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THE 
 
 ART OF RHETORIC: 
 
 OK, THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE PRACTICE 
 OF THE STUDENTS OF 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 METHODICALLY ARRANGED FROM THE 
 
 ANCIENT AND MODERN RHETORICAL WRITERS, VIZ : 
 
 Aristotle, Petrus Ramus, FaRnaby, 
 
 Cicero, Cyp. Soarius, Lowe, 
 
 Dionysius of Hal., Dugard, Rollin, 
 
 ISOCRATES, BlACKWALL, SMITH, 
 
 Plato, Blair, Walker, 
 
 Quintilian, Burton, Archbishop of Cambray, 
 
 Vossius, Butler, Messrs. de Port-Royal, 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 BY JOHN HOLMES, 
 
 LATE MASTER OF THE PUBLIC GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN HOLT, NORFOLK, (ENGLAND.) 
 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED 
 
 QTJINTILIAN'S COURSE 
 
 OF AN 
 
 ANCIENT ROMAN EDUCATION; 
 
 FROM THE PUPIL'S FIRST ELEMENTS, 
 
 TO HIS ENTRANCE INTO THE SCHOOL OF ORATORY. 
 
 A NEW AND CAREFULLY CORRECTED EDITION, 
 
 IN TWO BOOKS. 
 ENTIRELY REMODELED : 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND COLLEGES. 
 
 BY JOHN A. GETTY, A. M. 
 
 Song charms the sense, but eloquence the soul. — Milton 
 
 — Res antiquse Laudis et Artis 
 Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere Fontes. — Virgil. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 CAREY AND HART. 
 
 1849. 
 
 / 
 
Tiff"* 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by 
 
 JOHN A. GETTY, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District of Maryland. 
 
TO THE 
 
 GOVERNORS AND VISITORS 
 
 OF 
 
 SIR JOHN GRESHAM'S FREE GRAMMAR SCHOOL, 
 
 AT HOLT, IN NORFOLK : 
 
 SLINGSBY BETHELL, Esa., 
 Alderman, and Member of Parliament for London ; 
 
 SIR ROBERT CATER, Knt., 
 Alderman and Sheriff of London ; 
 The Hon. Sir Jacob Astlet, Bart., the Hon. Col. Augustine Earle, 
 the Rev. Mr. John Springold, Rector of Wiveton, the Rev. Mr. Jo- 
 seph Lane, Rector of Saxlingham, the Rev. Mr. John Girdlestone, 
 Rector of Cley juxta Mare, Edmond Newdigate, M. D., William 
 Brereton, Benjamin Seel, Richard Percy, Robert Stockdale, 
 Thomas Johnson, Edward Price, James Steward, James Stent, 
 Alexander Bower, Edward Stafford, Charles Smyth, George 
 Thawyer, John Gregory, James Sawcer, Thomas Gilmore, 
 George Comer, Shale Shad well, Claude Bosanqutet, Jonathan 
 Bowles, Elias Brownsword, Michael Fenwick, Joseph Clarke, 
 William Willy, Cornelius Denne, John Jones, Samuel Towers, 
 John Cartwright, and Caleb White, Esquires, 
 
 THIS TREATISE OF RHETORIC, 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 
 
 FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF YOUTH IN THE ART OF SPEAKING WELL AND WRITING 
 
 ELEGANTLY, 
 
 IS HUMBLY INSCRIBED BY 
 
 YOUR FAITHFUL, OBLIGED, AND 
 
 MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, 
 
 JOHN HOLMES. 
 
AMPLISSIMIS ERUDITISSIMISQUE 
 
 VIRIS, 
 
 REVERENDO ADMODUM IN CHRISTO PATRI AC DOMINO 
 
 D. THOMiE HAYTER, 
 
 EPISCOPO NORVICENSI, 
 
 NEC NON 
 
 PR^CLARO HUMANISSIMOQUE 
 
 D. JOSEPHO ATWELL, D.D. 
 
 EJUSDEM DICECESEOS CANCELLARIO, 
 
 S. P. D. 
 
 JOHANNES HOLMES. 
 
 Quoniam natura tenacissimi sumus oranes eorum, quae rudibus annis 
 percipimus; et quia, ad parandam bonam juventuti mentem, plurimum 
 habet momenti, gustum optimarum rerum protinus insevisse teneris 
 animis; hoc opus, Dignissimi ORNATissiMiatrE Viri, in scholarum 
 usum jamdudum institui : nempe Tractatcm Oratorium ex diverso- 
 rum rhetorurn, illorumque neque unius iEtatis nee regionis, officinis 
 depromptum. 
 
 In quo formando expoliendoque non nihil operas oleique consumpsi; 
 et (quod olim vestris antecessoribus, tv\oynfxhoiq tS ©sou tk Ual^oi;, Matt, 
 xxv. 34, humiliter obtuli) nunc de novo vobis Venerandi Domini, sum- 
 ma cum reverentia. humillime do, Dico, Dedico. 
 
 Liber enim, si me non fallit augurium, qui artificium dicendi a veteri- 
 bus traditum, legitima, jucunda, facillima, ac quasi compendiaria Me- 
 thoro breviter explicabit, atque inde fortasse ad eloqueniice studium 
 ornate loquendi cupidos inflammabit, ad vos, domini, qui tot ecclesiis et 
 ludis literariis praesidetis, ingratus venire nequaquam potent. 
 
 Ne verd cuilibet importuno et rerum malo a?stimatori auctor, ut qui 
 
 1* 
 
6 DEDICATIO. 
 
 libellum scholasticum talibus dedicat, temerarius videatur; sciatis, ob- 
 secro, Amplissimi Domini, quod non modd liber hoc ipse postulabat, sed 
 personce mece nihil convenientius esse ducebam: imo officio meo desuisse 
 censeri possem, si alibi illius mihi qusesivissem patronos. Quid enim 
 decentius, aut quid aequius, quam ut vobis, qui juventutis Holtensi in 
 Gtmnasio liberalibus studiis operam dantis institutionem mihi, per 
 licentiam vestram, committitis, non solum negotii, verum etiam otii mei, 
 quantumvis licet exigui, aliquam redderem rationem? Porro autem 
 illud nunc eo libentius facio, quod hoc mese erga vos observantice. testi- 
 monium baud illaudabile aut aneo^iovvaov, ut aiunt, fore arbitror; nihil 
 metuens ne, dum earn in rem hac occasione, non arrepta, sed ultro 
 oblata, utor, in arrogantiae ut temeritatis suspicionem apud vos incidam : 
 quasi levia, nee titulis neque gravitati vestrae convenientia, sint, quae in 
 hoc opere continentur. 
 
 Quatenus enim ad subjectum nostrum, Prjesue Ornatissime, si nihil 
 i Deo oralione melius accepimus, quid tarn dignum cultu ac labore du- 
 camus, aut in quo malimus praestare hominibus, quam quo ipsi homines 
 caeteris animalibus praestant? — Quod si orationis tanta praestantia est, 
 Dignissime Cancelxarie, non potest non maxima esse dignitas Rhe- 
 TOiticzE, qua. ornandce orationis doctrina continetur. 
 
 Ad juventutis studiosae, quae in spem patrise adolescit, orationem for- 
 mandam jamdudnm utriusque Ungues doctorum Grammaticas erudito 
 orbi exposui; qui, supremo numine favente, benigniter eas acceperunt, 
 magnopere comprobarunt, et undique coemendo remuneraverunt: qua- 
 mobrem plane ita conftdo, ut volente itidem Deo cujus nutu omnia 
 reguntur, aliquo etiam nunc loco finant apud eos esse lucubrationes 
 elaboratas has nostras, quae ad ornate Dicendi Artem pertinent, et quas 
 sub vestris potissimum amplis et auspicatissimis nominibus in eorum 
 manus per venire volui. Nee minus quoque spero quod hilari illas 
 vultu Prjestantissmi M^cekates, etiam vos ipsi admittetis. Quod 
 profecto facietis, nisi me fallunt omnia. 
 
 Deum ter optimum maximum suppliciter veneror, ut omnia vestra, 
 Dignissimi Viri, consilia fortunet, et hie, aucto indies nominum vestro- 
 rum splendore, vos, diu patrioe ccclesice, Norfolciensi comitatui, scholceque 
 nostra?, salvos et superstites esse velit. 
 
 Dabam Holth nunc denud Calendis ipsis Januarii, Anno Salutis 
 Humanae, 1775. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The unanimous voice of every civilized nation has 
 awarded unfading laurels to the ancient orators of 
 Greece and Rome. The thunder of Demosthenes 
 shook the throne of the Macedonian Philip to its 
 foundation, and the weight of Cicero 's unrivalled elo- 
 quence balanced, for some time, the tottering Republic 
 of Rome. In the composition of these Elements, the 
 chief design of the author has been to facilitate the 
 acquisition of those high and sublime ideas of oratory 
 which are interspersed throughout the ancient classics. 
 For this purpose he has consulted the writings of 
 Aristotle, Longinus, Cicero, Quintilian, and other 
 distinguished " heroes of antiquity." He has also 
 adopted, in many instances, the sentiments of modern 
 rhetorical writers: and, in Elocution, many of the 
 most appropriate examples have been selected from 
 the Sacred Scriptures. In order, however, to a suc- 
 cessful comprehension of the subject, the author has 
 prepared, for this edition, a Translation of the first book 
 of Quintilian's Institutes of the Orator. This invalu- 
 able production of antiquity, comprises a full course of 
 an ancient Roman education, preparatory to the study 
 of Oratory. 
 
INDEX 
 
 ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Accent 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 191 
 
 Charientismus 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 113 
 
 Action 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 189 
 
 Climax - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 128 
 
 ^Enigma 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 161 
 
 Composition 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 101 
 
 ^Etiology 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 151 
 
 Confirmation 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 73 
 
 Affections, arguments found- 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 ed on the 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 55 
 
 Deliberative Orations 
 
 - 
 
 45 
 
 Allegory 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 117 
 
 Demonstrative Orations - 
 
 40 
 
 Anaccenosis 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 132 
 
 Diaeresis - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 155 
 
 Anadiplosis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 124 
 
 Dialyton - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 140 
 
 Anaphora 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 121 
 
 Diastole - 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 155 
 
 Anastrophe 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 139 
 
 Diasyrmus 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 113 
 
 Antanaclasis 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 126 
 
 Dick the Apprentice's 
 
 Soli- 
 
 
 Antimeria 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 151 
 
 loquy - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 215 
 
 Antimetabole 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 151 
 
 Dignity - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 105 
 
 Antiphrasis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 120 
 
 Disposition 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 58 
 
 Antiptosis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 152 
 
 Douglas' Account 
 
 of 
 
 him- 
 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 133- 
 
 -154 
 
 self - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 202 
 
 Antonomasia 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 119 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 Aphseresis 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 153 
 
 Ecphonesis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 135 
 
 Apocope 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 154 
 
 Ecthlipsis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 154 
 
 Apophasis or 
 
 Paraleipsis 
 
 
 137 
 
 Elegance 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 103 
 
 Aporia 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 134 
 
 Ellipsis - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 149 
 
 Aposiopesis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 137 
 
 Elocution 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 101 
 
 Apostrophe 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 145 
 
 Emphasis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 191 
 
 Arguments 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 T 
 
 38 
 
 Enallage - 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 144 
 
 Asteismus 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 113 
 
 Enantiosis 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 136 
 
 Asyndeton 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 140 
 
 Epanalepsis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 123 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 Epanados 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 124 
 
 Brutus' Oration 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 200 
 
 Epanorthosis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 138 
 
 Brutus and Cassius 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 210 
 
 Epenthesis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 154 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 Epimone 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 152 
 
 Catachresis 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 114 
 
 Epiphonema 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 143 
 
 Catiline's Orat 
 
 ion ir 
 
 English 
 
 90 
 
 Epistrophe 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 122 
 
 Cato's Senate 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 204 
 
 Epitrope - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 131 
 
 Soliloquy 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 197 
 
 Epizeuxis 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 125 
 
10 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Erotesis - 
 Exordium 
 
 Figure 
 
 PAGE 
 
 129 
 
 58 
 
 121 
 
 Gesture, Natural and Imita- 
 tive - - - 191, 192 
 H 
 
 Hamlet's Soliloquy - - 199 
 
 Hellenismus - - - 151 
 
 Hendiadis - - - 149 
 
 Homoioteleuton - - 127 
 
 Hypallage - - - 150 
 
 Hyperbaton - - - 145 
 
 Hyperbole ■- - - 114 
 
 Hypotyposis - - - 142 
 
 Hysteron - - - 150 
 
 I 
 
 Invention - - - 35 
 
 Irony - - - - HI 
 
 J 
 
 Judicial Orations - - 52 
 
 L 
 
 Litotes - - - - 119 
 
 M 
 
 Metalepsis - - - 116 
 
 Metaphor - - - 107 
 
 Metathesis - - - 154 
 
 Metonymy ... 108 
 Morals, arguments founded 
 
 on - 54, 55 
 
 N 
 
 Narration - - - 63 
 
 O 
 
 Onomatopoeia - - - 120 
 
 Oration, parts of an - 58 
 
 Oxymoron - - - 134 
 
 P 
 
 Paradiastole - - - 152 
 
 Paragoge - - . 154 
 
 Paraleipsis - - - 137 
 
 Paregmenon ... 127 
 
 Paraemia - - - 118 
 
 Paronomasia - - - 127 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Parting of Brutus and Cassius 215 
 Partition or Division - 69, 70 
 
 Paul's, St., Defence before 
 
 Agrippa 
 Passions - 
 Pause 
 Periphrasis 
 Peroration 
 Phocias's Soliloquy 
 Pleonasmus 
 
 Ploce 
 
 Polyptoton 
 Polysyndeton - 
 Prolepsis 
 Pronunciation - 
 Proposition 
 Prosopopoeia - 
 Prosthesis 
 
 ] 
 Refutation 
 Repetitions 
 
 Rhetoric 
 
 j 
 
 Sarcasmus 
 
 Satan's Speech to his rebel 
 
 host 
 to Death 
 
 State of a Cause 
 Sym ploce 
 Synseresis 
 Synalaepha 
 Synathraesmus 
 Syncope - 
 Synecdoche 
 Synonymy 
 Systole - 
 
 Theme, parts of a, with Ex- 
 amples 
 Tmesis - 
 Tone 
 Tropes - 
 
 Voice 
 
 56 
 191 
 141 
 
 84 
 202 
 148 
 125 
 126 
 140 
 130 
 189 
 
 68 
 147 
 153 
 
 75 
 121 
 
 13 
 
 113 
 
 84 
 196 
 
 52 
 123 
 155 
 154 
 149 
 153 
 109 
 128 
 155 
 
 93 
 151 
 191 
 105 
 
 190 
 
 %* To find any Trope or Figure in the Latin part of Elocution: 
 find, by the Index, the Trope or Figure in the English part, and the 
 number of the one in the English will be found to correspond to the 
 same in Latin. 
 
BOOK I 
 
THE 
 
 ART OF RHETORIC : 
 
 OR, THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 
 
 What is Rhetoric ? 
 
 " Rhetoric is the art of speaking in such a manner 
 as to attain the end for which we speak."* 
 
 Into how many questions may it be resolved ? 
 
 Two: the first, regarding the quality, the second, 
 the import of the words by which it is defined. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC, FROM QUINTILIAN'S 
 INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 
 
 I. 
 
 Let us first examine what rhetoric is, of which there 
 are different definitions. Considered in itself, it may 
 be resolved into two questions; the first, regarding the 
 
 * Blair, Lecture XXV. — Lord Bacon defines rhetoric, or oratory, to be 
 the art of applying and addressing the dictates of reason to the fancy, 
 and of so recommending them as to affect the will and desires. 
 
 Vossius defines rhetoric, the faculty of discovering what every subject 
 affords of use for persuasion. 
 
 2 
 
14 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 What is the principal difference of opinions in this 
 respect ? 
 
 Some think that bad men may be called orators ; 
 whereas, others wish this name, and the art of which 
 we speak, to be attributed entirely to the good. 
 
 In what do they, who separate eloquence from the 
 greatest merit in life, make the duty of an orator to 
 consist ? 
 
 In persuading, or in speaking pertinently to per- 
 suade. 
 
 quality of the thing * whether good or bad; the second, 
 the import of the wordsrf by which it is defined. The 
 principal difference of opinion in this respect is, that 
 some think bad men may be called orators; whereas, 
 others, whose sentiments we choose to adopt, desire 
 this name, and the art of which we speak, to be at- 
 tributed entirely to the good. J 
 
 They who separate eloquence from the greatest and 
 most desirable merit in life, make the duty of an orator 
 to consist in persuading, or in speaking pertinently to 
 persuade^ which a bad man may equally effect. Rhe- 
 toric has, therefore, been commonly defined, " The 
 
 * De qualitate ipsius rei. 
 
 j- De comprehensione verborum. 
 
 J But our opponents may say, that a bad man will make an exor- 
 dium and narration, and use proofs and arguments, all equally good and 
 cogent in their kind. And so also a robber will fight bravely, yet forti- 
 tude will be a virtue. A vicious slave will patiently endure tortures, 
 yet v, constancy will not be deprived of its praise." — Quint., lib. ii. 
 cap. xxi. 
 
 §' In persuadendo, aut in dicendo apposite ad persuadendum. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 15 
 
 How, therefore, has rhetoric been commonly denned ? 
 The power of persuading. 
 From whom did this opinion originate ? 
 Socrates. 
 
 By what name does he designate it ? 
 The workmanship of persuasion. 
 What does Cicero say that the duty of an orator is ? 
 To speak in a manner proper to persuade. 
 In what does he make the end of eloquence to 
 consist ? 
 Persuasion. 
 
 power of persuading."* This opinion originated from 
 Socrates : not that he intended to dishonor his pro- 
 fession, though he gives us a dangerous idea of rhetoric, 
 by calling it the workmanship (?t£t0«$ %u«£yov) of per- 
 suasion, f We find almost the same thing in the Gorgias 
 of Plato ; but this was the opinion of that rhetorician, 
 and not of Plato. Cicero has written, in many places, 
 that the duty of an orator is to speak in "a manner 
 proper to persuade. "J And in his books of rhetoric, § 
 which undoubtedly he does not approve, he makes the 
 end of eloquence to consist in persuasion. 
 
 But does not money persuade ? Is not credit the 
 authority of the speaker, and the dignity of an honor- 
 able person attended with the same effect? Even, 
 without speaking a word, the remembrance of past 
 
 * Rhetoricen esse vim persuadendi. 
 t Dicens esse rhetoricen persuadendi opificem. 
 
 X Oratoris officium esse, dicere apposite ad persuadendum. See Cic. de 
 Orat., lib. i. 
 
 § Finem facit persuadere. See Cic. de Inv., lib. i. 6. 
 
16 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 Enumerate from the text those examples where, with- 
 out speaking a word, the remembrance of past services, 
 the appearance of distress, and beauty of form, resulted 
 in persuasion. 
 
 How does Gorgias define rhetoric ? 
 
 The power of persuading by speaking. 
 
 services, the appearance of distress,' and beauty of 
 form, are decisive in their favor. Did Antonius, 
 pleading the cause of M. Aquilius,* trust to the force 
 of his reasons, when he abruptly tore open his garment 
 and exposed to view the wounds he received in fighting 
 for his country? This act forced streams of tears from 
 the eyes of the Roman people, who, not able to resist 
 such a moving spectacle, acquitted the criminal. Ser- 
 vius Gralbaf escaped the severity of the laws by ap- 
 
 * "When I was to save M. Aquilius from banishment, while I 
 touched upon the pathetic part, did I not feel all the passion I ex- 
 pressed? When I saw the man whom I recollected to have been 
 consul, to have been a general distinguished by the senate, to have 
 mounted the steps of the capital in an oration, depressed, dejected, sor- 
 rowful, in imminent danger, is it to be imagined that I attempted to 
 awaken sentiments of pity in the breasts of others before I felt them in 
 my own ? Yes, I perceived that it greatly affected the judges when I 
 appealed to the old man's sorrow and dejection ; and when I did, what 
 you, Crassus, have commended, when, not from any art of which I know 
 not how to treat, but from a strong convulsion of grief and concern, I 
 tore open his vest to show his scars." — Cic. de Orat, lib. ii. cap. 47. 
 
 "f" The same person used to blame Servius Galba because, upon an 
 action brought against him by L. Scribonius, he had worked the people 
 to compassion. The circumstance, however, for which Rutilius blamed 
 Galba, was, because he had reared almost upon his shoulders the young 
 son of Caius Sulpicius Gallus, who was his relation; and thereby drew 
 tears from the people, who remembered how dear his father had been 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 17 
 
 In what does Theodectes make the end of rhetoric 
 to consist ? 
 
 In leading men wherever one pleases by the faculty 
 of speaking. 
 
 Is this definition sufficiently comprehensive ? 
 
 No: flatterers and others, besides the orator, per- 
 
 pearing in court with his own little children, and the 
 son of Gallus Sulpicius in his arms; by which the sight 
 of so many wretched objects melted the judges into 
 compassion. This we find equally attested by some of 
 our historians, and by a speech of Cato. What shall I 
 say of Phryne, whose beauty was of more service in 
 her cause than all the eloquence of Hyperides. 
 
 Now, if all these examples persuade, consequently 
 persuasion cannot be the end of rhetoric. 
 
 Some, therefore, have appeared to themselves rather 
 more exact, who, although of a similar opinion, define 
 rhetoric "-the power of persuading by speaking."* 
 Gorgias, in the book above cited, is at last reduced to 
 this by Socrates. Theodectes concurs with these, if 
 the work inscribed with his name be genuine. In this 
 book, the end of rhetoric is, "to lead men wherever 
 one pleases by the faculty of speaking, "f But this 
 definition is not sufficiently comprehensive. Many 
 others, besides the orator, persuade by their words, 
 
 to ihera ; and who bad recommended himself and his two infant sons 
 to the guardianship of the Roman people. Rutilius said, that by those 
 touching circumstances, though Galba was both hated and detested by 
 the people at that time, he was acquitted." — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. cap. 53. 
 
 * Existimaverunt earn vim dicendo persuadendi. 
 
 f Ducere homines dicendo in id, quod actor velit. 
 
 2* 
 
18 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 suade by their words, and influence minds to what they 
 please. 
 
 Does an orator always persuade? 
 
 No: sometimes it is not properly his end, and some- 
 times this end is common to him with others. 
 
 How does Aristotle define rhetoric ? 
 
 The power of inventing whatever is persuasive in a 
 discourse. 
 
 In Plato's Gorgias how is it represented ? 
 
 Inseparable from virtue. 
 
 and influence minds to what they please. Flatterers 
 and infamous persons frequently accomplish this end. 
 On the contrary, an orator does not always persuade; 
 sometimes it is not properly his end, and sometimes 
 this end is common to him with other different cha- 
 racters. 
 
 Some, therefore, setting aside the consideration of 
 the end, as Aristotle, have defined rhetoric to be, "the 
 power of inventing whatever is persuasive in a dis- 
 course."* This definition is equally as exceptionable 
 as the one above mentioned; and is, likewise, defective 
 in another respect, as it includes only invention, which, 
 when separated from elocution, cannot constitute a 
 speech. 
 
 It appears from Plato's Gorgias that he was far 
 from reputing rhetoric to be an art of a pernicious 
 tendency; but that it is, or ought to be, if we were to 
 conceive an adequate idea of it, inseparable from virtue. 
 
 * *Era> y h"PnT0giM iwaf*tg } vregl exarov, t5 %t<*>fi<rat to Iv^o^evov iriQaviv. 
 — Arist. Rhet., lib. i. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 19 
 
 What is said in Plato's Phoedrus with regard to 
 rhetoric ? 
 
 That this art can never be perfect without an exact 
 knowledge and strict observance of justice. 
 
 Had these not been his real sentiments would he 
 have written an apology for Socrates, and the eulogium 
 of those brave citizens who lost their lives in the de- 
 fence of their country? 
 
 No. 
 
 How was Socrates influenced when he refused to 
 pronounce the speech which Lysias had composed for 
 his defence ? 
 
 With the same spirit. 
 
 What was the custom of the orators of those times ? 
 
 To write speeches for arraigned criminals, which 
 they pronounced in their own defence. 
 
 This he explains more clearly in his Phoedrus, where he 
 says, that "this art can never be perfect without an 
 exact knowledge and strict observance of justice."* I 
 unite with him in opinion; for had these not been his 
 real sentiments, would he have written an apology for 
 Socrates, and the eulogium of those brave citizens who 
 lost their lives in the defence of their country? This 
 is certainly acting the part of an orator, and if he, in 
 any respect, attacks the profession, it is on their ac- 
 count who make a pernicious use of eloquence. Socra- 
 tes, influenced with the same spirit, refused to pronounce 
 the speech which Lysias had composed for his defence. 
 For it was the custom of the orators of those times to 
 
 * Hanc artem consummari citra justitiae quoque scientiam non posse. 
 
20 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 What was the object ? 
 
 To elude the law which prohibited pleading for an- 
 other. 
 
 What masters does Plato in his Phoedrus condemn ? 
 
 Those who separate rhetoric from justice, and pre- 
 ferred probabilities to truth. 
 
 How does Quintilian define rhetoric ? 
 
 The science of speaking well. 
 
 write speeches for arraigned criminals, which they pro- 
 nounced in their own defence ; and, therefore, the law 
 which prohibited pleading for another was eluded. 
 Plato, likewise, in his Phoedrus, condemns those mas- 
 ters who separated rhetoric from justice, and preferred 
 probabilities to truth. 
 
 Such are the definitions of rhetoric which have been 
 principally agitated. For, to go through with all of 
 them, is neither my design, nor do I think it possible; 
 as most writers on arts have exhibited a perverse desire 
 for defining nothing the same way, or in the terms of 
 others who wrote before them. I am far from being 
 influenced by the same ambition, and far from flat- 
 tering myself with the glory of invention, shall rest 
 satisfied with saying, that rhetoric is properly defined 
 " The science of speaking well."* — Lib. ii. caj). 6. 
 
 * Rkctoricen esse bene diccddi srientiam. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 21 
 
 II. 
 
 To what question does Quintilian here proceed? 
 Whether rhetoric be an art. 
 
 What title did those who wrote precepts of eloquence 
 prefix to their books ? 
 The art of speaking. 
 What does Cicero call rhetoric ? 
 An artificial eloquence. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 
 Is rhetoric an art f 
 
 II. 
 
 There would be no end, were I to expatiate on this 
 matter, and indulge my pleasure. I shall therefore 
 proceed to the following question: — "Is rhetoric an 
 art?"* Those who wrote precepts of eloquence doubt- 
 ed so little of this, that they prefixed no other title to 
 their books, than the "Art of speaking." Cicero says, 
 that what we call rhetoric, is only an artificial elo- 
 quence .f Who, therefore, can be so devoid of sense 
 and knowledge, as to imagine an art in architecture, 
 in weaving, and in pottery; and that rhetoric, the excel- 
 lency of which we have already shown, could have arrived 
 
 * " For almost all other arts exist independently of one another, but 
 that of eloquence, which is the art of speaking sensibly, skillfully, and 
 beautifully, has no determined limits within which it can be bounded." 
 — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 2. 
 
 f See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. cap. 6. 
 
22 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 How were those of a contrary opinion influenced ? 
 
 More for the sake of exercising their ingenuity on 
 the singularity of the subject than from any real con- 
 viction. 
 
 What example is given ? 
 
 Polycrates, when he wrote panegyrics on Busiris and 
 Clytemnestra, and composed an oration against So- 
 crates. 
 
 What do some maintain that rhetoric is ? 
 
 A gift of nature, which may be assisted by exercise. 
 
 What does Antonius, in Cicero's books of the orator, 
 call it ? 
 
 A sort of observation, and not an art. 
 
 Was this Cicero's view of the subject ? 
 
 at its present state of grandeur and perfection without 
 the direction of art ? I am persuaded, that those of a 
 contrary opinion were influenced more for the sake of 
 exercising their ingenuity on the singularity of the 
 subject, than from any real conviction. Such was Po- 
 lycrates, when he wrote panegyrics on Busiris and 
 Clytemnestra, and composed an oration which he pro- 
 nounced against Socrates. 
 
 Some maintain that rhetoric is a gift of nature, 
 which may be assisted by exercise. Antonius, in 
 Cicero's books of the orator, calls it a sort of observa- 
 tion, and not an art.* But this is not there asserted 
 as truth, but only to support the character of Antonius, 
 who was a dissembler^ of art. Lysias seems to be of 
 
 * Observationem quandem esse, non artem. 
 
 f Dissimulator, "one who makes as though that were not which is." 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 23 
 
 No : his object was only to support the character of 
 Antonius, who was a dissembler of art. 
 
 Who coincided in opinion with Antonius ? 
 
 Lysias. 
 
 How does Lysias show that the most simple and 
 illiterate possess a kind of rhetoric when they speak 
 for themselves ? 
 
 They find something like an exordium, they make a 
 narration, they prove, refute, and their prayers and 
 entreaties have the force of a peroration. 
 
 Recite from the text the cavils of Lysias. 
 
 the same opinion, which he defends by saying, that 
 the most simple and illiterate possess a kind of rhetoric 
 when they speak for themselves. They find something 
 like an exordium; they make a narration; they prove , 
 refute, and their prayers and entreaties have the force 
 of a peroration. Lysias and his adherents proceed 
 afterwards to these cavils: — " That what is the effect of 
 an art could not have existed before the art: but in all 
 times men knew how to speak for themselves and 
 against others: masters of rhetoric having been only 
 of a late date, and first known about the time of Corax 
 and Tisias: therefore an oratorical speech was prior to 
 art; and consequently, rhetoric is not an art." We 
 shall not endeavor to inquire into the time when rhe- 
 toric began to be taught; although Homer mentions 
 not only Phoenix,* who was a master skilled both in 
 speaking and fighting, but also many other orators. 
 
 * "Thus Phoenix, in Homer, says (II, lib. ix. v. 438) he was ordered 
 to attend Achilles in the war by his father, Peleus, that he might teach 
 him both how to speak and how to act." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 15. 
 
24 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 What writer is quoted to prove its antiquity? 
 
 Homer. 
 
 Enumerate from the text the examples from Homer. 
 
 What answer will be sufficient to the cavils of Lysias? 
 
 That everything perfected by art has its source in 
 nature. 
 
 Were this not so what should we exclude from the 
 catalogue of arts ? 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 To what was the discovery of this art owing ? 
 
 To observations on things conducive or hurtful to 
 health. 
 
 On what, in the opinion of some, is it altogether 
 founded. 
 
 On experiments. 
 
 We may also observe from Homer, that all the parts of 
 an oration are found in the speech of the three* chiefs 
 deputed to Achilles; that several young men dispute 
 for the prize of eloquence; and that among other orna- 
 ments of sculpture on the buckler of Achilles, Vulcan 
 did not forget law-causes and their pleaders. f 
 
 It will, however, be sufficient to answer, "that every- 
 thing perfected by art has its source in nature.% Were 
 it not so, we should exclude medicine from the cata- 
 logue of arts, the discovery of which was owing to 
 observations made on things conducive or hurtful to 
 health; and, in the opinion of some, founded altogether 
 
 * Phoenix, Ajax, and Ulysses. 
 
 t IL, lib. xviii. v. 469. 
 
 X Omnia, quae ars consummaverit, a natura initia auxisse. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 25 
 
 Explain from the * text the course pursued before it 
 was reduced to an art. 
 
 Would architecture, according to the reasoning of 
 our opponents, be an art ? 
 
 No: because the first men built their cottages with- 
 out its direction. 
 
 What other art would undergo a similar fate ? 
 
 Music ; as every nation has its peculiarities in danc- 
 ing and singing. 
 
 What inference, therefore, must be drawn ? 
 
 That the orator must have been made by art, and, 
 therefore, could not exist before it. 
 
 What other objection is urged ? 
 
 That everything effected by one's self without learn- 
 ing, does not depend on art; but men know how to 
 speak, though they never learned to speak: therefore," 
 &c. 
 
 on experiments. Before it was reduced to an art, tents 
 and bandages were applied to wounds; rest and absti- 
 stinence cured a fever: not that the reason was then 
 known, but the nature of the disease obliged men to 
 this regimen. In like manner architecture cannot be 
 an art; for the first men built their cottages without 
 its direction. Music would undergo a similar fate; as 
 every nation has its peculiarities in dancing and sing- 
 ing. Now, if rhetoric be taken for any kind of speech, 
 I shall admit that it was prior to art; but if every one 
 who speaks is not an orator, and if, in the primitive 
 ages men did not speak like orators, consequently the 
 orator must have been made by art, and therefore could 
 not exist before it. 
 3 
 
26 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 How is this objection refuted ? 
 
 By what has been already said. 
 
 What example is adduced to confirm their argument ? 
 
 Demades and iEschines. 
 
 Can any person be an orator unless he has learned 
 to be so ? 
 
 No. 
 
 To what, then, will the example of Demades and 
 .ZEschines amount? 
 
 To nothing more than that they applied themselves 
 rather too late to eloquence. 
 
 What I have said refutes this other objection: "That 
 everything effected by one's self, without learning, does 
 not depend on art; but men know how to speak, though 
 they never learned to speak: therefore, &c." They 
 adduce the example of Demades, a waterman, and 
 JEschines, a comedian, to confirm this argument. I 
 assert, however, that no person can be an orator unless 
 he has learned to be so; and all that can be alleged 
 concerning Demades and JEschines, will amount to 
 nothing more than that they applied themselves rather 
 too late to eloquence. iEschines, it is certain, was in 
 his younger years instructed in the letters which his 
 father taught. Of the learning of Demades nothing is 
 positively asserted; though, by the continual exercise 
 of speaking he might have become, as he was after- 
 wards reputed, a great orator. There cannot be a 
 more effectual way to learn this ; and, it may be said, 
 he would have been a more accomplished speaker had 
 he been assisted by the precepts of art; but, as he 
 never attempted to publish any of his speeches, we 
 cannot form a competent judgment of his eloquence. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 27 
 
 What is the next objection ? 
 
 When rhetoric asserts false things instead of true, 
 does it follow that it assents to what is false ? 
 
 No. 
 
 When Hannibal adopted the expedient of extricating 
 his army, whom did he deceive? 
 
 Fabius. 
 
 When Theopompus, the Spartan, by changing clothes 
 with his wife, was about to escape from prison, did he 
 practise the deception upon himself or the guards ? 
 
 Upon the guards. 
 
 The next objection is not so much one in reality as 
 a mere cavil. " That art never assents to false opin- 
 ions, because it cannot be constituted as such without 
 precepts, which are always true: but rhetoric assents 
 to what is false: therefore it is not an art." I admit 
 that rhetoric sometimes asserts false things instead of 
 true ; but it does not follow that it assents to what is 
 false. There is a wide difference between assenting to 
 a falsehood, and inducing others to assent. A general 
 of an army has often recourse to stratagems : thus, 
 when Hannibal perceived himself to be surrounded by 
 Fabius, he ordered fagots to be fastened about the 
 horns of some oxen, and fire being set to them, had 
 the cattle driven up the mountains in the night, in 
 order to let the enemy see he was decamping; but he 
 deceived him ; for he was very well aware of the con- 
 trivance. When Theopompus, the Spartan, by chang- 
 ing clothes with his wife, was about to escape from 
 prison, he did not practise the deception upon himself, 
 but upon the guards. Thus, when an orator speaks 
 
28 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 When an orator speaks falsehood, what is his in- 
 tention ? 
 
 To deceive others. 
 
 When Cicero boasted that he threw darkness on the 
 intellects of the judges in the cause of Cluentius, was 
 he unacquainted with all the intricacies that embar- 
 rassed the fact ? 
 
 No. 
 
 What is said in the text with regard to the painter ? 
 
 What is the fourth objection ? 
 
 Whom can this objection affect ? 
 
 Those who make persuasion the end of rhetoric. 
 
 Can an orator, who loses his cause, be said to fulfil 
 the injunctions of his art? 
 
 falsehood instead of truth, he knows it to be false; he 
 does not assent to it himself, his intention being to 
 deceive others. When Cicero boasted that he threw 
 darkness on the intellects of the judges, in the cause 
 of Cluentius, could it be said that he was unacquainted 
 with all the intricacies which embarrassed the fact? 
 Or shall a painter, who so disposes his objects that 
 some appear to project from the canvas, others to 
 recede, be supposed not to know that they are all 
 drawn upon a plane surface ? 
 
 It is again objected, that "every art proposes to 
 itself an end: but rhetoric has no end: therefore it is 
 not an art." This objection can only affect those who 
 make persuasion the end of rhetoric; but our orator, 
 and our definition of art, are not restricted to events. 
 An orator, indeed, strives to gain his cause ; but should 
 he lose it, provided he has pleaded well, he fulfils the 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 29 
 
 Yes, provided he has pleaded well. 
 Recite from the text the examples of the pilot and 
 physician. 
 
 injunctions of his art. A pilot is desirous of coming 
 safe into port; but should a storm sweep away his ship, 
 is he, therefore, a less experienced pilot ? His keeping 
 constantly to the helm* sufficiently attests that he was 
 not wanting to his duty. A physician strives to cure 
 a sick person; but if his remedies are obstructed in 
 their operation, by either the violence of the disease, 
 the intemperance of the patient, or some unforeseen ac- 
 cident, he is not to be blamed, because he has satisfied 
 all the directions of his art. So it is with the orator, 
 whose end is to speak well; for it is in the act, and not 
 in the effect, that art consists. The declaration is, 
 therefore, false, "that arts know when they have ob- 
 tained their end; but that rhetoric knows nothing of 
 the matter;" for every orator knows when he acquits 
 himself well. 
 
 These are the principal objections which have been 
 urged against rhetoric. There are others of less mo- 
 ment, but derived from the same source. That rhetoric 
 is an art is thus briefly demonstrated. If "art," as 
 Cleanthes asserts, " is a power which prepares a way 
 and establishes an order, "f it cannot be doubted but 
 that we must keep to a certain way, and a certain 
 
 * The hemistich, in the Latin text, " Dum clavum rectum teneam," 
 is probably taken from Ennius : 
 
 Dum clavum rectum teneam navimque gubernem, 
 Non sum culpandus. 
 f <Ar$ est potestas via, id est ordine, efficiens. 
 
 3* 
 
30 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 How is rhetoric proved to be an art ? 
 
 If art, as Cleanthes asserts, is a power which pre- 
 pares a way and establishes an order, so in speaking 
 well, we must keep to a certain way, and a certain 
 order. 
 
 What ought we to call art, according to the most 
 generally received opinion ? 
 
 Everything which, by a combination of concurring 
 and co-exercised precepts, conducts to a useful end. 
 
 Is rhetoric deficient in any of these things ? 
 
 No. 
 
 What two constituent parts has it in common with 
 other arts ? 
 
 Theory and practice. 
 
 order in speaking well. And if, according to the most 
 generally received opinion, we ought to call art, every- 
 thing which, by a combination of concurring and co- 
 exercised precepts conducts to a useful end; have we 
 not shown that nothing of all this is wanting to rhe- 
 toric ? Has it not likewise the two constituent parts 
 of other arts, theory and practice ? And if logic be 
 an art, as it is admitted to be by the same reason, so is 
 rhetoric, the chief difference consisting not so much in 
 the genus as species.* But we must not forget this 
 
 * Logic has for its object all things upon which it undertakes to dis- 
 pute ; ought, then, rhetoric to suffer a limitation, which only differs from 
 it in a more diffuse style and manner 1 — Cap. 22. 
 
 There are two kinds of discourse ; the one continued, which is called 
 rhetoric; the other interrupted, called logic, which Zeno so slightly dis- 
 tinguished that he compared the latter to a fist, and the former to an 
 open hand. — Cap. 21. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 31 
 
 If logic be an art, why must rhetoric be also an art ? 
 
 Because they both participate of the same nature. 
 
 Where must art necessarily exist ? 
 
 Where a thing is done according to rule, and not at 
 random. 
 
 How is this exemplified in matters of eloquence ? 
 
 An illiterate person will not only be vanquished by 
 a learned, but also the learned by the more learned. 
 
 III. 
 
 Enumerate from the text those invectives which have 
 been urged against eloquence. 
 
 observation, that there art must be where a thing is 
 done according to rule,* and not at random ;f and 
 there art must be where he who has learned succeeds 
 better than he who has not learned. But in matters 
 of eloquence an illiterate person will not only be van- 
 quished by a learned, but also the learned by the more 
 learned; otherwise, we should not have had so many 
 precepts, and so many excellent masters. — Lib. ii. 
 cap. 18. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 
 
 The Utility of Rhetoric. 
 
 III. 
 
 A question arises, is 'rhetoric% useful ? Some urge 
 
 the bitterest invectives against it, and, what is most 
 
 disreputable, exert the force of eloquence against elo- 
 
 * Artificialiter. f Inartificialiter. 
 
 £ Sequitur qusestio, an utilis rhetorice ? 
 
32 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 With what do comic poets reproach Socrates ? 
 
 With teaching how to make a bad cause good. 
 
 How are Plato and L ysias represented ? 
 
 Promising the same thing. 
 
 Why was rhetoric banished from Sparta, and so re- 
 stricted at Athens that the orator was not at liberty to 
 move the passions? 
 
 Because eloquence had been not only the ruin of 
 private persons, but the destruction of whole cities and 
 republics. 
 
 quence. "That by it the wicked are rescued from pun- 
 ishment, and the innocent oppressed by its artifices; 
 that it perverts good counsel, and enforces bad ; that it 
 foments popular commotions and seditions in states; 
 that it arms nations against each other, and makes 
 them irreconcilable enemies; and that its power is 
 never more manifested than ivhen error and falsehood 
 triumph over truth" 
 
 Comic poets* reproach Socrates with teaching how 
 to make a bad cause good ;f and Plato represents Ly- 
 sias and Gorgias promising the same thing. To these 
 are added several examples of Greeks and Romans, 
 and a long enumeration of orators, whose eloquence 
 was not only the ruin of private persons, but the de- 
 struction of whole cities and republics; and for this 
 reason rhetoric was banished from Sparta, and so re- 
 stricted at Athens, that the orator was not at liberty to 
 move the passions. 
 
 * Aristoph. in Nub. 
 
 j- Nam et Socrati objiciunt comici, docere eum quomodo pcjorem causam 
 meliorem faciat. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 33 
 
 By granting all this as sound argument, what infer- 
 ence must we necessarily draw? 
 
 That neither generals of armies, nor magistrates, 
 nor medicine, nor philosophy, will be useful. 
 
 Why? 
 
 Because Flaminius, an imprudent general, lost one 
 of our armies. The Gracchi, Saturninus, and Glaucia, 
 to raise themselves to dignities, put Rome in an uproar. 
 Physicians sometimes administer poison; and among 
 philosophers, some have been guilty of the most enor- 
 mous crimes. 
 
 What other instances are mentioned in the text ? 
 
 By granting all this as sound argument, we must 
 necessarily draw this inference; that neither generals 
 of armies, nor magistrates, nor medicine, nor philo- 
 sophy, will be useful. Flaminius, an imprudent gene- 
 ral, lost one of our armies. The Gracchi, Saturninus, 
 and Glaucia, to raise themselves to dignities, put Rome 
 in an uproar. Physicians sometimes administer poi- 
 sons; and among philosophers, some have been guilty 
 of the most enormous crimes. Let us not eat of the 
 meats which are spread upon our tables; they have 
 frequently caused disease. Let us never go into houses ; 
 they may fall and crush us to death. Let not our sol- 
 diers be armed with swords ; a robber may use the 
 same weapons against us. Who is ignorant but that 
 the most necessary things in life, as air, fire, water, 
 and even the celestial bodies,* are sometimes prejudicial 
 to us? 
 
 * Solem Lunamque prcBcipua siderum. 
 
34 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Enumerate those examples which can be alleged in 
 favor of eloquence. 
 
 But how many examples can be alleged in our favor? 
 Did not Appius, the Blind, by the force of his elo- 
 quence, dissuade the senate from making a dishonor- 
 able peace with Pyrrhus ? Did not Cicero's divine 
 eloquence appear more popular than the Agrarian 
 law, which he attacked? Did it not disconcert the 
 audacious measures of Catiline? And did he not, 
 even in his civil capacity, obtain honors by it which 
 were conferred only on the most illustrious conquerors? 
 Is it not the orator who arouses the drooping courage 
 of the soldier, who animates him amidst the greatest 
 dangers, and persuades him to prefer a glorious death 
 to a life of infamy?- — Lib, ii, cap, 17. 
 
INVENTION. 35 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Into how many parts is rhetoric divided ? 
 Four: Invention, Disposition, Elocution, and 
 Pronunciation.* 
 
 INVENTION. 
 
 Invention, in rhetoric, signifies the finding out, and 
 selection of certain arguments which the orator is to 
 use for proving or illustrating the subject, conciliating 
 the minds, and moving the passions of the hearers. 
 
 * "The whole art of oratory, as we find it delivered by the generality 
 of the greatest masters, consists of these five parts : — Invention, Dispo- 
 sition, Elocution, Memory, Pronunciation, or Action." — Quint., lib. iii. cap. 3. 
 
 " They next constitute, as it were, five members of eloquence, viz : 
 inventing what you are to say ; the arrangement of what you have in- 
 vented ; the embellishment of expression ; next, the getting it by heart ; 
 and, last of all, come the action and the delivery."— Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 
 cap. 19. 
 
 In another place, Cicero has properly excluded memory from his 
 division. Hence, says Ramus: — "Dicis oratori tria esse videnda, quid 
 dicat, quo quidque loco, et quomodo; primo membro Inventionem, se- 
 cundo Collocationem, tertio Elocutionem et Actionem comprehendis : me- 
 moriam igitur in hac trium membrorum partitione praetermittis." — Rhet., 
 lib. iii. 
 
36 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Cicero,* who wrote four books u De Inventione" con- 
 siders this the principal part of oratory. This inven- 
 tion of the orators cannot, according to Lord Bacon, 
 be properly called invention : because, to invent, is to 
 discover things not known before, not to recollect those 
 which are ; whereas, the use and office of this rhetorical 
 invention are only, out of the stock of knowledge, laid 
 up in the mind, to select such materials as are advan- 
 tageous for the purpose. 
 
 The same author divides this faculty of invention 
 into two parts, the one topical, the other promptuary : 
 the first points out the way in which we are to pursue 
 the argument; the latter only lays up and disposes 
 those things in the mind for which we have frequent 
 occasion. 
 
 Invention furnishes the orator with those different 
 kinds of arguments and motives, which are adapted to 
 the various purposes he has in view. The requisites of 
 invention are a vivid or lively imagination, and quick- 
 ness of thought, great learning and extensive know- 
 ledge, previous consideration, and clear, enlarged ap- 
 prehensions of the subject. 
 
 From Cicero de Oratore. 
 
 There are three things requisite to invention in 
 speaking; quickness, method, which, if we please we 
 may call art, and application. The chief part I must 
 attribute to genius; but application will improve the 
 slowness of genius itself. Application has great in- 
 
 * Only two of these are now extant. 
 
INVENTION. 37 
 
 fluence in all cases, but in pleading the greatest: it 
 should be the principal object of our care and assiduity, 
 and, with its assistance, there is nothing but we may 
 surmount. It is by application we can make ourselves 
 masters of a cause; it is by this that we give such at- 
 tention to our antagonist as to lay hold, not only of his 
 sentiments, but even of his words. In a word, it is 
 owing to application that we can make advantage even 
 of his very look, which is generally the index of the 
 mind. But good sense must direct us to be so cautious, 
 as that he can take no advantage of this. In the next 
 place, it is owing to application that our mind can 
 make an excursion into those fields which I shall soon 
 open, so as to enter thoroughly into the cause, and 
 have all its powers and recollection in readiness. But 
 to apply memory, utterance, and strength, as it were, 
 to illuminate all these matters, that is the great con- 
 sideration. There is, indeed, some small space, into 
 which we may place art between memory and applica- 
 tion. But art only points out the place where you are 
 to search, the place where the end of which you are 
 in pursuit lies : all the rest consists in care, attention, 
 reflection, vigilance, assiduity, and industry. I shall 
 include all these in one word, which I have often men- 
 tioned, and that is application: for it is in this single 
 virtue that all the other virtues consist. — Lib. ii. 
 cap. 35. 
 
 What is invention? 
 
 Invention is the discovery of such arguments as are 
 4 
 
38 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 proper to illustrate the subject, conciliate the minds, 
 and move the passions of the audience.* 
 
 What is an argument ? 
 
 An argument, says Quintilian, is a way for making 
 good a proof, by which one thing is concluded from 
 another, and what is doubtful is confirmed by what is 
 not-t 
 
 On what are all arguments founded ? 
 
 On reason, morals, or the affections. 
 
 What is the object of arguments from reason ? 
 
 To inform the judgment, or to instruct. 
 
 How are arguments from reason divided ? 
 
 Into inartificial and artificial. 
 
 What are inartificial arguments from reason ? 
 
 They are such as do not arise from the subject, but 
 from things of a different nature. They are all taken 
 from authorities, and are, by Cicero, in his Topics, 
 called testimony. 
 
 What proofs belong to the inartificial ? 
 
 Prejudices, reports, tortures, written deeds or instru- 
 ments, oaths, and witnesses. 
 
 Of what do artificial proofs consist ? 
 
 Of signs, arguments, or examples. 
 
 * "Thus, the whole business of speaking depends upon three points 
 of persuasion: to prove the side we take to be right; to conciliate the 
 favor of our audience; and to direct their passions to every emotion 
 that the nature of the cause requires." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 27. 
 
 f Cicero says, an argument is a reason which induces us to believe 
 what we previously doubted. 
 
INVENTION. 39 
 
 OF THE DIVISION OF PROOFS. 
 
 Aristotle distinguishes two sorts of proofs, in which 
 he has been generally followed by all succeeding au- 
 thors. Some of these are extrinsic to the subject, and 
 independent of art ; others result from the subject, or 
 are rather what the orator produces out of his own fund. 
 The first have, therefore, been called inartificial, and 
 the second artificial. To the inartificial belong preju- 
 dices, reports, tortures, written deeds, or instruments, 
 oaths, and witnesses; all which afford matter for most 
 lawsuits. — Quint., lib. v. cap. 1. 
 
 We are now to speak of proof which is inartificial ; 
 which is proper in judicial causes. Now there are 
 five things which constitute this sort of proof; the 
 law, witnesses, compacts, examinations, and oaths. — 
 Arist. Bhet., lib. i. cap. 16. 
 
 " The second sort of proof, which is altogether arti- 
 ficial, consists of things proper to enforce credibility 
 and conviction." — Quint., lib. iv. cap. 8. 
 
 " Every artificial proof consists of signs, arguments, 
 or examples. I am not ignorant that they are con- 
 sidered by many as making a part of arguments, and 
 this was one reason I had for distinguishing them, 
 because of their near resemblance to inartificial proofs ; 
 for bloody clothes, outcries, bruises, and the like, bear 
 a sort of affinity to instruments in writing, reports, 
 and witnesses ; being not of the orator's invention, but 
 brought to him with the cause." — Id., lib. iv. cap. 9. 
 
 "With regard to proof, two things present them- 
 selves to the orator : first, those points which are not 
 
40 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 invented by him, but arise from the reason and nature 
 of the subject; such as deeds, evidences, bargains, con- 
 ventions, trials, laws, acts of tlie senate, precedents, 
 decrees, opinions, and every such like point which is 
 suggested to him by his cause and client: the other 
 point is that which entirely consists in disputation, and 
 the disposition of the orator's pleading. In the first 
 of these divisions he is to employ his thoughts how to 
 make the best of the arguments which are ready to his 
 hand; but in the second, he is both to manage his 
 arguments, and to invent them." — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 
 cap. 27. 
 
