I\^ (l.vf .'f^ l*'^, .*."^-. i'^ ; "^'' *^l ■.•*^ // i % -^ 3^1 OELtispiec ^^y^/^^/Y/yr Cooper s HISTORIES OF GREECE AND ROME, OF SOUTH AND NORTH AMERICA, W^^^ ^ il/^ ij* / tamaaOMtmtipttmt PUBLISHED BY JOSEPH AVERY, And for sale at his Bookstore in Plymouth, MassacfeuSelU 1808, BSt.CHER AND AR«STS0HC| PRINTERS. ^ A' - * CMAXa OuudJcf &-1 t^eXt, PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. To speak particularly of the merits of the little volumes, comprised in this book would be unnecessary. The public have already expressed their opinion of them by the several editions which have been called for. The English edition, from which this work was copied, is embellished with copperplate cuts ; it was thought best here to omit these, excepting the one used for the Fron- tispiece, to reduce the price of the volume which would otherwise have been considerably augmented. Cuts badly executed, as were those in the American editions of the histories of South and North America, were judged inex- pedient. The author of the work, being an Englishman, will ap- pear, perhaps to some not to have expressed himself, in certain instances, with sufficient respect for the American character and achievements in the late glorious revolution, which terminated in the independence of our country. But it must be evident to every one, upon the bare inspec- tion of the plate, which is here selected for a Frontispiece, that it would never have been admitted into Mr. Cooper's history of Narth America, had he entertained sentiments unfriendly to our cause» Nay the cut itself which is the Temple of Liberty, with the portraits of the illustrious Washington and Franklin and the insignia of American greatness and glory displayed in front is calculated, as it must the eye of the youthful reader to excite in his breast patriotic emotions. The preface of the particular histories have been pre- served ; and no alterations have been made in any part of the work except of a few typographical errors. iv PREFACE. With respect to the execution of the work the present edr. itor and publisher hopes that it will be such as to meet the approbation of his subscribers, and of literary institutions for youth by whom an elementary treatise of this kind is much needed. He regrets, that it was not in his power to render this volume more eligible for the purpose than it is by the insertion of the kistories of Gaul and England by the same author. THE EDITOR, Plymouth. Afirily^ 1 S08, CONTENTS OF THE HISTORY OF GREECE. CHAP. I. A view of the earliest State of Greece— The Laws oi Lycurgus-^ The death of that great Legislator - - - Page IS II- The Atheniafis appoint Bmco their Law-maker— He is succeeded by Solon — Salamai^ taken— The Sevoi Wise Men—Th.Q Areopagus and Council o^ Four Hmdred — Pisistratus usurps the Government of Athens— 'the Death of .?o/an . - - - 'Page 18 in. Character of Jmf/(/e^ and Themistocksr — Rattle of Marathon — SiJi- gular Bravery of Cynd - - Page 47 VIIL Alexander succeeds his Father Philip— Takes the city of Thebes, and plunders it — Appointed Qeneralissimo against ihePersiaris-^- ■ lands ia Asia without opposition— Battle on Ui§ bank« oftfi*:- vi CONTENTS. Grannicus — Takes several Places— Cuts^ the Gordian Knot-^ Magnificence and Pomp of the Ar:ny of Darius - Page 55 IX. Darius defeated at the Battle of Issus — His Mother, Wife, and Children, taken Prisoners — Alexander treats them with great Honour and Generosity — Abdalonynws made King of the Sido- nians-^TYiQ City of Tyre taken by storm - - Page 60 X. Alexander refuses Overtures of Peace made by Darius — Alexander's cruelty at Gaza — Death of Statira^ Darius^s Queen — Battle of Arbela — Alexander enters Babylon, and then Persepolis — Death of Darius ----.--. Page 64» XL * Alexander pursues his Conquests — Abandons himself to Sensuali- ty — Puts some of his old Friends to Death — Kill Clytus — Is ex- posed to great Danger of his Life in India — Sets out on his Re- turn to Babylon — His Death - - - - Page 6T XIL From the Death oi Alexander , to the Extinction of the Grecian State© by the Ottomans Page 71 ChronologicalTableof the principal Occurrences and events dur- ing the Existence of the ^reaan. States - » Page 77 COI^TENTS TO THE HISTORY OF ROME. CHAP. I. f r ROM the Foundation of Rome, to the end of the regal Govern^ ment -------- Page 81 From the Commencement of the Consular State to the Year of Rome 331 Page 84 III. From the Year of Rome 331 to the first Punic or Carthaginian War IV. Page 86 From the Commencement of the first Punic War to the end of the second ...-..„. Page 90 V. From the second Punic War to the Destruction of Carthage VI. , Page 96 From the Destruction of Carthage to the Year of Rome 650 Vil. Page 101 From the Year of Rome 650 to the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla VIII. Page 106 From the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla to the Birth of Augustus Caesar - • Page 112 IX. From the Birth of Augustus Caesar to the beginning of the first Triumvirate - Page 11? CONTENTS. vii X. From the Commencement of the Triumvirate to the Year of Rome 706 -.»--. . . = Page 121 XL From the year of Rome 70S to the Death of Julius Caesar. Page 126 XII From the Death of Julius Csesar to the end of the Commonwealth Page 134 CONTENTS TO THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. CHAP. I. Origin of navigation— Introduction of commerce — Rude state of navigation among the ancients— State of navigation and com- merce among the Egyptians, Phenicians, Jews, Carthaginians^ Greeks, and Romans — Discoveries of the ancients by land- Commerce preserved in the Eastern empire — Revival of com- merce and navigation in Europe — The invention of the mariner's compass — First regular plan of discovery— The Portuguese double Cape Non — Discovery of Porto Santo— Of Madeira — The Portuguese double Cape Bojador, and advance within the tropics — The Cape de Verd Islands and the Azores discover- ed — The Portuguese cross the line — They discover the Cape of Good Hope - - = = = - - Page 149 11. Birth and education of Columbus— He enters Into the service of the Portuguese — -He forms the idea of a new course to India- Proposes his plan to Henry VIII. of England. His treaty with Spain — He sets sail — Occtirrences during the Voyage — Land discovered— First interview with the natives — Columbus as- sumes the title of admiral and viceroy — Discovers Cuba and Hispaniola — ^Loses one of his ships — His distresses— Resolves to return to Europe — Arrives in Spain, and receives the highest marks of honour — He sails on his second voyage — Builds the town of Isabella — Discovers the island of Jamaica — The Indians take arms against the Spaniards — Columbus defeats them — Returns to Spain — He sails a third time— He discovers Trini- dad—Troubles at St. Domingo— The Portuguese sail to the East Indies by the way of the Cape of Good Hope— The name of America given to the New World — The Portuguese dis- cover Brazil. Columbus sent in chains to Spain. Is there set at liberty. Sails a fourth time on discoveries. Is wrecked on the coast of Jamaica. Death of Columbus - Page 158^ III. State of the colony in Hispaniola. New discoveries and settle- ments, Diego Columbus appointed governor of Hispaniola, New discoyeries mad^. Attempts raad« W s^ttl? on the cor»- r-iii. CONTENTS. tinent. Discovery of Florida. Discoveries of Balboa. He eh* ters the South Sea, jtnd returns. Pedrarias Davilla appointed governor of Dariea. His l^ad conduct. Balboa publickly exe- cuted, throug-h the treachery and intrigues of Pedrarias, Fur= ther attempts at discovery. Thc^tate of Hispaniola under Doir Diej^o Columbus Death of Ferdinand, and accession of Charles the Fifth. New discoveries made towards the West. Discov- ery of Yucatan. Are attacked by the Indians.; and defeat them. The Spaniards quit that place. Arrive at Campeachy. Meet with a defeat, and are forced to return to Cuba. Voyage of Juan de Grijalva. He discovers New Spain. Touches at Ta- basco, and then at Guaxaca. liands on the isle of Sacrifices, and then touches at St. Juan de Ulua Page 169 IV. Vast extent of the New World- Its prodigious mountains, rivers and lakes. Tempewiture of th© climate. Its original rude state. Its animals, insects and reptiles. Birds. Soi>l. How was America first peopled ? Character and condition of the original Americans The bodily constitution of the South A= merjeans. Their complexion. Appetites. None of them de = formed- State of their health and diseases. Power and quali- ties of their minds. Domestic union. The condition of the American women. Parental affection and filial duty. Mode- of subsistence. Fishing, hunting, and agriculture. The Amer- icans divided into small communities. Had no notion of prop- erty. Tiieir method of carrying on war. Their dress and or- naments. Habitations. Their arms. Domestic utensils and cookery. Their canoes. Ideas of religion. Their physicians.' Their favourite amusements. Destroy the ag^ed and incurable. Their general character Page 179- V, . Velasquez makes preparations for the invasion of New Spain. Ferdinando Cortes undertakes the command of that expedition. His forces. Cortes sets sail with his little armament. Arrives in Mexico. Rich presents sent fi*om Montezuma to Cortes; Character of Montezuma Cortes resigns his commission, and is chosen by his officers and followers chief justice and captain general of the new colony. He proceeds to Zirnpoalla. From thence to Quiabislan. Builds a town there, and forms alliances Cortes destroys his own fieet. Advances into the country Concludes a peace with the Hascalans. Sets out for Mexico. The Spaniards astonished at the distant view of that city. First interview between Cortes and Montezuma Dangerous situa- tion of the Spaniards in Mexico. Montezuma seized and car- ried to the Spanish quarters. Mont zuma's son, and five of Iris officers burnt alive by order of Cortes. The Mexican mon- arch acknowledges himself to be a vassidof the king of Castile. A new Spanish armament arrives at Mexico, fitted out by Ve- lasquez to destroy Cortes. Cortes attacks Narvaez in the night, defeats Uis forces, and takes him prisoner. The greatjer^ CONTElsfTS, I ' ix part of the Spanish prisoners enter Into the service of Cortes* The Mexicans take up arms ag'ainst the Spaniards. Montezuma slain by his own people. Cortes abandons the city of Mexico. The Mexicans defeat him. Is reduced almost to famine. The battle oPOtumba. Cortes receives considerable reinforcements. Builds and launches several brigantines. The brigantines de- feat the Mexican canoes on the lake. Attacks the city of Mex- ico, Cortes defeated and wounded, forty of his men taken and' sacrificed. Cortes again attacks the city, and takes the em- peror prisoner. The Spaniards much disappointed in their expectations of riches. Cruel treatment of th« emperor. — ■ Province of Mexico subdued by the Spaniards. The straits of Magellan discovered. Death of Magellan. Cortes appointed captain -general and governor of New Spain. Sets out for the court of Castile. His reception. Returns to New Spain, and discovers California. Death of Cortes - - Page 190 VI. First attempts to discover Peru unsuccessful, Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque undertake that business. Pizarro sets sail for Pa- nama on his first expedition. Experiences great hardships. Discovers Peru. The Spaniards are surprised at the riches and fertility of that country. Returns to Panama. Pizarro is sent to Spain. Appointed captain-general, &,c. of the new dis- coveries. Pizarro sails on another expedition, and lands in Peru. Commences hostilities. Limits of the Peruvian em- pire. A civil war in Peru. Pizarro turns that circumstance to his advantage. State of his forces. Arrives at Caxamalca. Treacherously seizes the Inca. Massacre of the Peruvians. Almagro arrives with reinforcements. The immense ransom of the Peruvian Inca. The Inca put to death. Pizarro leaves; Caxamalca, and marches to Cuzco. He takes possession of that capital, and seizes on immense treasures. Pizarro sets out for Spain, His reception there. Returns to Peru Settles differ- ences there with Almagro. Pizarro builds Lima. Almagro marches towards Chili. An insurrection in Peru. Tlie Peru- vians besiege Cuzco. Engage Almagro, and are defeated. Civil war among tjie Spaniards. Almagro defeated, triedj condemned, and executed. Progress of the Spanish arms. Chili conquered. Treachery and ingratitude of Orellana. Mis- erable condition of the followers of Pizarro. Francisco Pizarro murdered in his Palace. Almagro proclaimed governor of the city Vaco de Castro arrives at Qiiito, ai^d assumes the name of governor. Disputes between him and Almagro. The em- peror reforms the government of his American dominions.— Sends over a viceroy, who is killed in battle. Pedro de la Gas- ca sent out as president of Peru. Gonzalo Pizarro assumes the government, opposes Gasca, is defeated, tried, and put to death. Qasca sets out for Spain. His reception there ?age SO:!- X CONTENTS. , CONCLUSION. Political institutions and national manners of the Mexicans and Peruvians. Origin of the Mexican monarchy. The city of Mexico, when founded. Splendour and power of their mon- archs. Their wars. Funeral rites. Agriculture. Temples, and other public buildings. Religion of the Mexicans. Peru- vian antiquity doubtful. Absolute power of their Incas. The silver mines of Potosi. The Peruvian wars conducted with hu- manity. Their improved state of agriculture. Taste in their buildings. The Peruvians an un warlike spirit - Page 213 CONTENTS OF THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA.- CHAP. I. •L/ESCRIPTION of the persons, manners, and customs of ^e original inhabitants of North America. Their dre.«=s, educa- tion, and employments. Their hospitality and resentments* liiberty the darling passion of the original natives. Feasts. Method of atoning for murder. Mourning for their dead. Method of preparing for war. Of their prisoners Page 231- II. Account of the first settlers of North America. Settlement- at New Plymouth. The Puritans purchase and settle the Massa- chusetts Bay. Connecticut and New Haven colonies settled. Providence and Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Maine, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland, Carolina, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Georgia' =• - - - = Page 228- ill. Expedition agamst Louisbur^h. Gem Braddock defeated. Mas- sachusetts assembly declare against parliamentary taxes. The stamp act. Rijots at Boston on account of that act. The stamp^ act repealed. Mr. Charles Townshend's bill for taxing the col- onies afresh. Troops orderedto Boston. Soldiers at Boston fire on the inhabitants. East India company empowered to ex- port their own teas. Tea thrown into the sea at Boston. Mea- sures pursued r\;lative to the Boston port Bill. Massachusetts people prepare to defend their rights by arms. Gage fortifies the entrance into Boston. Proceedings in the British parlia- ment. Gen, Gage sends troops to Salem. He sends troops to Concord and Lnexington who are defeated. The restraining bills. Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne sail for Boston Page 235 IV. The expedition against Ticonderoga. George Washington, Esq. elected commander in chief of the continental forces. The bat- tle at Breed's-hill, commonly called Bunker's-lnll. Georgia ac- ceeds to the union. The Thirteen United Colonies. The Asia man of war fires upon New York. Col. Arnold's expedition into Canada. Falmouth destroyed, and on what account. Col. Al- CONTENTS. xi len, an American officer, taken prisoner, and put in irons. Gen, Montcromery appears before Quebec, and is killed there V, Page 2A& Gen. Howe evacuates Boston. Norfolk in Virginia burnt. Sir Peter Parker and Earl Cornwallis sail for America. The block» ade of Quebec continued. The Americans retreat from before it. A number of Highlanders and Col. Campbell taken at Bos- ton. Declaration of American Independence. Gen. Howa lands the royal army on Long Island - - Page 251 VI. Wretched state of the American armies under Washington and Gates. New York taken by the English. The battle of the White Plains. A body of Hessians defeated. at Trenton. Gen. Howe removes his army from Staten Island. Gen. Burgoyne proceeds to Grown Point. Tieonderoga and Fort Independence evacuated by the Americans. Description of the flag of the United States. Battle at the Brandywine. Philidelphia taken by the royal forces. Account of Miss M'Rea's cruel death by the Indians, Americans engage the British under Gen, Bur- goyne. Distress and calamity of the royal array. Gen, Bur- goyne baffled in all his designs, and reduced to the last extrem- ity. He signs the convention = » - - Page 260 VII. o^uiit D inop i-epuls ed in the attack upon Red Bank. Mud Island reduced by the British Congress receive the treaties con- cluded between France and the United States. The Randolph, an American frigate, blown up. Sir Henry Clinton succeeds Gen. Howe in America. The Marquis de la Fayette, with 2500 men, narrowly escapes being cut off by the British forces. The treaties between France and the United States signed. Lord North's consiliatory propositions. Messrs, Franklin, Deane, and Lee, have a public audience at the French court. The British army evacuates Philadelphia. Skirmishes between the British and Americans. The British arrive at Sandy Hook. Count d'Estaing*s fleet anchors within the Hook. Gov. Johnstone at- tempts to corrupt certain members of the congress. Dr. Frank- lin sent as minister to the court of France Page 268 VIIL The British operations against Georgia. The affairs of the United States in a deplorable Condition. Gen. Lincoln sent to South Carolina. Gen. Ashe surprised and defeated. Sir Henry Clin- ton takes Stoney Point. Count d'Estaing sails from the West Indies for the American coast. The French and Americans repulsed at Savannah. Distress of Washington's army for want of bread. Charleston taken by the British forces. Tarlton de« feats Col. Budford. A French fleet with troops arrive at New. port Treaty signed between Holland and America. Earl Cornwallis defeats Gen, Gates, Major Andre taken and exe- cuted as a spy. Gen. Arnold takes refuge on board the Vulture ^loop of WW » - - ^ - - . Page 275 •;rii .CON-TENTS. IX. Sir Henry Clinton sends 3000 troops to the Bay of Chesapeake. The French and Spanish fleet form a junction in the West In- dies. Mr. Laurens taken in his passage to Holland. Sir Jo- seph Yorkleaves the Hague. Lieut. Colt Tarlton detached af- ter Gen. Morgan, by whom Tarlton is defeated. Cornwallis at- tacks Greene, and defeats him. Sir George Rodney and Gen. Vaughan take St. Eustatia, St. Martin, and Saba. The French troops join the Americans under Washington. Sir Samuel Hood and Count de Grasse engage. Lord Cornwallis repairs to York Town and Gloucester. A capitulation settled, and Corn- wallis surrenders the forts of York Town and Gloucester. The British fleet and army, destined for the relief of Lord Corn- wallis, arrive off Chesapeake after hb surrender, and cousequent- ly return to New-York. De Grasse sails for the West Indies X. Page 284 Mr. Laurens discharged from his confinement in the Tower of London, Sir George Rodney comes up with Count de Grasse in the West Indies They eng-age. De Grasse is defeated and taken. The n^^fessity of Peace for the United States of Ameri- ca. Savannah evacuated by the British forces. Charleston also evacuated. Provisional articles of Peace signed between the British and American cammissioners The definitive treaty of peace signed between the English, French, Spanish and Ameri- cans = - - =' - .. , - Page 289 THU HISTORY or THE GRECIAN STATES. CHAP. I. vJREECE, in its earliest infancy, was a combination of little states, each governed by its respective sovereign, yet all uniting for their mutual safety and general advantage. Their intestine contentions, however, were carried on with great animosity ; and, as it happens in all petty states under the dominion of a single commander, the jealousies of the princes were a continual cause of discord. From this distressful situation, those states, by degrees, began to emerge ; a different spirit began to seize the people, and, sick of the con- tentions of their princes, they desired to be free. A spirit of lib- erty prevailed all over Greece, and a general change of government was effected in every part of the country, except in Macedonia. Thus monarchy gave way to a republican government, which, how- ever, was diversified into as many various forms as there were dif- ferent cities, according to the peculiar character of each people. Though these cities seemed to differ from each other in their laws and interests, yet they were united by one common language, one religion, and a national pride, that taught them even to con- sider all other nations as barbarous and feeble. Even Egypt Itselfj from whence they had derived many of their arts and institutions, was con^dered in a very subordinate light. To make this union among the states of Greece still sti'onger, there were games insti- tuted in different parts of the country, with rewards for excellence in every pursuit. These sports were instituted for very serious and useful purposes : they afforded an opportunity for the several states meeting together ; they gave them a greater zeal for their common religion ; they exercised the j'ouths for the purposes of war, and encreased that vigour and activity, which were then of the utmost importance in deciding the fate of a battle. Their chief bond of union, however, arose from the council of the Amphictyons, which was instituted by Amphictyon, king ' of Athens, about the year 2500, and was appointed to be held twice a year at Thermopylae, to deliberate for the general good of those states, of whose deputies it was composed. The states who sent deputies to this council, were t.welve, namely, the Thessalians, the 14 THE HISTORY OF Thebans, the Dorians, the lonians, the Perhaabeans, the Mag'- nates, the Locrians, the Oetans, the Pthiotes, the Maleans, the Phocians, and the Delopians. Each of these cities, which had a right to assist at the Amphictyonic council, was obliged to send two deputies to every meeting. The one was entitled the Hier- omnemon, who took care of the interests of religion ; the other was called the Pylagoras, and had in charge the civil interests of his community. This confederacy united the Greeks for a time into a body of great power and greater emulation. By this association, a coun- try, not half so large as England, was able to dispute the empire of the earth with the most powerful monarchs of the world ; by this association, they not only made head against the numerous armies of Persia, but dispersed, routed, and destroyed them, reducing their pride so low, as to make them submit to conditions of peace, as shameful to the conquered, as glorious to the conquerors. But, among all the cities of Greece there were two, which by their merit, their valour, and their wisdom, particularly distinguished themselves from the rest : these were Athens and Lacedaemon. As these cities served for examples of bravery or learning to the rest, and as the chief burthen of every foreign war devolved upon them, we shall proceed to give the reader a general idea of the genius, cliaracter, manners, and government, of their respective inhabitants. Though the kingdom. of Lacedsemon was not so considerable as that of Athens, yet, as it was of much earlier institution, it de- serves our first attention. Laced^mon was, for a long time, gov- erned with turbulence and oppression, and required the curb of severe laws and rigorous discipline. These severities and rigorous discipline were at last imposed upon it by Lycurgus, one of the first and most extraordinary legislators that ever appeared among" mankind. There is perhaps nothing more remarkable in profane history, yet nothing so well attested, as what relates to the laws and government of Lycurgus. What indeed can be more amaz- ing, than to behold a mutinous and savage race of mankind yielding submission to laws, that controuled every sensual pleasure, and every private affection ! To behold them give up for the good of the state, all the comforts and conveniences of private life, and making a state of domestic privacy more severe and terrible, than the most painful campaigns and the most warlike duties ! Yet all this was effected by the perseverance and authority of a single legislator, who gave the first lessons of hard resignation in his own generous examples. Lycurgus was tlie son of Eunomus, one of the two kings who reigned together in Sparta : During the minority of Charilaus, Lycurgus acted as regent ; but resolving to make himself ac- quainted with all the improvements of other nations, he travelled into Crete, passed over into Asia, and from thence went into Egypt. But while he was thus employed abroad, his presence was greatly wanted at home, where every thing was hastening to anarchy and CKECIAN STATES. 15 Tuin. On his return, he found the people wearied out with their own importunities, and ready to receive any new impressions he might attempt. He first communicated Ids design of altering the whole code of laws to his particular friends, and then by degrees g-ained over the leading men to his party, until things being ripe for a ciiange, he ordered thirty of the principal men to appear armed in tlie market place. Charilaus, who was at this time king, at first opposed the revolution, but was soon persuaded to join in the measure. To continue the kings still with a shadow of power, he confirmed them in their rights of succession as before : but diminished their authority by instituting a senate, which was to serve as a counter- poise between the prerogative and the people. The kings, how- ever, had still all their former marks of outward dignity and re- spect. The government hitherto had been unsteady, tending at one time towards despotism, at another to democracy ; but the senate instituted by Lycurgus served as a check upon both, and kept the state balanced in tranquillity. To keep the people in plenty and dependence, seems to have been one of the most refined strokes in this philosopher's legisla- tion. The generality of people were at that time so poor, that thev were destitute of every kind of possession, while a small numb^ of individuals were possessed of all the lands and the wealth of the country. In order, therefore, to banish the insolence, the fraud, and the luxury of the one, as well as the misery, the repining, and the factious despair of the other, he persuaded the majority, and forced the rest, to give up all their lands to the commonwealth^ and to make a new division of them, that they miglit all live to- gether in perfect equality. Thus all the sensual goods of life were distributed among- the governors and the governed, and superior merit alone conferred superior distinction. It would, however, have answered no permanent purpose to di- vide the lands, if the money had been still suffered to accumulate. To prevent, therefore, all other distinctions but that of merit, he resolved to level down all fortune to one standard. He did not, indeed, strip those possessed of gold or silver of their property; but, what was equivalent, he cried down its value, and suffered nothing but iron maney to pass in exchange for every commodity. This coin also he made so heavy, and fixed at so low a rate, that ft cart and two oxen were required to carry home a sum equivalent to twenty pounds English, and a whole house was necessary to keep it in. By these means, money was soon brought into disuse, and few troubled themselves with more than was sufficient to sup- ply their necessaries. Thus not only riches, but their attendant train of avarice, fraud, rapine, and luxury, were banished from this simple state. Even these institutions were not thought sufficient to prevent that tendency, which mankind have to private excess. A third regu- lation was therefore made, commanding that all meals should be in public. He ordained, that all the men should eat in one common 16 THE HISTORY OF THK hall without distinction ; and lest strangers should attempt to cor-' rupt his .citizens by their example, a law was expressly made ag-ainst their entrance into the city. By these means, frugality was not only made necessary, but the use of riches was at once abolished. Every man sent monthly his provisions to the common stock, witk * little money for other contingent expences. So rigorous an injunction, which thus cut off all the delicacies and refinements of luxury, was by no means pleasing to the rich, who took every occasion to insult the lawgiver on his new regula- tions. The tumults it excited were frequent ; and in one of these, a young fellow, whose name was Alexander, struck out one of Ly- curgus's eyes ; but he had the majority of the people on his side, who, provoked at the outrage, delivered the young man into his hands to treat him with all proper severity. Lycurgus, instead of testifying any brutal resentment, won over his aggressor by all the arts of ability and tenderness, till at last, fi-om being one of the proudest and most turbulent men of Sparta, he became an example of wisdom and moderation, and an useful assistant to Lycurgus iix promoting his new institutions. Thus undaunted by opposition, and steady in his designs, he went on to make reformation in the manners of his countrymen. As the education of youth was one of the most importai\t objects of a legislator's care, he first instituted, that such children as, upon a public view were deemed deformed or weakly, and unfitted for a future life of vigour and fatigue, should be exposed to perish in a cavern near mount Taygetus. Those infants that were born without any capital defects, were adopted as children of the state, (md delivered to their parents t5 be nursed with severity and hard- ship. From their tenderest age, tliey were accustomed to make no choice in their eating, nor to be afraid in tlie dark, or when left alon^e ; not to be peevish or fretful, to walk barefoot, to lie hard at nights, to wear the same clothes winter and summer, and to fear nothing from their equals. At the age of seven they were taken from their parents, and delivererd over to the classes for their ed- ucation. Their discipline there was little else than an apprentice- ship to hardship, self-denial, and obedience. All ostentatious learning was banished from this simple com- monwealth : their only study was to obey, their only pride was to suffer hardships. There was yearly a custom of whipping them »t the altar of Diana, and the boy that bore this punishment with the greatest fortitude came off victorious. Every institution seem- ed calculated to harden the body, and sharpen the mind for war. In order to prepare them for stratagems and sudden incursions, the boys were permitted to steal from each other ; but if they were caught in the fact, they were punished for their want of dexterity. At twelve years old, the boys were removed into another class of a more advanced kind. There, in order to crush the seeds of vice which, at that time began to appear, their labour and disci- pline were encreased with their age. They had now their skir- THishes between parties, and their mock fights between I^t^qv boA-^ GRECIAN STATES. If ifts. In these they often fought with hands^ feet, teeth, and nails with such obstinacy, that it was common to see them lose theii* eyes, and often their lives, before the fray was determined. Such was the constant discipline of their minority, which lasted till the age of thirty, before which they were not permitted to marry, to gm into the troops, or to bear any office in the state. With regard to the virgins, their discipline was equally strict with the former. They were inured to a constant course of labour and industry, until they were twenty years old, before which time they were not allowed to be marriageable. Valour and generosity seemed the ruling motives of this new institution ; arms were their only exercise and employment, and their life was much less austere in the camp than in the city. The Spartans were the only people in the world, to whom the time of war was a time of ease and refreshment ; because then the sever »► ity of their manners was relaxed, and the men were indulged in greater liberties. With them the first principles of war was never to turn their backs on their enemies, however disproportioned in forces, nor to deliver up their arms until they resigned them with life- Such was the general purport of the institutions of Lycurgus, which from their tendency gained the esteem and admiration of all the surrounding nations. The Greeks were ever apt to be dazzled rather with splendid than useful virtues, and praised the laws of Lycurgus, which at best were calculated rather to make men war- like than happy, and to substitute insensibility instead of enjoyment. When Lycurgus had thus completed his military institution, and when the form of government he had established seemed strong^ and vigorous enough to support itself, his next care was to give it all the permanence in his power. He therefore signified to the people, that something still remained for the completion of his plan, and that he was under the necessity of going to consult the oracle of Delphos for its advice. In the mean time he persuaded them to take an oath, for tic strict observance of all his laws until his return, and then departed with a full resolution of never seeing Sparta more. When he was arrived at Delphos, he consulted th^ oracle, to know whether the laws he had made were sufficient to render the Lacedaemonians happy, and being answered, that noth- ing was wanting to their perfection, he sent this answer to Sparta, land then voluntarily starved himself to death. Others say he died in Crete, ordering his body to be burnt, and his ashes to be thrown into the sea. The death of this great lawgiver gave a sanction and authority to his laws, which his life was unable to confer. The Spartans regarded his end as the most glorious of all his actions, and a noble finishing of all his former services. They built a tem- ple, and paid divine honours to him after his death ; they consid- ered themselves as bound by every tie of gratitude and religion to a strict observance of all his institutions ; and the long continuance of the Spartaa government is a proof of their persevering respki- laon. B S ^% THE HISTORY OF THE CHAP. II. 1 HE Athenians having", for more than a century, seen the good effects of laws in the regulation of the Spartan commonwealth, about the year 3380^ became desirous of being governed by written laws. They pitched upon Draco, a man of acknowledged wisdom and unshaken integrity, but rigid even beyond human sufferance» Draco not succeeding in this business, Solon was applied to for his advice and assistance, as he was the wisest and justest man in all Athens. His greart learning had acquired him the reputa- tion of being the first of the seven wise men of Greece, and his known humanity procured him the love and veneration of every rank among his fellow citizens. Solon was a native of Salamais, an island dependent on Athens, but which had revolted to put itself under the power of the Megareans. In attempting to recover this island, the Athenians had spent much blood and treasure, until at last wearied out with such ill success, a law was made, rendering it capital ever to advise the recovery of their lost possession. So- lon, however, undertook to persuade them to another trial i and, feigning himself mad, he ran about the streets, using the most vi- olent gestures and language ; but the purport of all was, t© upbraid the Athenians for their remissness and effeminacy, in giving up their conquests in despair. In short, he acted his part so welly by the oddity of his manners, and the strength of his reasoning, that the people resolved upon another expedition against Salamais ; and, by a stratagem of his contrivance, in which he introduced several young men upon the island in women's clothes, the place was surprised, and added to the dominion of Athens, But this was not the only occasion, on which he exhibited supe- rior address and wisdom. At a time when Greece had carried the arts of eloquence, poetry, and government, higher than they had yet been seen among mankind, Solsn was considered as one of the foremost in each profession. The sages of Greece, whose fame is still undiminished, acknowledged his merit, and adopted him as their associate. The correspondence between these wise men was at once instructive, friendly, and sincere. They were seven in number, namely, Thales the Milesian, Solon of Athens, Chilo of Lacedsemon, Pittacus of Mitylene, Periander of Corinth j Bias and Cleobulus, whose birth-places are not ascertained. These sages often visited each other, and their conversations generally turned upon the methods of instituting the best form of government, or the arts of private happiness. One day, when So- lon went to Miletus to see Thales, the first thing he said, was to express his surprise that Thales had never desired to marry, or have children. Thales made no answer then, but a few days after contrived that a stranger, supposed to ai*rive from Athens, should join their company. Solon, hearing from vv-hence the stranger came, was inquisitive after the news of his own city, but was only. GRECIAN STATES. 1§ informed, that a younp: man died there, for whom the whole place was in the greatest affliction, as he wras i*eputed the most promis- ing youth in all Athens, " Alas ! (cried Solon) how much is the poor father of the youth to be pitied ! Pray, what was his name ?'* ** I heard the name, (replied the stranger, who was instructed for the occasion) but I have forgotten it : I only remember; that all people talked much of his wisdom and justice." Every answer afforded new matter of trouble and terror to the inquisitive father, and he had just strength enough to ask, if the youth was the son of Solon, ** The very same," replied the stranger ; at which words Solon shewed all the marks of the most inconsolable dis- tress. This was the opportunity which Thales wanted, who took him by the hand, and said to him with a smile, «* Comfort yourself, my friend, all that has been told yen is a mere fiction, but may serve as a very proper answer to your question, why I never thought proper to marry." One day, at the court of Periander of Corinth, a question was pfoposed, " Which was the most perfect popular government ?" *' That (said Bias) where the laws have no superior." "That (said Thales) where the inhabitants are neither too rich nor too poor." *' That (said Anacharsis the Scythian) where virtue is honoured and vice detested." " That (said Pittacus) where dig- nities are always conferred upon the virtuous, and never upon the base," *' That (said Cleobulus) where the citizens fear blame more than punishment," " That (said Chilo) where the laws are more regarded than the orators." But Solon's opinion seems to have the greatest weight, who said, *' Where an injury done to the meanest subject is an insult upon the whole constitution." Upon a certain occasion, when Solon was conversing with Ana- charsis, the Scythian philosopher, about his intended reformation in the state, " Alas, (cried the Scythian) all your laws will be found to resemble spiders' webs : the weak and small flies will be caught and entangled, but the great and powerful will always have strength enough to break through." A matter still more celebrated is Solon's Interview with CrcESUS, king of Lydia. This monarch, who was reputed the richeist of all Asia Minor, was willing to make an ostentatious display of his wealth before the Greek philosopher, and after shewing him im- mense heaps of treasures, and the greatest variety of other orna- ments, he demanded, whether he did not think the possessor of them the most happy of all mankind. ** No, (replied Solon) I know one more happy, a poor peasant of Greece, who, neither in affluence nor in poverty, has but few wants, and has learned to supply them by his labour." This answer was by no means agreQ- able to the vain monarch, who by this question hoped only for a reply that would tend to flatter his pride. Willing, therefore, to extort one still more favourable, he asked, whether, at least, he did not think him happy, " Alas ! (cried Solon) what man can be pronounced happy before he dies !" The integrit)^ and the wisdom of Solon's replies appeared in the event. The kingdom af Lydia \v%s ^ THE HISTORY OF THE invaded by Cyrus, the empire destroyed, and Croesus himself was taken prisoner. When he was led out to execution, according" to the barbarous manner of the times, he then too late recollected the maxims of Solon, and could not help crying out when on the scaf- fold upon Solon's name. Cyrus, hearing him repeat the name with great earnestness, was desirous of knowing the reason ; and being informed by Croesus of that philosopher's remarkable observation, he began to fear for himself, pardoned CrcESUs, and took him for the future into confidence and frieadship. Thus Solon had the iHerit of saving one king's life, and of reforming another. Such was the man, to whom Athens applied for assistance in reforming the severity of their government, and instituting a just body of law. His first attempt was, therefore, in favour of the poor, whose debts he abolished at once, by an express law of insol- vency. His next step was to repeal all the laws enacted by Draco, except those against murder. He then proceeded to the regula- tion of offices, employments, and magistrates, all which he left in the hands of the rich; and he distributed the rich into three classes, ranging them according to their incomes. The Areopa- gus, so called from the place where the court was held, had been established some centuries before, but Solon restored and aug- mented its authority. Nothing was so august as this court, and its reputation for judgment and integrity became so very great, that the Romans sometimes referred causes, which were too in- tricate for their own decision, to the determination of this tribunal. Nothing was regarded here but truth : that ^o external objects might pervert justice, the tribunal was held in darkness, and the advocates were denied all attempts to work upon the passions of the judges. Superior to, this, Solon instituted the great council of four hundred, who were to judge upon appeals from the Are- opagus, and maturely to examine every question before it came to be debated in a general assembly of the people. He abolished the custom of giving portions in marriage with young women, unless they were only daughters. The bride was to carry no other fortune to her husband than three suits of clothes, and some household goods of little value. It was his aim to prevent making matrimony a tralSc : he considered it as an hon- ourable connexion, calculated for the mutual happiness of both parties, and the general advantage of the state. These were the prijicipal insatitutions of this celebrated lawgiver, and though neither so striking, nor yet so well authorized as those of Lycurgus, they did not fall to operate for several succeeding ages, and seemed to gather strength by observance. In order to perpetuate his statutes, he engaged the people by a public oath to observe them religiously, at least for a term of an hundred years : and thus, having completed the task assigned him, he withdrew from the city, to avoid the importunity of some, and the captious petulance of others ; for, as he well knew, it was hard if not im- possible to please every individual. Solon being now employed «n his travels in visiting JBgypt, Lydia and severjkl other couatri«9. GRECIAN STATES. 21 left Athens to become habituated to his new institutions, and to try by experience the wisdom of their formation. While Solon was thus on his travels, civil contentions disturbed Athens, and the spirit of party v^as hastening every thing" to ruin. After ten years' absence, Solon returned to Athens, and found the city involved in slavery. Pisistratus had procured himself a guard formed of his own creatures, who at length seized on the citadel, while none were left, who had sufficient courage or conduct to op- pose him. In this general consternation, which was the result of folly on the one hand, and treachery on the other, the whole city was one scene of tumult and disorder, some flying, others Inwardly com- plaining, others preparing for slavery with patient submission. Solon was the only man, who, v/ithout fear or shrinking, deplored the folly of the times, and reproached the Athenians with their cowardice and treachery. *' You might with ease (said he) have crushed the tyi'ant in his bud ; but nothing now remains but to pluck him up by the roots. As for myself, I have at least the sat- isfaction of having discharged my duty to my country and the laws: as for the rest, I have nothing to fear ; and now, upon the des- truction of my country, my only confidence is in my great age, which gives me the hopes of not being a long survivdr." In fact, he did not survive the liberty of his country above two years ; he died at Cyprus, in the eightieth year of his age, lamented and admired by every state of Greece. Besides his skill in legislation, Solon was remarkable for several other shining qualities : he was master of eloquence in so high a degree, that from him Cicero dates the origin of oratory in Athens. He was also successful in poetry ; and Plato asserts, that it was only for want of due appli- cationj that he did not come to dispute the prize with Homer him- self. CHAP. III. . A* ROM the death of Solon, to about the year of the world 350(>> Athens continued to be the scene of party cabals, and usurped ty- ranny ; but, about this period, two young citizens began to distin- guish themselves at Athens, namely Aristides and Themisto- cles. These Youths were of very different dispositions ; but from this difference resulted the greatest advantages of their country. Themistocles was naturalfy inclined to a popular government, and omitted noth>rtg that could render him agreeable to the public, or gain him friends, ^is complaisance was boundless, and his desire to oblige sometim^'s outstepped the bounds of duty. His partial- ity was often conspicuous. Aristides was remarkable for bis jus- tice and integrity. Being a favourer of aristocracy, in imitation •f Lycurgus, he was friendly, but never at th« expense ©f justice^ ^ i THE HIS TORY OF THE Xn seeking honours, he ever declined the interests of his friends, lest they should, in turn, demand his interest when his duty was to 1)6 impartial. The love of the public g'ood was the g-reat spring- of all his actions, and with that in view no difficulties could daunt, no successor elevation exhalt him On all occasions he preserved his usual calmness of temper, being- persuaded, that he was entirely his country's, and very little his own. At tliis time, Darius, king of Persia, was turning his arms against Greece, while these illustrious Athenians were inspiring their fellow citizens with a noble confidence in their bravery, and made every prepara^^ion for the expected invasion, which prudence and deliberate valour could sugg-est. In the mean time, Darius' generals made themselves masters of the islands in the jEgean sea, and l^id siege to Eretria, which they at last to j'lv by storm, owing to the treachery of some of the princi-- pal inhabitants. The to^vn was plundered and burnt, and the in- habitants put in chains^ and sent as tlie first fruits of war to the Persian monarch ; but he, contrary to their expectations, treated them v/ith great lenity, and gave them a village in the country of Cissa to live in. This was soon followed by the b^tle lof Marathon, the first great battle the Greeks had ever engaged in. It was not like any of their former contests arising from jealousy, and terminating it in an easy accommodation : it was a battle that wai to be decided with the greatest monarch of the earth. This was an engagement that was to decide the liberty of Greece, and, what was of infinitely greater moment, the future progress of refinement among mankind. Upon the event of the battle depended the complexion, which the man- ners of the West were hereafter to assume, whether they were to adopt Asiatic customs with their conquerers, or to go on in model- ling themselves upon Grecian refinements. This therefore may be considered as one of the most important battles that ever was fought, and the event was as little to be expected as the success was glorious. Miltiades, who was now invested with the supreme command of the Greek army, like an experienced general, endeavoured, by the advantag-e of his ground, to make up tlie deficiency in strength and number, his whole army consisting of but ten thousand. He was sensible, that by extending his front to oppose the enemy, he must weaken it too much, and give their dense body the advantage. He therefore drew up his array at the foot of a mountain, so that the enemy should not surround him, or charge him in the rear, On the flanks, on either side, he caused large trees to be thrown, which were cut down for tiiat purpose, and these served to guard him from the Persian cavalry, that generally wheeled on the flank in the heat of the engagement. Datis, the Persian general, was sensible of his advantageous disposition ; but relying on his supe- riority of numbers, and unv/illing to wait ti\l Miltiades should re- ipeive reinforcementSj he determined to engage. GRECIAN STATES. 23 The signal was no sooner g-iven than the Athenians, without wait- ing the Persian onset, rushed in upon their ranks with desperate rapidity, as if wholly re ,^^rdless of safety. The Persians considered this first step of the Athenians as the result of madness, and were more inclined to despise them as maniacs, than oppose them as soldiers. However, they were quickly undeceived. It had never been the custom of the Greeks to run on with this headlon,^ valour 5 but comparing" the number of their own forces with that of the ene- my and expecting- safety only from ra&hness, they determined to break throug-h the enemy's ranks, or fall in the attempt. The greatness of their danger added to their courage, and despair did. the rest. The Persians, however, stood their g-round with great intrepidity, and the battle v/as long-, fierce, and obstinate- Milti- ades had made the wings of his array exceedingly strong, but had left the main body weaker, and not so deep ; for having but ten thousand men to oppose such a numerous army, he supposed the victory could be obtained by no other means than by strengthening his flanks. He doubted not but that, v/hen his wings were once victorious, they would be gble to wheel upon the enemy's main body on either side, and then easily rout them. The Persians, therefore,, finding the main body weakest, attacked it with their utmost vigour. It was in vain that Aristides and Themistocles, who were stationed in this post of dang-er, endeavoured to keep their troops to the charge : courage and intrepidity were unabla to resist the torrent of encreasing numbers, so that they were at last obliged to give ground. In the m^an time the wings were victorious ; and now, just as the main body was fainting under th# unequal encounter, these came up, and gave them time to recover their strength and order. Thus the scale of victory quickly turned in their favour, the Persians began to give ground in turn, and, be- ing unsupported by fresh forces, they fled to their ships with the utmost precipitation. The confusion and disorder was now univer- sal, the Athenians followed them to the beach, and set many of their ships on fire. On this occasion it was that Cyndceyrus, the brother of the poet JEschylus, seized with his hand one of the ships that the enemy was pushing off from the shore. The Persians within, seeing themselves thus stopped, cutoff his right hand that held the prow ; he then laid hold of it with his left, which they also cut off; at last he seized it with his teeth, and in that manner expired, Sevfen of the enemy's ships were taken, above six thousand Per- sians were slain, without reckoning those who were drowned in the sea as they endeavoured to escape, or those who were consumed when the ships were set on fire. Of the Greeks, not above two hundred men were killed, among whom was Callimachus, who fave his vote for bringing on the engagement. The Persian forces afore the battle, consisted of six Iiundred ships, and an army of an hundred and twenty thousand men. Their instructions were to give up Athens to be plundered, to burn all the houses and tem- ples and to lead awray all the inhabitants into slavery. The country U THE HISTORY OF THE was to be laid desolate, and the army was provided with chains and fetters for binding the conquered nations. Thus ended the famous J^attle of Marathon, which the Persians were so sure of gaining, that they brought marble into the field, in order to erect a trophy there. This battle was fought in the year of the world 3514. A part of the army, inimediately after the battle marched for* ward to Athens, to protect it from any attempts the enemy might make, which proved a very prudent measure ; for tlie Persian fleet, instead of sailing directly back to Asia, made an attempt to surprise Athens, before they supposed the Greek troops could arrive from Marathon. The Athenian troops, however, took the precaution to move directly thither, and performed their march with so much espedition, that, though it was forty miles from Marathon, they arrived there in one day. In this manner the Greeks not only expelled their enemies, but confirmed their se- curity. By this victory, the Grecians were taught to know their own strength, and not to tremble before an enemy only terrible in name. The gratitude of the Athenians t© Miltiades spoke a noblenes* of mindj that far surpassed expensive triumphs, or base adulation. Sensible that his merits were too great for money to repay, they caused a picture to be painted by Polygnotus, one of their most celebrated artists, in which Miltiades was represented, at the head of the ten commanders, exhorting the soldiers, and setting them an example of their duty. This picture was preserved for many ages, with other paintings of the best masters, in the portico where Zeno afterwards instituted his school of philosophy. Every officer, as well as private soldier, who fell in this battle, had a nion- ument erected to his memory on the plains of Marathon. Though the gratitude of the Athenians to Miltiades was very sincere, yet it was of no long continuance. This fickle and jeal- ous people, naturally caprieious, and now more than ever careful of preserving their freedom, were willing to take every oppor- tunity of mortifying a general, from whose merit they had much to fear. Being appointed, with seventy ships, to punish those islands that had &voured the Persian invasion, he sailed to Paros, and in- vested that place. Here, having broken his tliigh by an accident, he was obliged to raise the siege, and return home. On his arri- val at Athens, the whole city began to murmur, and he was accus- ed of having taken a bribe from Persia. As he was not in a con- dition to answ^er this charge, being confined to his bed by the wound he received at Paros, the accusation took place against him, and he was condemned to lose his life. However, in consid- eration of his former services, his sentence was commuted into a penalty of fifty talents, the sum which it had cost the state in fit- ting out the late unsuccessful expedition. Not being rich enough to pay this sum, he was thrown into prison, where his wound growing worse, from bad air and confinement, it turned at last to a gangrene, and put an end to his life and misfortunes. Thus per- GRECIAN STATES. 2ii ishecl a man, "who had betsn very justly praised for his condescension moderation and justice. To him Athens was indebted for all its glory, he being- the man who first taught her to despise the empty menaces of the boastful Persians. Cimon, his son, who was at this time very young-, signalized his piety on this occasion. As this ungrateful city would not permit the body of Miltiades to be buried until all his debts were paid, this young- man employed all his interesst among his friends, strained his utmost credit to pay the fine, and procured his father an honourable interment. CHAP. IV, A^ARIUS, king" of Persia, died amidst the preparations he was making for a second expedition into Greece ; but he was succeed- ed by a son, who inherited all his ambition, without any share of his abilities. He was a young man, surrounded by flatterers, and naturally vain and superficial. Having drained all the East to compose his own army, and the West to supply those of the Car- thagenians, who were come to his aid, he set out from Suca, in or- der to enter on this war, ten years after the battle of Marathon, and in the year of the world 3523. Sardis was the place, where the various nations that were com- pelled to his banner were to assemble. His fleet was to advance along the coast of Asia Minor towards the Hellespont ; but as^ in doubling the cape of Mount Athos, many ships were detained, he was resolved to cut apassage through that neck of land, which, joined the mount to the continent, and thus gave his shipping a shorter and safer passage. This canal was a mile and a half long, and hollowed out from a high mountain. It required immense labour to perform so great a work ; but his numbers and his ambition were sufficient to surmount all difficulties. To urge on the under- taking the faster, he treated his laborers with the greatest severity, while, with all the ostentation of an eastern prince, he gave hig commands to the mountains to sink before him : Athos, (swd he) thou proud aspiring mountain, that liftest up thy head unto the heavens, be not so audacious as to put obstacles in my wkj. If thou givest them that opposition, I will cut thee level to the plain, and throw thee headlong into the sea 1" Early in the spring, he directed his march down towards the Hellespont, where his fleet lay in all their pomp, expecting his ar» rival. Here he was desirous of taking a survey of all his forces, which composed an army that was never equalled either before or since. It was composed of the most powerful nations of the East, and of people scarce known to posterity, except by name. The remotest India contributed its supplies, while the coldest tracts of Scythia sent their assistance. Medes, Persians, Bactriaas, Ly" diansjAsspiansjHyrcanians, and an hundred other countries of va- C 26 THE HISTORY OF THE rious complexions, languages, dresses and arras. The land army which he brought out of Asia, consisted of seventeen hundred thou- sand foot, and four score thousand horse. Three hundred thou- sand more that were added upon crossing the Hellespont, made all his land forces together amount to above two millions of men. His fleet, when it set out from Asia, consisted of twelve hundred and seven vessels, each carrying two hundred men. The Europeans augmented his fleet with an hundred and twenty vessels, each of which carried two hundred men. Besides these, there were a thousand smaller vessels, fitted for carrying provisions and stores. The men contained in these, with the former, amounted to six hundred thousand : so that the whole army might be said to amount to two millions and a half, which, with the women, slaves, and set- tlers, always accompanying a Persian army, might make the whole above five millions of souls. Such was the state of this proud mon- arch's forces. Lord of so many and such various subjects, Xerxes found a plea- sure in reviewing his forces ; beholding all the earth covered with his troops, and all the sea crouded with his vessels, he felt a se- cret joy diffuse itself through his fiame, from the consciousruess of his own superior power. But all the workings of this monarch's mind were in extreme : a sudden sadness soon took place of his pleasure, and dissolving into a shower of tears, he gave himself up to the reflection, that not one of so many thousands would be aliye an hundred years after. ■^' In the mean time Xerxes had given orders for building a bridge of boats across the Hellespont, for the transporting of his army into Europe. This narrow strait, which now goes by the name of the Dardanelles, is near an English mile over. How ever, soon| after the completion of this work, a violent storm arising, the whole was broken and destroyed, and the labour was to be undertaken anew. The fury of Xerxes, upon this disappointment, was attended with equal extravagance and cruelty. His vengeance knew no bounds, the workmen who had undertaken the task, had their heads struck off^by his order; and that the sea also might know its duty, he or- dered it to be lashed as a delinquent, and a pair of fetters thrown into it, to curb its future irregularities. Having thus given vent to his absurd resentment, two bridges were ordered to be built in the place of the former, one for the army to pass over, and the other for the baggage and beasts of burden. The workmen, now warned by the fate of their predecessors, undertook to give their labours greater stability : they placed three hundred and sixty vessels across the strait, some of them having three banks of oars, and others fifty oars a-piece. They then cast large anchors on both sides into the water, in order to fix those vessels against the vio- lence of the winds and current. They then drove large piles into the earth, with huge rings fastened to them, to which were tied six vast cables, which went over each of the two brides,— Over all these they laid trunks of trees, cut purposely for that use, and flat boats over Uiem, fastened and joijjed together, so as to serre for GRECIAN STATES. 27 a floor, or solid bottom. When the whole work was thus com- pleted, a day was appohited for their passing over ; and as soon as the first rays of the sun began to appear, sweet odours of all kinds were abundantly scattered over the new work, and the way was strewed with myrtle. At the same time, Xerxes, turning his face towards the east, worshipped the sun, which is the god of the Per- sians. Then, throwing his libations into the sea, together with a golden cup and Persian scymitar, he went forwards and gave orders for the army to follow. This immense train were no less than sev- en days and seven nights passing over, while those who were ap- pointed to conduct the march, quickened the troops by lashing them along ; for the soldiers of the East, at that time, and to this day, are treated like slaves. Thus this immense army having landed in Europe, and being joined by the several European na- tions that acknowledged the Persian power, Xerxes prepared for marching directly forward into Greece. He continued his march through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thes- saly, every knee bending before him till he came to the straits of Thermopylae, where he first found an enemy prepared to dispute his passage. This army was a body of Spartans, led on by Leonidas their king, who had been sent thither to oppose him. None of the Grecian states were found bold enoug-h to face this formidable ar- my but Athens and Lacedaemon. One cannot, without astonish- ment, reflect on the intrepidity of these two states, who determined to face the innumerable army of Xerxes with such disproportioned forees. Their whole army amounted to only eleven thousand two hundred men. Aristides was called from banishment, and placed at the head of their forces. It was soon resolved to send a body of men to guard the pass at Thermopylee, where a few would be capable of acting against num- bers. Thermopylae was a narrow pass of twenty five feet broad, between Thessaly and Phocis, defended by the remains of a wall, with gates to it. This place was pitched upon, as well for the nar= rawness of the way, as for its vicinity to the sea, from whence the land forces could occasionally receive assistance from the fleet. The command of this important pass was given to Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, who led thither a body of six thousand men. They were all along taught to look upon themselves as a forlorn hope, only placed there to check the progress of the enemy, and give them a foretaste of the desperate valour of Greece. Even or- acles were not wanting to check their ardour ; for it had been de- clared, that to procure the safety of Greece it was necessary that a king, one of the descendants of Hercules should die. This task was cheerfully undertaken by Leonidas ; and as he marched out from Lacedaemon he considered himself as a wilhng victim oflTered up for the good joi"his country. However, he joyfully put himself at the head of his little band, took possession of his post, and with deliberate desperation waited at Thermopylae for the coming up of the Persian army. 2« THE HISTORY OF THE In the mean time, Xerxes approached with his numerous army flushed with success, and confident of victory. His camp exhibited all the marks of Eastern magnificence and Asiatic hixury. As he expected to meet no obstructions on his way to Greece, he was sur- prised to find, that a handful of men would dare to dispute his pas- sage. .He waited four days to give the Greeks time to retire j but they continued their post, amusing themselves in their usual way. — Me sent to them to deliver up their arms ; but Leonidas, with a truly Spartan spirit, desired him to come and take him. Xerxes offered ilTthey would lay down their arms, to receive them as friends, and to give them a country much larger and better than what they fought for. " No country (they replied) was worth acceptance, unless won by virtue ; and as for their arms, they should want them, whether as his friends or enemies." Xerxes, thu^i treated with contempt, at length ordered a body of 3^edes to advance, who began the onset, but were repulsed with great loss. 'i he number of the assailants only served to increase their confusion ; and it now began to appear, that Xerxes had many fol- lowers, but few soldiers. These forces being routed by the Grecian troops, the Persian immortal band was brought up ; but these were as unsuccessful as the former. Thus did the Greeks keep their ground for two days, and no power on earth seemed capable of re- moving them from their advantageous situation. The Persians liowever, by the treachery of a Grecian deserter, got possession of an advantageous post, which commanded the rear of the Spartans, Leonidas, apprized of his misfortune, and seeing' that his post Was no longer tenable, advised the troops of his allies to" retire, and reserve themselves for better times, and the future safety of Greece. As for himself, and his fellow Spartans, they were obliged by tlieir laws not to fly ; that he owed a life to his country, and that it was mow his duty to fall in its defence. Having thus dismissed all but his three hundred Spartans, with some Thesbians and Thebans, in all not a thousand men, he exhorted his followers, in the most cheerful manner, to prepare for death. " Come, my fellow-soldiers, said he, let us dine cheerfully here, for to-night we shall sup with Pluto." His men upon hearing his determined purpose, set up a loud shout, as if they had been invited to a banquet, and resolved esery man to sell his life as dear as he could. The night now be- gan to advance, and this was thought the most glorious opportunity of meeting death in the enemy's camp. Thus resolved, they made directly to the Persian tents, and, in the darkness of the night, had almost reached the royal pavilion, with hopes of surprising the king. The obscurity added much to the horror of the scene ; and the Persians, falling upon each other without distinction, rather assisted the Grecians than defended themselves. Thus success seemed to crown the rashness of their enterprize, until the morning begin- ning to dawn, the light discovered the smallness of their numbers. They were then soon surrounded by the Persian forces, who fearing to fall in upon them, flung their javelins from every quarter, till the Greeks^ not so much conquered as tired with conquering, fell GRECIAN states: '2S» amidst Heaps of the slaughtered enemy, leaving^ behind them an example of intrepidity never known before. Leonidas was one of the first that fell, and the endeavours of the Lacedaemonians to defend his dead body were incredible. Of all the train, two only escaped, who were treated with contempt and infamy. The loss of Xerxes in this battle was said to amount to twenty thousand men, among whom were two of his brothers. Xerxes, therefore, dismayed at an obstinacy that cost him so dear, was for some time more inclined to try his fortune at sea, than to proceed immediately into the country, where he was informed, eig-lit thou- sand Spartans, such as he had but lately foUght with, were ready to receive him. Accordingly, the very day of the battle of Ther- mopylae, there was an engagement at sea between the two fleets. The Grecian fleet consisted of two hundred and seventy-one vessels,: tliat of the enemy had lately lost fox&t hundred vessels in a ship- wreck, but were still greatly superior to the Grecian fleet. Xerxes, to repair his loss by a victory, ordered two hundred Persian vessels to take a compass, and surprise the Grecians lying in the straits ofEubsea; but the Grecians, being apprised of their designs, set sail by night, and so, by a counter surprise, fell in with them while they w^re thus separated from the main body, took and sunk thirty, forced the rest to sea, and there, by stress of weather, they were all soon after sunk or stranded. Enraged at these disappointments, the Persians bore down the next day with the whole fleet, and drawing up in form of an half-moon, made an oflTer of battle, which the Greeks as readily accepted. The Athe- nians having been reinforced with three and fifty sail, the battle was very obstinate and bloody, and the success pretty near equal on both sides, so that both parties seemed: content to retire in good order. After this, Xerxes, having entered the country of Phoci« with his numerous army, plundered and burned every town through v/hich he passed. Having sent off" a considerable detachment to plun- der the temple at Delphos, with the rest he marched down into Attica, where he found Athens deserted by all but a few in the cit* adel. These men despairing of succour, and unwilling to survive the loss of their country, would listen to no terms of accommoda- tions they boldly withstood the first assault, and, warmed by the enthusiasm of religion began to hope for success. However a se« cond assault carried their feeble outworks, they were all put to tlie sword, and the citadel reduced to ashes. In the mean time, the confederate Greeks determined in coun- cil, that they should prepare to receive the Persians on the isth- mus by land, and in the straits ot Salamais by sea. Xerxes, after having demolished and burned Athens, marched down towards the sea, to act in conjunction with his fleet, which he had determined should once more come to an engagement with the enemy. The Grecian fleet consisted of three hundred and eighty ships, the Per- sian fleet was much more numerous ; but whatever advantage they kad in numbersj and the size of their slupsj they f^U infinitely short 30 THE HISTORY OF THE of the Greeks in their naval skill, and their acquaintance witk the seas where they fought. Themistocles, watching- a favourable opportunity, g-ave the sig- nal for battle, when the Grecian fleet sailed forward, in exact order. Xerxes, imputing his former ill success at sea to his own absence, was resolved to be a -witness of the present engagement from the top of a promontory, where he caused a throne to be ©reeled for that purpose. The Persians, therefore, advanced with auch courage and impetuosity, as struck the enemy with terror ; but their ardor abated when the engagement became closer. The numerous disadvantages of their circumstances then began to appear : the wind blew directly in their faces ; the height and heaviness of their vessels made them unwieldy and useless; even the number of their ships, in the narrow seas where they fought, only served to embarrass aijd increase their confusion. The lonians first gave way, then the Phoenicians, and Cyprians, when the rest retired in great disorder, and fell foul of eac^i other in their retreat. The Greeks pursued the Persian fleet on every side ; some were intercepted at the straits of Attica, many were sunk, and more taken. Above two hundred were burnt, all the rest were dis- persed ; and the allies, dreading the resentment of the Greeks, as well as of the Persian king, made the best of their way to their own country. Such was the success of the battle of Salamais, in wliich the Persians received a severer blow than they had ever before experienced from Greece. Xerxes being heartily tired of this disgraceful businees, left his g-enerals to take care of his army, and hastened with a small retinue to the sea-side, which he reached in forty-five days after the battle of Salamais. When he arrived at that place, he found the bridge brc^en down by the violence of the waves, in a tempest that had lately happened. He was, therefore, obliged to pass the strait in a small boat ; which manner of returning, being compared with the ostentatious method in which he had set out, rendered his dis- grace still more poignant and afflicting. The army, which he had •rdered to follow him, having been unprovided with provisions, {suifered great hardships by the way. After having consumed all the corn they could find, they were obliged to live upon herbs, and even upon the bark and leaves of trees. Thus harrassed and fa- tig"ued, a pestilence began to complete their misery ; and, after a fatiguing journey of forty-five days, in which they were pursued rather by vultures and beasts of prey, than by men, they came to the Hellespont, where they crossed over, and marched from thence to Sardis. Such was the end of Xerxes's expedition into Greece : a measure began in pride, and tejrminated in infamy and disgrace. GRECIAN STATES 31 CHAP. V. 1 HE joy of the Greeks, on the victory of Salamais, was general and loud, and Themistocles was loaded with glory. Mardonius, whom Xerxes had left in Greece with a numerous army, was soon after killed in battle, and all his forces completely routed. Thus ended the invasion of Greece, nor ever after was the Per- sian army seen to cross the Hellespont.— During- these events, Xerxes lay at Sardis, expecting a reversion of his fortune ; but messengers coming every hour, loaded with the news of some fatal disaster, and finding himself unable to retrieve his affairs, he retired furtlier into the country, and endeavoured to drown in luxury and riot the uneasy reflections of his successless ambition. To the want of success abroad was added the contempt of his subjects at home ; and this brought on a train of treasonSj insur- rections, sacrilege, murder, incest and cruelty ; so that the latter part of bis reign was as scandalous as the first part of it had been unfortunate. The state of Athens, being thus in a great measure freed from its fears of a foreign enemy, began to cherish intestine animosities, and its citizens laboured with every art to supplant each other in aiming at places of trust and authority. But the conduct of Aria- tides, in the'discharge of his duty on all occasions, confirmed the great opinion mankind had formed of his integrity. Aristides presided over the treasury with the care of a father o- ver his family, and the caution of a miser over what he holds dearer than his life. No man complained of his administration, and no part of the public money was exhausted in vain. He, who thus contributed to make government rich, was himself poor j and so far was he from being ashamed of poverty, that he considered it as glorious to him as all the victories he had won. Aristides asserted that he only might be said to want, who permitted his appetites to transgress the bounds of his income ; and that he, who could dis- pense with a few things, thus rendered himself more like the gods who want nothing. Thus he lived, just in his public and independent in his private character. His house was a public school for virtue, and was open to all young Athenians who sought wisdom, or were ambitious of power. He gave them the kindest reception, heard them with patience, instructed them with familiarity, and endeavoured, above all things, to give them a just value for themselves. History docs not mention the exact time or place of his death ; but it pays the most glorious testimony to his disinterested character, in telling' us, that he who had the absolute disposal of all the public trea- sures died poor. It is even asserted, that he did not leave money enough behind him to pay the expenses of his funeral, but that the government was obliged to bear the charge of it, and to maiq° tain his family. His daught^y^ w§l'§ married, and his son subsisted 32 tHE HISTORY OF Tut at the expense of the public ; and some of his grandchildren were supported by a pension, equal to that which such received, who had been victorious at the Olympic games. But the greatest honour that his countrymen paid to his memory, was in giving him the title of Just, a character far superior to all the empty titles of wisdom or conquest ; since fortune or accident may confer wisdom' or valour, but the virtues of morality are solely of our own making. About the year of the world 3572, a rupture happened between the Athenians and the Lacedemonians ; and thus the Grecian. states,having now no foreign enemy to disturb them,began to harrass and depopulate each other. But a more terrible punishment now began to threaten them from nature 5 a plague broke out in the city of Athens, a more terrible one than which is scarcely recorded in the annals of history. It is related, that it began in Ethiopia, from thence descended into Egypt, then travelled into Lybia and Persia, and at last broke out like a flood upon Athens. This pes- tilence baffled the utmost efforts of art ;. the most robust constitu- tions were unable to withstand its attacks ; no skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel the terrible infection. The instant a person was seized, he was struck with despair, which quite disabled him from attempting a cure. The hunfianity of friends was as fatal to themselves, as it was ineffectual to the unhappy sufferers. Most of the inhabitants, for want of lodging, lived in little cottages, in which they could scarce breathe, while the burning heat of the summer increased the pestilential malignity. They were seen confusedly huddled together, the dead as well as the dying ; some crawling through the streets, some lying along by the sides of.' fountains, whither they had endeavored to repair, to quench the raging thirst that consumed them. Their very temples were filled with dead bodies, and every part of the city exhibited a dreadful scene of mortality, without the least remedy for the present, or the least hopes with regard to futurity. It seized the people with such violence, that they fell one upon another as they passed along the streets. It was also attended with such uncommon pestilential vapours, that the very beasts and birds of prey, though famishing round the walls of the city, would not touch the bodies of those who died of it. Even in those who recovered, it left such a tinc- ture of its malignity, that it struck upon their senses. It effaced the memory of all the passages of their former lives, and they knew neither themselves nor their nearest relations. Such was the effects of this dreadful pestilence ; but of the manner in which it ended, and of the numbers destroyed by it, we have no cettain account . We shall now pass ove» the particulars of the Peloponnesiau war, as they afford only a wretched scene of the citizens of one Grecian state staining their hands with the blood of others ; but we shall be more particular in mentioning the actions and charac- ter of those heroes and philosophers, who flourished during thatt period. Among tliese, Pericles formed no inconsiderable charac- ter. He was descended from the greatest and in9gt iUustnotis GRECIAN STATES. W~ families of Athens ; his father, Xanthippus, defeated the Persians at Mycale, and his mother, Ag-arista, was niece to Calisthenes, who expelled the tyrants, and established a popular government in A- thens. He had early thoughts of rising in the state, and took les- ions from Anaxagoras, in the philosophy of nature. He studied politics with great assiduity, but particularly devoted himself to eloquence, which, in a popular state, he considered as the fountain of all promotion. His studies were crowned with success ; and the poets, his contemporaries, affirm, that his eloquence was so powerful, that, like thunder, he shook and astonished all Greece. He had the art of uniting force and beauty ; there was no resist- ing the strength of his arguments, or the sweetness of his delivery. Thucydides, his great opponent, was often heard to say, that though he had often overthrown him, the power of his persuasion was such, that the audience could never perceive him fallen. To this eloquence he added also a thorough insight into human nature, as well as a perfect acquaintance with the disposition of his auditors. It was a constant saying with him to himself '* Remem- ber, Pericles, thou art going to speak to men born in the arms of Liberty, and do thou care to flatter them in their ruling passion." He resembled the tyrant Pisistratus, not only in the sweetness of his voice, but the features of his face, and his whole air and man- nerj To these natural and acquired graces, he added those of fortune ; he was very rich, and had an extensive alliance with a^ the most powerful families of the state. The death of Aristides and some other favorable circumstances, gave opportunities to his growing ambition : yet he at first con,« cealed his designs with the most cautious reserve, till finding the people encrease in his interest, he set himself at their head, and opposed the principal men of the state with great appearance of disinterested virtue. The chief obstacle of his rise was Cimon, whose candour and liberality had gained him a numerous party of ail ranks and denominations. In opposition to him, Pericles called in popular assistance, and by expending the public money in bribes, largesses, and other distributions, he easily gained the multitude to espouse his interests. Having thus laid a secure foundation in popularity, he next struck at the council of the Ai'eopagus, which was composed of the most respectable persons of all Athens ; and, by the assistance of one Ephialtes, another popvdar champion, he drew away most causes from the cognizance of that court, and brought the whole order into contempf In this manner, while Cimon was permitted to conduct the war abroad, he managed all the supplies at home ; and, as it was his interest to keep Cimon at a distance, he took care to provide him with a sufficiency of foreign employment. Pericles every day gained new ground, till he at last found him- self possessed of the authority of the whole state. It was then tliat he began to change his behaviour, and from acting tlie hum.- ble and fawning suppliant, he assumed the haughty airs of royalty. He now no longer submitted himself to the caprice of the people, 34 THE HISTORY OF THE but chaag'ed the democratic state of Athens into a kind of moa- archy, without departing, however, from the public good. He would sometimes, indeed, win his fellow-citizens over to his will -; but at other times, when he found them obstinate, he would in a manner compel them to consult their own interests. — Thus be- tween power and pursuasion, public profusion, and private oeconomy, political falsehoods, and private integ-rity, Pericles became the principal ruler at Athens, and all such as were his enemies became the enemies of the state. Fickleness and inconstancy, however, were the prevailing char- acters of the Athenians ; and, as these carried them on to their g-reatest excesses, they soon brought them back within the bounds of moderation and prudence. Pericles had long been a favourite, but the state having suffered great calamities, he at last came to be obnoxious : they had deposed him from the command of the army ; but soon repented of their rashness, and reinstated him, a short time after, with more than former authority. — However, he did not live long to enjoy his honours. He was seized with the plague, which, like a malignant enemy, struck its severest blow at parting. Being extremely ill, and ready to breathe his lastj the principal citizens, and such of his friends that had not forsaken him, dis- coursing concerning the loss they were about to sustain, ran over bis exploits, and computed the number of his victories. They did not imagine that Pericles attended to what they said, as he seemed insensible ; but it was far otherwise, as not a single word of their discourse had escaped him. At last, cried he, " Why will you ex- tol a series of actions, in which Fortune had the greatest part ? There is one circumstance which I would not have forgotten, yet which you have passed over : I could wish to have it remembered, as the most glorious circumstance of my life, that I never yet caused a single citizen to put on mourning." Thus died Pericles, in whom were united a number of excellent qualities without impairing each other. He was as well skilled in naval affairs as in the conduct of armies ; as well skilled in the arts of raising money as of employing it ; eloquent in public, and pleasing in private ; he was a patron of artists, at once informing them by his taste and example. Not long after the death of Pericles, the Athenians and Lace- daemonians made peace, and every thing now promised a restora- tion of former tranquillity ; but a new promoter of troubles was now beginning to make his appearance, and from him those who wished for peace had every thing to fear : this was the celebrated Alcibiades, the disciple of Socrates, a youth equally remarkable for the beauty of his person, and the graces of his mental accom- plisiiments. The strict intimacy between Alcibiades and Socrates is one of the most remarkable circumstances of his life. This* philosopher ob- serving excellent natural qualities in him, which were greatly heightened by the beauty of his person^ bestowed incredible pains in cultivating so valuable a plant, lest, being neglected, it should wither as it grew, and in the-end degenerate. Alcibiades/ indeed. GRECIAN STATES, 35 was exposed to numberless dangers : tlie greatness of his extrac- tion, his vast riches, the authority of his family, the credit of his g-uardianSj his personal talents, and, still more than these, the flat- tery and complaisance of all who approached him. Notwithstanding the strong endeavours that were used to divert this young Athenian from a correspondence, which alone was ca- pable of securing him from so many snares, he devoted himself entirely to it. He had the most unbounded wit ; he was fully sen- sible of Socrates' extraordinary merit, and could not res'st the charms of his sweetly insinuating eloquence, which at that time, had a greater ascendant over him than the allurements of pleasure. He was so zealous a disciple of that great master, that he followed him wherever he went, took the utmost delight in his conversation, received his instructions, and even his reprimands, with wonderful docility, and was so moved with his discourses, as even to shed tears, and abhor himself : so weighty was the force of truth in the mouth of Socrates, and in so odious a light did he show the vices, to which Alcibiades began to abandon himself. Alcibiades, in those moments when he listened to Socrates, dif- fered so much from himself, that he appeared quite another man. However, his headstrong fiery temper, and his natural fondness for pleasure, which was heightened and enfiamed by the discoursed and advices of young people, soon plunged him into his former ir- regularities, and tore him as it were from his master, who was obliged to pursue him as a slave who had escaped correction. This vicissitude of flights and returns of virtuous resolutions, and re- lapses into vice, continued a long time ; but still Socrates was not disgusted with his levity, and always flattered himself with the hopes of bringing him back to his duty. Hence certainly arose the strong mixture of good and evil that always appeared in his con- duct, the instructioes his master had given him sometimes prevail- ing, and, at other times, the fire of his passion hurrying him, in a, manner, againgthisovirn will, into things of a quite opposite nature. Among the various passions that were discovered in him, the strongest and most prevailing was a haughty turn of mind, which would force all things to submit to it, and could not bear a superiorj er even an equal. Alcibiades, with such a cast of mind as we have described, was not born for repose, and had set every engine at work to reverse the treaty lately concluded between the Athenians and Lacedaemo- nians. He was disgtisted with the latter, because they directed themselves only to Nicias, of whom they had a very high opinion j and, on the coutrary, seemed to take no manner of notice of bi^, though his ancestors had enjoyed the rights of hospitality among them. Having found means to carry his point against the Lacedaemo- nians, he was declared general, and appointed to command the fleet i but was soon afterwards disgraced. After having experi- enced strange vicissitudes of fortune, being sometimes banished or condemned to death by the Athenians. »t other times at the heai S6 THE HISTORY OF THE of their fleets and armies, he at last took shelter at the court ©f Persia, where the Lacedsemonians found means to persuade that monarch to dispatch him. Al'cibiades was then in a small town in Phrygia, where he lived with his concubine Timandra. Those who were sent to kill him, not daring to enter bis house, contented themselves with surrounding and setting it on fire. Alcibiades having quitted it through the flames, sword in hand, the barbarians were afraid to stay to come to blows with him, but flying and re- treating as he advanced, they poured their darts and arrows upon him from a distance, and he fell dead upon the spot. Ti- mandra took up his body, and having adorned and covered it with the finest robes she had, she made as magnificent a funeral for it as her condition would admit. Such was the end of Alcibiades, whose great virtues were stifled and suppressed by still greater vices. It is not easy to say, whether his good or bad qualities were most pernicious to his country ; for with the one he deceived, and with the other he oppressed it. In him distinguished valour was united with nobility of blood. He was eloquent, of great ability in affairs, insinuating, and formed for charming all mankind. He loved glory, but Indulged at the same time, his inclination for pleasure : nor was he so fond of pleasure, as to neglect his glory for it. He knew how to give into, or ab- stract himself from, the allurements of luxury, according to the sit- uation of his affairs. Never was there ductility of genius equal to bis : he metamorphosed himself with incredible facility, into the most contrary forms, and supported them all with as much ease and grace as if eacli had been natural to him. The death of Alcibiades naturally leads us to give the character of his master, one of the greatest philosophers that the world per- haps ever produced, the immortal Socrates. He was the son of an obscure citizen of Athens, and, emerging from the meanness of his birth, he gave astonishing examples of courage, moderation and wisdom. He opposed the power of the thirty tyrants, who had usurped the government of Athens, and spoke loudly against the Tiigotiy and persecution of the times. He possesed unexampled good-nature, and an universal love to mankind. As it was very difllicult to correct the aged, and to make people change principles, who revere the errors in which they are grown grey, he devoted his labours principally to the instruction of youth, in order to sow the seeds of virtue in a soil more fit to produce the fruits qf it. He had no open school like the rest of the philosophers, nor set times for his lessons. He had do benches prepared, nor even mounted a J>rofessor*s chair ; he wa& the philosopher of all times and seasons ; he taught in all places, and upon all occasions ; in walking, conver- sation at meals, in the army, and in the midst of the camp, in the public assembly of the senate or people. Such was the man, whom a faction in the city had long devoted to de&truction : he had been, for many years before his death, the object of their satiref and ridicule. Aristophanes, the comic poet, was engaged to expose him qn the sta^e : he composed a piece called The Clouds, wherein He GRECIAN STATES. Sr introduced the philosopher in a basket, uttering- the most ridicu- lous absurdities. This was the first blow struck at him ; but it was not till twenty years &fterwar*3 that Melitus appeared in a more formal manner as his accuser, and entered a regular process ag-ainst him. His accusation consisted of two heads : the first was, that he did not admit the gods acknowledged by the republic, and introduced new divinities ; the second, that he corrupted the youth of Athens ; and concluded with inferring, that sentence of death ought to be piassed against him. How far the whole charge affected him is not easy to determine : It is certain, that amid so much zeal and superstition as then reigned in Athens, he never dared openly to oppose the received religion, and was therefore forced to preserve an outward shew of it ; but it is very probable, from the discourses he frequently held with his friends, that in his heart he despised and laughed at their monstrous opinions and ridi- ciiious mysteries, as having no other foundation than the fables of the poets ; and that he had attained to the notion of the one only true God, insomuih that, upon the account both of his belief of the Deity, and the exemplariness of his life, some have thought fit to rank him among the Christian philosophers. Upon the day assigned, the proceedings commenced in tlie usual forms, the parties appeared before the judges, and Melitus spoke. The worse his cause, and the less it was provided with proofs, the fhc-re occasion he had for address and art to cover its weakness. Ke omitted nothing that r/}ight render Socrates odious; and in- stead of reasons, which could not but fail him, he substituted the delusive glitter of a lively and pompous eloquence. Socrates' de- fence is considered as so great a masterpiece of ancient oratory, that even the narrow limits this work is confined to, will not permit of our passing it over in silence. '* I am accused (said Socrates) of corrupting the youth, and of instilling dangerous maxims into them, as well in regard to the worship of the gods, as the rules ©f government. You know, Athenians, that I never made it my profession to teach, nor can envvt however violent ag-ainst me, x-eproach me with having sold my instructions. I have an undeniable evidence for me in this respect, which is my poverty. I was jJways equally ready to communicate my thoughts either to the rich or poor, and to give them entire leisure to question or answer me, My whole employment is to per- suade the young and old against too much love for the body, for riches, all other precarious things, of whatsoever nature they be^ and against too little regard for the soul, which ought to be the ob- ject of their aiFection ; for I incessantly urge upon you, that virtue does not proceed from riches, but, on the contrary, riches from vir- tue ; and that all the other goods of human life, as well public as private, have their source in the same principle. _ *' If to speak in this manner be to corrupt youth, I confess, Athe- nians, that I am guilty, and deserve to be punished. If what I say be not true, it is most easy to convict me of my falsehoods. I see hiere a great number of my disciples : they have only to appear. 38 THE HISTORY OF THE But, perhaps, the reserve and consideration for a master Who has instructed them, will prevent them from declaring against me ; at least, their fathers, brothers, aiid uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to de- mand vengeance against the corrupter of their sons, brothers, and nephews. But these are the persons who take upon them my de- fence, and interest themselves in the success of my cause. *' Pass on me what sentence you please, Athenians: but I can neither repeiit nor change my conduct : I must not abandon or sus- pend a function, which God himself has imposed on me. If, after having faithfully kept all the posts wherein I was placed by our g-eneral at Potidaea, Amphipolis, and Delium, the fear of death should at this time make me abandon that, in which the divine Providence has placed me, by commanding me to pass my life in the study of philosophy, for the instruction of myself and others ; this would be a most criminal desertion indeed, and make me highly worthy of being cited before this tribunal as an impious man, who does not believe the gods. Should you resolve to acquit me, for the future, I should not hesitate to make answer, Athenians, I honour and love you, but I shall choose rather to obey God than you, and to my latest breath shall never renounce my philosophy, nor cease to exhort and reprove you, according to my custom, by telling each of you, when you come in my way. My good friend and citizen of the most famous city in the world for wisdom and valour, are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities, whilst you neglect the treasures of prudence, truth, and wisdom, and take no pains in rendering your soul as good and perfect as it is capable of being. ** I am reproached with abject fear and meannesrs of spirit, for being so busy in imparting my advice to every one in private and for having avoided to be present in your assemblies to give my coun- sel to my country. I think I have sufficiently proved my courage and fortitude, both in the field, where I have borne arms with you, and in the senate when I opposed the violence and cruel orders of the thirty tyrants. *' For the rest, Athenians, if, in the extreme danger I now am, I do not imitate the behaviour of those, who, upon less emergencies, have implored and supplicated their judges with tears, and have brought forth their children, relations, and friends, it is not through pride and obstinacy, or any contempt for you, but s olely for your honour, and'Tor that of the whole city. You should know, that there are imong our citizens those, who do not regard death as an evil, and v='ho give that name only to injustice and infamy. At my age, and wita the reputation, true or false, which I have, would it be consistent for to<. . after all the lessons I have given upon the contempt of death, to b'- afraid of it myself, and to belie in my last actions all the prmciples and sentiments of my past life I *' But V, ithout spe;i!ving of my fame, which I should extremely Irgure by such a conduct, I do not think It allowable to intreat a GRECIAN STATES. 39 ■judge, nor to be absolved by supplications.