of certain groups of para- graphs show the main topic of thought in the lesson, the large type gives the salient features, and the small type usually gives interesting exemplifications. If pupils are taught this type arrangement of these books, they will soon learn 86 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY to get what they should out of the text with the least possible waste of time. It is well in the study of the great life regions to make clear the fact that Australian life is more closely related to the ancient past than is the life of other continents for the reason that, because of its isolated position, Australia has not been invaded by the modern forms of life of other regions, and consequently the struggle for existence there has not been so great as to cause rapid changes to take place. If Australia had been near enough to other countries for the stronger and more highly developed animals of other continents to get to it, either the rather backward, more helpless pouched animals (the kangaroos, for instance) would have been driven out of existence, or else, in the course of ages, only the strong hav- ing survived, there would have been gradual changes in their physical condition to meet the sterner necessities, and they would have become more highly organized. The constant struggle for existence against foes tends to kill off the weak and develop the strong. INDUSTRIES 87 South America, Africa, and southeast Asia tell the same story of isolation, but not so strikingly as Australia. Evidence is shown that these countries were isolated later and after many changes had occurred which never occurred in Australia. In Eurasia and North America the struggle for existence was evidently a hard one, on account of rapid climatic changes and great competition among different species, for here is found the very highest development of animal life (p. 32). With this study use maps showing heat belts, rain distribution, forested areas, and trace con- nection wherever possible. Industries In the study of industries in an Advanced Geography read pages 34-47 of this manual for suggestions as to methods. North America The teacher will do well to read over and to follow the instructions given on pages 24-28 of this manual before beginning to teach North 88 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY America (p. 45, Nat. Adv. Geog.), as most of the pupils will need the review. When the general review is finished, as sug- gested, use the advanced book. Have all the map questions answered with books open, and with constant reference if possible to large wall maps. Whenever references are made in the text to other pages, do not fail to turn to those pages. For instance, after the very first question (p. 45), turn back to page 8 and let pupils describe the situation from the map there. Under Surface, page 45, the first direction is to review the lesson on the highlands and lowlands of the world, page 10. That does not mean to give a lesson again on the highlands and low- lands, but to have the pupils read to them- selves the coarse print paragraphs so that they may answer intelligently the questions asked under Surface and others which the teacher may ask with reference to the subject, as : "What are highlands? Lowlands? What are the great highlands? The broad lowlands?" When questions are asked in the text that pupils find it difficult to answer, as on page 45, NORTH AMERICA 89 "What do these features indicate respecting the age of this highland region?" let pupils help themselves to the answer to these questions by using the index : in this case, from the refer- ences under "canyons," "volcanoes," "lava," "earthquakes," they can find out for themselves that these various features indicate the com- parative youth of this highland region. It is a good plan to put such questions on causes on the board, and to have them looked up in this way for the next day. Open the recitation on the second day with a discussion of the answers, and then go on with the regular lesson of the day. Do not think it a waste of time to stop in a lesson and refer to a number of paragraphs and pages. You are teaching how to use a book and how to become master of its contents. Pages 45-49 of the Nat. Adv. Geog. should be covered largely by reading lessons, reference lessons, and discussions with books open, but there should be certain definite things remem- bered from the study of them, such as (1) location of highlands and lowlands, (2) great drainage 90 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY regions, (3) the lake region and reasons for its existence, (4) the climate and reasons, (5) the rainfall. The United States Children who are old enough to study an Advanced Geography should be taught that the getting of some exact and definite information out of each chapter is absolutely necessary, and the teacher should demand it, and then review it often enough to feel sure that most of it is not slipping away. The study of the physical features of the United States (pp. 49-53, Nat. Adv. Geog.) should result in fixing in pupils' minds a definite picture of the relief of the country, something like the following ; and the picture should be so clear that the pupils can describe the relief in pretty exact terms, and make a fairly accurate sketch of it : — A. The Atlantic plain. 1. Northeast of the Hudson, Piedmont only. 2. South of the Hudson, Tidewater and Piedmont. 3. Fall line, separating Tidewater and Piedmont. THE UNITED STATES 91 B. Appalachian Mountain region. 1 . Eastern half, Appalachian ridge and valley belt. 2. Western half, Allegheny plateaus. 3. Position and effect of Laurentian glacier. C. Central Lowland. 1. Lake plains. 2. Prairie plains. 3. Gulf plain. D. Rocky Mountain highland. 1. Great Plains. 2. Rocky Mountains. 3. Great plateau region west of mountains. a. Columbia plateaus. b. Great Basin. c. Colorado plateaus. E. Pacific coast region. 1. Coast Ranges. 