 How many kinds of orations are there ? 
 
 Three : Demonstrative, Deliberative, and Judicial. 
 
 Who was the author of this division ? 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 Why did he give another name to the deliberative 
 kind? 
 
 In order to adapt his ideas to the democratic form of 
 government then established at Athens. 
 
 What is the scope of a demonstrative oration ? 
 
 To praise or dispraise persons or things.* 
 
 How is it used in speaking of a person ? 
 
 When for his learning, eloquence, dignity, wisdom, 
 and authority, we praise Cicero ; or, for his infamous 
 and abandoned life, censure Catiline. 
 
 How many methods do rhetoricians prescribe for 
 praising or dispraising persons ? 
 
 * Quintilian, in the third book of his Institutes, extends the applica- 
 tion of Demonstrative discourses to the praise of gods ; the praises and 
 dispraise of men ; and the praises of cities and places. 
 
INVENTION. 41 
 
 Two. 
 
 What are they? 
 
 The one is to follow the order in which everything 
 happened, which is mentioned in the discourse, as Iso- 
 crates has done in his funeral oration upon Evagoras, 
 King of Salamis ; the other is to reduce what is said 
 under certain general heads, without a strict regard to 
 the order of time, as Suetonius, in his lives of the 
 twelve Caesars. 
 
 How is it used in speaking of a thing ? 
 
 When from truth, honor, time, place, and manner, 
 we applaud the voluntary return of Regulus to his 
 enemies ; or, on the contrary, condemn the self-murder 
 of Cato at Utica. 
 
 What are the chief subjects of demonstrative elo- 
 quence ? 
 
 Panegyrics, invectives, gratulatory and funeral ora- 
 tions. 
 
 What orations may be ranked under this head ? 
 
 Cicero's oration concerning the answers of the sooth- 
 sayers, his oration for Marcellus, and his invective 
 against Piso. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Demonstrative Eloquence.* 
 
 I shall begin with the kind which is adapted for 
 praise and dispraise. Aristotle and Theophrastus, who 
 was of his opinion, seem to have excluded it from all 
 civil affairs, and to have restrained its functions to the 
 
 * Vide Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 84, 85. 
 
 4* 
 
42 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 excitement of pleasure in an auditory; because this is 
 all that can be naturally expected from the show and 
 ostentation from which it borrowed its name. But the 
 Roman usages and customs have given it a place in the 
 transactions of civil life ; for funeral orations are duties 
 frequently annexed to some public office, and are often 
 pronounced by our magistrates by a decree of the 
 senate; and to commend or depreciate the character 
 of a witness is of some importance in trials. Persons 
 accused are also allowed to retain their panegyrists; 
 and the defamatory memorials published against those 
 who stand in competition with each other, as against 
 Piso, Clodius, and Curio, have sometimes influenced 
 the senate to repute them as verdicts against them. 
 
 It is the property of praise to amplify and adorn 
 things, especially gods and men, and sometimes ani- 
 mate and inanimate beings. 
 
 With regard to gods in general, we first respect the 
 majesty of their nature; and next, descending *to par- 
 ticulars, we may pass encomiums on their power, their 
 inventions, and the several advantages in life they 
 have introduced among men. Power is displayed, as 
 in Jupiter, by governing mankind; in Mars by presid- 
 ing over war; in Neptune by ruling the ocean. In- 
 ventions are commended, as of arts, in Minerva ; of 
 letters, in Mercury; of medicine, in Apollo; of corn, 
 in Ceres; of wine, in Bacchus. 
 
 The praise of men has more variety, and is first dis- 
 tinguished by the time that preceded their birth, the 
 time of their life, and what happened after their death. 
 Country, parents, ancestors, preceded their birth, 
 which may be considered two ways: if noble, they 
 
INVENTION. 43 
 
 have equalled the glory of their progenitors; if other- 
 wise, they have dignified the obscurity of their birth 
 by the lustre of their actions. Other particulars may 
 also be enumerated ; especially presages of future gran- 
 deur, as of the son of Thetis, who, as the oracle de- 
 clared, was to be greater than his father. 
 
 Personal encomiums are deducible from the qualities 
 of the mind, body, and external advantages. The last 
 are the least considerable, and are spoken of differently 
 according as the party is more or less endowed with 
 them. One time, the comely form and strength of the 
 hero are described, as Homer does in regard to Aga- 
 memnon and Achilles. At another time the weak 
 frame of the body raises our admiration; so the same 
 poet represents Tydeus, diminutive in size, but a gal- 
 lant soldier. 
 
 The goods of the mind are always truly laudable. 
 This is a copious subject, and the orator has a variety 
 of resources for displaying his talents. He may follow 
 the order of time and actions, and in the first years 
 commend the genius and good disposition ; he may next 
 pass to education and acquired sciences, and afterwards 
 to the consistent tenor of life in words and actions. 
 To treat his subject in a different manner, he may re- 
 duce all to certain virtues, as fortitude, justice, tem- 
 perance, assigning to each how far their votary has 
 produced a copy of them in his life. It is the subject 
 that must determine which of the two ways is prefer- 
 able : and the more singular a thing is, the greater 
 will be the pleasure of the auditory; for great must be 
 their admiration when they hear that this was the only 
 man, or the first that did so; or that very few can share 
 
44 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 the glory with him; or that he exceeded expectation; 
 or, that in what he engaged and accomplished, he 
 showed a true disinterested spirit. 
 
 The same order may be observed in dispraise, but 
 with a variation in the coloring; for if the meanness of 
 birth be a disgrace to some, so also is nobility of birth 
 to many, whose vices it makes more conspicuous, and 
 brands with deeper infamy. Predictions gave sufficient 
 warning of the calamities which Paris was to bring 
 upon his country. Thersites, ugly and deformed, as 
 Homer paints him, became the laughing-stock of the 
 whole army. Nireus, a coward, and Plisthenes, a de- 
 bauchee, show that a graceful form, without virtue, 
 produces contempt. A mind may be as remarkable for 
 vicious as virtuous qualities; and these may be treated 
 both ways, as directed for opposite subjects of praise. 
 Infamy has reached some even beyond the grave, as 
 Maelius,* whose house was leveled with the ground : and 
 the prenomen Marcus was forever extinguished in the 
 family of Manlius.f As to the living, the judgment of 
 the public must be the rule of our esteem, and the good 
 or bad reputation they have acquired will be a sufficient 
 sanction for our praise or dispraise. 
 
 Cities have their praise as well as men. Their 
 founder is looked upon as a father, and their antiquity 
 renders them very considerable : for which reason we 
 see people who boast themselves as ancient as that 
 tract of the earth they inhabit; and are confident of 
 having preserved traditionary accounts of all their 
 transactions, whether virtuous or vicious. These con- 
 siderations are for cities in general; but there are some 
 
 * Livy, lib iv. f Ibid., lib. vi. 
 
INVENTION. 45 
 
 peculiar to them, deduced from their situation, their 
 fortifications, their citizens, whose glory makes that of 
 the state, as the glory of children reflects on their 
 parents. Certain places are also the theme of praise ; 
 such is Sicily, as represented in that elegant descrip- 
 tion of Cicero.* Their beauty and advantage are 
 chiefly considered: beauty in harbors, plains, and plea- 
 sant groves and meadows; and advantage in the salu- 
 brity of the air, as well as the fruitfulness of the soil, 
 and the like. As I would not, therefore, entirely con- 
 fine the demonstrative kind to questions relating to 
 what is honest, so I believe it should be confined to 
 quality; although all the three states may unite in it, 
 which Cicero observed in Caesar, who used them all 
 in his harangues against Cato. — Lib. iii. cap. 7. 
 
 In what does a deliberative oration consist ? 
 
 In recommending, or dissuading from, some import- 
 ant public measure, f 
 
 To what is this species of eloquence chiefly confined ? 
 
 To the agitation of public aflairs in popular assem- 
 blies. 
 
 What is its object ? 
 
 Persuasion. 
 
 How is the orator to accomplish this end ? 
 
 By applying himself to all the principles of action in 
 
 * Verres, IV. 
 
 t f: The chief things concerning which all men consult, and argue 
 upon in deliberation, are five in number ; of wealth, of war, and peace, 
 of the preservation of the country, of what things are exported and im- 
 ported, and of the making and observance of laws/' — Jlris. Rhet., book i. 
 ch. 4. 
 
46 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 our nature ; to the passions and to the heart, as well as 
 to the understanding. 
 
 What topics are generally used in recommending, or 
 dissuading from, public measures ? 
 
 Safety, profit, pleasure, justice, honor, and facility. 
 
 What orations may be referred to the deliberative 
 kind? 
 
 Cicero's fourth oration against Catiline; his first and 
 ninth against Mark Antony; and Cato and Caesar's 
 speeches relative to the Catiline conspirators. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 
 Deliberative Eloquence. 
 
 I am surprised how some authors could have circum- 
 scribed the deliberative kind by utility alone. Were it 
 necessary to reduce it to one object, I should prefer to 
 follow the opinion of Cicero, who made this matter to 
 consist chiefly in dignity. I make no doubt, however, 
 that those authors, according to the specious maxim of 
 the Stoics, acknowledge "nothing useful but what is 
 honest;" and I would willingly admit the truth of their 
 assertion, were we always to deliberate in concert with 
 wise and virtuous men. But it is our fate to speak 
 before a people chiefly unlearned, to whose intellects, 
 it being their duty to decide these matters as judges, 
 we must adapt our words and ideas. There are, in- 
 deed, many who do not think some things sufficiently 
 useful, which they believe to be honest; and other 
 things, which they cannot doubt of being base, they 
 approve under the appearance of utility. Of this the 
 
INVENTION. 47 
 
 Numantine peace and Caudinian capitulation are 
 proofs.* 
 
 The generality of Greekf authors were of opinion 
 that the deliberative kind belonged entirely to ha- 
 rangues made in the assemblies of the people, and 
 therefore had no other object than the administration 
 of the state. Cicero, for the most part, appears to be 
 of the same opinion, and imagines, that in this kind 
 an orator has scarcely any other topics to discuss but 
 peace or war; troops to raise and provide for; works 
 for the public good; contributions and subsidies. He 
 should, therefore, be acquainted with the resources of 
 a state, its usages and manner of ordering matters, that 
 from the very nature of the things, and the disposition 
 of minds, his arguments might be more strong and per- 
 suasive. I think, however, that this subject may admit 
 of greater variety, as there are many kinds of delibe- 
 rations, and persons who deliberate. 
 
 Wherefore, in persuading and dissuading, (the two 
 parts of a deliberative discourse,) three things ought to 
 be particularly considered : " What the subject for 
 deliberation is; the person who consults; and the per- 
 son who is consulted." 
 
 1. As to the thing deliberated upon, it is either cer- 
 tain that it is practicable, or it is not. If uncertain, 
 the whole question will here rest, or the principal part. 
 For it often happens that we first prove, that though a 
 thing may be practicable, it ought not to be done; and, 
 secondly, that it is impracticable. A state of conjec- 
 ture constitutes a question of the kind: as, "Whether 
 
 * Livy, lib. ix. Cic. de Offic, lib. iii. 
 t Arist. Ehet., lib. i. cap. 8. 
 
48 THE ART OE RHETORIC. 
 
 some isthmuses could be cut through ? whether a harbor 
 could be made at Ostia? whether Alexander should find 
 lands beyond the ocean?" Allowing, also, possibility, 
 the state will be sometimes conjectural; as if the ques- 
 tion should be : "Whether it be likely that the Romans 
 will conquer Carthage ? or, whether Hannibal will pass 
 out of Italy should Scipio make Africa the seat of war? 
 or, whether the Samnites will preserve inviolate the 
 faith of treaties should the Romans lay clown their 
 arms ?" Some things are possible and practicable, and 
 in all probability may happen, but at another time, and 
 in another place, and after another manner. 
 
 Where there is no room for conjecture, we may look 
 to other particulars. And first, an affair is deliberated 
 upon, either on its own account, or on account of other 
 intervening extrinsic causes. On its own account, as 
 when the Roman senators deliberated, "Whether they 
 should raise a fund for the pay of the army,* and other 
 military expenses ?" This deliberation will be simple. 
 On account of other intervening extrinsic causes, which 
 are of two sorts. First, by showing reasons for doing 
 a thing, as when the senate deliberated "Whether the 
 three Fabiif should be delivered to the Gauls, who, if 
 they were not, threatened to declare war? Secondly, by 
 showing reasons for not doing a thing; as when Caesar 
 deliberated "Whether he should continue his march 
 into Germany, J notwithstanding the consternation of 
 his soldiers, who all made their wills, as promising to 
 themselves certain death?" These subjects of delibe- 
 ration contain two clauses : the first, because the Gauls 
 
 * See Livy, lib. iv. -J- Ibid., lib. v. 
 
 J Casar, lib. i.; de Bell. Gal. 
 
INVENTION. 49 
 
 threaten to declare war; but the question may be, 
 whether, waiving the just resentment of the Gauls, it 
 would not be proper to deliver up to them the three 
 ambassadors, who, contrary to the law of nations, com- 
 mitted acts of hostility, by bringing on a battle, and 
 killed the king, to whom they had been deputed on the 
 business of the republic ? In the other deliberation, 
 nothing occurs to deter Caesar from his enterprise, but 
 the consternation of his soldiers ; yet the question may 
 be, whether, regardless of this accident, he ought to 
 penetrate into Germany? But in these deliberations 
 we should always begin with the principal question, 
 which, even abstracting from all incidental questions, 
 may form a proper subject for deliberation. 
 
 2. But with regard to the persons consulting, a pro- 
 per decorum should be preserved; for, although exam- 
 ples may be of great weight in counsels, because men 
 are easily induced to give their assent to what has been 
 already experienced; yet we should weigh well the 
 authority of the examples proposed, and before whom, 
 and for whom, they are proposed. The minds of 
 men are differently constituted; and they who delibe- 
 rate are many assembled together, or single persons; 
 but there is a difference in both. If many, it is of 
 great importance whether it be the senate or people; 
 the Romans, or Fidenates, Greeks, or Barbarians. If 
 single persons, whether Cato or Marius ought to be a 
 candidate for such honors ; and whether Scipio, in pre- 
 ference to Fabius, should be consulted on the manner 
 of conducting the war. Age, sex, and dignity, will 
 also have their peculiar considerations ; but the greatest 
 5 
 
50 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 difficulty lies in the consideration of the party's moral 
 character. 
 
 3. The character of the adviser is also of great im- 
 portance; because past life, if illustrious, or noble 
 extraction, or respectable age, or fortune, raises ex- 
 pectation on these occasions; and nothing of those 
 things which may be spoken must be inconsistent with 
 his character. But speakers of a contrary character 
 require a more humble manner; as the liberty of speech 
 assumed by the former would be called impertinence, 
 and temerity in the latter. And while authority is 
 fully sufficient for some, others can scarcely recommend 
 themselves by all the force of reason. — Lib. iii. cap. 8. 
 
 FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
 
 Deliberative Eloquence. 
 
 But such particulars must appear with less pomp in 
 the senate; for the senate is an assembly of wise men, 
 where many must have liberty to speak in their several 
 turns, and where one must avoid all affectation of wit, 
 and all ostentation of abilities. But a public assembly 
 requires all the energy, the weight, and the coloring of 
 eloquence. Therefore, in debate, the principal charac- 
 ter is dignity. For he who thinks that utility is, never 
 considers what the person in debate most wishes for, 
 but sometimes what he chooses to practise. For there 
 is not a man, especially in so noble a state as this, who 
 does not think that dignity is the most desirable cha- 
 racter. But interest generally prevails when a man 
 is afraid that, if his interest is neglected, he shall be 
 incapable of retaining his dignity. But all difference 
 
INVENTION. 51 
 
 of sentiments among mankind consists in this : which 
 proposition is most advantageous ? Or, if that is 
 agreed upon, whether they ought to pay more regard 
 to honesty or interest f As these often seem incom- 
 patible with one another, the man who stands by his 
 interest, expatiates upon the advantages of peace, 
 riches, power, money, revenues, safety, and a fine 
 army; together with other advantages, which are com- 
 puted by their utility; at the same time, he exhibits 
 the inconveniences of the contrary measures. The 
 man who consults dignity will recount the examples of 
 our ancestors, who pursued glory, though attended with 
 danger ; he will display the immortal fame that we 
 leave to posterity; he will maintain that the interest of 
 his country arises from her honor, and is inseparable 
 from her dignity. But in both these questions the 
 points in dispute are : what can be done, or what can- 
 not be done ? For all debate is at an end if it is ad- 
 mitted on all hands that a measure is either absolutely 
 impossible, or inevitably necessary: and the man who 
 has proved this before the other members are aware of 
 it, must be allowed to see farther than the rest. But 
 to have weight in political debates, the chief thing is, 
 to be acquainted with the state of the republic, and»to 
 know the manners and customs of your country : these, 
 as they often change, occasion as frequent changes in 
 the manner of speaking; and although the power of 
 eloquence is generally the same, yet because the dig- 
 nity of the people is the highest, the cause of our 
 country the weightiest, the inclinations and commo- 
 tions of the many the strongest, all this seems to 
 require a more grand and elevated manner of speak- 
 
52 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 ing. And the greatest part of the harangue must be 
 applied to the passions, either by way of encourage- 
 ment, or commemoration, or they are to be worked 
 upon by hopes, by fears, by desire, or by glory; and 
 they are frequently to be reclaimed from rashness, re- 
 sentment, hope, injury, hatred, and cruelty. — Lib. ii. 
 cap. 82. 
 
 What is a judicial oration ? 
 
 A judicial oration is that species of oratory which is 
 used in accusing or defending.* 
 
 By what name is the principal question, or point of 
 dispute, in all controversies designated ? 
 
 States. -\ 
 
 What is meant by the state of a cause ? 
 
 The principal point in dispute between contending 
 parties, upon the proof of which the whole cause or 
 controversy depends. J 
 
 How is this exemplified ? 
 
 Milo was accused for killing Clodius ; Milo confessed 
 he killed him, but said he did it justly : now the state 
 
 * Quintilian, in the third book of his Institutes, says: "I shall now 
 speak of the judicial kind, which, although the most extensive and 
 various, consists only of two offices, accusation and defence." 
 
 j" The state of a controversy is expressed, by several other names, in 
 ancient writers, as " The Constitution of the Cause" — " The General 
 Head" — and "The Chief Question." Our common law expresses it by 
 one word ; namely, the Issue : which interpreters define, " that point of 
 matter depending in suit whereupon the parties join, and put their 
 cause to the trial." 
 
 J Status est qusestio, qua? ex prima causarum conflictione nascitur; 
 ut, Sylla, conjuravisti cum Catilina; depulsio vero defensoris; non con- 
 juravi: ex hac prima conflictione nascitur ilia quaestio, conjuraveritne 
 Sylla cum Catilina ?-— -Qitwtf. Inst., lib. iii. cap. 6. 
 
INVENTION. 53 
 
 of the cause is, did Milo kill Claudius justly, or 
 unjustly ? 
 
 How many general states are there ? 
 
 Three: Conjectural, Definitive, and the State of 
 Quality.* 
 
 When is a cause conjectural ? 
 
 When it is inquired whether the thing was done or 
 not : as, did Cselius prepare poison for Clodia ? 
 
 When is a cause definitive ? 
 
 When the fact is not denied, but the dispute turns 
 upon the name and nature of the crime ; as, whether to 
 take a sacred thing out of a private house be theft or 
 sacrilege ? 
 
 What is a cause in quality? 
 
 When the contending parties are agreed both as to 
 the name and nature of the action, but the dispute turns 
 upon its justice ; as, was it lawful or unlawful for Milo 
 to slay Clodius ? 
 
 FROM QUINTILIANS INSTITUTES. 
 
 States. 
 
 This state of the cause is that which the orator pro- 
 poses to himself chiefly to obtain, and into which the 
 judge understands he must particularly examine; for 
 on this the cause is built. 
 
 Most authors have distinguished three general states ; 
 of Conjecture Definition, and Quality. This is the 
 
 * Cicero and Quintilian reduce the states to three ; to these Aristotle 
 and Vossius add a fourth; namely, of Quantity 5 as, " Whether the in- 
 jury be so great as it is said to be." 
 
 5* 
 
54 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 division which Cicero adopts in his books of the Ora- 
 tor, and thinks every matter of debate and contention 
 may regard, " Whether the thing is, what it is, and of 
 what sort it is." 
 
 Let us, therefore, believe those to whose authority 
 even Cicero has submitted, acknowledging that only 
 three questions can arise in all manner of contro- 
 versies; as, "Whether a thing be, what it is, and of 
 what sort it is." This Nature herself teaches us; for 
 we must first conceive that our doubts have some ob- 
 ject, and we cannot form a judgment on the nature of 
 this object and its quality, unless we are previously 
 assured that it exists. This, therefore, will be the first 
 question. But to be certain of its existence, does not 
 prove that we know what it is. When this is cleared 
 up, nothing remains except quality, beyond which there 
 is nothing. — Lib. iii. cap. 6. 
 
 What distinction exists between deliberative and 
 judicial eloquence ? 
 
 In deliberative eloquence the great object is persua- 
 sion, and the speaker of course directs himself to the 
 passions as well as to the understanding; but, in judi- 
 cial eloquence, his object is conviction, and, therefore, 
 it is chiefly or solely to the understanding that his elo- 
 quence is addressed. 
 
 What discourses may be referred to the judicial 
 kind? 
 
 Cicero's orations for Milo, Rabirius, Ccelius, and 
 Ligarius. 
 
 What is the object of arguments from morals ? 
 
INVENTION. 55 
 
 To procure favor, or to please. 
 
 What does this part of invention comprise ? 
 
 The disposition, character, and qualifications of the 
 speaker.* 
 
 By what name does Quintilian designate it ? 
 
 A propriety of manners. 
 
 How many qualities are requisite in an orator, in 
 order to render what he says acceptable to his hearers? 
 
 Four : wisdom, integrity, benevolence, and modesty.f 
 
 What is the object of arguments from the affections? 
 
 To move the passions, or to persuade. J 
 
 How is this to be accomplished ? 
 
 By being moved ourselves; by painting the object of 
 that passion which we wish to raise, in the most natu- 
 ral and striking manner; and by describing it with 
 
 * "Honorable actions and upright lives, in the pleader and his client, 
 greatly contribute to a successful termination of his cause, while a con- 
 trary character in the adverse party tends effectually to their defeat. 
 The same effect is likewise produced by conciliating, as much as we 
 can, the minds of the judges. A favorable opinion, again, is gained 
 by dignity of character, by the actions which a person has performed, 
 by his reputation, which are much more easily set forth if they are real 
 than if they are fictitious." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 43. 
 
 j- It was a favorite position among the ancient rhetoricians, that in 
 order to be a truly eloquent and persuasive speaker, nothing was more 
 necessary than to be a virtuous man : " Non posse oratorem esse nisi 
 virum bonum." Longinus, in the latter part of the forty-fourth section 
 on the Sublime, asserts that genius can never exert itself, or rise to 
 sublimity, where virtue is neglected and the morals are depraved. And 
 the Archbishop of Cambray says, that " an orator cannot be fit to persuade 
 people, unless he be inflexibly upright." 
 
 J The power to excite, appease, and sway the passions, agreeably to 
 the design of the speaker, is what Quintilian calls " the soul and spirit 
 of his art." 
 
56 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 such circumstances as are likely to awaken it in the 
 minds of others. 
 
 What are the affections, or passions ? 
 
 They are certain emotions of the mind, accompanied 
 either with pleasure or pain. 
 
 How does Aristotle define them ? 
 
 The affections, says he, are those things by which 
 men being moved, make a different judgment of things.* 
 
 What passions may be referred to the different kinds 
 of orations? 
 
 To the demonstrative may be referred joy and sor- 
 row, love and hatred, emulation and contempt; to the 
 deliberative, fear, hope, and shame; and to the judicial, 
 anger and lenity, pity and indignation. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Judicial Eloquence. 
 
 I shall now speak of the judicial kind, which, al- 
 though the most various and extensive, consists only of 
 two offices, Accusation and Defence. Its parts, accord- 
 ing to most authors, are five : Exordium, Narration, 
 Proof, Refutation, and Peroration. To these some 
 have added Division, Proposition, and Digression ; but 
 the first two are included in the Proof. As to Digres- 
 sion, if it be foreign to the cause, it cannot make a part 
 
 *. Cicero, in his De Oratore, book ii. chapter 42, says : " For men 
 often judge under the influence of hatred, love, desire, anger, grief, joy, 
 hope. fear, mistake, or some emotion of the mind, rather than of truth, 
 precept, law, or equity." 
 
INVENTION. 57 
 
 of it ; and if it belong to the cause, it may serve as a 
 help or ornament to the parts from which it digresses. 
 But if everything in a cause should be called a part of 
 it, why should not argument, similitude, common place, 
 passions, and examples be also called parts ? Nor do I 
 agree with those, as Aristotle, who exclude Refutation 
 as included in Proof; for the one establishes, and the 
 other destroys, which are different things. The same 
 author differs also from us in opinion, by placing Pro- 
 position, and not Narration, after the exordium. 
 
 But I do not pretend that the orator must think of 
 every one of these parts in the same order that he is 
 to speak. His principal care should be to examine into 
 the nature of the cause which he undertakes; to know 
 the state of the question; what makes for and against 
 it; tuhat he is to prove, and what to refute. In the 
 next place, he must arrange his narration; for its 
 exposition is a preparation of proofs; nor can it be 
 useful, unless it first appears what he may promise to 
 himself from his proofs. And, lastly, he must consider 
 the means of procuring the favor of the judges ; for it 
 must be from a diligent inspection into all parts of the 
 cause, that he will be able to know the disposition of 
 mind in which they may be, as gentle or severe, pas- 
 sionate or cool, inflexible or tractable, for deciding in 
 his favor, — Lib, iii, cap. 9, 
 
58 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 PART II 
 
 DISPOSITION. 
 
 What is disposition ? 
 
 Disposition is the proper arrangement of the argu- 
 ments or parts of an oration. 
 
 How many parts are there in a regular formal ora- 
 tion, and in what order should they stand ? 
 
 Six : and generally stand in the following order : 
 Exordium, Narration, Proposition, Confirmation, Re- 
 futation, and Peroration.* 
 
 What is the exordium ? 
 
 The exordium, or introduction, is that part of an 
 oration in which the speaker gives some intimation of 
 
 * Hence the old verse : 
 
 Exorsus, Narro, Seco, Firmo, Refuto, Peroro. 
 
 Cicero expresses himself in a similar manner relative to the natural 
 constituent parts of an oration : " Inventio in sex partes orationis con- 
 sumitur, in Exordium, Narrationem, Divisionem, Confirmationem, Con- 
 futationem, et Conclusionem." — Ad Heren., i. 3. 
 
 Blair says: "There may be many excellent discourses in public, 
 where several of these parts are altogether wanting: where the speaker, 
 for instance, uses no introduction, but enters directly on his subject; 
 where he has no occasion either to divide or explain ; but simply rea- 
 sons on one side of the question, and then finishes." 
 
DISPOSITION. 59 
 
 the subject to the audience, in order to render them 
 attentive, benevolent, and docile.* 
 
 What are the principal kinds of introductions ? 
 
 The Exordium ah abrupto, Prineipium, and In- 
 sinuatio. 
 
 When is the Exordium ab abrupto used ? 
 
 When the subject is such that the very mention of it 
 naturally awakens some passionate" emotion ; or when 
 the unexpected presence of some person or object in a 
 popular assembly inflames the speaker, and makes him 
 break forth with unusual warmth, f 
 
 When is Principium used ? 
 
 When the orator plainly and directly professes his 
 aim in speaking. 
 
 When is Insinuatio used ? 
 
 When the orator, supposing the disposition of the 
 audience to be prejudiced against him, artfully endea- 
 vors to conciliate their favor, before he openly discovers 
 the point he has in view.J 
 
 Enumerate the rules necessary to be observed in the 
 composition of an exordium. 
 
 It should be such as the subject naturally suggests ;§ 
 
 * Cicero and Quintilian mention three ends, to one or other of which 
 an exordium should be subservient - "Reddere, auditores, benevolos, 
 attentos, dociles." 
 
 ■f The appearance of Catiline in the senate renders the vehement 
 beginning of Cicero's first oration against him very natural and proper : 
 Quousque tandem, Catilina, abutere patientia nostra? 
 
 J See Cicero's second oration against Rullus, and his seventh against 
 Mark Antony. 
 
 § It must appear, as Cicero beautifully expresses it: " Effloruisse 
 penitus ex ea causa quae turn agatur: To have sprung up, of its own 
 accord, from the matter which is under consideration." — Cic. de Orat., 
 lib. ii. 78. 
 
60 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 it should not be composed until the speaker has medi* 
 tated in his own mind the substance of his discourse;* 
 it should not anticipate any material part of the sub- 
 ject; and it should possess clearness, modesty, and 
 conciseness. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Of the Exordium. 
 
 What the Latins call exordium, the Greeks express 
 by the more significant term of rf^ooi^'ov, which (from 
 ot>»7, music or song, or ofytoj, a way) sufficiently denotes 
 the part of the discourse that is pronounced before the 
 subject is entered upon. For, whether they have bor- 
 
 Sallust's Introductions, prefixed to his Catilinarian and Jugurthine 
 wars, violate this rule. They might as well have been introductions to 
 any other history, or to any other treatise whatever; and, therefore, 
 though elegant in themselves, they must be considered as blemishes in 
 the work, from want of due connection with it. 
 
 * " When I have planned and digested all the materials of my dis- 
 course, it is my custom to think, in the last place, of the introduction 
 with which I am to begin. For, whenever I wished to consider the 
 introduction first, nothing occurred to me but what was dry, trifling, 
 trite, and common." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 77. 
 
 Quintilian says: "I cannot approve the course of those who think 
 that the exordium should be the last thing written. For, as it is neces- 
 sary to collect all the materials, and see how they ought to be disposed, 
 before we begin to speak or write, so we ought to begin with what 
 naturally occurs first. A painter or sculptor does not begin with the 
 feet in a portrait or statue ; nor does any art consummate a work where 
 it must begin. And what shall an orator do if he has not time enough 
 to compose entirely his discourse 1 Will he not find himself under an 
 illusion in adhering to so preposterous a custom ? He must, therefore, 
 consider his matter in the order we have prescribed, and write it down 
 in the order of delivery." — Lib. iii. cap. 9. 
 
DISPOSITION. 61 
 
 rowed the term from music, as musicians make a pre- 
 lude for obtaining silence and attention before they 
 play their pieces; so orators, before they begin the 
 cause, have specified, by the same appellation, what 
 they say by way of preface, for procuring towards them 
 a benevolent disposition in the judges. Or, whether, 
 as the same Greeks call ofytov, a way, or introduction to 
 a thing; so orators may have taken the word in the 
 same sense, understanding by it that part which is 
 necessary to acquire the favor of the judge before he 
 receives any information of the cause. 
 
 The reason for an exordium can be no other than to 
 dispose the auditory to be favorable to us in the other 
 parts of the discourse. This, as most authors agree, 
 is accomplished by making them benevolent, attentive, 
 and docile; not but that a due regard should be paid 
 to these three particulars during the whole action; but 
 in the exordium they are especially necessary; as by 
 it we so far gain an ascendency over the mind of the 
 judge, as to be able to proceed further. — Lib. iv. cap. i. 
 
 FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
 The Exordium. 
 
 As to the commencement of a speech, it should 
 always possess accuracy, acuteness, sentiment, and 
 propriety of expression, and be especially adapted to 
 the practice of the bar. For the first judgment, and, 
 as it were, prejudice, which is formed in favor of a 
 speech, arises from its setting out, which ought in- 
 stantly to soothe and entice the hearer. Here I used 
 6 
 
t)Z THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 to be surprised, not at those people who never applied to 
 this business, but at Philip, a man of the first rank for elo- 
 quence and learning, who generally, when he rises up to 
 speak, seems to be at a loss how to begin; yet, at the same 
 time, he says, that after the first attack, then he fights 
 in earnest ; without reflecting that the very people from 
 whom he borrowed this allusion, toss their first javelins 
 with great coolness, with the design to make their ad- 
 dress appear with greater grace, and to manage their 
 strength. And there is no doubt but that pleading in 
 its setting out often requires to be vigorous and spirited ; 
 but if, among men who fight for their lives, a great 
 many flourishes pass before they actually engage, 
 which appear to be more for parade than in earnest, 
 how much more is this to be expected in speaking, 
 where strength and sweetness are required to go hand 
 in hand ? There is no natural cause which pours itself 
 out all at once, and vanishes by a sudden start: in like 
 manner, nature has disguised with a gentle beginning, 
 the progress of the most violent commotions. 
 
 But your preamble is not to be sought from abroad, 
 nor from any other place, but must be taken from the 
 very essence of your cause. For this purpose, after 
 you have felt and surveyed your whole cause, after you 
 have found out and prepared all its topics, you must 
 consider which of them you are to employ in your 
 preamble. This is easily found out, for it must be 
 taken from the allegations which are most fertile, 
 either in proofs, or best adapted to those characters, 
 into which I have said we ought frequently to deviate. 
 It can, therefore, never fail of being important, when 
 it is borrowed, in a manner, from the chief force of our 
 
DISPOSITION. bd 
 
 pleading; and it will appear, that it is not only not 
 common, and not applicable to other causes, but shoots, 
 and, as it were, nourishes of its own accord, from the 
 matter which is under consideration. 
 
 Every preamble of a speech ought either to give an 
 intimation of the whole matter, or to open and prepare 
 the way to the merits of the cause, or to serve for 
 ornament and dignity. But, as in the architecture of 
 houses and temples, their porticos and entries have 
 their proportions; so in pleading, the preamble of a 
 speech ought to be in proportion to the importance of 
 its subject, 
 
 The beginning, therefore, should be so connected 
 with the subsequent part of a speech as not to appear 
 like the nourish of a musician, a thing detached; but 
 like a proportionable member, of a piece with the whole 
 body. For some speakers, after they have finished 
 this premeditated part, make such a transition to the 
 rest of their discourse, that they seem to demand that 
 the audience should suit themselves to their fancies. 
 An orator, then, should use a prelude, not as the Sam- 
 nites do their spears, which they brandish before they 
 engage, though they do not use them in the fight; for 
 he ought to fight armed with the very sentiments he 
 used in his prelude. — Oic. de Orat, lib. ii. cap. 78, 79, 
 80. See also Cic. de Rhet., lib. i. cap. 6-11. Be In- 
 vent., lib. i. cap. 20-26. 
 
 What is the Narration ? 
 
 The Narration, says Apollodorus, is a discourse in- 
 forming the auditory of the matter in dispute. 
 
64 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 What are the qualities which critics chiefly require in 
 Narration ? 
 
 Clearness and distinctness, probability and concise- 
 ness.* 
 
 What are the principal difficulties which occur in 
 Narration ? 
 
 For the orator to adhere strictly to veracity, and at 
 the same time to avoid saying anything which would 
 be prejudicial to his cause; to place in the most striking 
 light every circumstance which appears to his advan- 
 tage ; and to soften and weaken such as make against 
 him; render this part of the subject difficult in the 
 execution. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Narration. 
 
 The judge being prepared in the manner above spe- 
 cified, it is very natural, and it commonly is and ought 
 to be done, to point out the affair upon which he is 
 to pronounce judgment. This is the business of Nar- 
 ration. 
 
 Most authors are of opinion that a narration ought 
 always to be made. This, however, is incorrect; for 
 there are causes so short as to require rather to be 
 proposed than recited. 
 
 * " Narrations," says Aristotle, " should be plain, brief, and probable : 
 '■trains xai #§«;£««;.' " — Rhet. ad Alex., cap. xxxi. 
 
 Quintilian, treating of Narration, in the fourth book of his Institutes, 
 says : " Most writers, especially those who follow the opinions of Iso- 
 crates, will have it to be clear, short, and probable. The same division 
 has my approbation." 
 
DISPOSITION. 65 
 
 This is sometimes the case of the two contending 
 parties; either that they have no exposition to make, 
 or that, agreeing on the fact, they contest only the 
 right; as in a cause before the Centum viri: "Whether 
 the son or brother ought to be heir to him who died 
 intestate?" Secondly, the narration may be sup- 
 pressed, when even there is room for it; and this hap- 
 pens when everything is already known to the judge, 
 or an exact relation has been made by the orator who 
 spoke first. 
 
 Another question, but the subject of a more frequent 
 discussion, is to know, "Whether the narration ought 
 immediately to follow the exordium." They who think 
 it should, seem to have some reason on their side; for, 
 as the design of the exordium is to dispose the judges 
 to hear us with all the good will, docility, and attention 
 we desire ; and as arguments can have no effect without 
 a previous knowledge of the cause, it naturally follows 
 that they should have this knowledge as soon as it can 
 be conveniently given. 
 
 The condition of causes, however, makes some altera- 
 tion in this respect; and if it did not, Cicero, in that 
 elegant oration he left written for Milo, might seem to 
 have misplaced his narration, by proposing three pre- 
 vious questions. Either then it would be better to relate 
 how Clodius lay in wait to attempt Milo's life, if it was 
 not lawful to plead the cause of a criminal who had 
 confessed himself guilty of manslaughter; or if Milo 
 was prejudged by the senate as guilty; or if Pompey, 
 who for certain reasons had blocked up all the avenues 
 to the senate house with an armed force, had done so 
 with the view of being supposed Milo's enemy. Cicero 
 
 6* 
 
bb THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 likewise for Murena, but in a way different from this, 
 does not begin the narration until he refutes the ad- 
 versaries' objections. This method may be used to 
 advantage as often as the crime is not only to be made 
 void, but also charged upon another; for by annulling 
 the imputation of guilt, the narration may afterwards 
 be very seasonably entered upon, to insinuate that an- 
 other is the guilty person ; and thus it is in the art of 
 fencing, the care of putting one's self in a posture of 
 defence precedes that of an attack. 
 
 We may now proceed to the manner of Narration; 
 which is of a thing done, or supposed to be done, and 
 is conceived in a way proper to persuade; or it is, as 
 Apollodorus defines it, a discourse informing the audi- 
 tory of the matter in dispute. 
 
 Most writers, especially those who follow the opin- 
 ions of Isocrates, will have it to be clear, short, and 
 probable. The same division has also my approbation; 
 although Aristotle dissents, in one respect, from Isocra- 
 tes, making a jest of the precept of brevity; as if nar- 
 ration, necessarily long or short, admitted no medium. 
 The disciples of Theodorus receive only the verisimili- 
 tude, because it is not always useful to give a brief and 
 clear account of a thing. The condition of each must, 
 therefore, be carefully distinguished, in order to know 
 how we may properly avail ourselves of them. — Lib. iv. 
 cap. 2. 
 
DISPOSITION. 67 
 
 FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
 Narration. 
 
 A narrative should be as striking as any other part 
 of a discourse. This, however, will cost us more 
 trouble, because it is more difficult to avoid obscurity 
 in a narrative than in the beginning, in the proof, the 
 exculpation, or the peroration. And the consequences 
 of obscurity are much more dangerous here than else- 
 where ; either because obscure expressions, in any other 
 place, are attended with no other inconvenience than 
 that they go for nothing; but obscurity in a narrative 
 throws a cloud upon the whole discourse; or because, 
 in case you should make use of an obscure expression 
 in any other part, you have it in your power to explain 
 it elsewhere; but a narrative can only stand in one 
 place. The way, however, to render a narrative per- 
 spicuous, is to convey it in plain expressions, in a regu- 
 lar method as to time, and without any interruption of 
 the circumstances. 
 
 But when to introduce, or not to introduce a narra- 
 tive, is a prudential consideration; for it is improper 
 to give a detail of a matter that is notorious and self- 
 evident; nor after our opponent has done it, unless 
 with a view to refute him. And if at any time we are 
 engaged in a narrative, we are to take care not to insist 
 with too much vehemence upon any suspicious criminal 
 circumstances that may make against us, and we are 
 to extenuate whatever may ; otherwise we may fall into 
 the error of hurting our own cause, which Crassus says 
 never happens except from design, and not ignorance; 
 
68 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 for the material part of the whole cause depends upon 
 our laying down the subject either cautiously or in- 
 cautiously; because the narrative is the foundation of 
 the whole of the remaining speech. — Lib. ii. cap. 80, 
 81. See also Cic, Mhet., lib. i. cap. 12-16. De Invent., 
 lib. i. cap. 27-30. 
 
 What is Proposition ? 
 
 The Proposition is a distinct and express manner of 
 laying down the subject upon which the speaker de- 
 signs to treat.* 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Proposition. 
 
 Some subjoin Proposition to Narration, as a part of 
 the judicial matter, which opinion we have already 
 answered. Every proposition seems to me the begin- 
 ning of a proof, which usually takes place, not only in 
 pointing out the principal question, but sometimes also 
 in every argument. But we now speak of the first. 
 
 It is not always necessary to use it, as it sometimes 
 sufficiently appears without a proposition what the pur- 
 port of the question is ; especially if the narration ends 
 
 * Orators sometimes lay down the subject of their discourse in one 
 general proposition. Thus Cicero, in his speech to the senate, the day- 
 after Csesar was assassinated, says : " This being the state of our affairs, 
 I think it necessary that we should lay aside all the discord and enmity 
 which have arisen among us, and return again to our former peace and 
 unanimity." He then proceeds to offer his reasons for this advice with- 
 out any division. 
 
DISPOSITION. 69 
 
 where the question begins, or is followed by a short 
 recapitulation, as it commonly happens in the proofs : 
 "This affair was transacted as I told you, judges; he 
 who laid the snare perished in it ; violence was repelled 
 by violence, or rather valor triumphed over insolence."* 
 
 But the proposition is sometimes of considerable ad- 
 vantage, particularly when the fact cannot be denied, 
 and is only defensible by a question of right ; as in the 
 case of him who stole the money of a private person 
 out of a temple, the only question to which the judge 
 should attend is this: "Does he stand guilty of sacri- 
 lege ?" The same may be said of obscure and compli- 
 cated causes, or such as are embarrassed by a number 
 of incidents. 
 
 Propositions are simple and complex. This happens 
 various ways. Thus, when many crimes are alleged 
 together, as when Socrates was accused of corrupting 
 the Athenian youth, and introducing new superstitions. 
 And one fact is deduced from, or corroborated by 
 many, as iEschines, accused of ill conduct in his em- 
 bassy, is charged with falsehood; with doing nothing 
 according to his instructions; with delaying beyond 
 the time fixed for his return ; and with taking bribes. 
 By annexing each of these propositions to their re- 
 spective proofs they will constitute many ; but if united 
 together, it will be the business of the division of the 
 pleading to make them appear in their proper light. — 
 Lib. iv. cap. 4. 
 
 When a formal distribution of an oration into parts 
 is requisite, what is it called ? 
 Partition, or Division. 
 
 * Cic. pro Mil. 
 
70 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 What is Division ? 
 
 Division, says Quintilian, is an enumeration of our 
 own propositions, or those of our opponent, or both 
 together, disposed in order.* 
 
 What are the most material rules to be observed in 
 Partition, or Division ? 
 
 The several parts into which the subject is divided 
 should be really distinct from one another; the subject 
 should be divided into those parts into which it is most 
 easily and naturally resolved; the several members of 
 a division ought to exhaust the subject; the terms in 
 which partitions are expressed should be as concise as 
 possible; and an unnecessary multiplication of heads 
 should be avoided, f 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Of Division.% 
 
 Division is an enumeration of our own propositions, 
 or those of our opponent, or both together, disposed in 
 order. 
 
 Some are of opinion that division should be always 
 
 * Cicero, in defence of Muraena, says: "I perceive the accusation 
 consists of three parts : the first respects the conduct of his life ; the 
 second his dignity ; and the third contains a charge of bribery.'' 
 
 f Quintilian says: "But if division should seem requisite, I am not 
 inclined to assent to the notion of those who would not have it extend 
 to more than three heads. Indeed, when the partitions are too many, 
 they escape the judge's memory and distract his attention; but a cause 
 is not to be scrupulously tied down to this number, as it may require 
 more." 
 
 Cicero, however, never divided any of his orations into more than 
 three heads: and Aristotle, in his Rhet. ad Alex., cap. xxxii., says: we 
 may divide them into three parts: " Ta.%oy.zv Js avraq ha, r^vv." 
 
 J See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. 
 
DISPOSITION. 71 
 
 used; as the cause will appear more clear, and the 
 judge more attentive and docile when he knows of 
 what we speak, and of what we intend afterwards to 
 speak. Others consider this course attended with dan- 
 ger to the orator, either by sometimes forgetting what 
 he had promised, or by something else occurring to the 
 judge or auditor of which he did not think in the divi- 
 sion. I cannot well imagine how this may happen, 
 unless in regard to one who may be either destitute of 
 sense, or rash enough to plead without preparation. In 
 any other respect, nothing can set a subject in so ob- 
 vious a light as a just division. It is a means to which 
 we are directed by the guidance of nature; because, 
 not losing sight of the heads on which we speak is of 
 the greatest assistance to memory. 
 
 But if division should seem requisite, I am not in- 
 clined to assent to the opinion of those who would not 
 have it extend to more than three points. Indeed, 
 when the partitions are too many they escape the 
 judge's memory and distract his attention; but a cause 
 is not to be scrupulously tied down to this number, as 
 it may require more. 
 
 There are better reasons for not always using divi- 
 sion; and the principal one is, that most things are 
 better received, when they have the appearance of 
 extemporaneous invention, and do not seem to savor 
 of the closet, but to arise in the pleading from the 
 nature of the subject itself. 
 
 Add to this, that the judge is to be led into pleasing 
 deceptions, and amused by a variety of stratagems, to 
 keep him from discovering our designs. There are 
 sometimes harsh propositions, which, if the judge 
 
72 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 should foresee, he will take the alarm, like a patient 
 who, being to undergo an operation, dreads the sur- 
 geon's incision knife before he feels it; whereas, if, by 
 not previously proposing anything you give him no 
 time to reflect with himself, your discourse will take 
 full possession of him, and effect more than can be well 
 expected. 
 
 Besides, will not many things light and weak of 
 themselves become considerable when assembled into a 
 body? They are, therefore, rather to be mustered to- 
 gether, and we must fight as by a sally of main force; 
 yet this expedient should be seldom adopted, and then 
 from necessity, and when reason in a great degree 
 compels us to act against reason. 
 
 But, although division may not be always necessary, 
 and at some times superfluous, yet when appropriately 
 adopted, it gives light and beauty to a discourse. This 
 it accomplishes, not only by adding more perspicuity to 
 what is said, things by it being drawn out of their con- 
 fusion, and placed conspicuously before the judges; 
 but also by refreshing the audience with a view of each 
 part circumscribed within its bounds. In like manner, 
 mile-stones ease, in some measure, the fatigue of tra- 
 velers ; because they experience pleasure in knowing the 
 extent of the labor they have undergone ; and to know 
 what remains encourages them to persevere ; as nothing 
 can seem necessarily long when there is a certainty of 
 coming to the end. Quintus Hortensius acquired de- 
 servedly great praise for his exactness in division, 
 although his way of computing the points on his fin- 
 gers was sometimes humorously ridiculed by Cicero. 
 There is, however, a certain medium to be observed, 
 
DISPOSITION. 73 
 
 by avoiding a division too precise, which, indeed, les- 
 sens the dignity of the discourse, and instead of dis- 
 tinguishing the parts makes them not members, but a 
 collection of scraps. 
 
 Every division, therefore, when it may be employed 
 to advantage, ought to be, in the first place, clear and 
 intelligible; for what is worse than being obscure in a 
 thing, the use of which is for guarding against ob- 
 scurity in other things ? In the second place, it should 
 be short, and not encumbered with any superfluous 
 words, because we do not enter upon the subject mat- 
 ter, but only to point it out. 
 
 It will be proper also to consider whether it be de- 
 fective or redundant. It is commonly redundant, when 
 we either divide into the species, the genus being suf- 
 ficient; or subject the species to the genus: as, "I 
 shall speak of virtue, justice, temperance;" whereas, 
 justice and temperance are species of virtue. 
 
 The most natural division proposes what is certain 
 and what is doubtful in a cause. The first head takes 
 in our concessions, and those of the adverse party. 
 The second the reasons for and against us. 
 
 Upon the whole, there cannot be a greater fault than 
 the want of a proper execution of the proposed order. 
 — Lib. iv. cap. 5. 
 
 What is the Confirmation ? 
 
 The Confirmation, says Cicero, is that part of a 
 discourse which contains the arguments which are 
 7 
 
74 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 necessary, in order to strengthen and illustrate the 
 subject.* 
 
 How many different methods may be used in the 
 Confirmation, or Argumentative part of an oration ? 
 
 Two; the Analytic and Synthetic. 
 
 What is the Analytic method ? 
 
 The Analytic is when the speaker conceals his inten- 
 tion concerning the point he is to prove, until he has 
 gradually brought his hearers to the designed conclu- 
 sion. They are led on step by step from one known 
 truth to another, till the conclusion be stolen upon 
 them, as the natural consequence of a chain of propo- 
 sitions, f 
 
 What is the Synthetic method ? 
 
 The Synthetic method of reasoning, which is most 
 generally used, and which is best adapted to the train 
 of popular speaking, is when the point to be proved is 
 fairly laid down, and one argument after another is 
 
 * Aristotle says that in our confirmation " we must strengthen what 
 went before by credible, just, and proper proofs." 
 
 ■j" As, when one intending to prove the being of a God, sets out with 
 observing, that everything we see in the world has had a beginning; 
 that whatever has had a beginning must have had a prior cause; that 
 in productions, art shown in the effect, necessarily infers design in the 
 cause; and proceeds, leading you on from one cause to another, till you 
 arrive at one supreme first cause, from whom is derived all the order 
 and design visible in his works. 
 
 Plato was the author of the Analytic art, which is essentially the 
 same with the Socratic method by which that philosopher silenced the 
 sophists of his age. But there are few subjects which will admit this 
 method, and not many occasions on which it is proper to be employed. 
 Besides, it is not so well adapted to continued discourses, as to those 
 which are interlocutory ; and therefore we find it oftenest in the Socratic 
 Dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. 
 
DISPOSITION. 75 
 
 made to bear upon it, till the hearers are fully con- 
 vinced. 
 
 What is the most proper method of arranging the 
 arguments of a discourse ? 
 
 Rhetoricians generally advise to place the weakest in 
 the middle, and the strongest partly in the beginning, 
 to preoccupy the hearers early, and partly at the end, 
 in order to make a successful impression on the audi- 
 ence.* i 
 
 What is the Refutation ? 
 
 The Refutation, or Confutation, is an answer to our 
 opponent's arguments; either by contradicting them, 
 or showing some mistake in the reasoning, or their 
 invalidity when granted, f 
 
 * Quintilian, in the fifth book of his Institutes, says: "It has also 
 been a matter of dispute, whether the strongest proofs should be placed 
 in the beginning, to make an immediate impression on their minds; or 
 at the end, to make the impression continue with them; or to distribute' 
 them, partly in the beginning, and partly at the end, placing the weaker, 
 in the middle, according to the order of battle set forth in Homer, (see 
 Homer's II , book iv., v. 297;) or lastly, to begin with the weakest, and 
 proceed gradually to the strongest. For my part, I think this should 
 depend on the nature and exigencies of the cause ; yet with this re- 
 serve, that from powerful the discourse might not dwindle into nugatory 
 and frivolous arguments." 
 