- He ought to be per- suaded and convinced. The judge does not sit upon the bench to shew favour, by violating the laws ; but to do justice in conforming to them. He does not swear to discharge with impunity whom he pleases, but to do justice wliere it is due. "We ought not, there- fore, to accustom you to perjury, nor you to suiFer yourselves to be accustomed to it ; for, in so doing, both the one and the other of us equally injure justice and religion, and both are criminals. " Do not, therefore, expect from me, Athenians, that I should have recourse among you to means, which 1 believe neither honest nor lawful ; especially upon this occasion, wherein I am accused of impiety by Melitus ; for, if I should influence you by my prayers, and thereby induce you to violate your oaths, it would be unde? niably evident, that I teach you not to believe in the gods ; and even in defending and justifying myself, I. should furnish my ad- versaries with arms against me, and prove that I believe no divini- ty. But I am very far fi-om such bad thoughts : I am more convinced of the existence of God than my accusers ; and so convinced, that I abandon myself to God and you, that you may judge of me as you shall deem best for yourselves." Socrates pronounced this discourse with a firm and intrepid tone : his air, his action, his visage, expressed nothing of the ac- cused ; he seemed the master of his judges, from the assurance and greatness of his soul with which he spoke, without however losing any thing of the modesty natural to him. But how slight soever the proofs were against him, the faction v/as powerful enough to find him guilty, and his death was certainly a concerted thing. By his first sentence, the judges only declared Socrates guilty ; but when, by his answer, he appeared to appeal from their tribunal to that of justice and posterity ; when, instead of confessing him- self guilty, he demanded rewards and honour from the state, the judges were so very much offended, that they condemned him to drink hemlock, a method of execution in use among them. Socrates received this sentence with the utmost composure. Apollodorus, one of his disciples, launching out into bitter invec- tives, and lamenting that his master should die hmocent ; " What, (replied Socrates, with a smile,) would you have me die guilty? Melitus and Ayntus may kill, but they cannot hurt me." After his sentence, he still continued with the same serene and intrepid aspect, with which he had long enforced virtue, and held tyrants in awe. When he entered his prison, which now became the residence of virtue and probity, his friends followed him thither, and continued to visit him during the interval between his con- demnation and desth, which lasted for thirty days. The day before the death of Socrates, Crito, his intimate friend, went to him early in the morning to let him know, that it depended only on himself to quit the prisOn ; that the jailor was gained ; that he would find the doors open, and offered him a safe retreat in Thessaly, Socrates laug-hed at his proposal, and answered, that 40 THE HISTORY OF THE he reverenced the laws of his country, and resolved to obey them in all things, even in his death. Socrates employed the last day of his life in entertaining* his friends on the great and important subject of death ; he explained to them all the arguments for believing the soul to be immortal, and refuted all the objections against it. After he came out ©f the bath, his children were brought to him, for he had three, two very little, and the other grown up. He spoke to them for some time, gave orders to the women who took care of them, and then dis- missed them. Being returned into his chamber, he laid himself down upon his bed. The keeper of the prison entered at the same instant, and hav- -ing informed him, that the time for drinking the hemlock was come, which was at sun set, tlie keeper was so much afflicted with sorrow, that he turned his back and fell a weeping. The fatal cup, however, was at last brought, and Socrates asked v/hat it was ne- cessary for him to do. " Nothing more (replied the officer) than as soon as you have drank off the draugiit, to walk about till you find your legs grow weary, and aftervv^ards to lie down upon your bed." He took the cup without any emotion, or change in his colour or countenance, and regarding the man with a steady and assured look, '* Well, (said he) what say you of this drink : may one make a libation out of it ?" Upon being told, there was only enough for one dose, " At least, (continued he) we may say ouf prayers to the gods, as it is our duty, and implore them to make our exit from this world, and our last stage happy, which is what I most earnestly beg of them." After having spoken these words, he kept silence for some time, and then drank off the whole draught with an amazing tranquillity and serenity of aspect, not to be ex- pressed or conceived. Till then his friends, with great violence to themselves, had re- frained from tears ; but after he had drank the potion, they were no longer their own masters, and wept abundantly. ApoUodorus, who had been in tears during almost the whole conversation, began then to raise great cries, and to lament vi^ith such excessive grief, as pierced the hearts of all that were present. Socrates alone re- mained unmoved, and even reproved his friends, though with his usual mildness and good nature. *' Whatj are you doing ? (said he to them) Oh ! what is become of your virtue ! Was it not for this I sent away the women, that they might not fall into these weak- nesses ? I have always heard you say, that we ought to die peace- ably, and blessing the gods. Be at ease, I beg you, and shew more constancy and resolution." He then obliged them to restrain their tears. In the mean time he kept walking to and fro ; and when he found his legs grow weary, he laid down upon his bed, as he had been directed. The poison then operated more and more. When So- crates found it began to gain upon the heart, uncovering his face, which had been covered, without doubt, to prevent any thing from disturbing him in his last moments, " Crito, (said he) we owe a GRECIAN STATES. 41 6^ock to iEsculapius : discharge that vow for me, and pray do not forget it." Soon after this he breathed his last. Crito went to his body, and closed his mouth and eyes. Sach was the end of Socra- tes, in the first year of the ninety-fifth Olympiad, and in the sev- entieth of his age. It was not till some time after the death of this great raan, that the people of Athens perceived their mistake, and began to repent of it. Their hatred being satisfied, their prejudices expired, and time having given them an opportunity for reflection, the notorious injustice of the sentence appeared in all its horrors. Nothing was heard throughout the city but discourses in favour of Socrates. The Academy, the Lycaeum, private houses, public walks/ and market-places, seemed still to re-echo the sound of his loved voice. " Here (^said they) he formed our youth, and taught our children to love their country, and to honour their parents. In this place he g'ave us his admirable lessons, and sometimes made us seasonable reproaches, to engage us more warmly in the pursuit of virtue. Alas ! how have we rewarded him for such important services !" Athens was in ujiiversal mourning and consternation. The schools were shut up, and all exercises suspended. His accusers were called to account for the innoiient blood they had caused to be shed : Melitus was condemned to die, and the rest banished, Plu- tarch observes, that all those, who had any share in this black ca- lumny were held in such abomination among the citizens, that no one would give them fire, answer them any question, nor go into the same bath with them ; and they had the place cleaned where they had bathed, lest they should be polluted by touching it, w^hicli drove them into such despair, that many of them killed themselves. The Athenians, not contented with having punished his accusers, caused a statue of brass to be erected to him, of the workmanship of the celebrated Lysippus, who placed it in one of the most con- spicuous parts of the city. Their respect and gratitude rose even to a religious veneration : they dedicated a chapel to him, as to a kero and demi-god, which they called the chapel of Socrates. CHAP. VL 1 HE Athenians had hitherto taken the lead in the Grecian states > but the Spartans, who had completely Conquered them, became their masters, and sunk them into obscurity. At this period, Agesilaus, who was chosen king of Sparta, was sent into Asia with an army, under pretence of freeing the Greciaji cities. He gained a signal victory over the Persian general Tis- saphernes, near the river Pactoclus, where he forced the enemy's camp, and found considerable plunder. This success iriduced the Persian monarch, instead of meeting Agesilaus openly in the field, to subvert his interest among the Grecian states by the power of D 2 4» THE HISTORY OF THE bribery ; and indeed this confederacy was now so weakened, its concord and unanimity so totally destroyed, that they were open to every offer. The love of money was now rooted in their affections, and the Spartans were the only people that, for a while, seemed to disdain it ; but the contagion still spreading-, even they at last yielded to its allurements, and every man sought private emolument with- out attending" to the good of his country. The Spartans, however, beir.g freed from the terror of foreign enemies, procef^ded to spread terror among the petty states of Greece, whom they compelled to pay obedience to their will. These proceedings of the Spartans, however, gave birth to a pow- erful confederacy against theru ; and, through a succession of en- g-agements, both by sea and land, the Spartans grew every day weaker, and their enemies more daring. It soon began to appear, that the Thebans, one of the states of Greece, lately oppressed by the Spartans, were grov/ing into pow- er ; and, while Sparta and Athens w^ere weakening each other by mutual contests, this state, which had enjoyed all the emoluments, without any of the expenses of the war, was every day growing more vigotu'ous and independent. The Thebans, who now began to take the lead in the affairs of Greece, v/ere naturally a hardy and robust people, of slow initellects, and strong constitutions. It was a constant maxim v/ith them, to side eitlier with Athens ©r Sparta in their mutual contests, and which soever they in*, elined to, they were generally of weight enough to turn the bal- ance. However, they had liitherto made no other use of tliat v/eight than to secure themselves ; but the spirit which now ap- psai'ed among them was hrst implanted by Pelobidas, their deliv- erer from the Spartan yoke ; but still further carried to itsutmost height hj Epaminondas, v/ho now beg-an to figure in the airairs of <&reece. Epaminondas was one of those few exalted chai-'acters, w]u)have. scarce any vice, and almost every virtue to distinguisli tl'em from the rest of mankind. Though in the beginnings posse!ssed <;f eve- ry quality necessary for the service of the state, he chose to lead a, private life, employed in the s lady of philosophy, and shewing an example of the most rigid obseiwance of all its doctrines. Truly a philosopher, and poor out of taste, he despised riches, without affecting any reputation from that contempt ; and, if Justin may be credited, he coveted glory as little as he did money. It was always against his will that commands were conferred upon him ; ~ and he behaved himself, when invested with them, in such a man- ner as did more honour to dignities, than dignities did to him. Fond of leisure, which he devoted to the study of philoso])hy, he shunned public employments, and made no interest but to be ex- cluded from them. His moderation concealed him so v.ell that he lived obscure and almost unknown, ilis merit, however, dis- covered him at last. He was taken from bis solitude by force, to be placed at the head of armies ; and he demonstrated, that phi- losophy, though generally held in contempt with those who aspire GRECIAN STATES. 43 at the glory of arms, is wonderfully useful in forming- heroes ; for it was, in his opinion, a. great advance towards conqaeririg- an ene- my, to know hovi^ to conquer ourselves. Such was the general appointed to command tlie Theban army, and act in conjunction with Pelopidas. The Tiiebans, being- left out in the general treaty of peace, and thus having- the Spartans and Athenians against thern, t;;ey appeared under the utmost con- sternation, and all Greece looked upon tiiem as lost and undone. Nothing now remairjed on both sides but to prepare for action. Epaminondas immediately raised all the troops he could, ahd be- gan his march : but his army did not amount to six thousand men, while the enemy had above four times that number. The two armies rnet at Leuctra, and drew up on a plain. Cle- ombrotus was upon the right, at the head of a body consisting of LacedsemonianSj in whom he confided most, and whose fJes wei'e twelve deep, to take the advantage, which his superiority of horse gave him in an open country. Archidamus, the son of Age- silaus, v/as at the head of the allies, who formed t'he left wing. Epaminondas, who resolved to charge with his left, which he commanded in person, strengthened it with the choice of Ids heavy armed troops, whom he drew up fifty deep ; the sacred battalion was upon his left, and closed the wing ; the rest of his infantry were posted upon his riglit, in an oblique line, which, the fartlier it extended, v/as the more distant from the enemy. By this un- common disposition, his design was to cover his i5ank on the right; to keep oif his right wing, as a kind of reserved body, that he might not hazard the event of the battle upon the v/eakest part of his army. ?le was assured that, if he could penetrate the Lace- dsemonian phalanx, the rest of the army would soon be put to the rout. The action began with the cavalry. As the Thebans were bet- ter mounted, and- braver troops than the Lacedaemonian horse, the latter were not long before they were broken, and driven upon the infantry, Vvduch they put into some confusion. Epaminondas follow- ing his horse close, marched swiftly up to Cleorabrotus, and fell upon his phalanx with all the weight of his heavy battalion. The latter, to make a, diversion, detached a body of troops, witli orders to take Epaminondas in flank, and to surround him. Pelopidas, upon sight of that movement, advanced with incredible speed and boldness, at the head of the sacred battalion, to prevent the ene- my's design, and flanked Cleombrotus himself, v/ho, by that sudr den and unexpected attack, was put into disorder. The battle was very fierce and obstinate ; and> whilst Cleombrotus could act, the victory continued in suspense, and declared for neither party. But v/]ien he fell dead with his wounds, the Thebans, to complete the victory, and the Lacedaemonians, to avoid the shame of aban- doning the body of their king, redoubled their efforts, and a great slaughter ensued on both sides. The Spartans fought Avith so much fury about the body, that at length they gained their point, and carried it oflf. Aiximated by so glorious an advantage, they 44 THE HISTORY OF THE proposed to return to the charg-e, which would, perhaps, have proved successful, had the allies seconded their ardour ; but the left wing-, seeinjf the Lacedaemonian phalanx broken, and believ- ing' all lost, especially when they heard that the king- was dead, took to flight, and drew off the rest of the army. Epaminondas followed them vigourously, and killed a g-reat numbei* iu the par- suit. The Thebans remained masters of the field of battle, erect* ed a trophy, and permitted the enemy to bury their dead. The Lacedsemonians had never received such a blow : the most bloody defeat, till then, had scarce ever cost them more than four op live hundred of their citizens ; here they lost four thousand men, of whom one thousand were Lacedaenionians, and four hundred Spar- tans, out of seven hundred who were in the battle. The Thebans had only three hundred men killed, amo.ig- whom were four of their citizens. So g-reat a victory was followed with instantaneous effects : num- bers of the Grecian states, who had hitherto remained neuter, now declared in favour of the conquerors, and encreased their army to the amount of 70,000 men Epaminondas entered Laconia with an army, the twelfth part of which were not Thebans ; and finding- a country hitherto untouched by an enemy, he ran through it with ■fire and sword, destroying and plundering-, as far as the river Eu.- rotas. In the mean time, the Spartans, struck with consternation at their late defeat, applied to the Athenians for succour, who, after some hesitation, determined to assist them with all their forces j and a slight advantage the Spartans had gained«Dver the Thebans, in which they did not loose a man, gave a promising dawn of suc- cess. The war was then carried on with unabating vigour on both sides. The Theban troops were headed by their favourite general Epaminondas ; those of Sparta by Agesiiaus, the only man in Greece that was then able to oppose him. Epaminondas, having failed in an attack upon Sparta, was re- solved, before he laid down his command, which was now nearly expiring, to endeavour to affect something that might compensate for his failure. In order to protect Sparta, Agesiiaus had with- drawn all the troops from Mantinea ; thitiier, therefore, Epami- nondas resolved to bend his course. Being determined to attack the town, he dispatched a troop of horse to view its situation, and to clear the fields of stragglers ; but just before they had reached Mantinea, an army of six thousand Athenians auxiliaries arrived by sea, who, without taking any refreshment to their men or horses rushed out without the city, and attacked and defeated the Theban horse. In the mean time, Epaminondas was advancing with his whole army, with the enemy close upon his rear. Finding it im- possible to accomplish his purpose, befc re he would be overtaken, he determined to halt and give them battle. He had now got within a short way of the town, v^hich has had the jhonour of giving its name to the conflict of that day — a confiict, the most splendid and best contested, that ever figured in the history of any eountry. GRECIAN STATES. AS The Greeks had never fought among- themselves with more na- meroiis armies: the Lacediemonians consistedof more than twenty thousand foot, and two thousund horse ; the Thebans, of thirty thou- sand foot, and three thousand horse. The Theban general marched in the same order of baUle, in which he intended to fight, that he might not be obliged, v/hen he came up v/ith the enemy, to lose in disposing of his army, a precious time that cannot be recovered. He did not march directly, and with his front to the enemy, but in a column upon the hjUs, with his left wing foremost, as if he did not intend to lig-ht that day. When he was 0])posite to them, at a quarter of a league's distance, he made the troops halt, and lay down their arms, as if he designed to encamp there. The enemy in effect, were deceived by his stand ; and, reckoning no longer upon a battle, they quitted their arms, dispersed themselves about the camp, and suffered tliat ardour to be extinguished, which a near approach of a battle is accustomed to kindle in the hearts of sol- diers. Epaminondas, however, by suddenly wheeling- his troops to the right, having changed his column into a line, and having drawn out the choice troops, whom he had in his march posted in front, made them double their files upon the front of his left wing, to add to its strength, and to put it into a condition to attack in point the I.ace- dssmonian phalanx, which, by the movement he had made, faced it directly. He ordered the centre and right wing of his army to move very slowly, and to halt before they came up with the enemy, that he might not hazard th • event of the battle upon troops, of whom he had no great opinion. He expected to decide the victory by that body of chosen troops, which he commanded in person, and which he had formed into a column to attack the enemy in a wedge-like point. He had per- suaded himself, that if he could penetrate the Lacedemonian phalanx, in vrhich the enemy's principal force consisted, he should not find it difficult to rout tlie rest of the army, by charging uporj the right and left with his victorious troops. After having dis- posed his whole army in this manner, he moved on to charge the enemy with the 'whole weight of his column. They were strangely surprised when they saw Epaminondas advance to them in his order and resumed their arms, bridled their horses, and made all the haste they could to their ranks. Whilst Epaminondas marched against the enemy, the cavalry that covered his flank, on the left, the best at that time in Greece, en- tirely composed of Thebans and Thessalians, had orders to attack the enemy's horse. The Theban general, whom nothing escaped, had artfully bestowed bowmen in the intervals of his horse, in or- der to begirt the disorders of the enemy's cavalry, by a previous dis- charge of a shower of arrows, stones, and javelins upon them. The other army had neglected to take the same precaution : and had been guilty of another fault, not less considerable, in giving as much depth to the squadrons as if they had been a phalanx. By these means, their horse were incable of supporting long the oharge of m THE HISTORY OF THE the Theoans : and, after having- made several ineffectual attack's with gi'eat loss, they were oblig-ed to retire behind their infaritry. Epaminondas, in the mean time, with his body of foot, had charged the Lacedaemonian phalanx. The troops foug-ht on both sides with incredible ardour, both the Thebans and Laced?emonians being- resolved to perish, rather than yield the glory of arms to their rivals. They began with fighting their spears; but these being soon broken in the fury of the combat, they charged each other with sword in hand. The resistance was equally obstinate, and the slaughter was very great on both sides. Tlie troops des- pising danger, and desiring only to distinguish themselves by the greatness of their actions, chose rather to die in their ranks, than to lose a step of their ground. The fui-ious slaughter on both sides having continued a greai while, without the victory inclining to either, Epaminondas, to force it to declare for him, thought it his duty to muke an extraor* dinary effort in person, without regard to the danger of his own life. He formed, therefore, a troop of the bravest and most de- terminate about him ; and, putting himself at the head of them, made a vigourous charge upon the enemy, where the battle was most warm, and wounded the Lacedaemonian general with the first javelin he threw. The troops, by his example, having wound- ed or killed all that" stood in their way, broke and penetrated the phalanx. The Lacedaemonians dismayed Dy the presence of Epa- minondas, and overpowered by the weight of that intrepid party, were reduced to give ground. The gross of the Theban troops, animated by their general's example and success, drove back the enemy upon his right and left and made great slaughter of them. But some of the Spartan troops, perceiving thatEpimanondas aban- doned himself too much to his ardour, suddenly rallied and return- ing to the fight, charged him with a shower of javelins. Whilst he kept off part of those darts, shunned some of them, fenced off oth- ers, and was fighting with the most heroic valour, to assure the victory to his army, a Spartan, named CaUicrates, gave him a mor- tal wound with a javelin in his breast, across his cuiras. The wood of the javelin being broken off, and the iron head continuing in the wound, the torment was unsupportable, and he fell immediately, — The battle begun around him with new fury, the one side using - their utmost endeavours to take him alive, and the other to save him. — The Thebans gained their point at last, and carried him off, after having put the enemy to flight. After several different movements, and alternate losses and dis* advantages, the troops on both sides stood still, and rested upon their arms ; when the trumpets of the two armies, as if by consent, sounded the retreat at the same time. Each party pretended to the victory, and erected a trophy ; the Thebans, because they had de- feated the right wing, and remained masters of the field of battle ; and the Athenians, because they had cut the general's detachment in pieces. — From tins point of honour, both sides at first refused to asl^ leave to bury their dead, which, with the ancients, wag coufes<» GRECIAN STATES. > 47 i\ng their defeat. The Lacedaenioniansj however, sent to demand that permission ; after which, the rest,"had no thoughts, butof pay- ing- the last duties to the slain. In the mean time, Epaminondas had been carried into the camp. The surgeons, after having examined the wound, declared, that he would expire as soon as the head of the dart was drawn out of it. These words gave all that were present the utmost sorrow and af- fliction, who were inconsolable on seeing so great a man on the point of death. For him, the only concern he expressed was about his arms, and the fate of the battle. When they shewed him his shield, and assured him, that the Thebans had gained the victory, turning towards his friends with a serene and calm air, " All then is well," said he ; and soon after, upon drawing the head of the javelin out of his body, he expired in the arms of victory. As the glory of Thebes rose with Epaminondas, so it fell with him ; and he is perhaps, the only instance of one man being able to inspire his country Vvith military glory, and lead it to conquest, with- out having had a predecessor, or leaving an imitator of his exam- ple. The battle of Mantinea was th6 greatest that was ever fought by Grecian* against Grecians, the whole strength of the country being drawn out, and ranged according to their different interests ; and it was fought with an obstinacy equal to the importance of it, which was the fixing the empire of Greece, which must of course have been transferred to the Thebans, upon their victory, if they had not lost the fruits of it by the death of their general, who was the soul of all their counsels and designs. This blasted all their hopes, and put out their sudden blaze of power almost as soon as it was kindled. However, they did not presently give up their pretensions ; they were still ranked among the leading states, and made several further struggles ; but they were faint and ineifec- tual, and such as wer^e rather for life and being, than for superior- ity and dominion. A peace, therefore, was proposed, which was ratified by all the states of Greece except Sparta : the conditions of which were, that every state should maintain what they posses- sed, and hold it independent of any other power. A state of repose follow^ed this peace, in which the Grecian powers seemed to slacken from their former animosities, and there was little done for sev- eral years following. CHAP. VII. -LOURING these transactions, a power was growing up in Greece^ hitherto- unobserved, but now too conspicuous and formidable to be overlooked in the general picture : this was that of the Mace- donians ; a people hitherto obscure, and in a manner barbarous ; and who, though warlike and courageous, had never yet presumed 48 ^THE HISTORY OF THE to interi/ieddle in the affairs of Greece, Now several clrcmin. stances concurred to raise them from that obscurity, and to involve them in measures, which, by degrees, wrought a thorough change in' the state of Greece. This state began to make a figure about the beginning of the Binety-sixth Olympiad. Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who had been the pupil of Epaminondas, was no sooner become king of Macedon, than he began to distinguish himself. He suc- ceeded in every thing he undertook, by the artfulness of his ad- dress, and the force of his eloquence, of which he was a great master. — He first gained the affections of his subjects, then train- ed and exercised them, and reformed their discipline. It was at this time he instituted the famous Macedonian phalanx, which did so much execution. It was an improvement upon the ancient man- ners of fighting among the Grecians, who generally drew up their foot so close, as to stand the shock of the enemy without being broken. The complete phalanx was thought to contain above six- teen thousand men ; but this of Philip's invention is described by Polybius to be an oblong figure, consisting of eight thousand pike- men, sixteen deep, and five hundred in front, the men standing S9 close together, that the pikes of the fifth rank v/ere extended three feet beyond the line of the front. The rest, whose distance from the front rendered their pikes useless, rested them upon the shoul- ders of those who stood before them, and ?o locking them together in file, pressed forward to support and pr.sa on the former ranks, whereby the assault was rendered more violent and irresistible. Philip having, by some means or other, set the Greeks to quar- relling among themselves, thought it his interest to remain neuter in the commotions he had partly occasioned. It was consistent with the ambitious policy of this prince to be intent only upon his own interest, and not to engage in a war, by whick fee could reap not the least benefit : and to take advantage of a juncture, in which all Greece, employed and divided by a great war, gave him an op- portunity to extend his frontiers, and push his conquests without^ any apprehensions of opposition. He was also well pleased to see both parties weaken ana consume each other, as he should thereby be enabled to fall upon them afterwards to greater advantage. Philip, as soon as his son Alexander was born, lost no time in acquainting Aristotle of what had happened. He wrote to that distinguished philosopher, in terms the most polite and flattering; begging of him to come and undertake his education, and to be- stow on hiir those useful lessen*; of magnanimity and virtue, which every great man ought to possess, and which his numerous avoca- tions rendered impossible to be attempted by him. He added, ** I return thanks to the Gods, not so much for having given me a son, as for having given him to me in the age in which Aristotle lives." Though brevity will not permit us to follow every method Philip took to enslave all Greece, yet we must not omit to mention a cir- cumstance that happened at the siege of Methone, where Philip lost oue of his eyes in a very singular manner. Aster of ximphi- ©RECIAN STATES. 49 polls had offered his services to Philip, telling him, that he was so excellent a marksman, that he could bring" down birds in their most rapid flight. The monarch made this answer : ** Well, I will take you into my service, when I make war upon starling-s ;" which answer stung- the archer to the quicks A repartee proves often of fatal consequence to him who makes it. Aster, having thrown himself into the city, let fly aa^irrow, on which was written, "To Philip's left eye." This carried a most cruel proof that he was a good marksman, K)r he hit him in the right eye ; and Philip sent him back the same arrow, with this inscription, " If Philip takes the city, he will hang up Aster ;" and accordingly he was as good as his word. A skilful surgeon drew the arrow out of Philip's eye with so much art and dexterity, that not the least scar remained j and though he could not save his eye, yet he took away the blemish. The hasty strides Philip vvas now making towards enslaving al! Greece, particularly attracted #he attention of Demosthenes, who roused the Athenians from their lethargy of pleasure. This cel- ebrated orator saw, from the beginning, the ambition of Philip, and the power, of which he was possessed to carry him through his designs. This illustrious orator and statesman was born in the last year of the ninety-ninth Olympiad. He was the son of an em. inent Athenian citizen, who raised a considerable fortune by the manufacture of arms. At the age of seven years, he lost his fa- ther ; and, to add to this misfortune, the guardians, to whom he was entrusted, wasted and embezzled a considerable part of his inheritance. Tlius oppressed by fraud, and discouraged by a- weak and effeminate habit of body, he yet discovered an early anibition to distinguish himself as a popular speaker. His first essay was made against his guardian, by whom he had been so injuriously treated ; but the goodness of his cause was here of more service than the abilities of the yoimg orator : for his early attempts were unpromising. He twice afterwards attempted to harangue the people ; but he succeeded so badly, that they even hissed him when he went away ashamed, confounded, ^id quite in despair. After a length of time, however, after proper instructions, and unwearied application, he appeared again in public, and succeeded so well, that people flocked from all parts of Greece to hear hinu From thence he was looked upon as the standard of true, eloquence, insomuch that none of his countrymen have been put in comparison with him, nor even among- the Romans, any but Cicero. His elo- quence was grave and austere, like his temper ; masculine and sub- lime, bold, forcible, and impetuous ; abounding with metaphors, apostrophes, and interrogations, which, with his solemn way of in- voking and appealing to the gods, the planets, the elements, and the manes of those who fell at Salamais and Marathon, had such a wonderful effect upon his hearers, that they thought him inspired. But Demosthenes could not have made such impressions on them, if his talent of speaking had not been supported by their opinion of his integrity. It was that which added weight and emphasis to every thing he said, and animated the whole ; it was that whicht 50 THE HISTORY OF THE chiefly engaged their attention, and determined their coimcilSj when they were convinced he spoke from his heart and had no in- terest to manage but that of the community. Of this he gave the strongest proof in his zeal against Philip, who said he was of more weight against him than all the fleets and armies of the Athenians, and that he had no enemy bvit Demosthenes. He was not wanting in his endeavours to corrupt him, as he had done most of the lead- ing men in Greece ; but this great orator withstood all his efforts ; and as it was observed, all the gold in Macedon could not bribe him. Thoug-h Philip's public character was by no means a credit to him, yet the following act\of private justice does him honour. A certain soldier in the Macedonian army had, in many instances, distinguished himself by extraordinary acts of valour, and had re- ceived many marks of Philip's favour and approbation. On some occasion, he embarked on board a vessel, which was wrecked in a violent storm, he himself cast on the shore helpless and naked, and j scarcely with the appearance of life. A Macedonian, whose lands f were contiguous to the sea, came opportunely to be witness of his distress, and with all humane and charitable tenderness, flew to the relief of the unhappy stranger. He bore him to his house, laid him on his own bed, revived, cherished, comforted, and for forty days supplied him freely with all the necessaries and conveniences, which -his languishing condition could require. The soldier, thus happily rescued from death, was incessant in the warmest expres- sions of gratitude to his benefactor, assured him of his interest with the king, and of his power -and resolution of obtaining for him, from tlie royal bounty, the noble returns which such extraordinary benevolence had merited. He was noAv completely recovered, and his kind host supplied him with money to pursue his journey. Some time after, the soldier presented himself before the king ; he recounted bis misfortunes, magnified his services, and, having looked with an eye of envy on the possessions of the man who had preserved his life, was now so abandoned to every sense of grati- tude, as to request the king to bestow upon him the house and lands where he had been so kindly and tenderly entertained. Unhap- pily, Philip, without examination, inconsiderately and precipitately granted his infamous request. The soldier now returned to his. preserver, repaid his goodness by driving him from his settlement, and taking immediate possession of all the fruits of his honest in- dustry. The poor man, stung with this instance of unparelleled ingratitude and insensibility, boldly determined, instead of sub- i^itting to his wrongs, to seek relief; and, in a letter addressed to Philip, represented his own and the soldier's conduct, in a lively and affecting manner. The king was instantly fired with indigna- tion, and ordered that justice should be done without delay; that the possessions should be imnaediately restored to the man, whose charitable offices had been thus horribly repaid ; and, having seized the soldier, caused these words to be branded on his forehead, ** JfhQ Ungrateful Guest :" a character infamous in eveiy age, and ©RECIAN STATES. 51 among all nations ; but particularly among tlie Greeks, who, from the earliest times, were most scrupulously observant of the laws of hospitality. Philip, ha^dng proved unsuccessful in liis attacks on the Grecian States, marched against Athens, king of Scythia, from whom he had received some personal cause of discontent, and took his son Alexander with him in this expedition.- Though tlie Scythians had a very numerous army, l^e defeated them without any difficulty. He got a very great booty, which consisted not in gold or silver, the use of which the Scythians were not as yet so unhappy as to know, but in cattle, in horses, and in a great number of women and children. At his return from Scythia, the Triballi, a people of Moesia, disputed the pass with him, laying claim to part of the plunder he was carrying off. Philip was forced to come to a battle ; and a. very bloody one was fought, in which great numbers on each side were killed upon the spot. The king himself was wounded in the thigh, and, with the same tiTi-ust, had his horse killed under him. Alexander flew to his fither's aid, and, covering- him with his shield, killed or put to flight all who attacked him. The ambition of Philip would not long suffer him to remain in= active. Not daring openly to attack the Athenians, he endeavour- ed, underhand, to create new disturbances in Greece that he misrht take such a part in them as would best answer his. vievv^s ; and %/hen the flame should be kindled, his point was to appear rather to be called in as an assistant, than to act as a principal. However, the mask was soon thrown -off : the Thebans and Athenians soon joined their forces, and waited the approach of Philip, who was leading his army to the plain of Ch^ronea : a name rendered famous by the event of this important contest. Philip's army v/as formed of thirty -two thousand men, vvarlike, disciplinedj and long enured to the toils and dangers of the field ; but this body was composed of different nations and countries, who had each their distinct and separate views and interests. The army of the confederates did not amount to thirty thousand complete, of which the Athenians and Thebans furnished the greater part ; the rest was formed of the Corinthians and Peloponnesians ; but the same motives, and the same zeal, influenced and animated them. All were equally affected by the event, and all equally resolved to con- quer, or die in defence of their liberty. The fatal morning now arrived, which was forever to decide the cause of hberty, and the empire of Greece. Before the rising of the sun, both armies were ranged in order of battle. The Thebans^ commanded byTheogenes, a man of but moderate abilities in war, and suspected of corruption, obtained the post of honour on the right wing of the confederate Greeks, with that famous body in the front, called the Sacred Band, formed of generous and warHke youths, connected and endeared to each other by all the noble en- thusiasm of love and friendship. The centre was formed of the Corinthians and Peloponnessians, and the Atiienians composed the 52 THE HISTORY OF THE ieft wing, led by their g-enerals Lysicles and Chares. On the left of the Macedonian army stood Alexander, at the head of a chosen body of noble Macedonians, supported by the famous cavalry of Thessaly. As this prince was then but nineteen years old, his fa- ther was carefal tH) curb his youthful impetuosity, and to direct hig valour, and for this purpose surrounded him with a number of ex- perlenced^officers. In the centre were placed those Greeks who had united with Philip, and on whose courage he had the least de- ^ pendence : while the king" himself commanded on the right wing", I^Where his renowned phalanx stood, to oppose the impetuosity, with which the Athenians were well known to begin their onset. The charge begun on each side with all the courage and vio- lence, which ambition, revenge, the love of glory, and the love of liberty, could excite in the several combatants. Alexander, at the head of the Macedonian nobles, with all the fury of youthful cour- age, first fell on the Sacred Band of Thebes, which sustained his attack with a bravery and vigour worthy of its former fame. The gallant youths who composed this body, not being timely, or not duly supported by their countrymen, bore up for a while against the torrent of the enemy ; till at length oppressed and overpower- ed by superior numbers, without yielding or turning- their backs on their assailants, they sunk down on that ground where they h;id been originally stationed, each by tlie side of his darling friend, raising up a bulwark by their bodies against the progress of the enemy. The young Alexander and his forces, in all the enthusi- f.stic ardour of valour, animated by success, pushed on tiirough all the carnage, over all the heaps of slain, and fell fiu'iously on the main body of the Thebans, where they were opposed with obstinate and deliberate courage ; alid the contest was, for some time, sup- potted with mutual violence. i\t the same time, the Athenians, on the right wing, fought with a spirit and intrepidity worthy of the character which they boasted, and of the cause by which they were animated. Many brave ef- tbi'ts were exerted on each side, and success was for some time fi Hibtful ; till at length, part of the centre, and the left wing of the Macedonians, except the phalanx, yielded to the impetuous attack of the Athenians, and fled with some precipitation. Happy had it been on that day for Greece, if the conduct and abilities of the Grecian generals had been equal to the valour of their soldiers j but these brave champions of liberty were led on by the despica- ble creatures of intrigue and cabal. Transported by the advantage now obtained, the presumptuous Lysicles cried out, " Come on, my gallant countrymen, the victory is ours ; let us pursue these cowards, and drive them to Macedon." Thus, instead of improv- ing the happy opportunity, by charging the phalanx in flank, and so breaking that formidable body, the Atbenians wildly and pre- cipitately pressed forward, in pursuit of the filing enemy, them- selves in all the dij?order and tumult of a rout. Philip saw this fatal error with all the contempt of a skilful gen- eral, and the secret exaltation arising from the assurance of ap. ©RECIAN STATES. $B proaching" victory. He coolly observed to the officers that stood round him, that the Athenians knew not how to conquer. He or- dered the phalanx to change its position, and, by a sudden evolu- tion, to gain possession of an adjacent eminence. From thence they marched deliberately down, firm and collected, and fell, with their united force, on the Athenians, now confident of success, and blind to their danger. The shock was irresistible, they were at once overwhelmed, many of them lay crushed by the weight of the enemy, and expiring by their wounds ; while the rest escaped from the dreadful slaughter by a shameful and precipitate flight, bear- ing down, and huwying away with them, those troops that had been stationed for their support. Now Demosthenes, that renown- ed orator and statesman, whose noble sentiments and spirited har- rangues had raised the courage on this day so eminently excited, betrayed that weakness which has sullied his great character. He alone, of all his countrymen, advanced to the charge cold and dis- mayed ; and, on the very first appearance of a reverse of fortune,in an agony of terror, turned his back,cast away that shield, which he ha< adorned with this inscription in golden characters, "To Good For- tune," and appeared the foremost in the general rout.The ridicule and malice of his enemies related, or perhaps invented, another hameful circumstance ; being impeded in his flight by some bram- bles, his imagination was so possessed by the presence of an enemy^ hat he loudly cried out for quarter. While Philip was thus triumphant on his side, Alexander con* tinned the conflict on the other wing, and at length broke the Thebans, in spite of all their acts of valour, who now fled from the field, and were pursued with great carnage. The centre of the confederates was thus totally abandoned to the fury of a victorious enemy. But slaughter enough had been already made ; more than one thousand of the Athenians lay dead on the field of battle, two thousand were made prisoners, and the loss of the Thebans was not inferior. Philip, therefore, determined to conclude his im- portant victory by an act of apparent clemency, which his ambition and policy really dictated. He gave orders that the Greeks should be spared, conscious of his own desig-ns, and still expecting to ap- pear in the field the head and leader of that body, which he had now completely conquered. This defeat was attributed chiefly to the ill conduct of the gen- erals Lysicles and Chares ; the former whereof the Athenians put to death at the instance of a judge, named Lycurgus, who had great credit and influence with the people, but was a severe judge, and a most bitter accuser. " You, Lysicles, (said he) was gen- eral of the army : a thousand citizens were slain, and two thousand taken prisoners ; a trophy has been erected to the dishonour of this city, and all Greece is enslaved. You had the command when all these things happened ; and yet you dare to live, to view the light of the sun, and blush not to appear publickly in the forum : you, Ly- sicles, who are born the monument of your country's shame I ' It 4oes not appear that Chares underwent any kind of persecutioia 54 THE HISTORY OF THE for his share of this action ; though, according- to liis general char- acter, he deserved it more than his colleag-ue ; he had no talent for command, and was very little different from a common soldier. Timotheus said of him, that, " instead of being- a general, he was fitter to carry the general's baggage." After the battle of Cheeronea, such orators as opposed Demos- thenes, having all risen up in concert against him, and having cited him to take his trial according to law, the people not only declared him innocent of the several accusations laid to his charge, but con- ferred on him additional honours. Philip, however, did not long enjoy the fruits of his conquests in Greece. Pausanius,^a young Macedonian nobleman, having re- ceived a most shameful insult from Attilus, a relation of Philip's, he applied tp the monarch for redress ; but not being able to ob- tain it, he resolved on the destruction of Philip. Pausanius chose the morning in which was to be a grand procession, for the execu- tion of his revenge on the prince, who had denied reparation to his injured honour. His design had been for some time premedi- tated, and now was the dreadful moment of effecting it. As Philip marched on in all his pride and pomp, this young Macedo- nian slipped through the crowd, and, with a desperate and revenge- ful resolution, waited his approach in a narrow passage, just at the entrance into the theatre. The king advanced towards him, Pau- sanius drew his poignard, plunged it into his heart, and the con- queror of Greece, and the terror of Asia, fell prostrate to the ground, and instantly expired. The murderer flew towards the gates of the city, where there stood horses to favour his escape, which Olympias, Philip's wife, is said to have prepared. Here it should be observed, that Philip had disgraced Olympias, for her bad and disagreeable temper, and had taken Cleopatra to his bed. The tumult and confusion was such as might be expected from so fatal an event : some of the Macedonians crowded round the fallen king with officious and in- effectual care, wdiile others pursued Pausanius. Among these were Perdiccas, Attalus, and Leonatus, who coming Tip with him just as he was preparing to remount his horse, from which he had been thrown by his foot tangUng in a vine, they fell upon him and dispatched him. His body was immediately hung on a gibbet ; but, in the morning, it appeared crowned witli a golden diadem : the only means by which Olympias could express her implacable resentment. In a few days, indeed, she took a further occasion of publishing her triumph and exultation in her husband's fall, by paying the same funeral honours to Pausanius, which was prepared for PhiUp : both bodies were burnt on the same pile, and the ashes of both deposited in the same tomb. She is even said to have pre- vailed on the Macedonians to pay annual honours to Pausanius ; as if she feared, tliat the share she had taken in the death of Philip should not be sufficiently known to the world. She consecrated to Apollo the dagger, which had been the instrument of the fatal deed, inscribed with the name Myrtalis, the name which she had GRECIAN STATES. S5 borne wlien their loves first beg-an. Thus died Philip, whose vir- tues and vices v/ere directed and proportioned to his ambition. GHAP. VIII. In the year of the world 3648, and 356 before the birth of Christ, Alexander, the son of Philip, ascended the throne of Macedonj and. took possession of a king-donn rendered flourishing- and powerful by the policy of the preceding- reign. Alexander, upon his acces- sion to the thronei.saw himself surrounded with extreme dangers i the barbarous nations, with whom Philip contended during his whole reign, thought this change for their advantage ; and, des- pising the youth and inexperience of the young monarch, resolved to seize this opportunity of regaining their freedom. Nor had he less to fear from the Greeks themselves, who now thought this a convenient opportunity to restore their ancient form of government, revenge their former injuries, and reclaim those rights they had enjoyed for ages. Alexander, however, resolved to prevent their machinations, and to giv6 them no time to complete their confed- eracies against him. He made all possible haste to check the arms of the barbarians, by marching his troops to the banks of the Danube, which he crossed in one night. He defeated the king of the Triballiin a great battle, made the Getae fly at his approach, and subdued several other barbaroi.is nations, some by the terror of his name, and others by the force of his arms. The first object of Alexander's ambition was the conquest of Per- sia : and he now expected, that he should have leisure and oppor- tunity to prepare for so great an enterprize. He was however, soon called to a new undertaking : for the Athenians, Thebans, and La- cedsemoneans, united against him, hoping by the asisstance of Per-' sia, to recover thefir freedom. Expedition and activity were the characteristics of Alexander. Having heard of the union formed against him by the Grecian States, he crossed over the craggy- top of Mount Ojsa, to elude the Thessilonians, who had possessed themselves of the defiles lying between Thessaly and Macedon ; and moved on with such rapidity, that his appearance in Greece gave the first news of his preparation for war. A great battle was soon fought, in which the Thebans exerted themselves with a bravery and ardour much above their strength ; but they were at last surrounded on all sides, the greatest part of them were cut to pieces, and the city taken, plundered and destroyed. However, he set at liberty the priests ; all such as had a right of hospitality with the Macedonians ; the descendants of Pindar, the famous poet, who had done so much to Greece j and such as had opposed the revolt : but all the rest in number about thirty thousand he sold; and upwards of six thousand had been killed in batUc» 36 THE HISTORY OF THE This dreadful example of seventy towards so powerful a city as Thebes, spread the terror of his arms throug-h all Greece, and made all things g-ive way before him. He 'summoned at Corinth the assemblies of the several states and free cities of Greece, to obtain from them the same supreme command against the Per- sians, which had been granted to his father a little before his death. No assembly ever debated on a more important subject : it was the western world deiiberating upon the ruin of the east, and the method for executing- a reveng-e which had been suspend- ed for more than age. The assembly held at this time gave rise to events, the relation of which will appear astonishing, and almost incredible ; and to revolutions, which contributed to change the disposition of most things in the political world. The deliberations of the assembly were short ; the Spartans were the only people who ventured to remonstrate : though several others were inimi- cal to the interests of the Macedonians ; but they were forced to submit, and Alexander was appointed generalissimo against the Persians. Having thus far accomplished his wishes, and after having com- pletely settled his affairs in Macedonia, he set out for Asia in the beginning of the spring. His army consisted of little more than thirty thousand foot, and four or five thousand horse ; but they were all brave men, well disciplined, and enured to fatigue, They had made several campaigns under Philip, and were each of them, in case of necessity, capable of commanding. Most of the officers were near three-score years of age, and the common men fifty ; and when they were either assembled, or drawn up at the head of a camp, they had the air of a venerable senate. Such was the army that was to decide the fortune, not only of Greece, but of all the eastern world. When the news of Alexander's landing in Asia, without opposi- tion, was brought to Darius, he testified the utmost contempt for the Macedonian army, and indignation at the presumption of their generals. In a letter which he wrote, he reprehended his auda- cious insolence, and gave orders to his various* governors, in the different parts of his dominions, that, if they took Alexander alive, to whip him with rods, make J>risoners of his whole army, and send them as slaves to @ne of the most deserted pai'ts of his dominions. Thus confiding in the glittering but barbarous multitude he com- manded, he disposed of the enemy as already vanquished j but confidence goes but a short part of the road to success. The great numbers he had gathered only brought unwieldy splendour into the field, and, instead of procuring him security, encreased his embarrassments. Alexander, in the mean tirile, marched on at the head of his heavy armed infantry, drawh Up in two lines, with the cavalry in the wings, and the baggage following in the rear. Being arrived on the banks of the Grannicus, he there found the Persian horse, which were very numerous, on the opposite shore, forming a large front, in order to oppose Alexander, wheaev^v he should attempt GRECIAN STATES. S7 to pass. The two armies continued a long- timfe in sight of eacli other, on the banks of the river, as if dreadini^ the event. The Persians waited till the Macedonians should enter the river, m order to charge them to advantage upon their landing- ; and the ' latter seemed to be making- choice of a place proper for landing. At last Alexander ordered his horse to be brought, commanded the noblemen of the court to follow him and behave gallantly. He himself commanded the right wing, and Parmenio the left. The king first caused a strong detachment to march into the riverj himself following it VAth the rest of the forces. He made Parme- nio advance afterwards with the left wing, the trumpet sounding, and the whole army raising cries of joy. The Persians, seeing this detachment advance forward, began to let fly their arrows, and march to a place where the declivity was not so great, in or- der to keep the Macedonians from landing. But now the horse engaged with great fury, one part endeavouring to land, and the other striving to prevent them. The Macedonians, whose cavalry were inferior in number, besides the disadvantage of tj\e ground, were wounded with the darts that were shot from the em- inence ; not to mention, that the flower of the Persian horse were drawn together in this place. The Macedonians, therefore, at first gave ground, after having lost the first ranks, which made a vigorous defence. Alexander, who closely followed them, rein- forced them with his best troops, headed them himself, animated them by his presence, pushed the Persians, and routed them ; up. on which the whole army followed after, crossed the river, and at- tacked the enemy on ail sides. Spithrobates, lieutenant-governor of Ionia, and son-in-law to Darius, distinguislied himself above the rest of the Persian gen- erals by his superior bravery. Being surrounded by forty Persian lords, all of them his relations of experienced valour, and who never moved from his side, he carried terror wherever he went. Alexander observing in how gallant a manner he signalized him- self, clapt spurs to his horse and advanced towards him. They immediately engaged, and each having thrown a javelin, v/ounded the other slightly. Spithrobates fell furiously sword in hand upon Alexander, who, being prepared for him, thrusts his pike into his face, and laid him dead at his feet. At that very moment Rasa- ces, brother to that nobleman, charging him on the side, gave him so furious a blow on the head with a battle-axe that he beat off his plumej but went no deeper than the hair. As he was going "to • repeat his blow on the head, which now appeared through his fractur;:;! helmet, Clitus cut of Rasaces' hand with one stroke of his sr tar, and thereby saved his sovereign's life. The danger to Wjsic^i Alexander had been exposed, greatly animated the cour- age of his soldiers, who now performed wonders. The Persians in the centre of the horse, upon whom the light armed troops, who had been posted in tlie intervals of the horse, poured a perpetual discharge of darts, being unable any longer to sustain the attack 5>f the Macedonians, who struck them all in the face, the tVv'o 5S THE HISTORY OF THE wings were immediately broken, and put to fiig-ht, Alexander did not long- pursue them, but immediately turned about to charg-e the foot. These at first stood their ground ;^but when they saw themselves attacked at the same time by the cavalry and the Mace- donian phalanx which had crossed the river, and that the battal- ions were now engaged, those of the Persians did not make either along or a vig'orous defence, and were soon put to fiig-ht ; but the ©recian infantry in Darius' service stood the shock. Tliis body of foot retiring- to a liill, demanded a promise from Alexander to let them march away unmolested; but following tlje dictates of his wrath, rather than those of reason, he rushed into the midst of this body of foot, and presently lost his horse, whicli was killed by the thrust of a sword, The battle wa^s so hot round him, that most of the Macedonians, who lost their lives on this occasion, fell here ; for they fought against a body of men,^who were well dis- ciplined, had been inured to v/ar, and fought in despair. They were all cut to pieces, except two thousand, who were taken pris- oners. In this battle twenty thousand foot, and two thousand five hun- dred horse, were killed on the side of the barbarians ; and of the Macedonians, twenty-five of the royal horse were killed on the first attack. Alexander ordered Lysippus to make their statues in brass, all of which M^ere set up in a city of Macedon, called Dia, from whence they were many years afterwards carried to Rome by Metelles. About three-score of the other horse were killed, and near thirty foot, who, the next day, were all laid with their arms and equipage in one grave ; and the king granted an exemp- tion to their fathers and children from every kind of tribute and service. This victory not only impressed the Persians with con- sternation, but served to excite the ardour of the invading army. Soon after the battle of Grannious, he recovered Sardis from the enemy, which was in a manner the bulwark of the barbarian em- pire. Four days after, he arrived at Ephesus, carrying with him those who had been banished from thence for being his adherents, and restored, its popular form of govei-nment. Alexander afterwards took Miletus, and demolished Halica- nasstis to the very foundation. He next restored Ada, queen of Ca- ria, to her kingdom, of which she had been dis])ossessed some time before ; and as a testimony of the deep sense she had of the favours received from Alexander, she sent him every day meats dressed in the most exquisite manner, and the most excellent cooks of every kind. Alexander answered the queen upon this occasion, that all this train was of no service to him ; for tb.at he was pos- sessed of much better cooks, v/hom Leonidas his governor had given him ; one of whom pi-epared him a good dinner, and the other an excellent supper: thtse were Temperance and Exer- cise. He soon afterwards marched into Phrygia, the ancient dominion of the celebFatcd king Midas. Having taken the capital city, he w^s desirous of seeing the famous cUarioV, to which the gordiaB GRECIAN STATES. 59 knot was tied. This knot, which fastened the yoke to the beam, was tied with so much intricacy, that it was impossible to discover where the ends beg-un, or ho>kV they were concealed. According- to an ancient tradition of the country, an oracle had foretold, that the - man who could untie it should possess the empire of Asia. Alex- ander being- firmly persuaded that the oracle-was meant for him, after many fruitless trials, instead of attempting to untie it in the usual manner, drew his sword, and cut it into pieces, crying- out, such was the only way to untie it. The priest hailed the omen, and declared that Alexander fulfilled the oracle. Darius having- been employed, for a long- time, in collecting a numerous army to oppose Alexander, advanced towards the river Euphrates. Over his tent was exhibited, to the view of the whole army, the image of the sun in jewels, while wealth and magnificence shone in every quarter of the army. First they carried silver altars on which lay fire, called by them Sacred and Eternal ; and these were followed by the Mxigi, singing hymns, after the manner of their country. They were accompanied by three hundred and sixty-five youths, equalling the number of days in a year, clothed in purple robes. Afterwards came a chariot consecrated to Jupiter, drawn by white horses, and followed by a courser of prodigious size, to whom they gave the name of the Sun's Horse ; and tlie equerries ■were dressed in white, each having a golden rod in his hand. Ten chariots, adorned witli sculptures of gold and silver, follow- ed afterwards. Then marched a body of horse, composed of twelve nations, whose manners and customs were various, and all armed in a different manner. Next advanced those, whom the Persians ealled The Immortals, amounting to ten thousand, v/ho surpassed the rest of the barbarians in the sumptnousness of their apparel. They all vi/ore golden collars, were clothed in robes of gold tissue withvvestments having sleeves to them, quite covered with pre- cious stones. Thirty paces from them, followed those called the king's relations, to the number of fifteen thousand, in habit's very much resembling those of women,- rmd more remarkable for the vain pomp of their dress, than the glitter of their arms. Those cal- led the Boirphori came afterwards : they carried the king's cloak, and walked before the chariot, in v/hich he seemed r.o sit as on a hio-h throne. This chariot was enriched on both sides with im- ages of the gods, in gold and silver; and from the middle of the yoke, which was covered with jewels, rose two statues, a cubit in height, the one representing war, the other peace, having a golden eagle between them, with wings extended, as ready to take flight. But nothing could equal the magnificence of the king ; he was cloathed in a vest of purple, striped with silver, and over it hung a long robe, glittering all over with gold and precious stones, that represented two falcons, rushing from the clouds, and pecking at one anotlier. Aroujid his waist he wore a golden girdle, after the manner of women, whence his scimitar hung, the scabbard of which flamed all over with gems On his head he wore a tiara, or mitre, round which was a fillet of blue mixed with white. On eack €§ THE HISTORY OF THE side of him walked two hundred of his nearest relations, whose pikes were adorned with silver, and tipped with gold ; and lastly thirty thousand infantry, who composed the rear guard. These were followed by the king's horses, four hundred in number, all which were led. About one hundred paces from thence, came Sysigambis, the mother of Darin s, sea ted ona chariot, and his consort on another, with the several female attendants of both queens riding on horseback. Afterwards came fifteen large chariots, in which were the king's children, and those who had the care of their education, with a band of eunuchs. Then marched the concubines, to the number of three hundred and sixty, in the equipage of queens, followed by six hundred mules, and three hundred camels, which carried the king's treasure, and guarded by a great body of archers. After these came the wives of the crown-officers, and of the greatest lords of the court ; then the sutlers and servants of the army seat- ed also in chariots. In the rear were a body of light armed troops, with their commanders, who closed the whole march. Such was tlie splendour of this pageant monarch ; he took the field encumbered with an unnecessary train of iej^ncubines, attend- ed with troops of various nations, speaking different languages ; from their numbers impossible to be marshalled, and so rich and effeminate in gold and in 'garments, as seemed rather to invite than deter an enemy. CHAP. IX. Alexander, as frequently happens to the greatest captains, felt some emotions, when he saw that he was going to hazard all at once. The more fortune had favoured him hitherto, the more he now dreaded her frpwns ; the moment was approaching, which was to determine bis fate. On the other side, his courage revived from the reflection, that the reward of his toils exceeded"the dan- gers of them ; and, though he was uncertain with regard to the victory, he at least hoped to die gloriously, and like Alexander, However, he did not divulge these thoughts to any one, well know- ing, that, upon the approach of a battle, a general ought not to discover the least marks of sadness or perplexity, and that the troops should read nothing but resolution and intrepidity in the countenance of thei.i commander. Having made his soldiers refresh themselves, and ordered them to be ready by three o'clock in the morning, he went to the top of a mountain, and there, by torch light, sacrificed, after the manner of his country, to the gods of the place. As soon as the signal was given, his army, which was ready to march and fight, arrived by day break at the several posts assigned them. But the spies now i^ringing word that Darius was not above thirty fmiongs fi'om them GRECIAN STATES. 61 the kinjj caused his army to halt, and then drew it up In battle ar- ray. The peasants, in the greatest terror, came also, and ac- quainted Darius with the arrival of the enemy, which he would not at first believe, imagining that Alexander fled before him, and was endeavoring to escape. This news threw his troops into the ut- most confusion, who, in their surprise, ran to their arms with great precipitation and disorder. The spot where the battle was fought, lay near the city of Issus, which the mountains boundejA on one side, and the sea on the other. The plain that was situated between them both must have been considerably broad, as the two armies encamped in it. The river Pinartus ran through the middle of this plain, from the mountain to the sea, and divided it very nearly into two equal parts. The mountain formed a hollow kind of gulf, the extremity of which, in a curved line, bounded part of the plain. Alexander had at first advanced very slowly, to prevent the ranks on the front of the phalanx from breaking, and halted by intervals; but when he was got within bow-shot, he commanded all his right wing to plunge impetuously into the river, purposely that he might surprise the barbarians, come sooner to a close engagement, and be less exposed to the enemy's arrows ; in all which he was very suc- cessful. Both sides fought with the utmost bravery and res©lu» tion ; and, being now forced to fight close, they charged both sides sword in hand, when a dreadful slaughter ensued, each engaging man to man. Alexander wished nothing so ardently as to kill with his own hand Darius, who, being seated on a high chariot, was conspicuous to the whole army. Oxathres, brother to Darius observing that Alexander was going to charge that monarch with the utmost vigour, rushed before his chariot with the horse under his command, and distinguished himself above the rest. The horses that drew Darius's chariot lost all command, and shook the yoke so violently, that they were upon the point of overturning the king, who, seeing himself going to fall alive into the hands of his enemies, leaped down and mounted another chariot. The rest, observing this, fled as fast as possible, and throwing down their arms, made the best of their w^y. Darius, the instant he saw his left wing broken, was one of the first who fled in his chariot; but getting afterwards into craggy rugged places, he mounted on horseback, throwing down his bow, shield , and royal mantle. Alex- ander, however, did not attempt to pursue him, till he saw his phalanx had conquered the Greeks who obstinately opposed them, and that the Persian horse were put to flight ; which proved of great advantage to the prince that fled. In this battle, sixty thou- sand of the Persian infantry, and ten thousand horsemen, were slain ; while of Alexander's army, there fell but two hundred and eighty in all. ' Sysigambis, Darius's mother, and that monarch's queen, were found remaining in the camp, with two of the king's daughters, his son, yet a child, and some Persian ladies ; for the rest had been carried to Damascus, with part of Darius's treasure, and all such F 62 THE HISTORY OF THE things as contributed only to the luxury and mag^nificence of his cour^. No more than three thousand talents were found in his ©amp ; but the rest of the treasure fell afterwards into the hands of Parmenio, at the taking of the city of .Damascus, The next day, Alexander visited his royal prisoners ; and his noble and generous behavior on this occasion^ occasions Plutarch to say, that ** the princesses of Persia lived in an enemy's camp, as if they had been in some sacred temple, unseen, unapproached and unmolested." Sysigambis was distinguished by extJ:aordinary n^arks of Alexander's favours: Darius himself could not have treated her with more respect than did that generous prince. He allowed hertoregi^ate the funerals of all the Persians of the royal family, who had fallen in battle ; and, through her intercession, he pardoned several of Darius's nobles, who had justly incurred his displeasure. This magnanimous conduct has done more honour to Alexander's character, than all his splendid conquests. The g;entteness of bis manners to his suppliant captives, his chastity and continence, when he had the power to enforce obedience, were setting an example to heroes, which it has been the pride of many since to imitate. After this conquest, all Phoenicia, the capital city Tyre, only ex- cepted, was yielded to the conqueror. Good fortune followed? him so fast, that it rewarded him beyond his expectations. Anti- gonus, his general in Asia, overthrew the Capadocians, Paphla- g-onians, and others lately revolted. Aristodemus, the Persian admiral was overcome at sea, and a great part of his fleet taken. The tity of Damascus, also, in which the treasures of Darius were c^poisited, was given up to Alexander. Alejiander ne;5,t went to Sidonia, whose king, Strabo, he de- throned for his attachment to Darius, and permitted Hephsestion to elect in his sttadj whomsoever of the Sidonians he should judge worthy of 80 exalted a character This favourite was quartered at the house of two brothers, who were young, and of the most considerable family in the city. To these he offered the crown ; but they refused it, telling him, that, according to the laws of their countr>, no person could ascend the throne unless he were of the royal blood. He|)h;€stion, admiring this greatness of soul, which could contemn what others striv» to obtain by fire and sword, " Continue (sai^t'he to them) in this way of thinking, you who seem sensible, that it is much more glorious to refuse than to accept a diadem. However, name me some person of the royal family, who piay remember when he be king, that it was you who set the crown on his head." The brothers observing, that several through excessive ambition, aspired to this high station, and to ob- tain it paid a servile court to Alexander's favourites, declared, that they did not know any person more worthy of the diadem than one Abdolonymus, descended, though at a great distance, from the royal family : but who, at the sam» time, was so poor, that he was obliged to get his bread by day labour in a garden without the city. Hip honesty and integrity had reduced him, as well a? many more. GRECIAN STATES. ' 63 to such extreme poverty. Solely intent upon his labour, he did not hear the clashing' of the arms which had shaken all Asia. The two brothers went immediately in search of Abdolonymus, with the royal garment, and found him weeding in his garden. When they saluted him kingj Abdolonymus looked upon the whole as a dream ; and, unable to guess the meaning of it, asked if they were not ashamed to ridicule him in that manner. But as he made a greater resistawce than suited their inclinations, they themselves waahed him, and threw over his shoulders a purple robe richly embroid« ered with gold ; then, after repet^ted oaths of their being in earli- est, they conducted h;m to the palace. Alexander commanded the new elected princfe to be sent for^ and after surveying him- attentively a long time, he spoke thus -. "Thy air and raein do n'^t contradict what is related of thy ex- traction ; but I should be glad to know with what frame of mind thou didst bear thy poverty." " Would to the gods (replied he) that I may bear tliis crown with equal patience '. These hands have procured me all I desired ; and whilst I possessed nothing I want- ed nothing." This answer gave Alexander an high idea of Abdo- lonymus's virtue ; so that he presented him, not only with the rich fvu'niture that belonged to Strabo, and part of the Persian plunder, but likewise annexed one of the neighbouring provinces to his do*, minions. The Macedonians had already subdued Syria and Phoenicia, the city of Tyre excepted. This city was justly entitled the queen of the sea, that element bringing to it the tribute of all nations. She boasted of having first invented navigation, and taught mankind the art of braving the winds and waves by the assistance of a frail bark. The happy situation of Tyre, the conveniency ^nd extent of its ports, tfke character of its inhabitants, who were industrious, labo- rious, patient, and ^^xtremely courteous to strangers, invited thither merchants from all parts of the globe : so that it might be consid- ered, not so much a city belonging to any particidar nation, as the common city of all nations, and the centre of their commerce. Alexander thought it necessary, both for his pride and his in- terest, to take the city though it was generally supposed to be im- pregnable from its fortihcatio.is, and inaccessible from its situation Alexander, however, prepared for the siege, which is one of the most celebrated recorded in history. After a long and obstinate defence on the side of the Tyrians, and a tedious and almost hopeless attack of the besiegers, Alexander took it by storm ; and thus fell Tyi-e, that had been for many ag"='s the most flourish- ing city in the ;vorld, and had spread the arta of commerce into the remotest regions. 64 THE HISTORY OF THE CHAP. X. Whilst Alexander was carrying- on the siege of Tyre, he re- ceived a second letter from Darius, in which that monarch seemed more sensible of his power than- before : he now gave him the title of king, and offered him ten thousand talents, as a ransom for his captive mother, and wife : he offered him his daughter Statira in marriage, with all the country he had conquered, as far as the river Euphrates : he hinted to him the inconstancy of fortune and des- cribed at large the powers he was still possessed of to oppose. These terms were so considerable, that, when the king debated upon them in council, Parmenio, one of his generals, could not lielp observing, that, if he were Alexander, he would agree to such a proposal. To which Alexander nobly replied, "And so would I were I Parmenio." He therefore treated the proposal of Darius with haughty contempt, and refused to accept of treasures which he already conceived as his own. From Tyre, Alexander marched to Jerusalem where the Jews opened their gates to receive him. From this city, he went on to Gaza, where he found a more obstinate resistance than he had ex- pected ; but at length, taking the town by storm, and having cut the garrison, consisting often thousand men, to pieces, with brutal ferocity, he ordered Bcetis, the governor, to be brought before him ; and having in vain endeavoured to intimidate him, commanded at last, that holes should be biored through his heels, and thus to be tied by cords to the back of his chariot, and in this manner to -be dragged round the walls of the city. This he did in imitation of Achilles, whom Homer descnbes as having dragged Hector round the walls of Troy in the same manner : but it was reading that poet to very little advantage, to imitate this hero in the most unworthy part of his character. He then marched into I'^gyj^t, and possessed himself of tlie whole of it, without meeting with the least opposition. He afterwards visited the temple of Jupiter, and caused himself to be acknowl- edged by the priests as the son of that god. Having settled his affairs in Egypt, he set out to march against Darius, who was now preparing to oppose him. On his march, Statira, the wife of Darius, died in child-bed, and was honoured with a funeral ceremony due to her exalted charac- ter and station. The news of that melancholy event was carried to Dariua by Tricus, one of Statira's eunuchs, who had effected hia escape from the Macedonian camp. The news of Statira's death overwhelmed the mind of Darius with the deepest sorrow : but when he was told of the generous manner, in which the royal cap- tives had been treated, he broke out into this exclamation : " Ye gods, the guardians of our births, and who decree the fate of na- tions, grant that I may be enabled to leave the Persian state rich and flourishing as I found it ; that I may have it my power to majce Gi^CIAN" STATES- 65 AUxaader a proper return for his generosity to the dearest pledges of my affection ! But, if the duration of this empire is near at an end, and the greatness of Persia about to be forgotten, may none but Alexander be permitted to sit on the throne of Cyrus '." Such sentiments in a despotic prince must give a very favourable idea of the liberality of his mind. The armies of Alexander and Darius were now hastily approach« ing each other, and at length met on a plain near the city of Arbela. The army of Darius, consisted, at least, of six hundred thousand foot, and forty thousand horse ; and the other of no more than for- ty thousand foot, and about eight thousand horse. The two armies engaged, and the battle was obstinate and bloody ; but the Per» sians were at length routed, and Darius and his army put to flight. Alexander then marched for Babylon, and entered that city in triumph, being received by its inhabitants in the most magnificent manner. He next took possession of Perepolis, at the head of his victorious soldiers ; who, though the inhabitants made no resist- ance, began to cut in pieces all those who still remained in the city. Hov/ever, the king- soon put an end to the massacre, and forbad bis soldiers to commit any further violence. Whilst Alexander was thus triumphing in all the exultation of success, the wretched Darius was by this time arrived at Ecbatana, the capital of Media. There remained still with this fugitive prince thirty thousand foot ; among whom were four thousand Greeks, who were faithful to him to the last. Besides these he had four thousand slingers, and upwards of three thousand Bact- rian horse, whom Bessus, their governor, commanded. Darius, even with so small a force, still conceived hopes of opposing his rival, or at least of protracting the war ; but he was surrounded with traitors, his want of success having turned all manlsind against him. Nabarzanes, one of the greatestlords of Persia, and general of the horse, had conspired with Eessiis, general of the Bactrians, to commit the blackest of ail crimes : to seize upon the person of tlie king-, and lay him in chains, vvhich they might easily do, as each of them had a great number of soldiers under his command. Their design was, if Alexander should pursue them, to secure themselves by giving up Darius alive into his hands ; and, in case they escaped, to marder that prince, and afterwards usurp his crown, and begin a new war. These traitors soon won over the troops,- by representing to them, that they were going to their de- struction ; that they wovild soon be crushed under the ruin of an empire, which was just ready to* fall ; at the same time that Bactriana was open to them, and offered them immense riches. These promises soon prevailed upon the perfidious army, the Greek mercenaries excepted, who rejected all their proposals witli disdain. Darius, thus betrayed by his generals, and pursued by iiis enemies, the Greeks solicited the honour of protecting his per- son, assuring him they wauld so do, at the expense of tke last drop of their blood. But his noble spirit would not suffer him to accept tl^e offer ; •* If my own subjects (said he) will not give me F 2 «6 THE HISTORY OF THE protection, how can I submit to receive it from the hands of- strangers ?" His faithful Grecian soldiers, finding- it beyond their power to grant him any relief, threw themselves upon the mercy of Alexander ; who, in consideration of their noble spirit, foi^gave them, and employed them in his own service. s|l The traitors seized and bound their monarch in chains of gold,* under the appearance of honour, as he was a king ; then inclosing him in a covered chariot, they set out towards Bactriana. In this manner they carried him with the utmost dispatch ; until being informed, that the Grecian army was still closely pursuing them, they fouiid it impossible either to conciliate the friendship of Alex- ander, or to secure a throne for themselves. They, therefore once more gave Darius his liberty, and desired him to make the best of his escape with them from the conqueror; but he replied that the gods were ready to revenge the evils he had already suf- fered ; and, appealing to Alexander for justice, refused to follow sl band of traitors. At these words they fell into the utmost fury, wounding him with their darts and their spears, and left him to. linger in this manner, unattended, the remainder of his wretched' life. The traitors then made their escape different ways ; while "the victorious Macedonians at length coming up, found Darius in solitude, lying in his chariot, and drawing near his end. However- he had strength enough, before he died, to call for drink, which a Macedonian, Polystratus by name, brought him. On this melan- choly occasion, the generosity of the unfortunate monarch shone forth, in the address he made to this stranger : '• Now indeed (said he) I suffer the extremity of misery, since it is not in my power to reward thee for this act of humaiiity.** He had a Persian prisoner whom he employed as his interpreter. Darius, after drinking the liquor that had been given him, turned to the Macedonian, and told him, that in the deplorable state to which he was reduced, he how- ever should have the comfort to speak to one who could understand him, and that his last words would not be lost. He therefore charged him to tell Alexander, that he had died in his debt, that he gc-.ve him many thanks, for the great humanity he had exercised towards his mother, his wife, and his childred, wliose lives he had not only spared, but restored to their former splendour ; that he besought the gods to give victory to his arms, and make him mon- arch of the universe ; that he thought he need not entreat him to revenge the execrable murder committed on his person, as that was the common cause of kings. After this, taking Polystratus by the hand, *' Give him (said he) thy hand, as i give thee mine ; and carry him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give of my ratitude and affection." Having said these words, he breathed is last. , . . J Alexander coming up a moment after, and seeing Da?ius's body, he wept bitterly ; and, by the strongest testimonies of affection that could be given, proved how intimately he was affected with the unhappiness of a prince who deserved better He imme- diately puUe(i.off his Riilitary cloak, and threw iVon Darius's body j S GRECIAN STATES. BT then causing- it to be embalmed, and his coffin to be adorned with royal magnificence, he sent it to Sysigambis, to be interred with the honours usually paid to the deceased Persian monarchs, and entombed with his ancestors. Thus died Darius, in the fiftieth year of his age, six of which he reigned with felicity. In him the Persian empire ended, after having existed from the time of Cyrus the Great, a period of 299 years. The traitor Bessus did not escape the fate due to his crimes. Alexander pursued him, to avenge on the murderer the death of his royal master. After wandering, in anxiety and horror, from province to province, he was delivered, by the associates of his guilt, into the hands of Alexander, by whom he was put to a crael death. CHAP. XL The death of Darius «nly served to enflame the spirit of ambition in Alexander to pursue further conquests. He crossed Parthia, and arrived in the province of Hyrcania, which submitted to his arms. He afterwards subdued the Mandii, the Arii, the Drangse, the Hrachosii, and several other wations, into which his army marched with greater speed than people generally travel. He fre- quently would pursue an enemy for whole days and nights together, almost without suffering his troops to take any rest. By this pro- digious rapidity, he came unawares upon nations, who thought him at a great distance, and subdued them before they had time to put themselves in a posture of defence. ^ Alexander, now enjoying a little repose, abandoned himself to sensuality ; and he, whom the arms of the Persians could not con- quer, fell a victira to their vices. Nothing was now to be seen but games, parties of pleasure, women and excessive feasting, in which he used to revel whole days and nights. Not satisfied with the buffoons, and the performers on instrumental music, whom he had brought with hira 6ut of Greece, he obliged the captive women, whom he carried along with him, to sing songs after the manner ©f their country. He happened, among those women, to perceive one who appeared in deeper afiliction than the rest, and who by a modest, and at the same time a noble confusion, discovered a greater reluctance than the others to appear in public. She was a perfect beauty, which was very much heightened by her bashful- ness, whilst she threw her eyes to the ground, and did all in her power to conceal her face. The king soon imagined, by her air and mien, that she was not of vulgar birth ; and enquiring himself into it, the lady answered, that she was grand-daughter to Ochus, who not long before had swayed the Persian sceptre, and daughter of his son ; that she had married Hj'staspes, who was related to Darius, and general of a gre^t army, Alexander being touched with compassion, when he heard the unhappy fate of a princess «f 68 THE HISTORY OF THE the blood royal, and the sad condition to which she was reduced, not only g'ave her liberty, but returned all her possessions ; and caused her husband to be soug'ht for, in order that she might be restored to him. This single act of generosity should draw a veil ©ver many of his faults, Hitherto we have seen Alexander triumphing by a course of virtue, we are now to behold him swollen up by success, spoiled fey flattery, and enervated by vices, exhibiting a very doubtful cha- racter, and mixing the tyrant with the hero. Upon a charge of a real or imaginary plot against him, he first put Philotas to death, and afterwards the father, Parmenio, who was at the time of his death seventy 3^ears of age, and had served his master with fidelity and zeal, which in the end was thus rev/arded. Alexander, thus uniting in his person at once great cruelty and great enterprize, still marched forward in search of new nations, whom he might subdue. Having subdued the Massagetae, the Dahse, and other nations, he entered the province of Barsaria, from thence he advanced to Maracander, and appointed Clitus governor of that province. This was an old officer, who had fought under Philip, and signalized himself on many occasions. At the battle of the Grannicus, as Alexander was fighting bareheaded, and Rasaces had his arm raised, in order to strike him behind, Clitus covered the king with his shield, and cut off the barbarian's hand. This favour, howev- er, only advanced Clitus to a post of greater danger. One eve- ning, at an entertainment, the king, after drinking immoderately, began to celebrate his own exploits, in a manner which shocked all his old generals, Clitus, who was also intoxicated, contradicted Alexander in all his asserUons, and sung, with an air of insolence, verses reflecting highly on the prince, who seeing the general near him, he struck him dead with a javelin. The king had no sooner murdered his faithful servant, than he perceived the atrociousness of the act ; he threw himself upon the dead body, forced out the javelin, and would have destroyed himself, had he not been pre- vented by his guardsj who seized and carried him forcibly to his own apartment, where the flattery and persuasions of his friends at length served to alleviate his remorse Alexander, in order to divert his melancholy, assembled his army, and marched in pur- suit of new conquests. He advanced into India, which having never been a warlike na- tion, he subdued it with the rapidity rather of a traveller than a conqueror. Numberless petty states submitted to him, sensible that his stay would be short, and his conquests evanescent. Sail- ing down the river Indus, and conquering every thing in his way, he at last came to the country of the Oxydraci and the Mallis, the most valiant people in the East. However Alexander defeated them in several engagements, dispossessing them of their strong^ liolds, and at last marched against their capital city, where the greatest part of their forces were retired. It was upon this occ^' »ion, that seizingf 9, voiding ladder, himself first mounted the wa»» GRECIAN STATES. 69 followed only by two of his officers. His attendants believing him to be in danger, mounted swiftly to succour him ; but the ladder breaking-, he was left alone. It was now that his rashness became his safety ; for leaping- fromth^ wall into the city, which was crowd- ed with enemies, sword in hand, he repulsed such as were nearest, and even killed the g-eneral, who advanced in the throng-. Thus with his back to a tree that happened to be near, he received all the darts of the enemy in a shield, and kept even the boldest at a distance. At last, an Indian discharging- an arrow of three feet long, it pierced his coat of mail, andliis right breast, and so great a quantity of blood issued from the wound, that he dropped his arms, and lay as dead. The Indian came to strip him, supposing him really what he ap- peared : but Alexander that instant recalled his spirits, and plung- ed a dagger in his side. By this time a part of the king's attend- ants came to his succour, and forming themselves round his body, till his soldiers without found means of bursting tlie gates, saved him, and put all the inhabitants, without distinction, to the sword. The wound which at first seemed dangerous, having, in the sp-ace of six or seven days, assumed a more favourable appearanee, Alexander mounted his horse, and shewed himself to the army, who seemed to view him with insatiable pleasure. Then contin- uing his voyage, and subduing the conntry on each side, as he passed along, the pilots perceived from the swell of the river that, the sea could not be far distant ; and they informed the king, that they already felt the breezes of the ocean. Nothing so much asto- nished the Macedonian soldiers as the ebbing and flowing of the tide. Accustomed to the gentle floods of the Mediterranean, they Were amazed when they saw the Indus rise to a great heighthi and overflow the country^ which they considered as a mark of di- vine resentment. They were no less terrified some hours after- wards, when they saw the- river forsake its hanks, and leave those lands uncovered, which it had 90 lately overflowed. Thus, after a voyage of nine ir.onths, he at last stood upon the shore ; and after having offered sacrifices to Neptune, and looked wishfully on the immense expanse of waters before him, he is said to have wept for having no more worlds left to conquer. Htre he put an end to his excursions ; and, having appointed Nearchus admiral of his fleet, with ordeis to coast along the Indiaw shore as far as the Persian gulf, he set out with his army for Babylon- His army sustained incredible hardships on their return : pass- ing through a country destitute of all sorts of provisions, they were obliged to feast on the beasts of burden, and were forced to burn those rich spoils, for the sake of which they had encountered so many dan- gers. Those diseases alsoj that generally accompany famine, com- pleted their calamity, and destroyedthemin great numbers : but the king's fortitude appeared to great advantage on this occasion. The army being in absolute want of water, some soldiers were sent to endeavour to find out a spring. They fortunately fell upon one ; but it yielded them but a very small quantity of water. With what they had gotten, the soldiers retiirned rejoicing to th« king. rO THE HISTORY OF THE who, instead of drinking it, poured it upon the ground, unwilling that his soldiers should sustain a calamity in which he refused to bear a part. This generous act inspired the soldiery with fresh spirits. After a march of sixty days, they arrived in the province of Ge- drosia, the fertility of which soon banished from the minds of the soldiery all their former difficulties Alexander passed through the country, not in the military pomp of a conqueror, but in the licentious disguise of an enthusiast : still willing to imitate Bac- chus, he was drawn by eight horses, on a scaffold in the form of a square stage, where he spent the days and nights in feasting. Along the roads where he passed, were placed casks of wine in great abundance, and these the soldiers drained in honour of their mock deity. The whole country echoed with the sound of instru- ments, and the howling of bacchanals, who, with their hair dishe- velled, and frantic mirth, ran up and down, abandoning themselves to every kind of lewdness This vice produced one of a much more formidable nature in the king*s mind ; for it always inflamed his passions to cruelty, and the executioner generally crowned the feast. After various combats, conquests, cruelties, follies, and ex« cesses, Alexander arrived at Babylon. On his approach to the city, many sinister omens were observed ; on which account the Chaldeans, who pretended to foresee futvu*e events, attempted to persuade him not to enter that city. The Greek philosophers, on the other hand, displayed the futility of their predictions. Baby- lon was a theatre for him to display his glory on ; and ambassa- dors from all the nations he had conquered were there in readiness to celebrate his triumphs. After making a most magnificent en- try, he gave audience to the ambassadors with a grandeur and dignity suitable to his power, yet with the affability and politeness ©f a private courtier Alexander, finding Babylon, in extent and conveniency superior to all other cities of the East, he resolved to make it the seat of his empire ; and for that purpose was desirable of adding to it all the ornaments possible. Though he was much employed in pro- jects of this kind, and in schemes beyond human power to execute, he spent the greater part of his time in such pleasures as this mag- nificent city afforded ; but his pleasures often terminated in licen- tiousness and riot. The recollection of the cruel manner, in which he had put a period to the lives of some of his best friends and favourites festered in his mind, andxast a thick gloom over his spi- rits ; to dissipate which, required the application of some very powerful remedy. The remedy, to which he had recourse, was intemperance He was, of course, frequently invited to banquets, at which he drank so immoderately, as often to have no command left of himself. On a particular occasion, having spent the whole night in a de- bauch, a second was proposed : he accepted the invitation, and drjink to such excess, that he fell upon the floor, to appearance GRECIAN STATES. 