2. Lowland valleys. The small maps and diagrammatic figures on pages 58-60 give good chances for recitation, with books open, from both diagram and map. For instance on the subject of cotton the pupil may say, looking at the first map and diagram on page 58 : "The United States produces three fourths of the cotton grown in the world. The cotton region is in the Southern States, where the climate is both warm and moist." 92 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY Concerning the tobacco map and diagram, he should say : " The United States produces one half of the tobacco crop of the world. The tobacco is grown chiefly in the Ohio valley, Virginia, North and South Carolina, central New York and Pennsylvania, southern Wis- consin, and the Connecticut valley." The Study of Sections of the United States It is difficult to decide just how much of a section pupils should study to know definitely and exactly, and how much they should read, discuss, and know generally. No pupils could learn all that is contained in any good geography on all of the sections, but all the pupils should learn the general treatment of each section. For instance, of the Northern Section, pages 66-77, the class should learn what is con- tained on pages 66-67-68, and should have a great deal of map study, always with books open. The pupils should draw, or trace, or have ready-made outline maps of each section, and mark upon them such things as (in the North- ern Section) the forest area, the corn, wheat, and SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 93 potato region, the herding region, and the coal, petroleum, and copper regions. Then, on the same map if there is room enough for the names, or on another like it, he should mark in the parts of the section where they belong, the chief industries (p. 68), all these to be obtained by study of the text. The subdivision of the great Northern Sec- tion into Northern Appalachian states (p. 68), Ohio Valley and Upper Lake states (p. 72), states of the Missouri Basin (p. 75), gives an opportunity to classify certain states together physically and so to keep better in mind cer- tain resemblances in productions and industries which are clearly brought out in the paragraph treating the subdivision as a whole. The study of the individual states should not be so close as the general treatment, but may be simply read over and discussed, with all places located, or sometimes it is a good plan to assign in advance a week's work of state treat- ments to certain pupils or groups of pupils. Then on Monday, for instance, have the children who have prepared New York from the text, with 94 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY such outside reading and extra illustrations as they can get, give their talk on the state, all the other children listening attentively, with books open to maps to locate places named. At the close of the recitation have a short written paper from all the class except those who pre- pared the recitation, following an outline given by the teacher. Let the outline demand the salient and characteristic features of the state. On Tuesday have another state treated by another set of children. Keep together all the compositions on the states in each section to be studied for a review of the section. Sometimes instead of written compositions have oral recitations from the rest of the class at the close of the prepared talk, and have an outline map (placed previously on the board) filled in by the pupils. Do not have individual states studied always in the same way, else the very monotony of it will cause pupils to get a distaste for the study. At the close of a section sum up the study with a review calling for the definite knowledge of state capitals, one or two of the very important cities SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES 95 of each state, and the great industries connected with each city and with the state generally. When a section has been studied entirely through, let the pupils once or twice prepare their geography lesson (the home preparation) by selecting six, eight, ten, or any number of places they would like to see in that section, and learning why. They should be able to tell a connected story of where they would start from, in what order they would visit these places, and what particular industries they would see there. Have each pupil talk with pointer in hand, tracing the journey on a large map. At the end of the study of the United States pupils should have a very definite knowledge of a great deal of the geography of the country; its physical features, its forests, its mineral and agricultural productions, its industries and the regions where they are located, a good many of its important cities, their location, and the indus- tries connected with them; and they should know how to use text, maps, diagrams, and illustrations for study, and index and tables at the close of the book for reference. 96 ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY Other Countries The Correlations and Comparisons at the end of each grand division are excellent for oral review, for the pupil to study for written review, or to select parts from for discussion or for composition writing. Sometimes it is a good plan to have answers to a whole para- graph written in the form of a composition, not as answers, but connectedly in sentences, yet following the outline given ; for instance, let the subject be soil, page 101, or take the first two sentences of the next to. the last paragraph on the page and use them for a written paper. Sometimes, to vary the method of study, let pupils write questions on a paragraph of text ; then let the class exchange papers and answer each other's questions. A general discussion should follow of disputed questions and answers. Throughout the year, or years, insist more and more that pupils shall learn how to* use the book and how to become responsible for certain kinds of information which it contains and wh^itt. is tjAijmtkQ^ to learn and to remember. *- «5 °,* > ^ XT* A ,V o V .0 o •*sSXfc»».'. o ,j* DOBBS BROS. ^ LIBRARY BINDING 4AN 1977| ST. AUGUSTINE =