 Ergo ut in oratore optimus quisque, sic et in oratione, firmissimum 
 quodque sit primum: durn illud tamen in utroque teneatur, ut ea, quae 
 excellant, serventur etiam ad perorandum: si quae erunt mediocria (nam 
 vitiosis nusquam esse oportet locum) in mediam. turbam, atque in gre- 
 gem conjiciantur. — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 77. 
 
 f In the Refutation, says Aristotle, "It is necessary to extenuate your 
 adversaries' arguments and amplify your own: ' £« ra fxtv ekeivwv y.M£o- 
 iroiuv, to. h o-av-ru at/£eiv.' " — Ad, Alex., cap. xxxiv. 
 
76 THE ART OP RHETORIC. 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 Refutation. 
 
 The Refutation has two different objects in view, 
 either as it regards defence, which entirely consists in 
 refuting; or answering objections, which should be 
 equally cleared upon both sides. 
 
 It is not, however, without reason, as Cicero often 
 bears witness, that it has always been thought more 
 difficult to defend than to accuse. The accusation is 
 much more simple. There is only one way of pro- 
 posing, but there are several ways of answering. The 
 accuser considers it sufficient if what he advances be 
 true; whereas the advocate for the accused must deny 
 the charge, or maintain it as lawful; must make it 
 something else, or excuse, or deprecate punishment; 
 must mitigate, lessen, or show that it is not according 
 to the due form of law; or he must despise, or turn it 
 into ridicule. The accuser, besides, brings from home 
 many particulars upon which he has well studied and 
 reflected, which the advocate must answer, and fre- 
 quently what he little expected. The accuser produces 
 witnesses, and the advocate must invalidate the purport 
 of their depositions. Orators, therefore, of moderate 
 abilities have been found sufficient as accusers, but the 
 most eloquent only have been found capable of con- 
 ducting a defence. To declare, however, my real sen- 
 timents of this matter, I may say, that accusation is 
 so much easier than defence, as it is easier to make 
 than cure wounds. 
 
DISPOSITION. 77 
 
 In order to make a good defence, it will be extremely 
 necessary to attend to the adversary's charge, and his 
 manner of executing it. The first consideration, there- 
 fore, should be, whether that to which we must answer 
 belongs or is foreign to the cause. 
 
 If it belongs to the cause, it must either be denied, 
 or defended, or proved defective in form of law. Be- 
 sides these three, there is no other resource to get 
 clear of a process. 
 
 We have already shown that there are two ways of 
 denying; either that the thing has not been done, or 
 was not done in that manner. Now whatever is not 
 defensible, nor defective in form, must be denied; not 
 only when, by defining it, we may change its nature, 
 but even when no other source remains but denial. If 
 witnesses are produced, much may be alleged against 
 them; if a written instrument, a forgery may be dis- 
 covered by comparing the difference of the handwriting. 
 In fine, nothing is worse than confession. 
 
 When there is no room left for defending and deny- 
 ing, the last point that remains to be controverted in 
 an action is, whether it has been brought in due form 
 of law? 
 
 If the adversary's allegation is foreign to the cause, 
 and yet has some affinity to it, I should rather say, 
 that it has nothing in common with the question, or so 
 trifling in its consequence, that there is no occasion for 
 spending time about it. Forgetfulness may also be 
 pretended by the advocate, which will be very pardon- 
 able in this respect, from the earnest desire that may 
 appear in him for serving his party. 
 
 We should next consider whether it be more advisa- 
 7* 
 
78 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 ble to refute the accuser's proofs altogether, or one 
 after another. Many are attacked together, if either 
 so weak that all may be made to yield to the same 
 effort, or so annoying that it would be inconvenient to 
 encounter them one by one. So circumstanced, we 
 must charge the enemy by one general shock, and 
 fight, as it were, with all our forces mustered in the 
 front of battle. Should we, however, find a difficulty 
 in overpowering the adversary's arguments, we may, at 
 least, compare ours with his, in order to show that the 
 advantage, if any, lies on our side. 
 
 The proofs which are strong, collected in a body, 
 must be refuted separately: "You were his heir, you 
 were poor and harassed, sued for large sums by your 
 creditors, you disobliged your kinsman, and you know 
 that he designed to alter his will." These proofs, thus 
 urged together, press hard; but if you take them 
 singly, the flame that was strong from its heaped up 
 quantity of fuel, will soon appear languid by dispers- 
 ing the combustibles. In like manner, great and deep 
 rivers, branched out into streams, become everywhere 
 fordable. 
 
 There is a fault of appearing over-anxious, and too 
 much embarrassed about every trifling difficulty which 
 occurs. It makes the judge distrust the cause, and 
 frequently the things which, when said extemporane- 
 ously, might remove all doubt, become suspected by 
 delays and preparatory precautions ; as it would appear 
 that recourse was only had to them for want of some- 
 thing more substantial. Let, therefore, the orator 
 show himself confident, and let him always speak as if 
 he entertained the best opinion of his cause. This 
 
DISPOSITION. 79 
 
 was an excellency in Cicero, as in all other respects. 
 Everything he advances is seconded by so great an 
 air of security and authority, that it has the force of 
 a proof, and leaves no room to doubt his veracity. 
 
 Now he who knows the stronghold of the adverse 
 party and his own, will easily judge what he has to 
 refute and what to insist upon. In no other part the 
 order to be observed will be attended with less trouble ; 
 for if we are plaintiffs, our own proofs are first to be 
 established, and next the adversary's refuted. If we 
 are defendants, we are to begin with refuting. But it 
 should be a principal consideration with both parties to 
 know the main point and force of the argument; as it 
 commonly happens that many things are said in causes, 
 and few judged. — Lib. v, cap. 13. 
 
 FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
 
 You are next to state the case, in doing which you 
 are to have in view the point in dispute. You are 
 then to form the strongest arguments you can to sup- 
 port your side of the question, both by invalidating 
 the reasoning of your antagonist, and establishing your 
 own. For the argumentative part upon proofs in a 
 speech is of a single and peculiar nature, yet, at the 
 same time it requires both confirmation and confuta- 
 tion. But, as you cannot confute your antagonist 
 without establishing your own allegations, nor can you 
 establish your own without confuting his, these, there- 
 fore, are joined both in their nature and utility. — Lib. 
 ii. cap. 81. 
 
80 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Of what does the Peroration consist ? 
 
 The Peroration, or Conclusion, consists of a reca- 
 pitulation of the strongest arguments concentrated into 
 one view,* and an address to the passions, f 
 
 * Quintilian says, in the sixth book, chapter i. ; of his Institutes: "The 
 Peroration, called by some the Completion, by others the Conclusion of 
 a discourse, is of two sorts, and regards either the matter discussed in 
 it, or the moving of the passions. 
 
 "The repetition of the matter, and its collection together, which is 
 called by the Greeks (avaxeqa'KaiaxTis) Recapitulation, and by some of 
 the Latins Enumeration, serves for refreshing the judge's memory, for 
 placing the whole cause in one direct point of view, and for enforcing 
 many proofs in a body, which, separate, made less impression." 
 
 f ' ; But it should not be imagined, as some have thought, that all this 
 excitement of the passions, all these sentimental emotions, ought to be 
 confined to the Exordium and Peroration. In them, indeed, they are 
 most frequent, yet other parts admit them also, but in a shorter space, 
 as their greatest stress should be reserved for the end. For here all 
 the springs of eloquence are to be opened. It is here we secure the 
 minds of the audience, if what went before was w r ell executed. Now, 
 having passed the rocks and shallows, we may expand all our sails for 
 being swelled with a favorable gale. And as amplification makes a 
 great part of the peroration, we may then embellish our style with the 
 most pompous expressions and elevated thoughts." — Quint. Inst., lib. vi. 
 cap. i. 
 
 Cicero, in his de Oratore, book ii., chapter 81, says: "But all speeches 
 are generally concluded with amplifications, in order either to exaspe- 
 rate or mollify the judge; and all the abilities of an orator, as in the 
 Exordium, so more especially in the Conclusion of the speech, ave to 
 be exerted in giving the strongest impulse to the feelings of the judges 
 in our favor." 
 
DISPOSITION. 81 
 
 FROM QUINTILIAN. 
 
 The Peroration.* 
 
 The Peroration, called by some the Completion, by 
 others the Conclusion, of a discourse, is of two sorts; 
 and regards either the matter discussed, or the moving 
 of the passions. 
 
 The repetition of the matter, which is called by the 
 Greeks recapitulation (di/a*f$a?uuwcrts), and by some of 
 the Latins enumeration, serves for refreshing the 
 judge's memory, for placing the whole cause in one 
 direct point of view, and for enforcing in a body many 
 proofs, which, separately, made less impression. This 
 repetition should be very short, and the Greek term 
 adequately denotes that we ought to run over only the 
 principal heads ; for, should we be tedious, it will not 
 be an enumeration we make, but, as it were, a second 
 discourse. The particulars, however, which may seem 
 to require this enumeration, ought to be pronounced 
 with some emphatical weight, and enlivened with appo- 
 site thoughts, and diversified with figures; otherwise 
 nothing will be so disagreeable as a mere cursory repe- 
 tition, which appears to show a diffidence of the judge's 
 memory. A multiplicity of figurative expressions are 
 adapted for this purpose: thus Cicero, when addressing 
 Verres, says: "Even if your father was to be judge in 
 the case, what should he say on producing proof of 
 these allegations?" and then he proceeds to enumerate 
 them. Or when, in another place, against the same, 
 
 * See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. 
 
82 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 by invoking the gods to bear witness, lie makes an 
 enumeration of all their temples which had been pil- 
 laged by the Pretor. 
 
 This appears to be the only sort of peroration which 
 was admissible by most of the Athenians, and by almost 
 all the philosophers who left anything written on the 
 art of oratory. The Athenians, I suppose, were of 
 that opinion, because it was customary at Athens to 
 silence, by the public crier, any orator who should 
 attempt to move the passions. I am less surprised at 
 the philosophers, who considered every perturbation of 
 the mind as vicious ; nor did it seem to them compatible 
 with sound morality to divert the judge from truth; nor 
 consistent with the idea of an honorable man to have 
 recourse to any sinister stratagem. Moving the pas- 
 sions, however, will be acknowledged necessary when 
 truth and justice cannot be otherwise obtained, and 
 when a public good is concerned in the decision of the 
 matter. 
 
 All agree that a recapitulation may be also em- 
 ployed to advantage in other parts of the pleading, if 
 the cause is complicated, and requires many arguments 
 to defend it; and, on the other hand, many causes are 
 so short and simple as to have no occasion in any part 
 of them for a recapitulation. This part of the perora- 
 tion is equally common to the accuser, and to the de- 
 fendant's advocate. 
 
 The favor of the judges towards us, is more rarely 
 solicited in the beginning, it being then sufficient to 
 find admittance; as the whole discourse remains for 
 making further impressions. But in the peroration, 
 we must strive to make the judge assume that dispo- 
 
DISPOSITION. 83 
 
 sition of mind it would be necessary for us that he 
 should retain when he conies to pass judgment. When 
 the peroration is finished we can say no more, neither 
 is anything reserved for another place. It is, there- 
 fore, common to the contending parties to conciliate to 
 themselves the judge; to make him unfavorable to the 
 adversary; to raise and allay occasionally his passions; 
 and to say those things which would make the greatest 
 impression, on themselves if they sat as judges. 
 
 But it must not be imagined, as some have thought, 
 that all this excitement of the passions, all these senti- 
 mental emotions, should be confined to the exordium 
 and peroration. In these they are most frequent, 
 although other parts admit them likewise, but in 
 shorter compass, as their greatest force should be re- 
 served for the end. For here, if anywhere, the orator 
 may be allowed to open all the fountains of eloquence. 
 If we have executed all other parts to advantage, here 
 we take possession of the minds of the judges, and, 
 having escaped all rocks and shelves, may expand all 
 our sails for being swelled with a favorable gale ; and 
 as amplification makes a great part of the peroration, 
 we may then raise and embellish our style with the 
 choicest expressions and brightest thoughts. And, in- 
 deed, the conclusion of a speech should bear some 
 resemblance to that of tragedy and comedy, when the 
 actor courts the spectators' applause. In other parts, 
 the passions may be touched, as they naturally rise 
 out of the subject, and no horrible or miserable thing 
 should be exposed without accompanying it with a suit- 
 able sentiment. When the debate may be on the quality 
 of a thing, it is properly subjoined to the proofs of 
 
84 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 each matter. When we plead a cause involved or com- 
 plicated with a variety of circumstances, then it will 
 be necessary to use, as it were, many perorations, as 
 Cicero has done against Verres. There he shed tears 
 for Philodamus, for the masters of ships, for the cruci- 
 fied Roman citizens, and for many others. — Lib. vi. 
 cap. 1. 
 
 FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
 Peroration. 
 
 But all speeches are generally wound up by exagge- 
 ration, in order either to exasperate or mollify the 
 judges; and all the abilities of an orator, as in the 
 preamble, so more especially in the conclusion of the 
 speech, are to be applied in giving the strongest emo- 
 tions to the passions of the judges in our own favor. — 
 Lib. ii. cap. 81. 
 
 EXEMPLIFICATIONS OF THE PRECEDING 
 RULES. 
 
 Satan's Speech to his rebel host. 
 
 (a) myriads of immortal spirits ! powers 
 
 Matchless but with the Almighty! and that strife 
 Was not inglorious, though th' event was dire, 
 
 (a) Exordium. 
 
DISPOSITION. 85 
 
 As this place testifies, and this dire change, 
 
 Hateful to utter : (a) But what power of mind, 
 
 Foreseeing or presaging, from the depth 
 
 Of knowledge past or present, could have fear'd 
 
 How such united force of Gods, how such 
 
 As stood like these, could ever know repulse ? 
 
 For who can yet believe, though after loss, 
 
 That ail these puissant legions, whose exile 
 
 Hath emptied Heav'n, shall fail to reascend, 
 
 Self-rais'd, and repossess their native seat ? 
 
 For me, be witness all the host of Heaven, 
 
 If counsels different, or dangers shunn'd 
 
 By me, have lost our hopes. But he, who reigns 
 
 Monarch in Heav'n, till then as one secure 
 
 Sat on his throne, upheld by old repute, 
 
 Consent or custom, and his regal state 
 
 Put forth at full, but still his strength conceal' d, 
 
 Which tempted our attempt, and wrought our fall. 
 
 Henceforth his might we know, and know our own, 
 
 So as not either to provoke, or dread 
 
 New war, provoked: (b) Our better part remains: 
 
 To work in close design, by fraud or guile, 
 
 What force effected not: that he no less 
 
 At length from us may find, who overcomes 
 
 By force, hath overcome but half his foe. 
 
 Space may produce new worlds ; (c) whereof so rife 
 
 There went a fame in Heav'n that he ere long 
 
 Intended to create, and therein plant 
 
 A generation, whom his choice regard 
 
 Should favor equal to the sons of Heav'n: 
 
 Thither, if but to pry, shall be, perhaps, 
 
 (a) Narration. (6) Proposition. (c) Confirmation. 
 
86 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Our first eruption, thither or elsewhere: 
 (a) For this infernal pit shall never hold 
 Celestial spirits in bondage, nor th' abyss 
 Long under darkness cover, (b) But these thoughts 
 Full counsel must mature : peace is despair'd, 
 For who can think submission? War, then, war, 
 Open or understood, must be resolv'd. 
 
 Milt. Par. Lost, book i. 622. 
 
 St. PauVs eloquent Defence before King Agrippa, and 
 Festus the Roman Governor in Judea. 
 
 Acts xxvi. 
 
 (c) I think myself happy, King Agrippa, because I 
 shall answer for myself this day before thee, touching 
 all the things whereof I am accused of the Jews; 
 especially, because I know thee to be expert in all 
 customs and questions which are among the Jews : 
 wherefore I beseech thee to hear me patiently. 
 
 (d) My manner of life from my youth, which was at 
 the first among mine own nation at Jerusalem, know all 
 the Jews, who knew me from the beginning, (if they 
 would testify,) that, after the straitest sect of our re- 
 ligion, I lived a Pharisee: and now I stand and am 
 judged for the hope of the promise made of God unto 
 our fathers; unto which promise our twelve tribes, in- 
 stantly serving God day and night, hope to come ; for 
 which hope's sake, King Agrippa, I am accused of the 
 Jews. 
 
 (a) Refutation. (b) Peroration. (c) Exordium. (d) Narration. 
 
DISPOSITION. 8T 
 
 (a) Why should it be thought a thing incredible with 
 you that God should raise the dead ? 
 
 (b) I verily thought with myself, that I ought to do 
 many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Naza- 
 reth. Which thing I also did in Jerusalem : and many 
 of the saints did I shut up in prison, having received 
 authority from the chief priests; and when they were 
 put to death I gave my voice against them: and I 
 punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled 
 them to blaspheme ; and, being exceedingly mad against 
 them, I persecuted them even to strange cities. Where- 
 upon, as I went to Damascus with authority and com- 
 mission from the chief priests, at midday, king ! I 
 saw in the way a light from heaven, above the bright- 
 ness of the sun, shining around about me and them 
 who journeyed with me. And, when we were all fallen 
 to the earth, I heard a voice speaking to me, and say- 
 ing in the Hebrew tongue, Saul, Saul, why persecutest 
 thou me ? It is hard for thee to kick against the 
 pricks. — And I said, who art thou, Lord ! and he said, 
 I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest. But rise, and 
 stand upon thy feet; for I have appeared unto thee, 
 for this purpose; to make thee a minister and a wit- 
 ness, both of these things which thou hast seen, and of 
 those things in the which I will appear unto thee : 
 Delivering thee from the people, and from the Gen- 
 tiles, unto whom now I send thee; to open their eyes, 
 and to turn them from darkness to light, and from the 
 power of Satan unto God; that they may receive for- 
 giveness of sins, and inheritance among them who are 
 sanctified by faith that is in me. Whereupon, king 
 
 (a) Proposition {,&) Confirmation 
 
88 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision ; 
 but showed first unto them of Damascus, and at Jeru- 
 salem, and throughout all the coasts of Judea, and then 
 to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to 
 God, and do works meet for repentance. 
 
 (a) For these causes the Jews caught me in the 
 temple, and went about to kill me. Having therefore 
 obtained help of God, I continue unto this day, wit- 
 nessing both to small and great; saying none other 
 things than those which the prophets and Moses did 
 say should come: "That Christ should suffer; and that 
 he should be the first that should rise from the dead; 
 and should show light unto the people and to the Gen- 
 tiles." 
 
 (b) I am not mad, most noble Festus, but speak forth 
 the words of truth and soberness : for the king knoweth 
 of these things before whom also I speak freely; for I 
 am persuaded, that none of these things are hidden 
 from him: for this thing was not done in a corner. 
 King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? I know 
 that thou believest. I would to God, that not only 
 thou, but also all that hear me this day, were both 
 almost, and altogether such as I am, except these 
 bonds, 
 
 Oratio Catilince. 
 
 (o) Ni virtus fidesque vestra spectata mihi forent, 
 nequicquam opportuna res cecidisset; spes magna, do- 
 minatio in manibus frustra fuissent: neque ego per 
 
 (a) Refutation. (b) Peroration. (c) Exordium. 
 
DISPOSITION. 89 
 
 ignaviam, aut vana ingenia, incerta pro certis capta- 
 rem. Sed quia multis et magnis tempestatibus vos 
 cognovi fortes fidosque mihi; eo animus ausus maxi- 
 mum atque pulcherrimum facinus incipere: simul quia 
 vobis, eadem mihi, bona malaque intellexi; nam idem 
 velle atque nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est. 
 
 (a) Sed ego, quae mente agitavi, omnes jam antea 
 diversi audistis caeterum mihi in dies magis animus ac- 
 cenditur, cum considero, quae conditio vitse futura sit 
 nisi nosmet ipsi vindicamus in libertatem. Nam post- 
 quam respublica in paucorum jus atque ditionem con- 
 cessit; semper illis reges, tetrarchse vectigales esse; 
 populi, nationes stipendia pendere; cseteri omnes stre- 
 nui, boni, nobiles atque ignobiles, fuimus vulgus, sine 
 gratia, sine auctoritate, his obnoxii, quibus, si respub- 
 lica valerat, formidini essemus. Itaque omnis gratia, 
 potentia, honos, divitise apud illos sunt, aut ubi illi 
 volunt: nobis reliquerunt, pericula, judicia, egesatem. 
 Quae quousque tandem patiemini, fortissimi viri! 
 
 (b) Nonne emori per virtutem prsestat, quam vitam 
 miseram atque inhonestam, ubi aliense superbise ludibrio 
 fueris, per dedecus amittere ? verum enimvero proh 
 Deum atque hominum fidem ! Victoria in manu nobis 
 est. 
 
 (c) Yiget setas, animus valet ; contra illis, annis atque 
 divitiis omnia consenuerunt : tantummodo incepto opus 
 est; csetera res expediet. 
 
 (d) Etenim quis mortalium, cui virile ingenium, tole- 
 rare potest, illis divitias superare, quas profundant in 
 extruendo mari, et montibus cosequandis; nobis rem 
 familiarem etiam ad necessaria deesse ? Illos binas 
 
 (a) Narratio. (6) Propositio. (c) Confirmatio. (d) Refutatio. 
 
 8* 
 
90 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 aut amplius domos continuare; nobis larem familiarem 
 nusquani ullum esse ? Cum tabulas, signa, toreumata 
 enmnt; nova diruunt, alia aedificant; postremo, omni- 
 bus modis pecuniam trakunt, vexant; tamen summa 
 lubidine divitias suas vincere nequeunt ? At nobis est 
 domi inopia, foris ses alienum; mala res spes multo 
 asperior; denique, quid reliqui kabemus, praeter inise- 
 ram animam ? 
 
 (a) Quin igitur expurgiscimini ? En ilia, ilia, quam 
 saepe optastis, libertas ! Praeterea, divitise, decus, glo- 
 ria, in oculis sita sunt ! fortuna ea omnia victoribus 
 prsemia posuit. — Res, pericula, tempus, egestas, belli 
 spolia magnifica, magis quam oratio mea, vos kortentur. 
 Vel imperatore, vel milite, me utimini; neque animus, 
 neque corpus, a vobis aberit. Haec ipsa, ut spero, vobis 
 cum una consul agam nisi forte animus fallit, et vos 
 servire magis, quam imperare parati estis. 
 
 Sal Bell Catil 
 
 Catiline s Oration in English, 
 
 (b) Had I not sufficient proofs of your courage and 
 fidelity, in vain kad tkis favorable opportunity offered 
 itself; great kopes and dominion kad been in our bands 
 to no purpose: nor would I grasp at uncertainty for 
 certainty, by tke kelp of men of inactive and unsteady 
 dispositions. But because I kave found you valiant 
 and faitkful to me upon many and important occasions, 
 my mind kas dared to undertake one of tke greatest and 
 noblest enterprises : as also, because I am persuaded tkat 
 
 (a) Peroratio. (6) Exordium. 
 
DISPOSITION. 91 
 
 your interest must be affected by what is advantageous 
 or injurious to me; for a similitude of desires and aver- 
 sions is the only lasting foundation of friendship. 
 
 (a) You have all separately heard already what I 
 have projected in my mind: but my desire is daily 
 more inflamed, when I consider, what will probably be 
 our condition of life, if we assert not our own liberty. 
 For since the commonwealth has fallen to the manage- 
 ment and disposal of a few, kings and tetrarchs have 
 always been subject to them; states and nations have 
 paid them tribute: the rest of us, the brave, the good, 
 the noble and the ignoble, have all been as the vilest of 
 the vulgar, without interest, without authority, exposed 
 to those to whom we should be a terror, if the adminis- 
 tration were in its proper state. Hence, all interest, 
 power, honor, and riches, have been engrossed by them, 
 or disposed of at their pleasure: to us they have left 
 dangers, repulses, impeachments, and poverty. Which 
 indignities, how long will you, the bravest of men, 
 tamely endure ? 
 
 (b) Is it not better to die bravely, than, by disgrace 
 to lose a miserable and inglorious life, after you have 
 been the sport of other men's insolence ? But, by the 
 faith of gods and men, we have certain victory in our 
 hands ! 
 
 (o) We have youth, strength, and courage on our 
 side: on the contrary, everything with them is im- 
 paired by years and luxury; there is need only of a 
 beginning: the undertaking itself will accomplish all 
 the rest. 
 
 (d) And what mortal, who has the spirit of a man, 
 
 ,(a.) Narration. (6) Proposition. (c) Confirmation. (d) Refutation. 
 
92 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 can bear that they should have riches in abundance, to 
 lavish in building in the sea, and in leveling mountains ; 
 and that we should want even a competency for the 
 necessaries of life ? That they should have numbers of 
 houses together: we not so much as a household-god 
 left us? 
 
 While they purchase paintings, statues, embossed 
 figures ; pull . down their new buildings, and erect 
 others more stately ; in a word, by all methods, raise 
 and consume their money ; yet, with their utmost ex- 
 travagance, they cannot exhaust their riches. But we 
 have poverty at home, and debts abroad; our circum- 
 stances bad, our expectations much more desperate. 
 To conclude : — What have we left us, except a life of 
 misery ? 
 
 (a) Then why do you not awake ? Behold that li- 
 berty! that glorious liberty you have often wished 
 for ! Moreover, wealth, honor and glory are placed in 
 your view! Fortune has proposed all rewards to the 
 conquerors. May the occasion, opportunity, dangers, 
 distresses, and the magnificent spoils of war excite you 
 more than my oration. Use me, either as your general 
 or fellow-soldier. My heart and hand shall be insepa- 
 rably with you. I hope to be able to assist you in the 
 enterprise, with the consular power, unless, perhaps, 
 my mind deceives me, and you be disposed rather to be 
 slaves than to command. 
 
 (a) Peroration. 
 
DISPOSITION. 93 
 
 WHAT IS A THEME ? 
 
 A Theme is a short and formal treatise on a given 
 subject.* 
 
 Into how many parts is it divided ? 
 
 Seven: Proposition, Keason, Confirmation, Simile, 
 Example, Testimony, and Conclusion. 
 
 Cfnome tractata brevissime. 
 Festina lente. 
 
 1. Propositio. 
 Damnosa est in gerendis rebus nimia festinatio. 
 
 2. Ratio. 
 Quia nihil consilio tarn inimicum est quam temeraria 
 negotii prsecipitatio. 
 
 3. Confirmatio. 
 Sine consilio autem, quicquid sit, recte fieri non 
 potest. 
 
 * Themata vel celebres auctorum sententiae quae in scholis ad exer- 
 cenda puerorum ingenia proponi solent, duo fere habent genera ; vel 
 enim Chreia sunt vel Gnoma. Gnome dicitur quse prsecipitur aliquid 
 vel agendum vel omittendum, fiigiendumve : ut, 
 
 Vive tibi, quantumque potes prcelustria vita % 
 
 vel, 
 
 Ne quid nimis : 
 
 Chreia vero est qusedam nuda rei notitia, sed ea etiam utilis vitas; 
 quae sine praeceptione aliqua vel suasione proponitur, ut, Mors omnibus 
 communis est. 
 
 Eodem fere modo utraque tractatur brevissime quidem sic. 
 
94 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 4. Simile. 
 Ut aestas frugibus, ita deliberandi spatium matu- 
 randis negotiis necessarium. 
 
 5. Exemplum. 
 Fabius Maximus [ut dicitur] Romanani cunctando 
 restituit rem. 
 
 6. Vetus Testimonium. 
 Noverat enim verum esse vetus illud verbum; omnia 
 fieri sat cito sat bene. 
 
 7. Oonelusio. 
 Bene igitur videtur consulere, qui lente monet festi- 
 nare. 
 
 THEMA II. 
 
 Imprimis verier are Deum. 
 
 Prop. Videtur illud mihi officium pietatis perquam 
 necessarium, antequam ad obeunda quotidianae vitse 
 opera nos accingamus, ab invocatione divini numinis 
 auspicari. 
 
 Rat. Quomodo enim fieri potest ut in operibus insti- 
 tutis feliciter progrediamur, nisi propitium nobis faven- 
 temque imprimis Deum reddiderimus ? 
 
 Confirm. Nam sine ejus auxilio nihil est, quod quis- 
 quam suscipere, vel conari, vel cogitare, necdum per- 
 ficere, possit. 
 
 Simile. Quemadmodum agricola terram frustra qui- 
 dem colit, nisi pluviam cselestes reddant fructiferam ; ita 
 nos inutiliter prorsus operi cuiquam admovebimus ma- 
 num, si divina id gratia non irrigaverit, qua quod sus- 
 cepimus ad exitum felicem perducamus.' 
 
DISPOSITION. 95 
 
 Exemp. Memorise traditum est Eomanos olim nihil 
 solicitos fuisse inauspicato molire, nihil aggredi, non 
 explorata prius deorum suorum voluntate. Quanto id 
 magis nos facere Christianos decet ! 
 
 Vet. Test. Itaque Poeta recte monet, qui " a Jove 
 principium, a Deo monet auspicandum." 
 
 Conclus. Quare siquis habet in vortis ut omnia sibi 
 negotia prospere cadant, operam imprimis det, ut pre- 
 cious sibi conciliet voluntatem Dei ; quoniam solus, ut 
 poetae verbis concludam: " Vires ille dat, ille rapit." 
 
 CHREIA. 
 
 THEMA III. 
 
 Mors omnibus communis. 
 
 Prop. Hominibus tandem serius aut citius moriendum 
 est omnibus. 
 
 Bat. Hanc enim naturae legem constituit omnipotens 
 Deus, nequis e nostro genere immortalis sit. 
 
 Oonf. Dei autem leges perfringi nullo modo possunt. 
 
 Simile. Quare, ut Cato venit in theatrum ita nos in 
 hunc mundum, ut exeamus. 
 
 Exemp. Sanctissimus David, sapientissimus Solomon, 
 Samson fortissimus, morti omnes succubuerunt. 
 
 Ver. Test. Adeo verum est illud poetae: " Omnes una 
 manet nox, et calcanda semel via lethi." 
 
 Conclus. Vita igitur hac brevi nunc utamur fruam- 
 urque, videlicet ex terra ficti in terram redituri. 
 
96 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 THEMA IV. 
 
 Labor improbus omnia vincit. 
 
 Prop. Nihil adeo est arduum, nihil tarn operosum, 
 quod assiduitate laboris et constantia non possit ali- 
 quando expugnari. 
 
 Rat. Nam quae duae res omnium videntur difficilimae, 
 cum sint pulcherimae, si quis diligenter operum dat, 
 utramque sibi tandem conciliabit, rerum cognitionem 
 atque virtutem. 
 
 Oonf. Quippe virtutem, quaeque alia in bonis habentur, 
 omnia posuisse Deus dicitur "sudoris in arce:" quam 
 qui enitendo secutus fuerit, haec omnia simul conse- 
 quitur. 
 
 Simile. Quemadmodum enim gutta cavat lapidem, 
 non vi sed saepe cadendo ; ita quae durissima sunt neque 
 primo impetu superari possunt, industrial tamen et sedu- 
 litati assiduae cedunt. 
 
 Exemp, Accepimus olim perpetuis laboribus tantas 
 res gessisse Herculem, quantas ab homine geri potuisse 
 vix profecto jam credimus. 
 
 Vet. Test. Adeo verum est id quod praeclare Q. Cur- 
 tius in quit, " Nihil tarn alte natura posuit, quo virtus 
 non possit eniti." 
 
 Conclus. Est igitur hoc sole meridiano clarius, ea 
 quemque in quibus laboraverit nervosque omnes inten- 
 derit, exanimi sententia confecturum esse omnia; at 
 merito indecorum et turpe habendum sit a rebus ho- 
 nestis atque praeclaris metu difficultatis absterreri. 
 
DISPOSITION. 97 
 
 THEMA V. 
 
 m8axos a| itgw ofayfjuSas. — Callimachus. 
 
 Prop. Cujuslibet rei elegantia concinnitate partium 
 magis quam magnitudine commendatur. 
 
 Rat. Quodcunque enim reipsa pulchrum est, nihil 
 additamenti indiget. 
 
 Conf. Plerumque etiam grandiora quae sunt, defectus, 
 qualescunque sint, magis conspicuos exhibeant necesse 
 est. 
 
 Simile. Neque enim hoc a natura ratione abhorret, 
 quae in minutis avibus decorandis magis operosa est, 
 quam in elephanti mole conformanda. 
 
 JExemp. Silicet non ducem alium quam naturam habet 
 hominum judicium, qui Pindarum venerantur, Anacre- 
 ontem diligunt magis, et amplectuntur. 
 
 Vet. Test. Testem habemus Martialem: 
 
 Ssepius in libro memoratur Persius uno, 
 Quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide. 
 
 Concl. Quum ita sint, si quid nobis componendum 
 proponatur, potius, ut numerus omnibus absolutum sit, 
 quam prolixum, studeamus. 
 
 THEMA VI. 
 
 Plurimum enim intererit, quibus artibus et quibus hunc tu Moribus 
 instituas. — Juv. Sat. xiv. 73. 
 
 For it shall be of great consequence in what arts and in what morals 
 you instruct him. 
 
 Prop. Nemo potest illos dediscere mores, aut earn 
 excutere vivendi rationem, ad quam ab ipsis olim incu- 
 nabilis assuevit. 
 
98 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Hat. Quoniam impetus ille primus, tenera puerita 
 inditus, tarn magnum habet in universa hominum vita 
 monumentum, ut dediscat id sero, quod quis didicit diu. 
 
 Conf. Quum enim longa annorum serie, frequentissi- 
 maque actionum iteratione acquiruntur, in alteram quasi 
 naturam transeunt. 
 
 Simile. Quemadmodum avium pulli et ferarum catuli, 
 semel mansuefacti, semper manent cicures etiam quando 
 in grandiores evaserint; non dissimiliter quos didicerit 
 mores puerilis setas, eosdem etiam turn quando adoleve- 
 rit, penitissime sibi infixos usque retinebit. 
 
 Exemp. Ovidio, scribendis versibus a teneris annis 
 dedito, tarn familiaris ac pene naturalis facta est po- 
 etica facultas, ut illi per universam deinceps vitam: 
 
 Sponte sua numeros carmen veniebat ad aptos. 
 
 Nee dissimiliter contigit in reliquis artibus vivendi 
 que institutis. 
 
 Vet. Test. Ad quid enim aliud respexit Cicero, cum 
 dixerit, " Nullum nos posse majus meliusve reipublica 
 afferre munus, quam docendo et erudiendo juventutem," 
 nisi quod recta juventutis institutio ad summum reipub- 
 licse emolumentum conducat maxime. 
 
 Oonclu. Proinde si quis in votis habeat, liberos suos 
 ad virtutem formare ac bonos mores; id imprimis ope- 
 ram det ut virtutis atque pietatis odore, ab ipsis statim 
 fasciis, intimius imbuantur; quern ad extremam usque 
 senectutem redolebunt. 
 
 Adeo in teneris assuescere multum est. — Virg, 
 
DISPOSITION. 99 
 
 A Theme in English; the Thesis and Substance taken 
 from 1 Esdras, iv. 
 
 Great is the Truth, and stronger than all things. 
 
 Prop. Truth is great, and mighty above all things. 
 All the earth calleth upon it, the heaven blesseth it, all 
 works shake and tremble at it, and with it is no un- 
 righteous thing. 
 
 Reas. Because with her there is no accepting of 
 persons, or rewards; but she doeth the things which 
 are just, and all men approve her works. 
 
 Confirm. For in her judgment there is no unright- 
 eousness, and she is the strength, dominion, power, and 
 majesty of all ages. 
 
 Simile. Even as God, the great Creator, is greater 
 than the spacious earth, the high heaven, or the Swift 
 sun that compasseth the heavens, and returns to his 
 own place in one day ; so is Truth greater and stronger 
 than all things. 
 
 Exemp. Hence it is that David so frequently calls 
 God a God of Truth. The Lord is my rock and my 
 fortress, and my deliverer. Psal. xviii. 2. I have hated 
 them that regard lying vanities: but I trust in the 
 Lord: Lord God of Truth. Psal. xxxi. 5, 6. 
 
 Test. And our Saviour Christ himself, to show the 
 greatness, superiority, and eternity of Truth, calls him- 
 self the Truth. I am the way, and the Truth, and the 
 life. John xiv. 6. 
 
 Oonel. Wine, therefore, is wicked, kings are wicked, 
 women are wicked, all the children of men are wicked, 
 
100 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 and such are all their wicked works, all which must 
 perish; but as for Truth, it endureth, and is always 
 strong; it liveth and conquereth for evermore: I con- 
 clude, and cry out, that, Great is the Truth, and 
 stronger than all things. Blessed be the God of Truth. 
 
 The same Theme in Greek. 
 
 MeyaXn n AXr,Qna, xai is-yy^-rt^a nta^a irxtTa. 
 Great is the Truth, and stronger than all things. 
 
 (tf) Meya\v n aXnQzia xai is-^v^orsea tcaoa iravra. Tiara, n yn t«v AX«9s«"» 
 *aX£i, xai 5' ajavoff avrtiv evXoyti, xai vravra ta egya esterai xzi tj^usi, xai yx 
 irri /nil afTHf ahxov yS"£V. 
 
 (&) On yx am irao avrnv \a. l u€a.\£:v 7reoTwrra, u$e $ix<po;a. a\>,a xai ts 
 titxaix rroiei xai navrif bv^oxuti tji; E^yoiq avrv<;. 
 
 (c) Ovv£na ax ss-rtv gv t« xgirsi avrns ufcv ahxov xai avrn, n i^xy'i Kal T0 
 BanXetov, xai 55 e^eria, xai 55 fJt.eya\siorri' ruv 7ravTM aiwvwv. 
 
 (c?) Kadcc; o ©E02, Of vavra ttoih, jutti£wv n /x=j/*X>i yn u-\.tXai-., «^/»»e f , et-rg 
 tayys o rjXjoj, c; trrPiferai s> rx xvxXca ra UPavu, xai TraXtv awo-r^sr n? tov 
 txvru Tcmov sv fxia n/ueea' ovtod; % AXnQsia fxn^aiv xai icr)(vsoTSea tra°a iravra. 
 
 (e) Evtsv9bv o AABIA TroXXaxt? ovofxa^n ©£sv tov ©gov t»j AX«9s«aj. Kv^ios 
 a-re^sxfxa juu, xai xaratyvyv fxe, xai gurrns |tty. Psalm, xviii. 2. E/ui«-»jra 
 ry; o\a<}>t;>.a:r<rovTaj /uaTaiOTUTOf foaxsvn; $yto $e s?n tcc Kv^ta t:\iria-aKvfie o 
 Beoq tij? AX»0£»a?. Psalm, xxxi. 5, 6. 
 
 (/) Kat Ki/;ioj n/xtoi o XPI2T02 avrot;, tva $£(£» on nra^a Travra « AXr.Bsia 
 vTTt£io-%vEi , eimv — Eyao tifxi n oJV, xai n AAH0EIA, xai n £a>». — Joan, xiv. 6. 
 
 (g) Ou» «5(X5j ? oivsf, aS'JXO? o* Ba<riXsu;, ao\xa» ai rwatxs?, atiixoi Travre; ot vsoi 
 t&jv avQgvriuv, xai ahxa Travra ra leya aurtvv ra roiavra, xai arro\yvTat. AXX 
 t) A\rt&eia fxi-Ei xai is")^Vzi st? tov ajct'va, xai ^>j xai xjarst et- tov ajrwva ry 
 aiiwvof. ETTiXs^iiJ xai <paovEH) — MjyaXn » AX»9e:a, xai iaxy*0TSga Trafa TraVT*. 
 Eu\oy*iTO( o ©£3f r»]f AXrSsfaf. 
 
 (a) Propositio. (6) Ratio. (c) Confirmatio. (d) Simile. 
 
 (e) Exemplum. (/) Testimonium. (g) Conclusio. 
 
ELOCUTION. 101 
 
 PART III 
 
 ELOCUTION. 
 
 What is Elocution ? 
 
 Elocution is the proper, polite, and ornamental ex- 
 pression of our thoughts.* 
 
 Into how many parts is it divided ? 
 
 Three: Composition, Elegance, and Dignity, f 
 
 What is Composition ? 
 
 Composition is such a structure of words and periods 
 as conduces most to accuracy of expression and har- 
 mony of sound. J 
 
 * Omnis oratio tres habet virtutes, ut emendata, ut diltucida, ut ornata 
 sit. — Quint. Inst., lib. i. cap. 5. 
 
 f Hinc tria in se habere debet, Compositiomm, Ekganliam, et Digni- 
 tatem. — Cic. ad Her^ lib. iv. cap. 12. 
 
 J Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his Treatise on the Structure of 
 Words, has recounted the different sorts of style, has divided each into 
 the periods of which it is composed, has again subdivided those periods 
 into their different members, those members into their words, those 
 words into syllables, and has even anatomized the very syllables into 
 letters, and made observations on the different natures and sounds of 
 the vowels, half-vowels and mutes. He shows also by examples from 
 Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides, with what artful management those 
 distinguished writers have sweetened and ennobled their composition, 
 
 9* 
 
102 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Enumerate the parts of Composition ? 
 Period,* Order, f Juncture, J and Number. § 
 
 and made their sound to echo to the sense. In lib. de Comp., cap. 2, he 
 Says: "Es-ti -njf ZuvSso-ewj l^ya, oixekwj Suvai to. rt ovofxaTa Traj' a.Mn'Ka., holi 
 
 o'xov rovhoyw:'" "The business of composition is to arrange our words in 
 exact order respecting each other, to render to each member its proper 
 harmonious sound, and to distinguish the whole oration into its most 
 agreeable periods." 
 
 * Cicero distinguishes sentences into two kinds: the one he calls 
 "tracta," direct or straight; and the other "contorta," bent or winding. 
 By the former he designates those sentences whose members follow 
 each other in a direct order without any inflection; and by the latter, 
 those consisting of correspondent parts, so formed that the voice, in pro- 
 nouncing them, may have a proper elevation and cadence; and as the 
 latter part returns back and unites with the former, the period, like a 
 circle, surrounds and encloses the whole sense. For iregdSoe in Greek 
 signifies a circle, or circuit; and the Latins called it circuitus and am- 
 bitus. In the construction of periods, two things require attention; their 
 length and cadence. Although the precise length of periods cannot be 
 ascertained by any definite measure, yet the ancient rhetoricians seldom 
 used more than four members or colons. The termination of each 
 member should form a pause or rest in pronouncing: and these rests 
 should be so distributed as to make the course of the breathing easy; 
 for, to extend them farther than the voice can manage, must be painful 
 to the speaker, and, consequently, unpleasant to the audience. As to 
 cadence, Cicero says, that the ears judge what is full and what is de- 
 ficient ; and Quintilian says, " Let there be nothing harsh or abrupt in 
 the conclusion of the sentence on which the mind pauses and rests. 
 This is the most material part in the structure of discourse. Here 
 every hearer expects to be gratified; here his applause breaks forth." 
 The only important rule, says Blair, that can be given here is, that the 
 sound should be made to grow to the last ; the longest members of the 
 period, and the fullest and most sonorous words should be reserved to 
 the conclusion. 
 
 f Order is of two kinds, Natural and Artificial : the one is peculiarly 
 adapted to the genius of all the modern languages of Europe ; the other 
 to the Latin, Greek, Sclavonic, Russian, and Gaelic. By the former, we 
 arrange our words according to the order in which the understanding 
 
ELOCUTION. 103 
 
 In what does Elegance consist ? 
 
 In the perspicuity and propriety of language ; purity 
 in the choice of words; and care and dexterity in their 
 happy arrangement. 
 
 directs those ideas to be exhibited to the view of another: and by the 
 latter, the ancients generally arranged their words according to the 
 order in which the ideas arose in the speaker's imagination. The 
 natural order is more clear and distinct; the artificial more striking and 
 animated. The modern arrangement appears to be the consequence of 
 greater refinement in the art of speech ; the ancient gratifies more the 
 rapidity of the imagination, which naturally runs first to that which is 
 its chief object ; and having once named it, carries it in view through- 
 out the rest of the sentence. In the ancient languages, the arrangement 
 which most commonly obtains, is to place first in the sentence that 
 word which expresses the principal object of the discourse, together 
 with its circumstances; and afterwards, the person or the thing that 
 acts upon it. In the construction of artificial sentences, Quintilian says, 
 that the verb should stand last, " because the force of the sentence lies 
 in the verb." The object of the ancients, therefore, was that, as the 
 whole sentence is imperfect without the verb, the mind being thus 
 held in suspense might receive a more permanent impression from it at 
 last. 
 
 J With regard to Juncture, it may be observed, that when the pre- 
 ceding word ends with a vowel, the subsequent one ought to begin with 
 a consonant; and vice versa. But when it is more perspicuous or con- 
 venient for vowels or consonants to end one word and begin the next, 
 it is proper that the vowels be a long and short one : and that the con- 
 sonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of different sorts. And 
 lastly, the same syllable ought not to be repeated at the end of one 
 word and the beginning of the subsequent one. The following verse, 
 at the beginning of the first book of Virgil's iEneid, possesses all these 
 properties: 
 
 JLrma virumque cano, Trojm qui primus ab oris. 
 
 Where any word, in this verse, ends with a vowel, the next begins 
 with a consonant; and where any one ends with a consonant, the next 
 begins with a vowel; and there is no repetition of the same sound 
 throughout the whole line. It will be found extremely difficult, how- 
 
104 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 How is Elegance acquired ? 
 
 By studying the most correct writers, and by fre- 
 quent and accurate composition.* 
 
 ever, on all occasions, to observe this harmonious construction ; espe- 
 cially in the English language, which abounds with consonants. 
 
 § In the Greek and Roman languages every syllable has its distinct 
 quantity ; and is either long, short, or common : two or more of these 
 joined together in a certain order, make a foot, and a determinate num- 
 ber of these in a different order constitute their several sorts of metre. 
 This variety of sounds gives a much greater harmony to their poetry 
 than what can arise only from the seat of the accent, and the similitude 
 of sound at the end of two verses, which chiefly regulate our metre. 
 And although their prose was not so confined with regard to the feet, 
 as their metrical composition, yet it had a sort of measure, particularly 
 in the rise and cadency of their periods, which they called rhetorical 
 number. Accordingly, the ancient rhetoricians taught what feet were 
 best adapted to the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. As such 
 rules, however, are not applicable to our language, which has not that 
 accurate distinction of quantity in its syllables, the following general 
 directions may contribute to modulate our periods, and adjust their 
 cadency. A considerable number of long or short words near each 
 other should be avoided; a succession of words of the same termina- 
 tion should also be avoided ; nor should a sentence conclude with an 
 adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. In genera], says 
 Blair, it seems to hold, that a musical close, in our language, requires 
 either the last syllable, or the penult, that is, the last but one, to be a 
 long syllable. 
 
 From these remarks on the constituent parts of Composition, namely, 
 Period, Order, Juncture, and Number, it will appear manifest that the 
 first treats of the structure of sentences; the second, of the parts of 
 sentences, which are words and members; and the two last, of the 
 parts of words, which are letters and syllables; the former exhibiting 
 their connection, and the latter their quantity. 
 
 * Elegantia acquiritur doctrina puerili, et consuetudine sermonis quo- 
 tidiani, et lectione oratorum et poetarum confirmatur. — Cic. ad M. Brut, 
 de Orat. 
 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on this subject thus expresses himself: 
 " E7t Jet roiq t»v waXajwv £VTvyx,ct>£iv s-vyypafxfxas-tv, iv* svtsvSsv (J.n (xovw tjjj 
 
ELOCUTION. 105 
 
 In what does dignity consist ? 
 
 In elevation and grandeur of thought, magnificence 
 of expression,* and a skilful application of Tropes and 
 Figures, f 
 
 What is a Trope ? 
 
 A Trope (from t^xa, to turn) is the turning a 
 
 UTrc&tosoi)? thv oXnv etWaxcti tcv tcdv i^ieufjt.a.'roov £nXsv ^oenyn&Mfxiv. H vaj 4 /V X n 
 Ttf avayivwo-KOVToj, vtto tt\$ -rt/yE^yj Tra^aTn^Jio^a)?, txv o^oiOTKTa t» p^afcjt- 
 TJigo? s*f>sXxgT«{." — De Prise. Script., cap. 1. "We ought to be conversant 
 in the writings of the ancients, not only for subject matter, but for the 
 sake of imitating them in every particular. For the mind of a reader, 
 by a perpetual observation, insensibly contracts a similitude of style." 
 
 To these instances may be added the following extract from the thir- 
 teenth section of Longinus on the Sublime: "For hence it is, that num- 
 bers of imitators are ravished and transported by a spirit not their own, 
 like the Pythian priestess when she approaches the tripod. There is, 
 if fame speaks true, a chasm in the earth, from whence exhale Divine 
 evaporations, which impregnate her on a sudden with the inspiration of 
 her god, and cause in her the utterance of oracles and predictions. So, 
 from the 6ublime spirit of the ancients, there arise some fine effluvia, 
 like vapors from the sacred vents, which work themselves insensibly 
 into the breasts of imitators, and fill those who naturally are not of a 
 towering genius, with the lofty ideas and fire of others." 
 
 * Isocrates, speaking of Dignity, in Orat. v., contra Sophist., says : 
 " tcdv xai^xv fxn Xia.y.a.e'rtiv, aWa xai -rot? sv9v,u>i3-ai7{ 7r^e7rovTa? oXov tov "KoyvJ 
 XaTa7ro<xtXat, xai TOif ove,u.ae-«v iuevS/uoas xai fAmrtxass imW TctVTa. £e TToXXji? 
 nv\.y.iklia$ fciTai. Hal ^UX*' atS^tJtnf Kai S^tts-TiKnf tpyov gy-n :" "To adapt 
 
 everything to the occasion, to diversify, with becoming decency, the 
 subject matter of an oration, and to place the words in a musical, har- 
 monious order, require much diligence, sublime thought, and piercing 
 penetration." 
 
 f Majore autem cura rhetor doceat Tropos omnes et Figuras, quibus 
 praecipue non modo poema, sed etiam Oratio ornatur.-~Qt«Vi£. Inst. 
 
 Longinus, in one place, speaking of figures, says : " For these, when 
 judiciously used, conduce not a little to greatness:" and, in another 
 place, "Figures naturally impart assistance to, and, on the other side, 
 receive it again, jn a wonderful manner, from sublime sentiments," 
 
106 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 word from its native and proper to a relative improved 
 sense.* 
 
 What occasioned the introduction of Tropes ? 
 
 Necessity, Emphasis, and Ornament.^ 
 
 How many primary Tropes are there ? 
 
 Four; Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony. J 
 
 * Quintilian says, " a Trope is the change of a word or speech from 
 its proper signification to another, in order to greater perfection." 
 
 Cicero, in his treatise entitled Brutus, says : " As to Tropes in general, 
 they are particular forms of expression, in which the proper name of a 
 thing is supplied by another, which conveys the same meaning, but is 
 borrowed from its adjuncts or effects." 
 