71 dead, and in this lifeless manner was carried, a sad spectacle of debauchery, to his palace. The fever continued, with some inter- vals, in which he gave the necessary orders for the sailing- of the fleet, and the marching of his land forces, being persuaded he should soon recover. But at last, finding himself past hopes, and his voice beginning to fail, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, with or- ders to convey his corpse to the temple of Ammon. He struggled, however, with death for some time, and raising himself upon his elbow, he gave his hand to the soldiers, who presssd to kiss it. Being then asked to whom he would leave his empire, he answer- ed, "** To the most worthj\" Perdiccas enquiring at what time he should pay him divine honours, he replied, *' When you are hap- py." With these words he expired, being thirty-two years and eight months old, of which he had reigned twelve, with more for- tune than virtue. By the death of this illustrious conqueror were fulfilled many of the prophecies of the sacred writers. One of them is singularly striking: "The temple of Belus shall be broken down to the ground, never to raise from its ruins." That the word of God might stand firm, Alexander is cut oif, at the very instant he is preparing to rebuild that temple, and to raise Babylon to its want- ed splendour. Alexander left one son, i.amed Hercules, who was born of Barsine, *^he daughter of Artabazu?, and widow of Memnon. Both Roxana and Statiraare said to have been left pregnant. In whatever light we view this monarch, we shall find little to admire, and less to imitate. That courage, for which he was cel- ebrarod, is but a subordinate virtue ; that fortune, which con- stantly attended him, was but an accidental advantage ; that dis- cipline, V, hich prevailed in his army, was produced and cultivated, by his ftther ; but his intemperance, his cruelty, his vanity, his passion for useless conquests, were all his own. His victories, however, served to crown the pyramid of Grecian glory ; they served to show, to what a degree the arts of peace can promote those of war In this pictui* we view a combination of petty states, by the arts of refinement, ^r^wing more than a niat«h for the rest of the world united, and leaving mankind an example of the supe- riority of intellect over brutal force. CHAP. XIL Alexander having by his last words, l«4ttte*tked his empire "* to the most worthy,** men who had been accustomed to nile with absolute power, in distant, extensive, populous, and wealthr provinces, must have been highly pleased to find, that their sove- reign's will threw no bar in their wjy to dominion or power. There was one, however, who appeared to have an extraordinary cUim is distinction : Perdiccas, to whom AleKaader, in his last momeitti« 72 THE HISTORY OF THE had delivered his royal signet. Possessed of merit, equal at least to that of his competitors, this adventitious circumstance might seem to have given him a superior title to the vast object in ques- tion ; but his rivals were too proud to suffer an equal to be exalted above them, without throwing some embarrassment in his way ; and too fond of power to bestow a title to an empire, without advancing their own pretensions. Accordingly they all remonstrated, and opposed Perdiccas's elevation ; and, finding that they were not likely to succeed in their private schemes, by acting interestedly, they resolved to overturn his, by acting justly, in supporting the claims of the lawful heirs to the crown. These were Hercules, ' the son of Alexander ; and Aridseusy Alexander's own brother. There was little or no contest about Aridseus's right to a share in the sovereignly. He had been acknowledged to he insane ; and that circumstance, perhaps more than his consanguinity to the king, procured him an easy admission to the throne. The right of Hercules was not so readily recognized ; his mother was not of royal extraction : and as Alexander had always sheM'n a preference to Roxana and Statira, and had, moreover, omitted to mention Her- cules in his last hours, his title was at once set aside ; but the ex- clusive right to the throne was not to be granted to one person. It was therefore judged proper, b)'^ all the leading men, to divide the sovereignty between Aridseus and the child to be born of Rox- ana, should it prove a son. This appointment was easily acceded to, as the government that was naturally to be expected from it, would have full scope for the exercise of avarice and ambition. This settlement being made, the various competitors for the Mace- donian empire retired to their respective employments. ^ Roxana being delivered of a son, whom they named Alexander, Olympias had been recalled to take charge of her infant grandson, and to sanction the new administration of Macedon by her presence. On her arrival at Macedon, she first let loose her savage revenge on Aridxus, and his queen Eurydice. Aridaeus, the son of Philip by a concubine, had from his infancy been subjected to that aversion and hatred from Olympias, which the relationship that subsisted between her and him naturally e:^cited. The infirmity of his un- derstanding was scdd to have been the effect of a portion, which she gave him. Cynane, the mother of Aridseus's queen, had been murdered at the instignation of Olympias. Amyntas, her father, the son of Philip the First's eldest brother, had also bee/ii destroyed through her contrivance : so that neither Arida;us, nor Eurydice his wife, could be supposed to look upon her with complacence. Indeed, they had every reason to apprehend bad consequences from her getting into power, and they set themselves to provide for the worst. Eurydice raised an army, and marched to meet Olympias ; but on the two armies meeting, the troops of Eurydice went over to the standard o-f Olympias, and Aridscus and his queen fell into her hands. Olympias persecuted the royal couple with all that unrelenting' hatred which marked her disposition : they were confined to ft GRECIAN STATES. n v|irison, which was so small, that they could scarcely turn them- "selves in it. Their wretched sustenance was thrown in at a little hole, through which passed light and air, and all the other limited ^comforts they were permited to enjoy. Perceiving- that this bar- barous treatment had no other effect than to excite the compas- iion of the people, and fearing that their commisseration would ifoon be converted into indignation towards her, she resolved to put a; period to the miserable existence of her prisoners. She instructed some Thracians to enter the pi'Ison, and dispatch Ari- dsus, which they did witho«,it remorse , He had reigned six years and four months. This inhuman action being perpetrated, Olympias sent mes- sengers ta the queen, furnished with a poinard, a rope, and a cup of poison, desiring her to choose which she pleased. They found •her binding up the wounds of iter bleeding spouse, with linen which she had torn from her own body, and paying all that decent and solemn respect to the lifeless corse, which became her deplor- ; able situation. She received the message that was brought to her with the great^-st composure ; and, after entreating the gods^ ;that Olympias might be rewarded with the like present, she took •the rope, and strangled herself. Thus were that hapless pair cut off. Olympias had now seen a period to the life of Arid*eus, whom ^she had long since deprived of every rational enjoyment, by rob- bing him of his understanding ; and she had completed the ruin of Eurydice and her family, by consigning her to an end similai* to that, which her violent and vindictive passions had formerly pro- cured to her unfortunate parents. Nor was her thirst of blood yet quenched : for«he caused Nicanor, the brother of Cassander, to be put to death. The body of Idas, another brother of Cassan- der, which had long rested in the tomb, she had brought forth, and exposed on the highway ; and an hundred Macedonians of no- We birth were seized and executed, on suspicion of having been in the interest of Cassander. At last, however, the fortune of war threw her Into the power of Cassander, who delivered her in- to the hands of those whose kindred she had murdered, and who thereupon-cut her throat. The furious contentions that now subsisted among the ^ambitious •surviving captains of Alexander, deluged Greece in blood, and brought on the most unnatural murders. Besides those horrid and tmnatural scenes we have already described, Roxana and her son Alexander were imprisoned, and treated with contempt ; and Her- cules, the son of Alexander by Barsine, the only remaining branch of the royal family, wa^ murdered about two years after. Not more than twenty -eight years had elapsed since the death of Alex- ander, and not a single branch of his house remained to enjoy a portion of that empire, which Philip and his son had acquired at the -price of tlie greatest policy, dangers, and bloodshed. Such, to the royal family of Macedon, were the effects of that ambi - tion, which had lighted the torch of war over Europe, Asia, and Africa. G 74, THE HISTORY OF THE Among the lastkings of Macedon, was Philip, son of Demetri^j m. He had two sons, Per&eus and Demetrius ; the former o£^ which accused the latter of a design to assassinate the king, who retiring into the inner apartment of his palace, with two of his nobles, sat in solemn judgment on his two sons, being under the agonizing necessity, whether the charge should be proved or dis- approved, of finding one of them guilty. Perseus took care to procure such evidence against his brother, as might not fail of convicting him, and Demetrius was accordingly put to death, Philip, when too late, discovered that he had been imposed upon by a forgery, and died of a broken heart. He was succeeded by his son Perseus, who, some time after, was taken prisoner by the Romans, led in triumph through the streets of Rome, and then thrown into a dungeon, where he starved himself to death. The fatal dissention among the Grecian chiefs exposed them to the inroads of every neighbouring power. The Romans, after the defeat of Perseus, established a new form of government in Ma- cedon. The whole kingdom was divided into four districts ; the inhabitants of each were to have no connection, intermarriage, or exchange of possessions, with those of the other districts ; and, among other regulations tending to reduce them to a state of the most abject slavery, they were inhibited from the use of arms^ unless in such places as were exposed to the incursions of the bar- barians. Triumphal games at Amphipolis, to which all the neigh- bouring nations, both Europeans and Asiatics, were invited, an- nounced the extended dominion of Rome, and the humiliation not only of Macedon, but of all Greece ; for the Romans now found nothing in that part of the world that was able to oppose ;them. Greece, now sunk in that mass of nations which composed the Roman empire, had lost ev^ry vestige of national existence : and, while she was excluded from all participation in the prosperity of her conquerors, she shared deeply in their misfortunes. The ci- vil wars of Rome drenched Greece with blood ; and, when that war was concluded, whoever had not appeared on tlie side of the victor, was considered as his enemy. Greece, in common with the other Roman provinces, had suffered many oppressions under the emperors, and from the repeated invasions of barbarians, when the accession of Constantine the Great to the Imperial throne, seemed to promise to the Grecian annals a new jasra of glo- ry, and some comforts for their past misfortunes. The hope? of Greece, however, were even here disappointed ; for Constantine, by dividing his dominions among his three sons, in- volved the empire in the flames of civil war ; and his son Julian, ' who at last prevailed, overturned everj" thing his father had done« He was unable to protect the public prosperity, undermined by the despotism of a military government, and a general pusillani- mity of manners. These invited attacks on the empire on every side. Julian was forced to yield a considerable territory to the Persian monarch. In Britain, the Roman ramparts were oppoa* ("01 in vain to the hardy vaiour of the North ; even the legionarjf GRECIAN STATES, 75 troops had been found unable to sustain the shocks of the uncon- quered Caledonians. The German tribes renewed their inroads into Gaul ; Africa rebelled, and a spirit of discontent and insurrec- tion began to appear among the barbarian tribes on the Danube. In the reign of the Emperor Valens, the Huns, a new tribe of bar- barians, in manners and aspect more horrid than any that had yet appeared on the Roman frontiers, plundered and drove from their settlements, the Gothic tribes on the further side of the Danube. Gratian, nephew and heir to Valens, shared the empire with The- odocius, vAiom the calamities of the times raised to the possession of the whole. The abilities and personal valour of this prince bestowed on the empire an appearance of vigour during his reign ; but his .sons Arcadius and Honorius', between whom he divided the empire, brought up in the bosom of a luxuri- ous palace, and sunk in eftemiiiacy, were unequal to the task of governing an empire weakened by division. The reign of Hono- rius concluded tne Roman empire in the East. Alaric, the Gothic chief, who, twenty-five years before, deemed it an honour to bear arms on the side of the empire, was adorned with the imperial purple. Augustus, the last Roman who was graced with impe* rial dignity at Rome, was compelled to abdicate the Western em- pire by Odeacer, king of the Heruh, about the year of Christ 475, Amidst the calamities which attended and followed after this revolution^ Greece saw her magnificent cities laid in ruins, hep numerous towns levelled with the ground, and those monuments of her glory, which had hitherto escaped barbarian outrage, de- faced and overthrown ; while the wretched descendants of men who blessed the nations with science and art, were either enslaved by the invaders, or led into captivity, or slaughtered by the swords of barbarians. Without inhabitants, or cultivation, and buried as it v/ere in ruins, Greece was too insignificant to be an object of am- bition, and left to the possession of any of the rovers of those days^ who chose to make a temporary settlement in that desolated coun- try. Constantinople itself, during the greater part of this gloomy period, retained little more than a shadow of greatness. The chief inhabitants were those families who, during the incursions of the barbarians, had made their escape to the mountains. Such was the state of Greece, with little variation, from the Gothic in- vasion, to the final overthrow of the Eastern empire by the Otto- man arms, in the year of the Christian xra one thousand four hun- dred and fifty -three. However, even in the midst of war, devastation and slavery, Greece continued long' to be the seat of philosophy and the fine arts. Whatever conjecture may be formed concerning the ad- vancement of science in India and in Egypt, it is certain, that Greece was the country which enlightened, exalted, and adorned the rest of Europe, and set an example of whatever is beautiful and great. It was the genius of Greece that formed those very politicians and heroes, who first bent her lofty spirit under the yoke of foreign dominion. It was in Thebes, und&r the tuition of 76 THE HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES; Kpaminondas, that her heroes- M^ere trained to a l6re of g-lory, audi of all those arts and accomplishments of both peace and war, by which it is best attained. It, was a Grecian philosopher who taught^ Alexander how to manage the passions, and govern the minds oi^ men ; while the writings of Homer, by a most powerful conta- g-ion, inspired his mind with contempt of danger and death in the- parsuit of glory. As the light of Greece illuiTiihated her Mace- donian, so it spread over her Roman conquerors. Philosophy, lit* ♦erature, and arts, began to follow glory and empire to Rome ins the times of Sylla and Eucuflus, and, in their progress, drew to- difTerent schools every man of rank and fashion in Italy. Wealth, luxury, and corruption>.and at last tyranny, banished it from Rome; hut while it lasted, it made up, in some degree, for the want of Jiberty : if it were unable to re&ist oppressive power, it sustained the mind in the midst of sufferings. Even in the worst of times, when the Roman empire was in the last period of its decline, amidst the ruins of the ancient world, distracted by internal divi- sions, and torn to pieces, by the incursions of barbarous nations from the east, north, and south, a succession of ingenious, learn- ed, and contemplative rainds, transmitted the sacred light of truth (which, like the sun, though eclipsed or obscured, never de- sertg the world) from one age to another. The modern Greeks, without the least political importance, arid sunk in slavery to a military goveroment, retain but little of their criginal character. The gradations, by which thatcharacter fad- . ed away, are clearly discernable in their history, and present to • the attentive eye a speculation of great curiosity and importance. The relaxation of manners gradually undermined the political insti- iutionB of the leading states of Greece, and the complete sub- vereion of these, reacting on manners, accelerated on the declina-- tion of virtue. Simplicity, modesty, temperance, sincerity, and good faith, fled first i the last of the virtues that took its flij^htj ^wa* military valour. END OP TH'» HISTORY OF CREECE. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL OCCURRENCES AND EVENTS DTJRING THK EXISTENCE OF THE GRECIAN STATES. N. B. The figures at the end of the lines refer to the Date of the EvenU before the Birth of Christ, BEFORE J. c. Foundation of the kingdom of Athens by Gecrops - 1556 Foundation of the kingdom of Lacedemonia - - 1516 Troy taken by the Greeks ■= - » = . 1184 Foundation of the city of Thebes - - - : 105S Homer and Hesiod lived about . - « - 844 Foundation of the kingdom of Macedon - - 794 Beginning of the common sera of the Olympiad - - 776 Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect - - 640 Draco, legislator of Athens - - # - 624 Solon, and the other sages of Greece, lived about - 604 Pythagoras lived about - - - - , 564 Simonides, the celebrated poet - - = 560 Pisistratus makes himself master of Athens - - 559 Heraciitus, chief of the sect that bears his name - 544 Death of Pisistratus = - . - - 526 Battle of Marathon - , ... 491 Death of Miltiades - . - - - - 490 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius - - ■■ 485 Xerxes sets- out to make war against the Greeks - - 480 Battle of Thermopylae - - - - . 480 Battle of Salamais, and Xerxes' retreat into Persia - 480 Battle of Plareae - - - ^ - 479 Pindar, the celebrated poet, flourished about - » 476 Sophocles and Euripides appeared in Greece about - 473 Xerxes killed by Artabanus, the captain of his guard - 472 The Persians defeated by the Greeks, and their fleet taken, near the mouth of the river Eurymedon - - = 471 Birth of Socrates .--.-„ 470 Birth of Xenophon - 450 End of the war between the Greeks and the Persians, which had continued fifty-one years - - - . 449 Alcibiades appears in the war between the Corinthians and the people of Corcyra - - * - - 436 C2 ClfAaKOLOGTCAL TABLE. Beginning of the PelopQnneislan war, which lasted twenty- seven years - - - - . - 431 A terrible plague raged at Athens , - - - 430 Death of Pericles .... 429 t-ysander makes himself master of Atheiis, and Establishes the Thirty Tyrants. - - - . 404 Death of Socrates - . . . 4Q1 Birth of Aristotle, founder of the Peripatetics - 384 Birth of Philip, Iting^ of Macedon - ... 385 Birth of Demosthenes - - - - 382 Battle of Leuctra ....... 370 Battle of Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas - 363 Philip ascends the throne of Macedon - - . 360 Birth of Alexander the Great - - - - 356 Plato died - - - - . - 348 Philip declared generalissimo of the Greeks - - 338 Battle of Cheronese, in which Philip defeats the Athenians and Thebans - - - - - 333 Thebes taken and destroyed by Alexander - -. 335 Death of Philip, who is succeeded by his son Alexander 335 Battle of the Grannicus followed with the conquest of almost all Asia Minor - - - - 334 Battle of Issu? • - « * - 333 Tyre taken by Alexander - - - . 332 Alexander goes to Jerusalem, makes himself master of Gaza, and soon after of .all Egypt. Builds the city of Alexandria 332 Battl© of Arbela - - - - - 331 Dariu^ seized and put ia chains by Bessus, and soon after assassinated •> .... 330 Jlthalestres, queen of the Amazons, pays a. visit to Alexander 330 JBessus brought to Alexander, and soon after put to death 329 i,ysippus, of Slcyon, a famous sculptor, flourished about 329 Clitus killed by Alexander at a feast - . . 328 Alexander's entrance into India - - - 32f Alexander, on his pcturn to Babylon, dies there, at the age of thirty-two yejurs and eight months - - 323 CMympias, the Toother of Alexander, causes Arid xus, and Eurydice, Jhs wife to be put to death, as she herself is s«on after, , by order of Cassandei - - -. 317 Greece reduced into a Rqviaji province, under the name of ftie pmiii^e ff Achia =r - . ... 146 PREFACE ro 7'HK Hisrasr of ROifi^. The principal advantage derived ;fram the studj of History, isr tlie knowledge of men and things. We there ^ee mankind rising suddenly to the highest pitch .of- glory and grandeur, and in an in- stant falling again into obscurity : we are there taught, that virtue only is the true source of- happiness ; and .that, however prospe- rous and triumphant vice and wickedness may be for a time, it will at last sink beneath the influence of truth and justice. "We may look upon History as the first master that children should have, equally fit to amuse and instruct them, to form their minds, and hearts, and enrich their memories with an infinite num, Ijer of facts- as agreeable as useful. It is even very conducive, by the allurement of pleasure, which is inseparable from it, to excite the curiosity of that age eager to learn, and give them a taste for study. It is therefore, in point of education, a fundamental prin-> ciple, and observed in all times, that the study of History ought to ga before all others, and pave the way to them.^ Plutarch tells us, that old Cato, that celebrated censor, whose name and. virtues have done so much honour to the Roman republic, and, who took a particular care to bring up his son, himself, without relying , upon the care of masters, composed purposed for him, and wrote with iiisown hand, in large letters, entertaining pieces of i history : hence, said he, that child, from the lowest age, could,, without quitting his father's Jiouse, get acquainted with the great men of his country, and found himself upon those ancient patterns of pro* hity and virtue. The age we live in, and this nation in particular,, stand much ia needof being undeceived in an infinite number of errors^ and false prejudices, which almost every day increase, with respect to - Poverty and Riches, Modesty and Pomp, the Simplicity of Build- ings and Furnitare, Costliness and Magnificence, Frugality, and the refined Arts of Cookery : in a word, concerning almost every thing which n^akes the object of the contempt or admiration of ■mankind^ The public taste herein becomes the rule of young people, who cannot but think that valuable, which i» valued by all ; . for it is not reason, but custom, that guides them.= One bad ex- ample alone would be capable of corrupting the minds of young people, susceptible of every impression. What is not, therefore, to be feared from them in a time, wherein vices are grown into^ custom, and sensuality exerts her utmost end^ay^VlTS to ^tinguis^^ all ag^Ujaents of honour and probity ? PREFACE. The chief end in the study of History Is to dispel the false pre* judices which seduce us, because they please us ; to cure and set us free from the vulgar errors, which we have gradually imbibed from our infancy ; to learn us to discern the true from the false, the good from the bad, and to distinguish between solid greatness and vain pride. There is no History, of what age or nation soever, which affords auch a variety of characters, such subjects for refleetion, as that ©f the Romans. These considerations induced me to set about the following little Book, for the use of young Ladies and Gentlemen, on a plan different from any thing of the kind that has yet appear- ed. It cannot be expected, in so short a compass as this work is comprised, that the reader will here find a regular account of all the transactions of the Romans, from the building of the city to the fall of that great empire. Those who have attempted it, even in works of ten times the size, have produced little more than a Table of Names and Dates ; and this is an error, into which those, who have wrote for young Readers, have generally fallen : this is an error I sliall endeavour to avoid. I shall begin the History with the Foundation of Rome, and bring it down to the time of Au- gustus ; in the course of which, my principal aim shall be to no. tice the actions of those illustrious persons, whose names will be ever famous through every part of Europe, and even the remotest regions of the earth, where history shall be read. Above all, the young Readers must remember, if they mean to derive any advan- tage from the perusal of this little Book, that they must read it with attention, reflect nicely on the characters they here meet with* the Rewards of Virtue, and the Punishments of Vice ; they must remark, by what means men became great and powerful, and how they afterwards lost their credit and authority. By making such reflections as these, they will soon acquire a taste for the study of useful History, will become an ornament for their country, will grow in love with Virtue, Honour, and Prudence» and be a com- fort and a blessing to their parents and friends. A. NEW HOMAN HISTORYc CHAP. I> From thf Foundation of Rome ta the End of the regal G&vsrnnienii. The Roman empire, so inconsiderable in its beginning, but ex» tensive in its progressj (to a degree not to be equalled throughout all the nations that have existed) receired its- foundation from Ro= mulus, who was-the twin brother of Rhemus, by their mother, a Vestal virgin. Their father, according to the ignorance and su- perstion of^ those times, was the god Mars. He lived- at first, a- mongthe shepherds by plundering, and afterwards, at the age of eighteen, founded a smalt city on the Palatine bill; ihthe year of the world 3251.. Romulus having fbunded this city, which from his own name he called i?cjme, admitted a number of the neighbouring inhabitants into the government, selected a hundred of the oldest, by whose advice he might transact every thing, and nam«d them senators, on account of their age. Finding himsti:^ and people then with- out wives, he invited the neighbouring states to a show of sports ; and, while the Sabine virgins were fixed attentively on the sight, Romulus gave the signal, when immediately the Romans carried off 683 virgins, and married them. Wars ensued, in consequence of this violence ofifered to the damsels ; but he soon conquered the surrounding states. Romulus was^aid to have disappeared in a.terapest, which arose on a sudden, in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, and, being thought to have ascended to the gods, was afterwards deified.— However, it is more probable, that he was murdered by the senate, to whom his growing tyranny was become intolerable. The scna- tprs then governed at Rome by turns, for five days each, and, un- der their administration,- a whole year was completed. Numa Pompilius was afterwards created king, who, tliough he did not delight in war, being engaged in none during the whole course of his reign, was of . no less service to the state than Ro- mulus; for he establishedboth laws and customs among the Ro- - TOons, "who, from a habit of fighting, were now looked upon as lit- tle better than robbers and barbarians^ He divided the year, be- fore undistinguished, by any computation, into ten months, and founded an infinite number of sacred rites and temples at Rome, He dicdaf sickness -at fourscore years of age, and v/as fcuriedi 82 ROMAN HISTORY, with great solemnity, being- laid m a stone coffin, and not burnt, according to the custom of the Romans, He was succeeded in the regal authority by Tullus Hostilius, who re-commenced hostilities, and subdued the Albi, and other neighbouring nations. He enlarged Rome by the addition of mount Ij Cselius, which was appinted for the residence of the people whoKi were brought from Alba, to whom the king granted all the Roman privileges. He incorporated the Alban nobility with the senate, and, afterhavingreigned thirty -two years, perished in a conflagra- tion of his own house by lightning, with his whole family ; but,. more probably, by the wicked conspiracies of those, whom neither reason nor philosophy could influence in those barbarous ages. After him, Ancus Martius, Numa'& grandson by a daughter, took upon him the government r he fought aguinst the Latins^ added the Aventine mount and Janicuium to the city, built the ci- ty of Ostia on the sea-shore, and died a natural death in the twen- ty-fourth year of his reign. Tarquinius Priscus next assumed the sover/eignty ; he doubled the aumber of senators, built a Circus, and instituted the Roman games; he also vanquished the Sabines, added a large portion of land, which had been taken from them, to the Roman territories, and was the first that entered the city in triumph. He made com- mon sewers to drain the city of the filth and carry it into the Ty- ber,; and it is to this prince, perhaps^ we are originally indebted for that useful invention. He had acquired the supreme authority by means not to be justified : and hov/ever justly he may have sup- ported his conduct as a sovereign, yet even that will not excuse tht manner in which he obtained it. The two sons of Ancus Martius (the late king) enraged to see Tarquin possessed of the kingdom, disguised several of their conipanions like shepherds, who, going to court, pretended a quarrel, and demanded justice of the king. Tarquin appearing, they slew him and fled ; but being apprehend- ed soon after, were punished with death. This happened in the thirty-eighth year of his reign. After him Servius Tullius took upon him the government, be- ing descended from a woman of noble extraction, though a captive and a slave. He also vanquished the Sabines, added three hills to the city, and surrounded the wall with a ditch. Me was the first that ordained the Census, which had been till then unknown throughout the whole world t their business was, to take a survey of the people, their effects, &c. in order to an equal taxation, and to make them serve occasionally in the wars. Upon this survey it appeared, that Rome contained, though the city had not been built much more than 176 years, 84,000 citizens. Be fell a vic- tim, in the forty -fourth year of his reign, to the cruelty of his own / son-in-law, Tarquin the Proud, son to that king whom he himself/ had succeeded, and of his own daughter, whom Tarquin had re-f €eived in marriage. Lucius TJarquin the Proud, the seventh and last of the Romaa kings, vanquished the Volsci, a nation not far from Rome, and r«- ROMAN HISTORY. ^ ^ueed other cities. He was justly deprived of his crown for his tyranny and cruelty ; but the following circumstance brought that revolution about. While Tarquin was encamped before Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, whom he was then at war with^, Sextus, his eldest son, who was as lewd and cruel as his father, fell in iove with Lucretia, the wife of Tarquinius CoUatinus, and daughter of Spurius Lucretius Trlcipitinus, a very illustrious citizen of Rome. CoUatinus car- ried Sextus and others to his house at Collatia, in order to give them a sight of Lucretia, and next day returned with them to the camp. But Sextus, now inflamed with Lucretia's beauty, went privately to Collatia, where he was entertained with great hospi- tality by that lady, and lodged in her house. In the dead of night, he found means to convey himself into her bed-chamber i when, drawing near to her bedside, with liis drawn sword, and thrusting his hands into her bosom, protested that he would kill her that in- stant if she made the least noise. The unhappy Lucretia, thus awakened from her peaceful slumbers, and seeing the instrument of death before herj was seized with the utmost horror and con- fusion. At first, Sextus had recourse to entreaties ; but, these not avail- ing, he declared, that if she refused to consent, he would first murder her,, and then lay his own slave dead by her side i that he would afterwards spread a report, that he had killed them both in the act of adultery. The ill-fated Lucretia, terrified at these threats, yielded to his impious wishes, and Sestus left her the next morn- ing. Lucretia, stung to the soul at this barbarous treatment, sent for her father and her husband, with whom came Publius Valerius and Junius Brutus. They found her involved in despair, and drowned in tears. She related the whole story, and rejected all thoughts Af consolation, conjured them to revenge her injuries. After this, to give them the strongest proof she could of her chastity, she stabbed herself to the heart. The youthful reader must here be cautioned, that this laiit act of Lucretia was by no means meri- torious, and could be justified only by the barbarous age she liv- ed in. Brutus her father, and CoUatinus her husband, raised an insur- rection among the common people on that account, and deprived Tarquin of the government. The army too, soon after, which was besieging the city of Ardea, with their king, deserted him ; and the king himself, on his arrival at Rome, found the gates shut against him, without hope of admittance. Thus, after he had reigned five-and -twenty years, he was banished with his wife and children. This happened in the year of the world 3596 ; 245 years from the building of the city ; thirty-one years after the ruin of the Ba- bylonian empire, and the setting up of the Persiim^ and 50r before^ the birth of our Saviour, .$£ ROMAN HISTORY. CHAP. II. ■Fro7-n, the Commencement of the Consular State t9 the year cf Mome; 331. From this time two consuls began to becFCJlted in tlie room of ©ne king ; for this reason, that if one of them Should entertain a- ny ill designs upon the state, the other, being invested with equal authority, might restrain him ; and it was enacted, that they should not hold the government for more than one year, lest, by the con- tinuance of their power, they should be rendered insolent ; where- 3ts they were likely to act with moderation, when they knew that within ayear*s time, they were to be reduced to the level of pri- vate persons. In the first year after the expulsion of the kings, Lucius Junius Brutus, who had been the principal means of Tarquih*s banishment, and Tarquin Collatinus, Lucretia's husband, were elected consuls. However, the latter was soon deprived of that dignity ; for it was enacted, that no one of -the name of Tarquin should remain in Rome. Accordingly, having received all his patrimony, he quitt- ed the city, and Valerius Publicola was created consul in his stead. King Tarquin, however, who hadbeen expelled, made war upon Jlome ; and having dravm together-many nations, endeavoured to re-instate himself in hi« kingdom by force. In the first battle, J3rutus and Arunx, Tarquiri's sons,^lew each other ; but the Romans came off victorious in that fight. The Ro- man matrons mourned a whole year for Brutus, because he had so valiantly revenged the death of the injured Lucretia.^ Valerius Publicola chose Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, Lucretia*s father, for his colleague, who dying of sickness, he next chose for his col- league Horatius Pulvillus. Thus the first year had five consuls : Tarquinius Collatinus withdrawing from the city on account of hu^ name, Brutus falling in -battle, and Spurius Lucretius, dying of , sickness. Tarquin having fled to Porsena, king of Thuscia, prevailed with that prince to undertake his defence. Accordingly, Porsena being arrived at the head of a pov/erful army before Rome, in or- der to restore Tarquinius Superbus, gained some advantage in the first attack, and there remained only one bridge to be taken, whieh would have mijide hrm master of the city. At this instant, Hora- tius, accompanied by two officers of great distinction, defended, singly, the passage with great bravery, till his own party had broke down the bridge ; after which he plunged, armed, into tlie Tiber, and though wounded in the thigh by a spear, swam over to his friends. Soon after, Mutkis Cordus desired leave from the senate to go to Porsena's camp, where he promised to murder that prince. The senate consenting, Mutius disguised himself in a Tuscan habit, and, being a master of the language, went over to the enemy's ar- my, where, instead of Porsena, with whosa he was not pew^nalif *ef u*inted, he killed his eewetwf^. ROMA.N HISTORY. 85 Mutinus was that instant seized, and carried before the king" j and, on his examination, instead of making" any answer, he thrust his rig-ht hand into the fire, su-ying-, he puaislied it in that manner because it had done him no better service. The king-, being- at once surprised and mo^ed with compassion, ordered him to with- draw it, and himself returned him his sword. Mutius taking it with his left hand, said to the king : ** Thy g'enerosity has conquered him, whom fear never could. You have won my heart, and I will now discover to you (as a just tribute of gratitude which I owe you) a secret, which force could not have extorted. There are in the camp three hundred Romans, equally intrepid as myself, who have all taken an oath to destroy you, I was appointed first to attempt the blow : I am not sorry I failed in it since so magnanimous a prince as Porsena ought to be the friend and ally of the Romans, not their enemy. i'orsena, struck with this generous declaration, immediately con- eluded a peace with the Romans, to the no small mortification of Tarquin, who now found that all hopes were lost of being restored to his kingdom, and that Porsena would no longer afford him any assistance, retired to Tusculum, a city not far from Rome, and lived there with his wife for fourteen years, as a private person, and died in a good old age. In the fourth year after the expulsion of the kings, the Sabines, making war upon the Romans, were vanquished, and a ti'iumpli granted upon that account. Lucius Valerius, the colleague of Brutus, and now a fourth time consul, died a natural death, and so poor, that the expenses of his funeral were defrayed by contribu- tions raised among the people, and the matrons bewailed his death for a whole year, which was the same tribute they had befei^e paid to the memory of Brutus. His poverty arose, not from luxu!ry and extravagance, like that of all the great men of modern times, but from his love of his country. How happy v/ould England be, could she imitate the virtues of the Roman people. In the ninth year after the expulsion of the king^s, Tarquin's son» in-law, having raised a powerful army, in order to revenge Tarquin's injuries, a new magistracy, called the Dictatorship, more powerful than the Consulate, was created. Fronx him lay no appeal, being invested with absolute power for a limited time. In the same year too was created a master of the horse, who was to be under the di- rection of the dictator. In the sixteenth year after the expulsion of the kings, the people raised a sedition at Rome, under a pretence of being oppressed by the senate and consuls : tliey then created themselves tribunes of the people, as it were for their own proper judges and protectors, by whose means they migiit be secured against the senate and the consuls. In the eighteenth year after the expulsion of the kings, the Ro- mans lost several battles, and their city was near being taken by Qiiintus Marcius, one of tlieir own couivtrvmen, who had raised an H .s86 ROMAN HISTORY. ?irmy In the neighbcurlng-klngfdoms ; but was at last, by bis: mother and wife, persuaded to draw ofFhis troops. Caeso Fabius, and Titus Virgioius, being consuls, three hundred noblemen of the family of Fabii, alone undertook the war against tlie Vejentes, promising the senate and people, that they would carry on the whole dispute by themselves. Marching out therefore to battle, all of them being persons of noble extraction, and each of whom deserved to be the leader of a powerful army, they fell in the fight. d»e only remained of so numerous a family, who, on ac- count of his tender years could not be led forth to war. After this the Census was held in the city, and there were found to be 119,000 Roman citizens. The year following, the Roman army being blocked up in mount Algidum, Lucius Q.uintius Cincinnatus was created dictator, who, , possessing a spot of ground of about four acres, cultivated it with his own hands. He was found ploughing in the fields, and, having wiped off the sweat from his brow, he was invested with the con- sular habiti then went and defeated the enemy, and delivered the array. CHAP. III. ^^rcm the Tear of i?om^ 331, to the Jirst Punic or Carthaginian War: •At this time the coiisular government ceased, and, instead of two consuls, ten magistrates, named the Decemviri, were created, in whom the supreme power was to be lodged. After they had acted with reputation for the first year,- in the second,- one of them, named. Appius .Claudius, attempted to debauch a young lady, dau£"hter to one Virginius, who had already served with reputation in the wars ; but her father murdered her with his own hands, that she might not- suffer violence from the Decemviri, and, returning to the army, raised an insurrection among the soldiers. Upon this the Decemviri were deprived of their authority, and they them- selves condemned. Soon after, the Gauls marching towards Rome, and pursuing the Romansjwhom theyhad defeated at about ten miles distance from the city, made themselves masters of the city itself, nor could any thing bold out against them but the capitol ; v^^hich, when they had be-/ sieged alongtimej and the Romans began now to be oppressed with' famine, Camillufe, who lived in banishment, came suddenly upon them, and overthrew them with very great slaughter. The Gauls Jhad reduced the city to ashes, and would have made themselves masters of the capitol by surprise had not the cackling of the sa- cred geese alarmed the garrison. The Romans however, agreed to pay the Gauls a thousand pound M^eight of gold, and the latter ysing false dealings in their weig^hing, a contest arose, when Ca- ROMAN HISTORY. SY miiKis, taking the gold out of the scales;, told the Gauls that it was the custom of the Romans to free their country with iron, not with gold. Immediately, a bloody battle ensued, in which the. Gauls were so entirely routed, that all the Roman territories were soon cleared of them. In the three hundred and sixty-fifth year from the building of the city, but the first after its being taken.- by the Gauls, the lorm of government underwent a change ; and, instead of two consuls, military tribunes,- invested with eonsular power, were created. From this time the Roman empire began- immediately to gather strength. In the year 422, a conspiracy was discovered to the striate by a female slave, of several women of qiiuiity, who had undertaken to poison their husbands. Twenty of them- being- examined^ with re- gard to the quality of the draug-hts found in their custody, ther obstinately denied their being poison-; but, being-forced to try the experiment upon themselves, they died soon after. Besides thesej^ 170 were executed publickly, who had poisoixed some of the first people in the state. 1 shall pass over the several battles- lost and won by the R'omans> and come to their wars with the Tarentines. This people lived at the distance of 240 miles from Rome, and v/ere the last of the? Italians who made a vigorous opposition to the Romans, The Tarentines, being almost conquered, called in Pyrrhus, king of ^pirus, to their assistance, who derived his origin from the race of Achilles, He immediately passed over into Italy ; and it was then^ for the first time, that the Rom.ans fought with a foreign enemy„ Publius Valerius Lsvinus, the consul was sent out against him, who, taking some of Pyrrhus's-spies prisoners, ordered them to be led through the camp, and the whole army to be shown them, and the spies'then to be dismissed^ that they might inform Pyrrhus of what was doing among the Romans. A battle being fought soon after, Pyrrhus when, on the point of fiying, conquered by means of his elephants, which the Romans, being unacquainted With were afraid of ; but night put an end to the battle. Pyrrhus lost 13,000 men, the Romans 15,000, and 1^00 were taken prisoners, whom Pyrhus treated with the greatest honour. He gave their dead lionourable interment ; and, observ- ing that they looked stern and menacing even in death, he lifted up his hands to heaven, and cried, " How easily might the whole world be conquered, were the Romans commanded by Pyrrhus !'* Pyrrhus afterwards, in conjunction with the Samnites, Lucanians, and Brutians, advanced towards Rome, laid all waste with fire and aword, depopulated Campania, and arrived at Prceneste, about seventeen miles distant from Rome; but soon after retired to Campania, for fear of the army, which pursued him with a consul at their head. Ambassadors being dispatched to Pyrrhus, to treat with him about ransoming the prisoners, they were honourably entertained by him, and the prisoners, without any ransom, sent feack to Rome, Fabricius, one of the ambassadors, he admired so Sg ROMAN HISTORY. much that, understanding he was poor, he endeavoured to win him over by services, and made him considerable offers ; which were rejected by Fabricius with disdain. There is something so particularly great in this Roman, and so contrary to every thing- we meet with in these times, that it is not even the narrow limits of this epitome, than can induce me to pjiss ovef in silence the speech of Fabricius to Pyrrhus. *• It would be needless (said Fabricius) for me to mention the experience I have had in state affairs, as well as in those of a pri- vate nature, since you have beeh told these thing's by others. You also seem to be so well informed of my poverty, that there will be BO occasion for me to acquaint you, that I Ijave neither money to put O'^d to interest, nor slaves to produce me any income, all my *'ealth consisting- of a little liouse and a small field, which yield sufficient for my subsistence. Though I am not possessed with a i^on^iderable estate, I never thoug-ht, nor can yet think, that my poverty ever did me th.e least injury, when I consider myself as one who shares in the publie posts, or as a privatv; man. I am raised ■to the highest dignities, I am placed at the liead of the most ilhis- trlous embassies, I assist at the most August ceremonies, and am entrusted with the most holy functions of divine wor.sliip. When affairs of the highest importance are to be debrded, I have my seat in council, and give my opinion in them. I arii on a level with those who boast the greatest wealth and power : and, if I have the jleast cause of complaint, it is, that I am too much applauded, and too highly honoured by my fellow citizens. *• During my enjoyment of these severalejnployraents, I am not obliged, any more than other Romany, to expend my own money ; for Rome amply rewards her citizens who toil for the public good. We are all wealthy, so long as the commonwealth enjoys affluence, because it is rich only for us. By indiscriminately admitting to public employments both rich and poor, according as men are iudged worthy of them, all the citizens are thereby reduced to a V^vel. Rome knows no other difference or distinction than that of virtue and merit. ^ " With regard to my fortune, so far from repining at it, I look upon myself as the happiest of men, when I compare my condition to that of the rich, and I even feel, on this occasion, a kind of com- placency and pride. My little field, though not over fruitful, fur- nishes me sufficiently with ail things necessary, provided I do but bestow the proper culture, and preserve the produce of it. Do I need any thing more ? All food, when seasoned by hunger, is a- f^reeable to me. When I am parched with thirst, it is luxury to quench it ; and, when I am fatigued, I tas-te the sweets of sleep with exquisite pleasure. I content myself with a suit that shelters me from the inclemency of the weather ; and, among the several moveables, which may be of like use, the meanest always suit me best. " It would be unjust in me to accuse fortune, since she furnishes me with all that n&lure requires. It is indeed true, that, for want ROMAN HISTORY. S9 of this affluence, I am prevented assisting" the necessitous, which is the only advantage for which the opulent may justly be envied. Even with my little, I assist where that little can be of service, and I do tny fellow-citizens all the service in my power. " The thoug-ht of accumulating" riches never once entered my mind. Being- employed so many years in the government, I had a thousand oppoilunities of amassing great treasures, without the least reproach to my integrity. Could a more favourable one be desired, than that which presented itself some years since, when, invested with the consular dignity, I was ordered to march, at the head of a powerful army, against the Samnites, the Lucanians, and Brutii ? I laid waste a vast tract of ground, I defeated the enemy in several battles, stormed many rich cities, enriched the whole army with plunder, paid to every citizen the money he had dis- bursed towards defraying the expenses of the war, and, after be- iug honoured with a triumph, deposited four hundred talents in the public treasury. "After having neglected so considerable abooty, part of whick I might have applied to my own use ; after contemning riches that have been so justly acquired, and sacrificed, to a love of- glory, spods taken from the enemy, would it become me, O king, to ac- cept of your gold I What opinion would mankind entertain of me, and what an example should I set to xny fellow-citizens ? I there- fore advise you to keep your riches, and leave me in possession of my poverty and reputation." Tlie next day Pyrrhus, trying ill methods to unsettle the mind ot Fabricius, ordered one pf his largest elephants, cempletely arm- ed, to be piac^ed behind the hangings ; and, in the midst of their conversation, the tapestry was drawn aside, when the elephant raising his trunk over tlje head of Fabricius, set up a hideous roar. Fabncms thosgh he had never before seen this animal, was not in the least intimidated, but turning e:ent]y about, and smiiinj^, *' Neither your gold yesterday," (said he; "nor vour terrible aifi- mal to day, can mak« the least impression upon me." Pyrrhus, being struck with the greatest admiration of the Ro- mans, dispatched one Cineas, the principal person about him, to sue for peace upon reasonable terms ; which were, that Pyrrhus should remain possessed of that part of Italy which he had already made himself master of by arms. These terms displeased the Romans, and answer was sent bacic by the senate, that he could have no peace with the Romans unless he retired out of Italy. The Romans then ordered, that all the prisoners, whom Pyrrhus had sent back, should be deemed infam^ ous, as bemg persons who might have defended themselves by arms, and never to be restored to their former condition, till they t^'hrve sla?n ^^ enemies, whom they were know wwlfn'^nf^'t' ^^P^^^^^^s returned, and being asked bvhim what kmd of a place Rome was, Cineas repHed that he bad^seen * naaon of bngs ; that is to say, that all thWe were such as bZ H 2 .J 90 ROMAN HISTORY. rhus alone was thoug^ht to be in Eplrus and the rest of Greece. Pablias Sulpicius and Decius Mus, the consuls, being afterwards sent out generals against Pyrrhus, and a battle being fought, Pyr- rhus was wounded, his elephant killed, and 20,000 of his menslaihc Of the Romans there fell only 5000, and Pyrrhus was driven to Tarentum. We may hence observe, that with all the modern in- vention for the destruction of mankind in battle, the slaughter of these times is but a shadow of that of former ages. The year after Fabricius was sent out against Pyrrhus, the same who, being before among the ambassadors, could not be won by the offers of that prince. Their camp lying at no great distance,, Pyrrhus's physician came to Fabricius by night, offering to dis- patch Pyrrhus by poison if~he would rev\'ard him for it. Fabricius instantly ordered him to be bound, and carried back to his master, and that Pyrrhus should be informed what proposals the physician had made against liis life. The king was so struck with admiration^ that he is reported to have said, " Fabricius is a person of such virtue, that it is more difficult to. divert him from the paths of honour, than the sun from his course." Pyrrhus then departed for Sicily, and Fabricius, having defeated: the Samnites and Lucanian&, obtained a triumph. Manlius Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus, the consuls, were then ordered against Pyrrhus ; and Curius fought him, cut off his array, drove- h'im to Tarentum, and took his camp.. Of the enemy 23>000 were slain that day, and Curius Dentatus triumphedan his consulate ;, he was the first that brought elephants to Rome, of which he took four. Pyrrhus soon after retired to Tarentum, and was slain at. Argos, a city of Greece, by a large stone throv/n upon his head* from the walls, by the hand of a.woman^ whoso son.he was,on. the^ point of killing in the attack, . GHAP. IV. From, the CoTnmencejnent of the Jirst Punic War to the End of the. Second. In the four hundred and seventy-seventh year from the building of the city, though the name of Rome was now become famous, yet their arms had not been carried out of Italy, That it might be known, therefore, what the forces of the Romans were, a sur- vey, was taken, and the number of citizens appeared to be 262,333, though they had hardly ever ceased from wars since the building of the city; ai)d the first foreign war was declared against the Africans, Appfus Claudius aad Qiiintus Fulvius being consuls.. These fought against them in Sicily, and Appius Claudius trU iiropUedi over the Africans and Hiero king of Sicily. KOMAK HI-STORr, ^1, In the year following great things were doae by the Romatig^. who received fifty cities more into alliance. In the fifth year of the Panic war, which was carried on against the Africans, the Romans first fought by sea, having provided themselves with vessels properly armed. The consul Cornelius was trepanned by treachery ; bul Decilius, the~other consul, giv- ing tliem battle, defeated the Carthaginians, took thirty-one of their ships, sunk fourteen, mad^ eight thousand prisoners, and killed. three thousand more. Never was a victory more acceptable to the Romans, who know- ing themselves before invincible by land, now found they could do much by sea also. Caius Aquilius Floro, and Lucius Scipio, be = ing consuls, the latter laid waste Corsica and Sardinia, carried away numbers of captives from thence, and obtained a triumph. The Romans having taken seventy -four cities by surrender, the vanquished Carthaginians sued for peace, which Regulus refusing biit upon the severest conditions, the Africans applied to the La« cedjemonians for assistance ; and under their leader Xantippus, RegulUs was overthrown with a very great slaughter, two thousand men only remaining of all the Roman army ; fifteen, thousand, with Regulus their general, were taken prisoners, and thirty thousand slaia. Regulus himself was thrown into prison The Romans, however, prosecuted the war, and at last obliged the Carthaginians to sue for peace. The latter sent Regulus, ac-- companied by their ambassadors, to Rome, to propose terms of peace to the senate. Regulus had suffered five years imprison-. ment in Carthage, and, before his- departure from that city, he had been .obliged to take an oath, that he would return to it, should. he prove unsuccessful in his negociations, or not obtain the desir° ed exchange of prisoners^ On his arrival at Rome, he acquainted the senate with the busi=. ness he came on ; and being required to give his opinion freely, he told them, that he could not do that as a senator, having lost> that character from the time he had become a prisoner ; but that he would not hesitate to give his sentiments as a private person. Every bosom felt for his misfortunes, and he might easily have re- stored himself to Uberty, to the possession of every thing desirable^, his wife, his children, and his country; but it v/as inconsistent with the honour of a Roman. " An exchange of prisoners" (said Regulus to the senate) " should not be so much as thought of, since an example of that nature would be of fatal consec^uence to you : those citizens, who so ingloriously surrendered themselves and their arms to their enemies, are unworthy of the least pity, and ought never more to be employed in the service of their coun^ try. As to myself, I; am so far advanced in years, that my death aught to be considered as nothing ; whereas-you ha!ve in your, hands several Carthaginian generals, in the prime of life, who are capable of doing great services to their country. I have so much the true spirit of a Roman, that I cannot do any thing that is base, «? dlshonourabie j no? do i §q much f§{u: th^ tortures of a cruei-* 92 ROMAN HISTORY. rack, as the reproach of an infamous action : t!ie former affects only the body, but the latter penetrates the soul," It was with no small diihculty the senate complied with such noble and disinterested advice. Reg-uius, however, left Rome to return to Carthag-e, unmoved either with the deep sorrow of his friends, or the tears of his family, though he was sensible of the torments that were preparing- for him. The moment the Carthaginians saw Regulus retiarn, without having obtained the exchange of prisoners, they put him to all kinds of torment cruelty could invent. They threw him into a horrible dungeon, there cut off his eye-lids, and then placed him in the sun, when its beams darted the strongest heat. Thev next put him into a barrel stuck full of nails, whose points, piercing- his flesh, allowed him not a moment's ease. At last, to complete their cruelty, they nailed this noble Roman to a cross, where he expired. They shortened his life, it is true, but thev brought eternal infamy on themselves. ' ^ The senate were so enraged at this piece of cruelty, that they delivered up some prisoners of the greatest distinction to Marcia his wife, who shut them into an armoury filled with iron spikes,where she kept them five days together without sustenance, intending to torture them as her husband had been. The magistrates how- ever, relented at what they had permitted, and gave strict orders that no captives should, for the future, be treated in that manner! Publius Claudius Pulcher, and Caius Junius, being consuls iii the year of Rome 504, Claudius foug-ht in opposition to the Au- spices, and was defeated by the Carthaginians ; for, of two hun- dred and twenty ships, he escaped with thirty only, ninety, toe-ethl er with their men, being taken, the rest sunk, and twenty thou- sand made prisoners. The other consul lost his fleet by shipwreck • but the army escaped by being- near the shore. * However, the Romans were afterwards more fortunate and and the Carthaginians only 500. The greatness of sod, in "form! ing and executing exploits, were equally conspicuous in' both as was their obstinacy in disputing for empire. The Carthaginians were at that time deemed the most powerful by sea, and were the most expert in maritime affairs ; but the Romans, though un- experienced in naval affairs, not only disputed the empire of the sea with & people, who had been deemed more powerful than any before them, but even conquered them in several sea ene-aee- ments. ° ° The peace, thus concluded between the Romans and Carthagi- ans, didnot continue many years. Those states, who delight in war, are never at a loss to find pretences for breaking the peace, I shall not enter into the causes of the rupture between these two great people, it will be sufhcisnt to obi?§jve, that about the yea? ROMAN HISTORY. 93 525 fi"om the buildings of Rome, began the second Punic war, one of the most remarkable that is recorded in history ; whether we eonsider the boldness of the enterprises, the wisdom employed in the execution, the obstinate efforts of two rival nations, and the ready resources they found in the utmost extremity of fortune ; the variety of uncommon events, the assemblage of the most per- fect models in every species of merit and the miost instructive les- sons tliat occur in history, with regard to war or politics. Rome and Carthage, the two first cities in the world,, having already triedtheir strength in the first Punic war, now knew perfectly well what either could do ; irfthe second war, the fate of arms was so equally balanced, and the success so intermixed with vicissitudes, that the party which seemed most exposed to ruin, seemed most to triumph ; and, great as the forces of these two nations v.^eTe^ it may be almost said, that their mutual hatred was greater. It; seems necessary here to advise the youthful reader, should this . epitome induce him to pursue his historical enquiries iii larger works, to spare no pains in studying this part of the Roman his- tory. Hannibal, the famo\:s Carthaginian commander, undertook the management of the war, being then about ?7 years of age. Hav- ing overrun all Spain to the Pyrenean mountains, he crossed them with 50,000 foot and 9000 horse. Having passed the Rhine with great danger and difficulty, he at last came to the foot of the Alps^ resolving from thence to cross into Italy. The sight of these horrible mountains, it being then winter^ struck the minds of the soldiers with terror. However, Hannibal^ in spite of all difficulties, put the enemy to iiight, and seized upon a fortress, and a considerable quantity of corn and cattle- Advancing forward, they came to a steep and craggy path, which terminated in a precipice above a thousand feet deep. Here, as the soldiers and horses marched on nothing but ice, they found it impossible for them to go further ; when Hannibal, after causing all the new-fallen snow to be rem.oved, ordered a path to be cut in the rock, which was carried on with amazing patience and ar= dour ; for the general always animated them by his presence. Scipio, the Roman~commander, hearing of Hannibal's progress, marched forward, and the armies met at a place now called Pa- vaia. Here a battle was fought, in which the Romans were put to flight, ftnd were soon after vanquished a second time. In a battle, which was afterwards fought between Fhirninius and Hannibai, in the year 537 from the building of Rome, both parties fought with such amazing animosity, that they did not perceive -an earthquake which happened in Hetruria, the seat of war at that time, and which laid whole towns in ruins. In this confusion, Fla- mininus was slain, with 15,000 Romans, 6000 were taken prison^ ers, and about 10,000 escaped to Rome. Fabius was afterwards sent against Hannibal, who, by his pru- dent and cautious manag-ement, harrassed Hannibal, and kept him in a perpetual alarm. "After various marches, 41 annibal, without 94 ' ROMAN" HISTORY. being able to bring- the Romans to a battle, found himself blocked up in a valley surrounded by hills. Fabius, observing this, detached 4000 men, who seized-tiie pass* Hannibal now findings himself blocked up, had recourse to a stratag-em. He ordered small bundles of vine branches to be tied to the horns of 2000 oxen : the branches were set on fire in the dead of the night, and- the oxen drove to the summit of the hills, where the Romans were encamped. As soon as these creatures felt the flame they flew up ami down in a rage, and set fire to all the bushes and shrubs, that fell in their way. This sight so terrified the party who guard- ed the entrance, that, they quitted their posts ; when Hannibal- taking the advantage of their confusion, drew off his* army and^ escapedv in the year 538 after ihe building of Rome, a desperate battle was fought between the Carthaginians and the Romans. Luciua Emilius and Publius Terentius Varro were sent to succeed Fabius against Hannibal. Fabius assiited the two consuls, that there was. no other way of conquering the Carthaginians, commanded by that crafty and impetuous general, Hannibal, than by declining an en- gagement. But, a battle being. fought, -through- the obstinacy of VarrOj the consul, in oppos-ition to his colleague, near a village called Cannae in Apulia, both the consuls were defeated. In that fight 3000 of the Africans fell, and a great part of Hannibal's army was wounded. The Romans, however, never received such a Blow in all the Punic war, for the consul Emilius Paulus fell in the battle, together with twenty others of consular and praetorian rank ; thirty senators were taken or slain, 300 gentlemen of noble extracf tion, 40,00 ;) foot, and 3500 horse : three bushels of golden ringS: were likewise said to be taken from them on this occasion. la ftie midst of all these calamities, not one, however, of the Roniansj condescended to mention a word about peace. In the fourth year after Hannibal's arrival in Italy, Marcellusy. the consul, engaged him with success^ near Nola, a city of Cam- pania. About this time, Philip, king of Macedon, sent ambassa- dors toHannibal, promising him assistance against the Romans, provided that, when he had subdued them,.he, in his turn, should' receive assistance from Hannibal against the Grecians-; but Phil- ip's ambassadors being taken, and the affair thus discovered, they sent Marcus Valerius Lsvinus to march against them ; and Man- lius the proconsul, was sent into Sardinia, that state too, at the. solicitation of Hannibal, having deserted the Romans. Thus they carried on a war in four different countries at one and the sarae time : in Italy against Hannibal ; in Spain against Asdrubal his. brother j in Macedon against Philip ;. and, in Sardinia, against the people of that island,, and. another Asdrubal who commanded the Carthaginians, Various was the success of the war on both sides ; but, in the fourteenth year after Hannibal's arrival in Italy, Scipio, who had p,erformed so many gallant things in Spain, was created consul, ar.,d.sent. ifito Africa. In this man there was thought something. ROMAN HISTORY. 95 -iivlne, insomuch, that it was imagined he had converse \^th the g-ods. He fought Haftno, the Carthaginian, in Africa, and destroy- -ed his army. In a second battle he took his camp, together with 450G soldiers, 11,000 being slain. Syphax, king of Numidia, who had joined the Mi-icans, he took prisoner, and forced his camp. Sj'phax himself, with the noblest of the Numidians, and an im- mense booty, were sent to Rome ,; on advice of v.hicli almost all Italy forsook Hannibal, and he himseff was ordered by the Car- thaginians to returnto Africa, which Scipio was laying waste. In the seventeenth year after the arrival of .Hannibal, Italy was delivered from him, which he is said to have quitted with tears. Ambassadors from the CarthaginianB applied to Scipio for peace, fey whom they were refierred to the senate, and a truce of forty-five days was granted them to go to and return from Rome. Thirty thousand pounds weight of silver was accepted at their hands, and the senate orde^-ed a peace to be concluded with the. Cartha- ginians, on such terms as Scipio should think proper. Scipio's conditions were, that they should maintain no more -than thirty ships ; that they should pay the Romans 500,000 pounds weig'ht of silver, amounting^tonbout the value of 1,5^5,0001. sterling, aivd restore all the prisoners and deserters, Hannibal, in the mean time, arriving in Africa, the peace was ■interrupted, and many hostilities committed by the Carthaginians. The war being carried on, Hannibal sent three spies into Scipio's xamp, who being taken, Scipio ordered to be led round the camp, and the whole arnfy shewn them, and then to be feasted and dis- missed, that they might tell Hannibal what they had seen among- the Romans. In the mean time both generals prepared for a battle, such as had hardly ever been remembered, when the skilful led forth their troops to war. Scipio was victorious, and Hannibal himself narrowly escaped being taken. He at first fled, with several horse which were at last reduced to only four. In this battle 20,000 earthagiraans were slain, and as many taken prisoners ; 20,000 pounds weight of silver, and 800 of gold, with plenty of all sorts of stores, were found in Hannibal's camp. After this battle, a peace was concluded with the Carthaginians, Scipio, returning to Rome, triumphed with great glory, and began from that time ,to be called Africanus, an honour till then unknown, no person before liim having assiimed the name of a vanquished, nation. Thus am- end was put to the second Panic war, in the nineteenth year after its commencement. It seems here highly necessary, notwithstanding the narrow litmits to which I am confined, to point out a few reasons, how the Romans came to be so victorious, and the Carthaginians so unfor- tunate. Carthage^, at the beginning of the secoijd. Punic v/ar, and in Hannibal's time, was in its decline, tlie flower of its youth, and its sprightly vigour, being now in a hasty decay. It had begun to fall: from-its exalted pitch of power, and was inclining towards its ruin J wlier§ig Jiojqa^ ^§ ih^n, ^ it w^re, in its Moom an4 §6 ROMAN HISTORY. strength of life, and swiftly advancing to the conquest of t^ie uni^ verse. It is easy to see, that the declension of the one, and the rise of the other, was owing to the different form of government ' established in those republics, at the time we are speaking of. At Carthage every thing was in confiiS'ion, and the advice of the old and experienced was no longer listened to, every thing was trans- acted by intrigue and cabal. On the other hand, at this very time, the Romans paid the highest deference to the senate, v/hich was composed of men, more remarkable for their wisdom than their riches. Hence it is no wonder, that the Romans, governed by the greatest sages, should completely conquer a rival, in a state of anarchy and confusion. May- France, the Carthage of these modern times, ever fail in her attem.pt to sow those seditions amonjf us, which at last conquered invincible Romei CHAP. V. FraTn the second Funic War to the Destruction of Carthage. 1 HE Punic wars, which had brought the Roman state almost to the brink of ruin, ended nevercheles to its advantage. The Ro- mans began more and more to know the value of riches ; and the polite arts flourished among them, in proportion as they grew better acquainted with the Greeks. The Punic war being con- cluded, the Romans carried their arms against Philip, king of Macedon. In the year 551 from the building of the city, Titus Quintius Flaminius was ordered against king Philip. He managed matters successfully, and peace was granted to Philip on these conditions : that he should not make war upon the states of Greece, which had been defended against him by the Romans ; that he should restore the prisoners and deserters, maintain only fifty vessels, and deliver up the rest to the Romans ;. for ten years pay a tribute of four thousand pounds weight of silver, and give his own son, Demetrius, for an hostage. Flaminius made war also upon the Lacedemonians, defeated their General, Nabis, and admitted them into an alliance, upon such terms as he thought proper, leading Demetrius, the son of Philip, Armenes, the son of Nabis, hostages of noble extraction, in triumph before his chariot. About the year 5d9, Plautus had his plays exhibited in Rome, where he brought comedy to great perfecton, he being a consider- able genius, and a perfect master of the Latin tongue, which, though it was not then arrived to its utmost purity, boasted evea at that time, a noble strength and energy. The Macedonian war being now finished, another was com- menced against AnUochu«,king@r Syria,, i|'ufeUus Comeliws Scipio, ROMAN HISTORY. . 9f and Marcus Glabrio, being- tlien consuls at Rome. To this An- lioclms, Hannibal had joined hiinself, having- quitted Carthage, the place of his nativity, fearing he should be delivered to the Romans, Marcus Acilius Glabrio fought with success at Achaia, the camp of Antiochus being taken by storm in the night, and he himself obliged to fly. Philip having assisted the Romans in this battlers had his son, Demetrius, restored to him. Not long after, Scipio, the consul, pressed so hard upon Antio- chus at Magnesia, that he was forced to draw out his army, con- sisting of 70,000 foot, and 12,000 horse, which Scipio attacked, though his force was very inconsiderable. The battle lasted, with ^reat obstinacy, for som.e hours, when the Syrian troops were at last defeated ; and the king's own chariots, which were armed witli scythes, being driven back upon his soldiers, contributed very much to his overthrow. There fell this day, of the Syrian army, as well in the battle, as in the pursuit and plunder of -the camps 50,000 foot, and 4000 horse ; 1400 were taken prisoners, with fif« teeji elephants and their g-uides. The Romans lost Jout 300 foot^, and tw^enty-four horse. This victory Avon the Romans, all the cities of Asia Minor, which now submitted to them. Antiochus then sued for peace, which was granted him upon the same conditions by the senate, though now vanquished, as were before offered : that he should retire out of Europe and Asia, and confine himself within the river Taurus, pay 10,000 talents, and gave them twenty hostages, and that he should deliver up Hanni- bal, the author of the war. Scipio retmfned to Rome, and triumphed with great glory. In imitation of his brother, he received the name ofAsiaticus, be- cause he had subdued Asia ; as his brother, on account of his re- duction of Africa, had received the name of Africanus. Scipio Africanus being afterwards accused by the senate of de- frauding the treasury, withdrew to Linternum, atownof Gampania, where he spent the rest of his days in cultivating the muses, and the conversation of learned men. He died the same year, and or- dered words to the following purport to be engraved on his tomb : Ungrateful country / thou shalt not possess 7ny ashes. Scipio Asiati" cus was also accused of much the like crimes with his brother, but escaped punishment by the means of Gracchus. At this time , luxury and indolence began insensibly to gain on the Romans, (, which is said to have been introduced by the army on their return - from the wars of Asia. As for Hannibal, after flying from place to place, to escape fall- ing into the hands of the Romans he at last sought an aS3dura in the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. Hannibal making some stay there, that prince engaged him in the v/ar with Eumenes, king of Pergamus. He gained for Prusias several battles by land and sea, when Hannibal imagined, that such important services would for ever secure him a faithful friend in that prince. The Romans, however, wbuld not suifer him to rest any where - they dispatched Fiaminius to Prusias, to complain of his protecting-^ I 9B ROMAN HISTORY. Hannibal. The latter knew too well the motive of this embassy, and therefore determined not to give his enemies the opportunity of delivering' him up. He at first attempted his security by flight, but perceiving that the seven secret outlets, which he had con- trived in his palace, were all seized by the soldiers of Prusias, who, by this treacherous action, hoped to ingratiate himself with the Romans, he ordered poison, which he had long kept for this mel- ancholy occasion, to be brought him ; and taking it in his hand, * Let us (said he) free the Romans from a disquietude, with which they have been long tortured, since they have not patience to wait for the death of a man, whom old age has already overtaken. The victory, which Flaminius gains over a naked, betrayed man, will sot do him honour. This single day will be a lasting testimony of the great degeneracy of the Romans, Their forefathers sent no- tice to Pyrrhus, to caution him to guard against a traitor, who in- tended to poison him, and that at a time when this prince was en- gaged in an obstinate war against them, in the very heart of Italy ; but their inglorious sons have deputed a person of consular dignity to spirit lip Prusias impiously to murder one, who is not only his guest but his friend." After calling down curses upon Prusias, and invoking the gods, the protectors a.nd avengers of the sacred rights of hospitality, he swallowed the poison, and died in the seventieth year of his age, being buried at Libyssa, in the territories of the Nicomedians. Thus fell, perhaps, one of the greatest generals the world ever produced, and to whom, during the seventeen years of the Punic wai!, only two faults are imputed ; first, his not marcl^png, immedi- ately after the battle of Gannse, his voctorious forces to Rome, in order to besiege that city 4 and, secondly, his suffering their cour- age to be softened and enervated during their winter-quarters in Capua. But this only shews, that human nature is frail, and that the greatest have their errors. These failings, however, are to- tally absorbed in the shining parts of his character : he had that presence of mind, even in the heat and fire of action, to take all ad- vantages ; and, though his army consisted of so great a variety of nations, who were often in want both of money and provisions, yet, so artful was his management, that his camp was never once dis- turbed with any insurrection, either against himself, or any of his generals. He must have been very fruitful in expedients, to be able to carry on, for so many years, a war in a far distant country, in spite of the opposition made at home by a powerful faction, which refused him supplies of every kind, and thwarted him on all occasions. He was not only the warrior but the statesman : so 1 superior and universal was his genius, that he grasped all parts of"^ government ; and so great were his natural talents, that he was able to acquit himself of the various functions of it with glory. He shone as conspicuously in the cabinet as in the field, being equally capable to fill civil or military employments. In a word, there were united in his person, the warrior, the .senator, and the financiero About the year 586, from the building of Rome, le^rnin^ begau / ROMAN HISTORY, 9$ to flourish much more than ever among the Romans, who had greatly improved themselves from their familiarity with the Greeks, and was very much encoAiraged by Scipio, (Emnus, the consul's son, -adopted by the son of Africanus) and by Laslius, sou to him w^ho had formerly done signal services in Africa. Scipio and Lselius, who boasted tlie fittest accomplisliments, were the nobl» patrons of eloquence, poetr'/, and tlie polite arts. Under them flourished Terence, the famous comic poet, who wrote with vast accuracy, and very much improved the graces of the Roman tongue. The inhabitants of Rome were now considerably increased, 512,081 free citizens being cessed about this time. For about eighteen years, the Romans were employed in less important wars witli the Ligurlans, Corsicans, Dalmatians, Spaniards, and Mace- donians, all which, being considered only as so many revolts, did not any way endanger the Roman common\\\ialth. About tlie year 604, from the building of Rome began the third Punic war, when it was determined in the Roman senate, that Carthage must be destroyed. The next year, Censorinus and Man- lius, then consuls, were sent to Africa with 150 gallies, 80;00Q foot, and 4000 horse, which terrifying the Carthaginians, they sent ambassadors to Rome to offer an unlimited submission. Answer was made, that the senate of Rome granted them their liberty, tho enjoyment of their laws, all tlieir territories, and other possessions, provided that, within thirty days, they should send as hostages to Lilybseum 300 young Carthaginians, of the first distmction, and comply with the orders of the consuls. These severe terms were submitted to, and the hostages were ordered to depart ; feut the cries, groans,* and lamentations of their mothers at their departure, whom they were to see no more, is much easier to be conceived than described. No sooner had the Carthaginian deputies arrived at the Rom&n. camp, than they were told by Censorinus, that the people of Car- thage must immediately deliver up all their arms to him ; to which they were forced to consent ; and which was no sooner command- ed than done. Censorinus, having applauded their obedience, told them, that the Rom.an people were determined totally to demolish Carthage ; but that the inhabitants might remove from it, and found another city in their own territories, provided its distance from the sea did not exceed ten miles. The most tremendous thunder from tlie sides could not ha~ve more affected the Carthaginians, than did this sentence of the con- sul. They knew neither wliere they were, what they did or said ; but, tearing their clothes, rolled themselves in the dust. After some time, recovering from the first emotions of horror and des- pair, though destitute of men and arras, they shut their gates, and resolved to make an obstinate resistance. The Roman consul, thinking he had nothing to fear from them, Riade no great haste to march against Carthage, whose iahabitaots ^00 ROMAN HISTORY. instantly set about making arms with incredible expedition ; the temples, palaces, and open squares, were all cliang-ed into so many :irsenais, where men and women worked day and night ; and be- cause materials were wanting- to make ropes, the women cutoff their hair, which amply supplied the want pf proper materials. The Romans marched and invested the city, but were repulsed at every assault, and no material advantage was gained by them during the whole' campaign. The sieg-e was carried on very slowly, and the besieged recovered their spirits, having made the boldest sallies, burnt their engines, andharrassed their foragers. The Romans being determined on the destruction of Carthage, and uneasy at tiie little progress, made by their generals, sent Scipio thither in oO?". His first business was to revive the disci- pline among the troops, which had been entirely neglected, and' then prepared to carry on tlie siege with vigour. During the waiter quarters, Scipio endeavoured to defeat the ememy's troops without the city, and in one engagement slew 70,000 of them. Early the next spring, Scipio, having attacked, at one and the same time, the harbour called Cothon, and the citadel, he then marched towards the forum, where was the most shocking specta- cle of slaughtered people ; some cut to pieces by the murdering weapons, others half-killed by the fall of horses ; others torn limb from limb, or half-buried in the eartli and. trampled on, lay mangled in lieaps in the most shocking manner. The Cai'thaginians, wearied out with these ill-sucGesses, be-. sought the Romans, to spare the lives of all those who should be willing to leave the citadel. This was granted to all, except de- serters ; and, in consequence tliereof, there came out 50,000 men and women, who v.'ere sent into the fields under a strong guard. Asdrubal, with his wife and two children, together with about 900 deserters, fortified themselves in the temple of Esculapius ^ but Asdrubal being at last conquered by famine, and desirous of saving his own life, came down privately to Scipio, and threw him- self at his feet. The Roman general shewed him immediately to the deserters, vi^ho, transported with rage and fury at the sight, vented the most horrid imprecations against him, and set fire to the temple. As the flames were spreading, As.drubai's wife, dressing her- self as splendid as possible, and placing herself and her two children in sight of Scipio, addressed herself to him, in a loud voice, as fol- low : •* I call not down curses upon thy head, O Roman ; feryoii have acted only as the laws of war permit you ; bwt may the gods, of Carthage, and thou in concert with them, punish, according to bis deserts, the base wretch, who has betrayed his country, his gods, his wife, and his children." She then thus addressed herself to Asdrubal ; *' Perfidious wretch ! Thou basest of creatures ! This fire will soon consume both me and my children ; but, as to thee, go and adorn the gay triumph of thy conqueror, and suffer, in the sight of ail Rome, ^he tortures you have so justly merited." No sooner had she ypokea. ROMAN HISTORY. 101 these words, but, snatching up her children, she cut their throats^ threw them into the flames, then rushed headlong- into them her- self, and was followad by the deserters, where they all instantly perished. Thus fell the mighty Carthage 708 years after its building, and about 608 years after the building of Rome. It contained an in- numerable multitude of inhabitants, and, being twenty. four miles in compass, continued burning seventeen days together. The conquering Scipio, after seeing this mighty pile in flames, could not help weeping over its ruins. He did not enrich himself with the spoils ©fthis'^ill. fated country, but distributed them among his soldiers. — Remember, youthful reader, however prosperous fortune may be at present, however flattering the bloom of life, calamities may overtake you, and though you should be happy enough to es- cape them, do not forget that old age, which steals imperceptibly on you, will one day lay you, as the power of Rome did Carthage, in the dust. CHAP. VL From the destruction of Carthage to the Tear of Eome Q5Q.' i^OON after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans likewis©- conquered and demolished Corinth, which was one of the finest and most beautiful cities in all Greece, because they had affronted the Roman ambassadors, sent to dissolve the confederacy, and to leave the cities in the g-overnment of their own peculiar laws. In the mean time Viriatus, a Shepherd, who made himself cap- tain of a band of robbers, and afterwards became general of a nu» merous party of men like himself, stirred up so many nations in Spain to rebellion, that the Romans were in danger of being dis° possessed of that country, Viratus having reduced Q. Fabius to such extremity, that he was obliged to accept of equal terms. C3epio, who was consul the succeeding year, refused to abide.witli those terms, and thereupon continued the war. This consul hav- ing bribed three of the friends of Viriatus^ they murdered him ia his sleep. This was a matter of no small disgrace to Rome, and particularly to Csepio. It is amazing that a people,- who had conquered the most powerful nations then in being, should be guilty of such an enormous critn^ to get rid of oneman. One would almost imagine, that this man had rendered himself as formidable to the Romans as ever was Hannibal, since they took the \ same road to get rid of both. \ In the year of Rome 612, the war was carried on with the great*- est vigour in Spain, where the Romans made but a very indiffer- ent figure, being several times repulsed by the Numantines, who at last obliged tli^ni to accept of a peace no ways honourabk to th^ Romans. 102 ROMAN HISTOR?, The war proving every year more unsuccessful, the Romans har» ing sustained great losses, in the year of Rome 616, Macinus was sent to command in Spain, who was defeated in four eng-agements. In the last battle, the Numantines seized his camp, after attack- ing" them in a narrow passage, where they fought with the great- est advantage, and made him submit to a most inglorious peace. The senate was exasperated with Macinus, and refused to ratify fiis peace. They stripped him quite naked, and, tying his hands Beliind him, sent him to the enemy, that they might revenge them- selves on him for their breaking the ignominious ipeace he had con- cluded. The enemy, however, would not receive him, saying, the blood of one person was not a sufficient expiation for the breach of |iublic faith. The war with the Numantines continued till the year of Rome 622 ; and, till that time, the Romans were defeated in almost ev- ery battle. The senate, exasperated at their ill success, now re- solved to send Scipio, who had destroyed Carthage. He had no sooner taken on him the command, than he began to restore the discipline of the troops, the want of which had been the chief eause of their ill success ; and, in fifteen months after his arrival in Spain, left Nuraantia in ashes. If we compare the Numantines with the Romans, we shall find that the former had as much bravery and greatness of soul as the latler, if we may give the name of bravery and greatness to what would, in these times, be consldQred as savage brutality. The Numantines, oppressed by famine, and despairing of obtaining from Scipio any otherterms, than that of surrendering at discre- tion, they murdered their wives and children, to prevent their fal- ling into the harrds of tlie Romans, and burnt them with their ynost precious effects : after this, they either killed themselves, or rushed into the midst of the Roman army, where they were all cut to pieces, hardly a man being left to adorn Scipio's triumph. This famous city, vi^ith only 4000 men, supported a siege of nine years against 40,000 Romaiis, v/Jiom they beat iu several battles. On Scipio's return to Rome, to the surname of Africanus was now tidded that of Namantinus. In proportion as Rome grew powerful in her conquests abroad, her citizens grew weak and enervated at home. Those, who had formerly been accustomed to brave the mosc threatenii^g dangers and the Tfnost toilsome labours, were now sinking in.to effeminacy, ease, and afBuence, and the love of arms were succeeded by that of riches and splendour. To this fatal degeneracy was owing the fall of the grandeur, and the destruction of the happiness of Rome ; their ambition and thirst after lionours and dignities ; their avarice, which soon banished plain dealings, justice, probity, and all the r.oeial virtues ; their pride, cruelty, contempt of the gods, andv, mercinary prostitution of every thing ; their ambition, which taught them the art of dissimulation, and the use of good or bad means to arrive at their several ends , all these, Qombined to- gether, hastened U\?ir destrueiion. ROMAN HISTORY. ^ 103 These vices, having once taken root, like poisonous weeds, are tlifficult to be eradicated. The government of Rome, once so fa° mous for justice and lenity, now degenerated into cruelty and op- pression. Though tlie Romans, indeed, after this period, con- quered many powerful nations, though learning, and the polite arts were continually increasing, yet every thing was sullied at home by inglorious factions, jealousies and feuds, which wer^ some- times carried even to the destruction of each other, of which Tibe- rius Gracchus was the first remarkable instance. This man, who was of a restless disposition, had been concerned in the dishonourable treaty concluded by Mancinus in Spain ; and being reflected upon on that account by the senate, he endeavoured to make himself popular by taking the part of tl\e poor peasants, who were dispossessed of their lands by the rich ; whereby the public was defrauded of its revenues, and the poor of their sub- sistence. Being' elected tribune, he enacted several laws in behalf of the poor, which obhged the patricians to give up a considerable part their estates. Disputes running high between Gracchus and the senate, the latter commanded Mutius Scaevola, the consul, to defend the commonwealth by force of arms ; but he refused. Immediately Scipio Nasica, then Pontifex ^^axiraus, and Grac- chus's kinsman a person of great merit , and friend to the com- monwealth, went to seek Gracchus at the capitol, calling aloud to all those who had the welfare of tkeir country at heart to follow him. At these words the senators, the principal patricians, and the greatest part of the Roman knights, with such of the people, armed with clubs and staves, as !!ad not joined in the insurrection, rushed upon Gracchus, while he was haranguing the populace, and beat out his brains, killing also 300 of his followers at ttie same time. This was the first seditioaafter the expulsion of the kings, which ^nded in the effusion of blood. After the fall of Gracchus, there was no tribune who had courage or generosity enough to espouse the part of the oppressed. Avarice and self-interest produced a, servile submission to the will of tlie great, and the regard the Ro- mans once had for their country was no totally forgotten. Pride and luxury succeeded that noble disinterestedness, to which Rome ewed its power and grandeur. In the year of Rome 625, the number of free citizens v/ho were cessed amounted to 330,825. In the year 631, notwithstanding the precautions taken to hinder Carthage ftom ever being rebuilt, in less than twenty-five years after its destmction, and even in Scipio's life-time, Caius, younger brother of Tiberivis Gracchus, in order to make himself popular, undertook to rebuild it, and con- ducted thither a colony of 6000 citizens for that purpose. The senate, did all in their power to interrupt it, as they were informed of several unlucky omens at the time of laying the foundation : but t'h^Q tribune?^ who were aot oyer scrupulous in re%ious mut'_ IC^ liOMAN HISTORY« ters, went on with the building' and finished it in a few days. This was the first colony sent out of Italy. Caius Gracchus being- appointed one of the triumviri for dividing the lands, ,^ave great offence to the Italians, who thought them- selves treated with great severity, and called in Scipio to their protection ; who did not act with that vigour the people expected. Not long after, Scipio was one morning found dead-'in his bed : his wife, Sempronia, and Cornelia, his mother-in-law, who was mother of the Gracchi, being suspected of having poisoned him. He was, at the time of his death, about fifty -seven years of age and possessed every qualification necessary in the warrior and the senator. He knew ho\r happily to blend repose and^ action, and how to employ his leisure witli great delicacy and taste .* he di- vided his time between the toils of arms, and the peacefiil study of the best authors : between the military labours of the camp and the quiet business of the senate. Herein he set an example to those of the most illustrious birth, as welt as to others, either dig- nified with titles or conquests, how necessary it is, that they should- improve their minds, and fortify their^ souls^ by useful study, and the opinions of those great personages, who lived before them. Human life is confined to narrow limits, and must therefore know little of itself: how necessary then is it, that we should call into our assistance such things, which, if we will but take the pains to inquire into, will at once shew us the paths we ought to pursue to arrive afglory. In reading of history, we are shewn by what means some have sunk into obscurity, and others raised to the highest pitch of grandeur ; we are thereby enabled to choose the good, and reject the evil, without buying knowledge at the highest price of experience. Caius Gracchus now carried things with a high hand, and even raised an insurrection, when the consul published a proclamation offering to any person, who should bring the head of Caius, the weight of it in gold. Caius now doubting tlie stability of the pon- ulace who had joined him, after so great a reward offered for his head, flew to a grove consecrated to the furies, on the other side the Tiber, where, believing it not possible for him to escape those who were in search of him, he prevailed with Philocrates his faithful slave, to kill him, after which Philocrates murdered him- self on the body of his master. This happened about the year of Rome 631.^ Much about this time, or soon after, Fabius Maximus, over- threw Bituitus, king of the Arverni, or people of Auvergne in , FrancCj and tsook him and his son prisoners, after killing 120,000 of his men. This bloody battle was fought near the banks of the Rhone j and Fabius Maximus, at his return to Rome, was honoured with a triumph. The king of Numidia, named Masinissa, having three legitimate sons, had ordered, by his last will, thkt his dominions should be divided among them by Scipio, which he afterwards did with the most iniparfial justice. The youngest of th?se sons left abo a son* ROMAN HISTORYo- 105 called Jugurtha, whom a concubine had: brought him. The vir- tues of this young prince had rendered him the darling of the Numidians : he was a master of the most delicate wit, and solid judgment, and did not devote himself, as^ young men commonly doa to a life of luxury and pleasure : he used to exercise himself in all manly sports- with the young nobility ; and, though he exceeded them all in judgment and activity, he never appeared to pride him^ self on that consideration. So conspicuous an assemblage of fine talents and perfections be- gan to excite the jealousy of Micipsa, tij;' father's eldest brothers who was then king of Numidia, and thereiB^r^ resolved to ruin him„ For this purpose, he gave Jugurtha, the command of the forces, which he sent to the^Roraans, who, at that time, were besieging" , Numantia, under the conduct of Scipio, flattering himself, that his natural impetuosity would hurry him into danger, and cause him to lose his life. Micipsa was herein mistaken ; for this young prince joined to aa undaunted courage the utmost calmness of mind, and preserved so nice a conduct during the campaign, that he won the goodwill of the whole army ; insomuch tliat Scipio, after the destruction of Numantia, sent him back to his uncle with letters filled with the highest compliments. Micipsa now changed his opinion of his nephew, and determined if possible, to win his affections by kindness. He accordingly adopted him, and, by his last will, made him joint heir with his- two'sons. Happy would it have been for Jugurtha, had he, atler the death of Micipsa, shewn the same love for virtue he had dur- ing his life-time ; but he was one of those examples which shew- that politicians do not rank gratitude in the number of their virtues. At last, interest and ambition, those powerful motives to every evil action, prompted him to turn his thougiits on divesting the family of Micipsa of that right he was bound by the laws of grati- tude to protect. Aspiring therefore to be sole monarch of Numi- dia, he resolved to destroy Hiempsal and Adherbal, the two young princes. Hiempsal he found means to get murdered, and this was the first victim he sacrificed to his ambition. Adherbal, terrified at this wicked lleed, fled with the utmost pre- ' cipitation into his own province ; and though not of a warlike dispo- sition, he found himself obliged to take up arras, as well for his own security, as to revenge his brother's death. Jugurtha gave him battle, conquered him, and obliged him to fly. Adherbal, to save his life, was obliged to disguise himself, under the favour of which be hastened to the Roman senate, to implore their assistance. Jugurtha was uneasy at Adherbal's escape, and the more so, as he had heard he was gone to Rome to claim their protection. He immediately sent ambassadors thither, with orders to bribe the principal senators, by which means they were soon brought off" from . Adherbal. Jugurtha therefore obtained every thing he wanted at. present, and Lower Numidia only was allowed to AdherbaU. 106 ROMAN HISTORY. When every tiling seemed to be amicably settled, Jugiirtiiia, with- out paying the least I'egard to the late regulation made by the Ro- mans, commenced hostilities against Adherbal, and, having reduc- ed him to the utmost extremity, made him large promises on his surrender : but he no sooner saw himself master of the city, than he cut the Numidian garrison to pieces, and put Adherbal to death in the most cruel manner. Various were the opinions of the Romans on this treacherous be- haviour of Jug'urtha. ^^'e most equitable senators thought the tyrant ought to be insta^r^'^ destroyed ; but those, who had received his bribes, were of a diut^^^ntw^ay of thinking. C. Memmius, who had been newly electee^ ttiburie of the people, and whose greatest care waste curia the authority of the great, made an elegant speech in the senate on this occasion, in which were the following very re- markable words : *' Integrity is quite banished from the senate, and justice is fled from it : money is tlie tyrant of Rome, and the people have fatally experienced, that gold is the only deity of the nobles ; these make a public traffic of their faith and their honour. The glory and interest of the state are now sunk into venality, the ma- jesty of the empire has been betrayed, and the republic has been sold, both in the army, and in Rome itself." This speech had its proper effect, and the senators immediately ordered one of the consuls to cross into Africa, at the head of a powerful army. Long was this war, and various its successes ; Ju- gurtha being esteemed a second Hannibal. At last, he, who bad been so long accustomed to treachery and deceit, was himself de- livered up to the Romans by Bocchus, his father-in-law. It i* reported, that Jugurtha ran distracted as he was walking in- chains to adorn the triumph of Marius. After the ceremony was ended, he was cast into prison, when the lictors were so eager to seize his robe, that they rent it in several pieces, and tore away the tips of his ears, to get the rich jewels, with which they were adorn- ed. In this condition, he was thrown, stark naked, and in the ut- most terror, into a deep dungeon, doomed to be his grave, where he lived six days struggling with hunger. The fruitless desire of prolongiiag life served as a punishment to a king, who had made no scruple to murder his relations and principal courtiers, whenever it tended to gratify his ambition. CPAP. VII. * From the Tear of Rome 650, to the perpetual Dictatorship of Sylla. ■About the year of Rome 650, and but a short time after the defeat of Jugurtha, the consuls Mallius or Manlivis, and Cs^pio, who had laeen continued -as proconsul, received a most severe shock on the banks of tke Rhone, losing upwards of S0,000 men. ROMAN HISTORY. 