 "|" Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, says : " Modus transferendi 
 verba late patet; quam necessitas primum genuit, coacta inopia et an- 
 gustias; post auteru deiectatio, jucunditas que celebravit. Nam ut 
 vestis frigoris depellendi causa reperta primo, post adhiberi caepta est 
 ad ornatum etiam corporis et dignitatem sic verbi translatio instituta est 
 inopiae causa, frequentata, delectationis : ' The figurative usage of words 
 is very extensive ; an usage to which necessity first gave rise, on account 
 of the paucity of words, and barrenness of language; but which the 
 pleasure that was found in it afterwards rendered frequent. For as 
 garments were first contrived to defend our bodies from the cold, and 
 afterwards were employed for the purpose of ornament and dignity, so 
 figures of speech, introduced by want, were cultivated for the sake of 
 entertainment.' " 
 
 Quintilian, in book viii. chap. 6, says, we now make use of Tropes, 
 " Aut quia necesse est, aut quia significantius, aut quia decentius : ' Through 
 necessity, or to express a thing more emphatically, or for the sake of 
 ornament.'' " 
 
 J Praecipuorum Troporum prsestantia si quaeratur; longe princeps 
 erit Metaphora, Ironia deinde succedet, tertia erit Metonymia, postrema 
 Synecdoche. Usus autem etiam frequentissimus est Metaphorae, deinde 
 Metonymias, turn Synecdoches, rarissimus Ironias. — Aud. Takeus. 
 
 Inter omnes illae commendatissimae habentur Metaphoras, quae rebus 
 sensu expertibus actum quendam ac quasi animum tribuunt. Ut cum 
 dicitur fluvius Araxis impositum sibi ab Alexandra pontem indignatus 
 evertisse. — Walker, Rhet., lib. i. cap. 14. 
 
ELOCUTION. 107 
 
 Define and exemplify the primary Tropes. 
 A Metaphor, in place of proper words, 1 
 Resemblance puts, and dress to speech affords. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Quintilian says, "a metaphor is a short simili- 
 tude." And Cicero calls it a " similitude reduced to a 
 single word." The peculiar effect of a metaphor is to 
 give light and strength to description; to make intel- 
 lectual ideas, in some sort, visible to the eye, by giving 
 them color, and substance, and sensible qualities. Of 
 all the flowers that embellish the regions of eloquence, 
 there is none that rises to such an eminence, that bears 
 so rich and beautiful a blossom, that diffuses such a 
 copious and exquisite fragrance, or that so amply re- 
 wards the care and culture of the poet or the orator. 
 Quintilian reduces them to four kinds. 
 
 The first kind of metaphors is founded on a compari- 
 son of the qualities of animate beings: as, Achilles 
 was a lion. So in the Evangelist Luke, our Saviour, 
 in alluding to Herod, says: "Go and tell that fox" 
 And Cicero, in his de Oratore, says: "Was it owing to 
 art that my brother, here, when Philip asked him why 
 he barked, answered, because I see a thief?" The 
 second, of one inanimate thing with another: as, 
 "Clouds of smoke;" "floods of fire;" "he loosed the 
 navy's reins." The third, of animals with inanimate 
 things: as, "Ajax was the bulwark of the Greeks;" 
 "the two Scipios were thunderbolts of war." The last 
 kind of metaphors is that by which the actions and 
 
 Term translated. 
 1. Translation. 
 
108 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 A Metonymy does new names impose, 2 
 And things for things by near relation shows. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 other properties of animals are attributed to inanimate 
 objects. Thus, Yirgil says: 
 
 A raxes' stream 
 Indignant with a bridge to be confined. 
 
 And Homer: he said, 
 
 Divine Calypso at the sound 
 Shudder 'd, and in winged accents thus replied. 
 
 2. Quintilian says, that " Metonymy consists in sub- 
 stituting one name for another." Vossius calls it "a 
 trope, which changes the names of things which are 
 naturally united, but in such a manner, as that one is 
 not of the essence of the other." Metonymies are 
 commonly distinguished into four kinds. 
 
 The first is, when the cause is put for the effect: as, 
 "He reads Homer," that is, Homer's works; "they 
 have Moses and the prophets;" meaning the writings 
 of Moses and the prophets. The second puts the effect 
 for the cause. Thus Virgil calls the two Scipios the 
 destruction of Libya, because they were the agents 
 who effected it. Horace also compliments Maecenas 
 with the titles of being his guard and honor: that is, 
 his guardian, and the author of his honor. And in 
 another place he says: "Pale death knocks at the cot- 
 tages of the poor and the palaces of kings, with an 
 impartial pace." 
 
 Term translated. 
 2. Changing of names. 
 
ELOCUTION. 109 
 
 Synecdoche the whole for part cloth take; 
 
 Or, of a part for whole, exchange cloth make. 3 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The third is when the subject is put for the adjunct. 
 By the subject here may be understood that in which 
 some other thing is contained; as also the thing signi- 
 fied, when put for the sign. By the former of these 
 modes of expression, we say the kettle boils; he drank 
 the foaming bowl: and by the latter, this is my body, 
 and this is my blood. The fourth kind of Metonymy 
 is when the adjunct is put for the subject. It is a 
 Metonymy of the adjunct when the thing contained is 
 put for that which contains it, and when the sign is put 
 for the thing signified. By the former kind Virgil says 
 they lie down upon purple, that is, upon couches dyed 
 with purple. And again, they crown the wine, mean- 
 ing the bowl which contained the wine; and by the 
 latter, to assume the sceptre, is a phrase for entering 
 on royal authority. So Virgil, describing the temple 
 of Juno at Carthage, in which the actions of the Trojan 
 war were represented, and the images of the heroes, 
 makes iEneas, upon discovering that of Priam among 
 the rest, cry out: 
 
 Lo ! here is Priam ! 
 
 3. A thing may be considered as a whole in three 
 different respects; which logicians call an universal, 
 essential, and integral whole; hence arise six species 
 or sorts of Synecdoche. 
 
 Term translated. 
 3. Comprehension. 
 
 10 
 
110 THE ART OP RHETORIC. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 By tlie first of these the genus is put for the spe- 
 cies. Thus, when our Saviour delegated his apostles 
 to preach the gospel to every creature, his meaning 
 was, to every rational creature. The second is, when 
 the species is put for the genus : as, wine destroys more 
 than the sword, that is, than any hostile arms. And 
 the legal form of banishment among the Romans was 
 to prohibit persons the use of fire and water: that is, 
 the most common and ordinary necessaries of life, in 
 which all others were included. The third is, when the 
 essential whole is put for one of its parts. Thus, in 
 the Evangelist, Mary Magdalen says: "They have 
 taken away my Lord, and I know not where they have 
 laid him;" meaning his body. The fourth is, when the 
 name of one of the constituent parts is put for the 
 whole essence: as, "the soul that sinneth, it shall die;" 
 and "all the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt 
 were threescore and six." So we imitate the Latins in 
 using the word caput or head, to denote either a person 
 or thing. Eor, as with them lepidum caput, so with us 
 a witty head, signifies the same as a man of wit. 
 
 The fifth is, when the whole of any material thing or 
 quantity, whether continued or discrete, is put for a part 
 of it. Thus Cicero says: "A war is kindled through the 
 whole world;" in compliment to his country, he calls 
 the Roman empire the world. So St. Luke: There 
 went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all 
 the world should be taxed. And our Saviour, using 
 this trope, said he should be three days and three nights 
 in the heart of the earth; meaning part of the first 
 
ELOCUTION. Ill 
 
 An Irony, dissembling with an air, 4 
 
 Thinks otherwise than what the words declare. 
 
 How many Secondary Tropes are there ? 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 and third day, and all the second day; and by this 
 kind of synecdoche the plural number is sometimes put 
 for the singular. Thus, St. Matthew says, the thieves 
 who were crucified with our Saviour reviled him: though 
 it is manifest from St. Luke that only one of them acted 
 in that manner. By the sixth kind of synecdoche a 
 part of any material thing or quantity is put for the 
 whole. Accordingly, some ancient writers, when they 
 speak of the Grecian Armada which sailed against 
 Troy, call it a fleet of a thousand ships; although, ac- 
 cording to Homer's list, it contained 1186. In like 
 manner, the Greek interpreters of the Old Testament 
 are commonly called the Seventy; whereas, in reality, 
 they were seventy-two. 
 
 4. Quintilian says, that "an Irony may be under- 
 stood by the tone of the voice, character of the person, 
 or nature of the thing." Thus, the irony is very plain 
 from the manner of pronunciation in that passage of 
 Terence, where Simo, speaking to his servant, says, by 
 way of reproof for his negligence: "You have taken 
 great care, indeed." Cicero addressing Catiline, says: 
 He went to your companion, that excellent man, Marcus 
 Marcellus. And when he begins his oration for Liga- 
 rius, by saying, Caesar, this is a neiv crime, and never 
 
 Term translated. 
 4. Dissimulation. 
 
112 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Fourteen; Sarcasmus, Diasyrmus, Charientismus, 
 Asteismus, Oatachresis, Hyperbole, Metalepsis, Alle- 
 gory, Parosmia, JEnigma, Antonomasia, Litotes, Ono- 
 matopoeia, and Antiphrasis. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 heard of till now : the thing he is speaking of, shows it 
 to be an Irony; for it was not neiv, as all who were 
 present very well understood. 
 
 Ironies are sometimes applied by way of jest and 
 raillery, as when Cicero says of the person against 
 whom he was pleading: "We have much reason to 
 believe that the modest man would not ask him for his 
 debt when he pursues his life." At other times, by 
 way of insult and derision. Thus, when Cicero would 
 represent the forces of Catiline as mean and contempt- 
 ible, he says: "0 terrible war, where Catiline's praeto- 
 rian guard consists of such a dissolute, effeminate crew ! 
 Against these gallant troops of your adversary, prepare, 
 Romans, your garrisons and armies." 
 
 The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all 
 kinds; and this mode of exposing them is often more 
 effectual than serious reasoning. The gravest persons 
 have not denied the use of this trope, on proper occa- 
 sions. The wise and virtuous Socrates used it so fre- 
 quently, in his endeavors to discountenance vicious and 
 foolish practices, that he was designated by the appel- 
 lation of £i£M, or the ironical philosopher. Even in 
 the Sacred Writings we have numerous examples of it. 
 The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of 
 Baal to prove the truth of their deity, "mocked them, 
 and said: Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talk- 
 
ELOCUTION. 113 
 
 Define and exemplify the secondary Tropes. 
 Sarcasmus, with a bitter jeer, doth kill, 5 
 And ev'ry word with strongest venom fill. 
 A Diasyrmus must ill nature show, 6 
 And ne'er omit to insult a living foe. 
 Charientismus, when it speaks, doth choose 7 
 The softer for the harsher words to use. 
 Asteismus loves to jest with strokes of wit, 8 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 ing, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or perad- 
 venture he sleepeth, and must be awaked." See Matth. 
 xxvi. 50; Gen. iii. 22; 2 Sam. vi. 20; Job xii. 2; 
 Matth. xxvi. 45. 
 
 5. Tomyris, queen of Scythia, having taken Cyrus 
 prisoner, cut off his head and threw it into a vessel full 
 of human blood, saying, "Now, Cyrus, satiate yourself 
 with blood." So, in St. Matthew: "Hail, King of the 
 Jews!" See also Psalms cxxxvii. 3; Mark xv. 31, 32. 
 
 6. Turnus thus addresses Drances in the eleventh 
 book of Virgil's iEneid: "Wherefore, thunder on in 
 noisy eloquence, as you are wont, and arraign me of 
 cowardice, thou valiant Drances, since thy right-hand 
 hath raised so many heaps of slaughtered Trojans, and 
 everywhere thou deckest the fields with trophies." 
 
 7. Davus, in the Andria of Terence, Act i. Scene 2, 
 says: Softly, sir, softly, I beseech you. And Virgil: 
 Be not incensed, great priest. 
 
 8. Virgil says, "Who hates not Bavius' verse, may 
 
 Terms translated. 
 5. A bitter taunt. 6. Detraction. 7. Softening. 8. Civility. 
 
 10* 
 
114 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 And slily with the point of satire hit.* 
 A Catachresis words too far doth strain; 9 
 Rather from such abuse of speech refrain. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 love thine, Msevius: and the same fool may join 
 foxes in the yoke, and milk he-goats." 
 
 9. This trope is chiefly used by poets, who make 
 choice of it for novelty or boldness. Thus Milton, de- 
 scribing the descent of the angel Raphael from heaven, 
 says : 
 
 Down thither, prone in flight, 
 He speeds, and, through the vast ethereal sky, 
 Sails between worlds and worlds. 
 
 And Virgil says, that the Greeks, wearied by the 
 length of the siege of Troy, 
 
 An horse erect, 
 Of mountain bulk, by Pallas' art divine. 
 
 So, Homer: 
 
 Phemius ! let acts of gods and heroes old, 
 What ancient bards in hall and bow'r have told 
 Attemper'd to the lyre, your voice employ, 
 Such the pleased ear will drink with silent joy. 
 
 It is sometimes found, however, in the gravest au- 
 thors, and even in the Sacred Writings: as, "Thou didst 
 drink the pure, blood of the grape;" "And I turned to 
 see the voice that spake with me." See Hosea iv. 8; 
 Psal. cxxxvii. 5; Jer. xlvi. 10. 
 
 Term translated. 
 9. Abuse. 
 
 * Holmes says that Sarcasmus, Diasyrmus, Charientismus, and As- 
 teismus, may be referred to an Irony. 
 
ELOCUTION. 115 
 
 Hyperhole soars high or creeps too low; 10 
 Exceeds the truth things wonderful to show.* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 10. Quintilian defines Hyperbole "an exaggeration 
 surpassing truth, which may be equally proper for ar- 
 gumentation and diminution." 
 
 Longinus says, " Hyperboles equally serve two pur- 
 poses; they enlarge and they lessen. Stretching any- 
 thing beyond its natural size is the property of both." 
 
 "I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, "tall 
 as a rock of ice; his spear the blasted fir; his shield 
 the rising moon: he sat on the shore like a cloud of 
 mist on the hill." 
 
 So Cassius speaks invidiously of Caesar, in order to 
 raise the indignation of Brutus: 
 
 Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world 
 Like a Colossus, and we petty men 
 Walk under his huge legs, and peep about 
 To find ourselves dishonorable graves. 
 
 Pope says 
 
 Milton's strong pinions now at Heav'n can bound, 
 Now, serpent-like, in prose he sweeps the ground. 
 
 And Virgil : 
 
 On each side mighty rocks ; above the rest 
 Two threaten heav'n. 
 
 Term translated. 
 
 10. Excess. 
 
 * The excess in this trope is called Auxesis, and the contrary extreme 
 Meiosis. 
 
116 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 By Metalepsis, in one word combin'd 11 
 More tropes than one you easily may find.* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Herodotus has used hyperbole concerning those war- 
 riors who fell at Thermopylae: "In this place they 
 defended themselves with the weapons that were left, 
 and with their hands and teeth, till they were buried 
 under the arrows of barbarians." 
 
 Although hyperboles should, in most cases, exhibit 
 an air of probability, yet Longinus says, that "in 
 comedy, circumstances wholly absurd and incredible 
 pass off very well, because they answer their end, and 
 raise a laugh. As in this passage : ' He was owner of 
 a piece of ground not so large as a Lacedemonian let- 
 ter.' ' See Job xxxix. 19; 2 Sam. i. 23; Deut. ix. 1. 
 
 11. During the civil war between Sylla and Marius, 
 Sylla, observing the boundless ambition of Julius Caesar, 
 said: "In one Caesar there are many Mariuses." In 
 this expression there is a Metalepsis: for the word Ma- 
 rius, by Synecdoche, or Antonomasia, is put for any. 
 ambitious or turbulent person, and this, again, by a 
 Metonymy of the cause for the effects of such a per- 
 nicious disposition to the state. Sylla's meaning, 
 therefore, was, that Caesar would prove a very dan- 
 gerous person to the Roman people, which eventually 
 proved true. 
 
 Term translated. 
 11. Participation, or Transumption. 
 
 * Tropus rarrissimus et maxime improprius. — Quint. Inst., lib. 
 
ELOCUTION. 117 
 
 An Allegory tropes continue still,* 12 
 Which with new graces every sentence fill. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 The following words of Dido, in Virgil, contain a 
 Metalepsis : 
 
 Happy, ah truly happy, had I been 
 
 If Trojan ships our coast had never seen. 
 
 Here, by a Metonymy of the adjunct, the ships are 
 put for the Trojans in the ships; and these, by a Syn- 
 ecdoche of the whole, for iEneas, who was one of them ; 
 and again, his arriving on the coast, by a Metonymy of 
 the cause, for her seeing him; and, lastly, her seeing 
 him, by the same trope, for the passion she entertained 
 for him. Her meaning, therefore, was, that she would 
 have been happy had she never loved iEneas. 
 
 12. As a Metalepsis comprises several tropes in one 
 word, so this is a continuation of several tropes in one 
 or more sentences. Allegories are of two kinds; pure 
 and mixed. The fourteenth ode of the first book of 
 Horace, in which, by a ship, he means the common- 
 wealth; by the agitations of stormy seas, civil wars; 
 and by a harbor, peace and concord, may be an ex- 
 ample of the former kind. And Cicero says: "I am 
 surprised at, and even pity that man, who has so han- 
 kering a desire after calumny, that rather than refrain 
 
 Term translated. 
 12. Speaking differently from meaning. 
 
 * To the Allegory may be referred all apologues, such as yEsop's 
 Fables, the parables of Scripture, and the Song of Solomon. Pareemia 
 and Enigma are also species of Allegory. 
 
118 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 JEnigma, in dark words, the sense conceals; 13 
 But that, once known, a riddling speech reveals. 
 Parcemia, by a proverb, tries to teach 14 
 A short, instructing, and a nervous speech. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 from it, he chooses to sink the vessel in which he sails." 
 But the mixed Allegory is more frequently used. Thus, 
 Cicero says: "As for other storms and tempests, I 
 always believed Milo had no occasion to be apprehen- 
 sive of any, except amidst those boisterous waves of 
 the assemblies of the people." If he had not added 
 "the assemblies of the people," it would have been a 
 jmre Allegory; but, by adding those words, it became 
 mixed, and in that manner it receives beauty from the 
 borrowed words, and perspicuity from the proper. See 
 Eccles. xii. 5, 6; Psal. lxxx. 8-14; Job xxix. 6. 
 
 13. Quintilian says: "When the Allegory is involved 
 in obscurity, it becomes an enigma, which I must think, 
 indeed, to be a vice, and for no other reason, than be- 
 cause perspicuity is a perfection. Poets, however, use 
 it;" as, Tell me (and you shall be my great Apollo) 
 where heaven's circuit extends not farther than three 
 ells. See Gen. xl. and xli. ; Dan. iv. 10, 11, &c. ; Judg. 
 xiv. 14; Isa. xi. 1, 2, &c. 
 
 14. "You wash the blackmoor white;" that is, you 
 labor in vain. So, in Terence: "I have a wolf by the 
 ears;" that is, I know not which way to turn me. And 
 in the prophet Ezekiel: As is the mother, so is her 
 daughter. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 13. A Riddle. 14. A Proverb. 
 
ELOCUTION. 119 
 
 Antonomasia proper names imparts, 15 
 From kindred, country, epithets, or arts. 
 Litotes doth more sense than words include, 16 
 And often by two negatives have stood. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 15. Quintilian says: "The Antonomasia is a trope 
 which puts an equivalent in the place of a name." 
 Thus Virgil, by using an attribute characteristic of 
 Jupiter, says: 
 
 The sire of gods and king of men. 
 
 And Longinus, alluding to Homer, says: " Among a 
 thousand instances, we may see, from what the poet 
 has said, with so much boldness, of the Aloides." 
 
 On the contrary, it is used when a proper name is 
 put for a general term : and when we call a great war- 
 rior an Alexander ; a great orator a Demosthenes ; and 
 a great patron of learned men a Mcecenas. Antono- 
 masia may also be used when we intend to convey a 
 lively image to the mind. So Milton : 
 
 O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 
 
 See John xi. 28; Matth. ix. 6. 
 
 16. In the Andria of Terence, Act ii. Scene 6, Davus 
 says: "I don't approve it," that is, 1 censure it. And 
 in the seventh book of Virgil's iEneid, Latinus thus 
 addresses Ilioneus: " Trojan, what you demand shall 
 be given: nor do I reject your presents;" that is, I 
 willingly receive them. And the apostle says: But 
 
 Terms translated. 
 15. For a name, 16. A Lessening. 
 
120 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Onomatopoeia coins a word from sound, 17 
 By which alone the meaning may be found. 
 Antiphrasis makes words to disagree 18 
 From sense; if rightly they derived be. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 with many of them God was not well pleased ; for they 
 were overthrown in the wilderness. See also Psalm li. 
 17; Matth. ii. 6; Psalm ix. 12. 
 
 17. Quintilian says: " There have been many words 
 invented by the first authors of our language, in order 
 to adapt sounds to the natures of the affections they 
 desired to express; and hence we may account for the 
 origin of the words to bellow, to hiss and to murmur." 
 The following example occurs in Homer: 
 
 And when the horn was rounded to an arch, 
 
 He twanged it. Whizz'd the bowstring, and the reed 
 
 With full impatience started to the goal. 
 
 Hamlet thus censures the violent and unnatural ges- 
 ture of some actors: "I would have such a fellow 
 whipped for out-doing Termagant: it out-herods He- 
 rod." And Swift expresses himself in the following 
 manner relative to Blackmore, the author of a transla- 
 tion of the Psalms into English verse: 
 
 Sternhold himself he out-sternholded. 
 
 18. Thus Lucns, from Lux, light, signifies a dark 
 shady grove; Bellnm, from Bellum, fine or pretty, sig- 
 nifies war; and P areas, from parco, to spare, signifies 
 fate; because fate spares none. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 17. Coining a word from the sound. 18. Contrary word. 
 
ELOCUTION. 121 
 
 What is a Figure ? 
 
 A figure is that language which is suggested either 
 by the imagination or the passions. 
 
 What is the difference between Tropes and Figures ? 
 
 Tropes affect only single words; Figures whole sen- 
 tences. 
 
 How are the principal figures usually divided ? 
 
 Into Repetitions of Sounds, and Figures of Sentences. 
 
 What are Repetitions of Sounds ? 
 
 They are such as gracefully repeat either the same 
 word, or the same sound in different words. 
 
 How many Repetitions are there ? 
 
 Fifteen: Anaphora, Epistrophe, Symploee, Epana- 
 lepsis, Epanodos, Anadiplosis, Epizeuxis, Ploce, JPo- 
 lyptoton, Antanaclasis, Paronomasia, Paregmenon, 
 Homoioteleuton, Climax, and Synonymy. 
 
 Define and exemplify the Repetitions of Sounds. 
 
 Anaphora gives more sentences one head; 19 
 
 As readily appears to those who read. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 19. Cicero uses this figure in his first oration against 
 Catiline: "Does neither the night guard of the palace, 
 nor the city watch, nor the people's fear, nor the union 
 of all good men, nor the meeting of the senate in this 
 fortified place, nor the countenances and looks of this 
 assembly, move you?" 
 
 And Virgil, in his tenth Eclogue, says: 
 
 Here cooling fountains roll through flow'ry meads ; 
 Here woods, Lycoris, lift their verdant heads ; 
 
 Term translated. 
 19. Rehearsal. 
 11 
 
122 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Epistrophe more sentences doth close 20 
 
 With the same words, whether in verse or prose. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Here could I wear my careless life away, 
 And in thy arms insensibly decay. 
 
 Another beautiful instance of this figure occurs in 
 the lamentation of Orpheus for Eurydice, in Yirgil's 
 fourth Georgic: 
 
 Thee, his loved wife, along the lonely shores; 
 Thee, his loved wife, his mournful song deplores; 
 Thee, when the rising morning gives the light, 
 Thee, when the world was overspread with night. 
 
 In the book of Psalms, David says: " The voice of the 
 Lord is upon the waters : The voice of the Lord is 
 powerful; the voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars of 
 Lebanon." See also Jer. viii. 2; 1 Cor. i. 20; Psal. 
 cxviii. 8, 9; Rom. viii. 38; Jer. 1. 35, 36, 37. 
 
 20. There is scarcely a more beautiful instance of 
 this figure, than in Cicero's second oration against 
 Antony. — "You mourn, Romans! that three of 
 your armies have been slaughtered — they were slaugh- 
 tered by Antony: you lament the loss of your most 
 illustrious citizens — they were torn from you by An- 
 tony: the authority of this order is deeply wounded — 
 it is wounded by Antony: in fine, all the calamities we 
 have ever since beheld, (and what calamities have we 
 not beheld ?) if we reason rightly, have been entirely 
 owing to Antony. As Helen was of Troy, so the bane, 
 the misery, the destruction of this state — is Antony." 
 
 Term translated. 
 20. A turning to. 
 
ELOCUTION. 123 
 
 Symploce joins these figures both together, 21 
 And from both joined makes up itself another. 
 Epanalepsis words doth recommend, 22 
 The same at the beginning and the end. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 And St. Paul says : " When I was a child I spake 
 as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a 
 child." See also Psal. cxv. 9, 10, 11; Matth. vii. 23; 
 Joelii. 26, 27; Amos iv. 6, 8. 
 
 21. Cicero, in his oration for Milo, says: " Who re- 
 quired these witnesses? Appius. Who produced them? 
 Appius." And in another place: " Who was the author 
 of the law? Rullus. Who deprived a majority of the 
 people of their suffrages ? Rullus. Who presided at 
 the elections? Rullus." And again: " Who often 
 broke their treaties ? The Carthaginians. Who waged 
 a cruel war in Italy? The Carthaginians. Who laid 
 waste Italy? The Carthaginians. Who sue for par- 
 don? The Carthaginians" 
 
 A beautiful example of this figure occurs in St. Paul, 
 when he says: u Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are 
 they Israelites ? So am I. Are they the seed of Abra- 
 ham? So am I." See also Psal. xlvii. 6; Psal. cxviii. 
 2, 3, 4; cxxxvi. 1, 2, 3; Rom. xiv. 8. 
 
 22. Quintilian gives the following example of this 
 figure, from Cicero: " Many and terrible punishments 
 were invented for parents, and for relations, many." 
 And Cicero addressing Caesar, in his oration for Mar- 
 cellus, says : " We have seen your victory terminated 
 
 Terms translated. 
 21. Complication, or Connection. 22. Repetition. 
 
124 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 By Epanodos a sentence shifts its place; 23 
 Takes first and last and also middle space. 
 Anadiplosis ends the former line, 24 
 With what the next does for its first design. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 by the war: yonr drawn sword in the city we have not 
 seen." St. Paul also uses this figure when he says: 
 " Rejoice in the Lord alway: and again I say, rejoice" 
 See 1 Cor. iii. 21, 22; Psal. viii. 1, 9. 
 
 23. Minutius Felix, exposing the absurdity of the 
 Egyptian superstition, says: "Isis, with Cynocephalus 
 and her priests, laments, bemoans, and seeks her lost 
 son; her attendants beat their breasts, and imitate the 
 grief of the unhappy mother ; in a little time the son 
 is found, upon which they all rejoice. Nor do they 
 cease every year to lose what they find, or find what 
 they lose. And is it not ridiculous to lament what you 
 worship, or worship what you lament?'* 
 
 Another example of this figure occurs in the eighth 
 Eclogue of Virgil, which is thus translated by Smith: 
 
 Whether the worst ? the child accurst, 
 
 Or else the cruel mother ? 
 The mother worst, the child accurst; 
 
 As bad the one as the other. 
 
 The following beautiful example is from the book of 
 Judges : " The river of Kishon swept them away, that 
 ancient river, the river Kishon" See also Ezek, vii. 
 6; Rom. vii. 19; John viii. 47; 2 Thess. ii. 4; Ezek. 
 xxxv. 6. 
 
 24. Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says: 
 
 Terms translated. 
 23. A Regression. 24. Reduplication. 
 
ELOCUTION. 125 
 
 An Epizeuxis twice a word repeats 25 
 Whate'er the subject be whereon it treats. 
 By Ploce we a proper name repeat; 26 
 Yet as a common noun the latter treat. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 "He lives; lives! did I say? he even comes into the 
 senate." And in the same oration: "As long as there 
 is one who dares to defend thee, thou shalt live; and 
 live so as thou now dost, surrounded by the numerous 
 and powerful guards which I have placed about thee." 
 So in the tenth Eclogue of Virgil: "These you will 
 make acceptable to G alius ; to Gf alius, for whom my 
 love grows as much every hour as the green alder 
 shoots up in the infancy of spring." And in the book 
 of Deuteronomy: "For the Lord thy God bringeth 
 thee into a good land; a land of brooks of water." 
 See also Rom. viii. 16, IT; Isa. xxx. 9; Psal. xlviii. 8; 
 Psal. cxxii. 2, 3; Luke vii. 31, 32. 
 
 25. Cicero, expressing his extreme indignation against 
 Antony, as the promoter of the civil war, says: " You, 
 you Antony, pushed Caesar upon the civil war." And 
 in Virgil: "Ah! Corydon, Corydon, what frenzy has 
 possessed you ?" So in Matt, xxiii. 37: "0 Jerusalem, 
 Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets," &c. See 
 also Isa. li. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 33. 
 
 26. Milton affords an instance of this figure in the 
 ninth book of Paradise Lost: 
 
 Frail is our happiness if this be so, 
 
 And Eden were no Eden (i. e. pleasure) thus exposed. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 
 25. A joining together. 26. Continuation. 
 
 11* 
 
126 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 A Polyptoton still the same word places, 27 
 
 If sense require it, in two different places. 
 
 Antanaclasis in one sound contains 28 
 
 More meanings; which the various sense explains. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Another example occurs in the book of Genesis: "Is 
 not he rightly named Jacob f {i. e. a mpplanter ;) for 
 he hath supplanted me these two times." And Cicero 
 says: "Young Cato wants experience, but yet he is 
 Oato;" meaning that he possessed the inflexible integ- 
 rity of the family. So the proverb : "An ape is an 
 ape dress it ever so fine." 
 
 27. Cicero, in his oration for Cselius, says: "We 
 will contend with arguments, we will refute accusations 
 by evidences brighter than light itself: fact shall en- 
 gage with fact, cause with cause, reason with reason." 
 And Virgil, describing the battle between the Trojan 
 and Latin armies, says: "Foot to foot is fixed, and 
 man to man is closely joined." So in the following 
 passage from Romans: " For of him, and through him, 
 and to him are all things." See Dan. ii. 37; John 
 iii. 13. 
 
 28. When Proculeius complained that his son wished 
 for his death, the son, to clear himself of suspicion, 
 assured him that he did not wait for it. His father 
 replied^ I desire you to wait for it. Here it is obvious 
 that the word wait is taken in two different senses. So 
 in St. Matthew: "But Jesus said unto him, follow me; 
 and let the dead bury their dead" In the one clause 
 
 Terms translated. 
 27. Variation of case. 28. A Reciprocation. 
 
ELOCUTION. 127 
 
 Paronomasia to the sense alludes, 29 $- 
 
 When words but little varied it includes. 
 Paregmenon derived from one recites 30 
 More words, and in one sentence them unites. 
 Homoioteleuton makes the measure chime, 31 
 With like sounds, in the end of fettered rhyme. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 of this verse dead denotes a moral or spiritual death ? 
 and in the other a natural death. See Matth. x. 39; 
 John iv. 13, 14; Matth. xxvi. 29; Isa. lix. 18. 
 
 29. The following are examples of this figure : 
 " Friends are turned fiends;" "After a feast comes a 
 fast;" "A friend in need is a friend indeed." And 
 Cicero, in the second book of de Oratore, says that 
 Cato called the nobility t mobility." This figure fre- 
 quently occurs in the sacred writings. Thus St. Paul 
 says: " For though we walk in the flesh we do not war 
 after the flesh. And in another place: "As unknown 
 and yet well Jcnown." 
 
 30. Cicero, in his Essay on Friendship, says: "In 
 the present performance, it is & friend explaining to a 
 friend his notions concerning friendship." So in the 
 book of Daniel: "He giveth wisdom unto the wise, 
 and knowledge to them that know understanding." See 
 1 Cor. xv. 47; Prov. xi. 15, 25. 
 
 31. The mountains skipped like rams, and the little 
 hills like lambs. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 29. Likeness of words. 30. Derived from the same. 
 
 31. Alike ending. 
 
128 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Climax by gradation still ascends, 32 
 Until the sense with finished period ends. 
 Synonymy doth diff'rent words prepare, 33 
 Yet each of them one meaning doth declare. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 32. There is great strength as well as beauty in this 
 figure, when the several steps rise naturally out of 
 each other, and are closely connected by the sense 
 which they jointly convey. This mutual relation of 
 parts we may perceive in the following example: 
 "There is no enjoyment of property without govern- 
 ment, no government without a magistrate, no magis- 
 trate without obedience, and no obedience where every 
 one acts as he pleases." In the same manner, when 
 Cicero is pleading for Milo, he says: "Nor did he com- 
 mit himself only to the people, but also to the senate; 
 nor to the senate only, but likewise to the public forces ; 
 nor to these only, but also to the power of him with 
 whom the senate had entrusted the whole common- 
 wealth." And, in another place, he says: "What 
 hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their 
 pleasure it is lawful for them to do; if what is lawful 
 for them to do they are able to do; if what they are 
 able to do they dare do; if what they dare do they 
 really execute; and if what they execute is no way 
 offensive to you?" See Rom. v. 3, 5; 2 Pet. i. 5, 7; 
 Rom. viii. 29, 30, 38, 39; 1 Cor. iii. 21, 23. 
 
 33. As there are scarcely two words, in any Ian- 
 
 Terms translated. 
 32. A ladder. 33. Partaking together of a name. 
 
ELOCUTION, 129 
 
 How are Figures of Sentences divided? 
 
 Into figures for reasoning, and figures for moving the 
 passions. 
 
 How many figures for reasoning are there ? 
 
 Seven: Erotesis, JProlepsis, Epitrope, Anacoenosis, 
 Antithesis, Oxymoron and Aporia. 
 
 Define and exemplify the figures for reasoning. 
 
 By Erotesis, what we know we ask, 34 
 
 Prescribing to ourselves a needless task. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 guage, that convey precisely the same idea, the use of 
 this figure is so far extended as to comprehend words 
 of a near affinity in their signification. Thus Cicero, 
 speaking of Piso, says: " His whole countenance, which 
 is the tacit language of the mind, has drawn men into 
 a mistake, and deceived, cheated, and imposed on those 
 who did not know him." And Ilioneus, in his speech 
 to Dido, thus speaks relative to iEneas : " Whom if the 
 fates preserve, if he still breathes the vital air, and does 
 not yet rest with the ruthless shades." The following 
 beautiful example is from the nineteenth chapter of 
 Isaiah: "The fishers also shall mourn, and all they 
 that cast angles into the brooks shall lament, and they 
 that spread nets upon the waters shall languish." See 
 Prov. iv. 14, 15. 
 
 34. Demosthenes thus addresses the Athenians : 
 "Would you go about the city, and demand what 
 news? What greater news can there be, than that a 
 Macedonian enslaves the Athenians, and disposes of 
 
 Term translated. 
 34. Interrogation. 
 
130 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Prolepsis jour objection doth prevent, 35 
 With answers suitable and pertinent. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 the affairs of Greece ? Is Philip dead ? No : but he is 
 sick. And what advantage would accrue to you from 
 his death? For, if anything happens to this Philip, 
 you will immediately raise up another." Germanicus 
 thus reproaches his mutinous soldiers: "What is there 
 in these days that you have not attempted? What 
 have you not profaned ? What name shall I give to 
 this assembly? Shall I call you soldiers? You, who 
 have besieged with your arms, and surrounded with a 
 trench the son of your emperor? Shall I call you 
 citizens? You, who have so shamefully trampled upon 
 the authority of the senate? You, who have violated 
 the justice due to enemies, the sanctity of embassy, and 
 the rights of nations?" Balaam thus expresses himself 
 to Balak: " The Lord is not a man that he should lie, 
 neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath 
 he said, and shall he not do it? or, hath he spoken, and 
 shall he not make it good?" See Job viii. 3; Psal. 
 lxxvii. 7-9. 
 
 35. Cicero, for several years after he began to plead, 
 had employed his eloquence only in defence of his 
 friends. And, therefore, when the Sicilians prevailed 
 with him to manage the prosecution against Yerres, he 
 begins his oration with this Prolepsis: "If any one 
 present should wonder that I, whose practice for so 
 many years, in causes and public trials, has been such 
 
 Term translated. 
 35. Prevention. 
 
ELOCUTION. 131 
 
 Upitrope gives leave and facts permits, 36 
 Whether it speaks sincere or counterfeits. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 as to defend many and accuse none, now suddenly 
 change my custom, and descend to the office of an ac- 
 cuser; when he shall have heard the occasion and 
 reason of my design, he will both approve it, and think 
 that I deserve the preference to all others, in the ma- 
 nagement of the present affair." And then he pro- 
 ceeds to enumerate the reasons which induced him to 
 adopt this determination. 
 
 We have a beautiful instance of this figure in Cato: 
 
 " But, grant that others can with equal glory, 
 Look down on pleasures and the bait of sense, 
 Where shall we find the man that bears affliction, 
 Great and majestic in his ills, like Cato?" 
 
 And St. Paul says: "But some man will say, how 
 are the dead raised up? and with what body do they 
 come ? Thou fool ! that which thou sowest is not 
 quickened, except it die." See Matth. xv. 26, 27; 1 
 Kings xviii. 17, 18. 
 
 36. Cicero, pleading for Flaccus, in order to invali- 
 date the testimony of the Greeks, who were witnesses 
 against his client, allows them every quality but that 
 which was necessary to make them credited. " This, 
 however, I say concerning all the Greeks: — I grant 
 them learning, the knowledge of many sciences; I do 
 not deny that they have wit, fine genius, and eloquence; 
 
 Term translated. 
 36. Permission. 
 
132 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Anaccenosis tries another's mind, 37 
 The better counsel of a friend to find. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 nay, if they lay claim to many other excellencies, I 
 shall not contest their title : but this I must say, that 
 nation never paid a proper regard to the religious sanc- 
 tity of public evidence; and are total strangers to the 
 obligation, authority, and importance of truth." No- 
 thing more confounds an adversary than to grant him 
 his whole argument, and, at the same time, either to 
 show that it is nothing to the purpose, or to offer some- 
 thing else that may invalidate it, as in the following 
 example: "I allow that nobody was more nearly re- 
 lated to the deceased than you; I grant that he was 
 under some obligations to you; nay, that you have 
 always been in friendly correspondence with each 
 other : but what is all this to the last will and testa- 
 ment?" Another example of this figure occurs in the 
 eleventh chapter of Romans: "Thou wilt say, then, 
 the branches were broken off that I might be grafted 
 in. Well; because of unbelief they were broken off; 
 and thou standest by faith. Be not high-minded, but 
 fear." 
 
 37. Cicero thus appeals to Piso in his oration for 
 Caecina: "Suppose, Piso, that any person had driven 
 you from your house by violence, how would you have 
 behaved?" A similar appeal he makes use of in his 
 oration for Rabirius: "But what could you have done 
 in such a case, and at such a juncture ? — when to have 
 
 Term translated. 
 37. Communication. 
 
ELOCUTION. 133 
 
 Antithesis doth change a syllable or letter, 38 
 Or holds up contrasts as men think better.* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 sat still, or to have withdrawn, would have been cow- 
 ardice; when the wickedness and fury of Saturninus 
 had sent for you into the capitol, and the consuls had 
 called you to protect the safety and liberty of your 
 country? whose authority, whose voice, which party 
 would you have followed ? and whose orders would you 
 have chosen to obey?" So the prophet Malachi: "A 
 son honoreth his father, and a servant his master. If 
 I then be a father, where is mine honor? and if I be a 
 master, where is my fear?" See Isa. v. 3, 4 ; Jer. xxiii. 
 23; Luke xi. 19 ; 1 Cor. iv. 21; Gal. iv. 21. 
 
 38. The following examples will illustrate this figure: 
 
 " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 
 
 "If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, 
 for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he would 
 not, however, survive, what shall we say of those who 
 embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of 
 it when they have much to hope, and give it up when 
 they have nothing to fear." 
 
 "For the wages of sin is death: but the gift of God 
 is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord." 
 
 Term translated. 
 38. Opposition. 
 
 * For Antithesis, as a grammatical figure, see distich 77. 
 
 12 
 
134 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 In Oxymoron contradictions meet, 39 
 And jarring epithets and subjects greet. 
 Aporia, in words and actions, doubts; 40 
 And with itself, what may be best, disputes. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 39. Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says: 
 "But with regard to you, Catiline, the silence of the 
 senate declares their approbation, their acquiescence 
 amounts to a decree, and by saying nothing they pro- 
 claim their consent." And Ovid says of Althea, that 
 she was impiously pious. In like manner Cato said of 
 Scipio Africanus, that "he was never less at leisure, 
 than when he was at leisure ; nor less alone, than when 
 alone." And St. Paul says: "But she that liveth in 
 pleasure is dead while she liveth." 
 
 40. Cicero, in his defence of Cluentius, says: "I 
 know not which way to turn myself. Shall I deny the 
 infamy thrown upon him, of bribing the judges ? can I 
 say, the people were not told of it ? that it was not 
 talked of in the court ? mentioned in the senate ? can 
 I remove an opinion so deeply and long rooted in the 
 minds of men ? It is not in my power. You, judges, 
 must support his innocence, and rescue him from this 
 calamity." Livy gives a very elegant example of this 
 figure, in a speech of Scipio Africanus to his soldiers 
 after a sedition: "I never thought I should have been 
 at a loss in what manner to address my army. Not 
 that I have applied myself more to words than things; 
 but because I have been accustomed to the genius of 
 
 Terms translated. 
 39. A witty foolish saying 40. A doubting. 
 
ELOCUTION. 135 
 
 How many Figures are there for moving the pas- 
 sions ? 
 
 Fifteen; Ecphonesis, Enantiosis, Aposiopesis, JPara- 
 leipsis, Epanorthosis, Anastrophe, Asyndeton, Poly- 
 syndeton, Periphrasis, Hypotyposis, Epiphonema, En- 
 allage, Hyperbaton, Apostrophe, and Prosopopoeia. 
 
 Define and exemplify the Figures for moving the 
 passions. 
 
 By Ecphonesis straight the mind is rais'd, 41 
 
 When by a sudden flow of passion seiz'd. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 soldiers, having been trained up in the camp almost 
 from my childhood. But I am in doubt what or how to 
 speak to you, not knowing what name to give you. Shall 
 I call you citizens, who have revolted from your country? 
 Soldiers, who have disowned the authority of your 
 general, and broken your military oath ? Enemies ? 
 I perceive the mien, the aspect, and habit of citizens; 
 but discern the actions, words, designs, and dispositions 
 of enemies." 
 
 An excellent example of Aporia is in the cxxxix 
 Psalm: "Whither shall I go from thy spirit? or 
 whither shall I flee from thy presence?" See also 
 Phil. i. 22, 23; Lam. ii. 13; Kom. vii. 24, 25. 
 
 41. Cicero, in his second Philippic, speaking of Pom- 
 pey's house, which Mark Antony had purchased, thus 
 addresses him: " Oh consummate impudence ! dare you 
 go within those walls ? dare you venture over that vene- 
 rable threshold, and show your audacious countenance 
 
 Term translated. 
 41. Exclamation. 
 
136 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Enantiosis poiseth diff'rent things, 42 
 And words and sense as into balance brings. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 to the tutelar deities which reside there ?" And speak- 
 ing of his banishment, from which he had been so 
 honorably recalled, he says: " Oh mournful day to the 
 senate and all good men ! calamitous to the senate, 
 afflictive to me and my family; but to posterity glori- 
 ous and worthy of admiration !" And in compliment 
 to Cassar, he says: "0 admirable clemency! worthy of 
 the greatest praise, the highest encomiums, and most 
 lasting monuments !" It is frequently used by the 
 sacred writers: as, " that I had the wings of a dove, 
 that I might flee away and be at rest !" And again: 
 " death, where is thy sting ! grave, where is thy 
 victory!" So in St. Matthew: "My God! my God! 
 why hast thou forsaken me ?" 
 
 42. Cicero opposing the conduct of Yerres, when 
 governor of Sicily, to that of Marcellus, who took 
 Syracuse, the capital of that island, says: "Compare 
 this peace with that war; the arrival of this governor 
 with the victory of that general; his profligate troops 
 with the invincible army of the other; the luxury of 
 the former with the temperance of the latter: you will 
 say that Syracuse was founded by him who took it, and 
 taken by him who held it when founded." And in his 
 oration for the Manilian law, speaking of Pompey, he 
 says: "He waged more wars than others had read: 
 conquered more provinces than others had governed: 
 
 Term translated. 
 42. Contrariety. 
 
ELOCUTION. 137 
 
 Aposiopesis leaves imperfect sense; 43 
 Yet such a silent pause speaks eloquence. 
 A Paraleipsis cries, I leav't behind, 44 
 I let it pass; tho' you the whole may find. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 and had been trained up from his youth to the art of 
 war; not by the precepts of others, but by his own 
 commands; not by miscarriages in the field, but by 
 victories; not by campaigns, but by triumphs." So in 
 the third chapter of Proverbs: " The wise shall inherit 
 glory, but shame shall be the promotion of fools." 
 
 43. The old man in Terence, when he was jealous 
 that his servant obstructed his designs, uses this im- 
 perfect, but threatening expression: "Whom, if I find." 
 And Neptune, enraged that the winds should presume 
 to agitate the sea without his permission, is represented 
 by Virgil as addressing them in the following abrupt 
 manner : 
 
 "Whom I — but first I'll lay the storm." 
 
 And Cicero, in a letter to Cassius, says - : "Brutus 
 could scarcely support himself at Mutina; if he is 
 safe, we have carried the day; but if — heaven avert 
 the omen ! all must have recourse to you." His mean- 
 ing is, "if Brutus should be defeated." So in St. 
 John: "Now is my soul troubled; and what shall I 
 say? Father, save me from this hour: but, for this 
 cause came I unto this hour." See also 1 Kings xxi. 7; 
 Psal. vi. 4; Luke xix. 42. 
 
 44. Cicero, in his defence of Sextius, introduces his 
 
 Terms translated. 
 43. Suppression. 44. Omission. 
 
 12* 
 
138 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Epanorthosis doth past words correct, 45 
 And, only to enhance, seems to reject. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 character in the following manner, with a design of 
 recommending him to the favor of the judges: "I 
 might say many things of his liberality, kindness to 
 his domestics, his command in the army, and modera- 
 tion during his office in the province; but the honor of 
 the state presents itself to my view, and, calling me to 
 it, advises me to omit these lesser matters." There is 
 an excellent example of this figure in St. Paul's epistle 
 to Philemon: "I, Paul, have written it with my own 
 hand; I will repay it: Albeit, I do not say to thee how 
 thou owest unto me even thine own self besides." 
 
 45. Cicero makes use of this figure in his oration for 
 Milo: "Can you be ignorant, among the conversation 
 of this city, what laws — if they are to be called laws, 
 and not rather the firebrands of Rome, and the plagues 
 of the commonwealth — this Clodius designed to fasten 
 and fix upon us ?" Another example occurs in the fol- 
 lowing passage of Cicero, in his defence of Plancius : 
 "For what greater blow could those judges — if they 
 are to be called judges, and not .rather parricides of 
 their country, have given to the state, than when they 
 banished that very man, who, when praetor, delivered 
 the republic from a neighboring, and who, when con- 
 sul, saved it from a civil, war?" So in St. Paul's 
 first epistle to the Corinthians: "I labored more abun- 
 dantly than they all: yet not i, but the grace of God, 
 
 Term translated. 
 45. Correction. 
 
ELOCUTION. 139 
 
 Anastrophe makes words that first should go 46 
 The last in place : verse oft, will have it so. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 which was with me." See Gal. iv. 9; Isa. xlix. 15; 
 Luke xi. 27, 28; Eom. viii. 34. 
 
 46. Milton begins his Paradise Lost by a beautiful 
 example of this figure: 
 
 Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
 Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
 Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
 With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
 Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
 Sing heav'nly muse! that on the sacred top 
 Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 
 That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed, 
 In the beginning how the heavens and earth 
 Rose out of chaos. 
 
 The natural order of the words in this passage would 
 have been, Heavnly muse, sing of maris first disobe- 
 dience, &c. 
 
 Another example occurs in the eleventh. book of the 
 same poem: 
 
 The angelic blast 
 Filled all the regions : from their blissful bow'rs 
 Of amaranthine shade, fountain, or spring, 
 By the waters of life, where'er they sat 
 In fellowship of joy, the sons of light 
 Hasted, resorting to the summons high, 
 And took their seats." 
 
 The natural order of the words would be, the sons of 
 
 Term translated. 
 46. Inversion. 
 
140 THE ART OF RHETORIC, 
 
 Asyndeton, or, (which the same implies,) 47 
 Dialyton the cop'lative denies. 
 In Polysyndeton conjunctions flow, 48 
 And every word its cop'lative must show. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 light hasted from their blissful bow'rs. See Eph. iii. 
 20, 21. 
 
 47. Longinus says, that "sentences, artfully divested 
 of conjunctions, drop smoothly down, and the periods 
 are poured along in such a manner that they seem to 
 outstrip the very thought of the speaker." "Then," 
 says Xenophon, " closing their shields together, they 
 were pushed, they fought, they slew, they were slain." 
 The hurry and distraction of Dido's spirits, at iEneas's 
 departure, are visible from the abrupt and precipitate 
 manner in which she commands her servants to endea- 
 vor to stop him: 
 
 Haste, haul my galleys out; pursue the foe; 
 Bring flaming brands, set sail and quickly row. 
 
 And St. Paul, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, 
 says: "Charity envieth not; charity vaunteth not 
 itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself un- 
 seemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, 
 thinketh no evil." See 1 Tim. iii. 2, 3; Rom. i. 29-31; 
 Rom. iii. 11, 12; 2 Cor. vi. 4-10. 
 
 48. This figure adds weight and gravity to an ex- 
 pression, and makes what is said to appear with an air 
 of solemnity, and, by retarding the course of the sen- 
 Terms translated. 
 
 47. Omission of a copulative. 48. Many copulatives. 
 
ELOCUTION. 141 
 
 Periphrasis of words doth use a train, 49 
 Intending one thing only to explain. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 tence, gives the mind an opportunity to consider and 
 reflect upon every part distinctly. Thus, Demosthenes 
 encourages the Athenians to prosecute the war against 
 Philip, king of Macedon, because "they had ships, and 
 men, and money, and stores, and all other things which 
 might contribute to the strength of the city, in greater 
 number and plenty than in former times." A beauti- 
 ful instance of this figure occurs in the eighth chapter 
 of Romans: "For I am persuaded, that neither death, 
 nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
 things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
 depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate 
 us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our 
 Lord." See also Acts i. 13; Gal. iv. 10; Psal. xviii. 2. 
 49. Longinus says: "For as in music an important 
 word is rendered more sweet by the divisions which are 
 run harmoniously upon it : so a Periphrasis sweetens a 
 discourse carried on in propriety of language, and con- 
 tributes very much to the ornament of it, especially if 
 there be no jarring or discord in it, but every part be 
 judiciously and musically tempered." Longinus gives 
 the following example of this figure from Plato, in the 
 beginning of his funeral oration: "We have now dis- 
 charged the last duties we owe to these our departed 
 friends, who, thus provided, make the fatal voyage. 
 They have been conducted publicly on their way by 
 
 Term translated. 
 49. Circumlocution. 
 