107 Manlius fell in the battle; but Cxpio, unadvisedly re tuning to Rome, was murdered, and his body thrown into the fields. Two years afterwards Marius, who was now a fourth time elect- ed consul, marched towards the Teutones, defeated them, and took Teutobobus, their king-, prisoner, after a slaughter of 140,000 men. On this account Marius was a fifth time created consul. In the mean time the Cimbri and Teutones, whose numbers were still immense, passed over Into Italy. They were engaged by Calus Marius and Quintus Catullus, in which battle Catullus gained the greatest advantage, and besides 60^000 taken prison- 'ers, above double that number were slai^, whereby almost the whole nation was extirpated. Of the Roman soldiers, in both ar- mies, 300 only were slain. Of the thirty-three standards taken from the Cimbri, Marius's party took only two, but CatuUus's thirty.one. This put an end to the war, and a triumph was decreed both the consuls. In this battle, the Wives of the Cimbri made an unparalleled resistance from their chariots; but, finding the battle desperate, they murdered all ihe'ir children, and afterwards themselves, that they might not survive their loss. Marius, after this, got himself elected consul a sixth time, and procured L. Valerius Flaccus to be chosen his colleague, in preju- dice of Metellus, which he accom.plished by the most shameful artifices. At this time, there was not the least freedom in elections, every thing being decided by corruption and venality, and, where that failed, violence was made use of Rome, no^y entirely unlike what she formerly was, seems at this time to have been the seat of tyranny and oppression. Caius Marius, now the sixth time consul, as just mentioned, kindled the first civil war in Rome. Sylla the consul, being sent to take upon him the management of the war against Mithridates, who had possessed himself of Asia and Achaia, and detaining his army a little in Campania, in order to extinguish the remains of a dangerous war, which had broke out in Italy, Marius attempted to get the command of the war against Mithridates. Sylla, being incensed at these proceedings, marched to Rome with his army, and there fought Marius Sulpicius. In this battle, he slew Sulpi- cius, and put Marius to flight: then, having settled Cseneus Octa- vius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna in the consularship for the suc- ceeding year, he departed into Asia. Mithridates, who vt^as king of Pontus, and. possessed Armenia the Lesser, and the whole circumference of the Pontic sea, with the Bosphorus, first attempted to expel Nicomedes, anally of the Roman people, out of Bithynia, sending word to the senate, that he was preparing to make war upon him, on account of the inju- ries he had received at his hands. The senate sent answer back to Mithridates, that, if he did he, himself should feel the weight of the Roman arms. Enraged at this reply, he immediately seized on Capadocia, expelling the king- and ally of the Roman people thence. He then marched to Ephe- JlOB ROMAN HISTORY. sus, and dispatched circular letters into all parts of Asia, ordering, that wherever any Roman citizen should be found, they should be all put to death in one day. In the mean time, Athens also, a city of Achaia, was delivered into the hands of Mithridates, by Ariston the Athenian ; for Mitridates had dispatched his gene/al into Achaia, with 120,000 horse and foot, by whom the rest of Greece was likewise seized. A battle being afterwards fcuglit by the Romans and the army of Mithridates, the latter was so entirely defeated, that, out of 120,000, scarce 10,000 remained, whereas the ' Romans lost only 14,000 : a loss, which, in those days of blood and slaughter^ - was deem.ed as nothing. Mithridates, on receiving the news of this defeat, dispatched 70,000 select troops to his general, 20,000 of which were slain in the first battle, and in the second they were all cut off. The gen- eral was obliged to hide himself, for three days, naked in the fens-; upon which Mithridates began to think of treating about peace with Sylla. While Rome was all in confusion,* being exasperated with the arbitrary conduct of Sylla, v/ho was then employed in the wars in Asia, Marius lived in a kind of exile, in an island on the coast of Africa, whither he had fled with his son and some Roman sena- tors, y/ho fQllowed his fortune. This unhappy Marius, being then seventy years of age, who had so long enjoyed the highest glory in llorae, had been forced to fly from that city on foot, unattended even by a single servant. After wandering some time in this de- plorable condition, he was obliged, in order to secure himself from his pursuers, to retire into a fen, where he passed the whole night, standing up to his neck in mud. Atday-break he quitted his uncomfortable place of concealment, in order to reach the sea-shore, hoping to meet with some vessel to carry him out of Italy. However, he was soon known by the inhabitants of a neiglibouring town, who seized him, and,^ putting arope about his neck, naked and covered with dirt as he was drag- ged him to prison ; when the magistrates, in obedience to the order of the senate, immediately sent a public slave to kill him, Marius, as soon as he saw the slave enter, guessed on what er- rand he came, by the naked sword he held in his hand. Marius then cried out, with a voice of authority, " Barbarous wretch, dar- est thou to assassinate Cains Marius ?" The slave, terrified at the jname of a man, so formidable to his nation, threw down his sword, and ran out of prison in the utmost terror and confusion, crying, " It will be impossible for me to kill Marius !" The magistrates looked upon the timidity of this slave, as a testimony of the gods to preserve the life of that great man: *' Let him go (said they) wherever the fates may conduct him, and let the decree of the senate take place against him in any other spot than this. We only beseech the gods to forgive us, if a superior authority forces us to drive from our city, the man who formerly secured all Italy roro the incursions of the barbarians." They afterwards provided ROMAN HISTORY, 109 him with a ship, which carried him to the island of ^naria* This IS one of the many instances that may be produced, that nothing so much procures us assistance under our misfortunes, as bearing up against them with boldness and intrepidity. Had Marius acted the weak or effeminate part at this time, he must have fallen a sa- crifice to the unnatural war then carrying on in his country. Marius being informed that his son was fled to the court of the kingof Nurcidia, he sailed for Africa ; but a storm arising, he was obliged to put into Sicily, where new dangers awaited him. Scarce had he got on shore, when a Roman quseslor, who commanded in that country, attempted to seize him ; but Marius escaped to his ship, after losing sixteen of his attendants, who sacrificed them- selves to save him. After some days sail he arrived in Africa, and landed near Car- thage. Sextilius was then praetor of that province ; and as he had never given him any umbrage, he had no reason to expect an ene- my in him; but he had not been there many days, when a lictor came, and ordered him, in the prstor's name, to leave the country, otherwise he must expect to be treated as an enemy to the R-o- jmans. Marius, enraged to find that a resting-place was no where allow- ed him, and thM not even a corner was left him to hide his head in, gazed upon the lictor in deep silence. At last, an answer be- ing demanded, "Tell thy master," said he, "that thou hast seen Marius banished from his native country, and sitting on the ruins of Carthage," It should seem as though, by comparing his mis- fortunes with those of the mighty empire of the Carthaginians, he thereby would remind the praetor of the instability of all human things. Notwithstanding the severity of the season, he submitted him- self again to the ocean, and spent part of the winter in roving up and down those seas. However, a short time after, we see Ma- rius, Cinna, Carbo, and Sertorlus, marching at the head of an ar- my to block up Rome. Sylla being at too great a distance to be recalled, the senate sent for Cecilius Metellus, a very brave and experienced general. Rome was now in the utmost confusion, and the sehate, to put an end to these distractions, sent a deputation to Cinna, by which they recognized him as consul ; upon which Metellus finding af- fairs grow desperate, he withdrew to Liguira. Cinna then enter- ed the city first, attended by his guards, after having made a sol- emn promise, HOt to put any person to death in an illegal manner. Marius, after having halted at the, gates some time, and there pre- tended a reverence to the laws, at last threw off the voii, which, concealed his blood-thirsty 50ul, and rushing into the city with 8, party of soldiers, immediately butchered, those he had marked out for d'estruction. Several illustrious senators were murdered ia the streets, and made tlie first victims to the inglorious revenge of Mariu.?. He ordered their heads to be set upon the Rostra, and, a,s though he ^\ished to extend tus vengeance even bevond the diO ROMAN HISTORY. -grave, lie ordered the mangled bodies to be left in th€ streets, thstt they might be devoured by the dog'S : so soon had he Torgot how much he himself so lately stood in need of pity! Among the multitude who fell in this bloody massacre was Oc- tavius the consul, who was killed in his tribunal ; and Merula, the priest of Jupiter, hearing that he was proscribed, ordered his veins to be cut open, that his enemies might not have the cruel satisfaction of prescribing the mode of his execution. Afterwards fell Mark Antony, a senator of consular dignity, who, by the charms of his eloquence, defended himself a considerable time against the fury of the soldiers ; and Catullus suffocated himself by the smoke of coals. The furious multitude of slaves, whom Marius had ap- pointed the bloody instruments of his inhuman revenge, murdered the fathers of families, plundered houses, ravished women, and forced away children : at the least signal given by their inglorious Header, they butchered any person, and he even commanded them to kill all those whose salute he did not return. Marius, having now glutted himself with the blood of his fellow citizens, and a kind of calm succeeding this horrible storm, he began to revolve in his mind his former misfortunes, and thet dan- gers he had experienced both by sea and. land. These reflections were aggravated by the apprehension of Sylla's return, when, in all human probability, he should be again reduced to the like ca- iamities. To drive these horrible images from his mind betook Xo drinking, but the excess he gave into brought on him a pleurisy, of which he died in his seventh consulate, no man having enjoyed that office so many times, and in the seventiethyear of his age. Young Marius, inheriting both the power and cruelty of his fa- ther, immediately put to death several senators, who had escaped the first fury of the proscription. While matters were in this disorder and confusion at Rome, where they were taking ail pos- sible steps to destroy Sylla, that general was conquering Mithri- dates. with whom he concluded a peace on such terms -ns Sylla prescribed them, and then marched for Rome. In the year of Rome 667, on the report of Sylla being on his march to the city, Cinnaiind Carbo, who were then consuls, raised a powerful army to oppose him, but a mutiny happening in thai division of the army commanded by Cinna, that general w^as run ;through the body. After his death Carbo enjoyed the consulate alone the remaining part of the year. Sylla being come to the sea- shore of Asia, his whole army bound themselves to him by a fresh oath. He then embarked, and land- fid safe at Brandusium, without meeting with the least opposition. While his troops were refreshing themselves, there he was joined by Metellus, at the head of a great body of new levied forces, and also by Marcus Crassus, who shared with Sylla in all the glory and danger of this war ; but, of all the succours Sylla was favoured with 01? this occasion, none gave him so much satisfaction as that brought him by JPompey, called afterwards Pompey the Groat, and ?vt thftt time scarce tvvqnty -three years of age. His army eonsiet- JlOMAN history: 111 ed of three leg-'ons, and he had been forced to fight his way to Sylla, after having- pfiven Brutus, a leader in the other party, a sig- nal overthrow. Sylla received Ponipey with the highest marks of distinction, and gave him the title of Irnperator, notwithstanding he had not yet sat in the senate. In the year of Rome 671, Carbo, being elected consul a third time, witl-j young Marius, in the spring both armies took the field, Beino-corae in sight of eacli oti\cr, Marius ofiered battle to Sylla» who accepted the challenge. Botli parties fougWt with incredible bravery, and victory was long in doubt, till Sylla found means to^ corrupt five cohorts, vduch turned out to the disadvantage of Ma- rtus, who displayed in the battle all the capacity of a veteran gen- eral, and the intrepid valour of a young officer : he often rallied his troops; returned to the charge, arid was one of the last who re= tired. Sylla, having now blocked up Marius in PrKneste, set out for Rome at the head of a detachment; and, on his arrival there;, the gates were opened to him. After having settled matters in Rome to his own mind, lie re= turned to the siege of Prasneste. Marias finding itnmpossible for him to escape, slew himself, after which Sylla put all the inhcbi- tants of Pfjeneste to the SAVord, the women and-children excepted. Sfyllathen entered Rome at the liead of his triumphant army, and his lieutenants possessed themselves of all the cities in Italy. Such was the conclusion of these lamentable civil wars, which lasted ten years, and occasioned the destruction of more than 153,000 men, twenty-four of consular dignity, seven of praetorian, sixty ef asdllitian, and near three hundred senators. SyMa no sooner found himself in the absolute possession of' Rome, than he commenced the tyrant, and perpetrated the most" shocking crueltl^^s. He caused an inhuman massacre to be made of 6000'men, v.Iio had fled to that city, to avoid the death with which they we^e threatened. Not long after, he caused to be posted up in 'lie forum tlie names of forly senators, and 1600 knights, all of whom he proseribed. Two divs after, he proscribed the hkenumcper of senators, and a multitude of the wealthiest cit- izens of Rome, merely for the sake of their effects. Such slaves as had assassinated tlieir masters were largely re- compensed for their treachery ; and, to the immortal scandal of Sylla, children were seen, their hands reeking with the blood of their fathers, coming to ask a horrid reward for having murdered them-. Quintus Aurelius, a peaceable citizen, who had always lived in a happy obscurity, without being known to either Marius or Sylla, vias proscribed and murdered, for the sake of a fine house he had built in Alba. Nothing was now heard of every day but new proscriptions, and no man was sure one liour that he should uot be massacred the next. - Sylla then seized on all the possessions, houses, and territories of such cities of Italy a& had, in the corrse of the civil war, sided witli Ma'iiuSj and gave them to hia soldiers, thereby binding them the stronger to his fortune and interests. After this, he eaused 112 ROMAN HISTORY. himself to be created perpetual dictator, and, in this manner, the unhappy Romans fell again under the tyranny of one man. rstTz CHAP. VIII. From the perpetual JD,ktatorship of S-lla, to the Birth of Augustu& Cuesar. ^YI.LA, being now appointed perpetual dictator, changed the form of government to his own liking; he abolished the old laws, enacted new ones, seized upon the public treasury, and disposed of every thing just as he pleased. He was as liberal to his friends as he was implacable and £ruel to his enemies, enriching the former ■with the plunder of the state, and inhumanely butchering the latter. There is something very amazing in the character of Sylla, who, after having three years reigned with a kind of absolute dominion in Korae, and when there was no power to oppose his will, in the year of Rome 675, resigned the honovir of dictator, £!nd,tothe surprize of all the world, reduced himself to the condition of a private citizen, without fearing the just resentment of these illustrious families, ^vhose chiefs he had butchered in the most cruel manner. It was not long before, that he appointed twenty-four lictors, with their fasces and axes, and a strong body-guard, to attend him constantly; but we now see him walking unguarded in the forum with sonfie of Kis friends, ia the presence of thousands of the people, who, struck with astonishment, coiisidered this unexpected change as a prodigy. He returned home in the evening, unattended, and as a private man ; and, though his conduct must have raised him a multiplicity of enemies, not one person dared to insult him, except a young man who imprudently made use of some scurrilous language. Sylla, however took no farther notice of it than saying-, in a kind of prophet- ic strain, that behaviour like this would deter any man, who should arrive at a high pitch of power, from resigning it. The Romans in general considered this resignation as the high= est mark of magnanimity : they endeavoured to forget the remem- brance of his horrid proscriptions, and in some degree pardoned the many murders he had been the cause of, since he had at last restored liberty to his oppressed country. There were those, however, who, with some reason, ascribed his resignation to the perpetual alarms he was in, lest there should be one Roman, who had still virtue enough left to hazard his own life in de- stroying a monster, who had been the death of so many illustrious citizens. Sylla, however, after shedding so much human blood, died peaceably in his bed ; but his body was putrified, and turned into hce- Historians do not asrree concerning the disorder of v. hich K6MAN HISTdltV. 113 he died, and which only could account for this extraordinary inci- dent. He wrote his own epitaph a few days before he expired, which shews that he had sense enough, in spite of his insatiable thirst for riches and power, which drew a veil over the finest under- standings, to be sensible of the character he deserved, and in which every succeeding age have agreed. The purport of his ep- itaph was, "No man ever did more good offices to his friends: no man ever was more cruel to his enemies." His body \vas car- ried'in great pomp through Rome, and was the -Srst which was burnt in that city, in order to prevent its being treated like that of Marius, whose bones, by Sjlla's orders, were dug up and scattered about. Upon the whole, inglorious revenge seems to have been the darling passion of Sylla. After tiie death of Sylla, Rome was again disturbed by civil con- tentions, which no one had dared to attempt while Sylla was living. Ambition, and the thirst after honours and power, are not always centered in th^ man who has abilities to support them ; the weak and the giddy think, tliey can do as much as the knowing and ex» perienced, till they find their mistake in their ruin. 1 shall, how- ever, pass over these matters, and ha»ten to a circumstance, which seems to have given the Romans no small trouble, and which may serve'^K) convince us, how^ perilous it is to treat the mere appear- ance of danger with indifference. About- the year of Rome 680, a gladiator of great bravery, whose name was Spartacus, having escaped from Capua, with sev- enty of his companions', exhorted them to sacrifice their lives for the defence of their liberties, rather than serve as spectacles to the inhumanity of their patrons. Then wandering through the neigh- bouring countries, and increasing their number, they commenced a dangerous war in Italy .^ The senate despising Spartacus, sent at first but a few troopSj beaded by two pr^tors, to subdue him, thinking it beneath the dignity of the commonwealth to oppose the legions to a herd of slaves and vagabonds, Spartacus, however, cut them aU to pieces, which surprised and exasperated the senate. The affair became now a very serious matter, and the consuls each at the head of a very considerable army, were ordered to march against them. These magistrates inconsiderately persuad- ing themselves, that a body of slaves and vagabonds would not dare to look the legions- in the face, marched very carelessly to meet the enemy, who, taking a proper advantage of their negli- gence, made so skilful a choice of the field of battle, that the Ro- mans were put to the flight. The consuls rallied them some time after, and came to a second engagement ; but, to their disappoint- ment and disgrace, were again repulsed. » Spartacus, having gained this victory over the legions, soon found himself at the head of 120,000 peasants, slaves, and deser- ters, who, having no ideas of honour or humanity, spread horror and desolation wherever they \vent. This domestic war having raged three years in Italy, the senate gave the comaaand of tU^ K. g 114 ROMAN HISTORY. Roman army to Clnnlus Crassus, who soon gave a new face to the gtppearance'of the war. Crassus soon restored good discipline among the troops, and ^\ convinced the Romans, that, under his command, they must either W conquer or die. The rebels were at first surprized, and 20,000 of them cut to pieces, as they were out on a party of foraging ; after which their army, commanded by Spartacus himself, was defeated in a pitched battle : however, he determined once more to try the fate of arms, and accordingly very skilfully drew up his forces an order of battle. A horse being brought him just before the battle, he drew his sword, killed it, and then, turning about to his Soldiers, said, " If I am victorious I shall not want a horse ; and iif we are defeated, I will not make use of one.'* This reply so animated his soldiers, that they fought with the ut- most fury, and victory remained doubtful for a long time ; but, at last, the valour of the legions carried every thing before it. A ter- rible slaughter was made of these vagabonds : Spartacus himself being wounded in the thigh by a javelin, defended himself obsti- nately on his knees, holding his shield in one hand, and his sword with the other ; but, being at last covered with wounds, he fell on aheap, either of Romans whom he had sacrificed to his fury, or of his own soldiers, who had lost their lives in defending him. Such of them as escaped were afterwards all cut to pieces by Pompey^ who met them in his return from Spain. About this time, anno 682, Rome was found to contain 450,009 free citizens, notwithstanding the long and bleody wars they had been engaged in. Learning and the polite arts, gained ground, considerably, and with them corruption, faction, pride and effemi- nacy. In the mean time the war was going on against Mithridates, who had fled to Tigranes, king of Armenia. It may not be amiss here to mention one instance of the vanity and ostentation of this Arme- man king. Having obtained some conquests, he was grown so in- supportably proud, that he obliged four kings, whom he had taken prisoners, to run by his side, like so many footmen ; and, when he -WB.S seated on his throne, made them stand before him in a de- jected posture, with unfolded arms. — Deluded Tigranes, blinded with vanity and presumption, you could not reflect on the short duration of human life, and that even thatrlife, short as it is, is every moment producing unexpected vicissitudes ! You could not fore- see, that you, who then thought yourself a god, would, in a short time, be conquered by the Roman LucuUus ; that your own capitol would be taken by that general, and yourself driven to distress 1 Happy those,^ whom misfortunes teach wisdom i but happier those whose wisdom prevents them ! About the year of Rome 684, Crassus and Pompey being elect- ted consuls, each endeavoured to excel the other in the affection* @f the people, not on laudable, but on ambitious motives. Cras- sus, in order to gain them to his interest, ordered a thousand ta- bles to be spread, and gave an €iitertainment to tlie whole city» ROMAN HISTORY. tW At the same time, he distributed among the lower sort of people corn sufficient to subsist them three months. Crassus was im- mensely rich ; and, by such public and liberal artifices, the great men in Rome purchased the votes of the people, Pompey, on his side, in order to ingratiate himself with the tri-.- bunesof the people, restored to those magistrates all the authority of which Sylla had deprived them. Thus these ambitious men in tui'n sported with the laws ; increased the power of the senate one moment, and in the next, that of the people, just as it suited their different interests, Pompey, however, carried his point ; for the tribunes soou after, gave him the command against some pirates who infested the coast of Cilicia, and invested him with absolute authority. Be was allowed 500 ships, 120^000 foot, 50QQ horses, 6000 Attic talents, and the power of choosing fifteen lieutenants out of tlie senate. Witii these forces Pompey took near 400 ships- and 120 forts killing 10,000 men. — Thus, in one campaign, he put an end to the war, behaving with great clemency towards the vanquished, and was honoured with a triumphs Pompey was now so high in esteem with the people, that they took from *Lucullus the command of the army in Asia, then employed against MithridateSj and gave it to him. Indeed, Pompey was now raised by the people to as high a pitch of pov/er as ever Sylla had acquired by his sword. Notwithstanding all the cabals vi^hich were raised at Rome against LucuUus, in favour of Pompey, the former on his return was hon- oured v/ith a triumph ; for he brought with liira, among other spoils, a great number of valuable books, of which he composed- a library. A.t his triumph were exhibited things of immense value, and in particular a statue of Mithridates, of solid gold, six feet high, and his shield, enriched with a great number of pre- cious stones. After his triumph, he ingloriously sunk into luxurj and effeminacy.. Pompey, in the mean time, pushed Mithridates closely ; and^. having defeated him in several battles, obhged him to fly from plq,ce to place for shelter. The time too was now come, when Tisanes, that proud and haughty king of Armenia, was to be conv^inced, that tlie tide of human affairs does not always carry us- through the flowery meadows of prosperity, Tigranes-, being re- duced to the utmost extremities, went and threw himself at the Roman general's feet, gave him- his diadem, and sued for peace, ,. Pompey returned the monarch his crown, and granted him peace upon certain conditions, which were gladly complied with. Pom- pey seems to have differed very much from many of the Romaa generals, as he does not appear to have added cruelty to ambi- tion. In the year of Rome, 689, Pompey crossed mount Taurus, and directed his march against Darius, the Mede, and Antiochus, king of Syria, for molesting the Roman allies, qr succouring their enemies. Much about this time, Mithridates sent to Pompey to- 5u« fgr peace, Pompey sent back for i^nswer, that if he intended 116 ROMAN HISTORY. to make peace with him, he must come himself in person. Mithri- dates could not persuade himself to this, and therefore renewed his warlike preparations. After this several of his g-arrisons revolt- ed ; and mafjy of his friends, with one of his sons, suffered death on the occasion- Mithridatcs determined to cross into Europe, to advance into Italy, and there make the same havock as Hannibal had done be- fore him i bufe his soldiers, terrified at the dangers it threatened, refused to follow him : they looked upon him as a desperate prince who, rather than live in obscurity, was determined to die with glory. These mi g-hty projects he had thus formed, hastened his ruin ; for his son, Pharnaces, taking- the advantage of t%ds temper af the troops, stirred them up to rebellioiv and got himself proclaimed king. Mithridates perceiving this from an upper room, sent a messen- gT?r, desiring that he might have leave to depart; but his son; sent him back this base and unnatural answer, that he must die. Mithridates, justly exasperated with this ans:wer, uttered many terrible imprecations, and wished that his son might one day re- ceive the same message from his own offspring. How terrible must be the reflection, that this son, whom he had tenderly loved and intended for his successor, was the very person who pronoun- ced his destruction. And now, rather than fall into the hands of the Romans, life being become insupportable, he determined to dispatch himself. He first gave poison to his wives, his daughters, and his concu- bines, who all swallowed the fatal dmught without the least mur- muring, and then swallowed a dose himself; but, as he had been accustomed to take antidotes, this had no effect on him. He therv begged an ofhcer, his attendant, to kill him, who run him through the body. Thus ended the Mithridatic war, having continued twenty five years ; after which all his' dominions were added to the Roman empire. Pompey was at that time marching towards Jerusalem, and G4- binius, Pompey 's lieutenant, having already taken the city, there yemained only the citadel to attack, which was vigourously defend- ed by a party that had retired thither. Pompey invested it^the day after his arrival ; and, having lain before it three moi^ths, car- ried it on a sabbath-day, and that with the greatest ease ; for the Jews would not take up arms, even in their own defence, on that day. Pompey vent into the temple at the time the sacrifices were performing, and cut to pieces 12,000 Jews. He and many of his followers entered the Holy of Holies, where he viewed those things, which nono but the priests were allowed to behold. How- ever, he shewed so much veneration for the place, that he forbore touching any thing. Judea was reduced under the consulship of Cicero, the &ame year that Augustus C^sar was honi. ROMAN HISTORY, II? CHAP. IX. Frcyin the Birth of Augustus Casar to the Beginnings ofthejirst Trium" virate. Soon after the birth of Augustas Caesar, one of the most dan- gerous conspiracies broke out that bad ever threatened Rome. At the head of this conspiracy was Lucius Serg-ius Cataline, who was descended from a very illustrious patrician family of great antiquity. He had been brought up amidst the tumults and disorders of a civil war, and had been the instrument of the cruelties of Sylla, to whom he was devoted. Cataline had been accused of debauching a vestal virgin, and was even suspected of murdering his son for the love of another woman. Destitute of either morals or probity, he dis- covered not the least veneration for the gods ; and, being ever dis- guaced with the present, was always unhappy with respect to the future, Tnough master of a ^e^^ abilitieir, he was bold, rash, and intre- pid, and had not even prudence enough properly to conceal his own infernal designs, where it was necessary he should to prevent their mis.cfj.riage. As extravagance is the first cause of the viola- tion of all laws, so Cataline, having contracted vast deH^s, and be- ing unable to pay them, grew desperate, and aimed at nothing \es3^ than the highest and most lucrative employments. For this pur- pose, he associated himself with those young Romans^ whose ex- cesses in the freedom of wine, women, anfi gaming, had ruined their fortunes, and rendered them the contejnpt of every discern- ing person in the city. These abaridoned wretches formed a horrid conspiracy to mur- der the consuls, and put to death the greatest part of the senators. Even the day was fixed, which was to have given birth to the most infamous attempt that ever happened in the commonwealth, since the foundation of Rome. At the signal given by Cataline, they were to rush upon the consuls and murder them ; but, being too hasty in his signal, it was not obeyed ; and thus the massacre was put ofi' till another time. Several women, of the greatest families in Rome, who were no less remarkable for their libertinism than their beauty, engaged in this plot out of complaisance to their lovers. Among these, was the famous Sempronia, who was as bold as she was beautiful ; she was a perfect mistress of both the Greek and Latin tongues, and could sing and dance to more advantage than became a virtuous woman ; nor was she wanting in any of those charms, which are capable of lighting up a passion. The only use she made of them, was to pass away her days in riot and excess ; and she had beea accused of being accessory to more than one murder. This conspiracy was daily strengthened by all the young people in Rome, who, having been rocked in the cradle of luxury, and eji- j-m ROMAN history: ervated by a continual succession of pleasures ; such as had ruined thems-elves by excesses; and were no longer able ta support their ex- travagancies ; the ambitious, who aspired to the highest posts of the state; and others^ who had revenge, which they wanted to gratify on some superior ; all these, actuated by different passion"?, embarked in the cause of Cataiine, who made them the largest promises, and at the same time exhorted them to employ their in-. terest to procure his being elected consul. No time could better suit the conspirators^, ^as, Pompey w"as then engaged in a vt'ar ii=i the East, and Italy had no army to protect it, Cicero, however, who waa then consul,' found' means to bribe Fulvla, a lady of an illustrious^ family, which she dishonoured by her criminal amours with one of the chief of the conspirators. From this woman, Cicero got such information, as enabled him to couirteract all Cataline's projects;' Soon after, Cicero accused Cataiine, while he was present in the senate, of his impious design ; bathe endeavoured to quit himself of the charge. Finding he could not bring the senators to his v/ay of thinking,, and being cal« led by them an enemy and a parricide, he cried, in a furious tone cf voice, ** Since snares are everywhere laid for me, and those, to whom I -am odious, exasperate me beyond' measure, I will not perish stTVgly, but involve my enemies in my ruin.'* Cataiine, having spoken these words^ fiew out of the ^nate- house, and 'Sending for the chief conspirators, he told thenvwhat had passed. Then, exhorting them to murder the consul, he left Rome the next night, accompanied by three hundred of Ids com- panions, and went and joined Manlius. He caused lictoi-s, with fasces and axes, to -walk before him, as thougii he had really been amagistrate. Upon the news of this insurrection, the senate or- dered Antonius, the consul, to march the legions against the rebels, and Cicero to look after the care and peace of the city. Soon afterwards, Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, and two more, who were principals in the conspiracy, were arrested, convicted, and conveyed to differentprisons. The contest in the ser.ate was long and warm^ what kind of punishment should be inflicted on them, it waSi however, at las^t resolved, that they should be put to death ; and Cicero, upon the bare sentence of the senate, and v/ithout submitting the matter to the people, as v/as usual, ordered them to be executed in the different prisons, in wViich they were confined. These- executions at once crushed the plot, andover- turnedall the de&igns of the conspirators,- who had that night re- solved to rescue them from their coafineraent, that they might inv- mediately join Cataiine. News being brought to Cataline's camp of the late execution, great numbers of his soldiers abandoned him in the nig-ht ; but Cataiine was no ways disconcerted or disheartened at this ; for he was determined either to ruin the commonwealth, or perish in the attempt^ He thereupon raised new forces, filled the cohorts with them, and soon completed the legions, which were all 'nflamed with tiie same passion £br blood and slaughter,, and the destructloa ROMAN HISTORY. 119 of their native country. By the g-ood management of the eonsul, Cataline at last found himself surrounded by the enemy, and that his retreat was cut off ; he therefore resolved to hazard a battle, though he was considerably inferior in number. Petreius, who had served thirty years in the field, and from a private soldier had been made a general, commanded for the re- public, in the room of the con'sul, who was suddenly taken ill. He engaged Cataline with the greatest bravery, and the battle wa6 sustained on both sides with the utmost intrepidity. Petreius was at last victorious, and the rebels were all put to the sword ; but Cataline, who could not bear the thoughts of surviving the ruin of his part)^, ifushed into that part of the battle, where death was making the greatest havock, and there fell a victim to his own fol- ly and iniquity. He was afterwards found among the dead and mangled bodies of the rebels, which lay in heaps. On his pale and lifeless face was still pictured the haughty ferocity of his soul, which even death could not extinguish. In the year 692, Pompey returned to Rome, having spent five years in his expedition, and acquired the greatest glory by military exploits. As soon as he reached the borders of Italy, he sent back his army, that he might not give either the senate or the people room to suspect him of any ambitious views on the commonwealth ; by which means he obtained the honours of a triumph with univer- sal approbation- This triumph lasted two days, and tlierein were exhibited the names of fifteen conquered kingdoms, eight hundred cities, &c. Among the captives were the king of Judea, and the wives and children of several other kings. Innumerable trophies were like- wise exposed, and among them a. statute of Pharnaces, of solid sil- ver ; also chariots of the same metal, tables of gold, and thirty- three pearl crowns of inestimable value. To complete the gran- deur of the show, Pompey's car was drawn by elephants, it ap- ■peared from Pompey's accounts, that he had improved the revenue of the republic to the value of 120,000 talents, besides the very larg-e sums he had distributed among the meanest of his troops. After this, Pompey was seldom seen in public ; and, whenever he came out of his house, he was attended with such a number of his depeildants, that one would have taken him rather for an East- ern emperor, than a Roman citizen ; but, as Rome was a free city, every thing disgusted them which had the appearance of royalty, and this disgust was hinted to Pompey, who, having so -many years been accustomed to com.mand armies, could not persuade himself to appear as a common citizen. His manners and conduct in al- most every other respect, were pure and unsullied, and he was talked of as remarkable for bis temperance. No one accused him of avarice, and, in the dignities he aspired to, power was not sa much his pursuit, as the splendour with w hich they were surround- ed. Vanity was his predominant passion, ^ and this led him to seek tliose honours, which might distinguish him above all the com- manders of those times. JVIoderate in every thing else, any coKl' jpetitioa with him in g^lory was insupportable. ^^20 ROMAN HISTORi% No wonder that a foible of this nature made him a number of enemies amidst such a warlike people ; but, of that number, Caesar was 'afterwards the most dang-erous and implacable. The one could not bear the thoughts of an equal, nor the other a su- perior, and this unhappy disposition, in these two great men, was the source of new troubles. Julius Caesar was esteemed the handsomest man In those times, and was skilled in, all kind of exercises ; he was indefatigable, brave, and generous to excess, but withal ambitious. Nature, which seemed to have formed him for the government of mankind, had given him such an air of empire, as added dignity to his de- portment, which was softened by a sweet and engaging- carriage. The insinuating and invincible thunder of his eloquence resulled more from the gracefulness of his persoa than the strength of his jarguments ; and he began by insinuating himself into the hearts of the people, -as the surestmeans of obtaining those honours to which he aspired. .Caesar, though, born only a private citizen, had, from his youth, Tormed a design of one day raising- himself to that power, which JTiight enable him to give laws-to the commonwealth ; nor v^^as he ^t least intimidated wiien he reflected on the danger of so great an attempt. Marius and Sylla were uppermost in his thoughts, and their example taught him, that there was nothing, which bravery and resolution could not conquer. Happily for him, . h^ was pru- .dent, even in tli^se immoderate designs, and waited patiently till proper opportunities offered themselves. In the seventeenth year of his age he wan made high-priest of Jupiter ; and, after having carried his arms into Asia, at his return went to Rhod^es, to complete his studies under Apollonius Melo. From thence he returned to Rome, where he was created military tribune, and a little after, quaestor. In this capacity he was sent in- to Spain, in order to visit the assemblies, and administer justice. As he passed through Cadiz, he visited the temple of Hercules, and ..seeing there the picture of Alexander the Great, he wept on re- flecting, that he had done no glorious -action, at an age in whioh , that king had subdued the world. While Caesar was in Spain, he employed his whole time in ex- tending its frontiers, and carried his arms into Gallicia^nd Lusit- ania, which he made a Roman province. He was not, however, forgetful of his own private interest j for he extorted all the gold , . and silver he could get at in those provinces, and, on his return to Rome ; was received with the universal acclamations of the, people. Caesar, being* now returned to Rome, put up for the consulate, when he lavished the wealth he had amassed in'Spain, in getting .new creatures, to whom his house was open at all times, and from whom he concealed nothing but his heart. He found, however, that the affections of the people singly would not be sufficient for his.pur- pose, and he concluded it would be impossible for him ever to ar- rive at sovereign authority, unless he obtained the command ofths armies, and could procure a great number of friends, and evens ROMAN HISTORY. m -«^arty in the senate. The assembly was then divided between Pom- pey and Crassus, who were competitors for the g-overnment, Czesarnow resolved, as the only probable means he had at pre- sent of arriving- at power, to endeavour to reconcile Pompey and Crassus, and unite himself with them. He succeeded in his design, and these three men now agreed, that nothing- should be transacted in the republic in opposition to their respective interests, or with- out their approbation. ; and this they confirmed with the most sol- emn oaths. In this manner was formed the first grand triumvirate, which to- tally subverted both the consular and popular state, the whole power being now vested in the hands of the three greatest men in Rome, as to valour, authority and riches. Thus fell the liberty of Rome, owing- to venality and corruption, after having made such an illustrious figure for so many ages. It is no wonder, that it was soon after plunged into the greatest miseries, as it was impossible the triumviri should long agree together. It is true, they had sworn to support each other's interest ; but oaths are only the foot-stool of ambition, which they trample on the moment it can assist them to climb higher. This triumvirate was formed about fifty-eight years before the birth of our Saviour, and in the year of Rome 694, at which time the Roman dominions were almost unlimited, containing all Italy, the greatest part of Gallicia, all Spain, Africa, Greece, and Illyri* cum ; all the kingdoms of Asia Minor, with Syria, Judsea, Arme- nia, Media, and Mesopotamia So great was the grandeur of Rome at this time, that it was at once the dread and admiration of the: whole worlds her lands were fertile, her generals invincible, and her revenues inexhaustible ; her inhabitant-s were innumerable, and she was bec()me the favourite seat of the muses and the po- lite arts. But, alas ! she was distempered by feuds, jealousies, and factions, and it was easy to foresee, that the union of these three great men could not be of long duration, and that the break- ing of that knot was big with the most disasterou^ events. CHAP. X. From the Commencement of ^ he Triumvirate to the Tear of Rovie,7Qf&. ivOME became now a prey to the ambition of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, by whose authority all employments in the common- wealth were arbitrarily filled up just as they pleased. Crassus was insatiable in the pursuit of ricl^.es, having no other idol than gold ; Pompey lived in eas^fe and indolence, contented with the bare name of .greatness and power ; while Csesar was indefatiga- ble in strenp-tbening his own party, and lessening that of the other two ; bui Lb;.s he did with so much art as to give neither of them umbrage. h 122 ROMAN HISTORY. Cjesarand Blbuliis being now elected consuls, the former con- .firmed all Pompey's acts, according" to an agreement between them. He now set about artfully sowing- a division between Pom- pey and the senate, and the senate and the people, and preferred a, law, for dividing- certain lands in Campania among 20,000 of the poorer citizens, who had three children or more. This proposal .gave high satisfaction-to the plebians, and Csesar had it drawn up in such plausible and just terms, as left but little room for contro- verting it. The senate, however, opposed it strongly, but Pompey and Crassus both approved it; and the former being asked his 4->pinion by the senate, declared, that should any man oppose it with -his drawn sword, he would not only unsheath his own, but take uj ashield also. The law, however, passed, and Pompey, by his las' speech, rendered himself completely odious to the senate. From, this period, Cssar troubled the senate very little ; and hie colleague, Bibulus, was driven out of the forum by the populace, who broke his fasces, and wounded his lictors, after which he 4arecl not to appear any more in public. In the mean time Cjesa-r manas-ed everything, and disposed matters just as he pleased The government of Syria was afterwards given to Crassus, which he had requested, in hopes of acquiring additional riches ; anc. Spain was allotted to Pompey, which he governed by his lieuten ants, not being able to persuade himself to abandon the pleasure: of Rome. Thus these three men divided the world among them as though it had been their natural inheritance. Cato in vain exclaimed against this prostitution of the common •wealth ; whom Cresar found means to put under an arrest, no- '^v'ere LucuUus and Cicero much better treated. The abilities of Cicero had offended Ceesar, who was now bent on his ruin ; and. for this purpose, he even condescended to associate himself with Clodius, Cicero's mortal enemy, and got him elected one of the tribunes, though he had, but a short time before, been accuser^ «f criminal conversation w-ith Cesar's wife. In consequence of this, Cicero was soon afterwards accused be- fore tiie people of having illegally put to death Lent'allus, Cethe- gus, and the rest of tl^e conspirators, contrary to law. Cicero, now- seeing the danger to which he was exposed, forgot himscdf s© far, as. to dress himself meanly, and, letting his beard and hair grow, 'tf^'^ent about the city imploring the protection of the great men ; but, at last, finding himself deserted, he found he must either take up arms or quit Rome.: which last Cato, and the rest of his friends, advised him to. He accordingly left the city in the night time, rmd went to Sicily. ~ Clodius then banished him, by the votes of the people, 4,00 miles from Italy, demolished all his houses, and disposed of his goods by public sale. After sixteen months banishment Cicero was recalled, when all the cities through which he passed* paid him such singular hon- ours, as in some measure to represent a continual triumph ; and, when he approached Rome, the ecjuites, and all the people, went iDut to congratulate him on his return. ■ROMAN' HIST0RY. 123- CJesar now chose the government of Gaul, that being an object \fliich would afford him an opportunity of displaying- his valour and military skill, hoping, at the same time, to enrich himself v/ith the plunder of that country. His first battle, about the year of Rome 696, was with the Helvetians or Swiss, whose army consist- ed of upwards of '300,000 men, whom he entirely defeated, leav- ^7ng them hardly 100,000. In this battle their wives and children ^jfought with the greatest obstinacy, till they were all entirely de« .^^molished. H^ He afterwards entered Germany, wiiere he carried every thing ^before him ; and, in the following year, turned his arras against jthe Belgese, who inhabited a part of Gaul, and was considered as .^.the most formidable people in those parts. Their army consisted "of near 300,000 men, when he attacked them, and obtained a cora- : jplete victory. He then turned his arms against the Nervii, who ,, attacking his troops unexpectedly, broke his cavalry, and sur- 4!rounding two of his legions, killed his officers, and would have cut Ctbera all to pieces, had not Cxsar come to their assistance. The f Nervii, however, were all of them at last demolished. The fame" ' .jof Cesar's military exploits being every where spread, many na- ■jtions sent ambassadors, and submitted themselves to him. In the year of Rome 698, Caesar took up his head quarters at *|Laura in Italy, where a multitude of people went to pay him their respects, and among them near 400 senators, prsetors, and procon- 'suls. The same year Pbmpey and Crassus were chosen consuls, ^more by the force of arms than any other means, who continued > iCttsar live years longer in the government of Gaul. 'i% The next year, having made some conquests in Germany, he re- : turned to Gaul, and resolved to cross into Bfitain, which was so .very hazardoss an eivterprize, that none but Ceesar would have at- ^tempted it. Of all the difficulties, that of a pretence for his in- « jtended itivasion was the least, Cssar embarked with two legionSj., " "^and coming to Dover cliffs, as is generally imagined, he saw them^ ' ,::overed with troops. He stayed there som.e hours, till he was •joined by the other ships, and then sailed tvv'o leagues farther, whither the Britons followed him Vv'itli their chariots, and cavalry. _ _A.fLer moving towards the coast, as the Romans delayed to plunge into the water, their vessels not being able to get near enough the shore, the standard-bearer of the tenth legion leaped in, and cried' i out alcud, *' Follow me, fellow soldiers^ unless you will suffer the Roman eagle to fall into the hands of the enemy. ''^ Animated with this singular mark of courage, the> soldiers followed him, and blood and slaughter ensued. The Britons instantly attacked the Romans, and fought in the water with so much resolution, that, in all probability, the latter must have been repulsed, had not Csesar taken care to supply them, from time to time, with fresh recruits. The Britons, overcome by numbers^ were at last obliged to give way, and the Romans so well improved this advantage, that they at last put them to flight. Be» ing now terrifis^d at the Roman valour, they sued for peace^ which n4> ROMAN HISTORY. Caesar granted them. A favourable opportunity afterwards h&j3= pening, the Britons again took to arms ; but, being a second time defeated, were once more reduced to sue for peace. During this interval, the senate being informed of what Caesar Jiad done in Britain, gave orders for a solemn festival to be held in konour of him, whicli was to continue twenty days. All this mighty parade was granted him for an action, which was of little consequence to the commonwealth, but occasioned the slaughter ©f some thousands of men. Thus Csesar, and even the Roman senate, thought nothing of sacrificing the lives of mortals to their false ambition, and the vain love of momentary glory. In the year of Rome 700, Csesar resolved on a second expedi- tion to Britain, and accordingly made all the prepxirations necessa- ry for that expedition. He landed vvitliout opposition ; and, though the Britons were successful in some attacks, they were entirely defeated at last, If we take a critical review of Csssar, we shall find, that the commonwealth had never given birtli to a more able commander j though it must be ov/ned, at the same time, that his unbounded ambi4^ion, and his insatiable t.hirst after riches, which lie courted for the gake of corrupting those who might oppose his designs,- sullied the g'lory of ail his conquests. Venality prevailed in the camp, and he plundered even the temples of the gods, nor spared the allies of the Romans. GatOj and the rest of the senators, %yished to bring him to an account, but the magnifieence of his- conquests, the blindness of the people, and the senators he had bribed, overturned^every attempt of this nature. So far from pun- ishing him for his crimes, sacrifices were offered to the gods for his sacrilegious actions, and his vices were considered as virtues.- Pompey now began to see his mistake, and resolved, if possible, to ruia Caesar, whose elevation he considered himself as the sole- cause of He had already a great ascendency over the senate ; and, in order to ingratiate himself with the people, he built a- rnagnificent theatre, in which plays and other spectacles were ex- hibited. As it was in Rome, so it is now with almost every other' state : the gi-eat sometimes condescend to shew the vulgar a fa- vour; with no other view, than that they may assist them in their ambitious designs, which, when obtained, prove the ruin of those that were the cause of it. Those in power use tyranny and?'^ oppression ; those v/ho want to obtain it, fiattery and deceit. In the mean time, Crassus- being on his march plundered the* temple of Jerusalem often thousand talents; and, on every occa- sion, shewed himself more avaricious than heroic. He was care- less of taking any advantage of the enemy, who at last engaged him, and obtained a complete victory. In this engagement his son' lost his life, and he himself, being afterwards betrayed, was killed' J also. The Parthians, in this battle, killed 20,000 Romans, and I took 13,000 prisoners. The person who killed Crassus cut ofi his- 1 head and his right hand, and carried tnem to the Parthian king, v/ho ordered melted gold to be poured down his throat, upbraiding, ROMAN HISTORY. i?5- him with these words : ** Glut thyself now with that g-old, with which in thy life-time thou wast never to be satisfied !" One of the principals of the triumvirate being" tlius no more, it was easy to foresee that a violent strugg-le v/ould ensue between the other two, who, for some time past, had broke off all professions of friendship. To such a height was corruption now g-ot in Romej, that employ- ments were sold in the most public manner ; nor were the chiefs of the different factions less cautious in taking* bribes ; and, where they could not carry their point by the number of votes, never failed to call in force and violence. In Ifact, no office was now ob- tained till it had been contested with the sword, and the blood of some citizen shed on the occasion. In one of these scenes of con- fusion, Clodiuswas murdered by Milo, and the body was exposed ail' bloody to the people, who thereupon broke all the seats of the magistrates, made a funeral pile of them^ and set it on fire, when all the magnificent buildings, in which the magistrates used to assemble, were, -with the body of Clodius, reduced try ashes. So many people were afterwards murdered that it became dangerous to walk the city unarmed, Hereupon Pompey was elected dictator, and had great authority given" him, which increased his number of friends in the senate ; nor did those of Csesar decrease, who, by means of bribes, and the fame of his heroic actions, found his party very powerful in Rome; Ceesar having fisished the war in Gaul, which had been the most dangerous, though the most glorious, he had ever under- taken, he sued for the consulship, and desired to have the time of his government prolonged. In the mean time matters- seemed to run against C'sesar in the senate ; but, as he was informed of every thing that was transacting in Rome, he concerted his measures accordingly. Csesar, exasperated at the little respect paid him by the senate, immediately passed the Alps at the head of his third legion, and halted at Ravenna, from whence he wrote to the senate-; His let- ter concluded with, " If I have not justice immediately doue me, I -will march to Rome;'* These last words filled- the assembly with horror, and Caesar was commanded to resign his army, on pain of being declared an enemy to his country. This decree of the senate was as a declaration of vvar, and both parties had im- mediately recourse to arms. Mark Anthony, the tribune Cu- rio and Cassius,>in the habits of slaves, quitted the city, and went- over to Csesar. Csesar immediately retired secretly from Ravenna, and went and joined his army, which was then near the Rubicon. He there found about 50G0 foot and 300 horse, and with these inconsidera- ble forces he began the civil war. He halted some time on the banks of the Rubicon, reflecting on the miseries and calamities inseparable frqm intestine wars,: *' If I do not cross this river," said he to himself, " I am ruined ; and should I pass it, whafr^ multitudes shall 1 ruin!'* After ruminating some times and ths^ h2 126 ROMAN HISTORY, animosity of his enemies presenting- itself to his mind, he plunged into the river, and cried out, " Let us g'o whither the omens of ^ the gods, and the injustice of our enemies, call us : the dye is cast!" The army having crossed the Rubicon, Csesar tore his robe in. the presence of the tribunes of the people, and implored the pro- tection of his soldiers, when they all cried out, with loud acclama- tions, that they v/ere ready to die in the service of their general. He then marched with all possible expedition, and took Arimi-, num, which diffused terror all over Italy. The senate met several times, but so great was- the consternation, that they could come to no conclusion. Pompey, having no troops, nor any place to which he could retire, was under some uneasiness ; and' the sen- - ate, and Cato in particular, reproached him for having thus suf- fered himself to be seduced by the artifices of Caesar, Pompey resolved to move the seat of war to Appulia, fearing, should he oblige the people to take up arms, they might turn those arras against him. At Apulia were two legions, which Caesar had' resigned to him ; and, having endeavoured, in an oration, to per- suade the senators to follow him, several of them, with the con- suls, left R-ome in the night, and accompanied Pompey, being de- termined to share with him his fortune. CHAP. XL From the year of Some 706, to the Death of- y-ulius Qesar, '*^BOUT this time, Caesar made himself master of Picenum ; and: having obtained some other advantages, before he set out for Spain, in order to drive Pompey's veterans fixjm thence, he marched first;, to Rome, to settle some kind of government there. Having taken 3000 pounds weight of gold out of the treasury, he left Rome, say* ino*, that he was going- to attack an army without a g eneral, and that then he would go and combat a general witlioai any army. After several skirmishes and battles on both sides-, the armies of" Pompey and Caesar met on the plains of Pharsalia. In these armieS' was the Hower of the Romftn legions, whose bravery was to deter- mine the fate of that mighty empire. The animosity and r.m.bition of their ehiefs,who were fired with thehf pes of riches and glory that must necessarily follow the conquest of the dav^ made every one conclude, that a general battle was unavoldibie. Pompey, having twice the number of soldiers to what Caesar had, thought himself sure of victory : and his soldiers even quarreiled among themselves about the share of plunder. Cxsar employed his time in a different manner -, fee exerted his utmost skill to improve his soldiers, and inrp're \hem vnth vigour and activity. Hearing that' PoiBpey's arm^r v;- ;:-c,vvTi i;p in ovd^t ROMAN HISTORY'. 127 ' of battle, he told his troops, with an air of the highest satlsfactioiTj that the long'-wished-for moment was arrived, in which it was in their power to gain immortal honour. Having thus -spoken, he advanced with his troops towards the field of battle. Pompey .was very much ^ disturbed by ill omens, but, nevertheless,- exhorted his soldiers to ■ behave courageously. As the armies approached, the two generals : rode from rank to rank to animate their soldiers.' The signal was - then given for battle, and the contest on both sides was long and ' bloody, and seemed for some time equal. Pompey's cavalry. ' charged with great vigour, and obliged the enemy to give ground. Cse^ar instantly advanced with his' reserved corps, and, attacking the faces of the enemy with their pikes, these knights were soon broken, and thrown into disorder, Ceesar pdtsued the advantage with so much vigour, that they were at last overpowered. The auxiliaries began the fiight, though Eompey's right wing main- tained their ground with great bravery. 'At this instant, Ca;sar ordering his men to cry aloud, " Kill the foreigners, but save the Romans," the latter threw dov/n their arti:ss and received quarter. Meantime a dreadful slaughter was made of the foreigners, who were flying with the utmostlprecipitation After the battle Pompey did. not act consistent with that char= acter he had hitherto borne ; but, mounting a horse, went to La- rissa, and from thence to the sea- shore. The rich furniture, and other things which were found in Pompey's camp, were a con- vincing proof how much luxury had prevailed there. There fell in this memorable hdtxle 15,000, and 24,000 surrendered priso- ners. , Pompey, lately that great and powerful commander, v/as now obliged, with a few friends only, to retreat to a nsherman's bark, - from whence he got on board another vessel, and made all possible sail His misfortunes had now so completely conquered him,' that he forgot to make use of tliose advantages he still had at sea, being master of a powerful and victorious fleet. Pompey fled to - the island of Lesbos, where he had before sent Cornelia, his wife, and Sextus, his younger, son, vvliora • he took with him from - Lesbos to Cyprus, and from thence came to Egypt. Pompey had been a great friend to Auletes, the father of the young Egyptian king, and it Vv^ascMfefiythroug-h the influence of this illustrious Roman, that he was res^tored to his kingdom: he therefore expected to be assisted and received with equal kindness ■ by the son. Porcipey, on his drawing near to land, sent messen- gers to Ptolemy, to requne his protection, and aid him in his pre- sent distress. The king was then only thirteen y^ars of age, and therefore consulted his minister,^, what answer to return. At last, after various opinions, it was thought most expedient to dispatch him- Achillas, with SepUmaS; a lioman commander, were sent to execute the horrid deed They went to take Pompey on board a small boat, under pre» tence that great vessels could not approach the shore without HRich difEcultf. Ths troops were dra^wa up on tbe se^-side, a?. %|S-' aOMAh"' HISTORY. . » with a (lesi.^n to honour Pompey, with Ptolemy at their head, Pompey embraced Cornelia, (alas, little did he think for the last time^!) and entered the boat, where he was shamefully murdered, in the sight of his wife and the young king. The mui'derers cut offhis head, and threw his body on the sand, where it had no other funeral than what one of his freedmen gave it, with the assistance of an old Roman, who was there by accident. Thus unworthily ended the life of Pompey the Great, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Cornelia had seen Pompey massacred before her eyes ; and it is easier to imagine the condition of a woman in the height of griefs from so tragical a scene than to describe it. The Roman siiips made off to sea v/ith all imaginable speed. Cornelia and Sextus escaped first to Tyre, and from thence into Africa ; but most of the other ships were taken by the Egyptian galleys, and all on board them cruelly put to the sword, among whom was Lucius Lentulus, the late consul, who, obstinately rejecting all the propo- sals that had been made by. Caesar, was the author of this fatal war. In the mean time, Csesar made all possible haste to- arrive in Egypt, where he suspected Pompey had retired, and was in hopes of finding him alive. He came to Alexandria with two legions and 800 horse. Iti these legions were not above 3200 men ; but Caesar confided so much in the fame of his exploits, that he thought ev- ery place would entertain him with skfety On his arrival at Alex- andria he was informed of Pompey's death, and soon after on his entering the place, he was presented with his head. At the sight of it he wept, and turned his face from it with abhorrence, as from an ungrateful spectacle, and ordered it to be buried in a- proper place with all honourable solemnities. As Caesar was going out of his sliip, he heard a clamour of the soldiers, which the king had left to guard the city, and saw a- concourse of people gathered about him, because the fasces were carried before him, which made the populaee cry out, that it dimin- ished the authority of their king. This tumult was soon quelled ; ; but others happened every day, in which many soldiers were slain. Caesar therefore sent forborne other legions out of Asia, as he was obliged to continue at Alexandria, on account of the Etesian winds, then blowing from the northj which prevented his sailing from- thence. In the mean time, he employed himself in calling in the debt due to him from Auietes, and in hearing and determining the con- * troversy between Ptolemy and Cle-opatra, Auietes had engaged the interest of Caesar by a bribe of 10,000 talents, part of which- was unpaid, and now exacted by Caesar with rigour. The case of Cleopatra and Auietes being at this time to be argued before Caesar, advocates were appointed on both sides to plead the cause. Cleopatra, hearing that Caesar was unboundedly fond of women laid a plot to attach him first to her person, and then to her cause r tor she was ^ woman who laad^ notlilng of prostituting. her person ROMAN HISTOHY; 129 W any Ofle, either through passion or interest. She desired Csesar to permit her to come in person, that she might plead her own cause before him. This being easily granted, she was privately conveyed into the city by her own servant, who carried her on his' back, tied up in her bedding, to Caesar's apartmeat in the citadel,' where he threw down his burden, untied it, up started the lady, with the best airs she could nut on, Csesar was pleased with her stratagem, and smitten with her beauty, which had all the effect she wished for. He lay with her that night, and afterwards had by her a son, who was named Csesarran. The next m'orning Caesar sent for PtoFemy, -and pressed him to-' receive his sister again upon her own therms ; at which the young- king was so much enraged, that he run out of the palace into the street, tore the diadem from his head and complained to the peo- ple that he was betrayed. In a moment the whole city was in an uproar, and the populace came on tumultuously to assist their king, whose person was seized by the Romans, which quelled the Egyptians, who were assured by Caesar, that they would be fully' satisfied with tlie judgment he should pass. The next day Caesar summoned an assembly of the people, be-' fore whom hfe brought out Ptolemy and Cleopatra ; and, after having caused the will of the late king to be read, he decreed' that they should reigh jointly in Egypt, according to the tenor of that will ; and farther, that Ptolemy, the younger son, and Arsino,' the younger daughter, should reign in Cyprus. This contented the whole assembly, except Photinus, who dreaded the resent- ment of Cleopatra, and not only created new discontents among' the people, but also prevailed with Achillas to bring his army from Pelusium to Alexandria^ to drive Cse&ar out of it; Achillas had 20,000 good troops, and thought to overcome Cjesar imme- diately : but this great Roman posted his little army so judicious-' ly, that he easily sustained the assault. Achillas then marched against the port, with an intention to seize the fleet, and shut up Caesar i6y sea ; but he alsofrustraded this attempt, by burning the^ Egyptian fleet, which consisted of 50 gallies, and 22 large ships. He then took possession of the tower of Pliaros, which he garrisoned, awd by this means preserved his 'communication by sea, without ' wiuch he had been effectually ruined. Csesar also fortifieJ himself in the strongest quarter of the city, from whence Arsinoe escaped to Achillas; and such, lie says, was the beginning of the Alex- andrian war, at which place he concludes his Commentaries. Some of the ships, when on fire, drove to the shore, and com- municated their flames to the adjoining houses; and, spreading into that quarter of the city called Bruchium, consumed the no- ble library there, which had been the collection of several ages, and then contained four hundred thousand volumes. Such was the loss the scps of literature sustained by the ravages of war. , Caesar sent for succours to all the adjacent parts, while the eu- nuch Ganymedes put Achillas to death, and succeded him in the command of the Egyntian army, as also the administration of all- ISa ROMAN HISTORi. other affairs. He contrived many stratag-ems to dlstl-es^ Csesar during" this war ; and, in particvilar he found means to spoil all the iresh water in his quarter, and was very near destroying him by that means, there being- no other fresh water in Alexandria but that of the Nile, which was kept in vaulted reservoirs in every house, supplied from the river by a canal, which communication he stop- ped, and turned the 'sea-water into the reservoirs : but Cxsar sunk, wells so deep that he found- springs which supplied him with fresh - water again. Cccsar afterwards defeated Ganymedes in three naval engage- ments, and was joined by a legion sent by Calvininus, while a consid- erable army was assembhng for him inSyria andCilici?.,underMithri- dates of Pergamus, who entered Egypt, and took Pelutium by. storm. In the second sea-fight, Csesar had like to have perished. By attempting to take the town in the island of Pharos, and the - mole leading to it ; he was repulsed with the loss of about eight-hun=- dred men, and had like to have been lost himself in the rout ; for, fiUdhig the ship in which he endeavoured to escape ready to sinkj. by reason of the number of those who had crowded into it, he threw himself into the sea, and with difficulty got off by swin>ming. to another of his ships in the port : while he thus made his es- eape, he carried some valuable papers, which he had about him, in one hand and swam with the other, whereby he saved both them and himself. Csesar was persuaded to send king Ptolemy to the Egyptian army, in compliance with their desire, and on a promise of peace : but when they found that they had their king at their head, they push- ed on the war with greater vigour than before. Mithridates ad- vanced with his army, and defeated a body of Egyptians, who de- fended the banks of the Nile. Ptolemy then advanced with his whole array to oppose the victors, and Csesar marched to support them. A decisive battle ensued, in which C?esar obtained a com-; piete victory, Ptolemy endeavoured to escape in a boat, which sunk, and he was drowned in the Nile. Caesar then returned to Alexandi'ia, and all Egypt submitted to the conqueror. Csesar gave the crown of Egypt to Cleopatra, in conjunction' with Ptolemy, her younger brother, who was only eleven years of' age. The passion which Csesar had conceived for that princess, was probably the sole cause of his embarking in so dangerous a war ; and his affection for her kept him much longer in Egypt than his affairs required. He passed v/hol*- nights in feasting with her, and even intended to marry her ; but, after continuing some months in Egypt, he was obliged to quit it, to oppose Pharnaces, son of the great Mithridates. Pharnaces being conquered, and endeavour- ing to break into Bosphorus, was repulsed and slain by ..sander, who had revolted from him. Thus deservedly fell a man, so rebel- lious to his father, and ungrateful to his friends. After this, he set out for Rome with the utmost diligence, having settled hiii affairs in these parts, as well as time would permit. No sooner h.%d he arrived in Italy, thnn Cicero, and many others of KOMAN HIST©RY. t51 Pompey's party, met him, and congratulated him on his return Caesar received them in the kindest manner, which paved the way for making- every thing- quiet in the commonvt'ealth. In the year of Rome 708, the time of Caesar's dictatorship being expired, he was elected consul with Emilias Lepidus. However, "he was obliged to quit Rome ; Scipio, Cato, and Juba, king of Numidia, having raised forces in Africa, where Cscsar landed, and totally defeated them. Juba would have retired with Petreius to Zama, which was the strongest city in his dominions, but the in- habitants refused him admittance, and gave his treasures to Caesar. Juba resolutely determined not to survive this misfortune ^ and agreeing with Petreius that they should kill eacli other, the latter fell dead on the spot ; but Juba havine; received -^nly a slight wound, was obliged to ask the assistance of a slave to ^lisp^tchliira. As to Cato, he returned to Utica, and there established a kintl of senate, v/hich consisted of three hundred Romans. He at hrst intended to stand a siege ; but finding the inhabitants were not to :be relied on, he changed his resolution, and advised his fi-iends either to escape by sea, or submit to the mercy of dcsar He em- braced them with uncommon tenderness, and discoiu'sed on moral subjects, of which this Vv'as the theme : " The virtuous are only happy and free, and the wicked are ever v/retched and slaves," His sons, suspecting he had some design on himself, at supper /took his sword from him, v.'hich he did not then miss. He after- wards threw himself on his bed, and read Plato's Dialogue on the Immortality of the Sold ; then missmg his sword, which not being- brought him so soon as-he expected, he fell into a violent passion At last, his friends, bringing it to him, implored him not to lay vio- lent hands on himself, but to continue among them, as their only genius, guardian, and protector. On receiving his sword, h.e felt the point of it, and said, '* I am now my own master." He then read again, and afterwards fell into a sound sleep. At day-break he awoke, when he stabbed himself; but not doing it effectually, he staggered, and threw down a table, the noise; of which brought in his slaves, his friends, and his sons, who found him weltering in his gore. His physician replaced his bowels, and sewed up the wound ; but Cato, afterwards coming to himself, tore open the wound, and rushed out of life with fury, rage, and indignation, which finished Caesar's war in Africa. Whether the manner in which this great republican put a per- iod to his life was justifiable, or not, has ever since been a matter of much dispute. I must own, that he did not herein act conform- ably to his own system of philosophy ; and, if we try him by the viaws of christian'ty, he will still appear more culpable Life isbut a short summer's campaign, in which v/e have many battles to •-fight, many breaches to mount, many strong fortresses to storm. The prudent general, however unfortunate he may have been for a long time, experience • teaches us, often proves at last successfulp and gives us a convincing proof, that it is cowardice to despair, tlioug^b, in all human s^ppearance, every thing- -seems lost. I am- 132 ROMAN HISTORY. however, for allowing Gate some favourable circumstances : Wfe must consider the ag'e in which he lived, and the barbarity of those times, in which suicide was not forbidden by either relig'ion or laws. Shall Cato become the sport and mockery of those people to whom he once gave laws ? Shall he live to see his country, once the seat of sweet liberty ..and freedom, become the den of tyranny and oppression ; her laws subverted^ venality and corruption carry- ing- every thing before tbem, and that once fair and stately city, Rome, the mistress of the world, now, througii faction and party, precipitating into a pile of ruins ? Csesar hereupon returned to Rome, and triumphed four times in ■©ne month ; first for Gaul : then for Egypt, in which Arsinoe was 4oaded with chains ; his third triumph was for Pontus, and king Pharnaces ; and -his la§t for Africa, in which the younger Juba was exposed. He then began to settle the commonwealth, enacted new laws, and committed judicial matters to the senators and knights only. With the assistance of some of the ablest astronomers he reformed the calendar, regulated the year according to the course of the sun, allotting to each year iSSS days, and added one day more to every, fourth year, which was called the Bissextile, or J^eap-Year. The last -war in which Csesar was engaged about the year ©f Home 709, and which had like to hav^e proved fatal, to him, was against Pompey's two sops, who had a powerful army in Spain. A decisive battle was fought in the plains of Munda, in which Cxsar was more melancholy than usual, and, perhaps, reflected on the in- stability of terrestrial ^airs. He began tadistrust so long a series of prosperity ; and, seeing himself arrived to the sante heig-ht of glory to which Pompey had once attained, he was fearful of ex- periencing the same fate. He now saw, what he believed could have never come to pass, his veteran soldiers, after fourteen years service In the field, gave ground, and would have fled, had not shame prevented them. Caesar, in his distraction and despair, leap- ed from his horse, and ran to them with the utmost fury. He stopped the fugitives, reanimated them, and flying from rank to rank, was every wl\ere in an instant. "Victory was now wrested from the enemy, which fortune seemed to have given them, and 3000 of them w&ve killed on^the spot, jaosar had: been exposed to so much danger in this battle, as occasioned him frequently to say, that, on other occasions he had fought for glory, but at Munda o save his life. After this he returned to Rome, and had the honour of a tri- umph ; but he did not meet with the same universal acclamations as formerly. The name of Pompey was still dear to the Ro- mans, and they grieved to see his whole family thus almost extir- pated. Extraordinary honours were, however, heaped on Caesar, and Rome seemed to have nothing left but the shadow of liberty. He was allowed to assist at all games in a gilded chair, and a golden crown on his head ; which crown and chair, after his death, w^& decreed to be exhibited. at all public sports, to perpetuate hi^ KOMAN HISTORY. 133 tflemory. Those honours we*e heaped on him by the senate only to render him odious to the people, and thereby bring- about his ruin. His enemies detested his ambition, and the most zealous republicans resolved to die, rather than be eye-witnesses to the total ruin of their liberties. Upwards of sixty senators entered into a conspiracy to destroy Csesar, Brutus and Caasius being at the head of this combination. Brutus was the soldier and scholar ; but he never drew his sword with any other design than to serve his country, nor read with any other purpose than to subdue his passions. In all his actions, he strictly adhered to justice and honour, and all he said, as well as all he did,seemed to flow from a public and unbiassed spirit. Every man in the commonwealth, who loved himself, loved Brutus. Though Brutus was the avowed enemy of absolute power, yet he could not prevail on himself to hate the usurper, who had indulged him on so many occasions. It was the love of his country, the strongest of all human ties, and that only which could prevail on him to join the conspiracy; nor had Cassius less obligations toCaesar than Brutus, having in battle received from that conqueror life and quar- ter. Cassius however, engaged in this conspiracy, not out of any love to his country, but to satiate his unjust revenge. The conspirators carried on their plot with all imaginable caution and secrecy ; and, the better to justify their designs, deferred it till the ides of March, on which day Caesar was to he declared king. A famous augur told C^sar that great dangers threatened him on the ides of March : and those writers who would add hor= ror to the description of this day, tell us, ** that the world bore a ^loom and heavy presage of Caesar's fate ; that wild beasts came into the most frequented parts of the city, apparitions in the streets, illuminations in the skies, and that inauspicious sacrifices damped the hearts of all men, except the assassins, who, with an incredi- ble serenity of mind, waited the approaching opportunity of sacri- ficing the usurper." Caesar's wife, having had frightful and omuious dreams the pre- ceeding niglit, persuaded him not to go abroad that day ; but De- ciraus Brutus, one of the conspirators, calling on him in the morn- ing, and laughing at thos^ silly omens, took him by the hand, and led him out of his house. As Caesar was going into the senate- house, he met the augur, who had forewarned him of the danger of that day : *' The ides of March are come," said Cxsar. " True, (replied the augur) but they are not yet past.'* Scarce had Csesar taken his seat, but all the assassins pressed a- bout him and sued for favours which they knew would not be grant- ed. The sign was given : immediately, one, oppressed with the greatness of the attem] t, made an irresolute pass at him Cxsar then rushed upon Casca and beat him to the ground ; but, while they were struggling, another of the conspirators came behind hini;, and plunged his dagger in his bosom : at the same time, Cassius wounded him in the face, and Brutus in the thigh. TiVj: tb;s time he had made a very vigorous resistance, but now madeiio M 154 ROMAN HISTORY. more, and, submitting" to the strokes of a person, who owed to him his life, he only uttered these wordsj ** And thou too, my son, Bru- tus !** Caesar used to call him by this tender name, supposing him to be his illegitimate son by an intrigue with Servilia. Growing now faint with the loss of blood, he reeled to Pompey's statue, vhere, covering- his face with his robe, and drawing his skirts to bis knees, that he might fall decently, he sunk down and expired, having received twenty-three wounds. Caesar had long before been advised by his friends to be more cautious of the security of his person, and not to walk, as was his common practice, among the people, without arms, or any one to defend him ; but to these admonitions he always replied, *' He that lives in fear of death, every moment feels its tortures ; 1 will die but once." x\t last, thus fell, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, the conqueror of the Gauls, of Pompey, and the senate, the master of the Roman republic and the world, who died without uttering the least complaint, ar shewing any mark of grief or weakness. CHAP. XII. From the Death of Julius C£sar to the End of the Comfnoniutakh. After the murder of Caesar, every thing was in a state »f an. archy and confusion. Had the conspirators properly considered, they might have easily foreseen, that the death of Caesar would Eot put an end to the invasion of their liberties ; but that it would give rise to fresh civil commotions, and endanger the ruin of the commonwealth. It was natural to suppose, that, as the unlimited power of Caesar had been the envy of the great men, as soon as he was taken off, many would be candidatesto succeed him, as pre- sently will evidently apjDcar. Anthony and I^epidus resolved to revenge Caesar*s murder. Au- thony, the next day read Caesar's will to the people, in which Octa- vius was appointed his successor ; and, in case he died without issue, Decimus Brutus, one of the principal conspirators, was to succeed him ; large legacies were likewise given to the people, who W£re hereupon so charmed with Csesav*s goodness and so en- raged against his assassins, that they found themselves obliged for the present to quit the city in order to |-»reserve their lives. In the mean time, Octaviu.s, Cesar's heir, arrived at Rome. He resolved to revenge Caesar's murder, and to support his own prcr tensions, though at the hazard of his life. He landed first at Brun- dusium, where the soldiers resorted to liim in crowds, and, over- joyed to see so near a relation of their former general, gave up the town to him, and hereupon he assumed the name of Caesar, by which name we shall hereafter call him. He then maj'ched boldly Awards Rome, attended onlybv a few domestics r but was joined ROMAN HISTORY, I'l'f in his way by all his father's friends, his freed-men and the veteran soldiers, on whom Caesar had bestowed lands in Italy. Money was bi'oug-ht him from all quarters, and at his coming near the capitol, he was met by the greatest part of the magistrates, the officers, and people. Long-, and alternately successful, were the disputes between Caesar and Anthony, which last aimed at nothing less than the de- struction of the former, that he might thereby arrive at sovereign power. Caesar was sensible of thjs, and took all possible care to avoid the snares laid for him : sometimes they would feign a friend- ship for each other, thoug-h the rankest hatred subsisted betvveen them. In the year of Rome 711, Anthony, by virtue of the orders of the people, though contrary to those of the senate, took \ipon him t)ie g-overnment of GaUia Cisalpina ; and, after winning most of the cities of that province, actually besieged D. Brutus in Modena. This so exasperated the senate, that he was soon after declared an enemy to the commonwealth, and immediately sent Cssar to the relief of Brittus. Th^is the dictator's adopted son was seen march- ing, under his enemies' standardsj to succour one of his fatlier'ft assassins; but the design of Caesar was not so much to relieve Brutus, as to ruin Anthony. A general battle being fouglit near Modena, Anthony was there defeated, after a great slaughter. He th.en fled to Gallia Tran- salpina, where Lepidus, Piancue, and Asinius Pollio, were at the head of a considerable body of forces, hoping they would assist him, CiEsar after this victory, finding himself only the tool of the senate, resolved on accommodating matters with Anthony, and managed thing's so well, that he not only got himself elected consul, but oblig. «d the senate solemnly to renounce all the decrees that had been enacted against Anthony, Dolabella, and others ; and likewise to condemn Brutus, Cassius, and their several accomplices. Decimus afterwards endeavourinic, with a few attendants to pass through Gaul, was taken and betrayed at Aquileia by Sequanus, governor of that country, who sent his head to Anthony. Much about the same time, Trebonius, anotlser of the conspirators was taken, and, after being put to grievous torments, liis head was Struck off, and kicked about in a most contemptuous manner by tha soldiers. Diiierencea being at last accommodated between Caesar and Anthony, it was agreed, they, in conjunction with Lepidus, should invest themselves with the supreme authority during five years, under the name of Triumviri, It was also agreed that Anthony should have all Gaul, except Narbonne, whicli Lepidus was to have with Spain ; whilst Csesar was to possess Africa, Sicily and Sardi- nia, with the other islands, and that Italy, and the Eastern pro- vinces, should cijutinue for a time in common. In this manner did three men again divide the empire of the world'; but of these- tw© were too great long. to be satisfied with a divisLon of power. m ROMAN HISTORY. They further agreed, to their eternal infamy, to destroy all theic* enemies, on which occasion Cicero caused the greatest- contro. versy. Anthony was his implacable enemy, and would come to no firm accommodation, till his destruction was determined. Lepi- dus, who was little better than a tool, consented to this. Caesar, on account of his former friendship, would have spared his life ; but, at last, he ignominiously consented to his death. They pro^ scribed 300 senators, and upwards of 2000 knights, so that Rome was now in a most horrible situation, nothing being heard but cries and lamentations in every part of it, and murders weree very where committed by the soldiers. The triumviri carried their inhumanity to such lengths, as to give up to one another their nearest relations. Lepidus sacrificed his brother Paulus to his colleagues ; Mark Anthony abandoned to Cxsar his uncle Lucius ; and Caesar gave up to Anthony, Cicero, to whom he was bound by the strictest obligations, Cicero, while on his fliglit, seeing ruffians coming towards him, ordered his litter to be set down, and quietly submitted his neck to Pomponius Lena, whom he before had saved from condemnation. This wretch cut off his hands and his head, and carried them to Anthony, who in- sulted over them. Some authors tell us, that it was his custom to have the heads of those, whom he had proscribed, brought upon his table, and that he there used to feed his eyes a long time with this cruel spectacle. Fulvia, his wife, says Dion, spit upon Cicero's- bead, and laying it in her lap, pulled out the tongue, and pierced it several times with her bodkin. The head and hands, being af- terwards, by order of the cruel Anthony, fixed upon the rostrum, the people were struck with horror, to see the remains of a man, w^hose unequalled eloquence had so often triumphed in that very place., Thus fell, about the sixty-fourth year of his age, the great- est orator the world ever produced. About the year of Rome 712, a decisive battle was fought, in which Antheny commanded on one side, and Marcus Brutus and Cassius on the other. Victory declared for Anthony ; on which Ckssius by his own order, was killed by his servant, and Brutus fell upon his sword, and expired. Such was the end of Brutus and Cassius, who, as some relate, died by the same weapons with which they had stabbed Cssar. The triumviri, by this victory, es- jj^iJ^Hshed their empire on the ruins of the commonwealth, itsliber- ties'bein'^' hurled in the plains of Pharsalia, with Brutus and Cassius, the lastYoma.: republicans. _ Cs:sar then retur»"l^d to Italy, and Anthony, after visitmg Athens, wher*^ he was present at tb^ conferences of the philosophers, crossed into Asia with all his troops, iO establish the authority of the trium- virate. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, (who had poisoned her younger brother, that she might reign alone) met him at Tarsus in Cihcia, which proved his destruction : for her beauty, wit, and art, inflamed him almost to madness, and extinguished all his military ardour. Cleopatra was then twenty -five years of age, when the graces of j her person were more powerful than the magnificence of her dress. ROMAJI HISTORY. 137 The brllUancy of her equipage, on entering the river Sydnus, will hardly admit of a description. The poop of her ship flamed with g'old, the sails were of purple silk, and the oars inlaid with silver. A pavilion of cloth of gold was raised upon the deck, under which appeared the queen robed like Venus, and surrounded with the most beautiful virgins of her court, of whom some represented the Nereids, and others the Graces. Instead of trumpets were heard flutes, hautboys, harps, and such other musical instruments, warb- ling the softest airs, to which the oars kept time, and rendered the harmony enchanting. Perfumes were burnt on the deck, which spread their odours to a great distance on the river, whose shores were covered with an infinite number of people, crying out, that Venus was coming to make Bacchus a visit for the good of Asia. Great feasts were everyday made between Anthony and Cleopa- tra ; and it was at this time, that Arsinoe, Cleopatra's sister, was, at the request of that cruel queen, put to death. It was also, at one of these feasts, that Cleopatra had two of the finest pearls in her ears that were ever seen, each of which being valued at about 50,000 pounds sterling. She melted one of these pearls in vinegar and swallowed it. She would have done the same by the other but was prevented. This* other pearl was afterwards consecrated to Venus by Augustus, who carried it from Alexandria to Rome. Cleopatra accompanied Anthony as far as Tyre, and he followed her to Alexandria, where they spent the whole winter in a most scandalous excess of luxury and effeminacy. Anthony afterwards returned to Romejand married Octavia, the sister of Caesar, and widow of Marcellus ; but he still retained his fondness for Cleopa- tra, and met her at Lucecome in Phoenicia, from whence he return- ed with her to Egypt, where he indulged his inordinate passion for this lascivious woman to the highest excess of voluptuousness. He gave her Phoenicia, the lower Syria, and Cyprus, with great part of Cilieia, Judea, and Arabia. He also made her a present of the libraries of Pergaraus, in which were above ^00,000 volumes, and she placed them in a new library^ which she built where the former stood. She had a taste for polite learning and sciences, and understood several languages. She omitted no kind of arts to keep Anthony in her chains, and he entered Alexandria in triumph dragging at his chariot wheels, the king of Armenia, laden with golden chains, and presented him in that condition to Cleopatra, who was pleased to see a captive king at her feet. At one of their banquets, when Anthony was intoxicated with wine, she presumed to ask him to give her the Roman empire, which he was not ashamed to promise her. In the mean time, and about the j^ear of Rome 711, Caesar hav- ing triumphed over all the republicans, thought it time to break with his colleagues. He wanted to reign singly, and was there- fore determined, if possible, to rid himself of them. He easily re- moved Lepidus, who being little esteemed by his soldiera, was abandoned by them in the midst of his camp, which Csesar became master of by his artful conduct and secret negociations. Lepidas M 2 13S ROMAN HISTORY, was afterwards reduced to such an abject state, as to become even the pity of hi&enemies. Cleopatra had two sons by Anthony, one of whom was called Alexander, a4id the other Ptolemy. He heaped a profusion of hon- ours on these young princes, and celebrated the coronation of their mother with the utmost magnificence. Matters being carried to this pitch by Anthony, he gave great disgust to the Romans, and particularly to Octavia, his wife : she set out to meet Anthony with Csesar's consent, who gave it with no other view, but that An- thony's passion for Cleopatra might induce him to act dishonoura- bly by Octavia, and thereby increasing the indignation of the Ro- mans against Anthony^ he should have a plausible pretence for drawing his sword against him. Every thing succeeded to Caesar's wishes ; for Octavia received a letter from Anthony, in which she was ordered to confie no far- ther than Athens, and accordingly she there stopped. Cleopatra,, who very much dreaded the charms and virtues of Octavia, em- ployed all her artifice to prevent Anthoi\y's giving her meeting. She assumed an air of melancholy, and would frequently let fall a. tear on his approach, which she would wipe away immediately, af-^ fecting to conceal her weakness and grief. Tl-ys had its desired effect, for he at last ordered Octavia to return to Rome. On hec return, she took the greatest care of her family and behaved in such a manner as procured her immortal honour. She loved her hus- band in spite of his ill usuage, and could not bear to think, that his ungenerous treatment of her should again kindle the flames of a civil war,. How opposite was the character of Octavia to that of Cleopatra : how amiable does the former appear even amidst re- peated insults ! and- how contemptible the latter amidst the parade of magnificence ! Anthony now suffered himself to be persuaded to divorce Octavia- and declare war against Csesar,. both which he accordingly did. !He then assembled his forces at bamos, where he and Cleopatra lived as luxuriously as they had done in Egypt. Here several kings had orders to send arms, provisions, and soldiers ; and others to send musicians, dancers, and buffoons ; so that frequently when a ship was thought to come loaded with military stores, it proved to be only scenes, players, and machines. Anthony's temper, however, began at last to be much soured, and he even, suspected, that Cleopatra had designs on his life, and would never eat of any thing till she had first tasted it, Cleopatra, p€rceiving his. suspicion,, poisoned the tops of the flowers with which she and Anthony, according to the custom of those times,, were crowned with at tlieir meals. Anthony being enfiamed with wine, Cleopatra proposed drinking their flowers ; on which he in- stantly broke off the tops of them with his fingers, and, throwing them in a goblet of wine, was going to drink them, when Cleopa- tra stopped him, saying, *' I am the person whom you suspect of designing to poison you ;. but now judge, whether I should want opportunities to dispatch you, were you become tiresome to mcj^. Jt'OMAN HISTORY. 159 Of I could live without you ;" then ordered a prisoner to be brought in who had been sentenced to die, she obliged him to drink off the liquor, when he expired immediately. This rivetted Anthony's fetters beyond^all hopes of shaking- them off. Cxsar had^fjow g-ot his forces together ; for Anthony, being- lost m luxury and effeminacy with Cleopatra, had given him time to re- cruit, who might otherwise have been totally ruined, had Anthony come upon him before he was prepared. Anthony's fleet consisted of 500 large ships, on board which was an army of 200^000 foot, and 22,000 horse. Caesar had only 250 ships, 80,000 foot, and I2,0:)0 horse. Anthony was advised by his ablest officers not to engage by sea ; but Cleopatra advising the contrary, they came to a gen- eral engagement near the city of Actium in Epirus, in sight of both armies. Victory was for some time doubtful, till the retreat of Cleopatra, who fled with the whole Egyptian squadron, and was precipitately followed by Anthony, declared every thing lost; for Anthony's army immediately submitted to Ciesar. Anthony and Cleopatra escaped to Alexandria, where she put many great persons to death, fearing, since the defeat she had met with, they might take up arms against her. To avoid falling into the hands of Caesar, she formed the very extraordinary design of having her ships, in the Mediterranean, carried into the Red Sea. over the isthmus of seventy miles ; but in this she was prevented by the Arabians, who burnt thera all. Anthony, finding himself de- serted by all his followers, for some time secluded himself from company in his house, which he called Timonium, where he pre- tended to act the part of Timon the man-hater ; but he soon re- turned to the arras of Cleopatra, and witli^ her revelled away the remainder of his life. They agreed to send ambassadors to Csesar to sue for peace ; and Anthony submitted to the meanness of demanding life of him upon the shameful conditionsof passing it at Athens as a private person, if Cicsar would assure Egypt to Cleopatra and her chil- dren. The queen, however, was so treacherous as to give private orders to her ambassadors to mention her o^lyin the treaty. Cse- sar would not admit Anthony's ambassadors to an audience, but he gave a favourable reception to those of the queen, I.e being par- ticularly desirous of securing her person to adorn his triumph, and' her treasures to enable him to pay the debts he had contracted, to defray the expenses of the war. The ambassadors proving unsuccessful, Anthony endeavoured to extinguish in himself the senseof his present misfortunes, and the apprehension of those that threatened him, by abandoning himself to feasting and voluptuousness. Cleopatra and he regaled them- selves alternately, and emulously contended to exceed each other in the incredible magniticence of their banquets, Cleopatra, how- ever, foresaw what might happen, and collected all sorts of poison to try which of them occasioned death with the least pain. Slie made the experiment of their virtues and strength upon condemned cciininalss whereby she found, that the strongest poisons caused 140 ROMAN HISTORY. death the soonest, but with great torment ; and that those which are gentle brought an easy but slow death. She tried the bitings of venomous creatures, and caused various kinds of serpents to be applied to different persons. She every day made these experi- ments, and discovered, at length, that the asp was the only one that caused neither torture nor convulsions, and which, tiirowing" the person bit into an immediate heaviness and stupefaction, attena- ed with a slight sweating upon the face, and a numbness of all the organs of sense, gently extinguished life ; so that those, in that condition, were angry when any one awakened them, or endeav- oured to make them rise, like people exceedingly sleepy. This was the poison she fixed upon ; but applied herself with extraor- dinary solicitude in caressing Anthony, to dispel his suspicions and complaints. Csesar, being fully sensible that it was'^f the highest importance to him not to leave his victory unfinished, invested Pelusium, and summoned the governor to op»n the gates. Seleucus, who com- manded there for Cleopatra, had received secret orders upon that bead, and surrendered the place without waiting for a siege. Such was the wickedness of this queen, in whom the most odious vices were complicated ; she absolutely renounced all modesty, had a violent propensity to -fraud, injustice and cruelty ; and, vt'hat is worse than all, was a most detestable hypocrite. Wliile the ru- mour of this treason spread in the city, Cleopatra ordered her most precious moveables to be carried to a place of security. Ad- joining the temple of Isis she had caused tombs and halls to be erected, superb as well for their beauty and m.agnificence as their loftiness and extent. Hither she removed all her jewels gold, silver, ebony, ivory, and ? large quantity of perfumes and aromat- ic wood, as' if she intended to raise a funeral pile, upon which she would consume herself with her treasures. Caesar was alarmed on being informed of this^ and daily dispatched messengers to her, giving her the greatest hopes of the most kind and generous treat- ment;- while he advanced towards the city with hasty marches. Upon Cesar's arrival there, he encamped near the Hippororae and was in hopes of soon making himself master of the city, by means of the* intelligence he had held with Cleopatra, on which be relied no less than on his army. Anthony, Jaeing ignorant of her intrigues, prepared for an obstinate defence. He made a vig- orous sally, and returned victorious into the city, which was the last effort of his expiring genius: for, after this exploit, his for- titude and sense of glory forsook him, or were no more of service to him. Instead of pursuing his victory,and keeping a watchfuljeye over Cleopatra, who betrayed him, he flew to her in his armour, a;nd threw himself at her feet. The palace echoed with acclama- tions, as though the siege had been raised, and Anthony and Cleo- patra spent that day and part of the night in the most abandoned folly. Anthony now resolved to make the last attempt both by sea and laad, with a fixed resolution to conquer or die. He ordered his attendants to fill him out wine plentifully, saying, «*This may be, ROMAN HISTORY. 141' perhaps, the last service you will be able to do me ; for to-morrow you may change your master, when I, stretched on the ground, shall be no more." On the approach of day, Anthony drew up his forces on some rising ground out of the city, and from thence be- held his galleys, which were rowing out of the port, and going to attack those of Cccsar ; but how shall I express his astonishment when he beheld his admiral delivering up his fleet to his enemy ! At the same time, his cavalry, seeing this, deserted him and went over to CEesar, when his infantry was obliged to submit. Unhappy Anthony, in vain do you fly to the palace to seek Cleopatra, that you may murder her for her perfidy, for she is not there — the igno- minious wretch is retired I Cleopatra had secured herself from his fury among the tombsj which quarter was fortified with good walls, and the gates were shut. She caused Anthony to be told^ that she had destroyed, herself, and chose her own sepulchre among those of her ances- tors. Struck v/ith the idea of her death, he passed immediately from the excess of rage to the most violent transports of griefV and thought only of following her to the grave. Having taken this resolution, he shut himself up in his apartment with a freed-man, whom he had cp.usedto take off his armour, and commanded him to plunge his dagger into his bosom ; but his servant, full of affec« tion, respect, and fidelity for his master, stabbed himself with it, and fell dead at his feet. Anthony^, looking upon this action as an example for him to follow, thrust his sword into his body, and fell- upon the floor in a torrent of his blood, which he mingled with that of his faithful servant. At that moment an officer came to let him know that Cleopatra was alive. He no sooner heard her name pronounced, than he opened his dying eyes, suffered his wounds to be dressed,^ and caused himself to be carried to the fort, where she had shut^ her- self upo Cleopatra would not permit the gates, to be opened to give him entrance, for fear of some surprize ; but she appeared at the lofty window, from whence she threw down chains and cords. Antheny was made fast to these, and Cleopatra, assisted by two women, who were the only persons she had brought with her into the tombs, drew him up. Never was there a more mov- ing sight. Anthony, all bathed in his blood, with death painted in his face, was dragged up in the air, turning his dying eyes, and extending his feeble hands, to Cleopatra, as if to conjure her to receive his. last breath i while she, with her features distorted, and her arm& strained, pulled the cord with her whole strength When she had drawn him up to her, and placed him on a bed, she threw her clothes upon him, and, making the most mournful ex- clamations, cut oif his hair, according to the superstition of the Pagans, who believed that was a relief to those who died a violent death. Her cries recalling his fainting spirits, and seeing the affliction she was in, he told her, with a view to comfort her, that he should die in peace, since he should expire in her arms ; and that he did not blu^h^at his defeatg since he hg4 been van^ 142 ROMAN HISTORr. quished by Romans. Having thus spoken, he expired, being tked in the fifty third year of -his age. His death put an end to all the civil wars, and gave Caesar an opportunity of completing his an\- bitious designs. Proculeius arrived from Caesar, who could not refrain shedding tears on this melancholy occasion, which was aggravated by the bloody sword that was presented to him. This Roman had re- ceived particular orders to seize Cleopatra, and, if possible, to bring h r alive to Caesar. The queen refused to go with him, but jK-rmittcd him to speak to her from without, ProculeiuSj after having observed the situation of the sepulchre, went and inform- ed Cyesar of his observations. Cxsar then sent Gallus to speak with her, which he did in the same manner as Proculeius. In the mean time, the latter bringing a ladder, and being followed hy two officers, got in at the window where Anthony had been drawn up, and went down to the gate, where Cleopati-a was talking to Gallus. One of her female attendants seeing him, shrieked, and cried, *• Ill-fated princess, thou art taken !'* Cleopatra had raised a. dagger to stab herself, when Proculeius, catching her iti his srms, " You injure," said he, " both Caesar and yourself, in at- tempting to deprive him of so noble an opportunity to exert his clemency." He seized her dagger, and shook her robes, to dis- cover if any poison was concealed under them Cssar then sent a freed-man to guard Cleopatra, ordering him to use her like a queen, but to prevent her from laying violent hands on herself Caesar then entered Alexandria without farther opposition., and gave Cleopatra fair hopes of the kindest treatment ; though he intended only to pervert her treasure to his own purposes, and reserve her person to grace his triumph ; but, when he had both in his pov/er, he disregarded her, and she found she had no other means of avoiding- the disgrace of adding to the glory of his tri- umph, than by putting a period to-her^life. Caesar went and paid her a visit, when she endeavoure/Tto captivate that young conquer- or, as she before had Julius Caesar and Anthony ; but, alas, the charm was now broken! Czes;ir, with the utmost coolness, only advised her not to despond, declaring, that he would treat Iter with all possible tenderness. He gave her leave to dispose of her jew- els as she thought proper ; and, after giving her the kindest as- surances, he left her. Caesar imagined he had artfully overreach- ed Cleopatra, by inspiring her with the love of life, which he, in fact, wished to prolong only for the sake of his triumph ; but herein he soon found his mistake. Caesar had before given Cleopatra leave to bury Anthony, which she did with the utmost magnificence, sparing no cost in his in- terment. According to the custom of Egypt, she caused his body to be embalmed with the most exquisite perfumes of the East, and placed it among the tombs of the Egyptian kings. Cleopatra, hearing that Csesar intended to send her and her children away within three days, she conjured him to let her pay lier las.t oblation^ to the manes, of Anthonvj. which he granted- ROMAN HISTORY. 143 She then visited Anthony's tomb, strewing it with fiowers, and watering it witli tears. She then returned to her chamber, went into a bath, and from thence to a table, where a splendid enter- tainment was prepared. When she rose from table she wrote a letter to Caesar, wherein she earnestly desired to be laid in the same tomb with Anthony ; and, having made all quit her chamber, except her two women, she shut the door, sat down upon a bed, and asked for a basket of figs, which a peasant had lately brought. This supposed peasant was one of the queen's domesticks, who had eluded the vigilance of the guards. She placed the basket by her, and a moment after lay down, as if she had fallen asleep; but that was the effect of the asp, which was concealed among the fruit, and had stung her in the arm, which she had held to it. The poison immediately communicated itself to the heart, and killed her without pain. Thus died thi« princess, whose wit and beauty had made so much noise in the world, in the year of Rome 724, after having reigned twenty-two years from the .-death of her father, twelve whereof she had passed^with Anthony, and in the thirty-ninth year of her age. She was a woman of great parts, as well as of great vice and wickedness, and spoke several lunguages with the utmott readiness ; for, besides being well skilled in Creek and Latin, she could converse with Ethiopians, Troglodites, Jews, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, and Persians, without an interpreter, and always gave to such as were of these natioRs, as often ^s they had occasion to address her, an answer in their own language. In her death ended the reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had continued, from the death of Alexander, 294? years. Learn hence, my fair readers, how dangerous is the possession ©f wit and beauty, where prudence and virtue are wanting. The young lady, on whom Heaven has bestowed an uncommon share of natural abilities, if she neglects to improve it by the practice of every social virtue, will, like the wretched XUleopatra, turn those blessings to punishments, in making her ruin the more public, and her memory the more detested. Ease, pleasures, and luxuries, Are too apt to lull the mind into a state of imaginary security, which throws virtue off its guard, and exposes the deluded fair to the most fatal dangers. Surrounded, in the bloom of life, by a crowd of admirers, who are ever ready to offer up the incense of flattery and adulation at the slirine of beauty, they are early accus- tomed to admire such declarations, and form such a plan tor their future conduct, as pave the way to their ruin. Remember, that female virtue, once lost, is never to be regained. But, to return to Czesar, on tlie receipt of Cleopatra's letter, in- stantly dispatched a messenger to her, but he found her dead on' a golden couch, dressed in royal robes, and looking like one asleep, with one of her maids dead at her feet, and tlie other expiringf. Caesar was very much troubled at Cleopatra's death, as it robbed him of tiie noblest ornament of his tinumph, though he could not ^ut adjoirc Uie greatness of he? wuragt;. ae wdered her hodf 144 "ROMAN HISTORY. to be buried near that of Anthony, agreeably to her request, which wa« according-ly done with the greatest fimeral pomp Her women had also a pompous interment, in memory of their fidelity. After Cleopatra's death, Egypt was made a Rotnan province, and gov- erned by a prefect sent from Rome for that purpose. Caesar, having now greatly enlarged the Roman dominions, was received at Rome as a conqueror, who had put an end to the mise- ries atid calamities of most nations. He triumphed three days successively with extraordinary magnificence ; first for Illyricum, secondly for the victory at Actium, and thirdly for the conquest of Egj'pt, On this occasion the temple of Janus was shut, which was the third time since the foundation of Rome, after having stood open two hundred and five \ears. Caesar now considering himself as supreme governor of the Ro- man empire, resolved to shew all the clemency of a wise prince, and the art of a refined politician. His first care was to make the adherents of Anthony his friends ; after this he gave splendid en- tertainments to those in power, and amused the people with shows and plays. He regulated the many abuses that had crept into the -state, banished corruption from the senate, and allov/ed the people the free possession of their liberties. Having settled every thing in the most excellent order, a variety of thoughts crowded on his mind, and he reflected for a considerable time, whether he should continue to rule the empire, or restore it to its former state. Sylla and Julius Caesar were tvvo examples too recent to be soon forgot- ten : the foimer, by giving up his power, was suffered to die peace- ably in his bed; whereas the latter, by maintaining it, was assas- sinated by the hands of his best friends, who afterwards triumphed in the deed. Not being able to determine for himself, he consulted his two best friends, Agrippa and Maecenas. Agrippa advised him to re- sign it ; but Maecenas was of a different opinion. He insisted on it, that it would be impossible for the state to subsist but under a monarch, whose person and power would be equally secure under a mild and wise administration. He followed the adviae of Mae- cenas ; and, though he offered the senate to resign it, he had no intention of so doing. The senate and people, however, all refus- ed to accept his resignation : so that he had the pleasure of being "Corced to accept of that which he wished for. Caesar, in order to appear the less fond of the power they had voted him, immediately declared, that he would not accept of sovereign dignity for more than five years ; but he continued to enjoy it thirty years after the expiration of that term. However fond Caesar might be of power, it is certain lie employed all his care in settling the empire on a happy and lasting foundation ; and, during the rest of his Ijife, acted with so much justice and clemency, that after his death, it was said of him, that it had been well he had never been born, or n.-ver died. The R'^roans were now arrived to the highest pitch of perfection, with respect to literature, arts, and sciences* Tlier^ flourished ROMAN HISTORY, US nt this time, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius, all inimitable poets ; and besides them, Livy, that immortal Roman Historian, Happily, those men of g-enius lived in the times of Cxsar and Mzecenas, who were the greatest encouragefs of learn- ing that perhaps ever existed.' About the year of Rome 727, the number 'of inhabitants are said to have amounted to 4,063,000 ; nor is this much to be won- dered at, when it is said, that the city and suburbs of Rome were at this time fifty miles in compass. The provinces were then di- vided, and all public affairs settled, when the name of Augustus was added to that of Caesar, as intimating something more than mortal. Here ended the greatest commonwealth upon earth, and at the same time began the greatest monarchy, which made so great a figure, that, for many years it was thought to be immortaL The Romans were at this time masters of alnaost the whole globe. Never before had that nation seen such happy days : wars no longer desolated mankind ; but the improvement of arts and sciences rendered them humane and happy : peace and plenty poured forth her gifts in abundance ; and their monarch, the source of all these blessings, became their idol. Though we have completed the plan we set cut on, that of giv- ing a Roman History from the foundation of Rome to the end of the commonwealth, it may not, nevertheless, be improper to ob- serve, that Augustus Cjesar died a natural death in the eighty- ^ixth year of his age, in Athella, a town of Campania, and was buried at the Campus Martins at Rome. He was looked upon as a god ; for hardly ever was there a man more successful in war, or more moderate in peace, enjoying the empire with universal satisfaction. He was liberal to all, and most faithful to his friends, whom he raised to such great honours, that they almost equa;lled his own elevated sphere. SND OF yHE HISTORY OF ROWE. PREFACE ro fHE HTSfORr OF SOUfH AMERICA. 1 HE History of South America, like all other histories- of newly discovered countries, has been so interwoven with fable, as in &ome measure to deter the youthful student from employing- his time in the pursuit of Trifles /• for in that light fabulous histories must g-enerally be considered. The Spanish Adventurers to the New World were mostly il- literate men, whose principal pursuits were gold and silver. On their return to their native state, their representations were g-uided by interest and vanity ; and, ashamed of having made no observa- tions on the rude arts, manufactures, and genius of the people they had conquered, they fabricated stories the most wild, romantic and ridiculous, to which tiie Spanish writers of those days gave a helping hand. The literary world is undoubtedly mucli obliged to the labour, genius, and attention of Dr Robertson, whose extensive and polite oonnections enabled him to procure information for his History of Americi, which few other individuals could perhaps have obtained. We have therefore carefully consulted and followed that work, by the assistance of which we may venture to say, that we have now the pleasure of laying before our youthful Readers such an epitome fef The History of South America as may by no means be considered as fabulous, but as founded on the most authentic materials- a^nd sathorities. THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. CHAP. L OO nice and eoynplicateji'Strei^e^rts of navigation and ship-bmld« °mg, that they requirjer the ingenuity and experience of many suc- ceeding ages, to bring them to any tolerable degree of perfection. The raft or canoe, which at first served to convey a savage over a river, that obstructed him in the chase, gave rise to the invention of constructing a vessel capable of carrying a numberof people in safety to a distant coast Many efforts were made, many experi- ments were tried, and much labour and invention employed, be- fore this important undertaking was accomplished. In propprtijon as the art of navigation increased, men became more acquainted with each other, and a commerical intercourse com- menced between remote nations. Men must have made some con- siderable advancements towards civilization, before they acquired the idea of property, and ascertained it so perfectly, as to be ac- quainted with the most simple of all contracts, that of exchanging by barter one rude commodity for another. However, as soon as this important riglit was established, and every individual felt, that he had an exclusive title to possess or alienate whatever he had ac- quired by his own labour or dexterity, the wants and ingenuity of his nature suggested to him, a new method of increasing' his- ac- quisitions and enjoyments, by disposing of what appeared to him superfluous, in order to procure what was necessary or desirable in the possession of oUiers. As navigation and commerce extended, so in course did the in. tercourse of remote nations. The ambition of conquest or the ne- cessity of procuring new settlements, were no longer the sole motives of visiting distant lands. The desire of gain became & new spur to activity, roused adventurers, and sent them out on long voyages, in the pursuit of countries, whose produce or want might increase that circulation, which nourishes and gives vigour to commerce. Trade proved a great source of discovery, it open* ed unknown seas, it penetrated into new regions, and contri- buted more than any other cause, to bring men acquainted witk- 150 THE HISTORY OF the situation, the nature, and commodities of the different regions of the earth. The structure of the vessels used by the ancients was very rude and imperfect, and their method of working them on the ocean was very defective. Thougli the property of the mag-net, by which it attracts iron, was well known to the ancients, its more important and amazing virtue of pointing to th^ poles had entirely escaped their ^observation. Destitute of this faithful guide, which now conducts the pilot with so much certainty in the unbounded ocean during the darkness of night, or when the heavens are covered with clouds, the ancients had no other method of regulating their course than by observing the sun and stars. Their navigation was consequently uncertain and timid. They dared not even to quit sight of land, but crept along the coast, exposed to all the dangers and retarded by all the obstructions unavoidable in holding such an ' aukvvard course. An incredible length of time was requisite for performing voyages, which are now finished in a short space. Even in the mildest climates, and in the seas the least tempestuous- it was only during tlie summer months that the ancients ventured eut of their harbours, the remainder of the year being lost in in- activity. , The Egyptians,'s6on after the establishment of their monarchy, are reported to have commenced a trade between the Arabian Gulph, or Red Sea, and the western coast of the great India con- tinent. The commodities, which they imported from the East were carried by land from the Arabian Gulph to the banks of the Nile, and conveyed down that river to the Mediterranean ; but the fertile soil and mild climate of Egypt, producing; all the necessaries and comforts of life, the Egyptians, had no inducements to under- take long and hazardous voyages. The Phenicians possessed a spirit more favourable to commerce ;.md discovery than the Egyptians. They had not, like the natives of Egypt, any distinguishing peculiarity in their manners and in- stitutions ; they were not addicted to any singular and unsocial form of superstition, and could mingle with other nations without scruple or reluctance. The territory they possessed was neither large nor fertile, and commerce was the only source from which they could derive opulence or power. The trade, therefore, car- ried on by t]ie Phenicians of Sidon and Tyre was more extensive und enterprising than that of any state in the ancient world. In many of the places to which they resorted, they planted colonies, ,and communicated to the rude inhabitants some knowledge of their arts and improvements. The Jews, encouraged by the riches they saw tbe Phenicians acquiring from commerce seemed desirous to endeavour to partake of it. Solomon fitted out fleets, which under the direction of Phe- nician pilots, sailed from the Red Sea to Tarshish and Ophir ; but the singular institution of the Jews, the observance of which was enjoined by their Divine Legislator, with an intention of preserving tkem a separate people, uninfected by idolatry, prevented thel^* SOUTH AMERICA, 151 being- numbered among the nations, which contributed to improve navig-ation, or to make any material or useful discoveries. The Carthaginians caught the spirit of commerce from the Phe- nicians and Jews. The commonwealth of Carthage applied to trade and naval affairs with the greatest success. They extended their navigation chiefly towards the west and north, and visited not only all the coasts of Spain, but those of Gaul, and penetrated at last into Britain, They made considerable progress by land, into* the interior provinces of Africa, traded v/ith some of them, and sub- jected others to their empire. They sailed along the western- coast of that great continent, almost to the tropick of Cancer, and. placed several colonies, in order to civilize the natives, and accus- tom them to commerce. It is evident that the Phenicians, who instructed the Greeks in many useful arts and seiences did nut communicate to them that extensive knowledge of navigation, which they themselves posses- sed; nor did the Romans imbibe that commercial spirit and ar- dour for discovery, which distinguished their rivals, the Carthagi- nians. Though Greece be almost encompassed by the sea, which formed many spacious bays and commodious harbours : though it be surrounded by a vast number of fertile Islands, yet, notwith- standing such a favourable situation, which seemed to invite that ingenious people to apply themselves to navigation, it was long before this art attained any degree of perfection among them. Even at the time, when the Greeks engaged in the famous enter- prize against Troy, their knowledge in na,val affairs seems not to have been much improved. Their vessels were of inconsiderable burthen and mostly without decks. These had only one mast, and they were strangers to the use of anchors. All their operations in sailing were clumsy and unskilful. The expedition of Alexander the Great into the East, consider- ably enlarged the sphere of na-^dgation and of geographical knowl- edge among the Greeks. He fouwded a great city, which he cal- led Alexandria, near one of the mouths of the river Nile, that by the Mediterranean sea, and the neighbourhood of the Arabian Gulf it might command the trade both of the East and West. This situation was chosen with such discernment, that Alexandria soon became the chief commercial city in the world. The progress made by the Romans in navigation and discovery, was still more inconsiderable than that of the Greeks. The genius of the Roman people, their military education, and the spirit of their laws concurred to discourage them from commerce and naval affairs. It was the necessity of opposing a fqrmidable rival, not the desire of extending trade, which first prompted them to aim at maritime power. As soon as the Romans acquired a taste for the luxuries of the East, the trade with India through Egypt svas pushed with new vigour, and carried on to greater extent. By frequenting the In- dian coTitinent, navigators became acquainted with the periodical course of the winds, which, in the oc^n that separates Afnc?i 1^ *FKE HISTORY OF rTOtn- India, blow with little duration during one half of the yeaf - from the East., and during" the other half blow with equal steadiness ,from the West Encouraged by this observation, they abandoned ^eir ancient, slow and dangerous course along the coast, and as soon as the western monsoon set in took their departure from Ocelis, at the mouth of the Arabian Gulf, and stretched boldly across the ocean. The uniform direction of the wind, supplying the place of the compass, and rendering tiie guidance of the stars less necessary conducted them to the port of Musiris, on the West- ern sliore of the Indian continent. There they took on board their cargo, and returning with the eastern monsoon, finislied their voy- age to the Arabian Gulf within the year. This paj t oflndia, now known by the name of the Malabar coast, seems to have, been the. utmost limits ofancier.t navigation in that quarter of the- globe. . The discovery of this new method of sailing to India, is the most- considerable improvement in navigation made by the Romans dur- ing the continuance of their power. In ancient times, the knowl- edge of remote countries was more frequently acquired by land than by sea; . and the. Romans, from theii* particular dislike to mar- itime affairs, may be said to have totally neglected the latter^, though a much, more preferable way to make discoveries, being more easy and expeditious. If we reject fabulous and obscure accounts, if we closely abide by the light.and information of authentic history, Vvitliout giving way to the conjectures of fancy, or the dreams of etymologists, we must conclude, that the knowledge which the ancients had ac- quired of the habitable globe was very confined and superficial. In Europe, the extensive provinces in the eastern part of Germany were little known to them. They were almost totally unacquainted with the vast countries which are now subjects to the kings of Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland and the Russian empire. The more barren regions, .which stretch within the arctic circle were,, quite unexplored. In Africa, their researches did not extend far beyond the provinces which border on the Mediterranean, and tliose situated on the western shore of the Arabian Gulf. In Asia, they were u ^acquainted with all the fertile and delightful countries beyond the Ganges, which furnish tiie most valviable^ommodities for the European commerce with India; nor do they seem to have ever penetrated into those immense regions, occupied by the wan- dering tribes, wliich they called by the general name of Scythians^ and now possessed by Tartars of- various denominations, and by. the Asiatic Russian subjects. But however imperfect or inaccurate the geographical knowl- edge which tlie Greeks and Romans had acquired m^y appear, in respect of the pi^esent improved state of that science, their pro- jjress in discovery will seem consideiable, and the extent to which they carried navigation and commerce, must be considered afr great, when compared with the ignorance of early times. Geogra-. phy continued to improve under the Romans so long as they re- WMined in their powerful state j but when the barbarians broke i.^ SOUTH AMERPGi^ t5T upon them, the consequence of luxury and effeminacy, the sci- ences then dwindled, and di&coveries- ceased to be made.. Constantinople, after the dxsstruction of the Roman empire, though often threatened by the fierce invaders, who spread deso- lation over the rest of Europe, was so fortunate as to escape their destructive rage. The knowledge of ancient arts and discoveries were preserved in that city, a taste for splendour and elegance still subsisted, the productions and luxuries of foreign countries were in request} and commerfce continued to flourish in Constantinople, when it was almost extinct in every other part of Europe. Much about the same time, a gleam of light and knowledge ^ broke in upon the East. The Arabians, having contracted some relish for the sciences of the people whose empire they had con- tributed to overturn, translated the books of several of the Greek philosophers into their own language. The study of geography in course became an early object of attention to the Arabians : but that acute and ingenious people cultivated chiefly the specula- tive and scientific parts of geography. In order to ascertain the figure and dimensions of our earth, they applied the principles of geometry, they had recourse to astronomical observations, and employed experiments and operations, which Europe, in more en- lightened times, have eagerly adopted and imitated. The calamities and desolation brought upon the western prov- inces of the Roman empire by its barbarous conquerors, by de- grees were forgotten and in some measure repaired* The rude tribes which settled there, acquiring insensibly some idea of regu- lar government, and some relish for the functions and comforts of civil life. Europe awakened, in some degree, from. its torpid and inactive state, the first symptoms of which were discerned in Italy. The acquisition of these roused industry, and gave motion and vigour to all the active powers of the human mind : foreign com- merce revived, navigation was ^attended to, and great pains taken^ to improve it. From that period, the commercial spirit of Italy became active and enterprising. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, rose from inconsider- able tov^rns, to be populous and wealthy cities ; their naval power increased, their vessels frequented not only all the ports in the Mediterranean, but venturing sometimes beyond the straits, vis- ited the maritime towns of Spain, France, the Low Countries, and England. While the cities of Italy were thus advancing in their career of Improvement, an event happened, the most extraordinary perhaps in the history of mankind, vv'hich, instead of obstructing the com- mercial progress of the Italians, contributed to its increase. The martial spirit of the Europeans, heightened and inflamed by reli=. gious zeal, prompted them to attempt the deliverance of the Holy Land from the dominion of infidels. Vast armies composed of all the nations in Europe, moved towards Asia on this strange en- terprise. The Genoese, Pisans and Venetians furnished the trans=- port£ to carry them thiiher> and supplied thera with provisions anil M4? THE HISTORY OF military stores. Besides the immense sums which they received on this account they obtained commercial privileg-es and establish- ments. From these sources prodig-ious wealth flowed into the cities above mentioned. This was accompanied with a proportional mcrease of power, and by the end of the Holy War, Venice, in particular, becaine a g-reat maritime state, possessing an extensive commerce and ample territorieSi Communications being thus opened between Europe and the western provinces of Asia, several persons were encouraged to advance far beyond the countries, in which tlie crusaders carried on their operations, and to travel by land into the more remote and opulent regions of the East. The wild fanaticisms, which seem at that period to have ralng;led in all the schemes^of individuals, no less than in all the councils of nations, first incited men to enter upon these long and dangerous excursions. They were afterwards undertaken from prospects of commercial advantage, or from mo- tives of mere curiosity. In the midst of tliis rising desire for discovery sl very fortunate- event took place, which contributed more than all the efforts and- ingenuity of preceding ages to improve and extend navigation. That wonderful property of the magnet, by which it communicates such virtue toa needle or slender rod of iron, as to point towards thepoles of tlie earth, was^ happily discovered. The use which might be made of this in directing- navig;^tion, was immediately perceived. From hence, that most valuable, but now familiar in- strument, the mariner's compasswas formed. As soon as navi- gators found by means of this, that' at all seasons, and in every place, they could discover the North and South with so much ease and accuracy, it became no longer necessary to depend merely on tlie light of the stars, and the observation of the sea-coast. They gradually abandoned their ancient timid and lingering course along- the shore, launched boldly into the ocean^ and relying on this new guide, could steer in the darkestnighl, and under the most cloudy sky, with a security and precision hitherto unknown. The com- pass may be said to have opened to man the domituon of the sea, and to have put him in full possession of the earth, by enabling him to visit every part of it. About the year 1365, Providence seemed to have decreed^ that at this period men were to pass the limits within which they had: been so long confined, and open to themselves a more ample field, wherein to display their talents, their enterprise,, and courage. The first considerable efforts towards this were not made by any of the more powerful states of Europe, or by those who had ap- plied to navigation with the greatest assiduity and success. The glory of taking the lead in this bold attempt was reserved for the Portuguese, whose kingdom was the smallest and least powerful of any in Europe. As the attempts of the Portuguese to acquire the knowledge of those parts of the globe, with which mankind were then unacquainted, not only improved and extended the art of navigation, but roused such a spirit of curiosity and enterpfixes. SOUTH AMERICA, 155 as led to the discovery of the New World, of which we are pre- sently to give the history. Various circumstances urged the Portuguese to exert their ac- tivity in this new direction, and enabled them to accomplish un- dertakings apparently superior to the natural force of their n-ion- archy John I. King of Portugal, surnamed the Bastard, having obtained secure possession of the crown, in the year 1411, soon perceived, that it would be impossible to preserve public order, or domestic tranquillity, without finding some employment for the restless spirit of his subjects With this view, he assembled a numerous fleet at Lisbon, composed of all the ships he could fit out in his own kingdom, andof many hired from foreigners. This great armament fitted out in 1412, was destined to attack the Moors settled on the coasts of Barbary. While the fleet was equipping, a few vessels were appointed to sail along the western shore of Africa, bounded by tho Atlantic ocean, and to discover the unknownxountries situated there. The particular situation of Portugal was an invitation to this new uiidertaking, and the genius of the age being favour?,ble to the execution of it, it proved successful. The vessels sent on the discovery doubled the formidable Cape Non, which had terminat- ed the progress of former navigators, and proceeded one hundred and sixty miles beyond it. to Cape Bojador. As its rocky cliffs, which stretched a considerable way into the Atlantic, appeared more dreadful than the promontory they had passed, the Portu- guese commander was afraid to attempt to sail round it, but re- turned to Lisbon, more satisfied with having advanced so far, than ashamed of not having gone further. Though this voyage was in itself inconsiderable, yet it increased the passion for discovery, which began to shew itself in Portugal. The fortunate issue of the king's expedition against the Moors of Barbary, added strength to that spirit in the nation, and pushed it onto new undertakings. In order to render these successful, it was necessary, that they should be conducted by a person who possessed abilities capable of discerning what was attainable, who enjoyed leisure to form a regular system for prosecuting discov- ery, and who was aniniated with ardour, that would persevere in spite of obstacles and repulses : happily for Portugal, she found all these qualities in Henry duke of Viseo, the fourth son of King John. That prince, in his early youth having accompanied his father in his expedition to Barbary. distinguished himself by many deeds of valour. To the marshal spirit which was the character- istic of every man of noble birth at that period, he added all the accomplishments of a more enlightened and polished age. He cultivated the arts and sciences, which were then little known, and despised by persons of his exalted situation. He was particularly fond of the study of geography, and he early acquired such a knowledge of the habitable globe, as discovered the great pi-oba- bility of finding new and epvileut countries, by sailing along- the [,, coast of Africa = ■ ■ - ■■ , 166 THE HISTORY OF * The commencement of every new undertaking is usually attend- ed with trifling- success. In the year 1418 he fitted out a single ship, and gave the command of it to two gentlemen of his house- hold, who offered themselves as volunteers to conduct the enter- prise. He instructed them to double Cape Bojador, and thence to steer towards the south. They held their course along the shore, the mode of navigation which still prevailed, when a sudden squall of wind arose, which drove them out to sea, and, when they expect- ed every moment to perish, it blew them on an unknown island, which, fr^m their happy escape, they armed Porto Santo. They instantly returned to Portugal with the news of their discovery, and were received by Henry with the applause and honour due to for- " tunate adventurers. The next yeai- Henry sent out three ships under the same com- manders, in order to make a settlement in Porto Santo. From this island they observed towards the south a fixed spot in the horizon, like a small black cloud. They were by degrees led to conjecture it might be land, and steering- towards it, they arrived at a considerable island, uninhabited and covered with wood, which on that account they called Madeira As it was Henry's principal object to render his discovericte useful to liis country, he immediately equipped a fleet to carry a colony of Portuguese to these islands. He took care that they should be furnished not only with the seeds, .plants, and domestic animals common in Eu- rope, but, as he foresaw that the warmth of the climate and fertil- ity of the soil, would prove favourable to the rearing of other pro- ductions, he procured slips of the vine from the island of Cyprus, the rich wines of which were then in great request, and plants of the sugar cane from Sicily, into which it had been recently intro- duced. These throve so prosperously in this nev/ country, that the advantage of their culture was immediately perceived, and the sugar and wine of Madeira, soon became considerable articles of commerce, from which the Portuguese derived great advantage. These important successes gave a spur to the spirit of discovery, and induced the Portuguese, instead of servilely creeping ^long tlie coast, to venture into the open sea. They doubled Cape Boja- dor, in 1433, and advanced vv4thin the tropics. In the course of a few years they discovered the river Senegal, and all the. coast ex- tending from Cape Blanco, to Cape de Verde. The Portuguese had hitherto been guided in their discoveries, or encouraged to attempt them, by the light and information they received from the works of the ancient mathematicians and geo- graphers ; but when they began to entef the torrid zone, the no- tions which prevailed among the ancients that the heat was so in- tense as to render it insupportable, deterred them, for some time, from proceeding, However, notwithstanding these unfavourable appearances, in 1449 the Portuguese discovered tlie Cape dte Verde islands, which lie off the promontory of that name, and soon after the isles called Azores, As the former of these are above three hundred miles from the African coast and the iat« SOUTH AMERICA. 15? er nine hundred miles from any continent, it is evident that {he Portuguese had made great advances in the art of navigation. The passion for discoveries received an unfortunate check by the death of Prince Henry, whose superior knowledge had hither- to directed ail the operations of the discoverers and whose patron- age had encouraged and protected tliem. However notwithstand- ing all the advantages they derived from hence, the Portuguese, during his hfe, did not advance, in their utmost progress towards the south, within live degrees of the equinoctial line ; and after their continued exertions for half a century, hardly loOO miles of the coast of Africa was discovered. The Portuguese in 1471, ventured to cross the line, and, to their astonishment, found that region of the torrid zone, wiiich was sup- posed to be scorched with intolerable heat, to be habitable, popu» lous, and fertile Under the direction of John II. in 1484, a powerful fleet was fitted out, which advanced above fifteen hunflred miles beyond the line, and the Portuguese, for the first time beheld a new heaven, and observed the stars of another hemisphere. By their constant intercourse with the people of Africa, they gradually acquired some knowledge oftliose parts of that country, which they had not visited. The inibrmation they received from the natives, added to what they had observed in their own voyages, began to open prospects of a more extensive nature They found, as ihey proceeded southward, that the continent of Africa, instead of extending in breadth, according to the doctrine of Ptolemy, ap- peared sensibly to contract itself and to bend towards the east. This induced therato give credit to the ancient Phenician voyages round Africa, wiiich had lon[; been considered as fabulous, and gave them reason to hope, that by following the same route, they might arrive at the Ea^t Indies, and engross that commerce, which had so long contributed to enrich other powers. In 1486, the conduct of a voyage for tnis purpose, the most dan- gerous and difficult the Portuguese had ever embarked in, was entrusted to Bai'tholornew Diaz, whostrelched boldly towards the south, and pro. eeding beyond the utmv)st limits to which his coun- trymen h"d hitherto advanced discovered near a thousand miles of anew counti'V. Neither the combined powers of violent tem- pests, and the frequent mutinies of his cr^w, nor even the calamities of famine, which he suifered fivnn losing his storeship, could deter him fi"om the pursuit of his grand object. In spite of all, he at last discovered that lofty promontory, which bounds Africa to the south j but he did nothing moie than discover it. The violence of the winds, the shattered conditiim of liis ships, and the turbulent spirit of his sailors compelled iiim to return after a voyage of sixteen months. The king of Portugal, as he now entertained no doubt of having found the long desired rout to India, gave this promon- tory the name of the Cape of Good Hope. These sanguine ideas of success were strengthened by the in- telligence the king received over land, in consequence of his em- Q l58 THE HISTORY OF ■fcassy t<> Abyssinia. Covillam and Payva, by the King's instruct tions, had repaired to Crand Cairo. From this city they travelled in company with a caravan of Eg-yptian merchants, and embarking on the Red Sea, arrived at Arden, in Arabia. There they separ- ated ; Payva sailed directly towards Abyssinia ; Covillam embark- ed for the East Indies, and having- visited Calecut, Goa, and other cities of the Malabar coast, returned to Sofala, on the east side of Africa, and thence to Grand Cairo, which Paj-va andh.e had fixed upon as their«^laye of meeting. The former howeyer was unfor- tunately and cruelly murdered in Abyssinia : bat Covillam found at Cairo two Portuguese Jews, whom the King of Portugal had disp:itched after them, in order to receive an account of their pro- ceedings, and to communicate to them new instructions. By one of these Jews Covillam transmitted to Portugal a journal of his proceedings by sea and land,, his remarks upon the trade of In- dia, together with exact maps of the coast on which he had touch- ed ; and from what be himself had observed, as well as from the information of skilful seamen in different countries, he concluded, that by sailing round Africa, a passage might be found to the East Indies. The happy coincidence of Coyillam's report and opinion with the discoveries lately made by "Diaz, left hardly any shadow of doubt with respect to the possibility of sailing from Europe. Kowr ever, the vast length of the voyage, and the furious storms, which Diaz had encountered near the Cape of Good Hope, alarmed and intimidated the Portuguese to such a degree, although tliey were become adventurous and skilful mariners, that some time was re- quisite to prepare their minds fol* this dangerous and extraordinary- Toyage. MEMORABLE EVENTS RE.<30RD:^P IN THIS CHAyTER, Introduction of covnnercial pursuits. Imperfextions of navigation afnong the ancients. Navigatio7i and conmerce of tht J£gyptians^ Fhenicians, j^ewSy-Car' tJiaginianSy Greeks, and Eornans. The first regular plan of discovery formed by the Portuguese. The use of tht mariners, com,pass discovered about 1322. The Portuguese doubled Cape Bojador about the year 1412. Attempts to discover a nevj route to the East Indies. Voyage of Bartholomev) Diaz, in 14iS6 who penetrated as far as tie -Cape of Good Hope. CHAP. 11. Christopher COLUMBjUS, a subject to the republic of Ce- noa, was among the foremost of those foreigners whom the fame of the discoveries made bv the Portuguese had allured into their se - f\ce. Though neither the time nor place of his birth are certainly Irnown. yet it was on all hands agreed, that he was descended from SOUTH AMttjRICAv \5& ati honourable family reduced to indigence by misfortunes. As his ancestors were accustomed to a sea-faring- life, Columbus become naturally fond of it himself, and very early discovered those tal- ents for that profession, which plainly indicated the great man he was one day to be. He applied with uncommon ardour to the study of the latin tongue, geography, astronomy, and the art of drawing. Thus qualified, in 1461, at the age of fourteen, he went to sea, and began his career on that element, which conducted him to so much glory. In 1467, he repaired to Lisbon, where many of his countrymen were settled. They soon conceived such a favourable opinion of Jiis merit and talents, that they warmly solicited him to remain m their kingdom, where his naval skill and experience Could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. To find out a passage by s^ea to the East Indies, Was the grea* object in view at that period. From the time that the Portuguese doubled Cape de Verde, this was the point at which they aimed in all-their navigations. The tediousness of the course, which the Portuguese were pursuing, naturally led Columbus to consider, whether a shorter and more direct passage to' the East Indies, than that projected by sailing round the African continent, might not be found out. After reviving long and sericXisly every circum* stance suggested by his superior knowledge in the theory, as well as practice of navigation, after comparing attentively the observa- tions of modern pilots, with the hints andconjectures of ancient au- thors, he at last concluded, that by sailing directly towards the' West, across the Atlantic ocean, new countries, which probably formed a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be dis^* covered. Filled with these ideas, he laid his scheme before the Senate of Genoa, and making his country the first tender of his service, of- fered to sail under the banners of the republic, in quest of the new^ regions he expected to discover 4 but they inconsiderately rejected his proposal, as a dream of a chimerical projector^ He then sub- mitted his plan to the Portuguese, who endeavoured to rob him of the honour, by sending another person privately to pursue the same track proposed by him ; but the pilot chosen to execute Co- lumbus's plan, had neither the genius nor the fortitude of its author. Contrary winds arose, no sigiit of approaching land appeared, his courage failed, and he returned to Lisbon, execrating a plan,w hich he bad no abilities to execute Columbus no sooner discovered this dishonourable treatment, than he instantly quitted Portugal in disgust, and repaired to Spain about the close of the year 1484. Here he resolved to propose it in person to Ferdinand and Isabella, who at that time governed the united kingdoms of Castile and Arragon. He also sent his brother to England, to propose his plan to Henry VIII. After a long succession of mortifying circumstances and disap- pointments, Isabella was persuaded to send for Columbus to court. Tl|,€ cordial reception he there met with from the queen, together 160 THE HISTORY OF with the near prospect of setting- out upon that voyage, whicli had so long- been the object of his thoug-hts and wishes, soon eflaced the remembrance of all that he had sufiered in Spain, during- eig-ht tedious years of solicitation and suspense. The neg-ociation nqw went forward rapidly, and a treaty with Columbus was sii^ned on the 17th of April, 1492. The chief articles of it were, 1. Ferdinand and Isabella, as sov- reigns of the ocean, constituted Columbus their high admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents, which should be discovered by las industry; and stipulated, that he and his heirs should enjoy this office, v/ith the same powers and prerogatives, which belonged to the high admiral of Castile, within the limits of his jurisdiction. '2. They appointed Columbus their viceroy in all tlie islands and continents which he should discover : but if, for the better admin- istration of affairs, it should hereafter be necesssary to establish a separate governor in any of those countries, they authorized Co- lumbus to name three persons, of whom they would choose one for that office ; and the dignity of viceroy, \;\itli all its immunities, was likewise to be hereditary in the family of Columbus. 3. They granted to Columbus and his heirs, for ever, the tenth of tiie free profits accruing from the productions and commerce of the countries which he should discover. 4. They declared, that if any contro- versy or law suit should arise with respect to any merchantile transaction in the countries which should be discovered, it should be determined by the sole authonly of Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. 5, They permitted Columbus to advance one eighth part of what should be expended in preparing for the expedition, and in carrying on commerce with the countries which he should discover, and intitled him, in return, to an eighth part of the profit. ~ , Ferdinand, though his name appears conjoined with that of Isabella in this transaction, refused to take any part in it as King* of Arragon, his distrust of Columbus being very violent. After all the efforts of Isabella and Columbus, the armament was not suitable, either to the dignity of the power who equipped it, or to the importance of the service to which it was destined. It con- sisted of three vessels. The largest, a ship of no considerable burden, was commanded by Columbus, as admiral, who gave itthe name^ of Santa Maria. Of the second called the Pinta, Martin Pinzon was captain, and his brother Francis pilot. The tliird, named the Nigna, was under the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. These two were light vessels, hardly superior in burden «r force to large boats. The sum employed in the whole of this equipment did not exceed 40001. On the Sdday of August, 1492, Columbus set sail, a little before sun-rise in presence of a vast crowd of spectators, who sent up their supplications to Heaven for the prosperous issue of the voy- age, which they wished rather than expected. Columbus steered directly for the Canary Islands, from whence he departed on the 6tli of September. In the short run to the Canaries, the ships were ^ SOUTH AMERICA; 16^ found to be so crazy andillappoirited, as to be very improper for a navigation, which was expected to be both long- and dangerous. Columbus, on leaving- the Canaries, held his course due west, left immediately the usual track of navigation, and stretched into unfrequented and unknown seas. By the 14th of September, the fleet was about two hundred leagues to the West of the Canary islands, at a greater distance from land than any Spaniard had been before that time. Columbus early discovered from the spirit of his followers, that he must prepare ta struggle, not only with the unavoidable difficulties, which might be expected from the nature of his undertaking, but with such as were likely to arise fi'«m the ignorance and timidity of the people under his command. All the art and address he was master of was hardly sufficient to quell the mutinous disposition of his sailors ; who grew the mofe turbulent in proportion as their distance increased from home. On the 11th of October, Columbus was soconfidentof being near land, that he ordered, the sails to be furled, and the ships to lie by, keeping strict watch, lest they should be driven on shore in the night. During this interval of suspense and expectation, no man shut his eyes, all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards that quarter where they expected to discover the land, which had been so long the object of their wishes. A little after midnight, the joyful sound of /anc// land !^ was heard-from the Pinta, which kept always a-head of the other ships ; but, having been so often de- ceived by fallacious appearances, every man was nov/ become slow of belief, and waited, in all th^ anguish of uncertainty and impa- tience, for the return of day. On the 12th of October, as soon as morning dawned, all doubts and fears were dispelled. From every ship an island was seen about two leagues to the North, whose flat and verdant fields, well stored with wood, and watered with many rivulets, presented the aspect of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta instantly began the Te Deum, as a hymn of thanksgiving to God, and were joined by those of the other ships, with tears of joy and transports of congratulation. They then on their knees begged pardon of Columbus for the mutinous spirit they had shewn, acknowledged his superior abilities, and promised implicit obedience to his will in future. The boats being manned and armed as soon as the sun arose, they rowed towards the island with their colours displayed, war- like music, and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty of the spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and astonishment at the strange objects before them. He landed in a rich dress, with a sword in his hand. His men followed, and kneeling down, they all kissed the ground wdiichi they had so long desired to see. They then took solemn posses- sion of the country for the crown of Castile and Leon. The dress of the Spaniards, the whiteness of their skins, theii* beards, their arms, appeared strange and surprising to the native*. 2 X62 THE HISTORY Of The vast machines in which they had tfaversed the^ ocean, that seemed to move upon the water with wings, and uttered a dreads ful sound resembling thunder accompanied with lightening an smoke, struck them with such terror, that they began to consider them as children of the Sun, who had descended to visit mortals here below. The Spaniards were no less surprised at the novelty of their sit- uation. Every herb, shrub, and tree, was different from those which flourished in Europe. The inhabitants appeared in the simple innocence of nature, entirely naked. Their black hair, long and un- curled, floated upon their shoulders, or was bound in tresses round their ha ds. They had no beards, tind every part of their bodies was perfectly smooth. Their complexion was of a dusky copper colour, their features singular, rather than disagreeable, and their aspect gentle and timid. They were at first shy through fear, but soon became familiar with the Spaniards, and with transports of joy re- ceived from them hawks-belb, glass beads, or other baubles, in re- turn for which, they gave such provisions as they had, and some cotton yarn, the only commodity of value that they could produce. Thus in the first interview between the inhabitants of the new and old worlds, every thing was conducted amicably and to their mu- tual satisfaction. Columbus now assumed the title and authority of admiral and viceroy, and called the island he had discovered San Salvador. It is one of that large cluster of islands called the Lucaya or Bahama isles. It is situated above 3000 miles to the west of Gom.era from whence the squadron took its departure, and only four degrees to the south of it. It soon appeared evident to Columbus that this was but a poor place, and consequently not the object of his pursuit. But, con- formably to this theory concerning the discovery of those regions of Asia, which stretched towards the east, he conwludetf that San Salva&or was one of the isles, which geographers described as sit- uated in the vast ocean adjacent to India ; but he was herein mis^ taken. Having observed, that most of the people whom he had seen wore small plates of gold, by way of ornament, in their nostrils, he eagerly enquired where they got that precious metal. They pointed towards the south, and made him comprehend by signs, that gold abounded in countries situated in that quarter. In consequence of this intelligence, he sailed to the southwar<^ and saw several Islands. He touched at those of the largest, on which he bestowed the names of St. Mary, Femandina, and Isabel- la ; but, as his inquiries were after gold, and none of them pro- duced any, he made no stay in any of them. He afterwards dis- covered Cuba, and soon after fell in with Kispaniola. Columbus, still intent on discovering the mines which yielded jjold, sailed from hencfe on the 24th of December, 1492. The- great variety of business in which he was engaged having prevent-^ ed Columbus from taking any sleep for two days, he retired at oiidnight to take some repose, having committed the hel^m to the- SOUTH AMERICA; liSa pilot, with strict injunction not to quit it for a momenL The pilot dreading- no danger, carelessly left the helm to an unexperienced- cabin-boy, and the ship, carried away by a current, was dashed against a rock. The violence of the shock awaked Colum- bus. He ran up to the deck, where all was confusion and despair, he alone retaining presence of mind. However all his endeavours, were in vain ; the vessel opened near the keel, and filled so fast with water, that its loss was inevitable. The boats from the Nign*^ saved the crew, and the natives in their canoes did every thing in. their power to serve them, by, whose assistance they saved almost every thing that was valuable. The distress of Columbus was at this time very greati The^ Pinta had sailed away from him, and he suspected was treachi erously gone to Europe. There remained but one vessel, and that the smallest and most crazy of the squadron, to traverse such a vast ocean, and carry so many men back to Europe. He resolved- therefore to leave a part of his crew on the island, that, by residing, there, they might Ipam the language of the natives, study their dispositions, search for mines, and prepare for the commodiouftf settliement of the colony, wUh which he proposed to return. Hay- ing settled this business with his men and the natives, he built a fort and placed in it the guns saved out of his own ship. He ap- pointed tliirty-eight of his people to rjemain on the island, under the command of Diego de Arada, and furnished them with every thing requisite for the subsistence or defence of the infant colony. Having thus settled matters, he left Navidad on the 4th. of Jan- uary, 1493, and stretching towards' the east, discovered and gave names to most of the harbours on the northern coast of the Island, On the 6th he descried the Pinta, and soon came up with her after an absence of six weeks. Pinzon endeavoured to justify his- conduct, and though Columbus^was by no means satisfied in his. own mind, yet he thought it prudent to dissemble at present, and accordingly received him again int» favour. Pinzon during his absence from the admiral, had visited several harbours in the isl- ands, had acquired some gold by traffic with the natives,, but had made no discovery of any importance. Columbus now found it necessary, from the condition of his^ ships, and the temper of his men, to return to Europe. Accord- ingly, on the I6th of January, he directed his course towards the northeast, and soon lost sight of land. The voyage was prosper- ous to the l54th of February, when he was^^ overtaken by so yiolent a storm, that allhopes of surviving it were given up. At length Providence interposed to save a life reserved for other pur- poses ; and, after experiencing a second storm almost as dreadful as the first, he arrived at the Azores, then Lisbon, and reached, Spain on the 15th of March, in the port of Palbs, seven months and eleven days from the time when he set out from thence upon; his voyage Columbus was received, on his landing, with all'the honours diie to bis great abilities j and Ferdinand and Isabeilsi were no k&& 164 THE HISTORY OF astonished than delighted with this unexpected event. Every mark of honour, that gratitude or admiration could suggest, was conferred upon Columbus. Letters patent were issued, confirm- ing to him and his heirs all the privileges contained in the capitu- lation concluded at Santa Fe ; his family was ennobled, and the king, queen, and courtiers, treated him as a person of the highest rank. But what pleased him most was an order to equip, without delay, art armament of such force, as might enable him not only to take possession of the countries he had already discovered, but to go in search of those more opulent regions, which he still con- fidently expected to find. Cautious as Ferdinand was, and averse to every tiling new and adventurous, preparations for a second expedition were carried on with a rapidity unusual in Spain, and to an extent that would be deemed not inconsiderable in the present age. The fleet consist- ed of seventeen ships, some of which were of good burthen. It had on board fifteen hundred persons, among whom were many of noble families, who had served in honourable s-tations. Every thing being ready, Columbus set sail from the bay of Cadiz on the 25th day of September, 1493, and arrived at Hispan- iola on the 22d of November. When he appeared off Navidad, from the station in which he had left the thirty eight men under the command of Arada, he was astonished that none of them ap- peared, and expected every moment to see them running with transports of joy to welcome their countrymen. But he §con found, that the imprudent and licentious behaviour of his men had roused the resentment of the natives, who at last destroyed them all and burned their fort. He then traced out the plan of a town in a large plain, near a spacious bay, and obliged every person to put his hand to a work on which their common safety depended. This rising city, th©^ first that tlie Europeans founded in the New World, he named Isabella, in honour of his patroness the queen of Castile. His followers loudly complained of being obliged to turn build- ers, where they expected to meet with riches and luxuries. He therefore found it necessary to proceed in quest of these golden shadows. Having settled every thing respecting the government of" the new colony in his absence, he weighed anchor on the 24th of April, 1494, with one ship and two small barks under his com- mand. During a tedious voyage of full five months, he had a trial of almost all the numerous hardships, to which persons of his profession are exposed, without making any discovery of im- portance, except the island of Jamaica. On his return to Hispaniola, he met with his brother Bartholo- mew at Isabella, after an absence of near thirteen years, which, gave him inexpressible joy. He could not have arrived more sea- sonably, as the Spanirrds were not only threatened with famine, but even with an insurrection of the natives owing to the shameful liberties the new settlers took with the women and property of the Indians, who united their forces to drive these formidable invaders SOUTH AMERICA, 165 from the settlements, of which they had violently taken posses- sion. On the twenty-fourth of March, Columbus took' the field with his little army, which consisted only of two hundred foot, twenty horse, and twenty large dogs ; and how strange soever it may seem to mention the last as composing part of a military force, they were not perhaps the least formidable and destructive of the whole, when employed against naked and tim-id Indians. If we nnay believe the Spanish historians, the Indian array amounted to 100,000 men : but they were ignorant of the arts of v/ar, and had nothing but clubs and arrows for tlieir defence, Columbus attacked them during" the night, and obtained an .easy and bloody victory. Many were killed, more taken prisoners, and reduced to servitude ; and so thoroughly were the rest intimidated, that they abandoned themselves to despair, considering their enemies as invincible. Cv>lurnbus employed several months in marching- through the island, tind in subjecting it to the Spanish government, v/ithout meeting- with any opposition. He imposed a tribute upon all the inhabitants above fourteen years of age. Each person who lived in those districts where gold was found, was obHged to pay quar- terly as much gold dust as filled a hawk's bell ; from those ia other parts of the country, twenty pounds of cotton were demand- ed. This was the first regular taxation of the Indians, and served as a precedent for exactions, still more exorbitant. Such an im- position was extremely contrary to those maxims which Columbus had hitherto inculcated, with respect to the mode of treating them. The condition of the Indians became insupportable, and they endeavoured to starve the Spaniards, by destroying all the pro- duce of the earth, and tlien retired to the mountains. This re- duced the Spaniards to extreme want ; but they received such, seasonable supplies of provisions from Kurope, and fomid so many resources in their ingenuity and industry, that they suffered na great loss of men. Columbus finding he had many enemies in the court of Spain, resolved to return home in order to justify himself, leaving his brotlier Bartiiolomew as lieutenant, governor, and Francis Roldon chief justice. He was received at court, on his arrival, with so many marks of approbation, after having perfectly cleared up his conduct, as mad^ his enemies ashamed of themselves, and it was resolved to send him on discoveries a third time. After innumerable disappointments and delays, he sailed on his third voyage on the 30th day of May, 1498, His sqaaclron con- sisted of six ships only, of no great burden, and but iudiil'erently provided for so long and dangerous a navigation. He sailed in a difierent direction to what he had hitherto done, in order to fall in with the coast of India. On the 1st of August, the man stationed in the round top stirprized them Vkith the joyful cry of iajid. They stood towards it and discovered a considerable me THE HISTOKY OF island, which the admiral called Trinidad, a name it still retains;- He did not arrive at Hispaniola till the 30th of August, when he found the affairs of the colony in such a situation as afforded him no prospect of enjoying that repose, 9f which he stood so much in- need. Many revolutions had happened in that couhtry during his ab- sence. His brother, the deputy governor, in consequence of the advice the admiral gave him before hiy departure, had removed the colony from Isabella to a more commodious station, on the 6p- posite side of the island, and laid the foundation of St. Doiiiingo. The natives were soon after reduced to the Spanish yoke, which appeared so oppressive to them, that they rose in their own de- fence, but were easily conquered!. At the same time, Roldon, whom Columbus had placed in a station, which required him to be the guardian of order and tranquillity, persuaded the colony tO'' rise in arms; Such was the distracted state of tlie colony when C-blumbus ar- rived at St. Domingo,but his wi&dom and moderation soon brought every thing to order. While Columbus was thus engaged in the west, the spirit of discovery did not languish in Portugal. Emanuel, who inherited the enterprising g-enius of his predecessors, persisted in their grand scheme of opening a passage to the East Indies by the Gape of Good Hbpe, and s%on after his accession to the throne he equip- ped a squadron for that important voyage. He gave the command of it to Vasco de Gama, a man of noble birth, possessed of virtue,. prudence, and courage, equal to the station. The squadron, like all those fitted out for discovery in the infancy of navigation, was- extremely feeble, consisting only of three vessels, of neither bur»- then nor force adequate to the service. He set sail from Lisbon on the 9th of July, 1497, and standing towards the South, had to struggle for four months^ with contrary winds, before he could reach the Cape of Good Hope : Here their violence began to abate, and during an interval of calm weather,, in the latter end of November, Gama doubled that formidable promontory, which had so long been the bovnidary of navigation, and directed his course towards the northeast, along the African' coast. He touched at several ports, and afler various adventures- he came to an anchor before tlie city of Meleida. Gama now pursued his voyage with' almost absolute certainty of success, and under the conduct of a Mahometan pilot he axTived at Calecuty* upon the coast of Malabar, on the 22d of May, 1498. What he beheld of the wealth, the populousnessjthe cultivation,- the industry, and arts of this highly civilized country, far exceed* ed any idea that he had formed from the imperfect accounts which the Europeans had hitherto received of it But as he possessed neither sufficient force to attempt a settlement, nor proper com- modities with which he could carry on commerce of any conse- quence, he hastened back to Portugal, with an account of his suc- cess in performing a voyage the longest, as well as the most difE- SOlTTH AMERICA. Ut cult, that had ever been made since the first invention of naviga- tion. He landed at Lisbon on the 14th of September, .1499j, two years, two months, and five days from the time he left t!i^ port. Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine gentlemen, having accom- panied Ojeda in a voyage to the New World, on his return trans- mitted an account of his adventures and discoveries to one of his countrymen, and labouring with the vanity of a traveller to magnify his own exploits, he had the address and (Confidence to frame his narrative, so as to make it appear, that he had the glory of having first discovered the continent in the New World. The country, of which Amerigo was supposed to be discoverer, came gradually to be called by his name= By the universal consent of nations, Arni^rica is the name bestowed on this new quarter of the globe. The bold pretensions of a fortunate imposter have robbed the discoverer of the New World of a distinction which belonged to him. The name of Amerigo lias supplanted that of Columbus^ and it is now too late to redress the injury. During the last year of the faurteenth century, Pedro Alvarez Cabral was fitted out by the king of Portugal in order to carry on trade or attempt conquests in India, to which place Gama had just shewn them the way. Jn order to avoid the coast of Africa, where he was .certain of meeting with varihle breezes, or frequent calms, which might retard his voyage, Cabral stood out to sea, and kept so far to the west, that, to his surprize, he found himself upon the shore of an unknown country, in the tenth degree beyond the line. The country with which he fell in belongs to that province in South America, now known by the name of Brazil He landed, an^d having formed a yery iiigh idea of the fertility of the soil, and agreeableness of the climate, he took possession of it for the crown of Portugal, and dispatched a ship to Lisbon with an account of this event, which appeared to b^e no less important than it was un- exi>ected. While the Spaniards and Portuguese were daily acquiring more enlarged ideas of the extent and opulence of that quarter of the globe which Columbus had made known to them, he himself, far from enjoying the tranquillity and honours, with which his services should have been recompensed, was struggling with every distress, in which the envy and malevolence of the people under his com- mand, or the ingratitude of the court which he served could in- volve him. As soon as the court of Spain beca;me prejudiced against Co* lumbus, a fatal resolution was taken. Francis do BovadJUa, a knight of Claatrava, was appointed to repair to Hispaniola, with full powers to inquire into the coiuluct of Columbus ; and, if he should find the charge of maladministration proved, to supercede iiim, and assume the government of the island. It was impossible to escape when this preposterous commission, made it the inter- est of the judge to pronounce the person, whom he was sent t® ',try, guilty of every charge. What followed cannot at all appes?^^ 168 THE HISTORY OF surprizln,^ ; Columbus was sent to Spain loaded with chains. For- tiuiately> his voyage to Spain was extremely short, where he ar- rived on the 23d of November, 1500. As soon as Ferdinand and Isabella, were informed that Columbus was brought home a prisoner, and in chains the} were ashamed of their conduct and dreaded the censure of all Europe. They in- stantly issued orders to set Columbus at liberty, invited him to court, and remiited him money to enable him to appear there in a manner suitable to his rank. On his appearance at court, the modest man- ner in which he told his tale, and related his grievances, vvere felt bv every one, the nevv' governor of Hispanola was recalled, and Ovando was sent in Ids room. W^hile the necessarj'- steps were taking for securing the pros- perit} and welfare of the colony which Columbus had planted, he himself was engaged in the unpleasant employment of soliciting the favour of an ungrateful court, and notwithstanding all his merit and services he s »licited in vain. After attending the court of Spain for near two years, as an humble suitor, lie found it impossi- ble to remove Ferdinand's prejudices and apprehensions, and per- ceived at length, that ht laboured in vain, v/hen he urged a claim of justice or merit with an interested, ungenerous, and unfeeling prinCe. However, Columbus, at last, prevailed on the court of Spain to fit him out on his fourth expedition, which they were persuaded to embark in, on the promised hope of his hading out a shorter and safer rout to the East Indies., He accordingly sailed fi'om Cadiz, on the 9th of May, 1502, with only four small barks, the largest of which did not exceed seventy tons in burtljen. On his arrival at Hispn iiola, he meet with the most ungenerous treatment from Ovaiulo, who would not suffer him to enter their harbours. After various and fraitless attempts to discover a passage to the Indian ocean, Columbus meet witii all the disastert to which navir gation is exposed Furious hurricanes, with violent storms of thun- der and lightening, flue: ttned his destruction, and at lastdrove him on the coast of Jamaica, where his little crazy fleet was wreck- ed, on the 24th ot June, 1503. The distress of Columbus in this situation was truly lamentable,"^ but his genius rose above every thing. He supported the insolence and cruelty of the ia rabitants. the still more alarming mutiny of his men, and the infamous conduct of the governor of Hispaniola, till some ships appeared, when the Spaniards quited an island in wliich the unfeeling jealousy of Ovando had suffered them to lan- guish above a year. On the 12th uf September, 1504, he set sail for Spain with two ships, and his ill fortune pursued him even in his passage home, being overtaken by a storm, and u ith the greatest difficulty got back to Spain, On his arrival, he received the fatal news of the death of his patroness Queen Isabella, Columbus digusted with the ingratitude of a monarch, whom he had served with such fidelity aad success, exhausted with the fa- f SOUTH AMERICA. 160 tigues and hardships he had endured, ai^d broken with the infirmi- ties these broug-ht upon him, ended his life at Validolid, on the 20th of May, 1506, in the 59th year of his age. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 1492 Colmnbus sets out on his first voyage. Discovers the island of Cuba and Hispaniola. 1493 Colwmbus sets out on hzs second voyage, 1494 Discovers the island of yamaica» 1498 Third voyage of Columbus^ he discovers the continent of America, 1499 The Portuguese sail to the East Indies, by the 'way of the Cape of Good Hope. On vihat account the name of America was given to the Nei\> World. 15G0 Columbus sent in chains to Spain. 1502 He ^'ets out on his fourth voyage. Searches in vain for a passage to the East Indies. 1503 Shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica. 1506 Death of Colwmbus. CHAP. Ill, ■»■ HE colony of Hispaniola, before the death of Columbus, had gradually acquired the form of a regular and prosperous state. The humane solicitude of Isabella to protect the Indians from oppression, and particularly the proclamation, by which the Spaniards were prohibited to compel them to work, for some time, it is true, retard- ed the progre&s of improvement. The natives considering every exemption from toil as a supreme felicity, despised every allure- ment and reward by which they were invited to labour. The Span- j^ iards were not numerous enough, either to work the mines or cultivate the soil, the distempers peculiar to the climate having carried off great numbers. In order to save the colony from niin, Ovando ventui'ed to relax the rigour of some royal edicts that had been sent to him He made a new distribution of the Indians among the Spaniards, and compelled them to labour for a stated time, in digging the mines, or in cultivating the grounds ; but in order to screen himself from the imputation of having subjected them again to servitude, he en- joined their masters to pay them a certain sum, as the price of their work. But the indians, after enjoying respite from oppressiorij i though during a short interval, now found the yoke of bondage to be so g-alling, that they made several attempts to vindicate their own liberty. However they were subdued as often a.s they rose, and the treatment they received from Ovando was both cruel and pi treacherous. 170 THE HISTORY OF The attention of the Spaniards was so imich engrossed by their operations in the mines of Hispaniola, that the spirit of discovery languished for some time. In 1508 Juan Ponce de Leon, who commanded under Ovand^, in the eastern district of Hispaniola, passed over to the island of St. Juan de Puerto Rico, which Colum- bus had discovered in his second voyage, and penetrated into the interior parts of the country. As he found the soil to be fertile, and expected, from symptoms, as well as from the information of the inhabitants, to discover mines of gold in the mountains, Ovan- do permitted him to attempt making a settlement in the island. In a few years, Puerto Rico was subjected to the Spanish government, the natives were reduced to servitude, and being treated with the same inconsiderate rigor as their neighbours in Hispaniola, the race of original inhabitants worn out -with fatigue and sufferings, was soon exterminated. Sebastian de Ocampo, by the command of Ovando, sailed round Cuba, and first discovered, with certainty, that this country which Columbus once supposed to be a part of the continent was only a large island. This voyage round Cuba was one of the last occurrences under the administration of Ovando. Ever since the death of Columbus, his son Don Diego had been employed in soliciting Ferdinand to grant him the offices of Viceroy and Admiral in the New World, together with all the other immunities and profits which descended to him by inheritance, in consequence of the original capitulation with his father. But if these dignities and revenues appeared so considerable to Ferdinand, that, at the expense of being deemed unjust, as well as ungrateful, he had wrested them from Columbus, it is not surprizing that he should be unwilling to confer them on his son, According-ly Don Diego wasted two years in incessant but fruitless importunity. Weary of this, he endeavoured at length to obtain, by a legal sentence, what he could not procure from the favour of an interested monarch. He commenced a suit against Ferdinand before the council w hich managed indian affairs, and that court with an integrity which reflects honour upon its proceed- ings, decided against the king, and confirmed all the privileges stipulated in the capitulation, Ferdinand still shewed liis repug- nance to do Diego justice, nor would ht at last have done anything had he not been in a manner forced to it by a powerful party, raised in consequence of the mrirriage of Don Diego with Donna Maria, daughter of Don Ferdinand, great commendator of Leon, and bro- ther of the Duke of Alva, a nobleman of the first rank and nearly related to the king-. The duke and his family es])oused so warmly the cause of their new ally, that Ferdinand could not resist their solicitations. In iSOQj he recalled Ovando, and appointed Don Diegc h'lk suc- cessor, thoug-h even in conferring this favour he could not conceal his jealousy ; for he allowed him to assume only the title of govern-^ or and not that of vicerov. SOUTH AMERICA. IH Don Diego immediately set off for Hispaniola, attended by his brother, his uncle, his wife, whom the courtesy of the Spaniards honoured with the title of Vice-queen, and a numerous retinue of both sexes, born of good families. He lived with a splendor and magnificence hitherto unknown in the ne^v world,, and the family of Columbus seemed now to enjoy the honours and rewards due to his inventive genius of which he himself had been cruelly defrauded. The colony itself acquired new lustre by the accession of so many inhabitants of a different rank and character from most of those who had hitherto emigrated to America, and many of the most illustrious families in the Spanish settlements are descended from the persons who at that time accompanied Don Diego Columbus. Juan Diaz de Solis, about this time set out in conjunction with Pinzon, upon new discoveries. They sailed due south, towards the equinoctial line, which Pinzon had formerly crossed, and advanced as far as the 40th degree of southern latitude. They were astonish- ed to find that the continent of America stretched on the right hand, through all this vast extent of ocean. They landed in differ- ent places, to take possession in the name of their sovereign ; but though the country appeared to be extremely fertile and inviting, their force was so small, having been fitted out rather for discovery than making settlements, that they left no colony behind them. Their voyage however, served to give the Spaniards more exalted and adequate ideas, with respect to the dimensions of the new- world. Private adventurers attempted to make settlements on the new continent ; but the loss of their ships by various accidents upon un- known coasts, the diseases peculiar to a climate the most noxious in all America, the want of provisions, unavoidable in a country impei'fectly cultivated, dissentions among themselves, and the in- cessant hostilities of the natives, involved them in a succession of calamities, the bare recital of which would strike my readers with, horror. Notwithstanding the unfortunate issue of this expedition, the Spaniards were not deterred from engaging in new schemes of a similar nature. Juan Ponce de I.eon, in 1512, fitted out three ships at his own expense, for a voyage of discovery, and his repu- tation soon drew together a respectable body of followers. He di- rected his course towards the Lucayo islands ; and, after touching at several of them, as well as of the Bahama isles, he stood to the South-west, and discovered a country hitherto unknown to the Spaniards, which he called Florida, either because he fell in with it on Palm Sunday, or on account of its gay and beautiful appear- ance. He attempted to land in different places, but met with such vigorous opposition from the natives, who were fierce and warUke, as convinced him, than an increase of force was requisite to effect a settlement. Satisfied with having opened a communication with a new country, of whose value_ and importance he c6^cieved very sanguine hopes, he returned to Puerto Rico, through the channel ROW known by the name of the Gulf of Florida. 172 THE HISTORY OF Soon aftep the expedition to Florida, a discovery of much greater importance was made in another part of America, Balboa, having been raised to the government of the small colony at Santa Maria In Darien, made frequent inroads into the adjacent country, and col- lected a considerable quantity of gold, which abounded more in ihat part of the continent than in the islands. In one of these ex- -'•ursions, the Spaniards contended with such eagerness about the division of some gold, that they were at the point of proceeding to acts of viofence against one another. A young Indian prince, who «vas presentj astonished at the high value they set upon a thing, of which he did not discern the use, tumbled the gold out of the bal- ance with indignation, and, turning to the Spaniards, '*^Why do you quarrel," (said he) "about such a trifle ? If you are so pas- sionately fond of gold, as to abandon your own country, and to dis- turb the tranquillity of distant nations for its sake, I will conduct you to a region, where this metal, which seems to be the chief ob- ject of your admiration and desire, is so common, that the meanest iitensiis are formed of it." Balboa and his companions, transported with what they heard, eagerly enquired where this happy country lay, and how they might arrive at it. He informed them, at the distance of six suns, that is, of six days journey towards the South, they should discover another ocean, near to which this wealthy kingdom was situated ; but, ifthey intended to attack that powerful state, they must assem- ble forces far superior in number and strength to what they were at present. This was the firit information which the Spaniards re- ceived concerning the southern ocean, or the opulent and extensive country known afterwards by the name of Peru. Balboa, having mustered all the forces he could, \^hlch amount- ed only to 190 m'en, set out on this important expedition on the first of September, 1513, about the time the periodical rahis began to abate. Though their guides had represented the breadth of the isthmus to be only a journey of six days, they had already spent twenty five in forcing their way through the woods and mountains. Many'of them were ready to sink under such fatigue in that sultry climate, several were seized with the diseases peculiar to the country, and all become impatient to reach the period of their la- bors and sufferings At length the Indians assured them, that from the top of the next mouutain they should discover the ocean which was the object of their wishes. When with infinite toil they had climbed up the greater part of that steep ascent, Balboa command- ed his men to halt and advanced alone to the summit, that he might be the first who should enjoy such a spectacle which he had so long desired. As soon as he beheld the South Sea stretching in endless prospect below him, he fell on his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, returned thanks to God, who had conducted him to a discovery, so beneficial to his country, and so honourable to him- self His followers, observing his transports of joy, rushed forward to join his wonder, exultation and gratitude. They held on their course to the shore, with great alacrity, when Balboa advancing up SOUTH AMERICA. ir^ to the middle in the waves, with his biickler and sword, took pos- session of that ocean in the name of the king- his master, and vowed to defend it. That part of the great Pacific or Southern ocean, which Balboa first discovered, still retains the name of the Gulf of St. Michael, which he g-ave to it, and is situated to the east of Panama. From several of the petty princes, who governed in the districts adjacent to that gulf, he extorted provisions and gold by force of arms j others sent them to him voluntarily. Together with the acquisi- tion of this wealth, which served to soothe and encourage his fol» lowers, he received account which confirmed his sanguine hopes of future 4nd more extensive benefits from this expedition. All the people on the coasts of the South Sea concurred in informing him, that there was a mighty and opulent kingdom situated at a con- siderable distance towards the south-east, where gold was found in plenty. Though the information Balboa received from the people, on the eoast, as well as his own conjectures and hopes, made him ex» tremely impatient to visit this unknown country, his prudence re- strained him from attempting to invade it with a handful of men, ex- hausted by fatigue, and weakened by diseases. He determined to lead back his followers to their settlement at Santa Maria in Darien, and to return next season with a force more adequate to such an arduous enterprize. He reached Santa Maria after an absence of four months, with greater glory and more treasure, than the Spaniards ever had acquired in any former expedition in the Nev^ World. He took care to acquaint the court of Spain with the important discovery he had made and demanded a reinforcement of a thou- sand men, in order to attempt the conquest of that opulent country, concerning which he had received such inviting intelligence. The meannesses and jealousies of Ferdinand, and the advice of men around him worse than himself, induced him to supercede Balboa, the most proper man he could have employed, and to ap- point Pedrarias Davila g-overnor of Darien. He gave him the command of fourteen stout vessels, and twelve hundred soldiers. These were fitted out at the public expense, and granted with a, liberality unusual to Ferdinand. Pedrarias reached the gulf at Darien without any remarkable accident, in July, 1514 ; but his ill conduct and base treatment of Balboa, stopped all operations, and nearly ruined this flourishing colony. Both parties sent home complaints to Spain against each other; At length, Ferdinand became sensible of his imprudence in su* perceding the most active and experienced officer he had in the New World, and, by way of compensation to Balboa, he appointed him lieutenant governor of the countries upon the South Sea, wii' very extensive priviieg*es and authority, at the same time ordering Pedrarias to support him in all his operations, and to consult him on every measure which he himself pursued. Surely nothing could P 2 lU THE HISTORY OF be more ridiculous and absurd in Ferdinand than this conduct ! Pedrarias now conceived the most implacable hatred to Balboa, and, though he afterwards seemed so far reconciled to him, as to give him his daughter in marriage, he soon found means falsely to accuse him of high treason, had him tried, condemned, and pub- lickly executed in 1517. Pedrarias, notwithstanding the violence and injustice ef his proceedings, was not only screened from pun- ishment by the powerful patronage of the infamous bishop of Bur- gos, an inveterate enemy to real merit, but continued in the g;ov- ernment. While matters were thus going forward in Darien, several im* portant events occurred with respect to the discovery, the con- quest, and government of other provinces in the New Worlds Ferdinand was so intent upon opening a communication with the Molucca or Spice Islands by the west, that, in the year 1515, he fitted out two ships at his own expense, in order to attempt such a voyage, and gave the command of them to Juan Diaz de Solis, who was deemed one of the most skilful navigators in Spain. He stood along the coast of South America, and on the first of Janu- ary, 1516, he entered a river which he called Janeiro, where an extensive commerce is now carried on. From thence he proceed^ ed to a spacious bay which he supposed to be the entrance into a strait that communicated with the Indian ocean ; but upon advanC" ing farther, he found it to be the mouth of the Rio de Plata, one of the vast rivers by which the southern continent of America is watered. In endeavouring to make a descent in this country, De Solis and several of his crew were slain by the natives ; who, in sight of the ships, cut their bodies in pieces, roasted and devoured them. Discouraged by the loss of theif commander and terrified at this horrid spectacle, the surviving Spaniards set sail for Eu- rope, without aiming at any further discovery. Though this at- tempt proved abortive it was not without benefit t^ it turned the attention of ingenious men to this course of navigation, and pre- pared the way for a more fortunate voyage. While discoveries were thus going forward, Hispaniola continu- ed as their principal colony, and the seat of government. Don Diego Columbus wanted neither inclination or abilities to huve rendered the members of this colony, who were most immediately under his direction, prosperous and happy ; but he was circum- scribed in all his operations by the suspicious policy of Ferdinands, who on every occasion, and under the most frivolous pretexts, re- trenched his privileges, and encouraged the treasurer, the judges, and other subordinate officers, to counteract his measures, and to dispute his authority. In short, Ferdinand's conduct was so un- generous, as obliged Don Diego to quit Hispaniola, and repair to Spain, in order to seek redress for his injuries. On the death of Ferdinand, in 1517, Charles V. took possession of the government. Diego Velasquez, who conquered Cuba in the year 1511, still retained the government of that island, as the deputy of Don Diego Columbus,, though he seldom acknowledged! SOUTH AMERICA. , 17^ Lis superior, and aimed at rendering his own authority altogether independent. Under his prudent administration, Cuba became one of the most flourishing of the Spanish settlements. The fame of this drew many persons from the other colonies, expecting there to find some permanent establishment, or some employment for their activity. As Cuba lay to the west of all the islands pos- sessed by the Spaniards, and as the ocean which stretches be- yond it towards that quarter, had not hitherto been explored, these circumstances naturally invited the inhabitants to attempt new- discoveries. An expedition for this purpose in which activity and resolution might conduct to sudden wealth, was more suited to the genius of the age, than the patient industry requisite in clearing ground, and manufacturing sugar Hence it happened, that several offi- cers who had served under Pedrarias in Darien, entered into an association to undertake a voyage of discovery. They persuaded Francisco Hernandez Cordova, an opulent planter in Cuba, and a man of great courage, to join with them in the adventure, and! chose him to be their commander. Velasquez not only approved of the design, but assisted in carrying it on. Three small vessels were purchased, and furnished with every thing requisite either for traffic or war. An hundred and ten men embarked on board them, and sailed from St, Jago de Cuba on the 8th of February, 1517. On the twenty -first day after their departure from St. Jago, they saw land- which proved to be Cape Catoche, the eastern point of that large peninsula projecting from the continent of America, which still retains its original name of Yucatan. As they ap- proached the shore, five canoes came off full of people decently clad in cotton garments : an astonishing sight to the Spaniards, who had found every other part of America possessed by native savages. Cordova endeavoured by small presents to gain the good will of these people. They_v though amazed at the strange objects now presented for the first time to their view, invited the Spaniards to visit their habitations, with an appearance of cordiality. They landed accordingly, and as they advanced into the country, they observed with new wonder some large houses built with stone : but they soon found, if the Yucatans had made progress in improve- ment beyond their countrymen, they were likewise more artful and warlike. Though the Indian chief received Cordova with many tokens of friendship, he had posted a considerable body of his subjects in ambuah behind a thicket, who upon a signal given fey him, rushed out and attacked the Spaniards with great bold- ness, and with some degree of martial order. At the first flight of the arrows, fifteen of the Spaniards were wounded ; but the Indians were so terrified with the sudden explosion of the fire arms, and so surprised at the executiorT done by them, by the cross bows, and by the other weapons of their new enemies, that they precipitately fled. Cordova immediately quitted a country where he had met with sa unwelcome a reception,, carrying «-^~ 176 THE HISTORY OF two prisoners, "With the ornaments of a small temple which he plundered in making' his retreat to his ships. Cordova continued his course towards the west without losing sight of the coast,^and on the sixteenth day arrived at Campeachy. At this place the natives received them more kindly ; but the Spaniards were much surprised, that on all the extensive coast along which they had sailed, they had not met with any river. Their Water beginning to fail, they advanced in hopes of finding a supply ; at length they discovered the mouth of a river. Cordova landed all his troops in order to protect his sailors, •whose business it was to fill the casks ; but the natives rushed upon them with such fury, and in such numbers that forty seven of the Spaniards were killed on the spot and one man only of the whole body escaped unhurt. Their commander though wounded in, twelve different places, directed the retreat with presence of mind equal to the courage with which, he had led them on in the en- gagement, and with much difficulty they reached their ships. Having met with this terrible repulse, nothing remained but to hasten back to Cuba with their shattered forces. In their passage thither, they suffered the greatest distress from the want of water, that men wounded and sickly, shuc up in small vessels, and exposed to the heat of the torrid zone, can be supposed to suffer. Some died on their passage and CordoVa their commander, soon after he landed at Cuba paid the debt of nature. Unfortunate as this expedition proved, it contributed rather to animate than damp a spirit of enterprize among the Spaniards. They had discovered an extensive country, situated in the neigh- bourhood of Cuba, fertile in appearance, and possessed by a people far more refined than any they had hitherto met with in America. Velasquez, through particular views of ambition and interest, not only encouraged their ardour, but at his own expense fitted out four ships for the voyage. Two hundred and forty volunteers, among whom were several persons of rank and fortune, embarked i» this enterprize. The command of it was given to Juan de Gri- jalva a young man of known merit and courage, with instructions attentively to observe the nature of the countries which he should discover ;' to barter for gold ; and, if circumstances were inviting, to settle a colony in some proper station. He sailed from St. Jago tie Cuba, on the 8th of April, 1518. They held the same course as in the former voyage, and at last reached Potonchan^ where the last adventurers had been so roughly handled. The desire of avenging their countrymen who had been slain there, coBCurred with their ideas of good policy, in promp- ting them to land, that they might chastise the Indians with such exemplary rigour, as would strike terror into all the people round them ; but, though they disembarked all their troops and carried ashore some field pieces, the Indians fought vflxh such courage, tkat the Spaniards with difficulty gained the victory : and were con- iirmed in their opinion, that the inhabitants of this country would SOUTH AMERICA, tW prove more formidable enemies than any they had met with in other parts o^ America, F rem Potdnchan, they continued their voyage tovt^ards the west keeping as near as possible to the shore, and casting anchor every evening, from the dread of the dangerous accidents to which they might be exposed in an unknown sea. During the day their eyes were turned continually towards land, with a mixture of surprise and wonder at the beauty of the country, as well as the novelty of the objects they beheld. Many villages were scattered along the coast, in which they could distinguish houses of stone that appear- ed white and lofty at a distance. One of the soldiers happening to remark, that this country resembled Spain in its appearance, Grijalva, with universal applause, called it New Spain, the name which still distinguishes this extensive and opulent province of Spanish empire in America, On the 9th of June, they landed in a river, which the natives cal- led Tabasco, and the fame of their victory at Potonchan having reached this place, the chief not only received them amicably, but bestowed presents upon them of such value, as confimed the high- est ideas, which the Spaniards had formed, with fespect to the wealth and fertility of the country. These ideas were raised still higher, by what occurred at the place where they next touched. This was considerably to the west of Tabasco, in the province since known by the name of Guaxaca. There they were received with the respect due to superior beings. The people perfumed them as they landed with gum copal, and presented to them as onenngs the choicest delicacies of their country. They were extremely fond of trading with their new visitants, and in six days the Span- iards obtained ornaments of gold, of curious workmanship, to the value of fifteen thousand pesos, in exchange for European toys of small price. The two prisoners, whom Gordai'o had brougiit from Yucatan, had hitherto served as interpreters : but as they were un- acquainted with the language of this country, the Spaniards learn- ed from the natives by signs, that they were the subjects of a great jmonarch, called Montezuma, whose dominions extended over thkt and many other provinces. Leaving this province, with which he had so much reason to be contented, Grijalva continued his course towards the west. He landed on a small island, which he named the isle of sacrifices, be- cause there the Spaniards beheld the horrid spectacle of human victims, which the barbarous superstitions of the natives oifered to their gods. He touched at another small island, which he called St. Juan de Ulua. From this place he dispatched Predode Alverado,_one of his of- ficers, to Velasquez, with a full account of the important discove- ries he had made, and with all the treasure that he had acquired by trafficking with the nativ^es. After the departure of Alverado, he himself, with the remaining vessels, proceeded along the coast as far as the river Panuco, the country still appearing to be well peopled, fertile and opulent. 