142 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Hypotyposis to the eye contracts 50 
 
 Things, places, persons, times, affections, acts. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 the whole body of the city, and, in a private capacity, 
 by their parents and relations." Here he calls death 
 "the fatal voyage," and discharging the funeral offices, 
 a public conducting of them by their country. And 
 Cicero, in his defence of Milo, instead of saying that 
 Milo's slaves had hilled Clodius, uses the following 
 Periphrasis, in order to conceal the horror of the mur- 
 der: "The servants of Milo acted upon this occasion 
 without the orders, without the knowledge, without the 
 presence of their master, as every man would wish his 
 own servants should act in like circumstances." So in 
 the first book of kings: "I go the way of all the 
 earth;" that is, I die. See 2 Pet. i. 14; Josh, xxiii. 
 14; Mark xiv. 25; Job xviii. 14; John xxi. 7, 24. 
 
 50. Cicero, in order to prevail with the senate to 
 direct the execution of those conspirators with Catiline, 
 who were then in prison, paints that horrible design in 
 the strongest colors: "Methinks I see this city, the 
 light of the world, and citadel of all nations, suddenly 
 falling into one fire; I perceive heaps of miserable 
 citizens buried in their ruined country; the counte- 
 nance and fury of Cethegus raging in your slaughter, 
 presents itself to my view." And in two lines he thus 
 paints the anger of Verres: "Inflamed with a mad and 
 wicked intention, he came into the forum; his eyes 
 sparkled with rage, and cruelty appeared staring in 
 
 Term translated. 
 50. Representation, 
 
ELOCUTION. 143 
 
 Epiphonema makes a final clause, 51 
 When narratives and proofs afford a cause. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 every feature of his face." See Psal. cvii. 25-29 ; 
 Prov. xxiii. 29; Job. xxxix. 19-25. 
 
 51. Virgil, in the first book of his iEneid, says: 
 " Declare, Muse ! the causes why he suffered; what 
 deity he had offended, and why the queen of heaven 
 was provoked to doom a man of such distinguished 
 piety to struggle with a series of calamities, to en- 
 counter so many hardships: dwells such resentment in 
 heavenly minds?" And having, in the same book, de- 
 scribed the calamities which iEneas and his associates 
 suffered previous to their settlement in Latium, he 
 says: "So vast a work it was to found the Roman 
 state." When Cicero has shown that recourse should 
 never be had to force and violence, except in cases of 
 the greatest necessity, he concludes with the following 
 remark: "Thus to think is prudence; to act, fortitude; 
 both to think and act, perfect and consummate virtue." 
 And having observed, in his Essay on Old Age, that 
 all men are solicitous to live to an advanced age, but 
 uneasy under it when attained, he says: "So great is 
 their inconstancy, folly, and perverseness." So in the 
 book of Psalms: "Kiss the son, lest he be angry, and 
 ye perish from the way, when his wrath is kindled but 
 a little. Blessed are all they that put their trust in 
 him" See also Matth. xxii. 13, 14; Acts xix. 19, 20. 
 
 Term translated. 
 51. Acclamation. 
 
144 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Enallage doth alter person, tense, 52 
 
 Mood, gender, number, on the least pretence.* 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 52. "Change of persons" says Longinus, "has a 
 wonderful effect, in setting the very things before our 
 eyes, and making the hearer think himself actually 
 present and concerned in dangers, when he is only at- 
 tentive to a recital of them." So in the fifteenth book 
 of Homer's Iliad: 
 
 No force could vanquish them, thou wouldst have thought, 
 No toil fatigue, so furiously they fought. 
 
 "When you introduce things past" says Longinus, 
 "as actually present, and in the moment of action, you 
 no longer relate, but display, the very action before the 
 eyes of your readers." Thus Xenophon, in the seventh 
 book of his Cyropsedia, says: "A soldier falls down 
 under Cyrus's horse, and being trampled under foot, 
 wounds him in the belly with his sword. The horse, 
 impatient of the wound, flings about and throws off 
 Cyrus. He falls to the ground." Longinus also says 
 that " Plurals reduced and contracted into singulars, 
 have sometimes much grandeur and magnificence." 
 Thus Demosthenes, in his oration on the crown, says: 
 "Besides, all Peloponnesus was at that time rent into 
 factions." Instead of "all the inhabitants of Pelo- 
 ponnesus were at that time rent into factions." A re- 
 Term translated. 
 52. A change of order. 
 
 * Changes of gender and mood do not fall under the province of 
 the English tongue. • 
 
ELOCUTION. 145 
 
 Hyperhaton makes words and sense to run 53 
 In order that's disturbed; such rather shun. 
 Apostrophe, from greater themes or less, 54 
 Doth turn aside to make a short address. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 markable instance of this figure is in Psalm cxxviii. 1, 2. 
 " Blessed are all they that fear the Lord and walk in 
 his ways. For thou shalt eat the labor of thy hands: 
 happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee." 
 See Prov. viii. 3, 4; Luke v. 14. 
 
 53. There is a fine Hyperbaton in the fifth book of 
 Paradise Lost: 
 
 Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
 With charm of earliest birds : pleasant the sun, 
 When first on this delightful land he spreads 
 His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flow'r, 
 Glist'ring with dew : fragrant the fertile earth 
 After soft show'rs : and sweet the coming on 
 Of grateful evening mild : then silent night, 
 With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, 
 And these the gems of heav'n, her starry train. 
 But neither breath of morn, when she ascends, 
 With charms of earliest birds : nor herb, fruit, flow'r, 
 Glist'ring with dew : nor fragrance after show'rs : 
 Nor grateful ev'ning mild : nor silent night, 
 With this her solemn bird : nor walk by noon, 
 Or glitt'ring starlight, without thee is sweet. 
 
 Another example of this figure is in Ephes. ii. 1, 5. 
 "And you being dead; even you being dead hath he 
 quickened." 
 
 54. Quintilian says : " The discourse, turned from the 
 
 Terms translated. 
 53. A passing over. 54. Address, or turning aside. 
 
 13 
 
146 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 judge, and therefore called Apostrophe, is of singular 
 efficacy, whether we attack the adversary : as, ' Tubero, 
 what was your naked sword doing in the battle of 
 Pharsalia?' ' "Or, turn to some invocation, as, <0 ye 
 Alban monuments and groves!'" "Or, implore the 
 assistance of the laws to make the infractor of them 
 more odious, as, '0 Porcian and Sempronian laws !' ' 
 Demosthenes, in his oration on the crown, says: "But 
 it cannot be ! No, my countrymen! it cannot be that 
 you have acted wrong in encountering clanger bravely, 
 for the liberty and safety of all Greece. No ! I swear 
 by those generous souls of ancient times, who exposed 
 their lives at Marathon ! By those who stood arrayed 
 at Plataea ! By those who encountered the Persian fleet 
 at Salamis, who fought at Artemisium! By all those 
 illustrious sons of Athens, whose remains lie deposited 
 in the public monuments !" Ossian abounds with beau- 
 tiful Apostrophes. Thus: "Weep on the rocks of roar- 
 ing winds, maid of Inistore ! bend thy fair head over 
 the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when 
 it moves in a sunbeam at noon over the silence of Mor- 
 ven! He is fallen! thy youth is low; pale beneath 
 the sword of Cuthullin!" Virgil sometimes uses this 
 figure : 
 
 Nor Pantheus! thee, thy mitre, nor the bands 
 Of awful Phoebus, saved from impious hands. 
 
 And in another place: "Thus he possessed the gold by 
 violence. cursed thirst of gold! what wickedness 
 dost thou not influence men's minds to perpetrate?" 
 So in the prophet Hosea: "The wild beast shall tear 
 
ELOCUTION. 147 
 
 Prosopopoeia a new person feigns, 55 
 
 And to inanimates speech and reason deigns. 
 
 What other figures are sometimes used by Rheto- 
 ricians ? 
 
 JPleonasmus, Ellipsis, Synathrcesmus, Hendiadis, 
 Kysteron, Hypallage, ITellenismus, JEtiology, Tmesis, 
 Antimeria, Antimetahole, Paradiastole, Upimone, and 
 Antiptosis. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 them. 0! Israel thou hast destroyed thyself." See 
 Gen. xlix. 17, 18; Psal. xxviii. 8, 9; Isa. i. 2. 
 
 55. There is a great propensity in human nature, 
 under emotion, to animate all objects. When we say 
 "the ground thirsts for rain," or "the earth smiles with 
 plenty;" when we speak of "frowning disdain," or 
 u meek-eyed contentment;" such expressions show the 
 facility with which the mind can accommodate the pro- 
 perties of living creatures to things which are inani- 
 mate, or to abstract conceptions of its own formation. 
 Thus Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says : 
 "If my country, which is far dearer to me than my 
 own life, if all Italy, if the whole republic, should say 
 to me: Marcus Tullius, what are you doing?" And, 
 in the same oration: "Your country, Catiline, reasons 
 with you, and thus tacitly addresses herself to you: 
 not an atrocious crime has been perpetrated for many 
 years but has had you for its author." Philoctetes, in 
 Sophocles, pours out to the rocks and caves of Lemnos 
 the following complaint: 
 
 Term translated. 
 55. The fiction of a person. 
 
148 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Define and exemplify these figures? 
 
 A Pleonasmus has more words than needs; 56 
 
 And, to augment the emphasis, exceeds. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 mountains, rivers, rocks, and savage herds, 
 To you I speak ! to you alone I now 
 Must breathe my sorrows ! you are wont to hear 
 My sad complaints, and I will tell you all 
 That I have suffered from Achilles' son ! 
 
 The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is sup- 
 posed to prompt the personification of all the objects 
 he beheld, in order to procure information: 
 
 Thou sun, said I, fair light! 
 And thou, enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! 
 Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
 And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
 Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 
 
 So Isaiah xxxy. 1: "The wilderness and the solitary 
 place shall he glad for them: and the desert place shall 
 rejoice, and blossom as the rose." See Josh. xxiv. 27; 
 Judg. ix. 8, &c; Psal. xcviii. 8; Pro v. viii. 1, &c. ; 
 Prov. ix. 1, &c. 
 
 56. This figure is sometimes used for the purpose of 
 rendering an expression more emphatical: as, "Where 
 in the world is he?" At other times it is designed to 
 ascertain the truth of what is said. Thus, the servant 
 in Terence, when the truth of what he related was called 
 in question, replied: "It is certainly so; I saw it with 
 these very eyes." So in Isa. vi. 10. "Lest they see 
 with their eyes, and hear with their ears," &c. 
 
 Term translated. 
 56. A Superfluity. 
 
ELOCUTION. 149 
 
 Ellipsis leaves a word or sentence out, 57 
 When the conciseness causes not a doubt. 
 A Synatlircesmus sums up various things, 58 
 And as into one heap together brings. 
 Hendiadis, for adjectives doth choose 59 
 Their proper substantives themselves to use. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 57. Quintilian says: "The retrenched word is suffi- 
 ciently understood by the rest as in Coelius against 
 Antony." — "The Greeks all in confusion with joy." 
 "As soon as we have heard these words, we perceive 
 that 'began to be' is understood." So in Acts vi. 2: 
 "Then the twelve (i. e. apostles) called the multitude of 
 the disciples unto them." 
 
 58. The following example is from the third Satire 
 of Juvenal: "He is a grammarian, rhetorician, geome- 
 trician, painter, anointer, soothsayer, rope-dancer, phy- 
 sician, magician; a hungry Grecian knows everything." 
 And Dido, in Virgil, beholding, from her watch tower, 
 the departure of the fleet of iEneas, says: "I might 
 have hurled firebrands into his camp, filled the hatches 
 with flames, extirpated the son, the sire, with the whole 
 race, and flung myself upon the pile." There is an- 
 other instance of this figure in Cicero's Oration for 
 Marcellus: " The centurion has no share in this honor, 
 the lieutenant none, the cohort none, the troop none." 
 See Rom. i. 29, 31. 
 
 59. Virgil, in his second Georgic, says: "This will 
 be prolific of grapes, this of such liquor as we pour 
 
 Terms translated. 
 57. A defect. 58. A gathering together. 59. One into two. 
 
 13* 
 
150 THE ART OF RHETORIC, 
 
 Hysteron doth misplace both words and sense 60 
 And makes the last, what's first by just pretence. 
 Hypallage doth cases oft transpose: 61 
 A liberty that's never used in prose, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 forth in libation from gold and cups;" that is, from 
 golden cups. And in his third book: "Nor would I 
 dislike her if streaked with white and spots;" that is, 
 with white spots. 
 
 60. iEneas, in Virgil, perceiving that the Greeks had 
 taken the city of Troy, thus addresses his associates: 
 " Let us die, and rush into the thickest of our armed 
 foes." And in the ninth book of the iEneid, Nisus 
 uses this abrupt exclamation, which admirably marks 
 his disorder and perturbation of mind: "On me, on me, 
 here am I who did the mischief; turn your swords 
 on me, Rutulians." So in Terence's Self-tormentor, 
 act iii. scene i.; "He is well and alive." Homer fre- 
 quently uses this figure; hence, says Cicero, in one of 
 his epistles to Atticus: "I will answer you, like 
 Homer, by Hysteron Proteron." An instance of this 
 figure occurs in the book of Psalms: "Behold, he tra- 
 vaileth with iniquity, and hath conceived mischief." 
 
 61. Ovid says: "My mind induces me to speak of 
 forms changed into new bodies;" for bodies changed 
 into new forms; and in the third Eclogue of Virgil: 
 "Nor have I yet applied my lips to them," for, nor 
 have I yet applied them to my lips. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 60. This figure is commonly called " Hysteron Proteron," which signi- 
 fies putting the last first. 61. A change. 
 
ELOCUTION. 151 
 
 'Tis Ilellenismus, when we speak or write, 62 
 In the like style and phrase as Greeks indite. 
 JEtiology gives every theme a reason; 63 
 And, with convincing arguments, doth season. 
 By Tmesis words divided oft are seen, 64 
 And others 'twixt the parts do intervene. 
 By Antimeria, for one part of speech 65 
 Another's put which equal sense doth teach. 
 Antimetabole puts chang'd words again 66 
 By contraries; some beauty to explain. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 62. "I kept him from to die;" that is, from death. 
 
 63. Despise pleasure; for pleasure bought with pain 
 is hurtful. 
 
 64. Milton, in the second book of his Paradise Lost, 
 
 says: 
 
 And in what place soe'er 
 Thrive under evil, and work ease out of pain, 
 Through labor and endurance." 
 
 And in St. John: "For what things soever he doeth ? 
 these also doeth the Son likewise." 
 
 65. He is new, for newly, come home. 
 
 66. Quintilian gives an instance of this figure from 
 Cicero's oration for Sextus Roscius: "For though he 
 is master of so much art as to seem the only person 
 alive who is fit to appear upon the stage; yet he is 
 possessed of such noble qualities, that he seems to be 
 
 Terms translated. 
 62. A Grsecism, or Greek phrase. 63. Giving a reason. 
 
 64. A division. 65. One part for another. 
 
 66. Changing by contraries. 
 
152 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Paradiastole explains aright 67 
 Things in an opposite and different light. 
 Epimone repeats the same words o'er 68 
 At intervals, to move affection more. 
 By Antiptosis you may freely place 69 
 One (if as proper) for another case. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 the only man alive who may seem worthy never to ap - 
 pear there." 
 
 So in Romans vii. 19: "For the good that I would I 
 do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do." 
 
 67. "Virtue may be overshadowed, but not over- 
 whelmed." And St. Paul, in 2 Cor. iv. 8, 9, says: 
 "We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed: we 
 are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not 
 forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed." 
 
 68. Virgil, in his eighth Eclogue, repeats this sen- 
 tence eight times : "Begin with me, my pipe, Msenalian 
 strains." And in the same Eclogue he repeats the fol- 
 lowing one nine times: "My charms, bring Daphnis 
 from the town, bring Daphnis home to me." Theocri- 
 tus, in like manner, in his first Idyl, repeats this verse 
 fourteen times: "Begin, Muses, begin the pastoral 
 song." See Gen. xviii. 24-32; John xxi. 15-17; Matth. 
 xii. 31, 32. 
 
 69. This figure is peculiar to the ancient languages: as 
 
 Urbem (pro urbs) quam statuo, vestra est.— *Virg. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 67. Contradistinction. 68. Persisting in the same words. 
 
 69. A case put for a case. 
 
ELOCUTION. 153 
 
 Figures of Orthography. 
 Prosthesis, to the front of words doth add TO 
 Letters or syllables they never had. 
 Aphceresis from the beginning takes, 71 
 What properly a part of the word makes. 
 Syncope leaves part of the middle out; 72 
 Which causeth oft of case and tense to doubt. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 So in the ninth book of Homer's Iliad: 
 
 EvravQa, r^s^sts, <ptXog. 
 
 And in the third book of the Odyssey: 
 
 *Sl <$>jXoj, a as soXira xccxov aai avahxtv saSs-dat. 
 
 The word $aoj, in both examples, is put, by this 
 figure, for $t%s. 
 
 70. Milton, in the first book of his Paradise Lost, says: 
 
 And what resounds 
 In fable or romance of Uther's son, 
 Begirt with British and Armoric knights. 
 
 And Spenser: 
 
 But ah ! Maecenas is yclad in clay, 
 And great Augustus long ago is dead, 
 
 71. Milton says: 
 
 'Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding fires; 
 
 72. O'er heaps of ruins stalked the stately hind. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 70. Adding to. 71. Taking from. 72. Cutting out. 
 
154 THE AKT OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Epenthesis to the middle adds one more 73 
 
 Than what the word could justly claim before. 
 
 Apocope cuts off a final letter 74 
 
 Or syllable, to make the verse run better. 
 
 A Paragoge adds unto the end; 75 
 
 Yet not the sense, but measure to amend. 
 
 Metathesis a letter's place doth change, 76 
 
 So that the word appears not new or strange. 
 
 Antithesis doth change a syllable or letter, 77 
 
 Or holds up contrasts, as men think better. 
 
 Figures of Prosody. 
 EctMipsis M in th' end hath useless fixt, 78 
 When vowel or H begins the word that's next. 
 By Synalcepha final vowels give way, 79 
 That those in front of following words may stay. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 73. Blackamoor for Blackmoore. 
 
 74. Rush thro' the thickets, down the valleys sweep. 
 
 75. My ain kind deary. 
 
 76. Crudle, for curdle, is used both by Spenser and 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 77. In vain he spoke, for ah! the sword addrest 
 With ruthless rage had pierced his lovely breast. 
 
 78. Si vita' inspicias, for Si vitam inspicias. 
 
 79. Si vis anim' esse beatus, for Si vis animo esse 
 beatus. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 
 73. Interposition. 74. A cutting off. 
 
 75. Producing, or making longer. 76. Transposition. 
 
 77. Opposition. 78. A striking out. 79. A mingling together. 
 
ELOCUTION. 155 
 
 A Systole long syllables makes short; 80 
 
 The cramp'd and puzzl'd poet's last resort. 
 
 Diastole short syllables prolongs; 81 
 
 But this, to right the verse the accent "wrongs. 
 
 Synceresis, whenever it indites, 82 
 
 Still into one two syllables unites. 
 
 Dicer esis one into two divides; 83 
 
 By which the smoother measure gently glides. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 80. Steterunt, for Steterunt. 
 
 81. Naufragia, for Naufragia. 
 
 82. Alveo, a dissyllable, for Alveo, a trissyllable. 
 
 83. Evoluisset, for evolvisset. 
 
 Terms translated. 
 
 80. A shortening. 81. Lengthening. 
 
 82. A contraction. 83. A division. 
 
156 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 TROPI PROPRII QUATUOR. 
 
 Dat propria similem translata 3Ietaphora vocem : 1 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 1. Sunt varise Metaphors. Qusedam ab animatis ad 
 animata: ut, 
 
 Quid enim hie meus frater ab arte adjuvari potuit, 
 cum a Philippo interrogatus, quid latraret fur em se 
 videre respondit? — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 54. 
 
 Ka» 6»7T£v avroi; TIogivQevrts iira.ii rn akwTtwi ravrn. — Luc. xiii. 32. 
 
 Et ait illis : Euntes dicite vulpi illi. 
 
 Alise ab inanimatis ad inanimata : ut, 
 Sic fatur lacrymans, classique immittit habenas. — Virg. 
 
 Aiiae ab inanimatis ad animata : ut, 
 
 — Aut geminos, duo fulmina belli 
 
 Scipiadas. — Virg. 
 
 Otrros V Aj«f ts-ri weXw^oj e^xo; A^aicuv. — Horn. 
 
 Hie vero Ajax est ingens propugnaculum Achivoram. 
 
 Postremo ab animatis ad inanimata : ut, 
 
 Indomitique Dahse, et pontem indignatus Araxes. — Virg. 
 
 *£!<; <pa.ro giynfsv h KaXu^o;, foa Staoav, 
 Ka» f*tv (pavnff-ai;, sttso, TTTSfOEVTa <ir£oe-tiv$a. — Horn. 
 
 Derivation. 
 1. A |t*6Ta<j>gf», transfero. 
 
ELOCUTION. 157 
 
 Atque Metonymia imponit nova nomina rebus. 2 
 Confundit totum cum parte Synecdoche saepe. 3 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Sic dixit : autem cohorruit Calypso, eximia inter deas, 
 Et ipsum compellans verbis alatis allocutus est. 
 
 2. Sunt etiam varise Metonymise. Sic causa pro 
 effectu: ut, 
 
 At rubicunda Ceres medio succiditur SBStu. — Virg. 
 
 Aeysi awrao 'A^aajO.* 'E^aert Mootrsa, nai T«f <rr£o$rna.q. — Luc. xvi. 29. 
 
 Ait illi Abrahamus : habent Mosen et prophetas. 
 E contra effectus pro causa : ut, 
 
 — Aut geminos, duo fulmina belli 
 Scipiadas, cladem Libyce? — Virg. 
 
 Mascenas, atavis edite regibus, 
 
 O et prcesidium, et duke decus meum ! — Hor. 
 
 Aut subjectum pro adjuncto : ut, 
 
 Ille impiger hausit 
 Spumantem pateram, et pleno se proluit auro.— Virg. 
 
 Turo ecTt to o-wfjta. fxa, xai t«to sari to aifta, /wa. — Marc. xiv. 22, 24. 
 
 Hoc est corpus meum, et hie est sanguis meus. 
 Postremo adjunctum pro subjecto: ut, 
 Crateras magnos statuunt, et vina coronant. — Virg. 
 En Priamus. — Id. 
 
 3. Synecdoche est simili modo varia. Aut enim ex 
 genere speciem intelligimus : ut, UogsvOsvtss si? tov xocs/xov 
 
 artavT'a, xrjgv%af£ to svayyE^vov rtaGq ivj x-ti$ii. — MaVC. XVI. 
 
 15. Euntes in mundum universum, predicate evange- 
 lium omni creature. 
 
 Aut e contra ex specie genus: ut, Tov agt ov qpa* tov 
 
 Derivationes. 
 2. A fABrovofxa^v, transnomino. 3. A e-wsxS'e%o j uai, comprehendo. 
 
 14 
 
158 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Ironia jocis contraria signat acutis. 4 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 sniovaiov 605 9ju.1v Gijixegov. — Matt. vi. 11. Panem nostrum 
 quotidianum da nobis hodie. 
 
 Praeterea ex toto "partem: ut, r^av tov xvgiov px, xao ovx 
 018a 7tov sOvjxav avtov. — Joan, xx. 13. Sustulerunt Do- 
 minum meum, nee scio ubi posuerunt eum. 
 
 Aut ex parte totum: ut, Anima quae peccat, ipsa 
 morietur. — JEzech. xviii. 4. Omnes aniniae quae ingres- 
 sae sunt cum Jacobo in Egyptum sexaginta sex erant. — 
 Gen. xlvi. 26. 
 
 Aut ab plurali singular em: ut, To 8* avto xcu 60 %fjatat, 
 
 01 avatavgioQevtss avfu, u>vst,8i£ov avtco. JxLatt. XXV11. 44.^ 
 
 Id ipsum autem etiam latrones qui crucifixi erant cum 
 eo, exprobrabant ei* 
 
 jE contra ex singnlari pliiralem: ut, 
 
 ETTit Tjojjij t£jov TTToXiefigsv btts^os. — Horn, 
 
 Postquam Trojae sacrum oppidum devastavit. — (Neque 
 ille enim solus, sed una cum aliis Groscis Trojam 
 evertit.) 
 
 4. Curasti probe. — Ter. And., act v. sc. ii. Ad Q. 
 Metellum praetorero. venisti: a quo repudiatus, ad soda- 
 lem tuum virum optimum, Marcum Marcellum, demi- 
 grasti. — Cie. in Cat. 
 
 Novum crimen, C. Caesar, et ante hunc diem inau- 
 ditum propinquus meus, ad te Q. Tubero detulit, Q. 
 Ligarium in Africa fuisse. — Oic. pro Lig. 
 
 bellum magnopere pertimescendum, cum banc sit 
 
 Derivatio. 
 4. Ab e^ei^ca;svofji.ai, dissimulo. 
 
ELOCUTION. 159 
 
 Insultans hosti illudit Sarcasmus amare. 5 
 Hostili mordens Diasyrmus scommate laedit 6 
 Dat Oharientismus pro duris mollia verba. 7 
 Asteismus jocus urbanus sen scomma facetum est. 8 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 habiturus Catilina scortatorum cohortem prsetoriam ! 
 Instruite nunc, Quirites, contra has tarn prseclaras Ca- 
 tilinae copias vestra prsesidia, vestrosque exercitus. — die. 
 in Oat. 
 
 Ut ludificans eos Elija dicer et, clamate voce magna 
 quando quidem deus est, nam colloquium, aut nam in- 
 sectatio est ei, aut nam iter est faciendum ei: fortasse 
 dormit, ut evigilet. — Megum, lib. prior, cap. xviii. 27. 
 
 Tots s^Erac Tt^oj Tfovs [xaOrjtas avtov, #a& faysc avtot$ Ka- 
 devBefe to %oi7iov xat, avartavsaOs. Matt. XXvi. 45. Tunc 
 
 venit ad discipulos suos, et dicit illis : Dormite eceterum, 
 et requiescite. 
 
 5. Satia, te inquit, sanguine quern sitisti, cuj usque 
 insatiabilis semper fuisti, — Just. lib. i. cap. 8. 
 
 Xacge, o jSacrasvs Ivw lovBaiav.-—3£att. xxvii. 29, 
 
 Gaude, rex Judgeorum, 
 
 6. Proinde tona eloquio, solitum tibi, meque timoris 
 Argue tu, Drance, quando tot stragis acervos 
 Tuecrorum tua dextra dedit, passimque tropeeis 
 Insignos agros. — Virg, 
 
 7. Bona verba quaeso. — Ter Jlnd., act i. scene 2. 
 
 — Ne ssevi magna Sacerdos. — Virg, 
 
 8. Qui Bavium non odit amet tua carmina, Maevi ; 
 Atque idem jungat vulpes, et mulgeat hircos. — Id. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 5. A 0-a.^na^a), carnes detraho, vel irrideo. 6. A hao-vgai, convitior. 
 7. A x*£ievTi£o[Aai } jocor. 8. Ab aarsio;, urbanus. 
 
160 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Durior improprige est Catachresis abusio vocis. 9 
 Extenuans, augensve, excedit Hyperbole verum. 10 
 Voce tropos plures nectit Metalepsis in una. 11 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 9. Id star mentis equum divina Palladis arte 
 JEdificant. — Virg. 
 
 Hie mini, dum teneras defendo a frigore myrtos 
 Vir gregis ipse caper deerraverat. — Id, 
 
 Olentis uxores mariti. — Hor. 
 Kai £7t£6t^£^a fasrtttv tv^v ty&vijv r.ti$ fXa/Ujfft fist fp.8.— 
 
 Apoe. i. 12. 
 
 Et conversus sum videre voeem quae loquebatur cum 
 me. 
 
 Mn xai ti xaxov arCu'Kavs-coixiv tv; <p\vagiag. — Luc. Dial. 
 Ke lucremur aliquod etiam mali ex garrulitate. 
 
 SI r:ays rtov Xevhoov aiycev axs^. — Tlieoc. Idyl. viii. 49. 
 hirce albarum caprarum vir. 
 
 10. Hinc atque hinc vastse rapes, geminique minantur 
 In ccelum scopuli. — Virg. 
 
 — ipse arduus, altaque pulsat 
 Sidera. — Id. 
 
 Aeunors^i j^iove?, Seittv £' avepoinv o/xoiot. — Horn. 
 Hi candore nivem superant, cursuque aquilonem. 
 
 Aygov £i%' s\a.TTO) yvv zyjivy ag STTtc-roXrig 
 ActKooyiHYiq. — Longhl. 
 
 Agrum habuit kabentem in se terrain minorem epistola 
 Laconica. 
 
 11. Felix heunimium felix! si litora tantum 
 Nunquam Dardanias tetigissent nostra carinse. — Virg. 
 Fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum. — Hor. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 9. A Kctra^aojUM, abutor. 10. Ab iwrs#£aM&), supero. 
 
 11. A {s.tta'ku[jt.Qa.voo i transumo. 
 
ELOCUTION. 161 
 
 Contimiare tropos solet Allegoria plures. 12 
 JEnigma obscuris involvit sensa loquelis. 13 
 Prsemonet experto bene nota Parcemia dicto. 14 
 Personis aliud facit Antonomasia nomen. 15 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 12. O navis, referent in mare te novi 
 Fluctus ? O quid agis ? Fortiter occupa 
 Portum, &c. — Hor. 
 
 Equidem cseteras tempestates et procellas in illis dun- 
 taxat fluctibus concionum semper putavi Miloni esse 
 subeundas. — Oic. pro Mil. 
 
 Sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus. — Ter. 
 
 Sed nos immensum spatiis confecimus gequor 
 
 Et jam tempus equum fumantia solvere colla. — Virg. 
 
 13. Die quibus in terris, et eris mihi magnus Apollo, 
 Tres pateat cceli spatium non amplius ulnas. — Jd. 
 Die quibus in terris, inscripti nomina regum 
 Nascantur flores. — Id. 
 
 14. Lupum auribus teneo. — Ter. 
 
 Later em la vein* — Id. 
 
 15. — Divum pater atque hominum. — Virg. 
 Irus est et subito, qui modo Croesus erat. — Ov. 
 Qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt. — Juv. 
 
 7ta^aTfs-ro , K^>]ix£va. — Longin. 
 
 Velut (praeter innuniera alia) etiam ilia, quae de 
 Aloidis a poeta sunt audacia felici dicta. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 12. Ab aWnyo^oo, aliud dico. 13. Ab amrru, obscure loquor. 
 
 14. A 7ra.%oifjt.ia£o{A.a,i, proverbialiter loquor. 
 
 15. Ab cart, pro, et ovofj.it fa nomino. 
 
 14* 
 
162 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Fortius affirmat Litotes adversa negando. 16 
 A sonitu voces Onomatopoeia fingit. 17 
 Oppositas rebus voces Antiphrasis aptat. 18 
 
 De Figuris. 
 
 Fignrce Dietionis ejusdam soni. 
 Diver sis membris frontem dat Anaphora eandem. 19 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 16. Non laudo; id est Reprehendo. — Ter. And. 
 
 — Dabitur, Trojane, quod optas : 
 Munera nee sperno. — Virg. 
 
 Est, qui nee veteris pocula Massici 
 Spernit, (id est, magnopere amat.) — Hoi'. 
 
 AM, ax sv toi$ riTisiosiv avtuv svSoxqasv o 0eoj* xafsaf^O^cav 
 -}a£ iv fqsgqpa. 1 Co?'. X. 5. 
 
 Sed non in pluribus eorum probavit Deus : prostrati 
 sunt enini in deserto. 
 
 17. Bombalio, clangor, stridor, taratantara, murmur. 
 
 Aiy%e &io$, vsvg* (xiy 1&X&V, xKto £' OiuToq 
 
 oZvC&Xmq. — Horn. 
 Striduit arcus, nervus autem • valde sonuit, saliitque sagitta acutam 
 habens cuspid em. 
 
 Aou7T)j'<rEV h irzcrm aga^na* h tlvyi ett' avreo. — Id. 
 Fragorem vero edidit cadens, sonitumque dedere arma super ipsum. 
 
 18. Lueus, a luceo, significat nemus opacum. Bel- 
 turn, a bellus, a, um, quod minime sit bellum. Fata 
 dicuntur JParcw, quia nemini par cunt. 
 
 19. Nihilne nocturnum prsesidium palatii, nihil urbis 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 16. A Xjtoj, tenuis. 17. Ab ovo/ma , nomen facio. 
 
 18. Ab a\n<p£afa per contrarium loquor. 19. Ab a'.afsga), refero. 
 
ELOCUTION. 163 
 
 Unum diversis finem dat Upistrophe membris. 20 
 Ineipit et finit pariter duo Symploce membra. 21 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum 
 omnium, nihil hie munitissimus habendi senatus locus, 
 nihil horum, ora vultusque moverunt ? — Cic. in Cat. 
 
 Hie gelidi fontes, hie mollia prata, Lycori, 
 
 Hie nemus: hie ipso tecum consumerer sevo. — Virg. 
 
 Te, dulcis conjux, te solo in litore secum, 
 
 Te veniente die, te decedente canebat. — >Id. 
 
 N<o£y?, £' av IvpriQev ayev r^sis vnaq eta-a;, 
 Ht?eue Ay\aw{ &" vio; } Xa^onoio t' avaXTO?* 
 Nfgeu?, oq HaKkia-roq avng vvo IXjov v\6e. — Horn. 
 . Nireas tres Syma naves adduxit et ipse, 
 Nireus Aglaia Charopoque potente creatus, 
 Nireus, quo Trojam venit, non pulchrior alter. 
 
 20. Dofetis tres exercitus populi Roman"! interfectos; 
 interfecit Antonius : desideratis clarissimos cives ; eos- 
 que eripuit vobis Antonius: auctoritas hujus ordinis 
 afflicta est; afflixit Antonius. — Qic. in M. Ant. 
 
 Nam que ego, crede mihi, si te modo pontus haberet, 
 Te sequerer, conjux et me quoque pontus haberet. 
 
 21. Quis eos postulavit? Appius: quis produxit? 
 Appius. — Cic. pro Mil. 
 
 Quis legem tulit ? Rullus: quis majorem populi par- 
 tem suffragiis privavit? Rullus: quis comitiis prsefuit ? 
 idem Rullus. — Cic. 
 
 Quam bene Caune, tuo poteram nurus esse parenti! 
 Quam bene, Caune, meo poteras gener esse parenti.— -Ov. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 20. Ab E7nsrTg£<}>», converto. 21. A «/juwXsx«, connecto. 
 
164 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Incipit et voce exit JEpanalepsis eadem. 22 
 Inverso repetens dat Epanodos ordine voces. 23 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 22. Multi et graves dolores inventi parentibus, et 
 propinquis multi. — Cic. 
 
 Vidimus tuam victoriam prseliorum exitu termi- 
 natam; gladium vagina vacuum in urbe non vidimus. — 
 Cic. pro M. Marcel. 
 
 Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa. — Virg. 
 
 Non amo te, Sabidi, nee possum dicere quare ; 
 
 Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te. — Mart. lib. i. Ep. 33. 
 
 Victus amore tui, cognato sanguine victus. — Virg. 
 
 Una dies Fabios ad bellum miserat omnes, 
 Ad bellum missos perdidit una dies. — Ov. 
 
 XougfT's sv Kv£tco rtavtotsj rtofoiv sga, xyegets. Pllilipp. 
 
 iv. 4. 
 
 G-audete in Domino semper, iterum dico, gaudete. 
 
 23. — Crudelis tu quoque mater ; 
 
 Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus ille? 
 Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater. — Virg. 
 
 Ecquam putatis civitatem pacatam fuisse, quae locuples sit? 
 Ecquam locupletem, quae illis pacata esse videatur ? 
 
 Cic. pro L. Man. 
 
 Ayn; ts ^o-roXoiyof, Egi$ r' aporov (Xiixavia., 
 
 'H |UEV, E%uu?a. xvtioifAov a.va.i$ia SniOTnroQ' 
 
 Af>j; 5' ev TraXa/xrifi TieKiagiov iyx?S &&/<*&• — Hom. 
 
 Mars homicida, dea et Contentio litigiosa, 
 
 Haec etiam turbas ciet, ac hostilia multa : 
 
 Mars autem manibus prsegrandem concutit hastam. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 22, Ab 67rj, et a.va.\ay.Qa.v<u, repeto. 23. Ab zm, et avah?, ascensus. 
 
ELOCUTION. 165 
 
 Voce Anadiplosis qua finit incipit ipsa. 24 
 Confirmat vocem repetens Upizeuxis eandem. 25 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 24. Hie tamen vivit; vivit? Imo vero etiam in 
 senatum venit. — Cic. in Cat. 
 
 Quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, 
 vives: et vives ita ut nunc vivis, multis meis et firmis 
 prsesidiis obsessus. — Id. 
 
 Pierides: vos hasc facietis maxima Gallo ; 
 
 Gallo, cujus amor tantum mini crescit in horas. — Virg. 
 
 Addit se sociam, timidisque supervenit JEgle ; 
 
 JEgle Naiadum pulcherrima. — Id. 
 
 Ecce Dionsei processit Csesaris astrum; 
 
 jlstrum, quo segetes gauderent frugibus. — Id. 
 
 Ta ^'sj'iw avriof et/xt, ncti ei ttv^i X Si £ a $ 6o ' x S"j 
 Et ttv^i X ei S ai loiK£[A,tvoq J' aiQom tribnga). — Hom. 
 Hunc adversus eo, quamvis sit flammea dextra, 
 Flammed dextra licet, vis ignea denique ferri. 
 
 25. Tu, tu, inquam, M. Antoni, princeps C. Caesari, 
 omnia perturbare cupienti, causam belli contra patriam 
 inferendi dedisti. — Cic. in M. Ant. 
 
 Ah, Cory don, Cory don, quae te dementia cepit ! — Virg. 
 
 Excitate excitate eum, si potestis, ab inferis. — Cic, 
 pro Mil. 
 
 Crux, crux, inquam, infelici et asrumnoso compara- 
 batur. — Cic. in Ver. 
 
 Totum hoc (quantumcunque est, quod certe maximum 
 est) totum est, inquam, tuum. — Cic. pro Marcel. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 24. Ab MAfonXtia), reduplico. 25. Ab eiri£evyvv{M, conjungo. 
 
166 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Verba Ploce repetit paulum mutantia sensum. 26 
 Nomen idem variis Polyptoton casibus effert. 27 
 Dat varium sensum voci Antanaclasis eidem. 28 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 xxii. 37. 
 
 Hierusalem, Hierusalem, occidens prophetas. 
 
 26. Ad ilium diem Memmius erit Memmius, sc. sibi 
 similis. 
 
 Simla est Simla, etiarnsi aurea gestat insignia. 
 
 In hac victoria Ccesar fuit Ccesar, sc. mitissimus victor. 
 
 27. Argumentis agemus ; signis omni luce clarioribus 
 crimina refellemus; res cum re, causa cum causa, ratio 
 cum ratione pugnabit. — Cic. pro Owl. 
 
 Jam clypeus clypeis, umbone, repellitur umbo, 
 
 Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis. — Stat. Th. viii. 
 
 Mors mortis morti mortem nisi morte dedisset, 
 
 jEtern.se vita? janua clausa foret. — Epig. de Christo, 
 
 'Otffr i% avtu, xch, oV avtu, xai ftj avtov ta rtavta. — Rom. 
 
 xi. 36. 
 
 Quoniam ex ipso, et per ipsum, et in ipso omnia. 
 
 28. Cum Proculeius quereretur de filio, quod mortem 
 suam exoptarit; et ille dixisset, se vero non expectare; 
 imo, in quit, rogo expectes. — Quint.' 
 
 Quis neget iEneae natum de stirpe Neronem ? Sus- 
 tulit bic (sc. interfecit) matrem, sustulit ille (sc. de- 
 portavit) patrem. — Mart. Epig. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 26. A TrXexca necto, vel fiecto. 27. A nohv;, multus, et vrarie casus. 
 28. Ab avn, contra, et avaxaXew, revoco. 
 
ELOCUTION. 167 
 
 Paronomasia alludit sonitumque imitatur. 29 
 Naturae ejusdem sibi verba Paregmenon addit. 30 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Quid ergo ? ista culpa Brutorum $ Minime illorum 
 quidem, sed aliorum brutorum, qui se cautos et sapi- 
 entes putant.— Cic. Pp. ad Att. 
 
 'O §s I^ffovj si7isv avtw' Axo'kisdst, fioty x&i a$fj tfsj vzxgovs 
 ^a-^af* 7T8J eavtav vsxgov$. — Matt. Vlii. 22. 
 
 At Jesus ait illi: sequere me, et dimitte mortuos 
 sepelire suos mortuos, 
 
 29. Inceptio est amentium, haud amantium. — Ter. And. 
 Tibi parata erunt verba, huic verbera. — Ter. Heaut. 
 
 Nunquam satis dicitur, quod nunquam satis discitur. 
 —Sen. Pp. 28. 
 
 Itaque plebiscitum, quo magis oneratus quam hono- 
 ratus, sum, primus antiquo abrogoque. — Liv. 
 
 De oratore arator factus. — Cic. 
 
 ~Xv sv ILstgos, xat srto <tavtt] iq rtstga o(,xo8o/A.7]<sa fxa ir[v 
 
 sxx-kviaiav. — -Matt. xvi. 18. 
 
 Tu es Petrus, et super hac pcetra aedificabo meam 
 ecclesiam. 
 
 30. Sed ut turn ad senem senex de senectute, sic in 
 hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi. — 
 Cic. de Amicitia. 
 
 Tu quoque Pieridum studio, studiose, teneris; 
 Ingenioque faves. ingeniose, rneo. — Ov. 
 Is demum miser est, cujus nobilitas miserias nobilitat. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 29. A Traja, juxta et ov<Y*a, nomen. 30. A waga^o^aj, juxta ducor. 
 
168 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Fine sonos similes conjungit Homoioteleuton. 31 
 Verba Climax repetit gradibus quoque pergit eundo.32 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 31. Non ejusdera est facere fortiter, et vivere turpiter. 
 
 —Cic. 
 
 Vivis invidiose, delinquis studiose, loqueris odiose. 
 Quid est in Ccelo? Nescio, sed dico quod non est: 
 
 Non ibi debilis, aut homo fiebilis ; 
 
 Aut furor, aut lis : 
 Aut cibus, aut coquus, aut Venus, aut Jocus 
 
 Aut tumor, aut vis. — Bern. Mor. 
 
 Quos anguis dirus tristi mulcedine pavit ; 
 Hos sanguis mirus Christi dulcedine lavit. 
 Xgn fyivov ircL^ovra. <1>IAEIN, eQshovra h IIEMnEIN Horn. 
 
 32. Neque vero se populo solum, sed etiam senatui 
 commisit; neque senatui modo, sed etiam publicis prae- 
 sidiis, et armis: neque his tantum, verum etiam ejus 
 potestati, cui senatus totam rempublicam commiserat. — 
 Cic. pro Mil. 
 
 Quae reliqua spes libertatis manet, si illis, et quod 
 libet, licet; et quod licet, possunt; et quod possunt, 
 audent; et quod audent, faciunt; et faciunt quodcun- 
 que molestum est ? — Cic. 
 
 Facinus est vincire civem Eomanum; scelus verbe- 
 rare, prope parricidium necare; quid dicam in crucem 
 toller e ? — Cic. pro Rabir. 
 
 'ETttxogqyqGaTfe ev 't'/j riiG-tsi v/xav trjv agstqv, ev Ss ft] a^stt] nHqv 
 yvdGiVi ev Se tiq yvcosst. 'ttjv Eyx^a-tE iav, ev Se Ir} Eyx^atEia, fr]v 
 VTtofjtovqv ev Se >t7i vfiofiovij rt]v svtisdsiav ev Se fq evGeSsio, trjy 
 tyfaaSehfytav, ev Se tvj $tXa5f7.<jHa frjv ayurtEV. — 2 Pet. i. 5—7. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 31. Ab 'opoiw;, similiter, et teXeutsv, rinitum. 32. A xXivo, acclino. 
 
ELOCUTION. 169 
 
 Iisdem plura facit Synonymia nomina rebus. 33 
 
 Figurce ad Ratiocinationem. 
 Quserit Erotesis poterat quod dicere recte. 34 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Subministrate in fide vestra virtutem, in autem vir- 
 tute cognitionem, in autem cognitione temper antiam, in 
 autem temperantia tolerantiam, in autem tolerantia 
 pietatem, in autem pietate amorem fraternitatis, in 
 autem amore fraternitatis charitatem. 
 
 33. Vultus denique totus, qui sermo quidam tacitus 
 mentis est, hie in errorem homines impulit: hie eos, 
 quibus erat ignotus, decejpit fefellit, in fraudem induxit. 
 — Cic. in L. Pis. 
 
 Quem si fata virum servant, si vescitur aura 
 
 iEtherea, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris. — Virg. 
 
 Quicunque ubique sunt, qui fuere, quique futuri sunt 
 posthac, stulti, stolidi, fatui, fungi, bardi, blenni, buc- 
 cones, solus ego omnes longe anteeo stultitia et indoctis 
 moribus. — Mart. 
 
 34. Et procul : O miseri, quae tanta insania cives ? 
 Creditis avectos hostes? aut ulla putatis 
 
 Dona carere dolis Danaum? sic notus Ulysses? — Virg. 
 
 'H j3«7.£cf0£ 9 eirts pot, rttguovtis avtav rtvvOavstiOcu xata tir.v 
 ayogav, T^systiav tic xcuvov', yevoitio ya£ av tit, xatvoff^oj/, tj Maz?- 
 Sczv avqg AOrjvcuas xatiartohsfiov, xai tia ticav 'Em^vwj.' Sioixcov '. 
 tifdv/jxe QifoirLTtos ; a fxa At , aM, addtvit. T\§' 'vpiv Siafyegeo ; 
 
 Derivationes. 
 33. A o-w, con, et ovofna, nomen. 34. Ab egwraog, interrogo. 
 
 15 
 
170 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Anticipat, quae quis valet objecisse, Prolepsis. 35 
 Plane, aut dissimulans, permittit Epitrope factum. 36 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Demost. Philip, i. 
 
 Num vultis, die mini, circumcursitantes alius alium 
 percontari in foro, diciturne aliquid novi ? Quid enim 
 magis novum fieri potest, quam hominem Macedonem 
 Atheniensis bello subigere, Grseciasque pro suo libitu 
 res administrare ? Mortuusne est Philippus ? Non per 
 Jovem: atqui aegrotat. Quid vero hoc vestra interest ? 
 Etsi enim moriatur ille, brevi vos alium Pliilippum vobis 
 faeietis. 
 
 35. Siquis vestrum, Judices, aut eorum qui adsunt, 
 forte miratur, me, qui tot annos in causis judiciisque 
 publicis ita sim versatus, ut defenderim multos laeserim 
 neminem subito nunc mutata voluntate ad acusandum 
 descendere : is, si mei consilii causam rationemque cog- 
 noverit, una et id quod facio probabit, et in bac causa 
 profecto neminem, prgeponendum esse mibi actorem 
 putabit. — Cie. in Ccecil. 
 
 AU s^sc ti$' IIcoj sysigovtai, oc vsxgoi ; rtotco 8s tfio/iatt t£z ov ~ 
 •tai ; A$£oj», Gv 6 Grtu^Eis, a ^ioo7ioititac, sav fiyj anoOarrj. — 
 
 1 Cor. xv. 35, 36. 
 
 Sed dicet aliquis; quomodo resurgunt mortui? quali 
 autem corpore veniunt ? insipiens, tu quod seminas, non 
 vivificatur, si non moriatur. 
 
 36. Tribuo Grsecis literas, do multarum artium dis- 
 ciplinam, ingeniorum acumen, dicendi copiam, denique 
 
 Derivationes. 
 35. A 9rfoXa ( w£av» ; anticipo. 36. Ad S7riTgt7ra), permitto. 
 
ELOCUTION. 171 
 
 Consultat cum alliis Anaccenosis ubique. 3T 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 etiam siqua alia sibi sumunt, non rupugno : testimoni- 
 orum religionem et fidem nunquam ista natio coluit.- — 
 Cic. pro Flae. 
 
 Sint sane, quoniam ita se mores habent, liberales ex 
 sociorum fortunis, sint misericordes in furibus serarii: 
 ne illis sanguinem nostrum largiantur; et, dum paucis 
 sceleratis parcunt, bonos omnes perditum eant. — Sail. 
 
 Egfts av. E%£x%aa9?j6av oc xhaboi, I'va syco tyxsvtgtoOa. Kaftcoj* 
 tit] artcdtta s^ixhaaOqaav, 6v 8s ty 7iiOT!zi EtfT^xaj* py v^qhcfy govsi, 
 
 awn <po6s — Horn. xi. 19, 20. 
 
 Dices ergo: Defracti sunt rami, ut ergo insererer. 
 Pulchre; incredulitate defracti sunt, tu autem fide 
 stas; ne efferaris animo, sed time. 
 
 37. Qusero, si te hodie domum tuam redeuntem co- 
 acti homines, et armati, non modo limine, tectoque 
 sedium tuarum, sed primo aditu, vestibuloque prohibue- 
 rint, quid acturus sis ? — Qic. 
 
 Tu denique, Labiene, quid faceres tali in re ac tem- 
 pore ? cum ignavise ratio te in fugam, atque in latebras 
 impelleret: improbitas et furor Lucii Saturnini in Capi- 
 tolium arcesseret: consules ad patriae salutem ac liber- 
 tatem vocarent: quam tandem auctoritatem, quam 
 vocem, cujus sectam sequi, cujus imperio parere potis- 
 simum velles ? — Cic. pro Rul, 
 
 Quin denique, quid censetis ? cedo, si vos in eo loco 
 essetis, quid aliud fecissetis ? — Cic. 
 
 Derivatio. 
 
 37. Ab gvuHom®, communico. 
 
172 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Oppositum Antithesis sensum librare paratur, 38 
 Oxymoron erit quasi contraclictio vera. 39 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 38. Odit populus Romanus privatam luxuriam, pub- 
 licam rnunificentiam cliligit. — Oie. 
 
 Ex hac parte pudor pugnat, illi ne petulantia. — Id. 
 
 Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia rnagnus habebatur, 
 integritate vitse Cato, &c. — Sail. 
 
 Egentes in locupletes, perditi in bonos, servi in do- 
 niinos, armabantur . — Cic. 
 
 Ta yag o-^covia i'qe, afiagtias, §avato$' to 8e ^a^Kj^a tv ©£«> £w?7 
 cuwvtoj sv X^ttJi'w I^ffs fu Ku£iw '^cov. Roill. vi. 23. 
 
 Nam stipendia peccati mors; at donatio Dei, vita 
 eeterna in Christo Jesu Domino nostro. 
 
 39. De te autem, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant; 
 cum patiuntur, decernunt: cum tacent, clamant. — Cic. 
 in Cat. 
 
 Et, consanguineas ut sanguine leniat umbras, 
 Impietaie pia est. — Ov. 
 
 Nunquam se minus otiosum esse quam otiosum, nee 
 minus solus quam cum solus esset. 
 
 Id aliquid nihil est. — Ter. And. Ut cum ratione 
 insanias. — Ter. Eun. Tu pol, si sapis, quod scis, 
 nescias. — Ter. Heaut. 
 