178 THE HISTORY OF It was the opinion of several of Grijalva's officers, that it was not enough to have discovered those delightful regions, or to have per- formed, at their different landing places, the empty ceremony of taking' possession of them for the crown of Castile, and that their glory was incomplete, unless they planted a colony in some proper station which might not only secure the Spanish nation a footing- in the country, but with the reinforcements they were certain of re- ceiving, -might gradually subject the whole to the dominion of their sovereign. However, the squadron had now been above six months at sea, the greater part of their provisions were exhausted, and what remained of their stores so much corrupted by the heat -.f the cli- mate, as to be almost unfit for use ; they had lost some men by death, and others were sickly ; the country was crouded with peo- ple, who seemed to be intelligent as well as brave, and they were under the government of one powerful monarch, who could bring them to act against their invaders with united force. To plant a colony under so many corresponding difficultiesj appeared a matter too liazardous to be attempted. Though Grijalva was not without ambition and courage, yet he was destitute of the superior abilities requisite to iorm and execute so extensive a plan. He judged it more prudent to return to Cuba, having fulfilled the purpose of his voyage, and accomplisiied every thing, which the armament he commanded enabled him to perform. He rerarned to St. Jago de Cuba, on the 26th of October, from whence he had sailed about six months, without having met with any material accident. A^this was the longest, so it had been the most successful voyage the Spaniards had hitherto made in the New World. They had discovered that Yucatan was not an island as they had supposed, but part of the great continent of America. From Potonchan they bad pursued their course for many hundred miles along a coast for- merly unexplored, stretching at first along the west and then.turn- ing to the north. All the country they discovered appeared to be no less valuable than extensive. As soon as Avarado reached Cu- ba, Velasquez, transported with success so far beyond his most sanguine expectations, immediately dispatched a person of confi- dence to carry this important intelligence to Spain ; to exhibit the rich productions of the countries which had been discovered by his means ; and to solicit such an increase of authority, as might ena« ble and encourage him to attempt the conquest of them. Without waiting for the return of his messenger, or for the arrival of Gri- jalva, of whom he was become so jealous or distrustful that he re- solved no longer to employ him, he began to prepare sucli a pow- erful armament, as might prove equal to an enterprise of so much danger and importance. The little and mean jealousies, which the Spaniards seem naturally to entertain of every man of merit, is a very singular blemish in the character of that nation. The expedition for which Velasquez was nov/ preparing with so much ardour and activity, had in its views conquests far beyond what the Spanish nation had hitherto accomplished. It led them to the knowledge of a people, who, if compared with those tribes, of SOUTH AMERICA. Ij-g South America, and the West Indies, with whom they were hither- to acquainted, were infinitely more civilized, and far better ac- quainted with the arts of war and the sciences in general. Before we proceed to the history of events extremely difl^'erent from those we have already related, it may not be improper to take a view of the state of the New Wortd, such as it was when first discovered, and to contemplate the politics and manners of the rude uncultiva- ted tribes, by whom the diflTerent parts of it were occupied, and with whom the Spaniards at this time had intercourse. This shall be the subject of our next chapter, MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 1505 War ivith the American Indians. ., 1508 Keiu discoveries and settlements. Diego Columbus appointed Xiovernor of Hispaniola. 1510 Cuba conquered. 1512 Florida discovered. 1513 The South Sea discovered. Pedrarias appointed Governor of Darien. 1517 Balboa executed by the order of the treacherous Pedrarias. Death of Ferdinand^ King of Spain : succeeded by Charles V Tucatan disco- vered. 1518 Campeachy discovered. Grijaha discovers Neiv Spain, Tobal- SCO Guaxaca, and St. ^uan de XJlua. CHAP. IV. 1 HE immense extent of the New World is a circumstance that strikes us xvith wonder. America is remarkable, not only for its magnitude, but for its position. It stretches from the northern po- lar circle to a high southern latitude, above fifteen hundred m^es beyond the furthest extremity of the old continent on that side of the line. Next to its extent, the grandeur of the objects which it presents to our view is most apt to strike the eye of an observer — Nature seems to have carried on her operations'upon a larger scale, with a bolder hand, and to have distinguished the features of this country by a peculiar magnificence. The mountains of America are much superior in height to those in the other divisions of the globe. Even the plain of Quito, which may be considered as the base ofthe Andes, is elevated farther above the sea, than the top of the Pyrenees. From those lofty mountains descend rivers proporti- onablylarge, with which the streams in the ancient continent w/e. not to be compared, either for length of course, orthe vast body of water which they roU towards the ocean Their lakes are no less cor spi- cuous for grandeur than their mountains and rivers. They mav be properly termed inland seas of fresh water. 180 THE HISTORY OF The temperature of the climate of America and the different laws to which it is subject with respect to the distribution of heat and cold, are marks which particularly disting-uish it from other parts of the earth. Throughout all these vast regions, there were only two monarchies remarkable for extent of territory, or distin- guished by any progress in improvement. The rest of their conti- nent was possessed by sma'l independent tribes, destitute of arts and industry, and neither capable to correct the defects, nor desi- rous to meliorate the condition of that part of the earth allotted to them for their habitation. Countries occupied by such people, were almost in the same state as if they had been without inhabi- tants. Notwithstanding" the vast extent of America, and the variety of its climates, the different species of animals peculiar to it are much fewer in proportion, than those of the other hemisphere. In the islands, there are only four kinds of quadrupeds known, the largest of which did not exceed the size of a rabbit On the continent, the variety was greater ; and though the individuals of each kind could not fail of multiplying exceedingly, when almost unmolested by men, who were neither so numerous, nor 50 united in society, as to be formidable enemies to the animal creation, yet the number of distinct species must be considered as extremely small. To the causes, which checked the growth and vigor of the more noble animals, may be attributed the propagation and increase of reptiles and insects. The air is often darkened with clouds of in- sects, and the ground covered with shocking and noxious reptiles. The American birds of the torrid zone, like those of the same climate in Asia and Africa, are decked in plumage, which dazzles the eye with the beauty of its colours ; but nature, satisfied with cloathing them in this gay dress, has denied most of them that me- lody of sound, and variety of notes, which catch and delight the ear. Let my youthful readers stop here, and pause for a while ; through all the conditions and circumstances of life, they will find, on reflec- tion, that the hand of Providence has distributed things more equal- ly than they are aware of, as well in human, as in the feathered race. In a continent so extensive as America, the nature of the soil must be various. In each «^f its provinces, we find some- distin- guishing peculiarity, the description of which belongs to those who write their particular history, and would be an idle attempt to des- cribe in this epitome. How America was first peopled, by what course mankind migra- ted from one continent to the other, and in what quarter it is most probable the communication was first opened between them, are matters for which we have litth^ grounds to go upon beyond that of conjecture. The theories and speculations of ingenious men, with respect to this subject, would fill many volumes ; but they are often ' so wild and chimerical, that it would be offering an insult to the unders! anding of our readers, to attempt either to enumerate or re- fute tiliem, eveo provided the limits of thi« work would admit of if SOUTH AMERICA. 181 To enquire Into the character and condition of the American na- tions, at the tinie when they became known to the Europeans, de- serves more attentive consideration, than the enquiry concerning their original. The discovery of the New World enlarged the sphere of contemplation, and presented nations to our view in a state very rude and uncultivated. The greater part of the inhabi" tants were strangers to industry and labour, ignorant of arts, imper- fectly acquainted with the nature of property, and enjoying almost without restriction or controul the blessings which flowed sponta- neously from the bounty of nature. Among the small independent tribes of South America, their customs, manners and institutions, were nearly similar, and so extremely rude, that the denomination o£ savages may be applied to them all. The Spaniards who first vi- sited America, and who had opportunity of beholding its various tribes, while entire and unsubdued, were far from possessing the qualities requisite for observing the striking spectacle presented to their view. Neither the age in which they lived, nor the nation to which they belonged, had made such progress in true science, as inspires enlarged and liberal sentiments. The conquerors of the New World were mostly illiterate adventurers, destitute of all the ideas which should have directed them in contemplating objects, so extremely different from those with which they were acquainted. Surrounded continually jvith danger, or struggling with hardships, they had little Leisure, and less capaci(ty, for any speculative enqui- ry. Eager to take possession of a country of such extent and opu- lence, and happy in finding it occupied by inhabitants so incapable to defend it, they hastily pronounced them to be a wretched order of men, formed merely for servitude ; and were more employed in computing the profits of their labour, than in enquiring into the ope- rations of their minds, or the reason of their customs and institu- tions. The human body is less affected by climate than that of any other animal. Some animals are confined to a particular region of the globe, and cannot exist beyond it ; while others though they may be brought to bear the injuries of a foreign climate, cease to mul- tiply when carried from their native air and soil. Even such as seem capable of being naturalized in various climates, feel the ef- fect of every remove from their proper station, and graduHly dwindle and degenerate from the vigor and perfection peculiar to their species. Man is the only living creature, whose frame is at once sa hardy and so flexible, that he can spread over the whole earth, become the inhabitant of every regioia, and thrive and multi- ply under every climate, though not without some attending incon- veniences. The complexion of the Americans is of a reddish brown, nearly resembling the colour of copper. Their persons are of a full size, extremely strait, and well proportioned ; but they are more remark- able for agility than strength. AsJ;he*externalform of the Ameri- , cans leads us to suspect that there is some natural debility in their 1 frame, the smallness of their appetite for food has be^n mentioned a 182 THE HISTORY OF by many authors as a confirmation of this.suspicion. The quantity of food which men consume varies according to the temperature of the climate in which they live, the degree of activity which they exert, and the natural vigor of their constitutions. Under the en- ervating heat of the torrid zone, and where men pass their days in indolence and ease, they require less nourishment than the active inhabitants of temperate or cold countries. Notwithstanding the feeble m.ake of the Americans, hardly any of them are deformed, mutilated, or defective in any of their sen- ses. All travellers have been struck with this circumstance, and have celebrated the uniform symmetry and perfection of their ex- ternal figure. In the simplicity of the savage state, when man is not oppressed with labour, or enervated by luxury, or disquieted with care, we are apt to imagine tliat his life will flow on almost untroubled by disease or sufiering, until his days be terminated in extreme old age, by the gradual decays of nature. We find, accordingly among the Americans, as well as among other rude people, persons, whose decrepid and shrivelled forms seem to indicate an extraor- dinary length of life ; but as most of them are unacquainted with tlie art of numbering and all of them as forgetful of what is past, as they are improvident for what is to come, it is impossible to ascer- tain their age with any degree of precision. Whatever may be the situation in which man is placed he is born to suffer ; and his diseases in the savage state, though fewer in number, are like those of the animals whom he nearly resembles in his mode of life, more violent and more fatal. If luxury engenders and nourishes distempers of one species, the rigour and distress of savage life brings on those of another. As men in this state are wonderfully improvident, and their micans of subsistence precarious they often pass from extreme want to exuberant plenty, according to the vicissitudes of fortune in tlie chase, or in consequence of the various degrees of abundance, uith which the earth affords to them its productions in diiierent seasons. Their inconsiderate gluttony h} the one situation, and their severe abstinence in the other, are equally pernicious. The strength and vigour of savages are at some seasons, impaired by what tliey suffer from scarcity of food; at others, they are afflicted with disorders arising from Indigestions and a superfluity of gross ailiment. These are so common, that they may be considered as the unavoidable consequence of their mode of subsisting", and cut off considerable numbers in the prime of life. There are other disorders, to u hich they are continually exposed, owing to the inclemency of diffierent seasons. In the sa- vage state hardships and fatigues violently as.sault the constitution, in polished societies, intemperance undermines it. It is not easy to determine wliich of them operates with most fatar effects, or tends most to abridge human life. The thougiits and attenticfi of a savage are confined within the small circle of objects, immediately conducive to his preservation or enjoyment. Every thing beyond that is beneath his observa- SOUTH AMERICA. 183 tions, OP is entirely indifferent to him. Like a mere 'animal, what is before his eyes interests and affects him ; what is out of sight or at a distance, makes little impression. They follow blindly the im- pulse of the appetite they feel,*but are entirely regardless of distant consequences, and even of those removed in the least degree from immediate apprehension. The active efforts of their minds are few and languid. The de- sires of simple nature are very limited, arid where a favourable cli- mate yields almost spontaneously what suffices to gratify them, they scarcely stir the soul, or excite any violent emotion. Hence the people of several tribes in America waste their lives in a state of indolence. To be free froni occupation, seems to be all the enjoyment to whtcli they aspire. Such is their aversion to labour, that neither the hope of future good, nor the apprehension of evil, can surmount it. They appear equally indifferent to both, discovering little soli- cituile, and taking no precaution to avoid the one, or to secure the other. The cravings of hunger may rouse r.hem : but as they de- vour with little distinction, whatever will appease its instinctive de- mands, the exertions these occasion are of short duration. Amongst the rudest tribesin America, regular union between hus- band and wife was universal, and the rights of marriage were un- derstood recognized. In those districts where subsistence was scanty, and the difficulty of maintaining a family was great, the man connned himself to one wife. In warmer and more fertile provin- ces, the ficillty of procuring food concurred with tVe influence of climate, in inducing the inhabitants toencrease the number of tlieir v.ives. In some countries, the marriai;e union subsisted during life^ in otiiers, the impatience of the Americans under restraint of any species, together with their natural levity and caprice, prompted ihem to dissolve it on very slight pretexts, and often without as- signing' any cause. The situation of the American women, in whatever light we consider them, was equally humiliating and miserable. Among many people of America the marriage contract is properly a pur- chase. The man buys his wife of her parents. Though acquaint- ed with the use of money, or with such commercial transactions as take place in more improved society, he knows how to give an equi- valent for an object he desires to possess. In some places, the suit- or devotes his services for a certain time to the parent of the maid vv'hom he courts ; in others, he hunts for them occasionally, or as- sists in cultivating their fields, and forming their canoes ; in others lie offers presents qf such things as are deemed most valuable on account of their usefulness or rarity. In return for these, he re = ceives his Vvife ;iand this circumstance, added to the low estimation of women among- savages, leads him to consider lier a femaje ser- vant whom he has a title to treat as an inferior. The condition of an American woman is so peculiarly grievous, ^nd their depression BO complete, that servitude is a name too mild to describe their wretched state. A. wife, among most tribes, is iio better titan a I84r THE HISTORY OF beast of burden, destined to every office of labour and fatigue.— While the men loiter out the day in sloth, or spend it in amuse, inent, the women are condemned to incessant toil. Tasks are im- posed upon them without pity, and services are received without complacence or gratitude. -Every circumstaDce reminds women of this mortif}^ing' inferiority. They must approach tlieir lords Vvith reverence, regard them as more exalted beings, and are not permitted to eat in their presence. The Americans are not deficient in affection and attachment to their offspring. They feel the pov/er of this instinct in its full force, and as long as their progeny continue feeble and helpless no peo- ple exceed them in tenderness and care. In the simplicity of the savage state the affections of parents, like the instinctive f)ndness of animals, ceases almost entirely as soon as their offspring attain maturity. Little instruction fits them for that mode of life to which they are destined. The parents as if their duty were ac- complished, v/hen they have conducted their children through the helpless years of infancy, leave them afterwards at entire liberty. In an American hut, a father, a mother, and their posterity, live together like persons assembled by accident, without seeming to feel the obligation of the duties mutually arising from such con- nexion. Though the people of America may be all comprehended under the general denomination of savage, the advances they had made in the art of procuring to themselves a certain and plentiful sub- sistence were very unequal. On the vast plains of South America, man appears in one of the rudest states in which, he possibly can exist, several tribes depending entirely upon the bounty of nature for subsistence, They discover no solicitude, they employ little foresight, and scarcely exert any industry to secure what is neces- sary for their support. The roots which the earth produces spon- taneously, the fruits, the berries and the seeds, which they gather in the woods, together with lizards and other reptiles, which mul- tiply amazingly with the heat of the climate in a fat soil, moistened by frequent rains, supply them with food during some part of the year. At other times they live upon fish ; and nature seems to bave indulged the laziness of the South American tribes by her lib- eralities in this way. The vast rivers of that part of America a- bound with an infinite varlty of delicate fish, and are so numerous as to be caught with little trouble. None but tribes contiguous to great rivers cafn support themselves in this manner. The greater part of the American nations, dispersed over the forests with which their country is covered, do not procure subsistence with the same faci- lity ; but are obliged to obtain it by hunting, which in many parts is their principal occupation, and which requires strenuous exer- tions. As game and fish are the principal food of the Americans, their agriculture is neither extensive nor laborious. Their principal productions in this line are maze, manioc, plaintain, potatoes, and piemnto. All th^ fruits of their industry, together witli what SOUTH AMERICA. 185 their soil and climate produced spontaneously, afforded them but a scanty maintenance. Though their demands for food were very sparing", they hardly raised what was sufficient for their own con- sumption. In America, the word nation is not of the same import as in other parts of the globe. It is applied to small societies, perhaps not exceeding two or three hundred persons, but occupying provin- ces larger than some kingdoms in Europe. In the provinces which border on the Oronoco, one may travel several hundred miles, in different directions, without finding a single hut or observing the footsteps of a human creature. The Americans had no idea of property. As the animals on which the hunter feeds are not bred under his inspection, nor nou- rished by his care, he can claim no right to them while they run wild in the forest. The forests, or hunting grounds, are deemed the property of the tribe, from which it has a title to exclude every rival nation ; but no individual arrogates a right to any district of these, in preference to his fellovv^-citizen. We shall now proceed to take a cursory view of their art of war. Savage nations, in carrying on their public wars, are influenced by the same ideas, and animated with the same spirit, as in prosecut- ing private vengeance. The maxims by which they regulate their military operations, though extremely different from those, which take place among- more civilized and populous nations, are well suit- ed to their own political state, and the nature of the country in which they act. They never take the field in numerous bodies, as it would require a greater effort of foresight and industry, than is usual among savages, to provide for their subsistence, during a march of some'hundred miles through dreary forests, or during a long voyage upon their lakes and rivers. Their armies are not encumbered with baggage or military stores. Each v/arrior, besides his arms, carries a mat and a small bag of pounded maize, and with these he is completely equipped for any service. While at a distance from the enemies' frontier, they disperse through the woods, and support themselves with the game they kill, and the fish they catch. The manner in which r^' they attack their enemies, the treatment of their prisoners, and the \ surprising fortitude they shew in bearing the most cruel tortures, being nearly the same among the South American Indians as arneng the North we shall not here mention what will be found on that head in our History of North America. In the warmer and more mild climates of America, norie of the rude tribes were cloathed. To most of them Nature had not even sug'gested any idea of impropriety of being altogether uncovered. As under a mild climate there was little need of any defence from the injuries of the air, ahd their extreme indolence shunned every species of labour to which it was not urged by absolute necessity 5, all the inhabitants of the isles, and a considerable part of the peo = pic on the continent, remained in this state of naked simplicity, !; Others were satisfied with some slierht covering, such as dencenc-i- I <12 ^ *', , 186 THE HISTORY OF required ; but though naked, they were not unadorned. They fastened bits of gold or shells, or shining stones, to their ears, their noses, and cheeks. They stained their skins with a great variety of figares, Jwnd they spent much time, and submitted to great pain, in ornamenting their persons in this fantastic manner. In one part of their dress, which, at first sight appears the most singular and capricious, the Americans hare discovered consider- able sagacity in providing against the chief inconveniences of their climate, which is often sultry, and moist to exce.^s. All the differ- ent tribes, which remain unclothed, are accustomed to anoint and rub their bodies with the grease of animals, with viscous gums, and with oils of different kinds. By this they check that profuse perspiration, which in the torrid zone, wastes the vigour of the frame, and abridges the period of human life. By this too they provide a defence again&t the extreme moisture during the rainy season. They likewise, at certain seasons, temper paint of differ- ent coleurs with those unctious substances, and bedaub themselves plentifully with that composition. Sheathed with this impenetrable varnish tlieir skins are not only protected from the heat of the sun, but as all the innumerable tribes of insects have an antipathy to the smell or taste of that mixture, they are delivered from their teazing persecution, which amidst forests and marshes, especially in the warmer regions, would have been wholly insupportable in a state of perfect nakedness. Savage nations, being far fi-om that state of improvement, in which the mode of living is considered as a mark of distinction, and unac- quainted witli those wants, which require a variety of accommoda- tions, regulate the construction of their houses aiccording to their limited ideas of necessity. Some of the American tribes were so extremely rude and had advanced so little beyond the primeval simplicity of nature, that they had no houses at all. During the day, they took shelter from the scorching rays of the sun under thick trees, and at night they formed a shed with their branches and leaves. In the rainy seasons they retired into caves, formed by the hand of nature or hollowed out by their own industry. Others, who had no fixed abode, and roamed through the forest in quest of p-ame, sojourned in temporary huts, which they erected with little labour, and abandoned without any concern. Clubs made of heavy wood, stakes riardened in the fire, lances whose heads were armed with flint or the bone of some animal are weapons known to the rudest nations. All these, however, were of use only in close encounter ; but men wished to annoy their ene- jTiies while at a distance, and the bow and arrow is the most early invention for this purpose. The people in some p'*ovinces of Chili, and those of Patagonia, towards the southern extremity of America, use a weapon peculiar to themselves, They fasten stones about the size of a man's fist to each end of a leather thong of eight feet in length, and swinging these round their heads, throw them with such dexterity that they seldom miss the object they aim at. SOUTH AMERICA. U7 As their food and habitations are perfectly simple, their domestic utensils are few and rude. Some of the southern tribes discover- ed the art of forming vessels of earthen ware, and baking them in the sun so as they could endure the fire. These vessels they used in preparing part of their provisions, and this may be considered as a step towards refinement and luxury ; for men in their rudest state were not acquainted with any method of dressing their vict= uals, but by roasting them on the fire, and among several tribes in America, this is the only 9pecies of cookery yet known. What appears to be the master piece of art among the savages of America is the construction of their canoes. An Indian, shut up in his boat of whalebone covered with skins, can brave that stormy ocean, on which he is compelled to depend for part of his subsistence. The inhabitants of the isles in South America, form their canoes by hollowing the trunk of a large tree, with infinite labour, and though in appearance they are extremely awkward and unwieldy, they paddle and steer them with such dexterity, that Europeans, well acquainted with all the improvements in the sci<- ence of navigation, have been astonished at the rapidity of their motion, and the quickness of their evolutions. With respect to their religion, even among those tribes, whose religiousm syste was more enlarged, and who had formed some conception of benevolent beings, which delighted in conferring benefits, as well as of malicious powers prone to inflict evil, su- perstition still appears as the offspring of fear, and all its eiforts were employed to avert calamities. They were persuaded that their good deities, prompted by the beneficence of their nature, would bestow every blessing in their power, without solicitation or acknowledgment ; and their only anxiety was to sooth and depre- cate the wrath of the powers, whom they regarded as the enemies of mankind. With respect to the immortality of the soul the sentiments of the Americans were more united. The human mind, even when least improved and invigorated by culture, shrinks from the thoughts of dissolution, and looks forward with hope and expectation to a state of future exVstence. The most uncivilized savages of America do not apprehend death as the extinction of being : ail entertain hopes of a future and more happy state, where they shall be for- ever exempt from the calamities, which embitter human life in its present condition. This future state they conceive to be a delight- ful country blest with perpetual spring, whose forests abound with game, whose rivers swarm with fish, where famine is never feltj and uninterrupted plenty shall be enjayed without labour or toil. As the diseases of men in the savage stage are like those of the animal creation, few but extremely violent, their impatience under what they suffer, and solicitude for the recovery of health, soon inspired them with extraordinary reverence for such as pretended to undei-fitand the nature ®f their maladies, or to preserve them from their sud len and fatal effects However these ignorant pre- tenders being such utter strangers to the struotvire of the human 188 THE HISTORY OF frame, as to know neither the causes of disorders, nor the manner in which they vrere likely to terminate, superstition, frequently mingled with some portion of craft, supplied what they wanted in knowledge. They imputed the origin of diseases to supernatnral influence, and advised or performed a variety of superstitious rites which they represented to be sufficient to remove the most obsti- nate and dangerous disorders. From the superstition and credulity of the Americans likewise proceeded their faith in dreams, their observation of omens, their attention to the chirping of birds,, and the cries of animals, all -which they supposed to be indications of future events ; and if any one of the prognostics vvas deemed unfavourable, they eagerly abandoned the object they had in pursuit. Savage as the Americans v^^ere, they were not withont their amusements ; and of these dancing appears to be the principal. The war dance seems to be the most striking, in which are repre- sented all the manocuvers of an American campaign. Their songs and dances are mostly solemn and martial, they are connected with some of the most serious and important affairs of life, and, having no relation to love or gallantry, are seldom common to the two sexes, hut executed by the men and women apart. The Americans are universally fond of gaming. Though they are at other times so indifferent, phlegmatic, silent, and animated with so few desires, as soon as they engage in play, they become rapacious, imlpatient, noisy, and almost frantic with eagerness. Their furs, their domestic utensils, their clothes, their ai*ms, are staked at play and when all is lost, high as their sense of inde- pendence is, in a wild emotion of hope or despair, they will oflen risk their personal liberty upon a single bet. Among several tribes, such gaming parties are frequently made, and become their most agreeable entertainment at every great festival. The same causes that contribute to^-ender them fond of play, is the cause of drunkenness among them. It seems 'to have been one of the first exertions of human ingenuity to discover some composition of an intoxicating quality ; and there is hardly any nation so rude, or so destitute of invention, as not to have suc- ceeded in this fatal research. The most barbarous of the Ameri- can tribes have been so unfortunate as to attain this art ; and even those which are so deficient in knowledge as not to be acquainted with the method of giving an inebriating strength to liquors by fer- mentation, can accomplish the same by some other means. It is customary with the American Indians, when their parents and other relations become old, or labour under any distemper which they have not art enough to cure, to put an end to their lives, in order to be relieved from the burden of tending and sup- porting them. The same hardships and difficulty of procuring subsistence, v/hich prevent savages, in some cases, from rearing their children, prompt them to destroy the aged and infirm. The declining state of the one is as helpless as the infancy of the other ; and the American thinks he does nothing more than his duty, in SOUTH AMERICA. 189 easino' his father or friend of a burtheiisome life of pain and dis- CtlSC ^ ' A hardness of heart and insensibility of feeling are remarkable in all savaf^e nations. Their minds, roused only by strong emo- tions, are little susceptible of gentle, dehcate, or tender aiTectiong. V/hen any favour is done him, he neither feels gratitude, nor thinks of making any return. The high idea of independence among the Americans nourishes a sullen reserve, which keeps them at a distance from^each other. A savage, frequently placed in situations of danger or distress, depending on no one but himself, and wrapped up in his own thoughts and schemes, is a serious and melancholy animal. The AmeVican, when not engaged in action, often sits whole days in one posture, without opening his lips. When they engage in war or the chase, they usually march in a line at some distance from each other, and do not exchange a single word. Even in their canoes, the same profound silence is observed ; and nothing but intoxicating liquors or jollity attending their dances, can at any rate render them in the least conversable. We may attribute the refined cunning, with which they form and execute their schemes, to the same causes. With the Amer- ican Indians, war is a system of craft, in which they trust for suc- cess to stratagem more than to open force, and have their inven- tion continually at v/ork to circumvent and surprise their enemies. The people of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice and duplicity. The natives of Peru were_ employed above thirty years, in forming the plan of an insurrection, which took place under the viceroyalty of the Marquis de Villa Garcia ; and though a great number of people of different ranks, were let into the secret, yet not a syllable of it transpired during all that period, no men betrayed his trust, or by an unguarded look, or imprudent word, gave rise to any suspicion of what was meditating. However, let us not suppose that the Americans were without their virtues, among which fortitude and courage were remarkably conspicuous. Accvistomed as the Indians are to continual alarmsj they grow familiar with danger; courage becomes an habitual vir- tue, resulting naturally from their situation, and strengthened by constant exertions. They are naturally attached to the communi- ty of which they are members From the nature of their political union, we should be led to suppose this tie to be very feeble ; but each individual freely and cheerfully undertakes the most perilous service, when the com .nunity deems it necessary. They have a fierce and deep rooted antipathy to the enemies of their country, and that zeal for the honour of their tribe, which prompts them to brave danger in the pursuit of triumph, and to endure the most exquisite torments, without a groan, that it may not be dishonoured. Far from complaining of their own situation, or viewing that o-f men in a more improved state with admiration or envy, they regard themselves as the standard of excellence, as being the best enti- tled, as well as the most perfectly qualified, to enjoy real happiness. 190 THE HISTORY OF CHAP. V. -Ambition and avarice united to induce Velasquez to prepare j for the conquest of New Spain, so that when; Grijalva returned to ; Cuba, he foun'd tlie armament destined to attempt the conquest of ' that rich crniotry he had discovered, almost complete and ready to sail. Velasquez knew not whom to entrust with the command of . this important expedition. Thoug-hjie was of a most aspiring am- bition,, arul not destitue of talents for government, he possessed neither such courag-e, nor such vig-our and activity of mind, as to undertake in person the conduct of the armament he was prepar- ing-. He meanly unshed to find some person who had bravery and abilities equal to the undertaking-, but would attribute al,l the hon- our and glory to him. After some time searching- for such a |"ier- son and finding that no man of abilities would submit to such dis- graceful terms, he at last appointed Fernando Cortes to tlie com- mand. Cortes was a man of noble blood, but whose family v/as of moderate fortune : he was a good soldier, and every way qualified for such an undertaking. i'hough the governor had laid out considerable sums, and each adventurer had exhausted his stock, or strained his credit, the poverty of the preparation was such, as must astonish the present age, and bore no resemblance to an armament destined for the conquest of a great empire. The fleet consisted of eleven vessels* the largest of one hundred tons, which was dignified with the nanie of :\dmir?J ; three of seventy or eighty tons and tiie rest small open barks. On board of these were 6i7 men ; of wiiich 508 belonged to the land service, and 109 were seamen or artificers. As the use of fire-arms among the nations of Europe had hitherto confined to a few battallions of regular disciplined infs.ntry, only thirteen sol- diers v^ ere armed with muskets; tliirt)' -two were cross-bow men, the rest had swords and spears. They had only sixteen horses and ten small field-pieces. On the 10th of February, 1519, Cortes sailed wkh his small ar- mament to attack a most powerful monarch. He touched first at Cozumal, thei^ at Tabasco, and on the 2d of April aniv^ed at St. Juan de Ulua in Mexico. As soorj as they entered the harbour, a boat came off to them, to know what was the intention of their visit, and to offer them their assistance if needful- Cortes assured them, in respectful terms, which he did by m.ean.s of an inter- preter, that he approached their country with most friendly sentiments, and came to propose matters of great importance to the welfare of thelj' prince and his kingdom, which he would unfold ; J more fully, in person to the governor and the general. Next morn- ' f- ing, without waiting for any answer, he landed his troops, his horses, and artillery ; and having chosen proper ground, began to erect huts for his men, and fortify his camp. The Mexicans treated the Spaniards with tiie greatest civility,, but wished to divert them from their intention of visiting the capital SOUTH AMERICA. 191 where the emperor Montezuma resided. For this purpose, they commenced a neg-ociation, by introducing* a train of a hundred In- dians, loaded with presents, sent from Montezuma to Cortes. The magnificence of these were such as became a great monarchj, and far exceeded any idea the Spaniards had hitherto formed of his wealth. They were placed upon mats spread on the ground in such order as shewed them to the greatest advantage. Cortes and his officers viewed with admiration the various manufactures of the country ; cotton stuffs so fine, and of so delicate texture, as to resemble silks ; pictures of animals, trees and other natural ob- jects, formed with feathers of different colours, disposed and min- gled with such .skill and elegance, as to rival the works of the pencil in truth and beauty of imitation ; but what more particularly at- tracted the attentioo of the Spaniards, was the amazing quantity of un wrought gold and silver, and the profusion of pearls and, pre- cious stones, the produce of the country. These rich presents, instead of inducing the Spaniards to quit Mexico, made them the more resolute to make a conquest of it. Cortes insisted on visiting the king in his capital, and declared he would not leave the island till that was granted. Of all the prin- ces who had swayed the Mexican sceptre, Montezuma vt^as the mobt haughty, violent, and impatient of controul. His subjects viewed him with awe, and his enemies with terror. The former he governed with unrelenting- rigour, .and the latter he reduced to awe by the power of his arms. However though his power and tyranny kept his subjects and neighbours in awe, yet he wanted those qualities of mind, which were necsesary to intimidate and subdue his new visitors. Montezuma from the moment the Spaniards appeared on the coast, discovered symptons of timidity and embarrassment. In- stead of taking' such resolutions as his power enabled him, he de- liberated with an anxiety and hesitation that did not escape the no- tice of the meanest of his courtiers. He spent his time in fruitless n^gociations with the Spaniards, and thereby raised their courage and consequence. In the mean time, Cortes was watching the opportunity to throw oif all connexions with Velasquez, whose natural jealousy had induced him to endeavour to deprive Cortes of the command of the expedition before he sailed. He got the confidence of the officers and soldiers, and, having assembled a council, he resigned the commission he had received from Velasquez, and was imme- diately chosen chief-justice and captain general of the new colony. Cortes owed much of his success to the Mexican gold, which he distributed with a liberal 4iand among botli friends and opponents, and thereby brought all to be of one mind. Having thus settled everything to the satisfaction of his army, by engaging it to join him in disclj^ning any dependence on the governor of Cuba, he thouglithe might now venture to quit the camp, in which he had hitherto remained, and advance into the country. To this he was iencouraged by an event no less fortunate than seasonable. He re- i92 THE HISTORY OF ceived a proffer of friendship from the cazique of Zimpoalla, a con- siderable town at no great distance. He found by their message that they were filled with such dread and hatred of Montezuma, that nothing' covdd be more acceptable to them, than a prospect of deliverance from the oppressions under which they groaned. Cortes was highly delighted to find, that the great empire he intended to attack was not united, nor its sovereign beloved. Some officers, whom Cortes had employed to survey the coast having discovered a village ibout forty miles to the northward, whichj as well on account of the fertility of the soil, as commo- diousness of the harbour, seemed to be a more proper station for a settlement than that where he was encamped, he determined to re- move thither ; Zimpoalla lay in his way, where the cazique wel- comed him in the manner he had reason to expect. He received Cortes with respect, almost approaching to adoration, and like one to whom he looked up as a deliverer. From the cazique he learned many particulars with respect to the character of Montezuma,"" whom he represented as a tyrant, cruel and suspicious. Cortes as- sured the cazique, that one great object of the Spaniards in visiting a countr)' so remote from their own, was to redress grievances, and to 'relieve the oppressed. ^ Having taken his leave of the cazique, he continued his march to Qiiiabislan. The spot his officers had chosen as a proper situ- ation, appeared so well to meet his approbation, that he immedi- ately marked out ground for a town- The houses to be erected were only huts ; but these were to be surrounded with fortifica- tions, of sufficient strength to resist the assaults of an Indian army. Every one, even Cortes not excepted, gave an helping hand to the erecting of fortifications, so essential to the preservation of every in- dividual of the colony. His next care was to form an alliance with the neighbouring kings, whom he taught to despise their emperor, by gradually inspiring them with an high opinion of the Spaniards, as beings of a superior order, and irresistible in arms. Cortes perceiving that some of his men grew tired of their pre- sent pursuits, and had even formed the plan of making their escape to Cuba in one of the ships, saw no hopes of success, but in cutting off* all possibility of retreat, and reducing his men to the necessity of ad >pting the same resolutions with which he himself was ani- mated, either to conqueror perish. With this view he determined to destroy his fleet and his address in persuading his followers to adopt his ideas, was not inferior to the boldness of the undertaking. With universal consent the ships were drawn ashore, and after stripping them of their sails, rigging, iron work, and whatever else might be of use, they were broken in pieces. Thus from an effi^rt of mag-nanimity, to which there is nothing parallel in history, fiv^e hundred men voluntarily consented to be shut up in a hostile coun- try, filled with powerful and unknown nations ; and having- preclud- ed every means of escape left themselves without any resource but what their own perseverance and valour could procure them, and on which every thing now depended. SOUTH AMERICA. J^3 On the 16th of August, 1519, Cortes began his march from Zimpoalia, with five hundred men, fifteen horse and six field pieces. The remainder of his troops, consisting chiefly of such as from age or infirmity were less fit for active service, he left as a garrison in Villa Rica, under the command of Escalante. an officer of merit, and warmly attached to the interest of Cortes. The first war he engaged in was with the Hascalens, who advanc = ed against him with numerous armies, and attacked him in various forms, with a degree of valour and perseverance to which the Spaniards had seen nothing equal 1)1 the new world. - The Hasca- lens, however, were at last glad to sue for peace, seeing their own people so dreadfully destroyed, while the Spaniards remained un- hurt. *' If (said they to the Spaniards) you are divinities of a cruel and savage nature, we present to you five slaves that you may drink their blood and eat their flesh. If you are mild deities, accept an offer of incense and variegated plumes. If you are men, here is meat, and bread and fruit to nourish you." As both par- ties were equally desirous of peace, matters were soon settled between them. The Hascalens acknowledged themselves as de- pendent on the crown of Castile ; when Cortes took the republic under his protection, and promised to secure them against every attempt of injury on their persons or property. On the 13th of October, Cortes set out on his march for Mexico accompanied by six thousand Hascalens, so that he now appeared at the head of something like a regular army. As the Spaniards descended from the mountains of Chalco, over which the road lay, the vast plains of Mexico gradually unfolded itself to their view. This prospect afforded one of the most sti-iking and beautiful views on the face of the earth ; when they beheld fertile and cultivated fields, stretching beyond the reach of the human eye ; when they saw a lake resembling tbe sea in extent, encompassed with large towns, and beheld the capital city rising upon an island in the cen- tre, adorned with its temples and turrets ; the prospect so far sur- passed their most sanguine expectations, that some believ(^d the fancified descriptions of romance were realized, and that its en- chanted palaces and gilded domes were presented to their sight j others could hardly persuade themselves, that this wonderful sight was any thing more than a dream. As they proceeded their doubts were removed, but their amazement increased. Cortes was almost at the gates of the capital before Montezuma had determined whether he should receive him as a friend, or op- pose him as an enemy. On their arrival near the city, about a thousand persons, who bore marks of distinction, came out to meet them, dressed in mantles of fine cotton, and adorned with plumes. Each of these separately passed Cortes, and paid the most sub- missirv'e obedience to him according to the mode of their country. They announced the approach of Montezuma himself, and his har- bingers soon after came in sight. Two hundred persons in an uni- form dress first appeared, ornamented vt'ith feathers, proceeding ivo and two, barefooted, and in profound silence, with their eyes R 194 THE HISTORY OF fixed to their ground. A company of higher rank next foliovved, in their most sumptuous ornaments ; in the midst of whom was Montezuma, in a litter richly ornamented with gold, and feathers^ of various colours. He was carried on the shoulders of four of his principal favourites, while others supported a canopy of curious workmanship over his head. Before him marched three oificers with rods of gold in their hands, which they lifted up on high at certain intervals, when all the people immediately bowed their heads and hid their faces, as unworthy to look on so great a mon- arch. As soon as he approached Gortes dismounted, advanced towards him with officious haste, and in a respectful posture. Montezuma immediately alighted from his chair, and leaning on the arms of two of his near relations, approached with a slow and stately step, his attendants covering the streets with cotton cloth, that he might not touch the ground. Cortes accosted him with profound reverence, after the European fashion ; and Montezuma returned the salutation according to tl^e mode of his country, by touching che earth with his hand, and then kissing it. Montezu- ma conducted Cortes to the quarters he had prepared for his re = ception, and immediately took leave of him with a politeness not unv/orthy of a court more refined. Nothing material passed at this first interview. ^ ^ In the evening, Montezuma returned to visit his guests with the same pomp as in their first interview. He told Cortes, that fi-om what he had heard and seen of him and his followers, he was convinced that they were the very persons, whose appearance the Mexican traditions and prophecies taught them to expect, in order to reform their constitution and laws ; that he had accordingly re- -c.^ived them not as strangers, but as relations of the same blood and parentage, and desired that they might consider themselves as masters in his dominions, tor both himself and his subjects should be ready to comply with their will, and even to prevent their wishes. The three subsequent days were employed in viewing the city ; the appearance of which, so far superior in the order of its buildings, and the number of its inhabitants, to any place the Spaniards had beheld in America, filled them with wonder and surprise. , , r. • j i. Thou^'-h the novelty of these objects amused the Spaniards, yet th?y were not without their alarms on account of their safety. The allies of the Spaniards assured Cortes, that the Mexican priests bad, in the name of the gods, counselled their sovereign to admit the Spaniards into the capital, that he might cut them ofiT there at one blow with perfect security. ^ . . ^ Cortes very plainly perceived that his destruction was intended ; it was therefore necessary to extricate himself out of the difficul- ties, in which one bold step had involved him, by venturing upon another still bolder. The situation was trying but his mind was equal to it; and, after revolving the matter v. liii deep attention* he fixed upon a plan no less extraovdin^iry than daring. He de- termined to seize Monttzuma iahis palace and can-y Liirx as a ' SOUTH AMERICA, 195 prisoner to the Spanish quarters. The plan being- properly settled between Cortes and his officers, this powerful monarch was seized by a few strangers in the midst of his capital, at noon day, and carried off as a prisoner, without opposition or bloodshed. History contains nothing parallel to this event, either with respect to the temerity of the attempt, or the success of the execution, and were not all the circumstances of this extraordinary transaction au- tlienticated by the most unquestionable evidence, they would ap- pear so wild and extravagant J\g to go far beyond the bounds of reason and probability. Oil the 4th of December, 1519, Qiialcopoca, the son of Monte- zuma, and five of tlxe principal officers who served under him, were broug-ht prisoners to the citadel^ formally tried by a Spanish court-ma.rtial, and, though the3^ had acted no other part than what became loyal subjects aiul brave men, they were condemned to be burnt alive, which was immediately put in execution. The rig-oup with which Cortes punished the unhappy persons., who first pre- sumed to lay violent hands upon his followers, seems to have made all the impressions be desired. The spirit of Montezuma was not only overawed, but subdued. During six months that Cortes re- n^ained in Mexico, the monarch continued in tlie Spanish quarters, vvith an appearance of an entire satisfaction, and tranquillity, as if he had resided there, not from constraint, but through choice. His ministers and officers attended him as usual, he took cogniz- ance of all afiairs, and every order was issued in his name. The external aspect of government appearing the same, and all its an- cient forms being scrupulously observed, the people were so little sensible of any change, that they obeyed the mandates of their monarch with the same submissive reverence as ever. I'hus, by the fortunate temerity of Cortes in seizing Montezuma, the Span- iards at once secured to themselves more extensive authority in the Mexican empire, than it was possible to have acquired in a long course of time by open force ; and they exercised more abso- lute swjvy in the name of another, tlian they could have done ia their own. Cortes, encouraged by so many instances of the monarch's tame submission to his will, ventured to put it to a proof still more try- ing. He urged Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of the king of Castile, to hold his crown of him as superior, and to subject his dominions to the payment of an annual tribute. With this requisition, the last and most humbling that can be made to one possessed of sovereign authority, Montezuma was so obsequi- ous as to comply. The act of submission and homage was execut- ed with all the formalities the Spaniards were pleased to dictate. The next attempt Cortes made was to alter their religion, which had such an efiect upon the Mexicans, that they determ'ined to de- stroy the Spaniards if they persisted in it ; and even Montezuma himself had expressed his wish to Cortes, tliat he v/cuid think of t'eturning home. 196 THE HISTORY OF While things continued in this critical situation, Cortes, anxious about what was past, uncertain with respect to the future, and much oppressed by the late declaration of the Mexicans, he re-£^ ceived an account of some ships having' appeared on the coast.*' He idly imagined that his messengers were returned from Spain, and that the completion of all his hopes and wishes were at hand. However a courier soon brought certain information, that the ar- mament was fitted out by Velasquez, governor of Cuba_, and instead of bringing the aid they expectedj threatened them with immedi- ate destruction. This armament was commanded by Pamphilo de Narvaez. Cortes was now greatly alarmed, as Narvaez seemed determin- ed to ruin him, having received orders from Velasquez to seize him and send him to Cuba in irons. Cortes at first attempted to , treat with his enemies ; but finding that impossible, he maJ^ched' against them with an army infinitely inferior to their's, and rushing upon them, in the night, obtained a complete victory. Narvaez was wounded, taken prisoner, and put in irons. This victory proved the more acceptable, as it was gained with little bloodshed, only two soldiers being killed on the side of Cortes, and two officers, with fifteen private men, of the adverse faction. Cortes treated the vanquished not like enemies, but as countrymen and friends, and offered to send them back immedi- ately to Cuba, or to take them into his service, as, partners in his fortune, on equal terms with his own soldiers. The greater part of them accepted the offer, and vied with each other in professions of fidelity and attachment to a general, whose recent successes had given them such a striking proof of his abilities. Thus, by a series of events no les* fortunate than uncommon, Cortes not only escaped from the destruction that seemed inevitable, but, when he had least reason to expect it, was placed at the head of a thousand resolute Spaniards. While Cortes was engaged in this business, the Mexicans seiz- ed the opportunity of his absence to take up arrfks, to which they had been more particularly urged by the cruelty and treachery of Alvarado, whom Cortes had left in the city, in order to take care of the royal prisoner and keep the natives in awe. On the 24th of June, 1520, Cortes marched back to the city and' took quiet possession of his ancient station. However, being too much elated with his success, he neglected to visit Montezuma, and embittered the insult by expressions full of contempt for that unfortunate prince and his people. This being rumoured about, they flew to arms in every quarter, and attacked the Spaniards in their fortifications. Ttiough the artillery pointed at their nume- rous battalions, crowded together in narrow streets, swept off mul- titudes at every discharge, though every blow of the Spanish weapons fell with mortal effects upon their naked bodies, the vio- lence of the assault by no means abated. Fresh men rushed for- ward to occupy the places of the slain, and meeting with the same- fate, were succeeded by others no less intrepid and eager for ven- ^OUTH AMERICA. 1^/ ^eance. The utmost efforts and abilities o? Cortes, seconded by the disciplined valour of his troops, were hardly sufficient to defend the fortifications of the Spaniards, into which the Mexicans had nearly forced their way. Cortes was now willing to try what effect the sight of the em- peror would have upoii his subjects. He was accordingly brought on the ramparts, from whence he addressed the Mexicans, ex- horting them to peaceable measures, which so enraged them, that he was soon wounded by two arrows, and the blow of a stone on his temples brought him to the ground. The Spaniards carried him to his apartments ; but he was so broken and dejected by the se- verity of his fate, that he tore off the bandage from his wounds, and soon expired. Soon after the death of Montezuma, Cortes found it absolutely necessary to abandon the city. He attempted his retreat by night, but the Mexicans, who had watched all his motions, fell upon him in his march and destroyed nearly one half of his army. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage, were lost, and only a very small portion of the treasure they had amassed was saved. Many of the soldiers, having so overloaded themselves with bars of gold as rendered them un^t for action, and retarded their flight, fell igneminiously the victims of their own inconsiderate avarice. Cortes directed his march towards a rising ground at some little distance, and having fortunately discovered a temple situated on an eminence, he took possession of it. He there found not only the shelter for which he wished, but, what was no less wanted, some provisions to refresh his men. On leaving this place they marched for six days with little respite, and under continual alarms, numerous bodies of the Mexicans hovering around them, and har- rassingthem in front, rear, and flank, with great boldness. As the barren country through which they passed, afforded hardly any provisions, they were reduced to feed on berries, roots, and the stalks of green maize ; and at the very time that famine was de- pressing their spirits and wasting their strength, tlieir situation required the most vigorous and unremitting exertions of courage and activity. Amidst these complicated distresses, one circum- stance supported and animated the Spaniards. Their commander sustained this sad reverse of fortune with unshaken magnanimity. His presence of mind never forsook him, his sagacity foresaw every event, and his vigilance provided for it. He was foremost in eve- ry danger, and endured every hardship with cheerfulness. His soldiers, though despairing themselves, continued to follow him without reluctance. On the sixth day of their march, they reached the summit of an eminence, when a spacious valley opened to their view, covered with a vast army, extending as far as the eye could reach. The Mexicans, while with one body of their troops they harrassed. the? Spaniards in their retreat, had assembled their principal force on the other side of the lake, and posted it in the plain of Otumba, through which they knew Cortes must pass. At the^ight of this I R 2 198 THE HISTORY OF incredible multitude, which, they could survey at once from the rls- ing ground, the Spaniards were astonished, and even the boldest began to despair. Cortes, however, without allowing* leisure for their fears to acquire strength by reflection, after reminding them, that nothing remained but to die or conquer, led them immediately to the charge. The Mexicans with unusual fortitude waited their approach ; but such was the superiority of the Spanish arras and discipline, that the impression of this small body was irresistible, and which ever way its force was directed, it penetrated and dis- persed the most numerous battalions. However while these gave way in one quarter, a fresk supply of enemies advanced from another, and the Spaniards, though successful in every attack, were ready to sink under these repeated efforts, without seeing any end of their toil, or any hope of victory. Cortes now observed, that the great standard of the empire, which was carried before the Mexican general was advancing. He fortunately recollected to have heard, that on the fate of it de- pended the event of every battle. , He therefore assembled a few of his bravest officers, whose horses were still capable of service, and placing himself at their head, pushed forward towards the standard, with an impetuosity that bore down every thing before it. A chosen body of nobles, who guarded the standard, made some resistance, but were soon vanquished, Cortes, with, a stroke of his lance, wounded the Mexican general, and threw him to the ground. One of the Spanish officers alighting, finished his life, and seized the imperial standard. ' The instant their lead- er fell, and their standard, to which all directed their eyes, was no longer to be seen, an universal panic struck the Mexicans, eve- ry ensign was lowered, each soldier threw away his weapons, and every one made the best of his way to the mountains. The Span- iards, v/ho were not in a condition to pursue them, contented themselves with collecting the spoils of the field, which were so valuable, as to be some compensation for the wealth they had lost in the city of Mexico. After this victory, Cortes dispatched an officer of confidence with four ships of Narvaez's to Hispaniola and Jamaica, to engage adventurers, and to purchase horses, gunpowder, and other mili- tary stores. As he knew it would be in vain to attempt the re- duction of Mexico, unless he could secure the command of the ake he found means to procure materials for building twelve brig- ^antinesj so that they might be carried thither in pieces, ready to be put together, and launched, whenever he should want them. While he was harrassed and perplexed with the mutinous dispo- sition of his troops, two ships arrived, with a supply of men and militilry stores, sent by the governor of Cuba, not to assist Gortes l>ut with a view of his ruin. His address, however, brought them over to his views. He now found his army reinforced with 180 Spaniards, and twenty horses. Soon after this fovu' ships arrived at Vera Cruz from Hispaniola, with two hundred soldiers, eighty horses, and two battering cannon^ and a considerable supply of aramunition andarms» SOUTH AMERICA-, 199 On the 28th of April, 1521, all the Spanish troops, together with the auxiliary Indians, were drawn up on the banks of the Canal j and with extraordinary military pomp, heightened and rendered more solemn by the celebration of the most sacred rites of relig'ion the brig-antines were launched. Cortes now determined on making an attack onthe city of Mexico.— The brigantines no sooner ap- peared before the city, than the lake was covered with innumerable canoes, which made but a feeble resistance against these vessels manned by Europeans. The brigantines, with the utmost ease, broke through their feeble opponents, overset raaiTy canoes, aiid dissipated ttie whole armament with such slaughter, as convinced the Mexicans, that it was not in their power to contend with the Spaniards on the watery element. Cortes now determined to attack the city, and for this purpose he made all the wise preparations an able general could do ; but, owing to his orders not being properly observed, he was at last repulsed, received some dangerous wounds and would have been taken by the Mexicans, bad not some Spanish officers rescued him at the expense of their lives. Forty Spaniards fell alive into the hands of the Mexicans, who sacrificed those unhappy victims, in the most cruel manner, to their god of war. However unpromising an .gispect matters were at present, Cortes had a mind that rose above all difficulties. He soon found himself enabled to renew the attack on the city of Mexico, in which he proved so fortunate, that he took the emperor Guatimozin prisoner, who seemed worthy of a better fate. When the emperor was conducted to Cortes, he appeared neither with the sullen fierceness of abarbarian, nor with the dejection of a suppli- cant. *' I have done (said he, addressing himself to the Spanisli general) what became a monarch. I have defended my people to the last extremity. Nothing now remains but to die. Take this dagger, (laying his hand on one Vv^hich Cortes wore) plant it in my breast, and put an end to a life, which can no longer be of use." As soon as the fate of this unfortunate sovereign was known,^ the Mexicans ceased all resistance, and Cortes took possession of that small part of the capital, which had not been destroyed dur- ing the siege. Thus terminated the siege of Mexico, the most memorable event in the conquest of America. It lasted twenty- five days, of which hardly one passed v/ithout some singular elTort on the.part of the besiegers or the besieged. The great abilities of Guatimozin, the number of his troopd, the peculiar situation of his capital, so far counterbalanced tlie superiority of the Spaniards in arms and discipline, that they mast have relinquished the enter- prize, had they trusted for success to themselves alone ; but Mex- ico was overturned by its own tyranny, and the jealousy of its neighbours. The Spaniards v/ere no sooner masters of the city, than they set about seeking for the profuse riches they expected it would pro- duce ; but they were herein sadly disappointed. The soldiers could coUect only an inconsiderable booty amidst rui-is r:,Tid desoi'i- fm THE HISTORY OF tlon, and this dlsappomtmeiit excited them almost to an open pc- bellion ag-ainst Cortes. Arguments, entreaties, and promises, were employed in order to soothe them ; but with so little effect, that Cortes, with a view to check this growing- spirit of discontent gave way to a deed, wliich stains the glory of all his great actions. The unhappy monarch together with his chief favorite, were given up to be tortured, in order to force from them a discovery of the royal treasures, which it was supposed they had concealed, — Guatimozin bore whatever the refined cruelty of his tormentor* could inflict with tlie invincible fortitude of an American warrior His fellow sufferer, sinking under the violence of his anguish turned his sorrowful eyes towards his master, which seemed to im piore his permission to reveal all he knew ; but the high spirited prince, darting on him a look of authority, mingled with scorn, checked him by asking, *' Am I now reposing on a bed of flowers ?" His favorite felt the reproach, persevered in his dutiful silence, and expired. Cortes was so much ashamed of this horrid scene, that he rescued the royal victim from the hands of his torturers, and thereby prolonged a life devoted to future miseries. The fate of the capitals as both parties had conjectured, decid- ed that of the empire, and the provinces submitted, one after an- other, to the conquerors. Cortes, being now more at leisure, be- gan to form schemes of discovery, andto complete the original plan of Columbus, by finding a passage to the East-Indies by that quar- ter of the world they were in ; but he did not then know that this scheme had been undertaken and accomplished. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese gentleman, on the 10th of August, 1519, sailed from Sevile with five ships, and, after touch- ing at the Canaries,stood directly South along the coast of America, and on the 12th of January, 1520,reached the river De la Plata. Front hence he continued his course, after having conquered the mutin- ous disposition of his crew, and at length discovered, near the fifty- third degree of latitude, the mouth of a strait, into which he en- tered, in spite of the murmurs and remonstrances of the people under his command. After sailing twenty days in that winding dangerous channel, to which he gave his own name, and where one of his ships deserted him, the great Southern Ocean opened to his view, when he shed tears of joy and gratitude for that happy dis- covery. After enduring inexpressible hardships, from the want of pro- visions and other necessaries, on the 6th of March, 1521, tliey fell in with a cluster of small bat fertile islands, which afforded them, refreshments in such abundance, that their health was soon re-es- tablished. This extensive sea Magellan called the Pacific Ocean which name it still bears. He afterw^ards discovered the Philip- pine islands, and was there killed by the barbarous natives. John Sebastian del Cano prosecuted the expedition after the death of Magellan. After visiting many of the smaller islands, scattered in the eastern part of the Indian Ocean, they touched at the great island of Borneo, and at length landed In Tidore, one o r SOUTH AMERICA. 201 the Moluccas. He followed the coui: j of the Portuguese by the Cape of Good Hope, and, after many disasters and sufferings, he arrivred at St. Lucaron the 7th of September, 1522, havinty sailed round the g-lobe in the space of three years and twenty-eight days. But let us turn to the transactions in New Spain. At the time that Cortes was acquiring such vast territories for his native coun- try, and preparing the way for future conquests, it was his singu- lar fate not only to be destitute of any commission or authority from the sovereig'n,whom he was serving with such successful zeal,but to be regarded as an undutiful and seditious subject. I'he court of Spain sent a person to supercede him, to seize his person, and con- fiscate liis effects ; but Cortes triumphed overall his enemies, and was appointed Captain-General and Governor of New-Spain. The jealousies and ingratitude of the court of Spain threw so many obstacles in the way of Cortea, that his government became very uneasy to him, and the court went so far as to send persons to enquire into his conduct, and to bring him to justice, should his interested judges find him guilty. He resolved, however, not to expose himself to the ignominy of a trial, in that country, which had been the scene of his triumphs ; and without waiting for the arrival of his judgesj to repair directly to Castile, and commit himself and his cause to the justice and generosity of his King. The Emperor Charles, having now nothing to apprehend from the designs of Cortes, received him at Court like a person, whom conscious innocence had brought into the presence of his master, and who was entitled, by the eminence of his services, to the high- est marks of distinction and respect. The order of St. Jago, the title of Marquis del Valle de Guaxaca, and the grant of a vast ter- ritory in New Spain, were successively bestowed upon him. Cortes returned to New-Spain ; but his power was so cramped, that he found himself in a very disagreeable situation. He formed schemes for new discoveries, explored California, and surveyed the greater part of the Gulf which separates it from New-Spain. On his return to his government he found himself surrounded with so many enemies, tiiat he determined once more to seek redress in his native country. On his arrival in Old Spain, the Emperor behaved to him with cold civility, his ministers treated him sometimes with neglect, and sometimes with insolence. His grievances received no redress," his claims were urged without effect, and several years passed in fruitless applications to ministers and judges ; an occupation the most irksome and mortifying to a man of spirit. Cortes finished his mortal career on the second day of December, 1547, in the sixty-second year of his sge, having experienced the same fate with that of all the persons who distinguished themselves in the discovery or conquest of the New World : envied by his cotem- poraries, and ill requited by the covu'ts he served, he has been ad« mired and celebrated by succeeding ages. 202 THE HISTORY OF REMARKABLE EVENTS' RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTEIL. 1518 Cortes is sent by Velasquez to conquer I^eiv Spain, 1519 Lands his troops in New Spaiui Destroys his own Jieet. Sets out for Mexico with his little anny. 1520 3fontezum.a acknonxledges himself a vassal of Spain, Death of the E')nperor Montezuma. 1521 The conquest of all Mexico, followed by the taking of the city. The Strait of Magellan discovered. 1522 Cortes appointed Captain-General and Governor of New Spain. 1536 Cortes discovers California. 1540 liei urns ho7n€ and there dies. CHAP. VL 1 HE discovery of the Southern Ocean by Balboa excited a spirit of adventure in the colonies of Darien and Panama, who sighed af- ter the imaginary wealth of those unknown regions. Several ar- maments were fitted out in 1523, in order to explore and take pos- iession of the countries to the east of Panama, but under the con- duct of leaders, whose talents and resources were unequal to the attesnpt. They proved unsuccessful, and thereby damped tlie ar- dour of others. Three persons settled in Panama, whose names were Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando Luque, resolved to at- tempt the discovery of Peru, notwithstanding the ill success of former adventurers. These three men were destined to overturn one of the most extensive empires on the face of the earth ; though Pizarro w^as a bastard, with very little education ; Almagro a found- ling ; and Luque, a priest and schoolmaster at Panama. Each engaged to employ his whole fortune in this adventure.-^ Pizarro, being the poorest of the three, undertook the depart- ment of the greatest fatigue and danger, and to command in per- son the armament destined for the discovery. Almagro was to conduct the suppilies of provisions and reinforcement of troops, of which Pizarro might stand in need. Luque was to remain at Pa- nama to negociate with the governor, and superintend whatever was carrying on for the general good. As the spirit of enthusiasm uniformly accompanied that of adventure in the New World, and by that strange union both acquired an increase of force, this con- federacy formed by ambition and avarice, was confirmed by the most solemn act of religion. Luque celebrated mass, divided a consec^rated liost into three, and reserving one part tohimsel:^ gave the other two to his associates, of which they partook, and thus, in the name ofthe Prince of Peace, ratified a contract, of which plun^ der and bloodshed were the principal objects in view. SOUTH AMERICA. 203 On the l^th of November, 1525, Pizarro set sail from Panama with a single vessel of small burthen, and 112 men. His voyage, however, was attended with great difficulties and hardships. Af- ter remaining five months in the island of Gorgona, noted for the most unhealthy climaterin that region of America, A vessel ar- rived from Panama. This transported them with such joy, that all their former sufferings were forgotten. Their hopes revived^ and Pizarro found little difficulty to induce not only his own follow- ers, but also the crew of the vessel from Panama, to resume his former scheme with no less ardour. Instead of returning to. Pana- ma, they stood towards the South East, and more fortunate in this than in any of their past efforts, on the twentieth day after their de- parture from Gorgona, they discovered the coast of Peru. After touching at several villages on the coast, they landed at Tumbez, a place of some note, about three degrees south of the line, distinguished for its stately temple, and a palace of the Incas^ or sovereigns of the country. There the Spaniards feasted their eyes with the first view of the opulence and civilization of the Pe-. ruvian empire. They beheld a country fully peopled and cultivated with an a|^earance of regular industry ; the natives decently cloathed, and possessed of ingenuity so far surpassing the othei- in- habitants of the New World, as to have the use of tame and do- mestic animals. But what chiefiy attracted their notice, was such a show of gold and silver not only in the ornaments of their persons and temples, but in several vessels and utensils for common use, formed of those precious metals as left no room to doubt that it a° bounded with profusion in the country. Pizarro and his compan- ions i:ow seemed to have attained the completion of their most san- guine hopes, and fancied that all their wishes snd dreams of rich domains, and inexhaustible treasures, would soon be realized. Pizarro, having explored the country as far as it was necessary to ascertain the importance of the discovery, procured from the inha- bitants some of their Llamas, ov tame cattle, to v;hich the Spaniards g'ave the name of sheep ; some vessels of gold and silver, as well as some specimens of their oth^r works of ingenuity ; and two young men whom he proposed to instruct in the Castilian language, fehat they might serve as interpeters in the expedition he meditat» ed. With these he arrived at Panama, towards the close of .the third year from the time of his departui^e thence. No adventurer of the ag-e suffered hardships or encountered dangers which equal those to v/hich he was exposed during this long period. On their arrival at Panama, Pizarro could not prevail on the gov- ernor to assist him in the conquest of Peru ; his associates there- fore sent him to Spain to negociate, where he managed matters more to his own interest than to theirs. On the 26th of July, 1528, Pizarro was appointed governor, captain general, and adelantado of the countries he had discovered and hoped to conquer, with su- preme authority, civil as well as military : thus he secured t(>him= self whatever his boundless ambition could desire. 204 THE HISTORY OF After all the effofts of Pizarro and his assocktcs, three small vessels, with 180 soldiers, 36 of whom were horsemen, composed the whole of the armament. With this contemptible force in Feb- ruary, 1531, Pizarro did not hesitate to sail to invade a great em- pire. He no sooner landed in Peru, than he began hostilities, by which imprudent conduct his followers were exposed to famine, fa- tigue, and diseases of Various kinds. However they at length reached the province of Coaque ; and having surprised the prin- cipal settlement of the natives, they seized there, vessels and or- naments of gold and silver to the amount of thirty thousand pesos, with other beoty of such value, as dispelled all their fears, and in- spired the most desponding with sanguine hopes. The dominions of the sovereigns of Peru, at the time that the Spaniards invaded them, extended in length, from north to south, above fifteen hundred miles along the Pacific Ocean. Its breadth from east to west, was much less considerable, being uniformly bounded by the vast ridge of the Andes, stretching from its one extremity to the other. Pizarro, soon after his landing in Peru, discovered that a civil war s, as carrying on in that country. By these means he wae per- mitted to pursue his operations unmolested, i and advanced to the centre of a great empire, before one effort of its power was exert- ed to stop his career. The first complete information the Spaniards received of this war, was by messengers from Huascar, one of the contending parties, sent to Pizarro, in order to solicit his aid against his opponent Atahualpa. Pizarro at once perceived the importance of this intelligence, and foresaw so clearly all the ad- vantages, which might be derived from this divided state of the kingdom he had invaded, that without waiting for the reijiforce- ments he expected from Panama, he determined to push forward, while intestine discord put it out of the power of the Peruvians to attack him with their whole force, and while by taking part, as circumstances should incline him, with one of the competitors, he might be enabled with greater ease to crush them both. Strange as it may appear, Pizarro marched into the heart of the country attended hy his followers, consisting only of 62 horsemen, and 102 foot soldiers, of whom twenty were armed with cross bows, and three with muskets. Pizarro in the course of his march, re- ceived an ambassador from tiie inca of Caxamalca, who brought him very valuable presents from that Prince, accompanied with a profiei- of alliance Pizarro according to the usual artifice of his countrymen in America promised everything without meaning to fulfil any thing but what his interest directed. In consequence of these declarations, the Spaniards were permitted to march w^here they pleased. c5n entering Caxamalca, Pizarro took possession of a large court on one side of which was a house, which the Spanish historians call a palace of the Inca, and on the other a temple of the Sun, the whole suiTounded with a strong rampart or wall of earth. When SOUTH AMERICA. 50S he had posted his troops in this advantagreous situation, and had seen what profusion of riches the Inca possessed, Pizarro treach- erously seized on his person, during- the interview to which the monarch had invited him. While the Inca was engaged in con- ference with the Spaniards, Pizarro gave the signal of assuUlt, At once the martial musick struck up, the cannon and muskets began to fire, the horse sallied out fiercely to the charge, and the infantry rushed on sword in hand. The Peruvians astonished at the suddenness of the attack which they did not expect, and dis- mayed with the destructive effect of fire arms, and the irresistible impression of the cavalry, fled with universal consternation in every quarter, without attempting either to annoy the enemy, or to de- fend themselves. Pizarro at the head of his followers, advanced directly towards the Inca ; and though his nobles crowded around Jiim with officious zeal, and fell in numbers at his feet, while they vied one with another in sacrificing their own lives, that they might cover the sacred person of their king, the Spaniards soon pene- trated to the royal seat, and Pizarro seizing the Inca by the arm dragged him to the ground, and carried him as a prisoner to hi^ quarters. The fate of the monarch precipitated the flight of his fol- lowers. The Spaniards every where pursued them, and with a deUberate unrelenting barbarity, continued to slaughter the wretch- ed Peruvians, who never attempted to resist The carnage did not cease till the close of the day put an end to it, v.'hen above four thousand Peruvians lay dead on the spot. Not a single Spaniard fiell, nor was any one wounded but Pizarro himself, whose hand was slightly hurt. The plunder the Spaniards acquired on this massacre, was far beyond every thing they had formed in their minds of the wealth of Peru, and they were so transported with the value of the acqui- sition as well as the greatness of their success, that they passed the night in those extravagant exultations natural to indigent ad- venturers on so sudden a change hi their affairs. The captive monarch could not at first hardly believe what he saw to be real: and the dejection into which he'sunk was in pro- portion to the height of grandeur from which he had fallen. How- ever, the Inca soon discovered the ruling passion of the Spaniards, and by applying to that made an attempt to recover his liberty.— He offered as a ransom what astonished the Spaniards, ewn after all they now knew concerning the opulendei of his kingdom. The apartment in which he was confined was twenty-two feet in length, and sixteen in breadth; he undertook to fill itVitb vessels of gold as high as he could reach. Pizarro eagerly closed with this tempt- ing proposal, and a line was drawn upon the wall of the chamber, to mark the stipulated height to which the treasure was to reach. As fast as tlie gold was brought in, it was melted down, except some pieces of curious fabric, which were reserved as a present for the emperor. After setting apart the fiftii dne to the crown, and an hundred thousand pesos as a donative to the soldiers, who werejust arrived with Almagro, there remained 1,538/500 pesos S 206 THE HISTORY Of: to Pizarro and his followers. The festival of St. James, (July 25, 1532) the patron saint oi Spain, was the day chosen for .the parti- tion of this vast sum, Thoug-h assembled to divide the spoils of an innocent people, procured by deceit, extortion and cruelty, the transaction began with a solemn invocation of the name of God, as if they could have expected the guidance of heaven in distributing those wages of iniquity. In this distribution 8000 pesos, at that time not inferior in effective value, to as many pounds sterling of the present century, fell to the share of each horseman, and half that sum to each foot soldier. Pizarro and his officers received their dividends m proportion to their superior station. The Inca having thus fulfilled his engagement, demanded his re- lease ; but the treachery of the Spaniards induced them instead of setting him at liberty, to put a period to his life. He was tried and condemned to be burnt alive. At last the unfortunate prince consented to receive baptism, and was therefore indulged with be- ing strangled at the stake. Pizarro, having by these cruel proceedings established his au- thority in Caxamalca, no longer hesitated to advance towards Cuz- 00 ; and having received considex*able reinforcements, he could venture, with little danger to penetrate into the interior part of the country. The Peruvians had assembled some large bodies of troops to oppose his progress, and several fierce encounters hap- pened ; but they terminated like all the actions in America : a few Spaniards v^^ere killed or wounded, and the natives were put to flight with incredible slaughter. At length Pizarro forced his way to Cuzco, and t ook quiet possession of the capital. The riches found there, even after all the natives had carried off and conceal- ed, either from a superstitious veneration for the ornaments of their temples, or out of hatred to their rapacious conquerors, ex- ceeded in value what had been received as the Inca's ransom. — However, as Pizarro's forcey were now more numerous, the com- mon soldiers did not receive so much as they expected, which proved a disappointment to their rapacity. After all these conquests, Pizarro set out for his native country, and arrived in Spain in 1534. The immense quantities of gold and silver which he imported, filled the kingdom with astonishment. — ' Pizarro was received by the Emperor with the attention due to the bearer of a present S0.fl'ich, as to exceed any idea the Spaniards had formed concerning the value of their acquisitions in America, even after they had been ten years masters of Mexico. Pizarro was admitted into the order of St. Jago, and, after getting his au- thority confirmed with new powers and privileges, he set out on his return to Peru, accompanied by many persons^ of higher rank than had yet served in that country. Almagro received the honours he had so' long desired : the title of Adelantado, or governor, was conferred upon hin% with jurisdiction over two hundred leagues of the-country stretching beyond tlie southern limits of the province allotted to Pizarro, Oh his arrival at Peru, he found Almagro in arms opposing lus \ SOUTH AMERICA. 20-7 interest, and endeavouring- to do himself justice for the treacherous conduct of Pizarro, who had engrossed himself all the honours and emoluments, which oug-lit to have been divided with his a&sociate. However, matters were accommodated between them. Their new ag-reement was confirmed with the same power of solemnities as the first, and observed with as little fidelity. Cuzco, the capital city of the- Ineas, was situated in the corner of the empire, above four hundred miles from the sea, and much fur- ther from Qiiito, a province of whose value he liad formed an high idea. No other settlement of the Peruvians was so considerable as to merit the name of a town, or to allure the Spaniards t-o fix their residence in it. Pizarro, in marching through the country,, had been struck with the beauty and fertility of the valley of Ri- mac, one of the most extensive and best cultivated in Pen:. There, on the bank of a small river of the same name witl\ the vale which, it waters and enriclies, at the distance of six miles from Callao,. the most commodious harbour in the Pacific ocean, he founded a. city, which he destined to be the capital of his g-overnment. On the 18th of Jan, 1535, he gave it the name of Cindad de los Reyes,, either from the circumstance of having laid the first stone, at that season when the church celebrates the festival of the three Klng-s,, eras is more probable, in honour of Juana and Charles, the sove- reigns of Castile. This name it still retains among" the Spaniards in all leg-al and formal deeds, but it is better known to foreig-ners by that Linicii a corruption of the antient appellation of the valley in which it is situated. Under his inspection, the buildings ad- vanced with such rapidity, that itsoonassumed the form of a city,. which by a magnificent palace that he erected for himself, and by the stately houses built by several of his officerSj gave a strong proof of the grandeur it was at last to acquire. Almagro, as. agreed on between him and Pizarro, set out for Chili ; but on his march, he met withrso many hardships and diffi- culties, that many of his men died with fatigue. They no sooner entered on the fertile plains of Chiliv than they met with new diffi- culties to encounter. They there foimd a race of men very differ- ent from the people of Peru, intrepid, hardy, independent, and in their bodily constitution, as well as. vigour of spirit, nearly resemb- ling the warlike tribes in North America. Though filled with wonder at the first appearance of the Spaniards, and still more as- tonisiied at the operation of their cavalvy, and the effects of their fire arms, the Chilese soon recovered so far from their surprize, as not only to defend themselves with obstinacy, but to attack their new enemies with more determined fierceness than any American nation had hitherto discovered. The Spaniards, however, continu- ed to penetrate into the country, and collected some considerable quantities of gold, when they v/ere recalled to Peru by an luiex- pected event. The Incaof Peru, having observed the inconsiderate security of the Spaniards in dispersing their troops, and that only a handful of pldiers remaine.d in CuzcOj thought that the happv period vvas at. 208 THE HISTORY OF length, come for vindicating his own rit^hts, fcr avenging" the wrongs of his country, and extirpating its oppressors. The Inca, who was tlie prisoner of Pizarro, obtained permission from hira to attend a great festival, which was to be celebrated a few leagues from the c.'ipital. Under pretext of that solemnity, the great men of the Empire were assembled. As soon as the Inca joined them the standard of war was erected, and in a short time, all the fighting men, from the confines of Qiiito to the frontiers of Chih, were in arms. Many Spaniards, living securely on the settlements allotted them, were massacred. Several detachments, as they marched carelessly through a country which seemed to be tamely submissive to their dominion, were cut otf to a .nan. The Spanish writers as- sert, that the Peruvian army amounted to 200,000 men, and with this powerful army, and their Inca at the iiead of it, they laid siege to Cuzco. During nine months they carried on the siege with in- cessant ardour, and in various forms. The inca, in spite of the va- lour of the Spaniards, recovered possession of one half of his capital, and, in their v&rio\is efforts to drive him out of it, Pizarro lost one of his brothers, and some other persons of note. Almagro arrived at Cuzco in a critical moment. The Inca at fu-st endeavoured to gain the friendship of Almagro ; but after ma- ny fruitless overtures, despairing of any cordial union with a Spani^ ard, he attacked him by surprize with a numerous body of chosen troops. However, the Spanish discipline and valour maintained their usual superiority. The Peruvians were repulsed with such slaughter, that a great part of their army dispersed, and Almagro proceeded to the gates of Cuzco without opposition. The Spaniards had no sooner got rid of their Peruvian ene- mies, than they began to quarrel among themselves, and the •flame t last burst out into civil war. Though countrymen and friends, the subjects of tlie same sovereign, each with the royal standard displayed ! and though they beheld the mountains that surrounded the plain in which they were drawn up, covered with avast multitude of Indians, assembled to enjoy the spectacle of their mutual carnage, and prepared to attack whatever party re- mained master of the field ; so fell and implacable was the rancour which had taken possession of every breast, that not one pacific council, not a single overture towards accommodation, proceeded from either side. Almagro was defeated and taken, tried by the Pizarros as guilty of treason, and condemned and executed, in 15S8. However rapid the progress of the Spaniards had been in South America since Pizarro landed in Peru, their avidity of dominion was not yet satisfied. The o-fficers to whom Ferdinand Pizarro gave the command of different detachments, penetrated into sev- eral new provinces, and though some of them were exposed to great hardships in the cold and barren regions of the Andes, and others suffered distress not inferior amidst the woods and marshes of the plains, they made discoveries, and conquests which not only e:s:tended their knowledge of the country, but added 'con.'jideyably to 1 SdWH'AMMlCA. ' 209 the temtories of Spain in the new world. Pedro de Valdivia rc«> assumed Ahnagro's scheme of invad,ing Chili, and notwithstanding*' the fortitude of the natives in defending their possessions, made such progress in the conquest of the country, that he foiuided the city of St. Jago, and gave a beginning to the establishment of the Spanish dominions in that province. Gonzalo Pizarro, whom his brother Francisco had made govern or of Quito, had entrusted one of his confidential officers, named Orellana, with an expedition on discoveries, appointing a proper place where they were to meet ; but this young officer began to fancy himself independent, and transported with the predominant passion of the age, formed schemes of distinguishing himself as a discoverer, and treacherously abandoned his friend and employer. It is impossible to describe the consternation of Fizarro, when' he did not find the bark at the confluence of the Napo and Marag- non, where he had ordered Oi'ellana to wait for him ; but that treacherous servant, after having niade some discoveries, got back to Spain, and there magnified his wonderful exploits. In the meaa time, Pizarro was twelve hundred miles from Qiiito ; and, in that long march towards the capital, the Spaniards encountered hard^ ships greater than those they had endured in their progress out- ward, without the alluring hbpes that then soothed and animated them under their sufferings. Hunger compelled them to feed on. roots and berries, to eat all their dogs and horses, to devour the most loathsome reptiles, and even to gnaw the leather of their sad- dles and sword belts. Four thousand Indians^ and two hundred and ten Spaniards perislied in this wild and disasterous expedition, which continued near two years. Those that got back to Quito were naked like savages, and so emaciated with famine, or worn, out with fatigue, that they had more the appearance of spectres than men, Gonzalo Pizarro was not much more happy on his arrival at his government of Quito, where he found every thing in a state little short of open rebellion against his brother Francisco. The young Almagro, after the execution of his father, never lost sight of tak- ing revenge of Pizarro. He possessed ail the qualities which cap- tivate the affection of soldiers ; he was of a gi"aceful appearance, dexterous at all martial exercises, bold, open and generous, he seemed tO'be formed for command ; and as his father, conscious of his ov/n inferiority from the total want of education, had been' extremely attentive to have him instructed in every science be- coming a gentleman, the accomplisliments he had acquired height- ened the respect of his followers, as they gave him distinction and' eminence among illiterate adventurers. In this young man the Almagrians found a point of union which they wanted, and looking ' up to him as their head, were ready to undertake any thing to pro- mote his interest. Their affection for Almagro was not the only incitement, being urged on by their own distresses. Many of them, destitute of common necessaries, and weary of loitering away . life a -burden to their chief, or to such of their associates as hixd' \ S 2 210 THE HISTORY OF saved some remnant of their fortune from pillag-e and confiscation sighed for an occasion to exert their activity and courage, and be- gan to deliberate how they might be a\engedon the author of all their misery. Juan de Harrada, an officer of great abilities, who had the charge of Almagro's education, took the direction of their consultations, with all the zeal which this cosnexion inspired, and w\th all the authority which the ascendancy that he was known to have over- the mind of his pupil gave him. On Sunday, the sixth of June, 1541, at midnight, the season of tranquillity and repose in all sultry climates, Harrada, at the head of eigliteen of the most determined conspirators, sallied out of Almagro's house in complete armour, and drawing their swords, hastily advanced towards Pizarro's house. Their associates, warn- ed of tlieir motions by a signal, were in arms at different stations to support tkem. Though Pizarro was usually surrounded by such a numerous train of attendants, as suited the magnificence of the most opulent subject of the age in which he lived, 5'et he was just risen from table, and most of his domestics had retired to their own apartments, so that the conspirators passed through the two outward courts of the palace unobserved. They were at the bot- tom of the stai'rcase, before apa^e in waiting could give the alarm to iiis master, who was conversing with a few friends in a large I'.all. The governor, whose steady mind no form of danger could alter, starting up, called for arms, and commanded Francisco de Chaves to make fast the door : but that officer, who did not retain. so much presence of mind as to obey this prudent order, running' to the top of the staircase, wildly asked the conspirators what they meant, and whither they were going. Instead of answering, they stabbed him to the heart, and burst into the hall. Some of the persons who were there threw themselves frora:the v.'indows,, oth- ers attempted to fly, and a few, drawing their swords, followed their Leader into an inner apartment. The conspirators, animated with having the object of their vengeance now in view, rushed for- ward after them. Pizarro, with no other arms than his sword and buckler, defended the entry, and supported by his lialf brother Alcantara, and his little knot of friends, he maintained the unequal contest with intrepidity worthy of his past exploits, and with the vigour of a youthful combatant. *'^ Courage, (he cried) compan- ions, we are yet enow to make those traitoi-s repent of their auda- city." But the armour of the conspirators protected thetn, while every thrust they made took effect. Alcantara fell dead at his brother's feet, and his other defenders were mortally wounded. The governor, unable any longer to parry the many weapons furir- ©usly aimed at him, received a deadly thrust full in the throat,, sunk to the ground and expired. As soon as Pizarro was killed, the assassins ran out into the .streets, and waving their bloody swords, proclaimed the death of the tyrant. About two hundred of their associates having joined tiiem, they conducted young Almagro in solemn procession through the city, and assembling the magistrates and principle citizens^ SOUTH AMERICA. 21>f compelled them to acknowledg-e him as lawful successor to his fa» ther in his g-overnment. Matters were not properly settled, when the arrival of Vaco de Castro, who assumed the title of g-overnor, tlirew every thing again into fresh confusion. Castro and Almagro bot); took the field. The former, knowing his strength to be far superior to that of the ene- mv, he was impatient to determine the contest by a battle. Nor did the followers of Almagro, who had no hopes of obtaining a pardon for a crime so atti-ocious as the murder of the governorj decline that mode of decision. On the 16ti) of .September, 1542, they met at Chupaz, about two hundred miles froiii Cuzco, and fought with all the fierce animosity inspired by the violence of civil rage, the rancour of private en- mitV; the eagerness of revenge, and the last efforts of despair. Victory, after remaining long doubtful, declared at last for Vaco de Castro The carnage was great in praporiion to the number of combatants Of fourteen hundred men, the totttl amount of the armies on both sides, five hundred lay dead on the fields and the number of the wounded was still greater. Of the prisoners, Cas- tro condemned some to death, others W2re banished Peru, and Almagro being taken, was publickly beheaded. The feelings of the emperor were exceedingly hurt at the reci- tal of so many actions shocking- to humanity. He perceived, that relieving the Indians from oppression was but one step towards rendering his possessions in tlie new world a valuable acquisition, and would be of little avail, unless he could circumscribe the power and usurpations of his own subjects there. With this view, he form.ed a body of laws, containing many salutary appointments with respect to the constitution and powers of the supreme council of the Indies ;. concerning the station and jurisdiction of the royal, audiences in different parts of America;, andthe order_of govern-- ment, both ecclesiastical, and civil. Notwithstanding these regulations, Peru was hastening to the highest pitch of anarchy and confusion. Castro however, by his wise and prudent measures, for some time averted the storm. A viceroy was sent over by the emperor, and, soon after his arrival in Peru, he was first imprisoned, and, after obtaining his libeTty, and raising an army to sui^port his authority,, was slain in battle. In tliis critical situation, the emperor sent over Pedro de la Gasca as president of Peru, who, by his moderation and good manage- ment, might have done great things, had not Gonzalo Pizarro, sup- ported by a strong party, assumed the government of Peru. Gasca,. perceiving that force must be employed in order to accomplish the purpose of his mission, collected troops in all quarters. On the 9th of April, 1547, as the two parties moved forward to the charge, they exhibited a very singular appearance. In that of Pizarro, composed of men enriched with the spoils of the most opulent country in America, every officer and almost all the pri- v.ate men, were cloathed in stuffs of silk or brocade, embroidered- with gold and silvej : and their borsesj their arms, tlieir standards-,. 215 THE HISTORY G? were adorned with all the pride of military pomp. That of Gasca, though not so splendid, exhibited what was no less striking*. He himself, accompanied by the archbishop of Lima, the bishops of Qiiito and Cuzco, and a great number of ecclesiastics, marching along the lines, blessed the men, and encouraged them to a reso- lute discharge, of their duty, which could not fail that day of re- storing Peru to peace and tranquilUty. When both armies were just seady to engage, several of Pizarro's principal officers set spurs to their horses, and went over to Gasca, and many others silently slipped away. Pizarro, seeing all irre- trievably lost, cried out in amazement to a few officers, who still faitlifully adhered to him, " What remains for us to do ?" " Let us rush (replied one of them) upon the enemy's firmest battalion, and die like Romans." Pizarro, dejected with such a reverse of fortune, had not spirit to follow this soldierly counsel, and, with a tameness disgraceful to his former fame, he surrendered to one of Gasca's officers. Gasca, happy in this bloodless victory, did not stain it with cruelty. Pizarro, and a small number of the most distinguished or notorious offenders, were capitally punished, Pi- zarro was beheaded on the day after he surrendered. He sub- mitted to his fate with a composed dignity, and seemed desirous - to atone by repentance for the crimes he had committed. Pizarro was no sooner dead^ than the malcontents in every quar- ter of Peru laid down their arms, and tranquillity was soon restored. Gasca then endeavoured to find employment for the mutinous sol- diers who had laid down their arms, which he did by engag'ing them' in the conquest of Chili. In order to reward his own soldiers, he made a division of the country among them, without reserving the smallest portion to himself. Gasca having now accomplished every object of his mission, and longing to return again to a private station, committed the government of Peru to the court of audience, and set out for Spain on the first of February, 1650 There had been no remittance of the royal revenue for four years, owing to the distracted state of the country, Gasca, how- ever, on his return to Spain, carried with him 1,300,000 pesos of public money, which the prudence and good order of administra- tion enabled him to save, after paying all the espences of the war. He was received in his native country with universal admiration and esteem for his abilities and his virtues, both which were highly conspicuous. Without army or fleet, or public funds ; with a train so simple, that only three thousand ducats were expended in equi- ping ?;him, he set out to oppose a formidable rebellion. But the praise bestowed on his abilities were exceeded by that which his virtues merited. After residing in a coimtry where wealth pre- sented allurements, which had seduced every person who had hitherto possessed power there, he retired from the trying station with integrity, not only untainted but unsuspected. After distri- buting among his countrymen possessions of greater extent and value^that -bad ever been in the disposal of a subject in any age or' SOUTH AMERICA, -213 nation, he himself remained in his original state of poverty, and at the very time when he brought such a large recruit to the royal treasury, he was obliged to apply by petition for a small sum to discharge some petty debts, which he had contracted during the course of his services. Charles was not insensible to such disin- terested merit. Gasca was received by him v/ith tlie most distin-. guished marks of esteem, and being- promoted to the bishopric of Palencia, he passed the remainder of his days in the tranquillity of retirement, respected by his country-, honoured by his sovereign, and beloved by all. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECOXiDEO IN THIS CHAPTER, 1526 Ptzarro discovers Peru. 1528 He is appointed governor of the nevily discovered countries. 1532 Massacre of the Peruvians by the Spaniards. 1533 The Inca of Caxamalca tried, condemned and executed. 1534 Pizarro arrives in Spain. 1535 On his return to Peru, he builds Li^na. Chili invaded by Ahnagro. 1536 Siege ofCuzco. . 1538 Abnagro tried, condemned, and executed. 1541 Pizarro assassinated in his palace. 1546 Pedro de la Gasca appointed President of Peru: 1548 He suppresses the rebellion in Peru. 1550 Peturns to Spain, and is made Bishop of Palencia. CONCLUSION. Having now taken a review of the conquest of the two great empires of Mexico and Peru, very little more seems worthy of no- tice in the History of South America than to mention a few cir- cumstances relative to their political institutions and national man- ners. According to the account of the Mexicans themselves, their em- pire was not of long continuance. They relate, that their country was originally possessed, rather than peopled, by small independent tribes, whose manners and mode of life resembled those of the rud- est savages in South America About a period corresponding to the beginning of the tenth century in the Christian sera, several tribes iTioved in successive migrations from unknown regions to- wards the Horth and north west, and settled in different provinces of Anahuac, tlie ancient name of New Spain. These, more civili- zed than the original inhabitants, began to form them to the arts of social life. At length, towards the commencement of the thir- teenth century, the Mexicans, a people more polished than any of the former, advanced from the borders of the Califon/ian gulf, and took possession of the plains adjacent to a great lake near the centre of the country. After residing there about fifty years Ihey founded 214 THE HISTORY GF a town, since distinguished by tlie name oi Mexico^ wlilch from humble beginnings soon grew to be the most considerable city in the New World. The Mexicans, long after they were established in their new possessions, continued, like other martial tribes in America, unacquainted with regal dominion; and were governed in peace, and conducted in war, by such as were entitled to pre- eminence by tlieir wisdom or their valour. Among them, as in other states, whose power and territories become extensive, the supreme autiiority centred at last in a single person : and when the Spaniards under Cortes invaded the country, Montezuma was the ninth monarch in order, who had swayed the Mexican sceptre, not by hereditary right, but by election Such is the traditional tale of the Mexicans concerning the progress of their own empire, which, according to this account, must have been but of short dura- tion. While the jurisdiction of the Mexican monarchs was limited, it is probable that much ostentation was not exercised i but as their authority became more extensive, tlie splendour of their govern- Hient encreased. It was in this last state the Spaniards beheld it, and struck with the appearance of Montezuma's court, they de- scribe its pomp at great length, and with much admiration. Tlie number of his attendants, the order, the silence, and the reverence with which they served him ; the vast extent of his royal mansion, the variety oi apartments allotted to diflE'erent officers, and the osten- tation with which his grandeur was displayed whenever he per- mitted his subjects to behold him, seem to resemble the magnifi- cence of the ancient monarchies in Asia, rather than the simplicity of the infant states in the New World. The Mexicans, like the rude tribes among them, were incessant- ly engaged in war, and the motiires that prompted them to hostili- ties seem to have been the same. They fought in order to gratify their vengeance, by shedding the blood of their enemies. In bat- tle, they were chiefly intent on taking prisoners, and it was by the number of these that they estimated the glory of victory. No captives were ever ransomed or spared : all were sacrificed with- out mercy, and their flesh devoured with the same barbarous joy as among the fiercest savages. On some occasions, it rose to even wilder excesses. Their principal warriors covered themselves with the skins of the unhappy victims, and danced about the streets, boasting of their own valour, and exulting over their en- emies. Their funeral rites were no less bloody than those of the most sa- vage sribes. On the death of any distinguished personage, espe- cially of the emperor, several of his attendants were chosen to ac- company him to the other world, and these unfortunate victims were put to death without mercy, and buried in the same tomb. Though the agriculture of the Mexicans was more extensive than that of the roving tribes, who trusted chiefly to their bow for food, it seems not to have supplied them with such subsistence as IBi^n rec^uire when engaged in efforts of active industry. The Spa-. SOUTH AMERICA. 2B niards appear not to have been struck with any superiority of the Mexicans over the other people of America in bodily vigour. Both according to their observation, were of such a feeble frame as to be unable to endure fatigue, and the strength of one Spaniard exceed- ed that of several Indians. This they-iraputed to their scanty diet, on poor fare, sufficient to preserve life, but not to give firmness to the constitution. In Mexico, though the disposition of the houses was somewhat orderly, yet the structure of the greater part of them was mean.— Kor does the fabric of their temples, and other public edifices, ap- pear to have been such as entitled them to the high praises bestow^- ed upon them by many Spanish authors. The great temple of Mex- ico, the most famous in New Spain, which has been represented as a magnificent building, raised to such a height, that the ascent to it was by a staircase of an hundred and fourteen steps, was a solid mass of earth of a square form, faced partly with stone. Its base on each side extended ninety feet, and decreasing gradually as it advanced in height it terminated in a quadrangle of about thirty feet, where were placed a shrine of the deity, and two altars on Which the victims were sacrificed. Greater skill and ingenuity were displayed, if we may believe the Spanish historians, in the houses of the emperor, and in those of the principal nobility. — There some elegance of design was visible, and a commodious ar- rangement of the apartments was attended to ; but if buildings corresponding to such descriptions had ever existed in the Mexi- can cities, it is probable that some remains of them would still be visible. As only two centuries and an half have elapsed since the conquest of New Spain, it seems altogether incredible, that in a pe- riod so short every vestige of this boasted elegance and grandeur should have disappeared. The Mexicans have been represented, perhaps, more barbarous than they really were ; their religious tenets, and the rites of their worship, are described as wild and cruel in an extreme de- gree. The aspect of superstition in Mexico was gloomy and fright- ful ; its divinities were cloathed with terror, and delighted in ven- geance. They were exhibited to the people under detestable forms, which created horror. The figures of serpents, tygers, and other destructive animals, decorated their temples. Feasts, morti- fications, and penances, all rigid, and many Of them excruciating to an extreme degree, were the means employed to appease the wrath of their gods, and the Mexicans never approached their al- tars without sprinkling them with blood drawn from their bodies ; but of all offerings, human sacrifices were deemed the most accept- able. The empire of Peru boasts of an higher antiquity than that of Mexico, According to. the traditionary accounts collected by the Spaniards, it had subsisted near four hundred years under twelve successive monarchs ; but the knowledge of their antient story, which the Peruvians could communicate to their conquerors, must I \ have been both imperfect and uncertain. Like the otiier Anjeri- 216 THE HISTORY OF can nations, they were totally unacquainted with the art of writing, and destitute of the only means, by which the memory of past transactions can be preserved with any degree of accuracy. The authority of the Inca was unlimited and absolute, in the most extensive meaning of the words. Whenever the decrees of a prince are considered as the commands of the divinity, it is not only an act of rebellion, but of impiety, to dispute or oppose his will. Obe* dience becomes a duty of relig-ion ; and as it would be profane to controul a monarch under the guidance of heaven, and presumptu- ous to advise him, nothing remains but to submit with implicit res- pect. This must necessarily be the effect of every government "established on pretensions of iniercourse with superior powers. — Such accordingly was the blind submission which the Peruvians yielded to their sovereign. The Incas of Peru were immensely rich in gold and silver, long before they knew any thing of the rich silver mines of Potosi, which were accidentally discovered in the year 1545, by an Indian, as he was clambering up the movmtains in pursuit of a Llama which had strayed from his flock. Soon after the mines of Sacotecas in Nev/ Spain, little inferior to the other in value, were opened. — From that time successive discoveries have been made in both co- lonies, and silver mines are now so numerous, that the working of them, and of some few mines of gold in the province of Tierra Firme, and the new kingdom of Grenada, has become the capital occupation of the Spaniards, and is reduced into a System no less complicated than interesting. To return : the wars in which the Incas engaged, were carried on with a spirit very different;' from those of other American nati- ons. Tiiey fought not like savages, to destroy or extirminate, or, like the Mexicans, to glut bloodthirsty divinities with human sa- crifices. They conquered in order to reclaim and civilize the van- squished, and to infuse the knowledge of their own institutions and arts. Prisoners seem not to have been exposed to the insults and tortures which were their lot in every other part of the new world. The Incas took the people whom they subdued under their protec- tion, and admitted tliem to a participation of all the advantages en- joyed by their original subjects In Peru, agriculture, the art of primary necessity in social life, was more extensive, and carried on with greater skill, than in any other part of America. The Spaniards, in their progress through the country, were so full supplied with provisions of every kind, that in the relation of their adventures v^e meet with few of those dismal scenes of distress, occasioned by famine, in which the con- querors of Mexico were so often involved. The quantity of scil un- der cultivation was not left to the discretion of individuals, but re- gulated by public authority, in proportion to the exigencies of the community. Even the calamity of an unfruitful season was but lit- tle felt j for the product of the lands consecrated to the sun, as .well as those set apart for the Incas, being deposited in the pub- lic storehouses, it there remained as a stated provision for times of scarcitj'. SOOTH AMERICA. 2ir The ingenuity of the Peruvians was also conspicuous in the con- struction of their houses and public building-s, in the extensive plains which stretch along the pacihc ocean, where the sky is per- petually serene, and the climate mild, their houses were very pro- perly built only of slight materials ; but in the higher regions, where rain falls, where the vicisitudes of seasons are known, and their rigour felt, houses were constructed with great solidity. They were generally of a square form, the walls about eight feet high, built of bricks hai'dened in the sun, without any windows, and the door low and straight. Simple as these structures were, and rude as the materials may seem to be, of which they were formed, they were so durable, that many of them still subsist in different parts of Peru, long after every monument that might have conveyed to us any idea of the domestic state of the other American nations, has vanished from the face of the earth. It was in the temples consecrated to the Sun, and in the buildings destined for the resi- dence of their monarchs, that the Peruvians displayed the utmost extent of their art and contrivance. The descriptions of them by some of the Spanish writers, who had an opportunity of contem- plating them, while, in some measure, entire, might have appeared highly exaggerated, if the ruins which still remain did not vouch for the truth of their relations. The unwarlike spirit of the Peruvians was the most remarkable, as well as the most fatal defect in their character. The greater yjart of the rude nations of America opposed their invaders with the most undaunted ferocity, though with little conduct or success. The Mexicans maintained the struggle in defence of their liberties with such persevering fortitude, that- it was with difficulty they triumphed over them. Peru was subdued at once, and almost without resistance; and the most favourable opportunities of re - gaining their freedom, and of crushing their oppressors, were lost through the timidity of the people. END 0¥ THE HISTORV OF SOUTH AMERICA. PREFACE to fllE HJSroRT IF NORfH AMERICA, J^ UTURE g-enerations will perhaps view the late Revolution in North America, as the most singular phosnomenon that ever ap- peared in the political hemisphere of any nation. To point out the gradual steps by which America finally ob=. tained her Independence, to describe those terrible scenes of rapine blood, and slaughter, which accompanied those strug-g-les, so fatal to thousands of brave officers and men on both sides, and so ruin- ous to the finances of the mother-country are principally the objects pf this epitome In the execution of this business, we have endeavoured to divest ourselves of every spark of national prejudice, and have therefore, contented ourselves with barely relating facts, without presuming to give our opinion thereon, wishing to leave our readers the sole power of judging for themselves. Besides the detail of these important events, we have given an account of the customs and manners of the original inhabitants of North America, and such as they nearly are at this day. We have also shewn at what time, and by what causes, the British col- onies, in North America were first settled, and having marked their rise from their original insignificance, till they became Thirteen United and Independent States., THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAP. r. i^EFORE we proceed to describe what America is at present, or by what means she. became independent of the Mother Country, it cannot be disagreeable to our readers, to be informed of the persons, customs, and manners, of the original inhabitants of North America. The native American Indians are tall and straight in their limbs, . beyond the proportion of most nations. Their bodies are strong, but more fitted to endure much hardship, than to continue long at any servile work, which they cannot support. Their bodies and heads are flattish ; their features are even and regular, but their countenances fierce ; their hair long, black, lank, and very strong, but without beards. The colour of their skin is a reddish brown, which most of thera admire, and take proper methods to improve. The Europeans, on their first arrival in America, found the In- dians quite naked, except those parts, which it is common for the most uncivilized people to conceal. Since that time, they have generally a coarse blanket to cover them, which they buy from their neighbours. The whole tenor of their lives is of a piece : they are hardy, poor, and squalid ; and their education, from their in- fancy, is solely directed to fit their bodies for the mode of life they pursue, and to form their minds to inflict and endure the greatest evils. Their only occupations are hunting and war, for agriculture is left to their women. As soon as their hunting season is over, which they go through with much patience, and in which they exert great ingenuity, they pass the rest of tlieir lives in entire indolence. They sleep half the day In their huts, and observe no boundst of decency in their eating and drinking. Before the Europeans discovered them, they had no spirituous liquors ; but now, the acquirement of these is the principal object of their pursuit. The Indians are grave, even to sadness, in their deportment up* CHI any serious occasion, observant of those in company, respectful ; T- 3 - 222 THE HISTORY OF to the old, and of a temper coot and deliberate. Tkey are never in haste to speak before they have thought well of the matter, and are sure th.e person, who spoke before them, has finished all he has to say. They have, therefore, the greatest contempt for the viva- city oJT the Europeans, who interrupt each other, and frequently speak all together. In their public councils and assemblies, every man speaks in his turn, according as his years, his wisdom, or his services to his country, have ranked him. Not a word, not a whis- per, not a murmur is heard from the rest while he speaks ; no in« decent condemnation, no ill-timid applause. The younger class attend for their instruction, and here they learn the history of their nation ; here they are inflamed with the songs of those who cele- brate the warlike actions of their ancestors ; and here they are taught what are the interests of their country, and how to pursue them. Though tlie American Indian is naturally humane and hospitable, yet, to the enemies of his country, or to those who have privately offended him, he is implacable. He conceals hi* resentments, he appears reconciled, till, by some treachery or surprise, he has an opportunity of executing an horrible revenge. No length of time is sufficient to allay his resentment, no distance of place great e- nough to protect the object ; he crosses the steepest mountainsi he pierces the most impervious forests, and traverses the most hi- deous bogs and deserts for some hundreds of miles, bearing the inclemency of the seasons, the fatigue of the expedition, the ex- tremes of hunger and thirst, with patience and cheerfulness, in hopes of surprising his enemy, on whom he exercises the most shocking barbarities. The Americans have scarce any temples ; for, as they live by hunting, inhabit mean cottages, and are given to change their hab- itation, they are seldom very religious. Same appear to have little ideas of God ; others entertain better notions, and hold the existence of the Supreme Being, eternal and uncon^uptible, wha has power over all. Satisfied with owning this, which is tradition- ary among them, they pay him no sort of worship. The darling passion of the Americans is liberty, and that in its fullest extent : to liberty tiie native Indians sacrifice every thing. This is what makes a life of uncertainty and want supportable to them, and their education-is directed in such a manner as to che- rish this disposition to the utmost. They are indulged \u all man- ner of liberty ; they are never, upon any account, chastised with blows, and very rarely even chidden' Though some tribes are found in America with a king at their head, yet his power is rather pt-rsuasive than coercive, and he is r^erenced as a father, more than feared as a monarch He has no guards, no prisons, no ofRcersof justice. In some tribes, there are a kmd of nobility, who, when they come to years of discretion, are entitled to a place and vote in the councils of the nation. But amon<^ the Five Nations, or Iroquois, the most celebrated com= xnonwealtii of North America, and in some other nations, there is 'f ^ORTH AMERICA. 223 40 other qualification absolutely necessary for the head-raen, but age, with ability and experience in their aifairs. Whenever any affair of consequence is to be transacted, they appoint a feast, of which almost the whole nation partakes. There are smaller feasts on matters of less general concern, to which none are invited but those who are engaged in that particular busi- ness. At these feasts it is against all rule to leave any thing ; so that, if they cannot eat all, what remains is thrown into the fire. They look upon fire as a thing sacred, and in all probability their feasts were anciently sacrifices. Before the entertainment is ready, the principal person begins a song, the subject of which is the fabulous or real histery of their nation, the remarkable events which have happened, and whatever matters may conduce to their honour or instruction. The others sing in their turn. They have dances too, with which they accompany their songs, chiefly of a martial kind ; and no solemnity or public business is carried on without such songs and dances. The charge of the internal peace and order is likewise commit- ted to the same council of their elders, which regulates whatever reg-ards the external policy of the state. Their suits are few, and quickly decided, having neither property nor art enough to render them perplexed or tedious. The loss of any of their people, whether by war or a natural death, is lamented by the whole town he belongs to. In such cir- cumstances no business is taken in hand, however important, nor any rejoicings permitted, however interesting the occasion, until all the pious ceremonies due to the dead are performed, which are always discharged with the greatest solemnity. The dead body is washed, anointed, and painted, so as in some measure to abate the horrors of death. Then the women lament the loss with the most bitter cries, and the most hideous bowlings, intermixed with songs, which celebrate the great actions of the deceased, and those of his ancestors. The men mourn in a less extravagant manner. The whole village attends tlie body to the grave, which is then interred, habited in their most sumptuous ornaments. With the body of the deceased are placed his bow and arrows, with what he valued most in his life, and provisions for the long journey he is to take. Feasting attendvy of victory, or the 226 THE HISTORY OP benefit of their slaves, which it enables them to add to their nation, or sacrifice to thajr brutal fury ; and it is very seldom, that they take any pains to give their wars even a colour of justice. They fall sometimes on one nation, and sometimes on another, and sur- prise some of their hunters, whom they scalp and bring- home as prisoners. Their senators wink at this, or rather encourage it, as it tends to keep up the martial spirit of the people, enures them to watchfulness and hardships, and gives them an early taste for blood. The qualities of an Indian war are vigilance and attention, and to give and avoid a surprise ; and patience and strength to en- dure the intolerable fatigues and hardships which always attend it. They often enter-a village, while the strength of tlie nation is employed in hunting, and massacre all the helpless old men, wo- men, and children, or make prisoners of as many as they can man- age, or have strength enough to be useful to their nation. They often cut off small parties of men in their Imntings ; but when they discover an army of their enemies, their way is to throw them- selves flat on their faces among the withered leaves, the colour of which their bodies are painted exactly to resemble. They gener- ally let a part pass unmolested, and then, rising a little, they take ^im, being excellent marksmen, and setting up a tremendous shout, which they call the war-cry, they pour a storm of musket bullets on the enemy, having long since laid aside th€ use of arrows. The party attacked returns the same cry. Every man in haste retires behind a tree, returns the fire of the adverse party, as soon as they raise themselves from the ground to give the second dis- charge. Havingfought some time in this manner, the party which thinks it has the advantage rushes out of its cover, with small axes in their hands, which they dart with great address and dexterity. They redouble their cry, intimidate their enemy with menaces, and encourage each other with a boastful display of their own brave actions. Thus, being come hand to hand, the contest is soon decided, and the conquerors satiate their lavage fuiy with the most shocking insults and barbarities to the dead, biting their flesh, tearing their scalps from their heads, and wallowing in their felood, like the wild beasts of the forests. The fate of their prisoners is indeed miserable. During the greater part of their journey homewards they suffer no injury ; but when they arrive at the territories of the conquering state, or at those of their allies, the people from every village meet them, and think they shew their attachment to their friends by the barbarous treatment of the unhappy victims ; who on their arrival at their destined staiion, generally bring with them marks of the most cruel and merciless treatment. The conquerors enter the town in triumph ; the war-captain waits upon the head-men, and in alow voice gives them a circum- stantial account of every particular of the expedition, of the dam- ages the enemy ha§ suffered, and his own loss in it. This being doae, the public orator relates the wholato the people, Before NORTH AMERICA. 2^7 they yield to the joy which the victory occasions, they lament the friends they have lost in the pursuit of it. The parties most nearly concerned are apparently afflicted with a deep and real sor- row ; but, by one of those strang-e turns of the human mind, fash- ioned to anything by custom, as if they were disciplined in their grief, upon the signal for rejoicing, in a moment the tears are wiped from their eyes, and they rush into an extravagance and phrenzy of joy for their victory. All this time, the fate of the prisoners remains undecided, until the old men meet, and deter- mine concerning their distribution. It is usual to offer a slave to each house that has lost a friend, giving the preference according to the greatness of the loss. The person who has taken the captive attends him to the door of the party's cottage, where he delivers him, and with him gives a belt of wampum, te shew that he has fulfilled the purpose of the ex- pedition, in supplying the loss of a citizen. They for some time view the present that is made them, and according as they think him or her, for the sex matters not, proper or improper for the business of the family, or ?,s they take a capricious liking or dis- pleasure to the countenance of the victim, or in proportion to their natural barbarity, or their resentment for their losses, they decide whether they will receive him into the family, or sentence him to death. If they be received into the.family, happv is their lot, as they are then accepted into the place of father, son, or husband that is lost ; and they have no other mark of their captivity, but that of not being suffered to return to their own country, to attempt which would be certain death. On the contrary, if they dislike the captive, they thi*ow away the belt with indignation. Then it is no longer in the power of any one to ^ave him, the nation is as- sembled as upon some great solemnity, a scaffold is raised, and the prisoner tied to the stake. He instantly begins his death -song, and prepares for the ensuing scene of cruelty with the most un- daunted courage. On the other side, they prepare to put it to the utmost proof, with every torment that the mind of man ingenious in mischief can devise It would be too shocking for the ear of our youthful readers to be told what inhuman tortures are inflicted on him, till at last, one of the chiefs, out of compassion, or weary with cruelty, generally puts an end to his life with a club or dagger. The body is then put into a kettle, and this barbarous employment is succeeded by a feast equally inhuman. On this occasion, the women, forgetting their female nature, and transferring themselves into something worse than furies, act their parts, and even outdo the men in this scene of horror. The prin- cipal persons of the country set round the stake smoking, and look- ing on without the least emotion. What is most extraordinary, the sufferer himself, in the little intervals of liis torments, smoaks also, appears unconcerned, and converses with his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during the whole time of his execution there seems aeontest between him and them, which shall exceeds 228 THE HISTORY OF they in infllGtlng" the most horrid pains, or he in enduring them with a firmness and constancy alB^ost above human. Not a groan, not a sigh, not a distortion of countenance, escapes him ; he pos- sesses his mind entirely in tlie midst of hia torments ; he recounts his own exploits, informs them what cruelties he had inflicted upon their countrymen, and threatens them with the revenge that will attend his death ; and though his reproaches exasperate them to a perfect state of madness, rage, and fury, he continues his reproach- es even of their ignorance in the art of tormenting, pointing out himself more exquisite methods, and more sensible parts of the body to be afflicted. We do not dwell upon these circumstances of cruelty, which so much degrade human nature, out of choice ; but as all, who men- tion the customs of this people, have very particularly insisted upon their behaviour in this respect, and as it seems necessary, in order to give a true idea of their character, we do not choose wholly to omit it. It serves to shew, in the strongest light, to what an incon- ceivable degree of barbarity the passions of men let loose will carry them. It will point out to us the advantages of a religion that teaches a compassion to our enemies, which is neither known nor practised in other religions ; and it will make us more sensible, than some appear to be, of the value of commerce, the benefits of a civilized life, and the lights derived from literature, which, if they have abated the force of some of the natural virtues by the luxuries which attend them, have taken out likewise the sting of our national vices, and softened the ferocity of the human race, without enervating their courage. On the other hand, the con- stancy of the suflf'erers in this trying scene, shews the wonderful powers of an early institution, and a ferocious thirst of glory, which makes men imitate and exceed what philosophy, and even religion, do not produce. Having thus taken a cursory view of the customs and manners of the original natives of North America, we shall now proceed to give &» account of the first settlement of the British colonies, and shew from what small beginnings time has raised them to one immense republic, under the title of the United and Independent States of America. In order to accomplish this matter, we shall give a general history of the late war, which ended in the loss of thirteen British American colonies. The different sieges and battles that took place during that period, we shall describe as copiously as our narrow limits will permit us. CHAP. IX. oEVERAL of the most zealous and eminent protestants, in the reign of Edward VI. opposed the popish ceremonies and habits though likewise united to their brethren in religious tenets :nORTH AMERICA, 229 Hundreds of them fled into foreign parts to avoid persecutions. "Where they connected themselves with protestants of other nations, who were equally arduous for a reformation. Upon the accession of Queen Elizabeth, in 1558, the l*efuge6s returned to England, loaded with experience and learning, but in the utmost distress and poverty, Those of the clergy, \vho could comply with the queen's establishment, were quickly preferred; but the rest, after being permitted to preach awhile„ were suspended and reduced to their former indigence. The clergy and laity, who wished for greater ecclesiastical purity, struggled hard for the abolishment of popish ceremonies and hab- its, or at least, leaving the Use of them rndiiferent in divine service, by which, they obtained nothing but the honourable nick -name of, PURITANS. X^ieen Elizabeth had enough of the blood of Henry the Eighth, to make her impatient of any opposition to her w^ill, especially in matters of religion, in which she had an high opinion of her own knowledge ; and, during her wholft reign, she kept down the puritans with an uniform and inflexible severity. The merits, however, of their sufferings, the affected plainness of theii' ' dress, the gravity of their deportment, and tht use of scripture phrasses on the most ordinary occasions, and even their names, which had in them something striking and venerable, as being borrowed from the Old Testament, gained them a general esteem among sober people or ordinary understandings When King James came to the throne,he had a very fair opportu- nity of pacifying matters, or, at least, he might have left them ia the condition he found them. On the contrary, he suffered them to %e persecuted, but not destroyed ; they were exasperated, and yet left powerful ; and the then ministry, like those who lately lost us our colonies, exposed their own weakness, ignorance and baseness, by an ill timed severity. In this state matters remained, until the accession of Charles the First, when they were far from being mended. This prince, endowed with some virtues, had very few amiable qualities. As grave as the puritans themselves, he could never engage the licentious part of the world in his favour ; and that gravity being turned against the puritans, made him more odious to them, He gave himself up entirely to the church and churchmen, and he finished his ill-conduct, in this respect, by conferring the first ecclesiastical dignity of the kingdom, and a great sway in temporal affairs upon Dr. Laud, who, hardly fit to direct a college, was entrusted with the government of an empire. The nuvitans considered the most dreary realms, and the most unfrequented regions, where they could enjoy liberty of conscience^ as superior to the most splendid palaces, where they were to be governed by Laud In consequence of these disaffections, a little colony sailed from England, and established itself at a place called New Plymouthjon the continent of ii mericu. This happened in 1620. They were but few in number, they landed in a bad season, and ivere supplied only from their private funds. The winter was pre- U 230 THE HISTORY OF mature, and extremely cold. The country was every where covered with wood, and afforded very little for the refreshment of persons sickly with such a voyage, or even for the sustenance of an infant people. Neaiiy half of them perished by the scurvy, by want, and the severity of the climate ; but those who survived, not dispirited with their losses, nor with the hardships they were still to endure, supported by the vig'our which was then the char- acter of Englishmen, and by the satisfaction of finding theniselves out of the reach of the spiritual arm, were enabled to pr -cure in this savage country a tolerable livelihood, and by degrees a comfortable subsistence for themselves and their families. . The people of New Plymouth, having cleared the way for other sufferers to settle in America, wit44 less difficulty and danger tban what they had experienced ; the fame of their plantation spreading through the western part of England, and the government in church and state growing every day more oppressive, the territory of the Massachusetts Ray was purchased of the Plymouth council^ in 1628, and a company soon formed, who consulted on settling a plantation, to which non-conforming puritans might emigrate in order to enjoy their own principles in full security In 1630, a large company arrived at Sak-m, consisting of more than fifteen hundred persons, from dift'erent counties in England. From the beginning of the colony, until the emigration ceased, in 1640, through a change of affairs in England, there arrived, in 298 vessels, about 21,200 settlers, men, women, and children, or four thousand families. They did not, however, all confine themselves to this colony : several families removed to Connecticut River, by mutual agreement with their fellow emigrants, who remained behind. Plantations were formed at Hartford, Windsor, and Weathersfield. The inhabitants being soon after fully satisfied, that they were out of the Massachusetts limits, and of course its jurisdiction, entered into a. combination among themselves, became a body politic, without restraining the freedom of tiieir civil government to the membership of their churches, and proceeded to the choice of magistrates and representatives. Two large ships arrived at Massachusetts Bay, in 1637, with passengers from London. Great pains were taken to prevail upon them to remain in the colony ; but they hoped, by removing to a considerable distance, to be out of the reach of a general governor, with whom the country was then threatened They sent to their friends in Connecticut to purchase of the natives the lands lyit«g between them and Hudson's River. They then laid the foundation of a flourishing colony, of which New Haven was the capital. Connecticut and New Haven continued two distinct colonies for many years. At length, the general court of Connecticut deter- rri In ed to prefer an address and petition to Charles the Second, professing their subjection and loyalty to his majesty, and soliciting a royal charter ; and John Winthrop, Esq. who had be.en chosen g-oyernor, was appointed to negociate the affair with t!ie king. He NORTH AMERICA. 231 succeeded, and a royal charter was obtained, constituting the two colonies for ever one body corporate and politic. Mr, Roger Williams, a pastor of the church of Salem, being banished from Massachusetts, on account of sorne religious dis- putes, went to the Narraganset country, accompanied with twelve companions, and had land given him by the Indian Sachem ' GiivDnicus ; of whom he afterwards purchased the large tract, lying between Pavvtucket and Pawturat rivers, (the great falls and^ the little fiills, a? the Indian nanie signifies) a^nd siyledit Providence, from a sense of God's merciful providence to him in his distress. The authority and power of Miantonomy, another sachem, and his uncle Canonious, awed all the Indians round to assist him and his few associates. When the determinations of the Massachusetts general court, occasioned by what they called antinomian disputes, banished many, and induced others to leave the colony, the heads of the party were entertain hI in a friendly manner by Mr. Williams, who advised them to seek a settiem^ent on Rhode Island, in the year 1638, and was very instrumental in procuring, it of the Indian sachems. New Hampshire and Malnie were settled about the same time with Massachusetts, by different proprietors, who had obtained patents, and whose views were to enrich themselves by the fishing trade at sea, and tlie beaver trade ashore. The colony of New York dem^ands our next attention. The Dutch had settled it, and named it the New Netherlands. Charles the Second resolved upon its conquest in 1664 : and in March granted to his brother, the Duke of York, the region extending from the western bank of the Connecticut to the eastern shore of. the Deleware, together with Long Island, conferring on him the civil and military powers of government. Col. Nichols was sent with four frigates and three hundred soldiers, to effect the business. The Dutch governor being unable to make resistance, the New Netherlands submitted to the English crown, in September, without any other change than of rulers. Few of the Dutch removed, and Nicliols instantly entered upon the excercise of' his power, as deputy-governor for the Duke of York, the pro- prietary. About the same time, 1664, New Jersey, which was also taken fro-m the Dutch, who were <;onsidered as having no right to any of their settlements in these parts of America, were included in the ^ grant to the Duke of York. The Duke disposed of it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, who, being sole proprietors, for the better settlement of it, agreed upon certain constitutions of government, so well liked, that the eastern parts were soou considerably peopled. Virginia was the original name of all the English North American continental claims, given in honour to the virgin Queen Elizabeth King James, being applied to, granted letters patent to a body of Gentlemen, on the 6th of April, 1606, with powers to divide themselves into two distinct companies, the one consisting of .^2 THE HISTORY OE London a dv€ntarer», called the first, or soutliern colony of Virginia^ the second, or northern colony, composed of merchants, belonging, to Bristol, Plymouth, and £xeter. The territory granted to the first, or southern colony, was generally called FjV^z»z<7, .without any distinguishing epithet, and retained that name after the second, or northern colony, obtained the name of New England in 1614. We come next to speak of Maryland. The first emigration to this part of America consisted of two hundred Gentlemen of considerable fortune and rank, with their adherents, chiefly Roman Catholics, who hoped to enjoy liberty of conscience under a proprietary of their own profession. They sailed from England in November, and landed in- Maryland the beginning of 1633. Gov. Calvert, brother to Lord Baltimore, ve)*y wisely and justly purchased' by presents of various goods, the rights of the Indians, and with their free conseat took possession of their town, which, he called' St. I^Iary's. The country was settled with so much ease, and furnished with so many conveniences, that emigrants repaired thither in such numbers as soon to render the colony populous and. flourishing. Carolina fjllows Maryland in the order of existence. A few adventurers emigrated from Massachusetts, and settled round Cape Fear, about the time of the Restoration, They considered mere occupancy, with a transfer from the natives, without any grant from the king, as a good, title to the lands they possessed. They deemed themselves entitled to the same civil privileges^ at those of the country from ^Whence they had emigrated. For years, they experienced the coraplicated miseries of want. They solicited the aid of their countrymen, and the general court of Massachusetts^ with an intention and humanity which did it the greatest honour,, ordered ancxtensive contribution for their relief The final settlement of the province was effected eqiially through the rapacity of the courtiers of Charles the Second, and his own facility in rewarding those, to whom he was greatly indebted, with a liberality that cost him little. The pretence, which had been \ised on former occasions, of a pious zeal for the propagation of the gospel among the Indians, was successively employed to procure a grant of the immense region, lying between the 36th degree of North latitude, and the river of St. Matheo, under the 31st degree. In March 1663, this territory was erected into a province by the name of Caro/j'nc!, and conferred on Lord Clarendon, the Duke of Albermarle, Lord Craven, Lord Berkeley, LoM Ashley, Sir George Carteret, Sir John Colleton, and Sir William Berkeley, as absolute lord proprietaries, for ever, saving the allegiance due to the crown. Pennsylvania and the Delaware counties next demand our attention. Mr. William Penn, one of the joint purchasers of the western part of the Jerseys, having received the most exact information of the country to the westward of the Delaware, while engaged in the administration of the joint purchase, became desirous of acquiring a separate estate. NORTH AMERICA^ 233 He presented a petition to Charles the Second in Jane, 1680, stating not only his relationship to the late admiral, but that he was deprived of a debt due fr©m the crown, when the Exchequer was sh,ut. He prayed for a grant of lands, lying to the northward of Maryland, and westward of the Delaware ; and added, that by his interest, he should be able to settle a province, which might in time, repay his claims. Having a prospect of success, he copied from the charter of Maryland, the sketch of a patent, which in November was laid before the attorney-general for his opinion. Penn had the same object in view as Lord Baltimore had, the guarding against the exertions of prerogative, which experience had taught both were very inconvenient. The attorney -general declared the cause of exemption from taxation illegal i and chief justice North being of the same opinion, and observing its tenden- cy, added the saving of the authority of the English parliament ; so that it was stipulated by the king, for himself and his succes- sors, that ** no custom or other contribution shall be laid on the in- habitants or their estates, unless by the consent of the proprietary, or governor and assembly, or by act of parliament in England." The next year, 1681, the patent was granted, in consideration of ** the merits of the father, and the good purposes of the so%-ia order to extend the English Empire, and to promote useful com- modities." It was provided by fit clauses, that the sovereignty of the king should be preserved, and that acts of parliament, concerning trade, navigation, and the customs be duly observed. Penn was empowered to assemble the freemen, or their delegates, in such a forni as he should think proper for raising money for the use of the colony, and for making useful laws, not contrary to those of England, or the rights of the kingdom. A duplicate of the acts of the assembly was to be transmittted within five years, to the king in council, and the acts might be declared void withing six months, if not approved, It now remains only to give a concise account of the settlement of Georgia. In 1732, a number of Gentlemen considering the vast benefit that might arise from the tract of land, lying between the Savannah and the river Alatsmaha, petitioned tlie king for a charter, which, was according-ly granted in June. They meant, that the country should be made a bulwark for the southern colonies against the Spaniards, and should give employment to numbers of people, who were burthensojeie at home to tbtir friends and parishes. Towards the end of August, Sir Gilbert Heathcote recommended in the strongest terras, to the directors of the Bank, the interest of the colony. His speech had the desired eflTect, and the members of the court after his example, contributed largely towards the undertaking, as did great numbers of the nobility, gentry, clergy and others; and the parliament granted 10,0001. By the beginning of November, about one hundred and sixteen colonists presented themselves, most of them labouring people, and were funiish.ecl with working tools of all kinds, stores, and small arms. ^ y 2 ' 234 ~ • THE HISTORY OF Mr. Oglethorpe, one of the trustees, generously attended the first set of emigrants to Carolina, where they arrived in good health in January, 1733. The Carolians n>ade them a present of one hundred breeding- cattle, besides hogs and twenty barrels of rice; and furnished them with a party of horse, and with scout boats, by the help of which they reached the Savannah, where Mr. Oglethorpe, ten miles up the river, pitched upon a spot for a town, and in^February the building of the first house commenced. Mr, Oglethorpe was waited upon by a numerous deputation front tke I^iower Creek nation, with whom he concluded a treaty, and soon after set out for Charleston on his return to England, bring- ing with him several chiefs and a war captain. Before the end of March, 1734, more emigrants, to the amount of six hundred, were either sent over by charity, or ivent at their own expense. In October, the Indians embarked for their own country, having had an allowance, while in London, of twenty pounds a week^ of which they cpent little, as they commonly ate and drank at the table of persons of the highest distinction. They embarked at Gravesend, in a ship which carried over a number of Saltz burgh- ers, being German protestants, who, with others of their country- men that followed, settled on the Savannah, a town they called Ebenezer, and which, by their habits of industry and sobriety, soori became considerable. The Georgians made a surpi'ising progress in clearing their lands, and building their houses ; and, as an encouragement, the British Parliament granted them a supply of 26,0001. which, with very great private donations, were expended upon strengthening the southern part of Georgia. Thus have we given a succinct account of the first establishment of the British colonies in North America. By what unhappy means they at last became separated from the mother country, will be clearly shewn in the subsequent part of this history. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 1606 First settlement tnade at Virginia. < 1620 Settlement at New Plymouth. 1628 JVew Ham.pshire and Maine settled. 1628 Puritans purchase and settle Massachusetts Bay,. 1633 Settlement at Maryland. 1635 Coimecticut and Providence settled. 1637 Ne-TX) Haven settled. 1638 Settlement of Rhode Isla7id. 1663 Carolina settled. 1664 New York and Nevi Jersey settled. 1681 Pennsylvania and Vdaviare counties settled* 1733 Georgia settled. NORTH AMERICA. 235 CHAP. III. i HE narrow limits prescribed to us in this epitome, will not permit us to enter into a copious detail of all the minute concerns pf the colonies, which may be found in more voluminous works, and there read by those, who have leisure and inclination to pur- sue so dry a study. We shall therefore proceed to describe only events of some consequence. • ' News being" received in Massachusetts of war being de«> dared against France and Spain, the g-eneral court, then sitting, made immediate provision for raising forces for Annapolis in Nova Scotia. Towards the end of the month of Aprils 1745, Commodore War- ren arrived from the West Indies, with a sixty-gun ship, and two of forty. He was soon after joined by another of forty, -which had reached Canso a short time before The men of war sailed imme- diately to cruise before Louisbourg. The forces soon followed, and landed at Chapeaurouge Bay the last day of April. The transports Were discovered from the town early in the morning, which gave the inhabitants the first knowledge of the design. The second day after landing, four hundred men marched round, behind the hills, to the northeast harbour, where they got about midnight, and set fire to all the dwellings and storehouses, till they came within a mile of the grand battery. The clouds of thick smoke, proceeding from the pitch, tar, and other combusti- bles, prevented the garrison's discovering the enemy, though they were but at a short distance. They expected the body of the army upon them, and therefore deserted the- fort, having thrown their powder into a well t but the cannon and shot were left, which proved of great service to the besiegers. The army had near two miles to transport their can- non, mortars, &c. through a morass, which required great labour to accomplish. The men were yoked together, and, during- the night, made great advances. While the forces were busily employed on shore, tjie men of war, and other vessels were cruising off the harbour, as often as the weather would permit. On the 18th of May, they captured a French sixty -four gun ship, having five hundred and sixty men on board, and stores of all sorts for the garrisoij. It was given out, that an attack would be made by sea with the ships, on the eighteenth, while the army did the like by land. Whether a general storm was really intended or not, the French appeared to expect it, from the preparations making on board the men of war, and seemed not inclined to attempt to withstand it, On the fifteenth, a flag of truce was sent to the general, desiring a cessation of hostilities, that they might consider of articles for a capitulation. Time was allowed, but their articles were reject- ed by the general and commodore, and others offered, wlugh wer^ 2S6 THE HISTORY OF accepted by the French, and hostag-es given on both sides. The town was in consequence delivered up on the seventeenth. As this was a time, when vessels were expected from all parts at Louis- bourg, the French flag- was kept flying as a decoy. Two EastJn- diJimen, and one South-sea ship, of the value of 600,0001. sterling, were taken by the squadron^ at the mouth of the harbour, into which they sailed as usual, not knowing that the place had been taken by the English. The French having heen very troublesome In the back settle- ments of our colonies, it was concluded to take effectual methods to drive them from the Ohio. The reduction of Niagara, Crown ]?oint, and their forts in Nova Scotia, were also resolved on. Gen- eral Braddeck was accordingly sent from Ireland to Virginia, with two regiments of foot ; and on his arrival, when joined by the rest of the forces destined for that service, he found himself at the head of 2,200 men. He had bravery, but wanted other qiialifications to render him fit for the service to which he was appointed. The seventy of his discipline made him unpopular among the regulars, ard his haughtiness deprived him of the esteem of the Americans. His pride disgusted the Indians, and led him to despise the coun- try militia, and to slight the advice of the Virginian officers. Colonel Washington earneslAy begged of him, when the arniy was marching to fort Du Quesne, to admit of his going before, and scouring the woods with his rangers> which was ^contemptu- ously refused. The general had been cautioned by the Duke of Cumberland to guard against a surprise, and yet he pushed on heedlessly with the first division, consisting of 1400 men, till he fell into an ambuscade of 400, chiefly Indians, by whom he was defeated and mortally wounded, on the ninth of July, 1755. The regulars were put to the greatest panic, and fled in the ut- most confusion ; but the militia had been used to Indian fighting, and were not so terrified. The general had disdainfully turned them into the rear, where they continued in a body unbroken, and served under Colonel Washington as a most useful rear-guard, which covered the retreat of the regulars, and prevented their be- ing entirely cut to pieces. Previous to this, and agreeable to the views of the British min- istry, the Massachusetts assembly raised a body of troops, uhich were sent to Nova Scotia, to assist Lieutenant Governor Lawrence in driving the French from their several encroachments within that province. The expedition against Niagara was entrusted to Governor Shir- ley, but failed through various causes. Sir William, then Colonel, Johnson, v *s appointed to go against Crown Point. The delays, slowness, and deficiency of prepara- tion, prevented the several colonies joining their troops till about August. In the mean time, the active enemy had transported forces from France to Canada, marched them down to meet the provincials, and attacked them ; but, meeting v. ith a repulse, lost six hundred men, besides having their generai Baron X)i€skau wounded and mude prisoner. NORTH America. 23r Tfie next year Massachusetts raised a great armament to go against Crown Point; but Lord Loudon, on his arrival, did not think it proper that the forces should proceed, owing, to a tempora- ry misunderstanding between his Lordship and the general court. In the year 1758, happily for the British nation, the great Mr. Pitt was placed at the head of the ministry, when the face of af- fairs was soon changed, the war was prosecuted with unexampled success, and the enemy was at length driven out of America. Mr. Israel Mauduit,the Massachusetts agent, in 1763, gave early notice of the ministerial intentions^ to tax the colonies; but the general court not being called together till the latter efjd of the ) ear, instructions to the agent, though solicited by him, could not be sent in proper time. ' The next year however, 1764, the house of representatives came- to the following resolutions : " That the sole right of giving and granting the money of the people of that province, was vested in them as their legal representatives r and that the imposition of duties and taxes by the parliament of Great Britain, .upon a peo- ple who are not represented in the House of Commons, is absolutely irreconcileable with their rights." — " That no maa can justly take the property of another without his consent ; upon whicli. original principle, the right of representation in the same body, which ex- ercises the power of making laws for levying taxes, one of the maiii = pillars of the British constitution is evidently founded." These resolutionsr were occasioned^ by intelligence of what had: been done in the British House of Commons. It had been tiiere de-- bated in March, whether they had bright to tax the Americans, they not being represented, and determined unanimously in the affirma- tive;. Not a single person present ventured to controvert the right. After various propositions for taxing the colonies, Mr. Gren- ville's intended stamp act was communicated to the American agents. Many of them did not oppose it, half their number be- ing placemen or dependents on the ministry. Mr. Joseph, Sher- wood, an honest Quaker, agent for Rhode Island, refused his con- sent to America's being taxed by a British parliament Mr. Mau- duit, the Massachusetts agent, favoured the raising of the wanted money by a stamp duty, as it would occasion less expense of offi- cers, and would include the West India islands. The scheme, however, was postponed, and the agents authorised to inform the American assemblies, that they were at liberty to suggest any other ways of raising monies, and that Mr. Grenville was ready to receive proposals for any other tax that might be equivalent in its produce to the stamp.-tax. The colonies seemed to consider it as an affront, rather than as a compliment. The minister would not be content with any thing short of a certain specific sum, and pro- per funds for the piayment of it. Hai not the sums been answera- hie to his wishes, he would have rejected them ; and he would Scarcely have been satisfied with less than 300,0001, per annum, which was judged absolutely necessary to defray the whole expense of \hQ army proposed for the defence of America. 2SS- THE HISTORY OF No satisfactory proposals being made on the side of the Ameri^- catis, Mr Grenville adhered to his purpose of bringing forward the stamp-bill, though repeatedly pressed by some of his friends to desist. Richard Jackson, esq. had been chosen agents for the Massachusetts, who, with Mr. Franklin, and others, lately come from Philadelphia, waited on Mr. Grenville, in February, 1765, to remonstrate against the starpp-bill, and to propose, that, in case any tax must be kid upon America, the several colonies might be permitted to lay the tax themselves, Mr. Grenville, however, ad- hered to liis own opinions, and said, that he had pledged his word for offering the stamp-bill to the house, and that the house would hear their objections. The bill was accordingly brought in, and in March, the same year, received the royal assent. The framers of the stamp-act flattered themselves, that the confusion which would arise from, the disuse of writings, would compel the colonies to use stamp-pa- per, and therefore to pay the taxes imposed; Thus they were led to pronounce it a law which would execute itself Mr. Grenville,. however, was not without his apprehensions, that it might occasion disorders; to preveiit or suppress which, he projected another hilly which was brought in the same sessions, whereby it was made lawful for military ofiicers in the colonies to qitarter their soldiers in private houses. This seemed intended to awe the people into a compliance with the other act. Great opposition being made to it, as under such a power in the army, no one eould look on his house as hiS; own, that part of the bill was dropt ; but there still remained a clause, when it passed into a law, to oblige the several assemblies to provide quarters for the sol- diers, and to furnish them with firing, bedding, candles, small beer, rum, and sundry other articles, at the expense of the several provinces-. This clause continued in force after the stamp-act was repealed. These proceedings of the .mother country gave rise to great dis- turbances in America. Some persons of consequence at Boston,. to manifest their abhorrence and detestation of a party in England^ who they supposed were endeavouring to subvert the British con- stitution, to enslave the colonies, and to alienate the affections of his majesty's most faithful subjects in America, early in the morn- ing of the 14th of August, hung upon the limb of a large dead elm, near the entrance of Boston, in one of the most public streets, two eihgies. One of them, as appeared by the labels affixed thereto, was intended to i*epresent the stamp officer ; the other was a jack-boot, \a ith a head and horns peeping out of the top. The report of this novelty drew great numbers from every part of the town and neighbouring country. This affair was left to take its own course, so'Q;iat an enthusiastic spirit diffused itself into the minds of the spectators. !n the evening, the figures were cut down, and carried In funeral procession, the populace shouting, X^iberty and property fore'Ofr ! No stamps, i^c. NORTH AMERICA. 239 They then went to anew building-, erected by Mr. Oliver, which. they pulled down, fals'::'lv supposing it to be designed for the stamp offic.i As soon as tiie approHched iMr. Oliver's house, they be- headed the effigy, at ttie same time brt-aking all his windows, and demolished his gardens, fences, barns, and every thing else that cane in tiieir w:sy. The next day, Mr. Oliver, fearful of what might happen, de- clared that he had written to England and resigned The nriob assembled ^-lia at night ; and after some expressions of jnv for the * C5i.i;!ia io : ;' 278 stores and other buildings, the fa;r greater and better part of the town of Falmouth, in the northern part of Massachusetts The inhabitants, in compliance with a resolve of the provincial con- gress, to prevent tories carrj ing out their effects, gave some vio- lent obstruction to the loading of a mast ship which drew upon them the indignation of the British admiral. In the mean time» Gen. Montgomery was sent forward to Ticon- deroga with a body of troops ; and being arrived at the Isle aus Noix, he drew up a declaration, which he sent among the Cana- dians by Col. Allen and Major Brown, assuring them, that the ar- my was designed only against the English garrisons, andnot against the country, their liberties, or religion. Col. Allen and Major Brown being on their return, after execut- ixf^ the commission, with which the general had entrusted them, the latter advised Col. Allen to halt, and proposed, that the colo- nel should return to Longueil, procure canoes and cross the river St. Lawrence, a little north of Montreal, while he, the major, crossed a little to the south of the town, with near 309 men, as he had boats sufficient. The plan was approved, and Col. Allen pass- ed the river in the night. The major, by some means, failed on Ms part, and Col, Allen found himself, the nest morning, in a critical situation, but concluded on defending himself* Gen. CarletoTJ, learning how weak Col. Allen was, marched out against him with about forty regulars, together with Canadians, English and Indians, amounting to some hundreds. The colonel defended himself with much bravery ; but being deserted by several, chiefly Canadians, and having had fifteen of his men killed, was under tke necessity of surrendering with thirty-one effectives and seven wounded. He was directly put in irons. On the 4>th of October, a party of Canadians, who had joined and greatly assisted the besigers, entrenched themselves on the east side of the lake, on which the enemy sent an armed sloop with troops to drive them away ; but the Canadians attacked the sloop with vigour, killed a number of the men, and obliged her to return to St. John's in a shattered condition . On the 7th, the main body of the army decamped from the south, and marched to the north side of the fort. In the evening, they began to thro^v up a bieast work, in order to erect a battery ©f cannon and mortars. The continental troops brought s^cl* a NORTH AMERICA. 249 spirit of liberty into the field, and thouj^ht so freely for t'!iemselves> that they would not bear either subordmation or discipline. The generals could not in truth direct tlieir operations, and would not have sta3''ed an hour at their head, had they not feared that the ex- ample would be too generally followed, and so have injured the public service. There was a great want of powder, which, with the disorderly behaviour of the troops, was a damp to the hope of terminating the siege successfully. The prospect, however, soon brightened, for the Americans planned an attack upon Chamblce, and in batteaus carried down the artillery, past the fort of St. John's. After a short demur, it surrendered to the majors Brown and Livings-ton, The greatest acquisition was about six tons of powder, whicli gave great encouragement to the provincials. On the 12th of November, Gen. Montgomery pressed on to Montreal, which, not being capable of making any defence, Go^^ Carleton quitted it one day, and the American general entered it the nest. Notwithstanding the advanced season of the year. Gen. Mont- gomery marched on for the capital, and on the 5th of December appeared before Qiiebec. The garrison consisted of about fifteen hundred, while the besiegers were said to consist of little more than !ialf that number. Upon his appearing before the city, he sent forward a flag of truce, vt^hich was fired upon by order of Sir Guy Carleton. At this Gen. Montgomery was so provoked, that the next day he wrote to Sir Guy, and in his letter departed from the common mode of conveying his sentiments ; he made use of threats and language, which in his cooler moments he would have Reclined. in spite of the inclemency of the season, he set about erecting works. His batteries were composed of snov/ and water, wliich soon became solid ice He planted on them five pieces of ordnance, twelve and nine pounders, with one howitzer ; but the artillery was inadequate, and made no impression. In the evening, a council vvas held by all the commanding offi- cers of Col. Arnold's detachment, and a large majority were for storming the garrison, as soon as the men were provided with bay- onets, spears, hatchets, and hand granades. The plan of storm- ing the garrison was wholly the v?ork of Gen. Montgoineryj whoj, in the council of war, held on the occasion, shewed the necessity, practicability, and importance of it, in such a clear and convincing manner, that they unanimously agreed to the measure. The at- tempt had the appearance of rashness ; but the general w^as per- suaded that men, who had behaved so bravely, would follow him, and that Sir Guy Carleton's forces would not fight, when actual service commenced. On the 31st of December, the troops assembled at the hour ap- pointed. They were to make the attack by the way of Cape Dia- mond, at the general's quarters on the heights of Abraham, and were headed by the general himself. Col. Arnold was to malce ihe attack through the suburbs of St. Roe. Col. Livingston and 250 THE HISTORY OF Major Brown were to make a false attack upon the walls, to the southward of St. John's g'ate, and in the mean time to set fire to the g'ate with the combustibles prepared for that purpose. The colonel was also to give the sig'nals for the combination of the at« tacks, which was to begin exactly at five o'clock. It is said that Capt. Fraser, of the regulars, who was then on piquet, going his rounds, saw the rockets fired offas signals, and, forming a conjec- ture of wliat was going forwards, beat to arms without orders, and- so prepared the garrison for defence. The different routs the assailing bodies had to make, the depth, of the snow, and other obsticles, prevented the execution of Li-v- ingston's command. The general moved with his division, attend- ed by a number of carpenters, to the piquets at Cape Diamond. These were soon cut with the saws, and the general pulled them down himself. He then entered, attended by tlie carpenters and.- some of his officers. On their entrance, their guides for.'sook them, which alarmed^ the general and other officers, who were unacquainted with the pass and situation of the enemy's artillery. However, they press- ed on, and the general, observing that the troops did no^ follow with spirit, called out, " Fie, for shame ! will the New York troops desert the cause in this critical moment ? Will you not. follow when your general leads ? Push on, brave boys, Qjiebec is ours.'* A few acted with resolution, advanced, and attacked the guardhouse, when the enemy gave a discharge ofg-rape shot from their cannon, and also of small arms, which proved fatal to the ge- neral, his aide de camp, Capt. Cheeseman, and others. The firing from the guard house ceased, by the enemies quitting their post, and the opportunity offered for the assailants to push forward with success ; but the Deputy Qiiartermaster General, Campbell, with the rank of a colonel, assumed the command, ordered a re- treat, which took place, and the wounded were carried off to the camp. The division under Col. Arnold was equally unsuccessful. The co- lonel received a wound in one of his legs from a musket balljand was carried to the general hospital His men maintained their ground till ten o'clock, when, all hopes of relief being over, they were at last obliged to surrender prisoners of war. In this attack the provincials lost upwards of an hundred men. Gen. Montgomery was shot through. both his thighs and his head. His body was ta- ken up the next day, an elegantcofEn was prepared, and he was soon after decently interred. The general was tall and slender, well limbed, of easy, graceful, and manly address. He had the Ljve, esteem, and confidence of the whole army ; he was of a good family in Ireland, and had served with reputation in the late war with France. His excellent qualities and disposition procured him an uncommon share of private affection, and his abilities of public esteem. His .death was considered asa greater loss to the Ameri^ can cause, than ?.llthe others with which it was accompanied- NORTH AMERICA. 251 When the continetal troops had connected after the unsuccessful attack on Quebec, there arose a dispute who should command, and whether it was adviseable to raise the sieg-e, or wait till a reinforce- ment should arrive. A council of war agreed, that Col. Arnold should command, and should continue the siege, or rather the blockade, which was accordingly done, apparently at no small risk, as they had not more than four hundred men fit for duty ; but they retired about three miles from the city, and posted them- selves advantageously. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CAAPTER, 1775 The expedition against Ticonderoga. — — George Washington^ £sq. elected commander in chief of the continental forces. — The battle of Bunker's EilL • Georgia accedes to the Union. — — The Thirteen United Colonies. — — — The Asia man of nuar fires upon Nevi Tark. 1 , ■■ CoL Arnold's expedition into Canada. ■ Falm,outh destroyed, and on ixihat account. — — Col. Allen taken prisoner, and put in irons. ^ . ... General Montgomery appears before ^ebec, and is killed there. CHAP. V= LeL us now return to Boston and its environs, and see what was transacting there. On the 15th of February, 1776, the strength of the ice having been tried in one place, and the frost continuing^ Gen. Washington was desirous of embracing the season for pass- ing over it, from Cambridge side into Boston. He laid before the council of war the following question : '* A stroke well aimed at this critical juncture may put a final period to the war, and restore peace and tranquility so much to be wished for; and therefore, whether part of Cambridge and Roxburry bays being frozen over, a general assault should not be made on Boston ?" Gen. Ward opposed the idea, saying, *' the attack must4jemad« with a view of bringing on an engagement, or of driving the ene- my out of Boston, and either end will be answered mucht)etter by possessing Dorchester heights.*' When the votes were called for the majority were against the attack. It was however determined to possess themselves of Dorchester heights, which was according. ly afterwards accomplished. On the fifth of March, the British admiral informed gen. Howe, tliat if the Americans possessed those heights, he could not keep 252 THE HISTORY OF one of his majesty's ships in the harbour. Every design of g'ene= ral Howe to force the American works on the hill being- frustrated, a council of war was called, when it was agreed to evacuate the town as soon as possible. The time that h^d been gained by the Americans for strengthening their works, took away all hopes of any successfal attenapts to be made -on them by the British ibrces. The Americans had r>r©vided a great number of barrels, filled 'i^ith stones, gravel and sand, which were placed round t:he wtu'ks, ready to be rolled down, with a view to break the hues of any hostile advancing troops, when ascending the hills. On the 7th of March, there was a g-eneral hurry and confusion in Boston, every one, in the royal interest, being busy in preparing to quit the town, a ad to carry off every thing that was valuable A tiag was sent out from the select -men, acquainting gen. Washing- ton with the intention of the troops, and that gen. Howe was dis- posed to leave the town standing, provided he could retire unin- terrupted. Gen. Washington bound himself undc no obligaticn, but expressed himself in words, wliich admitted of a favourable construction, and intimated 'his good wishes for the preservation of Boston. At four o'clock in the morning of the 17th, the embarca- tion was completed, and before ten the v/hole fleet was under sail, and the provincials soon after took possession of the town. Let us now take a view of what was doing in Virginia. Towards , the close of 1775, the Liverpool fiigate arrived at Norfolk from Great Britain. Soon after, the captain sent a flag of truce, and demanded to be informed, whether his majesty's ship of war would be-supplied from the shore with provisions. The reply was in the negative ; and the ships in the harbour being continually an- noyed by the riflemen from behind the buildings and warehouses , on the wharfs, it was determined to dislodge them by destroying rthe town. Previous notice was given, that the women, children, and other innocent persons, might remove from the danger. Tbe entrance of the new year was signalized, at four o'clock in the morning, by a violent cannonade, from the Liverpool, two sloops of war, and the governor's armed ship the Dunmore, seconded by parties of sai- lors and marines, wlio landed and fired the houses next the water. Where buildings, instead of being povered with tile, slate, or lead, are covered with shingles, (thin light pieces of fir or cedar, half a yard in length, and about six inches broad) let the wind be ever so moderate, they will, upon being fired, be likely to communicate the con-lagration to a distance, should tlie weather be dry, by the burning shingles being driven by the force of the flames to the tops of other houses. Thus the whole town was reduced to ashes, that the Americans might have no shelter, should they be inclined to establish a post on the spot. A few men were killed and wounded at the burning or Norfolk, the most populous and considerable town for commerce of any in Virginia. It contained about 6000 inhabitants, and manj^ ia a^uant circuiiistance.5. The whole loss was estimated at more NORTH AMERICA. 253 t'fsan three hundred thousand pounds sterling-. However urg^ent the necessity, it was an odious si^ht to see the g-overnor, Lord Dunmore, a principle actor in burning- and destroying the best town in his government. The horrid distresses brought upon numbers of innocent persons, by these operations, must wound the feelings of all who are not hardened by a party spirit. While matters were thus transacting in America, the ministry at home gave into great expenses, to supply the army at Boston with fresh provisions and other articles. Sir Peter Parker and £arl Cornwallis, with the Acteon and Thunder bomb, sailed, from Portsmouth for Corke, to convoy the troops and transports there to America ; but, owing to some dela3^s, the fleet did not sail before the 13th of February, It consisted of forty -three sail, and about 2500 troops. On the 14th of March, a fresh attempt was made in the house of lords, to prevent a continuance of hostilities, which so far succeed- ed, that in the May following, letters patent, by his Majesty's or- ders, passed under the great seal, constituting Lord Howe and Gen. Howe, to be his majesty's commissioners for restoring peace to the colonies in North America, and for granting pardon to such of his majesty's subjects there, then in rebellion, as should deserve the royal mercy. The same month, Commodore Hotham, with all the transports, having the first division of Hessians on board, sailed from St Helen's for North America. But let us return to Canadaj, and attend to what was going forward in that quarter. The blockade of Qviebec was continued < but the fears of the Americans were great, as they bad no more than 400 men to do duty, while there were upwards of three times the nu-mher in the city ; they were in daily expectation that the besieged would sally out upon them. At leng-th, a small reinforcement arrived, which enabled them to take a little more rest, though the army was agaizi soon reduced by the small-pox that broke out among them. Towards the end of May, several regiments arrived from Eng» land, and the British forces in Canada were estimated at about 13,000 men. The general rendezvous was appointed to be at Three Rivers, half way between Quebec and Montreal. The Americans now formed a plan to surprise the British troops, and for that purpose marched under cover of the night, on the 8th of June, in order to attack them a Iittie before day break Gen. Thompson, who commanded in this expedition, had procured a Canadian guide, who was either ignorant or unfaithful ; for, a little before sun^rise, he found iiis forces were out of the proper road. They returned, but losing their way by the side of the river, they were soon in vie\V of some of the enemy's boats, between which and the flanking party several balls were excliang-ed. They then quickened their pace, and costinued advancing in sight of the shipping, with d^ums beating and fifes playing, as they knew they were discovered. The general, judging there was no possibility of paa.sing the ships, without being exposed to all their fire, and yet deteritiinh^g to persist in the expedition, filed oft' at a right aogie 254 THE HISTORY OF from the river. He meant to take a circuitous route, and enter the town on the back side. A bad naorass interposed, the troops enter- ed it, and the men were almost mired. About nine o'clock, they came to a cleared spot, formed, and got into some order about ten. They advanced, but before the rear had got off the place of forma- tion, the front received a heavy fire from the enemy, which struck :/^.,>m with terror. The fire was instantly repeated, and though the balls flew over the heads of the troops, without doing any material execution, they gave way, and crowded back, in the utmost con- fusion, which left them without a leader, so that every one did as he pleased. They turned their faces up the river, and hastened through the swamp as fast as possible. About eleven they began to collect, and soon learned from the Canadians, that the enemy had sent a detachment, with several field-pieces by land, to cut off their retreat and a party by water to seize their boats. About four they were told that the enemy had secured the bridge before them, vvhicli it was supposed they must pass. They were also soon con- vinced, that a large body was closely in the rear. Col. Maxwell or- dered all who had collected together to halt, called the officers to him, and said, " What shall we do ? Shall we fight those in the front or in the rear ? Shall we tamely submit ? or shall we turn off into the woods, and each man shift for himself ?" The last propo- sal was preferred ; but the enemy was so near that the rear of the Americans was ;esposed to another tremendous fire, while going down the hill into the woods, but the balls flew over them without injuring any. The person, who was entrusted with the care of the boats, had removed them in time to a secure place ; so that the loss of the Americans, which must otherwise have been much greater, amounted only to about 200 prisoners. The troops that escaped began to collect about ten the next day and by noon v/ere considerably numerous. They got along by de- grees, and by sun-set the day following arrived opposite Sorel. Gen, Thompson and Col. Irwin, the second in command, with some other officers, were taken. The killed and wounded of the king's troops were trifling. The king's forces having joined at Three Rivers, proceeded by land and water to Sorel, off which the fleet arrived in the even- ing, a few hours after the rear of the Americans had left it A considerable body was landed, and the command of the column given to Gen. Burgoyne, with instructions to pursue the continen- tal army up the river to St. John's, but without hazarding any thing till another column on his right should be able to co operate with him. Sir Guy Carleton's extraordinary precaution to put nothing to hazard, when not absolutely necessary, gave the Amer- icans the opportunity of escaping. Had Burgoyne been instructed to press on with the utmost expedition, great numbers of the prcv vincials rriust have been made prisoners, and but few would have crossed Lake Champhdn. Thus ended the expedition against Quebec. NORTH AMERICA. 255 To return to Boston. The British Commodore Banks, omittinj^' to leave cruisers in the bay, afforded an opportunity to the Ameri- can privateers of taking- a number of Highlanders. Three days after his quitting it, the Georg-e and Annabella transports entered, after a passage of seven weeks from Scotland, during- the course of which they had not an opportunity of speaking with a single vessel, that could give them the smallest information of the British troops having evacuated Boston. They were attacked in the morning by four privateers, with whom they engaged till the evening-, when the privateers bore away, and the transports pusiied for Boston har- bour,'not doubting but they shovdd there receive protection, either from a fort or ship of force stationed for the security of British ves- sels. They stood up for Nantasket road, wlien an American bat- tery opened upon them, which Vi as tlie first serious proof they had of the situation of affairs at the port to vvliicli tliey were destined. They were too far embayed to retreat, as the wind had died away, and the tide was half expended. The pi-ivateers, with which they had been engag-ed, joined by two otliers, n^.ade towards them. They pi-epdJ-ed for action ; but, by some misfortune, the Annabella got a-ground so far astern of the George, that the latter expected but a feeble support from her musketry. About eleven at night, the privateers anchored close by, and hailed them to strike the British flag. The mate of the George, and every sailor on board, the captain excepted, lefused to fight any longer ; but the officers and privates of the seventy-first regiment stood to their quarters till all their ammunition was expended, when they vvere forced to yield. They had eight privates and a major killed, besides seven- teen wounded. The number of Highlanders taken vvere 267 pri- vates, 48 officers, besides Lieut. Col. Campbell. On the 25th ef June, Gen. Howe arrived at Sandy Hook in tlie Greyhound frigate. He soon received from Gov. Tryon a full ac- count of the state and disposition of the province, as well as of the strength of the Americans. Gen. Washington's army was small, rather below 9000 fit for duty. Of this little army, it was said, at least 2000 were wholly destitute of arms, and nearly as many with arms in such condition as to be rather calculated to discourage than animate the usev. On the 2d of July, Gen. Howe's troops took possession of Staten Island. On the first of July, congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, upon the subject of independence ; but neither color^ies jjor members being unanimous, it was postponed till the next day. On the fourth, thej' had it under further consideration, when the declaration of independence was agreed to and adopted. Tiie title of it wasj ** J Declaration by the Represent alives of the United States of A'mertca in Congress assembled.''* The preamble follows in these words.—" When, in the course of human events^ it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve ihe 256 THE HISTORT OF political bands, which have connected them with another, and to assume, among' the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station, to which tlie laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of nnankind require that they sliould declare the causes tliat impel them to the separation. " We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are cre- ated equal — that they are endowed by their Creator with certain imaleinable rig-hts, among- which ar2 life, liberty and the purs^iitof happiness — that to secui'e tliese rights, governments are instituted' among" men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed — that whenever any form of government becomes de- structive of these ends, it is tlie right of the people to alter or abol- ish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundations upon such principles, and organizing its pov/ers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments, long established, sliould not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accord- ingly ail experience halh shown, that mankind are more dis- posed to suffer, wliile evils are sufferable, than to riglit tliemselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably t!ie same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such govern- ment, and to provide new g'uards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonics, and such is now the necessity that constrains them to alter their former systems of g-Qvernment.'