 — Concordia discors. — Ov. 
 
 Amici absentes adsunt, &c. — Cic. 
 
 'H §f cfrtafaXcocfa £wcra, T?£6vr t xe. 1 Tim. V. 6. 
 
 At deliciosa vivens, mortua est. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 3S. Ab cam, contra, el rtQsfxi, pono. 39. Ab o%vg, acutus, et y.oo°o<;, stultus. 
 
ELOCUTION. 1T3 
 
 Consulit, addubitans quit agat dicatve, Aporia. 40 
 
 Figures ad Affectuum Qoncitationem. 
 Concitat JEcphonesis et Exclamatio mentem. 41 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 40. Quo me miser conferam ? quo vertam ? in capi- 
 tolium? at fratris sanguine redundat: an domum? 
 matremne ut miseram, lamentantem que videam, et 
 abjectam ? — Cic. de Cfrac. 
 
 — quid igitur faciam miser ? 
 Quidve incipiam? ecce autem video rure redeuntem senem. 
 Dicam huic, an non 1 — -Ter. Eun. 
 Eloquar an sileam 1 ? — Virg. 
 Quid faciam ? roger, anne urogem ? quid deinde rogabo 1 — Ov. 
 
 Ei,rt£ 8s sv savta o oixovofio$' Tt rtoitjGa < otv 'o xvgio$ ps 
 afycugsffcu Tfyjv oixovo/xiav art' spa \ axa,7tt£W ax tcf^vw, sriatts iv 
 aiaxwonai. Luc. Xvi. 3. 
 
 Ait autem in seipso dispensator; quid faciam, quia 
 dominus meus aufert dispensationem a me ? fodere non 
 valeo mendicare erubesco. 
 
 41. audaciam immanem ! tu etiam ingredi illam 
 domum ausus es ? tu illud sanctissimum limen intrare ? 
 tu illarum medium diis penatibus os importunissimum 
 ostendere ? — Cic. in M. Ant. 
 
 clementiam admirabilem, atque omni laude, prsedi- 
 catione, Uteris, monumentisque decorandam ! — Cic. pro 
 Lig. 
 
 scelus ! pestis ! labes ! — Cic. in Pis. 
 
 Ccelum! terra! maria Neptuni! — Ter. jldelph. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 40. Ab a7TU)otaj, addubito. 41. Ab exqmeoc, exclamo. 
 
 15* 
 
174 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Librat in Antithetis contraria Enantiosis. 42 
 Ajjosiopesis sensa imperfecta relinquit. 43 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Heu pietas! heu prisca fides I invictoque bello 
 D extra! — Virg. 
 
 Oss fxs, ®ss ,u«, watt fxs syxatf shirts j. 3£dtt7l. XXYli. 46. 
 
 Deus metis, Deus meus, ut quid me dereliquisti ! 
 
 42. Conferte lianc pacem cum illo hello; hujus pns- 
 toris adventum, cum illius imperatoris victoria; hujus 
 cohortem impuram cum illius exercitu invicto; hujus 
 libidines cum illius continentia ; ab illo qui cepit condi- 
 tas; ab hoc, qui constitutas accepit, captas dicetis 
 Syracusas. — Cic. in Ver. 
 
 Plura bella gessit, quam cseteri legerunt ; plures pro- 
 tincias confecit, quam alii concupiverunt : cujus ado- 
 lescentia ad scientiam rei militaris non alienis praeceptis, 
 sed suis imperiis : non offensionibus belli, seel victoriis : 
 non stipendiis, sed triumphis est erudita. — Cic. pro Leg. 
 Man. 
 
 Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur. — Virg. 
 
 43. — Quern quidem ego si sensero — 
 
 Sed quid opus est verbis. — Ter. And. 
 
 Quos ego — sed prsestat motos componere fluctus. — Virg. 
 Cantando tu ilium ? aut unquam tibi fistula cera, 
 Juncta fuif? — Id. 
 
 — Ego te, furcifer, 
 Si vivo. — Ter. Eun. 
 
 Asyuv' oto si syva$ xai av, xav ys sv <tv\ rj[A.sg<x 68 'to.vtr l , ta 
 rt^os sigyvqi' 08 vvv 8s sxgvSr] arto o$0aX ( uu>r as. Z/UC. xix. 42. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 42. Ab svavTJOj, oppositus. 43. Ab airoa-ix7ratu, obticeo. 
 
ELOCUTION. 175 
 
 Rem negat Apophasis, quam transgreditur Para- 
 leipsis. 44 
 
 Verba Epanorthosis revocans addensque reformat. 45 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Dicens: quia si cognovisses et tu, et quidem in die 
 tua hac, quae ad pacem tuam; nunc autem abscondita 
 sunt ab oculis tuis. 
 
 Ejttots V avrt 
 X^Biu s,usio ■yiimrai auusa Xoiyov afjtvvai 
 Toig aXXon' — » y&l oy oXoji<7{ <J>gss-t Svei. — Horn. 
 
 Sin vero unquam posthac opus me fuerit ad indignam 
 pestem arcendam ab aliis: — certe enim ille perniciosis 
 consiliis furit. 
 
 44. Mitto illam primam libidinis injuriam, mitto ne- 
 farias generi nuptias, mitto cupiditate matris expulsam 
 matrimonio filiam. — Cic. pro Cluent. 
 
 Non refer am ignaviam, et alia magis scelesta, quorum 
 poenitere oportet: taceo, omitto homicidia, furta, et 
 alia tua crimina: nee ea dico, quae si dicam, tamen 
 infirmare non possis. — Cic. in Ver. 
 
 'otL xao asavtov pot 7t£o<yo<|>£ift.?tj. Phil. 19. 
 
 Ego Paulus scripsi mea manu, ego dependam; ut 
 non dicam tibi quod et teipsum mihi addebes. 
 
 45. An vero ignoratis, neque in hoc pervagato civi- 
 tatis sermone versantur, quas ille legis, (si leges nomi- 
 nandae sunt, ac non fasces urbis et pestes reipublicae) 
 fuerit impositurus nobis omnibus, atque inusturus? — 
 Cic. pro Mil. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 44. Ab awo, ab, et <f>aa;, dico: a TttjaXjiTrw, prsetermitto. 
 
 45. Ab £7rav6f9oat;, corrigo. 
 
176 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Digna prseire, solet postponere Anastrophe verba. 46 
 Dialyton tollit juncturam, et Asyndeton seque. 47 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 — Filium unicum adolescentulum 
 Habeo : ah! quid dixi habere me? imo habui, Chrerae: 
 Nunc habeam, nee ne, incertum est. — Ter. Heaut. 
 
 dementia ! dementia, dixi ? potius patientia mira. 
 — Cic. in Ver. 
 
 AAAa 7ttC,i66ot£S,Qv avtav rtavtav exortiaaa' ax sya> 6s, aTA 'ij 
 
 xo-eis ** ®sa \ 6w s/xoi. — 1 Cor. xv. 10. 
 
 Sed abundantius illis omnibus laboravi; non ego 
 autem sed gratia Dei quae cum me. 
 
 46. Pastorum Musam, Damonis et Alphesibcei, 
 Immemor herbarum quos est mirata juvenca 
 Certantes ; quorum stupefacta? carmina Jynces ; 
 Et mutata suos requierunt fiumina cursus 
 Damonis Musam dicemus et Alphesibosi. — Virg. 
 
 Quid deinde ? quid censeris ? furtum fortasse aut 
 prsedam aliquam? — Cic. in Ver. Deinde, (inquit Quin- 
 tilianus,) cum diu suspendisset judicum animos, subjecit 
 quod multo esset improbius. 
 
 47. Ite, 
 
 Ferte citi flammas, date vela, impellite remos. — Virg. 
 
 Cseteros ruerem, agerem, raperem, tunderem, prosternerem. — Ter. 
 
 Turn spectaculum horribile in campus patentibus : 
 sequi, fugere, occidi, capi. — Sail. 
 
 Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. — Cic. in Cat. 
 Veni, vidi, vici. — Cobs. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 46. Ab avctTT^sfoOf retro verto. 
 
 47. A Siakvw, dissolvo : ab a, privat. et e-whw, conjungo. 
 
ELOCUTION. 177 
 
 Conjunctura frequens vocum Polysyndeton esto. 48 
 Periphrasis verbis rem pluribus explicat unam. 49 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Kcu Gvy-SaXovtsi •z'aj atfrtiSas, ew^svi'o, tfxaxovto, aHsx-tiivov, 
 arttSvTjtixor}. XenopJl. 
 
 Et confligentes clypeos impellebantur, pugnabant, 
 csedebant, moriebantur. De istiusmodi construction, 
 vide Mom. II, lib. i. 105; iii. 23; iv. 89, 327; v. 276, 
 840; vi. 392, 517; vii. 23; xi. 196; xii. 365; xv. 239. 
 
 48. Me prse ceteris et colit et observat, et diligit. — 
 Cie. in Epist. 
 
 Et somnus, et vinum, et epulse, et scorta, et Balnese, 
 corpora atque animos enervant. — Liv. 
 
 tectum que, laremgw, 
 Arma^e, Amyclseumgw canem, Crcssamgw, pharetram. — Virg. 
 
 JTfrtfKfyiat yag t ats §ava-to$, ats £037, si's ayysT.01, uts a£#at, 
 His 8vva[X£t$, Hts svecttuta, ats [AsTiKovta, xtie 'v^copa ats /3a0oj, 
 nth T"tj x-tiGis l £i?sga 8vv£6£tao '^aj #to£tcfat arto fys ayart^j fs 
 
 ©£«, tqs sv x^icfT'co lya* t'w Kvgico '^^cof . — Pom. viii. 38, 39. 
 Persuasus sum enim, quia neque mors, neque vita, 
 neque angeli, neque principatus, neque potestates, ne- 
 que instantia, neque futura, neque altitudo, neque pro- 
 funditas, neque aliqua creatura alia poterit nos separare 
 a charitate Dei, quas in Christo Jesu Domino nostro. 
 
 49. Fecerunt id servi Milonis, neque imperante, ne- 
 que sciente, neque prsesente domino, quod suos quisque 
 servos in tali re facere voluisset, (sc. interfecerunt Clo- 
 dium.) — Oic. pro Mil. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 48. A ?ro\vi, multus, et a-wtieu, conjungo. 
 
 49. A ve^^x, circumloquor. 
 
178 
 
 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Exprimit, atque oculis quasi subjicit Hypotyposis. 50 
 Res, loca, personas, affectus, tempora, gestus. 
 Narratum claudit, vel Epiphonema probatum. 51 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Trojani belli scriptor, sc. Homerus. — Hor. 
 
 Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, 
 Majoresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae.' — Virg. 
 
 "O ixaO^trji sxelvos, 6v ^yarta 'o I^cfKj. JoCUl Xxi. 7. 
 
 Discipulus ille, quera diligebat Jesus. 
 
 50. Yideor enim mini hanc urbem videre, lucem 
 orbis terrarum, atque arcem omnium gentium, subito 
 uno incendio concidentem: cerno animo sepulta in 
 patria miseros, atque insepultos acervos civium: ver- 
 satur mihi ante occulos aspectus Cethegi, et furor in 
 vestra csede baccbantis. — Cic. in Cat. 
 
 Obstupui, steteruntque comas, et vox faucibus hassit. — Virg. 
 
 Ot pel, nra.ni (xr noi <pvyoo. — Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 
 Hei mihi ! interficiet me : quo fugiam ? 
 
 51. Musa, mihi causas memora: quo numine lasso 
 Quidve dolens regina Deum, tot volvere casus 
 Insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores 
 Impulerit. TantcEne animis ccelestibus ir<z. — Virg. 
 Tantse molis erat Romanam condere gentem ! — Id. 
 
 Quam ut adipiscantur omnes optant, eandem accu- 
 sant adepti: Tarda est stultitia et perversitas ! — Cic. de 
 Senect. 
 
 Tot's sirtsv 'o j3atft^£i;j t.oic, Siaxorois' Aqtfavts$ avts cto5a$,xcu 
 ^ugac, agats avtov, xai, sx6a%sts ft? to cfzo-foj *to sicofEgoy' ex£i 
 
 Derivationes. 
 50. 'vTrorvrrocD, repraesento. 51. Ab emqwiv, acclamo. 
 
ELOCUTION. 179 
 
 Personam, 5 numerum, commutat Enallage, 2 tempus 52 
 Cumque 3 modo, 4 genus et pariter : sic saepe videbis. 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 stitau e o x%av9iAo$ xav 'o jS^vyuos fcov aSovtaV' IIoM.ot ya£ siac 
 
 x^qtoL, oTiiyoo 8s sxtextoc. — ATatt. xxii. 13, 14. 
 
 Tunc dixit rex niinistris: ligantes ejus pedes et 
 manus tollite eum, et ejicite in tenebras exteriores; ibi 
 erit fletus et fremitus dentium : multi enim sunt voeati 
 pauci vero electi. 
 
 52. * Ubi te ignavise traclideris, (pro tradiderint.) — 
 Sail 
 
 Alta petunt : pelago credas innare revulsas 
 
 Cycladas, aut montes concurrere montibus altos. — Virg. 
 
 <!>«(«? x' aK^mai; xai areigecu; aWvXoiciv 
 
 Avt£<t9' ev 7roKsfA.a}' 'a-; Eo-avftgi/wc e/ua^Q\ro. — Horn. 
 
 Dieeres illos indefatigatos et indomitos sibi invicem 
 occurrere in pugna; adeo concitate pugnabant. 
 
 (Ubi, secunda persona utendo, Homerus lectorem 
 facit ut res ibi gestas non amplius legat, sed cernat; ut 
 denique non tarn Poetse quam pugnantium comes sit.) 
 
 2 Hastam intorsit equo, ferrumque sub aure reliquit : 
 Quo sonipes ictu furit arduus, altaque jactat, 
 Vulneris impatiens, arrecto pectore crura: 
 Volvitur ille excussus humi. — Virg. 
 
 (Ubi, prsesenti tempore utendo, Virgilius lectorem 
 facit et equi vulnus et bellatoris casum pene oculis 
 videre.) — Sic. 
 
 rifrtTcoxcoj ds tit, \<7to to Kvgv trtrtco, xai rtattsptvos, rtcusi ty 
 
 Derivatio. 
 52. Ab tvaWaTTW; permuto. 
 
180 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Est vocurn inter se turbatus Hyperbaton orclo. 53 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Kvgov, c o 8e TtiTitti — Xenoph. de Oyropced., lib. vii. 
 
 Cum cecidissit quidain subter equum Cyri et procul- 
 caretur, ferit equi ventrem gladio; ille auteni segre 
 ferens excutit Cyruin, hie vero decidit. 
 
 3 Xat^fti/ jUET'a ^at^oj/r'w^, xav x"hox£cv fista seftatoj/fcoi/. PoM. 
 
 xii. 15. 
 
 Gander e cum gaudentibus, et flere cum fientibus. 
 
 4 De bac generis inutatione, frequens est apud Ho- 
 merum usus ; dicit enim x-Kvto$ 'ittrcoSaueia, et tsxvov $as. 
 
 5 Singularis numerus positus vice pluralis vi et majes- 
 tate orationem vestit. — Sic. 
 
 ~Eris9 %; HeXorCovvqso^ 'artaaa Sisidtqxsi. 
 
 Deinde omnis Peloponnesus in factiones discessit. 
 (Verba sunt Deinosthenis in oratione pro Corona, ubi 
 
 9 q Ils^OTtovvr^os USUrpatur pro ol n^ortoz-i^ffioc.) 
 
 E contra Pluralis pro Singulari s^pe ponitur: ut, 
 
 Ov yog HshorCes, vSs Ka^uot, ub AiyvrCtov it xai Aavaot, «6' 
 oXkoi rtoWkoi tyvGst j3aQ§a£oi ovvoixxsiv qy.iv, ah% clvtol ^Ehhqve j, 8 
 juifoffagffagoi, oixtspev. Plat, ill MeueX. 
 
 Neque enim Pelopes, neque Cadmi, neque JEgyptii 
 et Danai, neque alii multi origine Barbari una nobis- 
 cum habitant; sed nos ipsi Hellenes, non cum Barbaris 
 commixti, babitamus. 
 
 53. Vina, bonus quae deinde cadis onerat Acestes, 
 
 Litore Trinacrio, dederatque abeuntibus heros. — Virg. 
 
 Derivatio. 
 
 53. Ab Wsf&Kva', transgredior. 
 
ELOCUTION. 181 
 
 Sermonem a prsesenti avertit Apostrophe rite. 54 
 Largitur linguam Prosopopoeia mutis. 55 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 (Ordo hie erat: Deinde herosdividit vina, quae bonus 
 Acestes^ &c.) 
 
 — Agyeioi h (xvy ict)(ov, a/jc<pi Js vbej 
 SftEpJaXSov KovaQ-no-ctv, avo-avrouv 'utt' A^atoov, 
 Mvdov Z7raww(ra.i)TSq oSvac-not; Setoto, — Horn. 
 Argivi vero altum clamabant, circumcircaque naves 
 Terribiliter sonitum reddebant, clamitantibus Achivis, 
 Sermonem collaudantes Ulyssis divini. 
 
 (Ordo namque orationis est, A^yftot 5e psy' taxov, 
 
 54. Et auro 
 
 Vi potitur. Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, 
 Auri sacra fames?' — Virg. 
 
 Vos, vos appello, fortissimi viri, qui multum pro re- 
 publica sanguinem effudistis. — Qic. pro Mil. 
 
 Yos enim, Albani tumuli, atque luci, vos, inquam, 
 imploro atque obtestor, &c. — Id. 
 
 — Pereunt Hypanisque Dymasque 
 Confixi a sociis : nee te, tua plurima, Pantheu, 
 Labentem pietas, nee Apollinis infula texit! — Virg. 
 
 A.VK ovx stiTfiv, ovx ftffcv, orCcog qpagT'stis avSges AQ^vaioc, tov 
 vrtsg tys ariavtcov £%£v9egias xao acottgiag xevftvvov a^a/xsvoi' Ov 
 jxa ?x$ sv Ma£a(9coi>& 7tgoxLvSvv£vGavtas tiov ri^oyoin^v, xac t?x$ sv 
 nxafatatj 7tagata%a{i£vovs, xcu tag £v Xa'ko.fj.ivi vavfAaxqaavTfas, xat 
 r«s sri Agrf^c-Stco, xa.i TioVkovc, £t£gov$, t«$ £v T'otj 6r{/Aotii.oi$ ^vt]- 
 
 juast xstp£vov$, ayadovs av8^. — Demost. Orat. pro Cor. 
 55. Etenim si mecum patria, quae mihi vita mea 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 54. Ab «7roo-Tf s<pa>, averto. 55. A Tr^oa-anrov, persona, et iroax, facio. 
 
 16 
 
182 THE AET OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Figurce Minor es. 
 Vocibus abundat Pleonasmus, et emphasin auget. 56 
 Dicitur Ellipsis, si ad sensum dictio desit. 57 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 multo est carior, si cuncta Italia, si omnis respublica 
 loquatur: M. Tulli, quid agis ? — Cic. in Cat. 
 
 Patria tecum, Catilina, sic agit, et quodammodo 
 tacita loquitur: Nullum jam tot annos facinus extitit, 
 nisi per te. — Id. 
 
 Quamobrem si cruentum gladium tenens clamaret T. 
 Annius, adeste, quseso, atque audite, cives P. Clodium 
 interfeci: ejus furores, quos nullis jam legibus, nullis 
 judiciis frenare poterainus, hoc ferro et bac dextera a 
 cervicibus vestris repuli; per me, ut unum jus, sequitas, 
 leges, libertas, pudor, pudicitia in civitate manerent; 
 esset vero timendum, quonammodo id factum feret 
 civitas; nunc enim quis est, qui non probet? qui non 
 laudet ? — Cic. pro Mil. 
 
 Aut conjurato descendens Dacus ab Istro. — Virg. 
 Virtus sumit aut ponit secures. — Hor. 
 Arbore nunc aquas culpante. — Id. 
 
 56. Satin' hoc certum ? certum : hisce oculis egomet vidi. — Ter. Adelph. 
 
 Sic ore locuta est. — Virg. 
 
 KaXov y ovtw syxv ovtto) i$ov o<pQa\y.oi7iv. — Horn. 
 Pulcbrum autem adeo ego nonclum vidi ocidis. 
 AXX" ctyzT*, etixEv 7ra>; Swgn%oy.zv vta.$ A^ataov. — Horn. 
 Verum agite, si quo modo armenius fdios Achivorum. 
 
 57. Triduo abs te nullas acceperam, (sc. epistolas.) — 
 Cic. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 56. A 7rXsoJa£a>, redundo. 57. Ab E?.XHJ7r<w, deficio. 
 
ELOCUTION. 183 
 
 Res specie varias Synatlircesmus congerit una. 58 
 Hendiadi verbis res dicitur unica binis. 59 
 Quod meruit primum, vult Hysteron esse secundum. 60 
 Casu transposito submutat Hypallage verba. 61 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Rhodum volo, inde Athenas, (i. e. ire.) — Id, 
 Civica donatus, (i. e. corona.) — Liv. Dii meliora, 
 (i. e. faciant.) — Oic. 
 
 58. Grammaticus, Rhetor, Geometres, Pictor, Aliptes, 
 
 Augur, Scho3nobates, Medicus, Magus, omnia novit. — Juv. 
 
 — faces in castra tulissem : 
 Implessemque foros flammis : natumque patremque 
 Cum genere extinxem: memet super ipsa dedissem.— Virg. 
 
 Nihil ex ista laude Centurio, nihil Praefectus, nihil 
 Conors, nihil Turma decerpit. — Oic. pro Marcel. 
 
 59. — hie fertilis uvae, 
 Hie laticis ; qualem pateris libamus et auro, 
 
 (pro aureis pateris.) — Virg. 
 Nee mihi displiceat maculis insignis et albo, 
 (pro albis maculis.) — Id. 
 
 60. ■ — moriamur, et in media arma ruamus. — Id. 
 Me, me : adsum qui feci ; in me convertite ferrum, 
 O Rutuli, mea fraus omnis. — Id. 
 
 Valet atque vivit. — Ter. Heaut. 
 
 61. In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas 
 
 Corpora, (pro corpora mutata in novas formas.) — Ov. Met. 
 Necdum illis labra admovi, sed condita servo, 
 
 (pro ilia labris.) — Virg. 
 
 — dare classibus austros, 
 
 (pro classes austris.) — Id. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 58. A avvaQ^oi^M, congrego. 59. Ab 'gv, unum, et Jja, per, et $vo, duo. 
 60. Ab 'utTTSgov, posterius. 61. Ab 'vnro, in, et aWarTu } muto. 
 
184 THE AUT OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Hellenismus erit phrasis aut constructio Graeca. 62 
 Propositum propriis probat JEtiologia causis. 63 
 Voce interposita per Tmesin verbula scindas. 64 
 Antimeria solet pro parte apponere partem. 65 
 Inversis vertit sensum Antimetabole verbis. 66 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 62. Et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestiura 
 Regnavit populornm : 
 (pro regnator populorum.) — Hor. 
 Desine mollium. querelarum. — Id. Desine clamorum. 
 
 63. Sperne voluptates; nocet empta dolor e voluptas, 
 
 Mjy 7t?^avaoQe' ©foj « fivxtr^i^etcu' 6 yo.% eav artei^r} avQga7to$* 
 rato kcu ^egiaei GrCcl. vi. T. 
 
 Ne errate ? Deus non irridetur; quod enim semin- 
 averit homo hoc et metet. 
 
 64. Quo nos cxcnque feret melior fortuna parente, 
 Ibimus, O socii comitesque. — Hor. 
 
 Quern fors dierum cunque dabit, lucro appone. — Id. 
 
 Qihe me cunque vocant terrae. — Virg. 
 Talis Hyperboreo Sept em subjecta trioni 
 Gens effrena virura. — Id. 
 
 AITO f*ev <l>iXa Sipara ATISl. — Horn. 
 
 65. Sole recens orto, aut uoctem ducentibus astris-, 
 
 (pro sole recenter orto, &c.) — Virg. 
 
 66. Poema est pictura loquens, pictura est mutum 
 poema. 
 
 Etenim, cum sit artifex ejusmodi, ut solus dignus 
 rideatur esse, qui scenam introeat: turn vir ejusmodi 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 62. Ab 'sWnvifa Graece loquor. 63. Ab aiTioXoyeoo, rationem reddo. 
 64. A ts/*v&>, vel T/«aw, seco. 65. Ab am, pro, et /wsgoj, pars. 
 
 66. Ab avri, contra, et fAsraCaXXae, inverto. 
 
ELOCUTION. 185 
 
 Explicat, oppositum addens, Paradiastole recte. 67 
 Tota intervallis dat Epimone carmina certis. 68 
 Antiptosis amat pro casu ponere casum. 69 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 est, ut solus videatur dignus, qui eo non accedat. — Cie. 
 pro Sext. Rose. 
 
 Ov yag 'o ^eXw, rfocw ayaOov' a%% 'o « ^£^,w xaxov tato rtgaaao. 
 
 Bom. vii. 19. 
 
 Non enim quod volo, facio bonum, sed quod non volo 
 malum hoc ago. 
 
 67. Premitur virtus non opprimitur. 
 
 Non formosus erat, sed erat facundus Ulysses. — Ov. 
 
 Non enim furem, sed direptorem; non adulterum, 
 sed expugnatorem pudicitise. — Qic. in Ver. 
 
 Non sapiens, sed astutus. — - 
 
 Ev rtavti ^XiSo/iievqi, aXK a dfevoxugafAivoc' artogisfjisvot, aXk ax 
 s<;a7togX[A,£voL' 8icoxofi,svoi, a?^ ax £yxata"k£V7tOfisvoi' xata6a'K7iOfi,£voc, 
 aM-' ax artoMvpevot,. 2 QoT. iv. 8, 9. 
 
 In omni tribulati, sed non coarctati; haesitantes, sed 
 non prorsus hserentes; persequutionem passi, sed non 
 deserti; dejecti, sed non perditi. 
 
 68. Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus.— Virg. 
 
 Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnin. — Id. 
 Ag%-n Ea>xoXixaf, Moorai <pi\at. a^ST* aoi^aq. — Theoc. Idyl. 1. 
 
 69. Urbem quam statuo, vestra est; subducite naves. 
 
 (pro urbs quam statuo, &c.) — Virg. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 67. A 7ra.^ethacrroXXu, disjungo. 68. Ab trnpevtu, permaneo. 
 
 69. Ab a\rt, pro, et tttwo-j?, casus. 
 
 16* 
 
186 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 De Figuris Orthographies. 
 
 Prosthesis apponit capiti; sed Aphceresis aufert. 70,71 
 Syncope de medio tollit ; sed Fpenthesis addit. 72, 73 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 Nominativus etiam ssepe provocative usurpatur, ut 
 apud Homerum in Iliad, i. v. 596. 
 
 EvravQx T^S^Sif, <ptXog. 
 
 Et illud Ejusdem in Odyss. y. 375. 
 
 SI 4>{Xo;, a es ioXtto. xaxcv xai ava7iX.iv Bs-ea-Bcti. — Horn. 
 
 (Duobus bis in locis, <pt\o; ponitur pro $i\e.) 
 
 70. Gnatuni pro natum ; nxS'ajf pro e\$aoe 
 
 Gnatum exhortarer, ni mistus matre Sabella. — Vvg. 
 
 To£« fXOl HgntlVW Bi\$01l. Ho)?l. 
 
 71. Mitte pro omitte; aia pro yaia] xn.voo pro exsivu, 
 Mitte, sectari, rosa quo locorum 
 
 Sera moretur. — Hor. 
 
 SI* <p2T0' TOVi y V$V XaTtyZV ^vai^OOQ aia. HoVfi. 
 
 <J»j yag cy aisrissiv Tl^iafxav ttoXiv r,y.an xeow, 
 N»7noj. — Id. 
 
 72. Periclis, pro periculis ; Trargi, pro Trarigi. 
 
 Deseris ; beu tantis nequidquam erepte periclis. — Virg. 
 
 ITfiv y a.TTo ira-Tgi <J><Xo> Sopsvai sXixunri^a xov^vv. — Hom. 
 
 73. Relliquias, pro reliquias; vas-ov, pro >oc-ov; £stvo?, pro fsvo;. 
 Troas relliquias Danaum atque immitis Achillei. — Virg. 
 
 Neirov ava c-rgarov oopss xaxnv' oX6kovto Js Xaoi. — Hom. 
 'H fa vv fxo; £tivo$, TtaraiPicq stcti TraXaioq. — Id. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 
 70. A n^oa-riBnfJt.1, appono. 71. Ab a<pai--sx, aufero. 
 
 72. A aw, con, et kotttm, scindo. 73. Ab tare, in, et gvn9>j ( ui, insero. 
 
ELOCUTION. 187 
 
 Abstrahit Apocope fini; sed dat Paragoge. 74, 75 
 Metathesis de sede movens elementa reponit. 76 
 Antistoichon et Antithesis elementa refingunt. 77 
 
 De Figuris Prosodice. 
 M vorat JEcthlipsis; sed vocalem Synalcepha. 78, 79 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 74. Peculi, pro peculii; oti, pro otii; $a> pro $a>{A.a. 
 Nee spes libertatis erat; nee cura peculi. — Virg, 
 Illo Virgilium me tempore dulcis alebat 
 Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti. — Id. 
 
 Kai tot' vniiTa rot etfxi Atog wort p^aAxoCa tsj $<w. — Horn. 
 
 75. Immiscerier, pro immisceri ; aflgXjjo-Sa, pro s9sX»j. 
 Sin maculae incipient rutilo immiscerier igni. — Virg. 
 
 AAXa fxaX' eukjjXoj ra tyga^sat, acrcr' iQlXvo-Qa., — Hom. 
 
 76. Thymbre, pro Thymber ; Ka^rn, pro x^ara; xjaW, pro hu^ikv, 
 Nam tibi Thymbre, caput Evandrius abstulit ensis.— Virg. 
 
 — Hvog-tj Triirvvoi xat Ka^rtt "^it^cav. — Hom. 
 O^oQa^, avvot; OfAfxar' e%a>v Hfahnv £' sXa<poto. — Id. 
 
 77. Olli, pro illi; volgus, pro vulgus; [A.e'kirrav pro (xfris-o-av. 
 Olli cagruletis supra caput adstitit imber. — Virg. 
 
 Quod volgus servorum solet. — Ter. And. 
 Efiw? ttct' ev ^ooTi 
 
 K0lfA.00fA.lVr)V fA,E\lTTCLV 
 
 Qvx. uhv aXX' ercuQv. — AtldC, 
 
 78. Italiam, Italiam primus conclamat Achates. — Virg. 
 
 O curas hominum ! O quantum est in rebus inane. — Pers. 
 
 79. Conticuere omnes, intentiqwe ora tenebant. — Virg. 
 Dardanidse muris; spes addita suscitat iras. — Id. 
 Ovg xev zv yvoinv, xat rvvo/xa. {A,vQn<rai{A.£v. — Horn. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 74. Ab alto, ab, et xo7tta>, scindo. 75. A ita^a, prseter, et ayoo, duco. 
 76. A fAera, trans, et rtQnfxi, pono. 77. Ab avrt, contra, et riBvfAt, pono. 
 78. Ab enOxi&w, elido. 79. A c-vva\ei$a>, conglutino. 
 
188 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Systole corripit, extenditque Diastole tempus. 80, 81 
 Conficit ex binis contracta Synceresis unam. 82 
 Dividit in binas resoluta Diceresis unam. 83 
 
 EXEMPLA. 
 
 80. Tulerunt, pro tulerunt; Bqoopev, pro B^w^r. 
 
 Matri longa decern tulerunt fastidia menses. — Virg. 
 
 — Av £' avTtiv Xgva-rutia, KaKhnra.^ov 
 Bno-ofAtv. — Horn. 
 
 81. Priamiden, pro Priamiden; arnor, pro amor. 
 
 Atque hie Priamiden laniatum corpore toto. — Virg. 
 Considant, si tantus amor, et moenia condant. — Id. 
 
 l$ov ato\ov 'oipiv. — Horn. 
 
 82. Seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta. — Virg. 
 Unius ob noxam et furias Ajacis Oilei. — Id. 
 
 AXXa Trarng ov/xo$ ty^iiri fxaivsi at ova ayaBrjiri. — Hom. 
 
 83. Aurai trissyllabum, pro aur8e dissyllabo; siluae 
 pro silvae. 
 
 ^Ethereum sensum, atque aurai simplicis ignem. — Virg. 
 Nivesque deducunt Jovem ; nunc mare nunc silu<B. — Hor. 
 
 Derivationes. 
 80. A ervs-TsXXoo, contraho. 81. A ^as-rsXXa;, produco. 
 
 82. A c-vv£iga>i connecto. S3. A $iai?£x, divido. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 189 
 
 PART IV 
 
 PRONUNCIATION.* 
 
 What is Pronunciation ? 
 
 A conformity of the voice and gesture to the subject. 
 
 * "Pronunciation," says Cicero to Herennius, "is a graceful manage- 
 ment of the Voice, Countenance, and Gesture." 
 
 "Action," says Cicero, in his Oratore, "is the predominant power in 
 eloquence. Without it the best speaker can have no name, and with it 
 a middling one may obtain the highest." 
 
 "Pronunciation," says Quintilian, "is called by most authors Action; 
 but the former name seems rather to agree with the Voice, and the 
 latter with the Gesture," 
 
 Cicero and Quintilian relate, that Demosthenes, being asked what 
 was the greatest excellency in oratory, gave the preference to Pronun- 
 ciation, and assigned to it the second and third place, until no further 
 question was put to him ; by which it appeared that he judged it to be, 
 not so much the principal as the only excellency. 
 
 Cioero, in his third book de Oratore, says: "For nature has given 
 every passion its peculiar expression in the look, the voice, and the 
 gesture; and the whole frame, the look and voice of a man are respon- 
 sive to the passions of the mind, as the strings of a musical instrument 
 are to the fingers that touch them." 
 
 Quintilian says: "Now as all action, as I said, is divided into two 
 parts, Voice and Gesture ; of which one strikes the eyes, the other the 
 ears, through which two senses every passion has access to the mind, I 
 shall speak first of the Voice, to which the Gesture is supposed to con- 
 form itself." 
 
190 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 What is its object ? 
 
 To transfuse into others our own ideas and emotions. 
 
 How is this to be accomplished ? 
 
 By being moved ourselves with the passions we de- 
 sire to excite in others. 
 
 Into how many parts is Pronunciation divided ? 
 
 Two; Voice and Gesture. 
 
 What is Voice ? 
 
 Voice is a kind of sound which influences the pas- 
 sions, either by raising or allaying them.* 
 
 * Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, chapter 60, says : " But the 
 chief excellence to be admired in a good delivery, is a fine voice. If 
 an orator possess not a good voice, it ought, such as it is, to be im- 
 proved." And in the same chapter, he says : " Nothing tends more to 
 acquire an agreeable voice in speaking than frequently to relax it, by 
 passing from one strain to another, and nothing tends more to injure it 
 than violent exertion unrelieved by modulation. What gives greater 
 pleasure to our ears, and more charm to delivery, than judicious transi- 
 tions, variety and change? Therefore, Catulus, you might have heard 
 from Licinius, who is your client, a man of learning, and the secretary 
 of Gracchus, that Gracchus made use of an ivory flute, which a man 
 who stood privately behind him, while he was speaking, touched so 
 skilfully, that he immediately struck the proper note when he wanted 
 either to quicken or to soften the vehemence of his voice." 
 
 Emphatica, aliaque prsecipuae notre verba, praesertim Antitheta, seu 
 invicem respondentia, et tropi figurasqiie insigniores, paulo altiorem vocis 
 et tonum et sonum requirunt. — Butler. 
 
 Vox, quatenus ad orationis partes, sit in Exorclio verecunda, in Narra- 
 tione aperta, in Propositione clarior, in Conflrmatione fortis, in Confuta- 
 tione severior, in Conclusione excitata, quasi parta victoria. — Butler et 
 Dugard. 
 
 Vox, ratione affectuum seu passionum, sit in Commiseratione Jlexibilis, 
 in Iracundia incitata, in Metu demissa in Voluptate hilirata, in Dolore 
 tristis, in blandiendo, fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando, et suadendo, sub- 
 missa, in monendo et promittendo fortis, in consolando blanda, in lau- 
 dando, gratias agendo, et similibus Iceta, magnified, et sublimis. — Id. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 191 
 
 What does voice comprise ? 
 
 Accent, Emphasis, Tone, and Pause. 
 
 What is Accent ? 
 
 Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice 
 on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
 better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them. 
 
 What is meant by Emphasis ? 
 
 A stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which 
 we distinguish some word or words on which we design 
 to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect 
 the rest of the sentence. 
 
 What relation exists between Accent and Emphasis ? 
 
 Accent has the same relation to words that Emphasis 
 has to sentences. 
 
 In what do tones consist ? 
 
 In the modulation of the voice, the notes or varia- 
 tions of sound which we employ in public speaking. 
 
 What are Pauses ? 
 
 Pauses, or rests in speaking, are a total cessation of 
 the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
 measurable space of time. 
 
 What is Gesture ? 
 
 The accommodation of the attitude to the several 
 parts of a discourse: — "The suiting of the action to 
 the word."* 
 
 * "But all these emotions/' says Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, 
 chapter 59, "ought to be accompanied with gesture; not theatrical ges- 
 ture, limited to particular words, but extended to the whole discourse; 
 aiding the sense, not by pointing, but by emphasis, a strong manly 
 action, borrowed from the use of arms, or the school of arts, and not 
 from stage performers. The hand ought not to saw the air, and the 
 fingers in moving should follow the words, and not precede, as it were, 
 to point them out. The arm should be stretched forward, as if to 
 
192 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 How many kinds of Gesture are there ? 
 
 Two : Natural and Imitative. 
 
 What is Natural Gesture ? 
 
 When the actions and motions of the body as natu- 
 
 brandish the bolts of eloquence; and the stamping the foot ought to 
 take place, either in the beginning or the end of a debate. But all 
 depends upon the face, and all power of the face is centered in the 
 eyes. This our old men are the best judges of; for they were not 
 lavish of their applause, even to Roscius when he was in a mask. All 
 action depends upon the passions, of which the face is the picture and 
 the eyes the interpreters. For this is the only part of the body that can 
 express all the passions ; nor can any one who looks another way create 
 the same emotions. Theophrastus used to apply to one Tauriscus, who 
 averted his face from the audience when he was repeating his part, 
 the epithet jiversus. Therefore, a great deal consists in the right ma- 
 nagement of the eyes ; for the features of the face ought not to be 
 altered too much, lest we become ridiculous or disgustful. It is by its 
 vividness, or the languor of the eye, by a dejected or a cheerful look, that 
 we express the emotions of the heart, and accommodate what we say 
 to what we feel. Action is, as it were, the language of the body, and, 
 therefore, ought to correspond to the thought." And in the same chap- 
 ter, he says : " But nature has given a particular force to all the modifi- 
 cations of action ; therefore we see it has great effect upon the ignorant, 
 the vulgar, and the greatest upon foreigners w T ho are unacquainted with 
 our tongue. Words affect none but him who understands the language ; 
 and sentiments that are pointed often escape the uncliscerning. But an 
 action expressive of the passions of the mind, is a language universally 
 understood: for the same expressions have the same effects in all cir- 
 cumstances, and all men know them in others by the same characters 
 which express them in themselves." 
 
 The following extracts on Gesture are from Quintilian's Institutes, 
 book xi. chapter iii. 
 
 "But the countenance is what is most powerful. By it we appear 
 suppliant, menacing, mild, mournful, joyful, proud, submissive. From 
 it men hang, as it were, on it they look, and even examine it before we 
 speak." 
 
 "A moderate projection of the arm, the shoulders being kept still, 
 and the fingers opening as the hand advances, is very becoming for 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 193 
 
 rally accompany our words as these do the impressions 
 of our mind. 
 
 What is Imitative Gesture ? 
 
 When the orator describes some action, or personates 
 another speaking. 
 
 continued and smoothly running passages. But when something of 
 greater elegance, or of finer fancy, is to be said, as ' the rocks and soli- 
 tudes are responsive to the voice ;' then it expatiates to the side, and 
 the words come pouring out, as it were, with the gesture. 
 
 "But the hands, without which all gesture would be maimed and 
 weak, have a greater variety of motions than can be well expressed ; 
 being emulous to express almost every word. Do we not desire with 
 them, promise, call, dismiss, threaten, beseech, detest, fear, inquire, and 
 deny ? Do they not express joy, sorrow, doubt, confession, penitence, 
 measure, abundance, number, and time 1 Do they not excite, restrain, 
 prove, admire, and shame? Whence, among the great diversity of lan- 
 guages of all nations and people, the hands seem to me the common 
 language of all mankind." 
 
 " The hand begins with great propriety on the left side, to rest on the 
 right ; but it should appear to be laid down, and not to strike ; though 
 in the end it sometimes falls, yet soon to return ; and sometimes re- 
 bounds, in the action of denying or admiring. 
 
 " Hence, the ancient masters of art are correct in adding a precept, 
 that the hand should begin and rest with the sense. Otherwise the 
 gesture would be either before the voice or after it, which would be 
 unseemly. Nor should the hand rise higher than the eyes, nor fall 
 lower than the breast. 
 
 " The left hand never properly performs gesture alone, but frequently 
 accompanies and conforms itself to the motions of the right, whether 
 we digest our arguments on our fingers, or show aversion by turning 
 out the palms of our hands to the left, or extending them forwards; or 
 whether we stretch them out on both sides, either in an attitude of 
 making satisfaction, or being suppliants. 
 
 " We must take care that the breast and belly do not project too far. 
 The sides ought also to agree with the gesture; for the motion of the 
 body is of some effect, and Cicero thinks it does more than the hands 
 themselves, as appears by what he says in his Orator: ' Let there be no 
 affected motions of the fingers, as of their joints falling in cadence; 
 
 17 
 
194 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 How is the gesture of an orator to be regulated ? 
 By an exact and easy imitation of the operations of 
 nature. 
 
 rather let the orator's action proceed from the motion of his whole body, 
 and a manly flexibility of his sides.' 
 
 " To strike the thigh, a gesture first supposed to be practised at 
 Athens by Cleon, is customary, and becomes indignant emotions, and 
 serves to excite the attention of the auditory. Cicero thus censures 
 Callidius for omitting it: 'No smiting his forehead; no striking his 
 thigh; no, not even a stamp of the foot, the least thing that might be 
 naturally expected.' 
 
 "To stamp the foot may occasionally be seasonable, especially as 
 Cicero says, in the beginning or end of contests; but, when used too 
 often, it makes a man appear silly, and takes off from the party the 
 attention and notice of the judge." 
 
 In Actione igitur summum studium duo summi oratores Demosthenes 
 et Cicero posuere. Demosthenes speculum grande intuens composuit 
 Actionem et gestus corporis, et Satyrum histrionem ad eas artes magis- 
 trum adhibuit. Cicero histrionibus, Roscio comcedo, iEsopo tragoedo, 
 usus est. Ipsi etiam Socrates, Plato, et Quintilianus probarunt et col- 
 laudarunt. — Butler. 
 
 Actio semper sit non modo varia et decora, sed etiam nee nimia nee 
 affectata, at naturae congruens. Trunco igitur totius corporis orator 
 seipsum moderetur ; Actioque propria comitetur omnes Vocis flexiones 
 atque animi motus. — Id. 
 
 Status corporis sit erectus. Humeri debent aequi esse et recti. Brachia 
 modice projiciantur, et dextrum potius quam sinistrum faeiat gestum. 
 Supplosio pedum parce utatur. Pectus parce feriatur, et femur in 
 affectibus vehementioribus. — Cic. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 195 
 
 THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES, ORATIONS, 
 
 &c, ARE DESIGNED TO EXERCISE THE STUDENT 
 
 IN PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 Commiseration and Gf-rief.* 
 
 Wretch that I am ! Whither shall I retreat? Whi- 
 ther shall I turn me ? To the Capitol ? The Capitol 
 streams with my brother's blood. To my family? 
 There must I see a wretched, a mournful, and afflicted 
 mother ! 
 
 (Cicero, extolling this passage of Gracchus, says: 
 " It appears that those words were accompanied with 
 such expression in his eyes, voice, and gesture, that 
 even his enemies could not refrain from tears.") 
 
 * Horace, in his Art of Poetry, says : " Pathetic accents suit a melan- 
 choly countenance; words full of menaces require an angry aspect; 
 wanton expressions, a sportive look ; and ■ serious matter, an austere 
 one." 
 
 And Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, says: "Anger has a pecu- 
 liar pronunciation, which is quick, sharp, and broken. The tone of 
 Pity and Grief is different ; it is full, moving, broken, and mournful. 
 Fear is low, diffident, and humble. Vehemence demands a strain that 
 is intense, strong, and majestically threatening. Pleasure is diffusive, 
 soft, tender, cheerful, and gay. Uneasiness is of another sort; it is 
 oppressive without commiseration, and its tone is grave and uniform." 
 
196 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 II. 
 
 Entreaty. 
 
 Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of the 
 world ! to you I fly for refuge from the murderous fury 
 of Jugurtha. By your affection for your children ; by 
 your love for your country; by your own virtues; by 
 the majesty of the Roman Commonwealth ! by all that 
 is sacred, and all that is dear to you — deliver a wretched 
 prince from undeserved, unprovoked injury; and save 
 the kingdom of Numidia, which is your own property, 
 from being the prey of violence, usurpation, and cruelty, 
 — Sail 
 
 III. 
 
 Anger. — Threatening. 
 
 Satan's Speech to Death stopping his passage through the gate of Hell ; 
 with the answer. 
 
 Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ! Quest. 
 That dar'st, tho' grim and terrible, advance with 
 
 Thy miscreated front athwart my way anger. 
 
 To yonder gates ? through them I mean to pass, Resol. 
 That be assur'd, without leave ask'd of thee: Contempt. 
 Retire; or taste thy folly, and learn by proof, Threat- 
 Hell-born ! not to contend with sp'rits of Heav'n. ening. 
 To whom the goblin, full of wrath, replied: 
 Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he Anger. 
 
 Who first broke peace in Heav'n, and faith, till then 
 
PKONUNCIATION, 197 
 
 Unbroken, and in proud, rebellious arms, 
 Drew after him the third part of Heav'n's sons 
 Conjur'd against the Highest, for which both thou 
 And they, outcast from God, art here condemn'd 
 To waste eternal days in woe and pain ? 
 And reckon'st thou thyself with sp'rits of Heav'n, Qon- 
 Hell-doom'd! and breath'st defiance here and scorn, temt 
 Where I reign king, and, to enrage thee more, with ang, 
 Thy king and lord ? Back to thy punishment, Pride. 
 False fugitive! and to thy speed add wings, Threaten- 
 Lest, with a whip of scorpions, I pursue ing. 
 
 Thy ling 'ring, or with one stroke of this dart 
 Strange horror seize thee, and pangs unfelt before. 
 
 Milt. Par. Lost, b. ii. 601, 
 
 IV, 
 
 Anxiety. — Resolution, 
 
 CATOS SOLILOQUY. 
 
 Cato sitting in a thoughtful posture. In his hand Plato's book on the 
 immortality of the soul. A drawn sword on the table by him. After 
 a long pause, he lays down the book, and speaks. 
 
 It must be so — Plato, thou reason'st well! Deep contmp, 
 Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire, a Comf. 
 This longing after immortality ? Desire. 
 
 Or whence this secret dread, and inward horror 
 Of falling into nought ? Why shrinks the soul Fear. 
 
 a " This fond desire" may be spoken with the right' hand laid on the 
 breast. 
 
 17* 
 
198 THE AKT OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? 
 'Tis the Divinity that stirs within us; Awe. 
 
 'Tis Heav'n itself that points out an hereafter, 
 And intimates eternity to man. 
 
 b Eternity! thou pleasing* dreadfulf thought! Satisfac. 
 Through what variety of untried being, fApprehen. 
 Through what new scenes and changes must we pass ? 
 The wide, th' unbounded prospect lies before me; 
 But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it. Anx. 
 % Here will I hold: §If there's a pow'r above us, %Cour. 
 (And that there is, all nature cries aloud § Ven. 
 
 Through all her works,) He must delight in virtue, 
 And that which he delights in must be happy. Satisfac. 
 But when! or where! — ||This world was made for Caesar. 
 I'm weary of conjectures. — TfThis must end them. \\Anx. 
 [Laying his hand on his sword.) ^Oour. 
 Thus am I doubly armed ; c my death and life; Firmness. 
 My bane and antidote; are both before me: 
 This, in a moment, brings me to an end; Appre. 
 
 But this informs me I shall never die: Comf. 
 
 The soul, d secur'd in her existence, smiles Noble. 
 
 At the drawn dagger, and defies its point. Pride. 
 
 The stars e shall fade away, the sun himself Triumph. 
 
 b " Eternity ! thou pleasing," &c, requires an eye fixed, with profound 
 thoughtfulness, on one point, throughout this line. 
 
 e ' : My death and life," &c. ; long pauses between, and pointing, or 
 looking at the sword in pronouncing "my death," and at the book in 
 pronouncing "and life," and so in "my bane and antidote," and in the 
 two following lines. 
 
 d "The soul," &c, may be pronounced with the right hand laid on 
 the breast. 
 
 e " The stars," &c, may be spoken with the eyes raised toward hea» 
 ven, and the arms moderately spread. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 199 
 
 Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years; 
 f But thou shalt nourish in immortal youth, 
 g Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 
 h The wreck of matter and the crush of worlds. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 v. 
 
 Doubting. — Vexation. — Serious Reflection. 
 HAMLET'S SOLILOQUY. 
 
 To he — or not to he — that is the question: Anxiety. 
 Whether 'tis nohler in the mind to suffer 
 The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune; 
 Or to take arms against a host of troubles, Cour. 
 
 And, by opposing, end them? — *But to die — *Deep 
 To sleep — No more?— And by a sleep to end thoughtfss. 
 The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks Vex. 
 That flesh is heir to — 'tis a consummation [fulness. 
 Devoutly to be wish'd — fTo die — To sleep — \Thouglit- 
 To sleep ! JPerchance to dream — A startling thought — 
 For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, %Ap- 
 When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, \j>reh. 
 
 Must give us pause. — There's the respect 
 That makes calamity of so long life: 
 For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, Vex. 
 Th' oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, 
 
 f " But thou shalt flourish," &c, the right hand upon the breast. 
 
 e "Unhurt," &c, the arms spread again as before. 
 
 h ''The crush," &c, the bands brought together with force. 
 
200 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 The pangs of love despised, the law's delay, Anguish. 
 
 The insolence of office, and the spurns 
 
 That patient merit of the unworthy takes; Meek. 
 
 When he himself might his quietus make 
 
 With a bare bodkin ? who would bend to earth, Cour. 
 
 And groan and sweat under a weary life, Comp. 
 
 But that the dread of something after death Fear. 
 
 (That undiscovered country, from whose bourn 
 
 No traveller returns) puzzles the will, 
 
 And makes us rather bear those ills we have, 
 
 Than fly to others that we know not of. 
 
 Thus conscience does make cowards of us all: 
 
 And thus the native hue of resolution 
 
 Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought; 
 
 And enterprises of great pith and moment, 
 
 With this regard their currents turn awry, 
 
 And lose the name of action, 
 
 Sliakspeare._ 
 
 VI. 
 