* The declaration proceeds to give a history of reiiested Injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over those states. On the 8th of July, at tv/elve o'clock, the declaration ofinde- pei.denoe was proclaimed at the state-house in Philadeiphia, amidst the greatest acclamations. The next day, in consequence of general orders, it was read at the head of each brigade of the continential army at New York, and every where received with loud huzzas, and the utmost demonstrations of joy. The same evenitig, the equestrian statue of the king was laid prostrate on the ground, and the lead of which it was made was doomed to be run into bullets. On the 14th of August, Lord Dunmore quitted Virginia, and joined the British forces. He arrived with Lord Campbell and Sir Peter Paricer off Staten Island. His lordship continued on the coasts, and in the rivers of Virginia, till the closeness and filth of the small vessels, in which the fugitives were crowded, together with the heat of the weather, the badness and scarcity of water and provisions, produced a pestilential fever, which made great hav- ock, especially among the negrvoes, many of whom were swept away. When at length every place was shut against him, and neither water nor provisions were to be obtained, but at the expense of blood, it was found necessary to burn several of the smaller and NORTH AMERICA. 257 least valuable vessels, to prevent their falling into the hands of the Americans, and to send the remainder, with the exiled friends of government, to seek shelter in Florida, Bermudas, and the West Indies. Lord Howe arrived off Halifax towards the end of June, and from thence proceeded to New York, and reached Staten Island by the 12th of July, From thence he sent on shore by a flag- to Am- boy, a circular letter, together with a declaration to several of the late governors of the colonies, acquainting them with his powers, and desiring them to publish the same as generally as possible, for the information of the people. But it is now too late to bring them back to the obedience of the mother country, since the de- claration of independence had been every where solemnly read. Iff the month of August, Gen. Howe finding himself sufficiently strong to attempt something, resolved on making a descent on Long Island The necessary measures being taken by the fleet for covering the descent, the army was landed, without opposition , betv/een two small towns, Utrecht and" Gravesend, not far from the Narrows, on the nearest shore to Staten Island; On this island are several passes through the mountains or liills, which are easily defensible, being very narrow, and the lands high and mountainous on each side These were the only roads that could be passed from the south side of the hills to the American lines, except a road leading round the easterly end of the hill to Jamaica, An early attention had been given to the importance of these passes. To the second of them, the small American parties, patroling on the coasts, retired upon the approach of the British J3oats with the ti'oops Lord Corn wallis pushed on immediately with the reserve and some otlier forces ; but finding the Americans in possession of the pass, in compliance with ordersj, he risked no attack. The Americans had on ea-ch of the three passes or roads a guard of 800 men ^ and to the east of them in the wood. Col Miles was placed with his battalion to guard the road from the south of the hills to Jamaica, and to which the motion of the enemy on that side, with orders to keep a party constantly reconnoitring to and across the Jamaica road. The sentinels v.ere so placed as to keep a; continual communication between the three guards on the thjee roads. ■ On the 26th of August, Gen. Howe, having fully settled a plan of surprize. Gen. de Heister, v;ith his HeasianS, took post at Flat-* bush in the evening, and composed the centre About nine o'clock the same night,- the principal, army, containing much the greater part of the British forces, under the commands of Gen. Chnton, Earl Percyj and Lord Cf)rnwaHis, marched in order to gain the road leading rour^d the easterly end of the hills to Jamai- ca, and so to turn the left of the Americans. Col. Miles, whose duty it was to guard this road, suffred the British to march not, Jess than six miles, till they were near two miles in the rear of the. guardp; before lie discovered and gave notice of their approach- 25S THE HISTORY OE Tlie next day, before day -break, Gen. Clinton arrived within half a mile of the road, when he halted, and settled his disposition for the attack. One of his patroles fell in with a patrol of Americaa officers on horseback, who were trepanned and made prisoners. Gen^ Sullivan, thoug-h in expectation that they would bring- him in- telligence, neg-lected sending out a fresh patrol on finding himself disappointed. Cliiiton, learning from the captured officers, that the Americans had not occupied the road, detached a battalion of light infantry to secure it, and advancing with his troops upon the first appearance of day, posses.sed himself of the heights that com- manded the road. About midnight, the guard, consisting all of New Yorkers and Pennsylvanians, perceiving that there was danger at hand, fled with- out firing a gun, and carried to Gen. Parsona, who commanded them, the account of the enemy's advancing in great numbers by~ that road. Gen. Grant's movementsvvere to divert the attention of the Americans from the left, where the main attack was to be made by Gen. Clinton, By day-light. Gen. Parsons perceived, that the British were g-ot through the waod, and were descending oa the north side. He took twenty of his fugitive guard, behig all he could collect, and posted them on a height in front of the British^, about half a mile distant, which halted their column, and gave time for Lord Stirling to come up with his forces, amounting to about. 1500, who possessed himself of a hill about two miles from the camp. The engagement began soon after day-break, by the Hessians fvom l^latbush, under Gen. Heister, and- by Gen. Grant on the icoast ; and a warm cannonade, with a brisk fire of small arms^ v/ere eagerly supported on both sides for some considerable time. The Americans opposing Gen Heister were the first who were apprized of the march of the British troops under Gen. Clinton. They accordingly retreated in large bodies, and in tolerable order, to recover their camp; but they were soon interrupted by the right wing under Gen. Clinton, who, having halted and refreshed bis forces after passing the heights-> continued his iTvarch, and. getting into the rear of the left cf the Americans, about half past eight o'clock attacked them with his light infantry and light dragoons, while quitting the heights to return to their lines. They •were driven back, and again met the Hessians, and thus were they s.lternately chased and intercepted. In these desperate circum- stances, some of their regimentsi, overpowered, and outnumbered as they v/ere, forced their way to the camp, through all the dan- gers with which they were pressed. The Americans under Lord Stirling, who were engaged with Gen Gr^nt, behaved with great bravery and resolution ; but were so late in their knowledge of what passed elsewhere, that their retreat was intercepted by soni>e of the British troops, who, besides turning the hills and the Am.erican left, had traversed the whole extent of country in their I'ear. Several broke through the ene- jDy's-line, and got into the woods. Gen. Parsons, v/ith a small NORTH AMERICA, 2|9 party, escaped by doing* the same ; numbers threw themselves into yie marsh at Gorvan's Cove, some were drowned, and others per- ished in the mud. However, a Considerable body e&caped to the lines. The nature of the country, and the variety (5f the ground occasioned a continuance and extension of small eng•a,^'ements, pursuits and slaughter, which lasted for many hours before the scene closed. The British troops displayed great valour and activity on this occasion* So impetuous was their ardour, that it was with diffi- culty they could be restrained, by Gen. Howe's orders, from at- tacking the American lines. They would probably have entered them, had not the works been completed the night before the ac- tion, by closing an opening on the right, and placing an abbatis before it. The Americans were rao&fe completely surprised and effectually entrapped. Gol Smallwood's Maryland regiment suf- fered extremely, and was almost cut to pieces, losing 259 men. The loss was m^ich regretted, on account of their being youn^ men of the best families in the country All who were engaged in the actions of this day did not display the same courage ; nor was it to be expected from such wlw troops. Many escaped from the want of discipline ; for they broke at the sight of danger, and saved themselves by flight, whereas otherwise they must have been killed or taken. Large bodies however were captured,. Gen. Sullivan, Lord Stirling, and Gen Udell, besides^ three colonels, four lieutenant-colonels, three majors, eighteen captains, forty three lieutenants, eleven ensigns, an adjutant^ three sur- Efeons, and two volunteers, were made prisoners, together with a thousand and six privates, in all a thousand and ninety seven. As among the prisoners the wounded were included, an allowance of between four and five hundred for killed, drowned, perished in the woods, the mud, and the like, may be i-eckoned about the mark. The loss of the British, in killed and wounded, did not exceed three hundred and eighteen, of whom only sixty-one were killed. After the battle, the Americans retreated to New York, to which place they crossed over, under the favour of a fog, taking with them all their military stores, and leaving nothing behind them, but a few pieces of cannon, and some trifling matters. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 1776 Ge?z. Hovic evacuates Boston. — — NorfoLk in Virginia burnt^ Sir Peter Parker and Earl Cornviallis sail for America, ■ The blockade of Quebec continued ' The America?is raise the blockade and retreat. —— — J number of Highlanders taken tn Boston bay. ■ ■ Declaration of Atnerican I,idepenaence . —i-» Gen. Iloive lands the royal artny on LQng Island} and drives the. Americans off it. 26» THE HISTORY OF CHAP. VL After tiie affair of Long- Island, endeavours were used by the Americans to keep up the spirits of the people, by puffing ac- counts of the extraordinary bravery of their troops, and the de- Struction they made of the enemy. But that matters were not very pron\isiug appears from a letter of Gen. Mercer, who cobi- manded the flying camp, dated September the 4th, wherein he writes : " Gen. Washington has not, so far as I have seen, 5000 men to be depended on for the service of a campaign ; and I have not 1000. Both our armies are composed of raw militia, perpetu- ally fluctuating between the camp and their farms ; poorly armed, and still worse disciplined. These are not a niatch for, were their numbers equal to veteran troops, well fitted and urged on by able officers. Numbers and discipline must at last prevail. Giv- ing soldiers, or even the lower orders of mankind, the choice of officers, will forever mar the discipline of armies.'* Gen. Howe having fully prepared for a descent on New York Island, embarked a strong division of the army under the command of Gen. Clinton, and others, in boats, at the head of Newtown inlet, and at another place higher up, where they could not be ob- served by the Americans, who expected the attack would be made on the side next to the East river, and had therefore. th p irceiving- the evacuation, and that the Ai^nericans were retiring-, commanded a pursuit with his brigade, consisting of the light troops, grenadiers, and some other corps. Gen. Reideselj with most of the Brunswickers, was or- dered by Gen. Burgoyne to join in the pursuit, either to support Frazer, or to act separately. The latter continued the pursuit through the day, and receiving intelligence, that St. Clair's rear was at no great distance, he ordered his troops to lie that night on their arms. In the morning, he came up with the Americans, commanded by Col. Warner, who had, besides his own, the regi- ments of Colonels Francis and Hale. The British advanced bold- ly, and the two bodies formed within about sixty yards of each other. Frazer began the attack about seven o'clock, expecting every moment to be joined by Reidesel, and apprehending, that if he delayed, the enemy would escape. Hale being apprised of the danger, never brouglit his regiment to the charge, but fled ; so that Warner could bring into action no more than about 700 men. The conflict was bloody : Francis fell fighting with great bravery, and Warner, his officers, and soldiers, behaved with much resolution and gallantry ; so that the British broke and gave way, but soon formed again, and running on the Americans with their bayonets, the latter were put into no small confusion, whick was increased by the critical arrival of Gen Reidesel with the foremost of his column, consisting of the Chasseur company, and light infantry, who were immediately led into action. The Amer- icans now Sed on all sides. Gen St. Clair heard when the firing began, and would have supported Warner; but the troops that were nearest, two militia regim.ents, would not obey orders, and the others were at too great a distance. Hale, who had attempt- ed to get off by flight, fell in with an iiiconsiderable party of British, and surrendered himself aiui a number of his men pris- oners. The Americans lost 324 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and among the last were twelve officers The royal troops, in- cluding Briti.sh and German, had not less than i83 Jiilled and wountied. 264 THE HIStORY OF TlLe evacuation of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence sur» prised Gen. Washing-ton, and spread astonishment and terror through the New-England states. The general was led to believe that the garrison was much stronger. The Massachusetts Gen- eral Court were faulty, in not having seasonably forwarded their quota of troops, agreeable to the requisition of Congress. Let us now return to see what was doing by Gen. Howe. The British fieet and army which lay at Sandy Hook, were destined for the reduction of Philadelphia, in pursuance of a plan '.vhich had been settled between Sir William Howe and Lord George Ger- main, but did not sail till the 2€d of July. The land forces con- sisted of thirty-six British and Hessian battalions, including., the light infantry and grenadiers, with a powerful artillery, a New York corps, called Qiieen's Rangers, and a regiment of light horse, estin^ated all together, at about 16,000 men. The fleet consisted of 267 sail. Gen. Howe's thus abandoning Burgoyne equally excited the astonishment of friends and enemies. On the 14th of Juae, th« Congress resolved, that the flag of the Thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white 5 that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, rep- resenting a new constellation. It was not till the third of September that the royal army began to move forwards. On its advancing near to the Americans, these abandoned their ^ound, perceiving that it would not answer their first expectation. They crossed Brandywine at Chad's ford, and took possession of the heights on the east side of it, with an evi- dent intention of disputing the passage of the river ; but the su- perior numbers of the regular forces at last obliged them to retir-e. A little after sun-ri^e on the 11th of September, a warm en- gagement commenced, which lasted till the approach of night. On this occasion, the Americans shewed great resolution and cour- age ; but a few hours more of day-light might have so animated the conquering regulars, fatigued as they were, as to have pro- duced those exertions, which would have been productive of a total and ruinous defeat to the Americans. It was said, by the Am.ericans themselves, that in this action, their loss in killed, wounded, and piisoners, was aboMt twelve or thirteen hundred ; and that the ro} al army did not sufi'er, en their part, short of seven or eight hundred, in killed and wounded. The Americans also lost ten small field pieces, and a howitzer, of which all but one were brass. The evening after the battle, a party of regulars was sent to Wilmington, who took the governor of the Delaware state, Mr. M'Kenly, out of his bed, and possessed themselves of a shallop lying in the creek, loaded with the rich effects of some of the in- habitants, together with the public records of the county, and a large quantity of public and private money, besides articles of plate, and other things. After various motions of the regular army, on the 26th of Sep- tfeoaber, Gen. Howe made his triumphal entry into Philadeiphia^^ NORTH AMERICA. 265 with a small part of his army, where he was most cordially re- ceived by the generality of the Qiiakers, and a few other royalists. The bulk of his troops were left in and about Germantown, a vil- lage forming" one continued street for near two miles. Gen. Washington's army was encamped near Shippach -creek, about ■eighteen miles from thence. The Congress, on the loss of Phila- delphia, removed to York-town. To return to the northern army, under the command of Gen. Burgoyne. Several actions took place between the Americans and regulars, in the intended march of the British towards Albany, In these different skirmishes, the regulars suffered very censidera- bly, as well as the Indians in their interest. The principal action happened at Bennington, in which the Americans took from the EngUsh four brass field -pieces, twelve drums, 250 dragoon swords, four ammunition waggons, and about seven hundred prisoners, among whom was Lieut. Col. Baum. On the SOth of August, the English comm.ander liad occasion to write to Gen. Gates, and in his letter complained of inhumanity exercised towards the provincial soldiers in the king's service af- ter the affair of Bennington, and then hinted at retaliation. Gen. Gates in his answer of September the 2d, invalidated the charge, and then retorted the Indian cruelties, which he imputed to Bur- goyne, saying, *' Miss M'Rea a young lady of virtuous character, and amiable disposition, engaged to an officer in your army, was, with other women and children, taken out of a house near Fort Edward, carried into the woods, and there murdered and mangled, in a most shocking manner. Two parents, with their six children, were all scalped and treated with the same inhumanity, while qui- etly residing in their once happy and peaceful dwellings. i he miserable fate of Miss M'Rea was particularly aggravated, by her being dressed to receive her promised husband, when slie met her murderer employed by you. Upv/ards of one hundred men, women, and children, have perished by the hands of the ruffians, to whom it is asserted, you have paid the price of blood." Gen. Burgoyne, in his reply of the 6th of tlie same month, vindicated his own character ; shewed that Miss M'Rea's death was no premedi- tated barbarity, and declared, that every other charge, exhibiteu by Gen. Gates, was ill-foundecl and erroneous. The murder of Miss M'Rea exasperated the Amoricans, and from that and other cruelties occasion was taken to blacken the royal party and army. The people detested that army wliich ac- cepted of sucli Indian aid, and loudly reprobated that government which could call in such auxiliaries. Gen. Gates was not deficient in aggravating, by several publications, the excesses that had taken place, and with no small advantage to his own military operations. On the 18th of September, Gen. Burgoyne, having been very short of piovisions, at length received a supply for :ihout tliirty days, together with other necessary stores. He then resolved upon passing Hudson's river with the army, whicli having e.xe-. cuted, he encamped on the heights and on the plain of Saratog;?., 266 THE HISTORY OF The Americans, observing' the motions of t!ie royal army, marched out 3000 strong-, in order to attack him, but found that to be pru- dentially impracticable. However, they drew up in full view of Jiim, and there remained till dark. The next day some of the American scouting, parties fell in with those of the British, and with great boldness began the attack about one o'plock at noon. The fi.*ing was no sooner heard by Gen. Phillips, than he made his way, with a part of the artillery, through the woods, and rendered essential services. Each com- mander supported, reinforced, and ordered different regiments to engage. The battle was hot and obstinam on both sides, till about half past two o'clock, when it ceased for half an hour. The American and British lines being fully formed, the action was re- newed, and became general at three. Both armies appeared de- termined to co.ivj^uer or die, and there was one continual blaze of lire for three hours without intermission ; the report of the mus- kets resembled an incessant roll-beating on a number of drums. The Americans and British alternately drove and were driven by each other. Three British regiments, the 20th, the 21st, and the 62d, were in constant and close fire for near four hours. All suf- fered considerable loss : the 62d, which was 500 strong when it left Canada, was now reduced to less than 60 men, and to four or five officers. Few actions have been characterised, by more ob- stinacy in attack or defence, than was the present. Both parties claimed the victory, though neither had much advantage to boast of. From this time till near the middle of October, battles and skirmishes continually took place between the two armies, and the British were sadly reduced and weakened. On the 13th Gen, Burgoyne, finding that the troops had only three days provision in store on 'short allowance, and no apparent means of retreat re- maining, called into council all the generals, field-officers, and cap- tains commanding troops. There was not a spot of ground in the whole camp for holding the council of war, but what was exposed to cannon or rifle shot ;* and while the council was deliberating, an eie-hteen-pound ball crossed the table. By the unanimous advice of the council, the general was induced to open a treaty with Gen« Gates The first proposals of the latter were rejected, and the sixth article with disdain, wherein it was required, that the British army should lay down tlieir arms in their intrenchments. Bur- c-oyne's counter- proposals were unanimously approved, and being sent to Gates were agreed to, on the 15th, without any material alteration. ., . • i,^ x- n Gen Gates being fearful of the consequences that might follow, should Gen. Vaughan with his troops come up in time to Burgoyne's assistance, determined upon bringing the matter to an immediate issue On the morning of the ITth, he got every thing m readiness for attacking the royal armv. This done, he took out his watch, the time agreed for signing being come. He then sent Col Greaton on horseback to Burgoyne with a message, requirmg the general to NORTH AMERICA, 267 &ign, and~ allowed him no more than ten minutes to t^o and return- He was back in time, the treaty was signed, all hostile appearances ceased, and the Americans marched into the British lines to the tune of Yankee Doodle. They were kept there until the royal army had marched out of their lines, and deposited their arms at the place appointed by the treaty. The delicacy with which this business was conducted reflects the hig-hest honour upon the American'' g-eneral. It intimated, that he was sensible of the mortification attending" a reverse of for- tune, and that he was unwilling- to ag-g-ravate the painful feelings of the royal troops, by admitting- the American soldiers to be eye-wit- nesses to the degrading- spectacle of piling their arms. Wlien the arms were deposited agreeable to treaty, the royal troops were served with bread by the Americans, as they h^id not any left nor flour to nj^ke it. Tliey had only one day's salt meat remaining'. The treaty vvas styled, *' A convention between Lieut. Gen* Burgoyne and M-ijor Gen. Gates." Among other articles it was stipulated, *• That the troops under Lieut. Gen. Burgoyne shall march out of their camp with the honours of war, and the artillery of the entrenchments, to the verge of the river, where the arms and artillery are to be left. — The xm-. to be piled by word of command from their own officers. — A fiv e passage to be granted to the royal army to Great Britain, upon condition of not serving again in North America during the present contest ; and the port of Boston to be assigned for the entry of transports to receive the troops, whenever Gen. Howe shall so order. — The officers* baggage not to be molested or searched. — During the stay of the troops in the Massachusetts bay, the officers are to be admitted on parole, and be allowed to wear their side-arms." The return signed by Gen. Burgoyne, at the time of the conven- tion, made the British army, including Germans, amount to 5791, which was very short of the number they had on setting out from Canada, The train of brass artillery, consisting of 42 pieces, was a fine acquisition to the Americans. There were also 4647 mus- kets, 6000 dozen of cartridg'es, besides shot, carcasses, shells, &c. Had Clinton advanced in time, Burgoyne would have been saved ; but the troops he dispatched under Gen Vaughan amused themselves with burning j£sopus, a fine village in the neighbour- hood of Stillwater. Gen. Vaughan with a flood tide, might have reached Albany in four hours, as there v/as no force to hinder him. Had he proceeded thither, and burnt the stores, Gates as he him- self afterwards declared, must have retreated into New England. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 1776 Wretched State of the armies under the Generals V/as hington and Gates. ~— — 2^ew Tori taken by the royalforces. The battle of the White Plains. -■=~— A body of Hessians defeated at Trenton. 26S THE HISTORY OF 1T77 Gen. IIov:e embarks his army from Statsn Island': Gen. Burgoyne proceeds to Croian Point. — — Ticonderoga and Mount Independence evacuated. •— — Flag of the United States erected. • Battle at the Bra7id]nvine. — ' — Account cf Miss M Rea' s death. " Americans engage the British under Gen. Burgoyne. Distress and Calamity cf the -Royal army. : Gen. Burgoyne ba^ffied in all his designs. — — Signs the Co?ivention. 7 Jllsopus hurnf by the troops under Gen. Vaughan. CHAP. VII. Towards tliee-od af October, 1777, the royal army, uncki^- the command of Sir William Howe removed to Philadelpliia. Measures being- concerted between the general and admiral for clearing the Delaware of its obstructions, the former ordered batteries to be erected on the western or Pennsylvanian shore, to assist in dislodging- the Americans from Mud Island. He also detached a strong- body of Hessians cross the river, who were to reduce the fort at Red-bank, while the sliips and batteries on the other side were to attack Mud Island. Count Donop, in the ser- vice of tlie English, was intrusted with tlie expedition against Red-bank ; but he failed in the attempt. He was mortally wound- ' ed iind taken prisoner, several of his best officers were killed or disabled, and the Hessians, after a desperate engagement, were repulsed. The second in command being also dangerously w^ound- cJ, the detachment was brought off by Lieut Col. Linsing. It is said that the royal detachment lost, on this oocasion, between four and five ii.indred men. The expedition against Mud Island met with better success, the Americans being driven from thence, and forced to retire to Red bank. On the night of the 18Lh of November, Lord Cornwallis march- ed with a considerable force, and tlie next day crossed the Dela- ware, in his way to Red-bank, which the Americans abandoned, leaving behind them the artillery, and a considerable quantity of cannon ball. The English generals confesaed, that the long and unexpected opposition they received at Red-bank and Mud Island^ broke in upon their plans for the remainder of the campaign. On the third of May, 1778, Mr. Silas Deane arrived in America express from France, with very important dispatches. The Con- gress was immediately convened, and the dispatches opened and read, among which, to their inexpressible joy, were a treaty of commerce, and a treaty of alliance, concluded between his most Christian majesty, the king of France and the United States o£ NORTH AMERICA. 269 America. The treaties were duly weig-hed and considered sepa-^ rately the next day, and upon each it was unanimously resolved, *' That the same be, and is hereby accepted.'* The next resolu- tion was, ** That tkis Congress entertain the highest sense of the magnanimity and wisdom of iiis most Christian majesty, so strong- iy exemplified in the treaty of amity and commerce ; and the com- missioners representing their states, at the court of France, are directed to present the grateful acknowledgments of this Congress to his most Christian majesty, for his truly magnanimous conduct respecting these states, in the said generous and disinterested treaties, and to assure his majesty, on the part of this Congress, it is sincerely wished, that the friendship so happily commenced between France and these United States may be perpetual." The Congress, after receiving the treaties, had a stronger feel- ing of their own importance than before, and resolved, *' That the commissioners a,ppointed for the courts of Spain, Tuscany, Vi- enna, and Berlin, should live in such style and manner at their re- spective courts, as they may find suitable and necessary to support the dignity of their public character." On the first of May, they agreed to a draught of " An address td the inhabitants of the United States o? America." In thispublicatioii when they come to the French treaty, they say, "You have still to expect one severe conflict. Your foreign alliances, though they secure your independence, cannot secure your country from deso- lation, your habitations from plunder, your wives from insult or violation, nor your children from butchery Foiled in the principal design, you must expect to feel the rage of disappointed ambition. Arise then- 1 to your tents, and gird you for battle ! It is time to turn the headlong current of vengeance upon the head &f the de- stroyer. They have filled up the measure of their abominations, and like fruit must soon drop from the tree. Althougli much is done, yet much remains to do. Expect not peace, while any cor- ner of America is in the possession of your foes. You must drive them away from this land of Promise, a land flowing indeed wim milk and honey. Your brethren at the extremities of the conti- nent already implore your friendship and protection. It is you-- duty to grant their request. They hunger and thirst after liberty. Be it yoursto dispense to them the heavenly gift. And what is there now to prevent it." In the month of May, the Ameiican Randolph frigate of 36 guns, and 305 men, sailed on a cruise from Cliarieston. The. Yarmouth, of 64 guns discovered her and five other vessels, anci came up with her in the evening. Capt. Vincent hailed tlie Ran- dolph to hoist colours, or he would fire into her; on which she hoisted American, and immediately gave the Yarmouth her broad ■> side, which was returned, and in about a quarter of an hour Eii'e blew up. Four men saved themselves upon a piece of her wreck, and subsisted for five days upon nothing more than rain watei j which they sucked from a piece of blanket they had picked up. On the fifth, the Yarmouth being in chase of a ship, happily dis- :over€d them v/aving. The captain humanely suspended thq SrO THE HISTORY Ol cjiase, hauled up to the wreck, got a boat out, and brought them on board. On the 7th of May, the second battalion of British light infantr}', in fiat boats, attended by three gallies and other armed boats, pro-, ceeded up the Delaware, in order to destroy all the American ships and vessels lying in the river between Philadelphia and Trenton. They landed the next morning, advanced towai-ds Bor- dentown, drove the Americans that opposed them,entered the town, and burnt four store-houses, containing provisions, tobacco, some military stores and camp equipage. The country being alarmed, and a strong body collected, the battalion crossed to the Pennsyl- vanian shore. The next day they resumed theiroperationa, and at sun-set embarked and returned to Philadelphia. While upon the expedition, they burnt two frigates, one of 32, the other of 28 l^uns ; nine large ships, three privateer sloops of 16 guns each, three often guns, twenty -three brigs, with a number of sloops and schoor.ers. Two of the ships were loaded with tobacco, ruin, and military stores, Gen. Howe was succeeded in the command of the army by Sir Henry Clinton, who arrived at Philadelphia on the 8tli of May. On the 6th of February, the treaties between France and the United States were signed. The alliance between these two pow- ers was known to the British ministry soon after they were signed. Mr. Fox, in a debate in the House of Commons five days after- wards, asserted that the number of men lost to the army, killed, lisabled, deserted, and from various other causes, from the com- mencement of hostilities with America to that periods amounted to above twenty thousand. On the 17th, l.,ord North introduced his conciliatory proposi- ■lons. His plan was to enable the crown to appoint commissioners to treat with the colonies concerning the means of putting an end to those unhappy contests ; for which five persons were invested with ample powers. His lordship said in his speech, that Gen. Howe had been, in the late actions, and in the whole course of the campaign, not only in the goodness of troops, and in all man- ner of supplies, but also in point of numbers, much superior to tlie American array that opposed him in the field ; that Gen. Bur- ^oyne had been in numbers, until the affai<» at Bennington, nearly ivvice as strong as the army of tlie enemy ; that he promised a .^reat army should be .<^ent out, and that a great army had accord- ingly been sent out, to the amount of 60,000 men and i'pv*'ards. The speech w&s long, able, and eloquent, and kept him up two full hours. A dull melancholy silence for some time succeeded. It was heard with profound attention, but without a single mark of approbation. Astonishment, dejection, and fear, overclouded the \vhole assembly. It whs conjectured, that some powerful motive had induced the ministry to adopt such an alteration of measures. This idea was confirmed by the positive assertion of Mr. Fox, that a treaty had been signed at Paris between the colonies and France, by which she recognised their independence. NORTH AMERICA. on On the 13th of March, the French ambassador delivered a re- script to Lord Weymouth, in which he informed the court of London, that the king- had signed a treaty of friendship and com- merce with the United States of America. The knowledge of this transaction was communicated under the parade of cultivating the good understanding between France and Great Britain. On the 21st of March, a public audience and reception were given to the American commissioners, Messrs. Franklin, Deane, and Lee, by the French monarch They were introduced by Mons Vergennes, and received by the king with the usual formai- ities and ceremonies. The striking acknowledgment of the pleni- potentiaries from the United States mortified the ministry and crown of Great Britain, and may be pronounced the political phe- nomenon of Europe. The day before it was exhibited, tlie French ambassador, in consequence of orders to quit London set out for Paris. From this time, the courts of London and Versailles were busied in fitting out their fleets, which met each other in the month of July, The English fleet was commanded by the admirals Keppel, Palliser, and Harland. But, as the action of that day is amply re- lated in our History of England, we shall not introduce in these annals of America, an account of so foul a tarnish to the British Bag. In the beg-inningof June, the Trident British man of war arrived in the Delaware, with tlie Eurl of Carlisle, Mr. Eden, and Gov, Johnstone, three of the commissioners for restoring peace between Great Britain and America. On the 18th of June, at three o'clock in the morning, the British evacuated Philadelphia, Mr. Eden having brought with him se- cret instructions from England for that purpose. They proceeded to Gloucester Point, three miles down the river, and before ten the whole had passed in safety cross the Delaware into New Jersey. When intelligence of Sir Henry Clinton's having evacuated Philadelphia reached the American head quarters. Gen. Washing, ton took his measures accordingly. Several skirmishes happened between the Americans ai\d the regulars with various success, till on the 30th of June the royal array arrived in the neiglibourhood of Sandy Hook. During the course of the march from, Philadelphia, the royal army was much reduced, upwards of 800 having deserted, a great number of whom were Hessians. On the 5th of July, the army passed over a bridge of boats cross narrow channel to Sandy Hnok, and were afterwards carried up to New York. On the 7th, Lord Howe received advice that the squadron from Toulon v/as arrived at Virginia Count d'Estaing anchored on the 8th at night at the entrance of the Delaware. The next morning, he weighed and sailed towards the Hook, and on the evening of the Uth anchored without it. Had not bad weather and unexpected impediments prevented, the count must have surprized Howe's fleet in the Delaware, as the latter would not have had time to escape after being apprised of his danger. The 272 TRE HISTORY OP destruction of the fleet must have been the consequence of such a surprisal, and that must have occasioned the inevitable loss of the royal army, which would have been so enclosed by the French squadron on the one side, and the American forces on the other, that the Saratoga catastrophe must have been repeated. Lord Howe's fleet consisted only of six sixty -four gun ships, three of fifty, and two of forty, with some frigates and sloops. Count d'Estaing- had twelve ships of the line, some of whicJi were of great force and weight On the 22:1 of July, the count sailed from Sandy Hook, when about twenty sail of vessels bouud to New York fell into his pos- session. They were chiefly prizes taken from the Americans i but, had he stayed a few days longer. Admiral Byron's fleet must have fallen a defenceless prey into their hands. That squadron had met with unusual bad weather, and being separated in differ- ent storms, and lingering through a tedious passage, arrived scat- tered, broken, sickly, dismasted, or otherwise damaged in various degrees of distress,, upon diflf'erent and remote parts of the Amer- ican coast Between the departure of d'Estaing and the 30th of July, the Renown of 50 guns from the West Indies, the Raisona- ble and Centurion of 64, and the Cornwall of 74 guns, all arrived singly at Sandv Hook. By d'Estaing'« speedy departure a number of provision ships from Cork escaped also, together with their con- voy. They went up the Delaware within fifty miles of Philadel- phia afterLord Howe had quitted the river, not having obtained any information. of what hadhappened» The British ministry had neglected countermandiu'g their destination, though orders for the evacuation of Philadelphia had been sent oiF so early, as to have admitted of their receiving fresh instructions where to have Steered before sailing. Great rejoicings were made at New York upon their safe arrival, especially as provisions were much wanted . both.by the fleet and army. Let us now quit the military operations for the present, and take a view of the pending negociations. Gov. Johnstone, meaning to avail himself of former connections, endeavoured to corainence or renew a private correspondence witli several members of congress, and other persons of consideration. In his letters to them he used a freedom with the authority under which he acted, not customary with those entrusted with delegated power, and afforded sucli a degree of approbation to the Americans in the past resistance they had made, as is seldoiTrt granted by negociators to their opponents. In a letter to Joseph Reed, Esq. of Apj?Il the 11th, he said, *' The Hian, who can be instrumental in bringing us all to act ouce more in harmony, and to unite together the various powers which this contest has brought forth, will deserve more from the king and people, from patriotism,, humanity, and all the tender ties that are effected by the quarrel and reconciliation, than ever was yet be- stowed on human kind." On the 16th of Jone, he wrote to Robert Morris, Esq. " I be- lieve the men, who have conducted the afFaii's of America, inca- pable of being influenced by improper motives ; but in all sucU NORTH AMETIICA, 2fS a'ansactioiis there is risk, and I think thafe whoever ventures should be secured ; at the same time that honour and emolument should naturally follow the fortune of those, who have steered the vessel in the storm, and brought her safely to port. I think Washingtoa and the president have a right to every favour that a grateful na- tion can bestow, if they could once more unite our interest, and spare the miseries and devastation of v/ar," On Sunday the 21st of June, Mr. Reed received a written mes» sage from Mrs, Ferguson, expressing a desire to see him on busi- ness, which could not be committed to writing. On his attending in the evening, agreeable to her appointment, after some previous conversation, she enlarged upon the great talents and amiable qualities of Gov. Johnstone, and added, that in several conversa- tions with her, he had expressed the most favourable sentiments of Mr. Reed ; that it was particularly wished to engage his inter- est to promote the object of the British commissioners, viz a re- union with the two countries, if consistent with his principlfe& and judgment ; and in such case it could not be deemed unbecom- ing or improper in the British government to take a favourable notice of such conduct ; and that, in this instance, Mr. Reed might-have ten thousand pounds sterling, and any office in the co- lonies in his majesty's gift. Mr. Reed, finding an answer was expected, replied, " I am not worth purchasing ; but, such as I am, the king of Great Bri- tain is not rich enough to do it." However right the principles might be, on which this insinuating scheme of conciliation was a- dopted, its effect were inimical. On the 9th of July, congress ordered, " That all letters re- ceived by members of congress from any of the British commissioners, or their agents, or from any subject of the king- of Great Britain, of a public nature, be laid before congress.^ The preceding letters being communicated, and Mr. Reed mak- ing a declaration of what had passed within his knowledge, con- gress resolved, " That the same connot be considered but as di- rect attempts to corrupt and bribe the congress ; that as congress feel, so they ought to demonstrate, the highest and most pointed indignation against such daring and attrocious attempts to corrupt their integrity ; and that.it is^ incompatible with the honour of con- gress to hold any manner of correspondence or intercourse with the said George Johnstone, Esq. especially to negociate with him upon affairs, in which the cause of liberty is concerned." The proceedings in this business were expressed in the form of a declaration, a copy of which was ordered to be signed by the president, and sent by a flag to the commissioners at New York. These proceedings produced a very angry and violent declara- tion from Gov. Johnstone, in which the immediate operations of passion and disappointment were too conspicuous. The language of his publication but poorly agreed with the high and flattering compliments he had so lately lavished on the Americans, in those very letters, which were the subject of the present contest. U 2/4 THE HISTORY OF was dated the 26th of August, and transmitted to congress ; tO" gather with a declaration of the same date fi-om Lord Carlisle, Sir Henry Clinton, and Mr. Eden, which went to a solemn and total disavowal, so far as related to the present subject, of their having had any knowledge, directly or indix'ectly, of those matters speci- fied by congress. Thus were all hopes of further negociation with congress at an end. Had Lord North, and the rest of the ministry then in being, adopting these corrupting measures in the more early part of tlie American disputes, it is possible they might have succeeded ; but to attempt it at a time, when the spirits of the Americans were raised to the highest pitch by their new alliance with France, was surely little short of folly and madness. On the 6th of August, the Hon. Sieur Gerard was introduced to the congress, in quality of minister plenipotentiary, who pro- duced a letter from his master the king of France to his very dear greatfriends and allies ; and the compliments Mons. Gerard receiv- ed on this occasion were very different from those sentiments the Americans lately entertained of their now faithful allies. On the 14th of September, congress proceeded to the election of a minister plenipotentiary to the court of France, when Dr, Benjamin Franklin was elected by ballot. His instructions were dated the 26th of October, and by them he was directed to obtain, if possible, the French king's consent to expunge two of the arti- cles in the treaty of commerce. The doctor was to inculcate the certainty of ruining the British fishery on the banks of Newfound- land, and consequently the British marine, by reducing Halifax and Quebec. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECOHDED IN THIS CHAPTER. 177i Count Danop repulsed in the attack upon Red Bank. Mud Island reduced. v Congress receive the treaties concluded between Trance and Me United States. 177B The Randolph American frigate blown up. Sir Henry Clinton succeeds Gen. Ho^ue in A^nerica. The treaties between France and the United States signed. Lord North^s conciliatory propositions. Mess. Franklin, JDeane, and l,ee, have a public audience at the French court. The British army evacuates Philadelphia. Skirmishes between the English and ATntricans. The British forces arrive at Sandy Hook. Governor Johnstone attempts to corrupt certain MeTnbers of the congress. Dr. Franklin sent as Minister to the court of France. NORTH AMERICA. 275 CHAP. VIII. i HE campaign in the nofthern states having" produced nothing advantag-eous to the British, and the winter being the proper sea- son for southern expeditions. Sir Henry Clinton conehided upon turning- his arms against Georgia He might propose to himself the reduction of all the southern states, and he strongly inclined to it, by reason that these states produced the most valuable arti- cles of commerce for the European market, and carried on a con- siderable export trade, which appeared no otherwise affected by the war, than as it suffered from the British cruisers. The rice was devoted to the service of its enemies, while it was wanted for the support of the royal fleet and army in America. A plan of operations was concerted with Gen. Prevost, who commanded in East Florida ; and it was intended, that Georgia should be invad- ed both on the north and south sides at the same time. This expedition was committed to Col Campbell, and the forces appointed to act under him amounted to full 25 jO, which sailed from Shandy Hook, on the 27th of November, being escorted by a small squadron under commodore Hyde Parker. The fleet arrived at the Isle of Tibee, near the mouth of the Savannah, and on the 29th of December, the troops effected a landing. They were no sooner landed, than they were led to attack the fort, which the British persisted in with so much spirit and rapidity, that the Americans retreated with precipitation and disorder. No victory was ever more complete : thirty eight officers, and 415 non-com- missioned and privates, 38 pieces of cannon, 23 mortars, the fort with its ammunition and stores, the shipping in the river, a large quantity of provisions, with the capital of Georgia, were all, v/ithin the space of a few hours in the possession of the British troops. Tb% 30th of December was appointed as a thanksgiving-day^ by order of congress. The affairs of the United States were at this period !n a most distressed, deplorable, and ruinous condition. Idleness, dissipation, and extravagance, seemed to have engross- ed the attention of the generality of the American sons of liberty ; and self-interest, speculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches, appeared to have got the better of every other consideration, and almost of every order of men Party disputes and personal quar- rels were too much the general object, while the momentous con- cerns of the empire, a vast accumulated debt, ruiaed finances, de- preciated money, and want of credit, which naturally brings on the want of every thing, were but secondary considerations^ and postponed by congress from time to time, as if their affairs were in the most flourishing situation The paper currency in Philadel- phia was daily sinking, and at length even so low as fifty per cent, yet an assembly, a concert, a dinner or supper, which cost two or three hundred pounds, did not only take men off from acting, but 276 THE HISTORY OF even from thinking of what ought to have been neare&t their hearts. Some of the most disinterested and patriotic Americans felt more -distress from this review of things, than thej'^ had done at any o- ther time, from the disappointments and losses in the course of the war. In the mean time, Mons. Gerard, the French ambassador, ma- nifested a desire, thiit the war might not be prolonged by too high and unreasonable demands, and that the United States would re- duce their ultimatum as low as possible. He strongly recommend- ed moderation, as the fate of war was uncertain ; and he hinted, that a decisive naval engagement, in favour ®f the British, might give a great turn to their affairs. The South-Carolina delegates, rather with a view to conquest, than from any special apprehension of danger to their own or neighbouring states from the troops under Gen. Clinton, requested the Congress to appoint Gen. Lincoln, on whose character they justly reposed great confidence, to the command of all the forces to the southward. Accordingly they made the appointment on the 25th of September, and ordered him immediately to repair to Charleston. On the 2d of March, the American officer of the day reported, that reconnoitring parties of the enemy's horse and foot had been seen within their piquet the night preceding. Gen. Ashe, who had crossed the Savannah with about 1200 troops, besides 200 light horse, returned on the evening of the same day to his camp. ^ In «hort, the conduct of gen. Ashe was so pusilanimous, that he made no preparations to impede the march of the British, and, soon af- ter their appearance, he and his troops fled with precipitation, without firing a gun. In the month of May, sir Henry Clinton dispatched, sir George Collier and Gen Matthews, with ^out 2000 men, besides 500 ma- Tines, to m >ke a descent upon Virginia. They sailed for Portsmuuth in that province, and upon their arrival landed their troops at a dis- tance, then marched, and took immediate possession of the towm, which was defenceless The remains of Norfolk,_on the opposite side of the river, fell of course into their hands. On the approach of the fleet and army, the Americans burnt several vessels, others were saved and possessed by the British The guards were push- ed forward eighteen miles by night to Suffolk, where they arrived by day light, and proceeded to destroy a magazine of provisions, together with the vessels and naval stores found there. A similar destruction was carried on at other places in that quarter, nor were the frigates and armed vessels less active or successful in their service. Within the fortnight that the fleet and army continued upon the coast, the loss of the Americans was prodigious. Above 130 ves- sels of all sorts, including some privateers and ships of force, vyere destroyed or taken by them ; seventeen prizes were brought av/ay^ besides 3000 hhds. of tobacco, which fell into tli^eir possession at Portsmouth. Except the house of a widow ixnS the diui-ch, they NORTH AMERICA, 277 burnt every house in Suffolk, and all the principal houses of gen- tlemen in this route shared the same fate. On the 30th of May, the troops were joined to others goln.^ up the North river to attack the posts of Stoney point and Verplank, where the Americans had begun to construct strong works, for keeping the lower communication open between the eastern and southern states. Gen. Vaughan landed with the greater part on the east-side, wlvde the remainder, accompanied by Sir Henry Clinton, advanced further up, landed on the west side, and took possess' on of Stoney point without opposition. Directly opposite, the Ameri- cans had completely finished a strong fort, which was defended by four pieces of artillery, and a garrison of about seventy men. But it was commanded by Stoney point ; to the summit of whose rocks cannon and mortars were dragged up during the night. By five in the morning, a battery was opened, which poured a storm of fire on the fort, while Vaughan»with his division, making a long circuit by thfi sides of the hills, arrived, and closely invested it by land. — The garrison, finding themselves totally overpowered, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. By tlie loss of these posts, the Jersey •people were obliged to make a circuit of about ninety miles vinder the mountains, to communicate with the states east of Hudson's river. After the French had taken Grenada, and Count d'Estaing was lying with his fleet at Cape Francois, he received letters from Gov. Rutledge, Gen„ Lincoln, the French consul at Charleston, and others, urging him to visit the American coast, and proposhig an attack upon Savannah. The general engaged to join him with a thousand men certain, and promised that every exertion should be made to increase the number. The application coinciding with the ^king's instructions, to act in concert with the forces of tlie United States, whenever an occasion presented itself, he sailed for the A merican continent within a few days after it was received. On the 1st of September, count d'Estaing arrived with a fleet of twenty sail of the line, two of fifty guns, and eleven frigates. The appearance of the French fleet on the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia was so unexpected by the British, that the Experimeril: man of war,of fifty guns Si-r James Wallace, commander, and three frigates were captured. No sooner was itkno^n at Cliarleston, that the count was on the coast, than Lincoln marched with all ex- pedition for Savannah, Vvith the troops under his command ; and orders were also given for tbe South Carolina and Georgia militia to rendezvous immediately near the same place. Tlie British were eqtially diligent in preparing for their defencie. The French and Americans, after having spent some time in making regular approaches, at last determined to take the place by storm. Accordingly, the morning of the 9th of October was fixed for the attack, and neither the French nor the Americans had the least doubts of success. Two feints were made with the country militia, and area! attack ^. little before day light, on the spring-hiil battery, with three tuou^ 27S THE HISTORY Of sand nve hundred French troops, 600 continentals, and 350 of the Charleston militia, headed by count d'Estaing and Gen. Lincoln. They marched up to the lines with great boldness ; but a heavy and well directed fire from the batteries, and a cross fire from the g'allies, threw the front of the column into confusion. Two stand- ards, however, one an American, were planted on the British re- doubts. Count Pulaski, at the head of 200 horsemen, was in full g'allop, riding into town between the redoubts, with an intention of charging in the rear, when he received a mortal wound. A general retreat of the assailants took place, after they had stood the ene- my's fire for fifty five minutes. D'Estaing received two slight wounds ; 637 of his troops, and 234 of the continentals, were kil- led or wounded. Of the 350 Charleston militia, who were in the hottest of the fire, only six were wounded, and a captain killed. — Gen. Prevcst and Maj, MonGrieflT deservedly acquired great repu* tation by their suceesssful defence. Tliere w-ere not ten guns mount- ed on the lines when the enemy first appeared, and in a few days the number exceeded eighty. The garrison was between two and three thousand, including 150 militia. The damage it sustained was trifling, as the men fired under cover, and £ew of the assail- ants fired at all. Let us TiGvv see what the northern army was doing. In the mid- dle of Dec. a part of Gen. Washington's army was without bread ; . and for the rest he had not, either on the spot or within reach, a supply sufficient for four days. Both oflEicers and men were almost perishing through want for a fortnight. The deficiency proceeded from the absolute -emptiness of the American magazines in every place, and the total want of money and credit to replenish them. So that the general was obliged to call upon the magistrates of the Jersey State, to express his situation to them, and to declare ia plain terms, that he and liis army were reduced to the alternative of disbanding or catering for themselves, unless the inhabitants, would afford' them aid. "He allotted to each county a certain pro- portion of flour or grain, and a certain number of cattle to be deli- vered on certain days. To the honour of the magistrates, and the good dispositions of the people, be it added, that these requisiti- ous were punctually complied with, and in many cowities exceeded. But to return to the southern armies. On the 20th of March, 1780. admiral Arbuthnot, with a small fleet, crossed the bar, in front of RebeUion road, and anchored in Five Fatliom Hole. The American fleet retreated to Charleston, and the crews and guns of all the vessels, except the Ranger, were put on shore to reinforce the batteries. Bfefore the Americans had taken this j-tep, they should have considered, whether the ships were able to defend the bar, and should have sent them off, when they found it imprac- ticable. On the 12th of April, the British opened their biUteries against Charleston, and a constant fire was kept up between both parties until (lie 20th. On the 18th of April, Sir Henry Clinton received a reinforcement of 3^00 meit from New-York ; smd on the 12th of NORTH AMERICA. 279 May, Gen. Lincoln, after having made the most vigorous defence he was capable of, was obliged to capitulate. It was stipulated,^ that the continental troops and sailors should remain prisoners of war until exchanged, and be provided with good and wholesome provisions, in such quantities as were served out to the British troops. The militia were to return home as prisoners on parole, which, as long as they observed, was to secure them from being molested in their property by the British troops. The officers of the army and navy were to keep their swords, pistols, and bag- gage, which last was not. to be searched ; but their horses were not to go out of toivn, but might be disposed of by a person left for the purpose. The garrison, at an hour appointed, was to march out of the town to the ground between the works of the place and the canal, where they were to deposit their arms. The drums were not to beat a British march, nor the colours to be uncased. All civil officers and citizens, who had borne arms during the siege, were to be prisoners on parole -, and with respect to their property in the city, they were to have the same terms as the mi- litia ; and all oil>er persons in the town, not described in any arti- cle, were notwithstanding to be prisoners upon parole. The capital having surrendered, the next object of the British was to secure the general submission of the inhabitants. With this view they posted garrisons in different parts of the couiUry, and marched a large body of troops over the Santee, towards the ex- tremity of the State, which borders on the most populous parts of North Carolina. This occasioned the retreat of some American parties, who had advanced into the upper part of S^uth Carolina, in expectation of relieving Charleston. Among the corps whicJi had come forward with that v\e\\\ there was one consisting of about 300 continentals, the rear of the Virginia line, commanded ])y Col. Buford. Tarleton, with about 700 horse and foot, was sent in quest of this party. Having mounted his infantry, he marched 105 miles in fifteen hours, came up with them at the Waxhaws, and demanded their surrender on terms similar to those granted to the continentals at Charleston. While the flags were passing and repassing on this business, Tarleton kept his men in motion, and when the truce was ended, had nearly surrounded his advcr- saries. An action instantly ensued, when the continental party, having partaken of the general consternation occasioned by the British successes, made but a feeble resistance, and begged for quarter. A few, however, continued to fire. The British cavalry advanced, but were not opposed by the main body of the conti- nentals, who conceived themselves precluded by their submission. The accidental firing of the few was an argument, however, for directing the British legion to charge those who had laid down feheir arms. In consequence of this order, the uiiresisting Amer- icans, praying for quarter, were cut in pieces. By Tarleton's offi- cial account of this bloody scene, 113 were killed, 50 badly wound- ed, unable to travel, and left on parole, .nnd 53 made prisoners, while they made such ineffectual opposition as only to kill seven 280 THE HISTORY OF and wound twelve of the Brkish. Lord Cornwallis bestowed oa Tarleton the highest encomiums for this enterprize, and recom- mended hii^i iu a special manner to royal favour and patronage^ The expected succours at length arrived from France, on the evening of the 10th of July, at Rhode Island. The Chevalier de Ternay commanded the fleet, which consisted of two ships of 80^ guns, one of f4, four of 64, a homb vessel, and thirty -two trans- ports. The land forces consisted of four old regiments, besides the legion de Lauzu5i, and a battalion of artillery, amounting to about 6000 men, under the commaiKi of Lieut. Gen. Count de R.ochambeau. About the time that Charleston surrendered. Sir Henry Clinton received LntelligeRce, that a large number of forces and a French fleet, commanded by Mons. Ternay, might soon be expected on the American coast. This induced him to reembark for New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis with about 400& men,,which were deemed fully sufficient for his purposes. ,On the 4th of September, was signed the plan of a treaty of commerce between the 'states of Holland and the United States of America. Mens, de Neufville, being properly authorized by the regency cf Amsterdam, engaged, that as long as America should not act contrary to the iBte:restof the states of Holland, th& city of Amsterdam would never adopt any measiu-e that might tend to oppose the interest of America; but would, on the con- trary, use all its influence upon the states of the Seven United Provinces cf iioHand, to effect the desii'ed connexion. This busi- ness was conducted by Mr. Adams, on the part of America. Lr)rd Cornwallis went on succcessfuily in South Carolina. On the 16th of August he engaged the forces under Gen. Gates^ and^ completely routed them after a long and obstinate contest. Gem, Gates was boine off the field by a torrent of dismayed militia. They constituted so great a part of his army, that when he saw them break and run with such precipitation, he lest every hope of victory ; and his only care was,, if possible, to rally a sufficient number to cover the retreat of the other troops. He retired with Gen. Caswell to Clermont, in hope of halting them in their late en- campment ; but the further they fled, the more they dispersed,, and the generals giving up all as lost, retired with a few attendants to Charlotte. _ - _ The Americans lost eight field pieces, the whole of their artil- lery, with all their ammunition waggons, besides 159 others, and a considerable quantity of military stores, and the greatest part o£ their baggage. The numbers slain cannot be precisely ascertain- ed, no returns of the militia ever being made after the action ; but it is supposed, tliat vjie Americans lost about 700 on this occa.sion. Though Cornwallis's victory was complete, yet, from the account the British gave of the action, it may be inferred, that it was dearly nou"-ht, upwards of 500 of their own troops being killed or wounded. A^minute representation of the retreat of the Americans from Charlotte to Salisbury, would be th.c image of complicated wretch-. NORTH AMERICA. 281 edness, Care, anxiety, pain, humiliation and dejection, poverty, hurry and confusion, promiscuously marked the shocking scene. Painful objects presented themselves to view, several men with- out an arm, some with but one, and many standing- in need of ihe most kind and powerful assistance. Lord Cornvvalhs, notwithstanding- his victory, was restrained for some time from pursuing his conquests, by the loss he had sus^ tained in the battle, the extreme heat of the weather, the sickli- ness of the season, and the want of necessary supplies : he there- fore remained at Camden. In the month of September, a discovery of the utmost importance %vas madci which was a scheme for delivering- West Point into the hands of Sir Henry Clinton. Gen. Arnold, who had the command of that post, was brave but mercenary, fond of parade, and ex- tremely desirous of acquiring money to defray the expenses of it. When he entered Philadelphia after the evacuation he made Gov. Fenn's, the best house in it, his head quarters* This he furnished in a very costly manner, and lived in a style far beyond his income. He continued his extravagant course of living, Was unsuccessful in trade and privateering, his funds were exhausted, and his creditors importunate, while his lust for high life was not in the least abated. He had exhibited heavy accounts and demands against the public ; and the commissioners, upon examination, rejected about one half of the amount.- He appealed to Congress, and a committee was appointed, who were of opinion, that the commissioners had allow- ed more than the general had a right to expect or demand. This provoked him to outrageous expressions and proceedings. Dis- gusted at the treatment he had met with, embarrassed in his cir- cumstances, and having a growing expensive family, he turned his thoughts towards bettering his circumstances by new means. In 1779, a coiTespondence commenced between Gen. Arnold and Major Andre, adjutant-general to the British army, a rising yo-ang officer of great hope and merit. For the speedy completion of the negotiation that was carrying on between Sir Henry and Gen. Arnoldy the Vulture sloop of war was stationed in the North river, at such a distance from the American posts, as, without exciting suspicion, would serve for the necessary communication. Before this, a written correspond- ence, through other channels, had been maintained between Ar- nold and Andre at New York, under the names of Gustavus and Anderson^ On the 21st of September, the necessary arrangements being made, a boat was sent at night from the shore to the Vulture' to fetch Major Andre, which brought him to the beach without the posts of either army^ where he met Arnold. The major con- tinued with him during the following day, and at night, the boat- men refusing to conduct him back to the" Vulture, which had shift- ed her position, as she lay exposed to the fire of a cannon sent to annoy l\er, he was obliged to concert his escape by land. He quit= ted his umform, which he had hitherto vrorn under his surtout, 282 THE HISTORY OF for a common coat. He was furnished with a horse, and under the name of John Anderson, with a passport from Arnold, to go throuf^h the lines at White Plains, or lower if he thought proper, he being on public business. He pursued his journey alone to New York, passed all the guards and posts on the road without suspicion, and was much elated. The next day he travelled without any alarm, and bega;* to consider himself out of danger ; but, unhappily for him, three of the New York militia were with others out on a scouting party between the out-posts of the two armies. One of them sprung from his covert, and seized Andre's horse by the bridle. The The major, instead of instantly producing his pass, asked the rtian where he belonged to, who answered, '* To belonu.^^ Andre, sus- pecting no deceit, said, " 5*0 do V* Then declared himself a British officer, and pressed that he might not be detained, for that he was upon urgent business. Upon the other two coming up, and joining their comrade, he discovered his mistake. The confusion that followed was apparent, and they proceeded to search him till they found his papers. He offered the captors a considerable purse of gold, and a very valuable watch, to let him pass ; but they nobly disdained the temptation, besides the fascinating offers of permanent provision, and even of future promotion, on condition of their conveying and accompanying him to New York, They con- ducted him to Lieut. Col. Jameson, the continental officer, who had the command of the scouting parties, amounting to 8100 men, chiefly militiao Arnold's conduct with regard to this body of men, and in i other respects, had excited such suspicions in the breast of the iieutenant-colonel, and the rest of the officers, that they had de- termined upon seizing the general at all events, had he come down and ordered them nearer the enemy. Jameson, notwithstanding his strong jealousy of Arnold, was in the issue the means of his, escape. Major Andre, in order to give Arnold time to escape, requested that a line might be sent to acquaint him with the detention of Anderson, the name Andre had assumed, which Jameson through Sin illrjudged delicacy granted. The papers which were found in the major's boots, were in Arnold's hand-writing, and contained exact returns of the state of the forces, ordnances and defences at West Point and its dependences, with the artillery orders, critr ical remarks, on the works, an estimate of the number of men that were ordinarily on duty to man them, and the copy of a state of matters that had, been laid before a council of war by the com- mander in chief. These papers were enclosed in a packet to. Gen, Washington, accompanied witha letter from the prisoner, avowing himself to be Major Andre, adjutant-general to the British army, relating the manner of his capture, and endeavouring to show, that iiC did not come under the description of a spy. These papers were forwarded by Jameson. No sooner had Arnold received the major's letter, than he hast- ened^n board the Vulture^ which hay some miles below Stoney IJORTH AMERICA. 2S3 and Vetplank's Points ; and Arnold had not been long gone, when Washington arrived at his quarters. Had the plot succeeded, the consequences must have been ruinous to the ilmericans. The forces under Arnold's command must have either laid down their arms, or have been cut to pieces. Their loss, and the immediate possession of West Point, and all its neighbouring dependences, must have exposed the remainder of Washington's army so to the joint exertion of the British forces, by land and water, that nothing- but ruin could have been the result with respect to the Americans. On the 29th of September, Gen. Washington appointed a board of fourteen general officers, with the assistance of the judge-ad- vocate general, to examine Major Andre's case, and to determin in what light it- ought to be considered. Andre disdaining all sub- terfuge and evasion, and studying only to place his character in so fair a light, as might prevent its being shaded by present circum- stances, voluntarily confessed more than he was asked, and sought not to palliate any thing relating to himself, while he concealed, with the most guarded and scrupulous nicety, whatever might in- volve others. The board shewed him every possible mark of in- dulgence, and sufficiently witnessed how much they felt for his sW tuation. However, public justice obliged them to declare, "that Major Andre ought to be considered as a spy from the enemy ; and that agreeable to the law and usage of nations, it is their opinion he ought to suffer death,'* Several letters passed between the Generals Clinton and Wash- ington relative to this unhappy affair ; but nothing was capable of .saving the unfortunate major. On the 2d of October, the trage= dy was closed. The major was superior to the terrors of death ; but the disgraceful mode of dying, which the usage of war had an- nexed to his unhappy situation, was infinitely dreadful to him. He was desirous of being indulged with a professional death, and had accordingly written, the day before, apathetic letter, fraught with all the feelings of a man of sentiment and honour, in which he; requested of Gen. Washington, that he might not die on a gibbet. The general consulted his oiRcers on the subject. Pity and es- teem wrought so powerfully, that they were all for- shooting him, till Greene insisted on it, that his crime was that of a common spy ; that the public good required his being hanged ; and that, were he shot, the generality would think there were favourable circum- stances entitling him to notice and lenity. His observations con- vinced them, that there would be an impropriety in granting the major's request, while tenderness prevented its being divulged. When Major Andre was led out to the place of execution, as he went along he bowed himself familiarly to all those with whom he had been acquainted in his confinement. A smile jof complac- ency expressed the serene fortitude of his mind. Upon seeing the preparations at the fatal spot, he asked with some emotion, " Must I die in this manner ?" He was told it was unavoidable. He re- plied, " I am reconciled to my fate, but not to the mode." Soon after, recollecting himself,. h§ added, " It will b^ but a momenta* 23^4 THE HISTORY OF , ry paMg ;" and spi ing-ing- upon the cart, he performed the last of- fices to himself, with a composure that excited the admu-ation, and melted the hearts of all the spectators. Being- told the final mo- ment was at hand, and asked if he had any thing" to sa)', he an- swered, *' Nothing- but to request you will witness to the world, that I die like a brave man." He died universally esteemed and regretted. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECORDED I?7 THIS CHAPTER. 1778 The British operations against Georgia. The affairs of the United States in a deplorable condition. Gen. Ijincoln sent to South Carolina. 1779 Gvn. Ashe surprised and defeated. Sir Henry Clinton takes Storiey Point. Count d'JSstaing sails Jro^n the West Indies for the American coasts. The French and Americans repulsed at- Savannah. Washingto7i^ s ar77iy in distress for laant of bread. Charleston taken by the British forces^ 1780 Tarleton defoato Col Bufora. A French jieet ixHth troops arrive at Neviport. Treaty signed betiijeen Holland and A.'inerica. Marl CormoalUs defoats Gen. Gates. Jl^ajor Andre taken and executed as a spy, . Gen. Arnold makes, his escape on board the- Vulture British doop of war. CHAP, ix: Sir Henty Clintonj onthe 15th of October, 1780, in obeulnce to the orders sent him, to prosecute the war with vig-our in North Carolina and Virginia,' dispatched Gen. Leslie from New York to the bay of Chesapeake, with near 3000 choice troops. He was to co-operate with Lord Cornwallis, who was expected to be far advanced towards, if not to have reached Virginia In a few da3's, the fleet arrived in the bay, and the troops were landed in different parts of Virginia. On the 20th of June, the French and Spanish fleets formed a junction in the West Indies. They amounted to 36 sail of the line, which, vi^ith their united land forces, formed such an apparent su- periority, as nothing in those seas or islands seemed capable of re- sisting ; but the Spanish troops, being too much crowded on board their transports, tagether with the length of the voyage, the change of climate and diet, and other circumstances, a most mortal and cont^geous disorder was generated, which fii*st infected their awn NORTH AMERICA. 28rS seamen, and at length spread, though not with so fatal an effect through the French fleet and land forces. Besides the great mor- tality on their passage, the Spaniards landed 1200 sick on their first arrival at Dominique, and a much greater number afterwards at Guadaloupe and Martinico. Thus the spirit of enterprize was damped, and some part of their strength diminished. In the month of September, Mr. Laurens was taken on his way from congress to Holland, on the banks of Newfoundland. A packet of papers being thrown over board, and not sinking sud- denly, was saved by the boldness and dexterity of an English sai- Ibr, and most of -.hem were recovered from the effects of the wa- ter. On his arrival in England, he was committed, upon a charge of high treason, as a state prisoner to the Tower, under an order signed by the three secretaries of sta^e. By the medium of his papers, administration came to the knowledge of the eventual treaty of amity and commerce betsveen America and Holland. In consequence of this discovery, strong remonstrances werfr made to the States General ; but, as no satisfactory answer was returned, Sir Joseph Yorke received orders to withdraw from the Hague ; and, on the 20th of December, general reprisals were is- sued against the ships, goods, and subjects, of the States Gene- ral. On the 12th of January, 1781, Gen. Greene's troops consisted of about 1110. The next day. Col. Lee's partizan legion arrived from the northward, consisting of about 100 horsemen, well mount- ed, and 120 infantry ; and on the 13th the legion was detached on a secret expedition. They pushed on for Georgetown, where they surprised several officers, and took them prisoners. Major Irwin, and many more of the garrison, were killed ; but the principal part fled to the fort, which Lee was not in a condition to besiege. While this enterprize was carrying on, the enemy aimed a blow at Mor°- gan, who was advised by Greene not to risque too much* Gen. Leslie, in compliance with his orders, left Vii'ginia, and arrived at Charleston, and joined Lord Cornwallis, who wished to drive Gen. Morgan from his station, and to deter the inhabitants from joining him. The execution of this business was entrusted to Lieut. Col. Tarlton, who was detached with about 1100 men for that purpose. On the Ifth of January, Tarlton came up with Morgan, when an action commenced, which, terminated much to the disadvantage of Tarlton. Tarlton was very much cepsured for his condact In this battle, which he was^ supposed to haive lost by his un-officer like impetu- osity. Lord Cornwallis, with the expectations of regaining the prisoners, and demolishing Morgan's corps, instantly concluded on a pursuit, which Morgan was aware of, and took his measures; ac= cordingly. On the 31st of January, Greene succeeded Morgan in the com» maud of the southern army,, when a kind of military race com- menced between the pursuing British and the fleeing Americans.3 but Greene got off before Cornwallis could overtake hira. 285 THE HISTORY OF , i' Lord Cornwallis, being afterwards convinced, from Greene V movementSj that he intended to venture an engagement, on ther 14th of May sent off" his baggage under a proper escort, and the next morning at day break, marched with the remainder of his army, amounting to about 2400 men, chiefly troops grown veterans in victory, either to meet Greene on the way, or attack him in his encampment. The battle took place near Guildfoi-d court-house ; and, after a hard struggle for near two hours, the Americans retreated in good order to the Reedy Fork, and crossed the river, about three miles from the field of action. Greene lost his artillery, and two ammunition waggons, the greatest part of the horses btiing killed, before the retreat began. In the month of February, reprisals having been commenced against the Dutch, Rodney and Vaughan received instructions from Great Britain, to dinect their views to the reduction of the- Dutch Island of St. Eustatia, The British fleet and army, instant- ly appeared there, and surrounded it with a great force, Rodney and Vaughan sent a peremptory summons to the governor, to sur- render the island and its dependences within an hour, accompa- nied with a threat, that if any resistance was made, he must abide the consequences. -Mons.de Graaff, totally ignorant of the rup- ture between Great Britain and Holland, could scarcely believe the officer, who delivered the summons, to be serious. He return- ed for answer, that being utterly incapable of making any de- fence, he must of necessity surrender, only recommending the town and inhabitants to the clemency of the British commanders; The wealth of the place excited the astonishment of the conquer- ers, the whole island seeming to be one great magazine. All the storehouses were filled with various commodities, and the very beach vvas covered with hogsheads of sugar and tobacco. The val- ue was estimated considerably above three millions sterling. But this was only a part ; for above 150 vessels of all denominations^ mar.y of them richly laden were captured in the bay, exclusive of a Dutch frigate of 38 guns, and five smaller. The neighbouring small isles of St. Martin and Saba were reduced in the same manner. Rodney being informed, that a fleet of about 30 large ships, all richly laden, with sugar and other AVest India commodities, had aailedfrom Eustatia for Holland just before his arrival, under con- voy of a flag ship of 60 guns, he dispatched the Monarch and Pan- ther, with the Sybil frigate, in pursuit of them. These soon over- too"k the convoy, when the Dutch admiral refusing to strike his colours, and all remonstrances proving ineffectual, a short engage- ment took place between his ship, the Mars and the Monarch. He died bravely in defence of his ship, when she instantly struk, and the whole convoy was taken. The keeping of Dutch colours flying at Eustatia, rendered it for some time a decoy to French, Dutchj and American vessels, a NORTH AMERICA. ^87 considerable number of which fell accordingly into the hands of the conquerors without trouble. Preparations began to be made, on the 21st of June, for the army under Gen. Washington to take the field. The Americans march- ed towards White Plains, where they were joined by the French troops under Rochambeau. Sir George Rodney, in consequence of information concerning the French fleet under the Count de Grasse, detached the Admi- rals Sir Samuel Hood and Drake, with seventeen sail of the line, to cruise off Fort Royal for the purpose of intercepting him. On the 28th of April, some of Sir Samuel'?, neadmost ships returned hastily in sight, and with signals announced the appearance of a superior fleet, and a numerous convoy, to the windward of Point Salines. The admiral made a signal for a general chase to wind- ward, and at night it was determined by the admirals to continue the line a-head so that getting as much as possible to windM'ard, Ihey might close in with Fort Royal at day-light, and cut off the enemy from the harbour. In the morning the French appeared, their convoy keeping close in with the land, while Count de Grasse drew up his fleet in a line of battle for their protection. Admiral Hood used every ma- noeuvre to bring him to action ; but he being to windward, and so having the choice, preferred a long shot distance. A partial en- gagement ensued. The van and the i^iearest ships, in the centre of the British, were exposed to a long and heavy weight of fire, in their struggles to close the French, and get to the windward ; but suffered principally in their masts, hulls, and rigging. The action lasted about three hours, when Admiral Hood perceiving, that not on> shot in ten of the French reached, and that his at- tempts to gain the wind were fruitless, ceased firing, and the Brit= ish fleet bore away for Antigua. Let us now return to the .transactions under Lord Cornwallls.- One great object of the British force was the establishment of a strong post and place of arms, and such as might render them perfectly masters of Chesapeake-bay, and therefore they repaired to York Town and Gloucester, The French and American armies continued their march from the northward, till they arrived at the head of Elk ; gnd within an hour after, they received an express from Count de Grasse, with the joyful account of his arrival and situation By the 15th of September, all the troops were arrived and landed at Williams - burgh, and. preparations were made with all possible dispatch for ■piitting the army in a situation to mo%'e down towards York Town. On the 30th of September, Lord Cornwallis wr.s cksely invest ■> ed in York Town. The trenches were opened by the combined armies on the 6th of October, at 600 yards distance from Corn^ wallis's works On the 9th they opened their batteries, and cor- tinned firing all night without intermission The next morning the French opened their batteries on the left, and a tremeiidcits ^88 ^ THE HISTORY OF roar of cunnon and mortars was continued for six or eight houre without ceasing. The French and Americans continued to carr}' on the siege with great success. On the l6th their several batteries were covered with near 100 pieces of heavy ordnance ; while the British works were so destroyed, that they could scarcely show a single gun. Thus v/as I.ord Cornwallis reduced to the necessity of preparing for a surren der, or of attempting an escape. He determined upon the latter. Boats were prepared under different pretences, for the reception of the troops by ten at night, in order to pass them over to Gloucester Point. The arrangements were made with the utmost secrecy. The intention was to abandon the baggage, and to leave a detachment behind to capitulate for the town's peo- pie, and for the sick and wounded, his lordship having already prepared a letter on the subject, to be delivered to Gen. Wash- ington after his departure. The first embaikation had arrived at' Gloucester Point, and the greater part of the troops v.^ere al- ready landed, when the weather, which was before moderate and calm, instantly changed to a most violent storm ©f wind and ram. The boats with the remaining troops were all driven down the river, ^nd the design of passing over was not only entirely frustrated, but the absence of the boats rendered it impossible to bring back the troops from Gloucester. Thus weakened and divi^d, the ar- my was in no small danger. However, the boc^ts returned, and the troops were brought back in the course of the forenoon with very little loss. , Things were now hastening to a period, wnich could be no long= er prott-acted ; for the Bri\ish works were sinking under the weight of the Preiich and American artillery. All hopes of relief .ii-om New York were over, and the strength and spirits of the roy- al army were broken down and exhausted by their constant and un'-emitting fatigue. Matters being in this situation, on the irth of October, Lord Cornwallis sent ©ut a flag with a letter to Gem Washington, requesting a cessation of arms for twenty -four hours, and that commissioners might be appointed for digestmg the term^ of capitulation. Commissioners were accordmgly appomted ; and on the side of the allies, were Vise, de Noailles, and Lieut. CoL Laurens, whose father was in close confinement in the Tower of London, while the son was drawing up articles, by which an Eng* lish nobleman and a British army became prisoners. On tlie 19th of October, the posts of York town and Gloucester were surrendered. 'The honour of marcliing out witli colours fly» ino- which had been denied to Gen. Lincoln, was now refused to ^Lord Gornwallis, and Lincoln was appointed to receive the suo- mission of the roval armv at York town, precisely in the same way his own had been conducted about eighteen months betore. Ihe troops that surrendered prisoner exceeded 7000 ; but so great was the number of sick and wounded, that there were only 3800 capable of doing d-oty. The officers and soldiers retainea dieli-^i^aggage and effects. Fifteen l^undred seamen sharea the NORTH AMERICA. 289 same fate as the garrison. The Guadaloupe frigate of 24 guns, and a number of transports, were surrendered to tlie conquerors. About twenty transports had been sunk or burnt during the siege. The land forces became prisoners to congress ; but the seamen and ships were assig-ned to the French admiral. The Americans ob- tained a fine train of artillery, consisting of 7S brass ordnance, and 69 iron cannon, howitzers, and mortars. On the 24th of October, a fleet destined for the relief of Lord Cornwallis arrived off the Chesapeake ; but, on receiving the news of his surrender, they returned to New York. The fleet consist- ed of 25 ships of the line, two fifties, and eight frigates. When they appeared oflfthe Chesapeake, the French made no manner of movement, though they had 36 ships of the line, being perhaps satisfied with their present success. Every argum&nt and persua- sion was used with the Count de Grasse to induce him to aid the combined army in an operation against Charleston ; but the advanc- ed season, the orders of his court, and his own engagements to be punctual to a certain time fixed for his future operations, prevent- ed his compliance. His instructions had fixed his departure to the 15th of October, and he had already exceeded that time. On the 27th, the troops under the Marquis St. Simon began to embark for the West Indies, and about the 5th of November, de Grasse sailed from the Chesapeake. MEMORABLE EVENTS RECOUDEB IN THIS CHAPTER. 3780 Sir Henry Clinton sends 3000 troops to tJie bay of Ches' apeake. The French and Spanish Jleet form a conjunction in the West Indies. .Mr. Laurens taken in his passage to Holland, Sir jfoseph Yorke leaves the Hague. 1781 Lieut. Col. Tarleton detached after Gsn. Morgan By IN THIS CHAPTER. 1781 Mr. Laurens discharged from his confinement in the Tmver of London. 1782 The fleets of Sir George JRodney and Count de GraiSilnieet in. the West-Indies. They engage^ and Count de Grasse is defeated and taken. Savannah evacuated by the British forces. And (fter-xvards Charleston in South Carolina. J^rovisional articles of peace signed betvieen the British and, American commissioners. 1783 The definitive treaties signed betiveen Great-Bfitaitt, Franiey Spain, and Ameriica. H^l^ 01? THE HISTOKY 0? HORTB AMSRlCil- JOSEPH AVERY Has constantly for sale at his Bookstore^ in Plymouth^ an extensive assortment of Books in the various bran* dies of Literature^ amongst which are LAWS of Massachusetts, 4 vols, 8vo; Laws of the United States, 8 vols. 8vo. Marshall on Insurance, 8vOo Abbot on Shipping Freeman^s Justice's Assistant — — Town Officer «_ — American Clerk's Mag-aziiie . ■ Probate Laws and Directory Kyd on Bills of Exchange Espinasse's Digest of the Laws of Nisi Pri'is, 2 vols. 8vo. Blackstone'g Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4-vols. i2mo. Monte squieu^s Spirit of Laws, 2 vols. &vo Jones •n Bailment Voter's Guide Cullen' Pi'actice of Ph3'sic . — -,,-.^ Materia Medica, 2 vis Buchan's Domestic Medicine or Family Physician Bell's System of Surgery, new improved edition, 4 vols. 8vo. John Bell's Discourse on the Nature and Cure of Wounds, 2vls.8vo,. Bell on the Management of Ulcers Brown's Element's of Medicine, revised by T. Beddoes Cheselden's Anatomy, new edition Darwin's Zoonomia or Laws of Organic Life, 2 vols. Denman's Practice of Midwifery Edinburgh New Dispensatory, new edition, improved by Dr. Dum caUj of Edinburgh Smellle's Anatomical Tables Elliot's Medical Pocket Book Hamilton's Midwifery Hooper's Compendious Medical Dictionary Quincy's Medical Lexicon, improved and enlarged Thompson's Family Physician Tovvnsend's Guide to Health White on Lying in Women Willich's Lectures on Diet and Regimen Waller's Phisiology Chaptal's Chemistry Denman's Aphorisms on the Use of the Forceps aad Vectis Struve on Suspended animation Armstrong's Art of preserving Health Adams' (Hannah) View of the various religious Denominatlona ' ' — '— On the Truth and Excellency of Religion, Andirews' Examination of Uniyersali&m Books for sale Blair's Sermons, new and complete edition, 3 vols. 6vo- Brown's Concordance to the Holy Scriptures Dictionary of the Bible Bibles, various sizes and prices Beauties of the Bible Bunyan's Grace abounding — — — — Pilgrim's Progress Minor Works — — - — Holy War Baxter's Saint's Rest Call to the Unconverted Backus on Regeneration Centaur not Fabulous, in Letters to a Friend, by Dr. Voun^ Calvinism Improved Davies' Sermons, 2 vols. Dickenson's five Discourses Doddridge's Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul ■ " — — Ten Sermons on Regeneration Edwards' History of Redemption Edwards on the Will — — on the Affections- Exercises of Piety by ZoUikofer Erskine's Gospel sonnets Enfield's Biographical Sermons Evidence of Revealed Religion, by Mendon Associatioo Fordyce's Addresses- to Young Men —__ , ^ Sermons to Young Women Fuller's Gospel its own Witness — — Gospel worthy of all Acceptation Fleming on the Fulfilling of the Scriptures Hunter's Sacred Biography, 4 vols. Hervey's Meditations and Contemplations. Henry on the Sacrament on Pra3'er Lathrop's Sermons on various subjects Evans' Sketches of the Denominations of the Christian World Lives of Watts and Doddridge Life of Howard Life and Religious Labours of Susannah Anthony Mason on Self Knowledge ^ McEwen on theTypes, Figures and Allegories of the Old Testament Mason's Select Remains Newton on the Prophecies Neckar on Religious Opinions Orton's Discourses to the Aged Paley's View of the Evidence of Christianity ■ ' Natural Theology Poor Man's Help and Young Man's Guide Porteus' Lectures on the Gospel of St. Matthew ■ on the Evidence of the Christian Religion yiielps* Memoirs by Jose/ih A-very, Rowe's Devout Exercises of the Heart Religious Courtship, or the Necessity of marrying Religious Hus- bands and Wives only Cheap Repository Tracts, Moral and Religious> 3 vols, Scougal's Life of God in the Soul of Man Seraphlcal Young Shepherd Stodard on Judgment Science of Sanctity Sacred Mirror, or a Compendious View of Scripture History Study of the Bible , Bible Stories Travels of Cyrus, to which is annexed a Discourse on the Mythot* ogy and Theology of the Pagans Trumbull on Revelations Columbian Miscellany, containing a variety of entertaining and instructive matter Verm's Complete Duty of Man Watts' Logic on the right L^se of Reason — — — on the Improvement of the Mind Miscellaneous Thoughts, in prose and verse — ■ Lyric Poems Beauties, selected from his writings Winchester's Lectures on the Prophecies to be Fulfilled . Dialogues on Universal Restoration Wilberforce's Practical View of the Prevailing Religious Systems of Professed Christians Process and Empire of Christ, a poem Sacred and Profane History Epitomised by Benjamin Tucker> Universalism Confounds and Destroys itself Whitby's Discourses Watts' Psalms and Hymns, various sizes and pricea Elements of Morality Blossoms of Morality Ramsay's Life of Washington Bancroft's Life of Washington Thompson's Seasons Montgomery's Poems Thompson's Answer to Thomas Paine Seneca's Morals Pleasing Instructor Humphreys' Works Rowson's Poems Robinson Crusoe Boyle's Voyages Dreamer's Dictionary Jest Book Complete Fortune Teller Select Poetry Junius' Letters Fisher's Young Man's Companion American Songster Books for sale Columbian Miscellany Sky Lark Echo, or Federal Song-ster Union Song-book, or American Sky Lark, Victory, or Britisk Harmony, a collection of new song-s Adams' Flowers of Modern Travels Anderson's Embassy to China American Spectator, or Matrimonial Preceptor D'Arg-enson's Essays, Civil, Moral, Literary and Political Alcoran, or Bible of Mahomet Advertisement for a Husband, or Adventures of Belinda Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language, 8vo Walker's Dictionary Johnson's Dictionary in Miniature Alexander's Dictionary Perry's Dictionary Webster's Dictionary Rowson's Dictionary Aikin's Letter to his Son Amusing Companion. Adams' Arithmetic Pike's Arithmetic Walch's Arithmetic Temple's Arithmetic Rember's Arithmetic Arabian Nights' Entertain ment 2 vols Broad Grins, by George Colman the younger Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, 2 vols. 8vo. ' Da. Do. abridged Brydone's Tour through Sicily and Malta Belknap's Psalms and Hymns Bennett's Letters to a Young Lady, on a variety of useful and en- tertaining subjects Bennett's Strictures on Female Education Beauties of Goldsmith Beauties of the Muses Bruce's Travels into Abyssinia to discover the Source of the Nile Life of Baron Trenck Beauties of Creation, a new System of Natural History Boston Orations History of the Bible and Jews Stranger in France Belisarius, a novel Flavel's Husbandry Spiritualized Navigation Spiritualized —— Token for Mourners Afflicted Man's Companion Narrative of Col. Ethan Allen Tooke's Diversions of Purley Selfridge's Trial New-Englaad Qiiarterly Magazine by Joseph Avery ^ The Lay of the Last Minstrel, by Walter Scott Life of Willim Pitt, late Prime Minister of Great Britaiij Complete Duty of Artillerist Church Prayers Carey's Pocket Atlas Constitution of the United States and of the several States Cowper's Poems, 2 vols. Task — Life, 2 vols. Chesterfield's Principles of PolitenesSj Cook's Voyages, 2 vols. Grandpre's Voyages Citizen of the World Democracy Unveiled Domestic Cookery Gregory's Father's Legacy Goldsmith's Natural History, 2 vols, — — — History of Greece History of England Adventures of Gil Bias Gentleman's Miscellany Graham's Birds of Scotland Whitney's History of the county of Worcester Williams' History of Vermont Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts Jefferson's Notes on Virginia Carver's Travels through the Interior of North America Bacon's Essays, 'Moral, Economical and Political Seasons in England, a descriptive poem Home, a poem Holyoke's Columbian Repository Harris' Encyclopaedia History of Charles XIL King of Sweden Hitchcock's Poems Immortal Mentor, or Man's unerring Guide to a Healthy, Wealthy and Happy Life Keat's Sketches from Nature Lendrum on the American Revolution, 2 vols. Life of Alexander the Great Love's Surveying Life of Col. Gardner Complete Letter Writer Locke's Essays concerning the Human Understanding-, 3 vols. Minute Philosopher Morse's Universal Geography, 2 vols. — . American Gazetteer Gazetteer of the Eastern Continent - — ~— Do. abridged, of America Geography abridged Morcel Monitor, 3 vols. Memory, a poem Socks for sale by Joseph Avery. Mackay's Navigation Masonic Constitution Masonic Register Mariner's Dictionary Nelson's Life Life of Bonaparte Young's Night Thoughts Priestley's Biography Plutarch's Lives, 6 vols. Pleasures of Inniagination Campbell's Pleasures of Hope Robertson's History of South America Romance of the Forest Sim son's Euclid Steward's Elements of Philosophy Steuben's Military Exercise Snovvden's History of America Adams' History of New-England Vickar of Wakefield Wonders of Creation, 2 vols. Wars of the Jews Washington's Letters, 2 vols. Marshall on Gardening, 2 vols. Enfield's Philosophy Arts and Sciences Abridged Hive, a collection of thoughts on civil, moral, sentimental and religious subjects American Coast Pilot Blunt's Coasting Pilot ' Practical Navigator Ship Master's Assistant American Builder's Assistant Boston's Fourfold State Seaman's Journals Cesar's, Virgil's, Ovid's, Cicero'6,Sallust's, and Horace*s Delphinii Hutchinson's Xenophon Davidson's Virgil Smart's Horace isi^sden's Greek Testament Semevelius' Greek Lexicon Greek Testament Gloucester Greek Grammar Clark's Introduction to making Latin — Erasmus - ■ Corderius Eutropius vEsop's Fttbles, Latin and English Adams' Latin Grammar Alexander's Introduction to making Latin Cicero's Orations, Latin— —Do. Latia and English. Ainsworth's Latin Dictionary Young's Latin Dictionary. *. fp^ •' Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ^^ ^^^ Preservatlonlechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-2111 i.:- / LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 009 423 657 5