 BRUTUSS ORATION ON CiESAR'S DEATH. 
 
 Romans, countrymen, and lovers ! — Hear me for my 
 cause; and be silent, that ye may hear ! Believe me, 
 for mine honor; and have respect to mine honor, that 
 you may believe! Censure me in your wisdom; and 
 awake your senses, that you may the better judge ! If 
 there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of 
 Caesar's— to him I say, that Brutus' love to Caesar was 
 no less than his, If, then, that friend demand why 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 201 
 
 Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: Not 
 that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. 
 Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slaves, 
 than that Caesar were dead and live all freemen ? 
 
 As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was for- 
 tunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him: 
 but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There are tears 
 for his love, joy for his fortune, honor for his valor, and 
 death for his ambition. 
 
 Who's here so base that would be a bondman ? If 
 any, speak; for him have I offended. Who's here so 
 rude that would not be a Roman ? If any, speak ; for 
 him have I offended. Who's here so vile that will not 
 love his country? If any, speak; for him have I 
 offended. I pause for a reply — Since none is made, 
 then none have I offended, 
 
 I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to 
 Brutus. The question of his death is enrolled in the 
 Capitol: his glory not extenuated, wherein he was 
 worthy; nor his offences enforced, for which he suffered 
 death. 
 
 Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony: 
 who, though he had no hand in his death, shall receive 
 the benefit of his dying, a place in the commonwealth; 
 as which of you shall not ? With this I depart ; that, 
 as I slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have 
 the same dagger for myself when it shall please my 
 country to need my death. 
 
 Shakspeare, Jul, Cm., Act in. 
 
202 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 VII. 
 
 PHOCIAS' SOLILOQUY. 
 
 Farewell, and think of death ! — Was it not so ? 
 Do murderers, then, preach morality ? 
 But, how to think of, what the living know not, 
 And the dead cannot, or else may not, tell ?— 
 What art thou, thou great mysterious terror ! 
 The way to thee we know; diseases, famine, 
 Sword, fire, and all thy ever open gates, 
 Which day and night stand ready to receive us. 
 But, what's beyond them ? — Who will draw that veil ? 
 Yet death's not there: — No, 'tis a point of time", 
 The verge 'twixt mortal and immortal being: 
 It mocks our thought ! — On this side all is life ; 
 And when we've reach'd it, in that very instant 
 'Tis past the thinking of !•— ! if it be 
 The pangs, the throes, the agonizing struggle, 
 When soul and body part, sure I have felt it. 
 And there's no more to fear. 
 
 ¥111. 
 
 DOUGLAS' ACCOUNT OF HIMSELF. 
 
 My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills 
 My father feeds his flocks; a frugal swain, 
 Whose constant cares were to increase his store, 
 And keep his only son, myself, at home: 
 For I had heard of battles, and I long'd 
 
PKONUNCIATIOST. 203 
 
 To follow to the field some warlike lord ; 
 
 And heav'n soon granted what my sire denied. 
 
 This moon, which rose last night, round as my shield, 
 
 Had not yet fill'd her horns, when, by her light, 
 
 A hand of fierce barbarians, from the hills, 
 
 Rush'd, like a torrent, down upon the vale, 
 
 Sweeping our flocks and herds. The shepherds fled 
 
 For safety and for succor. I alone, 
 
 With bended bow, and quiver full of arrows, 
 
 Hover'd about the enemy, and mark'd 
 
 The road they took, then hasted to my friends; 
 
 Whom, with a troop of fifty chosen men, 
 
 I met advancing. The pursuit I led, 
 
 Till we o'ertook the spoil-encumber'd foe. 
 
 We fought — and conquered. Ere a sword was drawn, 
 
 An arrow from my bow had pierc'd their chief, 
 
 Who wore that day the arms which now I wear. 
 
 Returning home in triumph, I disdain'd* 
 
 The shepherd's slothful life; and, having heard 
 
 That our good king had summon'd his bold peers 
 
 To lead their warriors to the Carron side, 
 
 I left my father's house, and took with me 
 
 A chosen servant to conduct my steps : 
 
 Yon trembling coward, who forsook his master. 
 
 Journeying with this intent I pass'd these towers; 
 
 And, Heav'n-directed, came this day to do 
 
 The happy deed that gilds my humble name. 
 
204 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 IX. 
 
 CATOS SENATE. 
 
 Sem. Rome still survives in this assembled senate ! 
 Let us remember we are Cato's friends, 
 And act like men who claim that glorious title. 
 
 Luc. Cato will soon be here, and open to us 
 Th' occasion of our meeting. Hark, he comes ! 
 
 (^4. sound of trumpets. 
 May all the guardian gods of Rome direct him ! 
 
 Enter Cato. 
 
 Cato. Fathers, we once again are met in council; 
 Caesar's approach has summon'd us together, 
 And Rome attends her fate from our resolves. 
 How shall we treat this bold, aspiring man ? 
 Success still follows him, and backs his crimes ; 
 Pharsalia gave him Rome; Egypt has since 
 Receiv'd his yoke, and the whole Nile is Caesar's. 
 Why should I mention Juba's overthrow, 
 And Scipio's death ? Numidia's burning sands 
 Still smoke with blood. 'Tis time we should decree 
 What course to take. Our foe advances on us, 
 And envies us even Libya's sultry deserts. 
 Fathers, pronounce your thoughts: are they still fix'd 
 To hold it out, and fight it to the last ? 
 Or are your hearts subdued at length, and wrought, 
 By time and ill success, to a submission ? 
 Sempronius, speak. 
 
 Sem. My voice is still for war. 
 Gods ! can a Roman senate long debate 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 205 
 
 Which of the two to choose — slav'ry or death ? 
 
 No; let us rise at once, gird on our swords, 
 
 And, at the head of our remaining troops, 
 
 Attack the foe, break through the thick array 
 
 Of his throng'd legions, and charge home upon him. 
 
 Perhaps some arm, more lucky than the rest, 
 
 May reach his heart, and free the world from bondage. 
 
 Rise, fathers, rise ! 'tis Rome demands your help ; 
 
 Rise, and revenge her slaughter'd citizens, 
 
 Or share their fate ! The corpse of half her senate 
 
 Manure the fields of Thessaly, while we 
 
 Sit here delib'rating in cold debates, 
 
 If we should sacrifice our lives to honor, 
 
 Or wear them out in servitude and chains. 
 
 Rouse up, for shame ! Our brothers of Pharsalia 
 
 Point at their wounds, and cry aloud — To battle ! 
 
 Great Pompey's shade complains that we are slow; 
 
 And Scipio's ghost walks unrevenged among us. 
 
 Gato. Let not a torrent of impetuous zeal 
 Transport thee thus beyond the bounds of reason: 
 True fortitude is seen in great exploits 
 That justice warrants, and that wisdom guides; 
 All else is tow'ring frenzy and distraction. 
 Are not the lives of those who draw the sword 
 In Rome's defence, entrusted to our care ? 
 Should we thus lead them to a field of slaughter, 
 Might not th' impartial world with reason say, 
 We lavish'd at our death the blood of thousands, 
 To grace our fall and make our ruin glorious ? 
 Lucius, we next would know what's your opinion. 
 
 Luc. My thoughts, I must confess, are turn'd on 
 peace. 
 18 
 
206 THE AKT OF KHETOKIC. 
 
 Already have our quarrels fill'd the world 
 
 With widows and with orphans: Scythia mourns 
 
 Our guilty wars, and earth's remotest regions 
 
 Lie half unpeopled by the feuds of Rome: 
 
 ; Tis time to sheathe the sword, and spare mankind. 
 
 It is not Caesar, but the gods, my fathers, 
 
 The gods declare against us, and repel 
 
 Our vain attempts. To urge the foe to battle 
 
 (Prompted by blind revenge and wild despair), 
 
 Were to refuse the awards of Providence, 
 
 And not to rest in Heav'n's determination. 
 
 Already have we shown our love to Rome, 
 
 Now let us show submission to the gods. 
 
 We took up arms, not to revenge ourselves, 
 
 But free the commonwealth ; when this end fails, 
 
 Arms have no further use. Our country's cause, 
 
 That drew our swords, now wrests 'em from our hands, 
 
 And bids us not delight in Roman blood, 
 
 Unprofitably shed. What men could do, 
 
 Is done already: heav'n and earth will witness, 
 
 If Rome must fall, that we are innocent. 
 
 Sem. This smooth discourse, and mild behavior, oft 
 Conceal a traitor. Something whispers me 
 All is not right. — Cato, beware of Lucius. 
 
 {Aside to Cato.) 
 
 Cato. Let us appear not rash nor diffident; 
 Immod'rate valor swells into a fault; 
 And fear, admitted into public councils, 
 Betrays like treason. Let us shun them both. 
 Fathers, I cannot see that our affairs 
 Are grown thus desp'rate; we have bulwarks round us; 
 Within our walls are troops inur'd to toil 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 207 
 
 In Afric's heats, and season'd to the sun; 
 Numidia's spacious kingdom lies behind us, 
 Ready to rise at its young prince's call. 
 While there is hope, do not distrust the gods: 
 But wait, at least, till Caesar's near approach 
 Force us to yield. 'Twill never he too late 
 To sue for chains and own a conqueror. 
 Why should Rome fall a moment ere her time ? 
 No : let us draw her term of freedom out 
 In its full length, and spin it to the last; 
 So shall we gain still one day's liberty: 
 And let me perish, but in Cato's judgment, 
 A day, an hour, of virtuous liberty 
 Is worth a whole eternity in bondage. 
 
 Enter Marcus. 
 
 Mar. Fathers, this moment, as I watch'd the gate, 
 Lodg'd on my post, a herald is arriv'd 
 From Caesar's camp, and with him comes old Decius, 
 The Roman knight; he carries in his looks 
 Impatience, and demands to speak with Cato. 
 
 Goto. By your permission, fathers bid him enter. 
 
 (Exit Marcus.) 
 Decius was once my friend; but other prospects 
 Have loos'd those ties, and bound them fast to Caesar. 
 His message may determine our resolves. 
 
 Enter Decius. 
 
 Dec. Caesar sends health to Cato 
 
 Cato. Could he send it 
 To Cato's slaughter'd friends, it would be welcome. 
 Are not your orders to address the senate ? 
 
208 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Dec. My business is with Cato ; Caesar sees 
 The straits to which you're driven; and, as he knows 
 Cato's high worth, is anxious for your life. 
 
 Cato. My life is grafted on the fate of Rome. 
 Would he save Cato ? Bid him spare his country. 
 Tell your dictator this; and tell him, Cato 
 Disdains a life which he has pow'r to offer. 
 
 Dec. Rome and her senators submit to Caesar; 
 Her gen'rals and her consuls are no more, 
 Who check'd his conquests and denied his triumphs. 
 Why will not Cato be this Caesar's friend ? 
 
 Cato. Those very reasons thou hast urg'd, forbid it. 
 
 Dec. Cato, I've orders to expostulate, 
 And reason with you as from friend to friend: 
 Think on the storm that gathers o'er your head, 
 And threatens ev'ry hour to burst upon it. 
 Still may you stand high in your country's honors: 
 Do but comply, and make your peace with Caesar. 
 Rome will rejoice and cast its eyes on Cato 
 As on the second of mankind. 
 
 Cato. No more: 
 I must not think of life on such conditions. 
 
 Dec. Caesar is well acquainted with your virtues, 
 And therefore sets this value on your life. 
 Let him but know the price of Cato's friendship, 
 And name your terms. 
 
 Cato. Bid him disband his legions, 
 Restore the commonwealth to liberty, 
 Submit his actions to the public censure, 
 And stand the judgment of a Roman senate. 
 Bid him do this, and Cato is his friend. 
 
 Dec. Cato, the world talks loudly of your wisdom 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 209 
 
 Goto. Nay, more — though Cato's voice was ne'er em- 
 ploy'd 
 To clear the guilty, and to varnish crimes, 
 Myself will mount the rostrum in his favor, 
 And strive to gain his pardon from the people. 
 
 Dec. A style like this becomes a conqueror. 
 
 Goto. Decius, a style like this becomes a Roman. 
 
 Dec. What is a Roman that is Caesar's foe ? 
 
 Goto. Greater than Caesar : he's a friend to virtue. 
 
 Dec. Consider, Cato, you're in Utica, 
 And at the head of your own little senate; 
 You don't now thunder in the Capitol, 
 With all the mouths of Rome to second you. 
 
 Goto, Let him consider that, who drives us hither. 
 'Tis Caesar's sword has made Rome's senate little, 
 And thinn'd its ranks. Alas ! thy dazzled eye 
 Beholds this man in a false glaring light, 
 Which conquest and success have thrown upon him; 
 Didst thou but view him right, thou'dst see him black 
 With murder, treason, sacrilege, and crimes 
 That strike my soul with horror but to name 'em. 
 I know thou look'st on me as on a wretch 
 Beset with ills, and cover'd with misfortunes; 
 But, by the gods I swear, millions of worlds 
 Should never buy me to be like that Caesar. 
 
 Dec. Does Cato send this answer back to Caesar. 
 For all his generous cares and proffer 'd friendship ? 
 
 Goto. His cares for me are insolent and vain: 
 Presumptuous man ! the gods take care of Cato. 
 Would Caesar show the greatness of his soul ? 
 Bid him employ his care for these my friends, 
 And make good use of his ill-gotten pow'er 
 
 18* 
 
210 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 By shelt'ring men much better than himself. 
 
 Dec. Your high unconquered heart makes you forget 
 You are a man. You rush on your destruction. 
 But I have done. When I relate hereafter 
 The tale of this unhappy embassy, 
 All Rome will be in tears. 
 
 BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. 
 
 Cas. That you have wrong'd me doth appear in this: 
 You have condemn'd and noted Lucius Pella 
 For taking bribes here of the Sardians; 
 Wherein my letter (praying on his side, 
 Because I knew the man) was slighted off. 
 
 Bru. You wrong'd yourself to write in such a case. 
 
 Cas. In such a time as this, it is not meet 
 That ev'ry nice offence should bear its comment. 
 
 Bru. Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 
 Are much condemn'd to have an itching palm, 
 To sell and mart your offices for gold, 
 To undeservers. 
 
 Cas. I an itching palm ? 
 You know that you are Brutus that speak this, 
 Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last. 
 
 Bru. The name of Cassius honors this corruption, 
 And chastisement doth therefore hide its head. 
 
 Cas. Chastisement ! 
 
 Bru. Remember March, the ides of March remem- 
 ber ! 
 
PEONUNCIATION. 211 
 
 Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake ? 
 What villain touch' d his body, that did stab, 
 And not for justice ? What, shall one of us, 
 That struck the foremost man of all this world, 
 But for supporting robbers; shall we now 
 Contaminate our fingers with base bribes ? 
 And sell the mighty space of our large honors 
 For so much trash as may be grasped thus ? — 
 I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 
 Than such a Roman. 
 
 Cas. Brutus, bay not me. 
 
 I'll not endure it: you forget yourself, 
 To hedge me in ; I am a soldier, I, 
 Older in practice, abler than yourself 
 To make conditions. 
 
 Bru. Go to ; you're not, Cassius. 
 
 Cas. I am. 
 
 Bru. I say you are not. 
 
 Cas. Urge me no more ; I shall forget myself — 
 Have mind upon your health: tempt me no further ! 
 
 Bru. Away, slight man ! 
 
 Cas. Is't possible ? 
 
 Bru. Hear me, for I will speak. 
 
 Must I give way and room to your rash choler ? 
 Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? 
 
 Cas. gods ! ye gods ! Must I endure all this ? 
 
 Bru. All this ? aye, more. Fret till your proud 
 heart break ; 
 Go, show your slaves how choleric you are, 
 And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budge ? 
 Must I observe you ? Must I stand and crouch 
 Under your testy humor ? By the gods, 
 
212 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 You shall digest the venom of your spleen, 
 Though it do split you : for, from this day forth, 
 I'll use you for my mirth, yea, for my laughter, 
 When you are waspish. 
 
 Cas. Is it come to this ? 
 
 Bru. You say you are a better soldier : 
 Let it appear so ; make your vaunting true, 
 And it shall please me well : for mine own part, 
 I shall be glad to learn of noble men. 
 
 Cas. You wrong me every way; you wrong me, 
 Brutus : 
 I said an older soldier, not a better; 
 Did I say better ? 
 
 Bru. If you did, I care not. 
 
 Cas. When Caesar liv'd he durst not thus have mov'd 
 me. 
 
 Bru. Peace, peace, you durst not so have tempted 
 him. 
 
 Cas. I durst not ! 
 
 Bru. No. 
 
 Cas. What ? Durst not tempt him ! 
 
 Bru. For your life you durst not. 
 
 Cas. Do not presume too much upon my love ; 
 I may do that I shall be sorry for. 
 
 Bru. You have done that you should be sorry for. 
 There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats; 
 For I am arm'd so strong in honesty, 
 That they pass by me as the idle wind, 
 Which I respect not. I did send to you 
 For certain sums of gold, which you denied me: 
 For I can raise no money by vile means: 
 By heaven, I had rather coin my heart, 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 213 
 
 And drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring 
 
 From the hard hands of peasants their vile trash, 
 
 By any indirection. I did send 
 
 To you for gold to pay my legions, 
 
 Which you denied me : was that done like Cassius ? 
 
 Should I have answer'd Caius Cassius so ? 
 
 When Marcus Brutus grows so covetous, 
 
 To lock such rascal counters from his friends, 
 
 Be ready, gods, with all your thunderbolts ! 
 
 Dash him to pieces ! 
 
 Cas. I denied you not. 
 
 Bru. You did. 
 
 Cas. I did not: — he was but a fool 
 
 That brought my answer back. — Brutus hath riv'd my 
 
 heart ; 
 A friend should bear a friend's infirmities, 
 But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. 
 
 Bru. I do not ; still you practise them on me. 
 
 Cas. You love me not. 
 
 Bru. I do not like your faults. 
 
 Cas. A friendly eye could never see such faults. 
 
 Bru. A flatterer's would not, though they do appear 
 As huge as high Olympus. 
 
 Cas. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come ! 
 Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius, 
 For Cassius is a-weary of the world: 
 Hated by one he loves: brav'd by his brother: 
 Check'd like a bondman: all his faults observ'd, 
 Set in a note-book, learn'd and conn'd by rote, 
 To cast them in my teeth. 0, I could weep 
 My spirit from mine eyes ! — There is my dagger, 
 And here my naked breast — within, a heart 
 
214 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 Dearer than Plutus' mine, richer than gold: 
 
 If that thouneed'st a Roman's, take it forth: 
 
 I, that denied thee gold, will give my heart: 
 
 Strike, as thou didst at Caesar; for, I know 
 
 When thou didst hate him worst, thou lov'dst him better 
 
 Than ever thou lov'dst Cassius. 
 
 Bru. Sheath your dagger. 
 Be angry when you will, it shall have scope : 
 Do what you will, dishonor shall be humor. 
 Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb 
 That carries anger as the flint bears fire; 
 Who, much enforced, shows a hasty spark, 
 And straight is cold again. 
 
 Cas. Hath Cassius liv'd 
 
 To be but mirth and laughter to his Brutus, 
 When grief, and blood ill-temper'd vexeth him ? 
 
 Bru. When I spoke that I was ill temper'd too. 
 
 Cas. Do you confess so much ? Give me your hand. 
 
 Bru. And my heart too. 
 
 Cas. Brutus ? — 
 
 Bru. What's the matter ? 
 
 Cas. Have you not love enough to bear with me, 
 When that rash humor, which my mother gave me, 
 Makes me forgetful ? 
 
 Bru. Yes, Cassius; and from henceforth, 
 When you are over-earnest with your Brutus, 
 He'll think your mother chides, and leave you so. 
 
PKONUNCIATION. 215 
 
 XL 
 
 THE PARTING OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. 
 
 Bru. No, Cassius, no : think not, thou noble Roman, 
 That ever Brutus will go bound to Rome: 
 He bears too great a mind. But this same day 
 Must end that work the ides of March begun; 
 And whether we shall meet again I know not. 
 Therefore our everlasting farewell take: — 
 Forever, and forever, farewell, Cassius ! 
 If we do meet again, why we shall smile; 
 If not, why then this parting was well made. 
 
 Oas. Forever, and forever, farewell, Brutus ! 
 If we do meet again, we'll smile indeed; 
 If not, 'tis true, this parting was well made. 
 
 Bru. Why, then, lead on. — 0, that a man might 
 know 
 The end of this day's business ere it come ! 
 But it sufficeth that the day will end, 
 And then the end is known. 
 
 XII. 
 
 SOLILOQUY OF DICK THE APPRENTICE. 
 
 Thus far we run before the wind. — An apothecary ! 
 Make an apothecary of me ! — What, cramp my genius 
 over a pestle and mortar ; or mew me up in a shop, 
 with an alligator stuffed, and a beggarly account of 
 empty boxes ! To be culling simples, and constantly 
 
216 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 
 
 adding to the bills of mortality ! — No ! no ! It will 
 be much better to be pasted up in capitals, The part of 
 Romeo by a young gentleman who never appeared on 
 any stage before I My ambition fires at the thought. — 
 But hold; mayn't I run some chance of failing in my 
 attempt ? Hissed — pelted — laughed at — not admitted 
 into the green room; — that will never do — down, busy 
 devil, down, down; try it again — loved by the women 
 — envied by the men — applauded by the pit, clapped 
 by the gallery, admired by the boxes. " Dear colonel, 
 isn't he a charming creature ? My lord, don't you like 
 him of all things ? — Makes love like an angel ? — What 
 an eye he has ! — Fine legs ! — I shall certainly go to 
 his benefit." — Celestial sounds ! — And then I'll get in 
 with all the painters, and have myself put up in every 
 print shop — in the character of Macbeth ! " This is a 
 sorry sight." (Stands an attitude.) In the character 
 of Richard: " Give me another horse! Bind up my 
 wounds." These will do rarely — And then I have a 
 chance of getting well married. — glorious thought ! 
 I will enjoy it, though but in fancy. But what's 
 o'clock? — it must be almost nine. I'll away at once; 
 this is club-night — the spouters are all met — little 
 think they I'm in town — they'll be surprised to see me ; 
 off I go ; ' and then for my assignation with my master 
 Gargle's daughter. 
 
 Limbs, do your office, and support me well: 
 Bear me but to her, then fail me if you can. 
 
BOOK II 
 
 19 
 
THE 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 
 
 METHODICALLY ARRANGED: 
 
 CHIEFLY FROM THE ANCIENT GREEK AND 
 ROMAN RHETORICAL WRITERS: 
 
 FROM THE STUDENT'S ENTRANCE INTO THE 
 
 SCHOOL OF ORATORY 
 
 TO HIS ADMISSION TO THE 
 
 FORUM, THE SENATE, AND THE ASSEMBLIES 
 OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The Greeks attributed the invention of Rhetoric to 
 Mercury; and hence they designated him "e^?, which 
 radically signifies to speaJc. And the inhabitants of 
 Lystra, in consequence of the cure of the impotent 
 man by Barnabas and Paul, called the former Jupiter, 
 and the latter Mercury, "because he was the chief 
 speaker." 
 
 But to pass over the legendary fictions of Pagan 
 theology, no satisfactory account can be given to whom 
 the origin of this art is to be ascribed. Its first linea- 
 ments, as Aristotle justly observes, were, no doubt, 
 extremely rude and imperfect. Pausanias, in his de- 
 scription of Greece, says that Pittheus, the uncle of 
 Theseus, who flourished about twelve hundred years 
 before the Christian era, taught it at Trsezene, a city 
 of Peloponnesus. Be this, however, as it may, it was 
 certainly held in high estimation at the time of the 
 Trojan war; otherwise Homer would never have given 
 such unbounded applause to the eloquent speeches of 
 Ulysses and Nestor. And in addition to this circum- 
 stance, the principal tropes and figures which are now 
 used may be found in that sublime and distinguished 
 writer. 
 
 19* 
 
222 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Of the orators who flourished from the Trojan down 
 to the Peloponnesian war, no particular mention is 
 made in history. But as eloquence then became the 
 means by which the most obscure and indigent indi- 
 vidual might rise to the highest post of honor and 
 influence, a multitude of orators arose about that 
 period. Of these Corax and Tisias,* of Sicily, laid 
 down rules for the methodical arrangement of a dis- 
 course, and the artificial adjustment of its particular 
 parts. Gorgias,f of Leontium, the pupil of Empedo- 
 cles, succeeded these. Diodorus Siculus says that he 
 was the first Avho used studied figures of speech and 
 labored antithesis of equal length and the same termi- 
 nation. Thrasymachus, of Chalcedon, Protagoras, of 
 Abdera, Prodicus of Cea, and Theodoras of Byzan- 
 tium, as also AntiphonJ and Polycrates, were his co- 
 temporaries; and all contributed to the improvement of 
 this art. Quintilian says, that Protagoras, Gorgias, 
 Prodicus, and Thrasymachus, were the first who treated 
 
 * "This he confirmed by the example of Corax and Tisias, who ap- 
 pear to have been the inventors of, and leading men in this art." — Cic. 
 de QraL, lib. i. cap. 20. 
 
 Corax and Tisias were cotemporary with Hiero of Syracuse, 475 
 years before Christ. 
 
 t Gorgias was a Sicilian, and father of the Sophists. He was held 
 in such esteem throughout Greece, that a statue was erected to his 
 honor in the temple of Apollo at Delphos, of solid gold. Gorgias was 
 at the head of the embassy which the Leontines sent to Athens to 
 solicit assistance against the Syracusans. In the first audience he had 
 of the Athenians his eloquence so enchanted that people that they were 
 unfortunately prevailed upon to engage in the Sicilian war. 
 
 J Antiphon, the Athenian, who composed the first judicial oration, 
 wrote rules for this new manner of composition, and had the reputation 
 of pleading extremely well in his own defence. — Qiiint., lib. iii. cap. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 223 
 
 of eommo?i-places, and exhibited their use for the in- 
 vention of arguments upon every subject. 
 
 Posterior to these arose Isocrates, the scholar of 
 Gorgias. The style of Gorgias was formed into short 
 sentences, composed generally of two members ba- 
 lanced against each other. The style of Isocrates,* on 
 the contrary, was swelling and full; and he is said to 
 have been the first who introduced the method of com- 
 posing in regular periods, which had a studied music 
 and harmonious cadence. It was the celebrity of Iso- 
 crates which induced the far-famed Aristotle to write 
 his " Institutions of Rhetoric:" a work universally ad- 
 mitted to be the best and most complete of any on the 
 same subject in the Greek language. Quintilian says, 
 that Aristotle was often heard to repeat a verse of the 
 tragedy of Philoctetes, intimating that " it was a shame 
 to be silent and suffer Isocrates to speak. "f 
 
 Lysias and Isaeus belong to this age. Lysias was 
 
 * Twenty-one of his orations are extant. He was engaged ten years 
 in composing his oration entitled the " Panegyric ■." 
 
 "f* " Aristotle, seeing the success of Isocrates by having bis school 
 full of men of quality, whereas he had transferred his lectures from 
 civil causes and public disputes to an empty elegance of expression, 
 suddenly changed his form of teaching, and pronounced, with a little 
 variation, a line relating to Philoctetes, where it is said, that it was a 
 shame to be silent and hear Barbarians speak; Aristotle said, and hear 
 Isocrates speak. v — Cic. de Orat., lib. iii. cap. 35. 
 
 A ' <r /C» 5V °"W7rav Xa * Ic-ox.ea.Tnv lav Xeyslv. 
 
 Most commentators are mistaken in supposing this verse to be in the 
 Philoctetes of Sophocles. In that tragedy, whoever was the author, 
 Philoctetes says : " It was shameful for him to be silent, and let bar- 
 barians speak;" Aj^jov etomeiVj (Sa^a^u; b' lav Xsyetv. Aristotle applied 
 it to Isocrates, but in another sense. 
 
224 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the model of that style which the ancient rhetoricians 
 called "ya.a$u£oj/ 7.oyo»>," the polished style; and hence 
 Cicero designates him venustissimum orator em.* Isseus 
 was the pupil of Lysias, and the first who applied elo- 
 quence to political or state affairs, in which he was fol- 
 lowed by his celebrated scholar Demosthenes. 
 
 In this age Grecian eloquence appeared in its meri- 
 dian. Demosthenes, by indefatigable industry, by a 
 surprising genius, and a patriotic love for his country, 
 became one of the greatest orators that ever existed — 
 an orator who was an honor to humanity, and whose 
 name shall descend with imperishable lustre to the 
 latest posterity. The style of this prince of Grecian 
 eloquence is concise, nervous, and vehement. " Our 
 Demosthenes," says Longinus, " uttering every sen- 
 tence with such force, precipitation, strength, and vehe- 
 mence, that it seems to be all fire, and bears down 
 everything before it, may be justly compared to a 
 thunderbolt, or a hurricane, "f 
 
 Subsequent to the time of Demosthenes, the manly 
 and sensible eloquence of the Greeks degenerated into 
 subtilty and sophistry, Demetrius Phalereus, the pupil 
 of Theophrastus, who lived in the time of Alexander 
 the Great, was an orator of considerable eminence, but 
 Cicero describes him as a flowery rather than a natural 
 persuasive writer. 
 
 From this period down to the Christian era, Quin- 
 tilian enumerates several rhetoricians; among whom 
 
 * Plutarch says, that four hundred and twenty-five orations were 
 formerly exhibited under the name of Lysias j of these only thirty-four 
 are now extant. 
 
 ■j" Sixty-one orations are extant under the name of Demosthenes. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 225 
 
 were Hermagoras, Athenaeus, and afterwards Apollo- 
 nius Molo, the preceptor of Caesar and Cicero, Caecilius, 
 and the far-famed Dionysius of Halicarnassus. But 
 the most celebrated, and noted for the greatest number 
 of scholars, were Apollodorus of Pergamus, the pre- 
 ceptor of Augustus Caesar at Apollonia; and Theo- 
 doras, of Gadara, who called himself a Rhodian, whose 
 lectures Tiberias Caesar is reported to have attended 
 diligently during his retreat in that island. Since the 
 days of Dionysius, the only Greek orators of celebrity 
 were Hermogenes, and Longinus, the author of a Treat- 
 ise on the Sublime; a writer of such pre-eminent merit 
 that his cotemporaries appointed him judge of all the 
 ancient authors: and whatever inferior critics blamed, 
 or whatever they commended, was received or rejected 
 by the public only as it met with the approbation of 
 Longinus, or was confirmed and ratified by his sove- 
 reign decision. 
 
 The Romans, for several ages, were almost continu- 
 ally engaged in military affairs; and as they supposed 
 that the cultivation of oratory would have a tendency 
 to allure their minds from martial achievements to an 
 indolent and effeminate manner of life, they therefore 
 manifested an inveterate prejudice against its introduc- 
 tion. For in the year of their city 592, when, through 
 the medium of the Greeks, the liberal arts were intro- 
 duced into Italy, the senate passed a decree, directing 
 all philosophers and rhetoricians to depart from Rome. 
 But on the arrival of the Athenian ambassadors, Car- 
 neades the Academic, Critolaus the Peripatetic, and 
 Diogenes the Stoic, a few years subsequent to the pro- 
 
226 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 navigation of this decree, the Roman youths were so 
 charmed with the eloquence of their harangues, that it 
 was found impracticable, any longer, to counteract its 
 dissemination. The era of Roman eloquence may, 
 therefore, be dated from the subjugation of Greece by 
 Mummius, the consul, about a hundred and forty-six 
 years before Christ. 
 
 Gratia capta ferum viciorem cepit, et artes 
 Intulit agresti Latio* 
 
 Seneca says, that Lucius Plotinus, a Gaul, was the 
 first who taught rhetoric, in Latin, at Rome, and that 
 Blandus, of the equestrian order, was the first Roman 
 who engaged in this profession. Quintilian says that 
 Cato, the censor, was the first writer on oratory among 
 the Romans; and although Cicero, in his work " De 
 claris Oratoribus," represents them as having been pos- 
 sessed of considerable eloquence, yet he admits that it 
 was "Asperum et horridum genus dicendi," a rude and 
 harsh strain of speech. 
 
 Subsequent to the time of Cato arose Crassus and 
 Antonius. It was owing to the latter of these, says 
 Cicero, that Rome might boast herself a rival even to 
 Greece in the art of eloquence. And in his three 
 books " De Oratore," and other rhetorical productions, 
 he attributes the highest commendation to these dis- 
 tinguished orators. 
 
 In the same age, though somewhat later than the 
 orators above mentioned, flourished the celebrated 
 
 * Hor., lib. ii. epist. 1. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 227 
 
 Cicero. In fame and reputation he far surpassed all his 
 cotemporaries. His inventive genius, his artful and me- 
 thodical arrangement of arguments, his melodious struc- 
 ture, and disposition of periods, his peculiar success in 
 moving the soft and tender passions, and his splendor 
 and morality of sentiment, all contribute to render his 
 works the standard of popular oratory.* 
 
 The last rhetorical writer of distinguished reputation 
 among the Romans was Quintilian. His Institutions 
 exhibit a very great degree of accurate and refined 
 taste, and are composed with such exactness and judg- 
 ment, that they are generally admitted to be the most 
 useful and the most instructive production on the sub- 
 ject now extant. He has arranged all the ancient ideas 
 concerning rhetoric in so comprehensive a manner, as 
 to render his writings an invaluable acquisition to every 
 student of oratory. 
 
 After the days of Cicero and Quintilian, the Romans 
 experienced the most oppressive form of arbitrary and 
 tyrannical government. Luxury and effeminacy were 
 
 * Cicero's first oration at the bar, was the defence of Sextus Rosc-ius. 
 Roscius had been prosecuted by Sylla, the dictator, and hence, the oldest 
 and most distinguished advocates were afraid to appear in his behalf. 
 Cicero, to his great honor, gained the cause; being then twenty-six 
 years of age. 
 
 Besides Cicero's two books of Invention, which Quintilian calls his 
 books of Rhetoric, there are extant his three books of an Orator ; one of 
 Famous Orators; and another, which is called the Orator ; as also his 
 Topics, a preface concerning the best sort of Orators ; and a treatise of the 
 parts of Oratory. The four books to Herenius, which are published 
 among Cicero's works, appear, with good reason, to be attributed to 
 Cornificius. 
 
228 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 introduced; their taste became corrupt, and their 
 genius discouraged; and that ornamental and diffu- 
 sive eloquence which had existed in its most splendid 
 and illustrious form, soon degenerated into quaintness 
 and affectation, into tumid declamation and servile 
 flattery. 
 
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 RHETORIC— ORATORY.— ELOQUENCE.— RHETORICIAN AND 
 ORATOR. 
 
 Rhetoric, according to Quintilian, is the science of 
 speaking well. It attempts to produce conviction con- 
 cerning some particular object, that it may influence 
 the will to a corresponding determination. It seeks 
 either to arouse the mind to action, or to dissuade it 
 from acting upon the resolutions already taken, or such 
 as are in contemplation. Its immediate employment is 
 not to search after truth, but to render acknowledged 
 and supposed truths influential. It leaves to logic the 
 province of cool investigation, and of drawing legiti- 
 mate conclusions from admitted premises, without any 
 regard to motives. The rhetorician is solicitous to 
 effect some particular purpose, and calls in the art of 
 reason merely as an auxiliary. He attempts to influ- 
 ence the will by reasoning with the affections ; knowing 
 that if they be gained over, the will is ready to follow. 
 He therefore artfully conceals, or slightly passes over 
 every circumstance which is not favorable to his views, 
 and brings forward, and largely expatiates upon those 
 20 
 
230 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 which are. He suggests motives of pleasure, utility, 
 safety, honor, and pity, as the subject admits. He not 
 only presupposes the object in view to be of primary 
 importance, but he employs every method to implant 
 this conviction in the minds of those whom he endea- 
 vors to persuade. These attempts become most suc- 
 cessful by a close imitation of that train of ideas, and 
 those modes of expression which any particular passion 
 or affection is prone to suggest. If the design be to 
 excite anger and resentment, rhetoric imitates the lan- 
 guage of anger. It places the supposed offence in the 
 strongest point of view, and describes it in the most 
 vivid colors. It assiduously collects, and expatiates 
 upon every circumstance which contributes to the ag- 
 gravation of the crime. Should compassion be the 
 object, it enlarges upon the wretched state of the suf- 
 ferer; his fears, his apprehensions, and his penitence. 
 It palliates his faults, extols his good qualities, and 
 thus collects, in one point of view, all his claims on 
 commiseration. The species of argument which per- 
 sons under the influence of passion and strong affec- 
 tions perpetually adopt, is rendered more efficacious by 
 appropriate language. The rhetorician, therefore, stu- 
 dies and imitates the particular language of each pas- 
 sion, either in its energy, vivacity, or diffuseness. 
 Hence, he liberally employs all those tropes and 
 figures of speech which nature suggests and art has 
 classified. 
 
 Oratory may be defined oral eloquence; or the art of 
 communicating, by the immediate action of the vocal and 
 expressive organs, to popular assemblies, the dictates of 
 our reason, or our will, and the workings of our passions, 
 
PKELIMINAKY EXPLANATIONS. 231 
 
 our feelings, and our imaginations. Oratory includes 
 the idea of eloquence: for no man can be an orator 
 who does not possess an affluence of thought and lan- 
 guage. But eloquence does not necessarily include the 
 idea of oratory; since a man may be rich in all the 
 stores of language and of thought -without possessing 
 the advantages of a graceful and impressive delivery. 
 Oratory is, therefore, the name of a more complex 
 idea; and includes, besides the general notion of elo- 
 quence, the practical part of elocution. Eloquence may 
 be considered as the soul, or animating principle of dis- 
 course; and is dependent on intellectual energy and 
 intellectual attainments. Elocution is the embodying 
 form, or representative power; dependent on exterior 
 accomplishment and cultivation of the organs. Oratory 
 is the complicated and vital existence resulting from the 
 perfect harmony and combination of the two. 
 
 Oratory adapts the manner of delivery to the nature 
 of the subject; it takes the characteristic signs of each 
 emotion for its model, as far as it can safely imitate 
 without the imputation of mimicry. It enters into the 
 attitudes, gestures, tones of voice, accents, emphasis, 
 expressions of circumstance, influenced by the particu- 
 lar emotion, in such a manner that not an idea is suf- 
 fered to lose its proper effect; and thus it enjoys every 
 advantage to be derived from the power of sympathy. 
 
 Eloquence may be defined, the art of expressing our 
 thoughts and feelings with precision, force, and ele- 
 gance; and of heightening the impressions of reason 
 by the colorings of imagination. It is applicable, there- 
 fore, to the whole faculty of verbal discourse, either 
 oral or written. It addresses itself by the pen, to the 
 
232 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 eye, as well as by the living organs to the ear. Thus 
 we speak, with admitted accuracy, of an eloquent book, 
 as freely as of an eloquent oration; of the eloquent 
 Buffon, alluding to his celebrated work on Natural His- 
 tory; and of the eloquent writings as well as the elo- 
 quent speeches of Edmund Burke. The apostrophe to 
 the Queen of France is as genuine a piece of eloquence 
 as if it had been delivered in the House of Commons. 
 
 Eloquence, according to its modern acceptation, ap- 
 pears to be the medium between the impetuosity which 
 oratory admits, and which was highly characteristic of 
 ancient oratory, and the studied artifice of the pro- 
 fessed rhetorician. The term is sometimes applied to 
 composition, and sometimes to delivery. When applied 
 to both, it comprehends a certain degree of eloquence, 
 both of diction and manner. The want of that energy 
 which approaches to violence is compensated by per- 
 tinency of language, fluency of utterance, and guarded 
 chastity of address. In a word, its excellency consists 
 in a pleasing adaptation of language to the subject, 
 and of manner to both. It refuses too close an imita- 
 tion of the turbid emotions, but delights in beautiful 
 and animated description. It appears best adapted to 
 the pathetic; and the elegance and graces which it 
 loves, harmonize most easily and successfully with the 
 softest and finest feelings of our nature. 
 
 The Rhetoricians ('p^t-o^j) among the Athenians 
 were originally ten in number, elected by lots to plead 
 public causes in the senate-house or assembly; and for 
 every cause in which they were retained, they received 
 a drachm out of the public exchequer. They were 
 sometimes called Sv^yo^ot, and their fee to awr^o^xov. 
 
PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 233 
 
 According to the Scholiast upon Aristophanes, no man 
 was admitted to this office till he was forty years of 
 age. Nor were they elected until their valor in war, 
 piety to their parents, prudence in the management of 
 affairs, and their frugality and temperance had been 
 examined. The rule, however, with regard to age, was 
 abrogated about the sixth year of the Peloponnesian 
 war. In process of time these orators were elevated 
 above the Archons, and armed with a virtual control 
 over the legislative department of the state, as we learn 
 from the eighth section of the second Olynthiac oration 
 of Demosthenes. They were frequently promoted to 
 some regular official rank, as presidents over the ex- 
 chequer, and ambassadors to foreign powers. 
 
 Orators (or XvvSixoi) were certain officers, ten in 
 number, created after the expulsion of the thirty 
 tyrants. From an oration of Lysias in behalf of 
 Nicias, it appears that they were invested with power 
 to take cognizance of all complaints relative to the 
 confiscation of property. They had also to defend the 
 ancient laws in the name of the people, by whom they 
 were appointed; and to plead in support of any law 
 which was to be abrogated or enacted. These men, 
 though differing from the e g«7*og«$ and avvqyogot, were 
 sometimes designated by the same names. And lest 
 this office, which was created for the benefit of the com- 
 monwealth, should be abused to the private advantage 
 of particular men, a law was enacted (Demost. in Lep- 
 tin.\ by which the people were prohibited from confer- 
 ring it twice upon the same person. 
 
 With regard to the words Rhetorician and Orator, it 
 20* 
 
2-34 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 may be remarked, that the Greeks subsequently used 
 the former to express both those who taught the art, 
 and such as practised it, yet the Romans afterwards, 
 when they adopted that word into their language, con- 
 fined it to the teachers of the art, and called the rest 
 orators. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Education of the future Orator. page 
 
 I. Nature is not so much wanting to children as care - - 237 
 II. What kind of persons nurses, parents, tutors, and boys, with 
 
 whom the future orator is to be educated, ought to be 238 
 
 III. The Greek language to be first learned .... 242 
 
 IV. Boys can learn before they are seven years of age - - ib. 
 V. Of reading and writing -.-...- 246 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Is Public or Private Tuition to be preferred? 
 
 I. He refutes what is commonly objected against public schools, 
 
 and is of opinion, 1. That they are not prejudicial to 
 morals -.-.----. 251 
 2. That they are not hurtful to study - - - 253 
 
 II. He demonstrates, by many arguments, the utility of schools 255 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. By what signs the genius of children is discerned - - 259 
 
 II. How the learner's disposition is to be treated and managed 260 
 
 III. Of the amusements of children - - - - 261 
 
 IV. That children should not be whipped .... 262 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of Grammar. 
 
 I. Eulogium on grammar ....... 263 
 
 II. Speech to be perfect, should be correct, clear, and elegant - 265 
 
236 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 III. It is founded on reason, antiquity, authority, and custom - 265 
 
 IV. Of orthography 269 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 What books are proper for children to read, and the method of 
 
 teaching them to read 270 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Of the first exercises in the grammar-school .... 278 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 Children should be instructed in several arts before they com- 
 mence the study of oratory. Are these arts necessary 
 to the future orator? 280 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Of music and its advantages 283 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Of geometry 292 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 I. Pronunciation is to be formed by that of comedians - - 297 
 II. And gesture and attitude copied from the Palaestra - - 300 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Children are capable of being taught many things at the same 
 time; 1. Because the nature of the mind is such that it 
 can attend to many things together .... 303 
 
 2. Because boys can easily bear the labor of study - - 304 
 
 3. Because they have then most time for that purpose - 305 
 That indolence is the cause why orators do not learn 
 
 many things 306 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Education of the Future Orator. 
 
 I. Nature is not so much wanting to children as care. II. What kind 
 of persons nurses, parents, tutors, and boys, with whom the future 
 orator is to be educated, ought to be. III. The Greek language to be 
 first learned. IV. Boys can learn before they are seven years of age. 
 V. Of reading and writing. 
 
 I. At the birth of a son, let a father conceive the 
 best hopes respecting him; and, therefore, he will be 
 more careful from the beginning.* For it is a false 
 complaint, that few are endowed with the power of com- 
 prehending those things in which they are instructed ; 
 and that most children waste away their time and ap- 
 plication through dullness of apprehension. On the 
 contrary, you may find many of quick invention,^ and 
 prompt to learn.J Such is the picture of man's nature. 
 And as the destination of birds is for flying, of horses 
 
 * A principiis, from the first elements. 
 
 t Faciles in excogitando, easy in collecting or devising thought. 
 
 J Ad discendum promptos, ready to learn. 
 
238 THE ART OF RHETORIC : OR, 
 
 for the swiftness of course, of wild beasts for a ferocious 
 propensity, so, from the agency and acute reflections of 
 the mind, being properly adapted to rational beings, we 
 infer that the origin of the soul is celestial. But the 
 dull,* and they who cannot learn, f are no more pro- 
 duced according to the order of human nature, than 
 preternatural bodies. Very few examples, however, of 
 this sort occur. And from the sprightliness we perceive 
 in their tender years, which is suffered to decay, it is 
 manifest, that care is more wanting to children than 
 nature. I admit that the intellectual powers of one are 
 superior to those of another ;{ but culture effects more 
 or less ; and no one can be found, but has acquired some- 
 thing by study. Let, therefore, the parent, who is per- 
 suaded of this, use all his diligence to forward the hopes 
 of a future orator. 
 
 II. The selection of nurses, § characterized by purity 
 and propriety of language, should be a primary con- 
 sideration. These Chrysippus|| desired, if practicable, 
 
 * Hebetes, dull, in the Latin text, is opposed to faciles in excogitando, and 
 
 t Indociles, who cannot learn, to ad discendum promptos. 
 
 J PrcBstat tamen ingenio alius alium, concedo, I admit that the genius of 
 one excels that of another. 
 
 § Quintilian, (or Tacitus,) in the dialogue de Oratoribus, says : " A 
 nurse or matron was selected whose life and manners rendered her 
 worthy of that office ; and to whom the children were committed. She 
 not only superintended their instruction, but, with an equal modesty and 
 gravity, regulated their very amusements and recreations. Thus Cor- 
 nelia, Amelia, and Attica, mothers to the Gracchi, Julius Caesar, and 
 Augustus are reported to have employed themselves in the education 
 of noblemen's children." 
 
 || Chrysippus, a celebrated Stoic philosopher and scholar of Zeno. He 
 was a native of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia, and is reported to have written 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 239 
 
 to be learned, or at least, as far as circumstances would 
 permit, of an irreproachable character. Their morals 
 are first to be examined ; and next, the proper pronun- 
 ciation of their words; for these are the first the child 
 hears, and it is their words his imitation will strive to 
 form. We are naturally most tenacious of those things 
 which we have acquired in our tender years: new ves- 
 sels retain the odor of their first ingredients; and the 
 dye by which wool loses its primitive whiteness, can 
 never be defaced.* The more vicious the propensities 
 are, the more stubbornly do they adhere. Good is 
 easily changed into bad, but how can you convert vice 
 into goodness ? Let not, therefore, the child, even 
 while an infant, accustom himself to a manner of 
 speech which he must subsequently unlearn. 
 
 Parental erudition will also facilitate the progress of 
 the future orator. Nor do I speak of fathers only; 
 for we know that Cornelia,f the mother of the Gracchi, 
 from the profound learning contained in her letters, 
 contributed greatly to their eloquence. The daughter 
 
 more than seven hundred volumes. He died in the 143d Olympiad, 
 and had a monument erected to his memory among those of the illus- 
 trious Athenians. See Horace, lib. i. Sat. 3, v. 127; nee non lib. ii. Sat. 3, 
 v. 44 ; Laert., lib. vii. ; Cic. Acad. Qucest., lib. iv. 
 
 * Elui, be washed out. 
 
 f This was the noble Roman matron who was once visited by a lady, 
 who, having displayed her own jewels, requested to see Cornelia's. 
 The request was evaded until the return of her children, when, pre- 
 senting them, she feelingly exclaimed, " These are my jewels!" 
 
 Cicero says that the Gracchi were educated non tarn in gremio quam 
 in sermone matris. 
 
 See also Cicero, in Brutwm, concerning Cornelia, and the daughter of 
 Laelius, 211. 
 
240 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 of Laelius is also reported, in her usual conversation, 
 to have copied the elegance of her father's style; and 
 the speech of the daughter of Quintus Hortensius,* 
 before the Triumviri, f was not only honorable to her 
 own sex, but creditable even to ours. Those, however, 
 who are unlearned, ought not, on this account, to mani- 
 fest less care for their children's instruction; but, on 
 the contrary, should exhibit greater diligence with re- 
 gard to every particular part. 
 
 The same observations concerning nurses are equally 
 applicable to those boys in whose company the future 
 orator shall be educated. 
 
 The chief care must be in the selection either of 
 skilful tutors,% or of such as are conscious that their 
 abilities are inconsiderable. For nothing is more de- 
 spicable than the infatuation of those who, having ad- 
 vanced a little beyond the first elements, consider 
 themselves learned. They think it derogatory to yield 
 to the experienced, and, inflated with an idea of autho- 
 rity, the common failing of their kind, they become 
 violent and imperious, and, under this influence, utter 
 
 * "When a heavy tax was imposed on the Order of Matrons by the 
 Roman senate, and no one could be found who would advocate their 
 cause, Hortensia appeared before the Triumviri, and pleaded with so 
 much eloquence in behalf of her sex, that a large part of the tribute 
 was remitted."' — Valerias Maximus, lib. viii. cap. 3. 
 
 f Caesar Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. 
 
 J De pcedagogis. Among the Romans, such as were free of the city 
 were distinguished into Ingenui, Libertini, and Liberti. The Ingenui 
 were such as bad been born free, and of parents that had been always 
 free. The Libertini were the children of such as had been made free. 
 And the Liberti such as had been actually made free themselves. Now 
 pedagogues were generally selected from the Liberti: and their duty 
 was originally, as the word imports, (ex waif, puer, et iLyu, duco,) to 
 
ELEMENTS OF OKATOEY. 241 
 
 tlieir habitual folly. Their exceptionable course is no 
 less prejudicial to morals; for, according to the testi- 
 mony of the Babylonian Diogenes,* Leonidas, the tutor 
 of Alexander, imbued his mind in childhood with cer- 
 tain vices, from which that great and powerful king 
 could not entirely extricate himself in more advanced 
 years. 
 
 If I appear to any one to require too much, let him 
 consider how arduous a matter it is to form an orator ; 
 for even if none of those things to which I have al- 
 luded were wanting to his formation, still more difficult 
 things remain. Constant study, the most experienced 
 masters, and frequent instructions, are indispensably 
 necessary. Let him, therefore, be instructed in the 
 best things, and if any one shall consider this an em- 
 barrassment, the fault must not be attributed to the 
 method, but to the instructor. 
 
 Now should the children and nurses happen not to 
 be such as I would desire, at least let a teacher, well 
 versed in language, be in constant attendance, and in- 
 stantly correct those words which may be improperly 
 pronounced by them, in his pupil's presence, in order 
 that he may not be suffered to contract such a habit. 
 But that which I previously stated must be understood 
 to be good, and this a remedy. 
 
 accompany the children of the Ingenui to school and to their exercises; 
 to superintend their behavior, and protect them from injury. And 
 hence Plautus : " Servum una mittit, qui olim a puero parvulo mihi 
 pcedagogus fuerat." 
 
 * The Babylonian Diogenes here mentioned was a Stoic philosopher, 
 and associated with Carneades, and Critolaus in their famous embassy 
 to Rome. He succeeded Zeno in his school. 
 
 21 
 
242 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 III. I would advise the pupil to begin with the study 
 of Greek: because he will necessarily acquire the La- 
 tin, which is in common use: and as our accidence has 
 been derived from the Greeks, he should be first in- 
 structed in theirs. This, however, ought not to be so 
 strictly observed as that (according to the custom of 
 many) he should speak or learn nothing for a consider- 
 able time except Greek: for, by foreign sounds, impro- 
 per accents and a corrupt manner of speech will ensue ; 
 and a long practice of a Greek idiom* cannot be laid 
 aside, even in speaking a different language. The 
 Latin, therefore, must soon follow, and both in a short 
 time proceed together: so that when we equally im- 
 prove in both languages, the one will not be hurtful to 
 the other. ,f 
 
 IV. Some writers were of opinion that children 
 under seven years of age should not be induced to 
 learn; because that age can neither conceive the mean- 
 ing of methods, nor endure the labor of study. Many 
 authors report, who lived before the time of Aristo 
 phanes,J the grammarian, that Hesiod§ was of this 
 opinion. For he was the first who denied that the 
 
 * By a Greek figure, in the Latin text, (Grcecae figurce.) is understood a 
 manner and form of speaking peculiar to the Greeks, and not adapted 
 to the Latin idiom. 
 
 •j" Neutra alteri offitiat. 
 
 X A grammarian of Byzantium, and scholar of Callimachus. He is 
 described by Suidas. 
 
 § Hesiod was a native of Ascra in Baeotia, and hence he is called by 
 the poets Ascrceus, and JLscrcms senex. Two only of his poems, which 
 are reputed genuine, have reached our times ; the one entitled Works 
 and Days, and the other The Thcogony, or Birth of the Gods. 
 
ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 243 
 
 vitodqxas* in which book this precept was found, was 
 the production of this poet. Eratosthenes, f among 
 others, inculcated a similar maxim. But I concur with 
 Chrysippus and those who desire that no time ought to be 
 exempted from its fostering care: for, although he has 
 assigned three years to nurses, yet he decides that even 
 the infantile mind may be moulded by their excellent in- 
 structions. And why may not years, in which manners 
 are formed, be improved also by learning ? Nor am I 
 ignorant that one year afterwards may contribute as 
 much as all the time of which I speak will scarcely be 
 able to effect: nevertheless, those who agree with me, 
 seem, in this respect, not so much to have spared the 
 learner as the teacher. What better can they do, as 
 soon as they are able to speak ? For they must neces- 
 sarily do something, and why should we despise this 
 gain, however little, until seven years are expired ? 
 For, although the advantage of the first years may be 
 inconsiderable, a boy will, nevertheless, learn greater 
 matters that very year in which he has learned less. 
 These yearly advances will at length amount to some- 
 thing considerable; and the time improved in infancy 
 will be an acquisition to youth. The same precepts 
 may be applicable to the following years, in order that 
 whatever should be learned may not be learned too 
 late. Let us, therefore, not lose this first time ; and 
 
 * *Y7ro9f»ta<;, Precepts. 
 
 "J" Eratosthenes, a native of Cyrene. He was a philosopher, poet, his- 
 torian, and astronomer, and scholar of Aristo and Callimachus, the poet. 
 He was predecessor to Apollonius in Ptolemy's library at Alexandria. 
 Longinus on the Sublime, section xxxiii., says: "Is Eratosthenes, whose 
 little poem of Erigone is faultless throughout, to be deemed superior to 
 Archilochus V — See Stobaus, serm. 44. 
 
244 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 more especially because the elements of learning de- 
 pend chiefly upon memory, which in children is very 
 retentive. 
 
 Nor am I so inexperienced with regard to the man- 
 agement of tender years, as to think that a rigid dis- 
 cipline ought to be exercised over children, and that a 
 prescribed task should be exacted. For great care 
 must be taken that the child, who is not yet able to 
 love study, should not hate it; and that the aversion 
 which he had once entertained may not deter him in 
 more advanced years. To him study ought to be made 
 an amusement: let the master ask him questions, and 
 praise him ; and let him be induced to take pleasure in 
 his own little acquirements. Should he sometimes re- 
 fuse to learn, teach another before him, whom he may 
 rival. Let them contend, in the meantime, with each 
 other, and let him fancy that he has frequently the 
 advantage on his side. Let him also be allured by 
 rewards, which are a very prevailing argument with 
 children. 
 
 Instructions on subjects so inconsiderable may ap- 
 pear to depreciate our grand design of forming the 
 orator; but all studies have their infancy; and as the 
 bringing up of the strongest bodies takes a beginning 
 from milk and a cradle, so he who may hereafter be 
 most distinguished for eloquence experienced a period 
 of imbecility. His first articulations were a jargon of 
 half-formed words, and the figures of the alphabet 
 struck him with amazement. And because the learn- 
 ing of a trivial matter is perhaps of no great conse- 
 quence, shall it therefore be said that it is not necessary? 
 And if no one censures a father for not neglecting the 
 
, ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 245 
 
 least trifles with regard to his son's education, shall it 
 be considered exceptionable if any one should publish 
 the good regulations of his family to benefit others by 
 his example ? Add, moreover, that these little mat- 
 ters are better adapted to children's capacities, and as 
 bodies cannot be formed to certain flexures of the 
 joints except when young, so the mind, unless made 
 pliable in tender years, becomes so callous with age 
 as to be subsequently unfit for many things. Would 
 Philip, king of the Macedons, have his son Alexander* 
 instructed in the first elements of learning by Aris- 
 totle, f the greatest philosopher of the age ? Or would 
 he (Aristotle) have undertaken that office had he not 
 considered it a matter of the greatest importance to 
 have the first principles of studies conducted by the 
 most accomplished instructor?" Let us therefore sup- 
 pose that Alexander, a child deserving so much care, 
 (although every one's child is equally dear to him,) is 
 placed under my superintendence, should I be ashamed, 
 even in the first rudiments, to point out some short 
 methods of teaching ? 
 
 I do not approve that course which is generally 
 
 * "Alexander was placed under the tuition of Aristotle at the age of 
 th ir teen ."-^- Gillies. 
 
 ■j" "Aristotle, a native of Stagira, earae to Athens- in his eighteenth 
 year, 367 A. C. There he continued twenty years as the scholar of 
 Plato, who died 348 A. C. Aristotle left Athens upon the death of his 
 master, and spent three years at Atamaeus, and two at Mitylene. From 
 thence he went to Macedon, in the forty-third year of his age, and 343 
 A. C. He was employed eight years in the education of Alexander. He 
 returned to Athens 335 A. C; taught twelve years in the Lyceum, and 
 died the next year at Chalcis, at the age of sixty-three, A. C. 323, and 
 a year after the death of Alexander." — Dionys. of Hal. ad AmmcEiim. 
 
 21* 
 
246 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 adopted by masters, of teaching children the names 
 and order of letters before they are acquainted "with 
 their forms. For, by running over them by heart, 
 and not applying the mind to their figures, their recog- 
 nition is retarded. Teachers, on this account, when 
 they have arranged the letters long enough, in their 
 proper order in which they are usually first written, 
 should have them all passed over backwards, and vari- 
 ously changed and shifted, until those who are in- 
 structed shall know them at first sight, and not by 
 their order. In this manner they will be most accu- 
 rately learned, and as exactly distinguished as different 
 men by their different dress and names. But this pre- 
 caution with regard to letters is not applicable to sylla- 
 bles. I exclude not also the custom of exciting children 
 to learn by giving them ivory figures of letters for play ; 
 or any other invention more fascinating to that age, 
 which may be amusing to handle, behold, or name. 
 
 When the alphabet shall have been learned in differ- 
 ent positions,* it will be highly advantageous to have 
 the letters accurately engraved on a plate, that the 
 stylusf may be drawn through the furrows made in 
 them. By this means no mistake will take place as in 
 waxen tablets, (both sides having margins and deter- 
 
 * " Those who taught children to read and write were called Litera- 
 tores, or T^a.y.[xa.ris-a\ : to these they were committed about the age of 
 six or seven years." — Dacier in Horat., lib. i. sat. i. 
 
 "f" Stylus, a kind of pen, of wood or ivory, used by the ancients for 
 writing most commonly on waxen tablets. With one end they wrote, 
 and expunged with the other. It appears from this passage, that it was 
 customary with the ancients to teach their children first to know the 
 letters accurately, and immediately afterwards to write them. The same 
 may be said of syllables and words. 
 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 247 
 
 minate bounds which cannot be passed ;) and the child, 
 by quickly and frequently following the impressed 
 track, will strengthen the joints of his fingers, and not 
 require the aid of a hand placed over his to direct 
 him. The care of writing well and swiftly is no in- 
 considerable matter, though commonly neglected by 
 the higher ranks. It is a great acquisition to study, 
 and a good method will facilitate and accelerate its 
 progress; whereas, to write slowly, is a hindrance and 
 delay to thought. Misshaped and confused writing can 
 neither be well read nor understood; and hence follows 
 the additional labor of dictating the necessary correc- 
 tions. He, therefore, who contracts the habit of a fair 
 and well-proportioned hand, will, in many respects, ex- 
 perience its beneficial results; but more especially in 
 transacting private business, and conducting his corre- 
 spondence with his friends and acquaintances. 
 
 There is no compendious method for teaching sylla- 
 bles: they must all be learned perfectly;* and the 
 most difficult, as is commonly done, should not be re- 
 served for another time, that they may be known when 
 children come to write words. They ought not to be 
 committed to memory indiscriminately; frequent repe- 
 tition will fix them in the mind to greater advantage; 
 and the reading of them should not be rapid, unless 
 when a plain and easy connection of the letters with 
 each other shows that this can be effected without a 
 delay of thought. Let the formation of words from 
 syllables, and sentences from words, follow next. It is 
 incredible how much haste retards reading: for those 
 who attempt more than they are able, fall into doubts, 
 
 * Syllabis nullum compendium est: perdiscendce omncs. 
 
248 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 stammerings, and repetitions; and when they mistake, 
 they are diffident even of those things which they 
 know. Let, therefore, the first reading be distinct; 
 the next connected, and slow for some time, until prac- 
 tice facilitates an exact readiness. For, to look to the 
 right side is not only a method generally prescribed, 
 but also used; and he who keeps in view what follows, 
 must read, at the same time, what goes before; and 
 what is most difficult, must divide the attention of the 
 mind between his voice and eyes.* 
 
 Another thing requiring our care is this: when a boy 
 begins, as is customary, to write words, he should not 
 lose his labor in copying a vulgar and frivolous vocabu- 
 lary. Because he may then learn, while otherwise em- 
 ployed, the interpretation of abstruse words, which the 
 Greeks call yx«tfcras,t and with his first rudiments attain 
 the knowledge of a thing which should afterwards re- 
 quire its own time. 
 
 And since we are still engaged in the discussion of 
 inconsiderable matters, I would recommend copy-lines 
 to consist not of idle sentences, but to inculcate some 
 virtuous precept. The recollection will continue to old 
 age, and the impression on a tender mind may prove 
 conducive to moral life. The sayings, also, of illustri- 
 ous men, and select passages from poets, (things very 
 agreeable to children,) may be learned for amusement. J 
 
 * Intentio animi dividendcu, ut aliud voce, aliud oculis agatur. 
 
 7 Quintilian himself in the fifth chapter of this book, calls Glossemata 
 words not in common use. 
 
 J Cicero tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, " that when they 
 were boys they used to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by 
 heart, in the same manner as they did an excellent poem." 
 
ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 249 
 
 Memory, of which I shall speak in its proper place, 
 is extremely necessary to an orator: it is chiefly 
 strengthened and nourished by exercise; and in those 
 years of which we now speak, which can produce 
 nothing of themselves, it is almost the only thing 
 which can be assisted by the care of teachers.* 
 
 But, in order that children may have their organs of 
 speech adapted for a just pronunciation, it will not be 
 improper to make them repeat, with the greatest cele- 
 rity, certain words and verses of an affected difficulty, 
 chained together by a jumble and jingle of many harsh, 
 hoarse, and jarring syllables, f They are called za-ki7toi% 
 in Greek. This may be called a matter of little signi- 
 ficance, yet, through its omission, many faults in pro- 
 nunciation, unless prevented in early life, will ever after 
 remain incorrigible. % 
 
 * Doceniium. 
 
 "t As perterricrepus, Aristophanes uses the words e-<payi$Qvvx. a S'yi i '- fA , iT a f 
 and no{j(,7ro<pa.He\og%nfjt.Qvct. 
 So also the old verse : 
 
 Fraxinu fixa ferox infest a infunditur ossis.—Cam, 
 
 £ Xa\$7rol, difficult. 
 
 § Incmendabili in posterum pravitate durmtwr, 
 
250 THE ART OF RHETORIC J OR, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Is Public or Private Tuition for Children to be 
 preferred ? 
 
 I. He refutes what is commonly objected against public schools, and is 
 of opinion, 1. That they are not prejudicial to morals: — and here 
 passes a severe censure on the pernicious indulgence of parents 
 2. That they are not hurtful to study. II. He demonstrates, by many 
 arguments, the utility of schools. 
 
 As the boy grows up he must be insensibly allured 
 from all infantile indulgence, and begin to learn in 
 earnest. Here, therefore, is the place for discussing 
 a question: — Is a public or private education to be pre- 
 ferred f and ivhich has the greater advantages ? 
 
 I. To the public, the greatest legislators and most 
 eminent authors have given the preference. It must 
 not, however, be concealed, that there are some, who, 
 for certain particular motives, dissent from this almost 
 universally received custom. These produce two prin- 
 cipal reasons in support of their opinion. The first is, 
 because they exhibit a greater care for morals by avoid- 
 ing an association with those of the same age who may 
 be ardently addicted to vice; and whose corrupt ex- 
 amples are the causes of all the irregularity we perceive 
 in the conduct of others. I wish this complaint was 
 ! The second, that a master can bestow more 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 251 
 
 time upon one than when divided among many. The 
 first reason is entitled to great consideration; for if 
 schools are profitable for learning, but prejudicial to 
 morals, I should rather recommend the instruction of a 
 child in upright life than in speaking eloquently. But 
 these two particulars are intimately connected together: 
 for I assert, that no one can be an orator except the 
 good man;* and even if he could, it should not be with 
 my permission. Let us, therefore, first examine this 
 point. 
 
 1. These writers consider schools to be a nursery of 
 vice: they are so sometimes, and a parent's house is 
 equally the same: there are many examples of inno- 
 cence lost and preserved in both places. Nature and 
 education are the only particulars that constitute a dif- 
 ference between persons. Should a boy be inclined to 
 vicious courses; should his tutors be negligent in form- 
 ing his tender heart by virtuous sentiments, and watch- 
 ing carefully over all his actions, the most recluse life 
 would not secure him from vice. His private tutor 
 may be a man of depraved morals, and the conversa- 
 tion of wicked domestics may be as contagious as that 
 of immodest companions. f But if his natural dispo- 
 sition is good, if his parents are not lulled into a blind 
 indolence, they may select for him a preceptor of un- 
 
 * " This was a favorite position among the ancient rhetoricians : — 
 ' Non posse oratorem esse nisi virum bonum.' To find any such con- 
 nection between virtue and one of the highest liberal arts, must give 
 pleasure ; and it can, I think, be clearly shown, that this is not a mere 
 topic of declamation, but that the connection here alleged is undoubtedly 
 founded in truth and reason." — Blair, lect. xxxiv. 
 
 ■f - Ingenuos. 
 
252 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 blemished integrity ,* (which ought to be the principal 
 care of prudent persons,) they may inure him to the 
 strictest discipline; and they may likewise set over him 
 some grave governor of mild persuasion, or some faith- 
 ful freedman,\ who shall constantly wait upon him, 
 and whose presence will inspire with respect, and even 
 improve in goodness, those whose company may have 
 been suspected. 
 
 It would be easy, in this respect, to remedy our ap- 
 prehensions. I wish we were not ourselves the cor- 
 ruptors of our children's morals. We first spoil their 
 infant years with delicacies; and that soft education, 
 which we call indulgence, enervates all the vigor of 
 mind and body. What will not a grown-up child de- 
 sire who walks softly in purple ? He can scarcely 
 articulate a few words, and yet exhibits a taste for 
 dress,% and all the refinements of the pleasures of the 
 table.% The gratifications of their palates are more 
 consulted than their morals. They grow up accus- 
 tomed to the ease of litters and sedans; and when 
 they alight they are upheld on both sides by the arms 
 of officious attendants. We express pleasure at their 
 enunciation of language of too licentious a character; 
 and words which should not be permitted even at the 
 
 * Et prceceptorem eligere sanctissimum quemque. It was customary with 
 the Romans, particularly among those of distinguished rank, after their 
 children were admitted to the grammar schools, and "after reason had 
 displayed her faculties and established her command, to keep with 
 them in the house some eminent preceptor or professor, to cultivate and 
 adorn the advantages of nature." — Ken. Rom. Antiq. 
 
 I Fidelem libertum. 
 
 % Coccus, cochineal, is that granular insect with which scarlet is dyed. 
 
 § Conchylium poscit. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 253 
 
 Alexandrian festivals,* we receive with laughter and 
 hisses. No wonder: we have taught, and they have 
 heard from us. ******** T;he m i seraD i e children 
 learn vice before they know it to be such; and thus 
 dissolute and depraved, they rather introduce the in- 
 fection into schools than receive it from them. 
 
 2. But, according to the second reason, a tutor who 
 has only one pupil will bestow more time on his instruc- 
 tion. There is nothing, however, to prevent him who 
 is educated in schools from having one. But if this 
 could not be accomplished, I should prefer the broad 
 day of a virtuous assembly to the obscurity and soli- 
 tude of private families. For every distinguished mas- 
 terf desires to see himself surrounded by a large number 
 of pupils, and thinks himself worthy of a more spacious 
 theatre for the exertion of his abilities : whereas, those 
 of an inferior character, from a consciousness of their 
 insufficiency, attach themselves to one, and consider it 
 not derogatory to assume the function of pedagogues. 
 But should a person by interest, friendship, or money, 
 employ at his house a master of the highest qualifica- 
 tions, can he spend the whole day upon one ? Or can 
 the application of his pupil be so unremitting as not to 
 admit of fatigue, as it happens to the eyes long intent 
 upon viewing an object ? Add, moreover, that study 
 
 * Quintilian here alludes to the infamous sacrifices of Serapis, which 
 were solemnized near Alexandria. 
 
 Serapis first taught the Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines : after 
 his death they worshiped him in the form of an ox, a symbol of 
 husbandry. 
 
 t Praceptor. The duties of Preceptors are thus defined by Dr. Pat- 
 trick: — " Prceceptoribus artes et scientias docentibusy "The Preceptors 
 teaching the arts and sciences." 
 
 22 
 
254 
 
 requires solitude; for the master does not assist a child 
 while he learns his lesson, writes, and meditates; the 
 least interruption serving only to embarrass him. Nor 
 does he, in every lesson, require the aid of reading and 
 expounding : for when would the knowledge of so many 
 authors be acquired ? A short time is only required in 
 order to prescribe his task for the whole day; and, 
 therefore, the instructions which are imparted to one 
 may be imparted to many; the nature of most things 
 being such as to admit a communication to all by the 
 same voice. I say nothing of rhetorical themes and 
 declamations,* the whole of which, let the number be 
 ever so great, each may take away with him. For the 
 voice of a master, and a feast, are not similar cases. 
 The feast diminishes in proportion to the greater num- 
 ber of guests; but the master's voice is like the sun, 
 distributing equally its light and heat to all. Should 
 a grammarian make dissertations on the nature of a 
 language, should he solve the intricacies of a question, 
 or clear up passages in poets or historians, will not as 
 many learn as hear him ? 
 
 But one master, it is said, cannot thoroughly examine 
 a number of scholars, nor correct their compositions. 
 I admit the difficulty, (for what subject is without diffi- 
 culties ?) but we shall soon compare this with its ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 I should not, however, advise a child to be sent to a 
 
 * Taceo de partitionibus et dedamationibus rhetorum. The Partitio com- 
 prised the principal heads, or parts of a theme, composed and dictated 
 by the master, as a subject for declamation, divided into its parts. De- 
 clamatio was the subject-matter, which the master having diligently 
 prepared at home, either pronounced or dictated in school. 
 
 For Themes, see " Elements of Oratory," page 93. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 255 
 
 school where he would be neglected. Nor ought a 
 good master to burden himself with a greater number of 
 pupils than he is able to teach: particular care ought 
 also to be taken that this master may be a bosom 
 friend,* and that his instruction proceed rather from 
 the secret emotions of his affection than a sense of 
 duty. By this means our children will never be con- 
 founded in an undistinguished crowd; and there is no 
 master, however slightly imbued with learning, who 
 will not, for his own credit, peculiarly cherish him in 
 whom he perceives both application and genius. But 
 if crowded schools should be avoided, (to which thing 
 I do not assent, when the reputation of the master is 
 the cause of the resort,) it does not follow that all 
 schools must be avoided: for there. is a wide difference 
 between avoiding entirely and making a judicious 
 selection. 
 
 II. Having refuted what is commonly objected 
 against public schools, I shall now proceed to explain 
 my own sentiments upon the subject. Above all, let 
 the future orator, who must appear in the most solemn 
 assemblies, and have the eyes of a whole republic 
 fixed upon him, early accustom himself not to be 
 abashed at facing a numerous audience; the reverse of 
 
 * Among the ancient Romans an extraordinary attachment existed 
 between master and pupil. This feeling is beautifully portrayed by 
 Persius, in his first Satire, to his instructor, Cornutus, the Stoic. 
 
 Juvenal also breaks out into that elegant rapture, Satire VII. : 
 
 Eternal springs and rising flowers adorn 
 The relics of each venerable urn : 
 Who pious reverence to their tutors paid, 
 As parents honored, and as gods obeyed. 
 
256 
 
 which is a natural consequence of a recluse and seden- 
 tary life. His mind must he excited and kept in a 
 state of constant elevation; otherwise, his mind will 
 languish in solitude, and contract a certain rust,* as it 
 were, in the shade: or, on the contrary, hecome puffed 
 up with vanity; for he who compares himself to no one, 
 must necessarily attribute too much to himself. And 
 when he is afterwards obliged to make an exhibition of 
 his acquirements, he is blind in daylight; everything is 
 new to him; because he has learned in private what 
 was to be transacted before the eyes of the world. 
 
 I make no mention of the firm and sincere friend- 
 ships contracted at schools, and religiously preserved 
 even to old age. Nothing is held so sacred; and to be 
 fellow-students, is as much as to be initiated in the 
 same mysteries. Where shall he learn what we call 
 "common sense/'f when he sequesters himself from 
 the society which is natural not only to men, but to 
 the inferior animals. Add to this, that at home he 
 can only learn those things in which he is instructed : 
 but in schools he can learn what is imparted to others. 
 He will daily hear his master approve one thing, cor- 
 rect another; reprimand the idleness of one, commend 
 the diligence of another; the love of praise will excite 
 his emulation; to yield to his equals will be a dis- 
 honor; to surpass his superiors, a glory. All these 
 are incentives to young minds, and although ambition 
 be a vice, it is often the cause of virtue. 
 
 * Ducit situm. 
 
 "j" Quintilian understands by " sensus communis" a kind of knowledge 
 and experience we insensibly acquire by our intercourse with men. 
 Cicero calls it common prudence. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATOEY. 257 
 
 I recollect an excellent custom observed by my ma$* 
 ters.* They distributed the scholars into classes, and 
 every one declaimed in his place, which was more ad- 
 vanced, according as he had excelled others, and made 
 a greater progress. As judgment was to be passed on 
 the performances, the contention was great for the re- 
 spective degree of excellence ; but to be the first of the 
 class was esteemed by far the most honorable. Nor 
 was this decision to continue always; for every thir- 
 tieth day renewed the contest, and gave the vanquished 
 an opportunity to enter the lists again. He who had 
 the superiority did not remit his care; and he who had 
 been vanquished was full of hopes to wipe away dis- 
 grace. I am persuaded, that this furnished us with a 
 more ardent desire, and a greater passion for learning, 
 than all the advice of masters, care of tutor s^ and 
 wishes of parents. 
 
 But as nothing is so conducive for making a pro- 
 gress in learning as emulation, so beginners and chil- 
 dren ought rather to rival their school-fellows than 
 masters, their imitation, as easier, being more agree- 
 able to them. For it is impossible that a child, who is 
 in his first elements, should expect, all at once, to 
 aspire to the eloquence of a man whom he reputes to 
 have talents far superior to himself. He will, there- 
 fore, proportion himself to what is within his reach: 
 as vines, planted close to trees, first catch and twine 
 around the lower branches, and at last shoot up to the 
 top. This truth may also be applicable to such masters 
 as are more influenced by a desire of proving useful, 
 
 * A praceptoribus meis. 
 f Pcedagogorum custodinm. 
 
 22* 
 
258 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 than making a show of their talents; for in teaching 
 children they ought not to overburden their weakness ; 
 but by intentionally lessening their own knowledge, 
 adapt it to their intellects. Pour water quickly into a 
 vessel of a narrow neck, little enters; pour it gradu- 
 ally, and by small quantities, it is filled ; so we must 
 see, with regard to children, how much they are able 
 to receive. For things too elevated cannot have ad- 
 mission into minds not yet sufficiently open to receive 
 them. It is therefore necessary that they should have 
 objects of imitation until they are in a condition to 
 excel, and thus we may hope that they will insensibly 
 make a greater progress. To what has been said on 
 this head I shall add this reflection. 
 
 A master who has only one pupil to instruct, can 
 never infuse into his words that energy, spirit, and fire 
 which he would if animated by a number of students. 
 The force of eloquence has its seat in the soul: the 
 soul must, then, be affected in a very lively manner ; 
 she must figure to herself the images of things; and 
 she must transform herself, as it were, into the very 
 nature of the subjects of which we speak. Now, the 
 more noble and exalted the soul is, the more magnifi- 
 cent the object ought to be which should move her; 
 her efforts give her a new supply of strength, and she 
 seems to exult in great attempts. There is a secret 
 disdain felt in lavishing upon one the powers of elo- 
 quence, acquired by so much labor: there is a shame 
 attached to the elevation of a discourse above what is 
 ordinary. And, indeed, let us conceive a man in the 
 act of making a speech; his air, his voice, his gait, his 
 pronunciation, his action, his transports, his fatigue, 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 259 
 
 and all for the instruction of a single person: would 
 not his behavior seem in a great degree allied to mad- 
 ness ? Undoubtedly, eloquence would never have ex- 
 isted if men had confined themselves to speak for one. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I. By what signs the genius of children is discerned. II. How the 
 learner's disposition is to be treated and managed. III. Of the 
 amusements of children. IV. That children should not be whipped. 
 
 I. A skillful master,* who has a child placed under 
 his care, must begin by investigating the character of 
 his genius and natural disposition. Memory is the 
 principal sign of a genius in children. Its qualities 
 are twofold; an easy conception and faithful reten- 
 tion.^ Next comes imitation, which indicates, in like 
 manner, a docile nature, and ought to be so directed as 
 not to affect the air, the garb, the gait, and the ex- 
 ceptionable ways of others; but rather to express and 
 represent exactly those things which it learns. I can, 
 indeed, entertain but faint hopes of the powers of that 
 child's mind, who, for the desire of imitation, should 
 strive to render himself ridiculous. For the truly 
 ingenious can be no other than the virtuous ; and the 
 
 * Peritus docendi. 
 
 "t" Facile percipere, el fiddlier continere. 
 
260 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 slow genius is, in my opinion, a degree above the 
 vicious. But the virtuous will stand at a very great 
 distance from the dull and groveling. The child of 
 whom I form to myself an idea, will easily learn all 
 that is imparted to him: sometimes he may ask little 
 questions, but will rather follow than run before. That 
 sort of talent which seems precocious seldom arrives 
 at perfection. Those who possess it are prompt at 
 executing little things; and, with an air of decision, 
 show all their knowledge at once. This is perceptible 
 when they are learning to read; for, without hesita- 
 tion, and not deterred by the shame of their mistakes, 
 they join words together and confound the sense. 
 Their promptness, however, is not of much conse- 
 quence; because they have no real strength to invigo- 
 rate them, nor sufficiently deep roots to be a support 
 and nurture to their growth. Such is the sudden 
 sprouting of seeds cast upon the surface of the ground; 
 or blades of corn which grow yellow before the harvest 
 with only empty ears. These superficial acquirements, 
 compared with children's years, may be applauded; 
 but our admiration diminishes at beholding this pro- 
 ficiency suddenly at a stand. 
 
 II. When the master shall have made these observa- 
 tions upon a child, the next thing which falls under 
 consideration is the management of his disposition. 
 Some are indolent unless urged on, others refuse sub- 
 jection; some are restrained by fear, others are dis- 
 couraged: assiduity improves some, others learn by 
 "fits and starts."* But let the boy be entrusted to my 
 
 * In aliis plus impetus facit. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 261 
 
 care whom praise excites, who is delighted with glor y, and 
 who weeps when vanquished. He will be influenced by 
 these noble sentiments: a reproach will sting him to 
 the quick; a sense of honor will arouse him: in him 
 sloth need never be dreaded. 
 
 III. Children, however, must be allowed some relax- 
 ation, not only because there is nothing capable of 
 enduring continued labor, which is verified even in 
 bodies without sense and life, which cannot preserve 
 their force unless recruited by alternate rest; but also, 
 because the desire of learning is placed in the will, 
 which cannot bear constraint. When, therefore, they 
 have refreshed themselves by recreation, they return 
 with new vigor to their studies, and their minds, which, 
 under other circumstances, would spurn the yoke of 
 compulsion, become more tractable, and have clearer 
 conceptions. I am not displeased at play in children: 
 it is a sign of their vivacity; but the boy whom I ob- 
 serve to be always gloomy and downcast, affords no 
 great expectations of a sprightly disposition for study, 
 because he is insensible to that ardor for play which is 
 so natural to those of his age. There must, however, 
 be proper bounds to their sports : deny them play they 
 hate study; allow them too much, they acquire a habit 
 of idleness. There are some useful amusements for 
 sharpening the mental powers of children; such as 
 proposing little questions, which they eagerly endeavor 
 to solve. Play also discovers more easily their moral 
 character; and hence it may appear that there is no 
 age, though ever so infirm, but is capable of receiving 
 the impression of good and evil; and that more espe- 
 
262 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 cially, at that period, attention should be directed to 
 its culture, while unacquainted with the arts of dis- 
 simulation, and pliable in the hands of a teacher. It 
 is easier to break than to amend what is hardened in 
 depravity. A child, therefore, cannot be too soon ad- 
 monished to restrain his passions, to abandon his per- 
 nicious practices, and to unlearn his capricious humor 
 of acting inconsiderately; and they who have the care 
 of him should always keep in mind this sentence of 
 Virgil:* 
 
 — Adeo teneris consuescere multum est. 
 
 Such is the force of custom in tender years. 
 
 IV. Whipping children is a thing I greatly dislike, 
 though authorized by custom and approved by Chry- 
 sippus. First, because this mode of punishment ap-. 
 pears to be mean, servile, and, as all will admit, a fla- 
 grant insult on more advanced years. Secondly, should 
 a child be of so abject a disposition as not to correct 
 himself when reprimanded, he will be as hardened 
 against stripes as the vilest slave. And lastly, should 
 a master exact from his pupil an account of his study, 
 there would be no necessity to have recourse to this 
 extremity. It is his neglect which most commonly 
 causes the scholar's punishment, who is not obliged to 
 comply with his duty, and for not having done so, must 
 be chastised. Now should there be no other way of 
 correcting a child except whipping, what shall be done 
 when, a grown up youth, he is under no apprehension 
 of such punishment, and must learn greater and more 
 
 * Georg., ii. v. 272. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 263 
 
 difficult things? *****! shall enlarge no farther 
 upon this subject: it is too much that I am understood. 
 Let this, however, be sufficient to announce, that no one 
 should be permitted to lean too heavily on an age, so 
 infirm, and so exposed to injuries. 
 
 I shall now begin to speak of the arts in which the 
 future orator should be instructed, and of those things 
 which are requisite for him to do and learn in every 
 stage of life. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of Grammar.* 
 
 I. Eulogium on grammar. II. Speech, to be perfect, ought to be cor- 
 rect, clear, and elegant. III. It is founded on reason, antiquity, autho- 
 rity, and custom. IV. Of orthography. 
 
 I. As soon as a boy is instructed to read and write, 
 he should be sent to the grammar school. It is a 
 
 * "Almost all the principles which are now reduced into arts were 
 formerly dispersed and dissipated. Thus in grammar; the reading of 
 poets, an acquaintance with history, the import of icords, and a certain man- 
 ner of articulation ; all these were formerly unknown, or they seemed 
 too widely dissipated to be reduced into a system.'' — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. 
 cap. 42. 
 
 From this passage of Cicero, and others interspersed throughout the 
 Classics, it appears that the ancients, by the study of grammar, under- 
 stood the study of what we designate the Belles lettres. 
 
264 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 matter of little consequence whether he begins with 
 Greek or Latin, although I prefer the former; but the 
 way that leads to the one leads also to the other. 
 Grammar, divided into two parts, comprises "the art 
 of speaking correctly, and the interpretation of poets." 
 By this division more is to be understood than is ex- 
 pressed; for the art of writing is properly joined with 
 that of speaking; a correct method of reading precedes 
 the interpretation of poets, and with all these is blended 
 Criticism.* In this last respect the ancient gramma- 
 rians have acted so severely as to stigmatize some pas- 
 sages in poets as extremely faulty, and to treat books 
 which seemed falsely ascribed to certain authors, as 
 spurious children in a family, who had no right of in- 
 heritance with the legitimate. Some other writers they 
 reduced into a better form; while others they entirely 
 excluded from their number. 
 
 It is not sufficient to be well versed in the poets; 
 every sort of writers should be examined, not only on 
 account of the incidents of history which occur, but 
 also for the purpose of furnishing ourselves with a 
 variety of expressions which frequently receive autho- 
 rity from their authors. Grammar, likewise, cannot 
 be perfect without music, since it must describe mea- 
 sures and numbers,f nor can any one understand the 
 poets without a knowledge of astronomy; who, to 
 
 * Judicium. The object of criticism is to judge what is beautiful, 
 and what is faulty in every performance. The Greeks designated tbis 
 vrt Kgmxriv. 
 
 ■J- Measure consists, in Quintilian's sense, in a proportion of time, and 
 artain order of feet. Number, in a proportion of time, but not in the 
 order of feet. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 265 
 
 specify the vicissitudes of times and seasons, so fre- 
 quently mention the rising and setting of constella- 
 tions. Nor should he be ignorant of philosophy; an 
 acquaintance with which is necessary for explaining 
 many passages in all such poems as enter into an ela- 
 borate discussion of some very abstruse natural ques- 
 tions. Empedocles among the Greeks, and Yarro and 
 Lucretius among the Latins, who wrote philosophical 
 systems in verse, contribute essentially to make this 
 science necessary. Eloquence crowns the work, and 
 assists us to illustrate whatever has been demonstrated, 
 with a propriety and copiousness of diction. It is, 
 therefore, manifest, that no regard should be paid to 
 those who cavil at this art, and consider it as poor and 
 trifling.* It is the sure foundation of an orator, and, 
 without it, any superstructure will unavoidably fall to 
 the ground. It is necessary to youth, pleasant to more 
 advanced years, the sweet companion of private hours, 
 and the only one of all our studies which possesses 
 more solidity than ostentation. * * * * 
 
 II. Now, as every speech should possess these three 
 qualifications, of being correct, clear, and elegant, (be- 
 cause a justness of expression, the chief beauty of dis- 
 course, is comprehended under elegance,) so there are 
 many opposite imperfections, into which the rule of 
 correct speaking, the first part of grammar, must ex- 
 amine. * * * * 
 
 III. To speak and to write well require different 
 rules. Speaking is founded on reason, antiquity, au- 
 
 * Ut tenuem acjejunam. 
 
 23 
 
266 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 thority, and use. Reason depends chiefly on analogy, 
 and sometimes on etymology. A certain majesty, and, 
 as I may say, religion, recommends antiquity. Autho- 
 rity is founded on orators and historians; for the 
 necessity of measure excuses poets, unless when two 
 words are equally adapted to the harmony of the verse, 
 they prefer one to the other. Several examples occur 
 in Virgil:* as, — Imo de stirpe recisum : — ^Jrioe quo 
 congessere palumbes:\ — Silice in nudd connixa reli- 
 quit.% Their imitation, however, may not be improper; 
 because the judgment of men of distinguished elo- 
 quence stands for a sufficient reason, and to go astray 
 with such excellent guides, is honorable. Use or cus- 
 tom, however, is the best teacher of language; and, as 
 money, to be current, requires to be struck from the 
 die of the state, so language, to be received, requires 
 the consent of the learned. * * * * 
 
 Ancient words§ have not only zealous advocates, but 
 they also confer a certain majesty and delight upon 
 discourse ; for, together with the authority of antiquity, 
 they charm, from being disused, by an air of novelty. 
 We must, however, be very cautious how we use them; 
 for often adopted, they become too remarkable; and 
 nothing is more odious than affectation. Nor would I 
 have them drawn from the remotest periods, and now 
 entirely obliterated from our minds: such are Topper, \\ 
 and antigerio,\ and exanclare, and prosapia, and the 
 poems of the Salii, which are scarcely understood by 
 their own priests. Religion has prohibited their alter- 
 ation, and we must use them as consecrated things. 
 
 * JBn., xii. 208. f Eel, iii. 69. J Ibid., i. 15. 
 
 § Verba a vetustate repetita. || Cito. IT Valde. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 267 
 
 But how faulty will a discourse be whose chief qualifi- 
 cation is perspicuity, should it want an interpreter ? 
 Therefore, as the best of new words are such as have 
 already been used by the learned, so the best of the 
 ancient are those which have the beauty of novelty. 
 
 A similar course may be adopted with regard to 
 authority ; for, although it is not improper to use the 
 manner of expression of illustrious authors, yet we 
 should consider not so much what they have said, as 
 what they have persuaded. For who among us could 
 bear tuburchinahundum and lurchinahundum, though 
 Cato's authority may be cited for their use. A similar 
 judgment may be passed on the hos lodices of Pollio, 
 the gladiola of Messala, the parricidatum of Caelius, 
 and the collos of Calvus: all which expressions these 
 authors, if now existing, would reject. 
 
 Use or custom remains to be examined. And here 
 it appears somewhat ridiculous that any persons should 
 prefer the ancient to the modern manner of speech. 
 This ancient manner of speech, what is it but the an- 
 cient custom of speaking ? But it must be judged and 
 determined what is to be understood by the word custom. 
 If the appellation is received from what is accomplished 
 by many, it will be productive of very dangerous con- 
 sequences, not only to language, but (what is a more 
 important consideration) to the conduct of life. What 
 is it that adds to our happiness ? Is it not to behold 
 the world improved in goodness ? If pernicious exam- 
 ples now prevail,* if the taste of the city is for adopt- 
 
 * Igilur ut velli. By velli, in the Latin text, is understood an effemi- 
 nate practice among the Romans, of plucking out the hair in order to 
 make their skin smooth. — See Juvenal and Persius, 
 
268 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 ing the effeminacy of adjusting the hair into ringlets,* 
 shall these, and similar vices, be reputed the custom, 
 though they may universally prevail ? No, not one of 
 them is free from reprehension. But to bathe, to 
 shave, to participate of the pleasures of the table in 
 virtuous company is a custom; and so with regard to 
 language; follow the general manner, and your lan- 
 guage will be corrupt; you will discover a thousand 
 improprieties in the mouths of the vulgar and the ig- 
 norant; the theatres, f and all the public places J in the 
 city ring with barbarisms. I shall, therefore, call the 
 
 * Et comam in gradus fr anger e. 
 
 t Tota scepe. theatra. Theatres, so called from the Greek 3sao/u«», to 
 see, owe their original to Bacchus. They were usual in several parts 
 of Greece ; and were afterwards, as other institutions, borrowed by the 
 Romans. In the first ages of the commonwealth they were only tem- 
 porary, and composed of wood, which, according to Pliny, sometimes 
 tumbled down with great destruction. The most celebrated of these 
 temporary theatres was that of M. Scaurus, the eavea of which had 
 seats for 80,000 men. 
 
 Pompey the Great was the first who raised a fixed theatre. Some 
 remains of this theatre are still to be seen at Rome, as also those of 
 Marcellus, Statilius Taurus, Tiberius, and Titus. — Vide Fabricii Rom., 
 cap. 12; Plin., lib. 36, cap. 15. 
 
 J Et omnem circi turbam. The Circi were places set apart for the 
 cultivation of several sorts of games. They were generally oblong, or 
 almost in the shape of a bow, having a wall quite around, with ranges 
 of seats for the convenience of the spectators. 
 
 There were several of these Circi at Rome, as those of Flaminius, 
 Nero, Caracalla, and Severus; but the most remarkable was Circus 
 Maximus, built by Tarquinius Priscus, with seats for 150,000 men. It 
 was extremely beautiful, and adorned by succeeding princes, particu- 
 larly by Julius Caesar, Augustus, Caligula, Domitian, Trajan, and Helio- 
 gabalus; and enlarged to such an extent, as to be able to contain, in 
 their proper seats, 260,000 spectators. — See Plin., lib. 36; Liv., et Dio- 
 nys. Hal. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 269 
 
 genuine custom of speaking the consent of the learned; 
 as that of living, the approbation of the good. 
 
 Now, since we have described the rule of speaking, 
 we shall acid a few words on that of writing. The 
 Greeks call it orthography, and we the science of 
 writing correctly. Unless custom should direct other- 
 wise, I would have every word written as pronounced : 
 for the use and object of letters are to preserve sounds, 
 and to exhibit them faithfully to the eyes of the reader, 
 as a pledge committed to his charge. They ought, 
 therefore, to express what we have to say. 
 
 These are chiefly the two parts of grammar, which 
 treat of speaking and writing correctly: I deprive not 
 grammarians of the other two, adapted for speaking 
 with force and elegance; but shall reserve them for a 
 greater part of this work, in which I intend to explain 
 the functions of a rhetorician. 
 
 But some may consider what I have hitherto said, as 
 too trifling, and an obstacle to my greater design. I 
 do not, indeed, believe that the orator should descend 
 to all the insignificant niceties of grammar; for their 
 study would embarrass the conceptions of his mind, 
 and dull the vivacity of his genius. But nothing of 
 grammar can be injurious, except its superfluities. 
 Was Marcus Tullius less the orator for his exact ob- 
 servance of the precepts of this art ? And did he not 
 charge his son (as appears from his Epistles) to be rigidly 
 instructed in the propriety of language ? Did Caesar's 
 books of Analogy weaken his manly thought and ex- 
 pression ? Or is Messala less elegant* because he com- 
 
 * Minus nitidus. 
 
 23* 
 
270 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 posed whole volumes, not only on words, but even let- 
 ters ? This knowledge is only prejudicial to those who 
 make it a particular study; but not to him who curso- 
 rily considers it with a view to other acquirements. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 What books are proper for children to read, and the method of teaching 
 them to read. 
 
 I NOW proceed to reading, which cannot be properly 
 directed by any determinate rules: experience being 
 the only method for informing a child where he is to 
 draw breath, where he must divide the verse, where the 
 sense begins and ends ; when the voice is to be raised 
 and lowered, and when it is to be changed and bent 
 into a quick or slow, vehement or gentle tone. There 
 is one thing, however, I recommend in this respect; 
 and this is, that the child may be made to understand 
 what he reads. Let, therefore, his reading be manly, 
 tempered with a mixture of gravity and sweetness ; not 
 indeed, in the tone of prose, as it is a poem, and poets 
 show that they observe harmonic proportion: still it 
 should not retain (as now generally practised) the mo- 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 271 
 
 dulation of an air of music; nor should it be thrilled* 
 into effeminate softness. These affected strains in read- 
 ing were censured by Caesar while very young :f "If 
 you sing," said he, "you sing badly; if you read you 
 sing." J Nor do I desire Prosopopoeias§ to be pro- 
 nounced, according to some, in a theatrical manner; 
 there should, however, be a slight inflection of the 
 voice, in order to distinguish between what the poet 
 says, and what he makes others say. 
 
 There are other things which require precaution; 
 and chiefly, that the tender and untutored minds of 
 children, as yet susceptible of deep impressions, should 
 be imbued, not only with what is beautiful and elo- 
 quent, but in a greater degree with what is good and 
 honest. The reading, therefore, of Homer and Virgil 
 first, was wisely instituted, although to understand their 
 beauties, is the work of a more mature judgment : but 
 there will be time enough to accomplish this object, 
 
 * Plasma, in the Latin text, is interpreted by some, a potion to remove 
 hoarseness, and mellow the voice: Liquido cum plasmate guttur mo- 
 bile collueris. — Pers., sat. i. 17. Others suppose it means an affected 
 softness and delicacy of voice : 
 
 Vocem eliquat, et tenero supplantat verba potato. — Pers. 
 
 "f" Adhuc prcetextatum. The Toga Preetexta was a white robe reaching 
 down to the ankles, with a border of purple around the edges, in allu- 
 sion to which the Greeks call it 'rrs^i'no^v^oy. Dacier on Horace, lib. v, 
 ode 5, says : " The boys, till they were thirteen years old, wore a sort 
 of vest with sleeves, which they called Alicata Chlamys, and then left 
 off that to put on the Prestexta, which they did not change till they had 
 reached the age of puberty, or the seventeenth year. Persius, in his 
 fifth Satire, calls it custos purpura. 
 
 J Si cantas, male cantas • si legis cantas. 
 
 § Speeches put into the mouths of the different characters in a poem. 
 
272 THE AKT OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 as they will be read frequently. The majesty of 
 heroic poetry will, in the meantime, give them an ele- 
 vation of thought; the magnitude of the subject will 
 inspire them with noble conceptions ; and their hearts 
 will be improved by the best precepts. 
 
 Tragedy* and Jjyric\ poetry are also conducive to 
 
 * Utiles Tragcedice. Tragedy, (from f^kyoq, a goat, joined to a>$j, a 
 song,) the song of the goat, and Comedy, (from xwjun, a village, and ufo, 
 a song,) the song of the village, sufficiently indicate the humility of 
 their first original. A goat, as the particular enemy of the vine, was 
 very properly sacrificed to Bacchus, whose praises composed the song. 
 They originated amidst the sacrifices and joyous festivities of the vint- 
 age; and during the entertainments of a season peculiarly dedicated to 
 recreation and pleasure, the susceptible minds of the Greeks naturally 
 yielded to two propensities congenial to men in such circumstances, a 
 desire to exercise their sensibility, and a disposition to amuse their fancy. 
 Availing himself of the former, the sublime genius of iEschylus, the 
 father of tragedy, improved the song of the goat into a regular drama- 
 tic poem, agreeing with the Iliad and Odyssey in those unalterable rules 
 of design and execution which are essential to the perfection of every 
 literary performance. 
 
 As tragedy was introduced in imitation of the more serious spectacles 
 of the Dionysian festival, so Comedy, which soon followed, was owing 
 to the more light and ludicrous parts of that solemnity. Tragedy is the 
 imitation of an important and serious action, adapted to affect the sen- 
 sibility of the spectators, and to gratify their natural propensity to fear, 
 to weep, and to wonder. Terror and pity have, in all ages, been re- 
 garded as the mainsprings of tragedy; because the laws of sensibility, 
 founded solely in nature, are always the same. 
 
 Comedy is the imitation of a light and ludicrous action, adapted to 
 amuse the fancy and to gratify the natural disposition of men to laughter 
 and merriment. — Gillies' 1 Greece, chap. xiii. 
 
 f Alunt et Lyrici. Lyric poetry, or the Ode, imports that the verses 
 are accompanied by a lyre, or musical instrument. This distinction was 
 not, at first, peculiar to any one species of poetry ; for music and poetry 
 were coeval, and were originally always joined together. But after 
 their separation, such poems as were designed to be still joined with 
 music, or song, were, by way of eminence, called Odes. And their dis- 
 

 ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 273 
 
 nurture the minds of children; but of the latter, some 
 select parts only ought to be read, because Greek lyrics 
 are often written too licentiously, and Horace, in some 
 places, I should be unwilling to explain. As to Ele- 
 gies which treat of love, and Hendecas syllables,* in 
 which are scraps of Sotadean verses,^ (for Sotadean 
 verses should not even be mentioned,) let them, if 
 practicable, be entirely excluded; if not, let them be 
 reserved, at least, for years of wiser reflection. I shall 
 speak, in its place, of the advantages of comedy, which 
 may greatly contribute to the improvement of elo- 
 quence, by reason of its assumed prerogative for paint- 
 ing the manners, and characters, and passions, of 
 mankind. For when morals are safe, it may be a 
 principal study. I speak of MenanderJ not to exclude 
 
 tinguishing characteristic was, that they vjere sung by a chorus, who accom- 
 panied the various inflections of the voice with suitable attitudes and movements 
 of the body. The lyric poetry of the Greeks thus united the pleasures 
 of the ear, of the eye, and of the understanding. 
 
 There is no distinction of subject incident to lyric poetry, except that 
 other poems are often employed in the recital of actions, whereas senti- 
 ments of one kind or other, form, almost always, the subject of the Ode. 
 But it is chiefly the spirit and manner of its execution that characterize 
 it; and hence the fire, the animation, the enthusiasm which accom- 
 pany it. Hence that neglect of regularity, those* digressions, and that 
 wild disorder which it is supposed to admit. 
 
 Pindar was prince of Grecian lyric poets ; and among the Latins, for 
 correctness, harmony, and happy expression, none can equal Horace. — 
 See Gillies' 1 Greece, chap. vi. ; Blair, lect. xxxix. 
 
 * Hendecasyllabic, lines or verses consisting of eleven syllables. 
 
 f Sotadeorum. Sotadean verses have frequent caesuras or falls; and 
 their signification is different, as read either backward or forward. 
 Sotades, a poet of Crete, was their author. Their tendency was gene- 
 rally to immorality. 
 
 X Menander was a celebrated comic poet of Athens. Terence imi- 
 
274 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 others: and even the Latins are not without their 
 utility. But boys should be induced to read such 
 books as enlarge their minds, and strengthen their 
 genius: and other subjects, which pertain to erudition, 
 can be acquired in more advanced years. 
 
 Although more genius than art appears in the writ- 
 ings of the old Latin j)oets, they may, nevertheless, be 
 of singular advantage, on account of their energy of 
 expression. Majesty may be found in their tragedies, 
 elegance in their comedies, and a kind of Attic taste. 
 The arrangement of their pieces is also better con- 
 ducted than most of the moderns, who consider striking 
 thoughts to be the perfection of all good writing. It 
 is unquestionably in the works of the ancients that we 
 must seek for those noble sentiments, and that manly 
 character of writing which have been obliterated from 
 among us, since delicacy and refinement in every spe- 
 cies of pleasure have vitiated our style with our man- 
 ners. Finally, we may rely upon the authority of 
 the greatest orators, who have quoted the verses of 
 ancient poets, either as proofs of their pleadings, or 
 an ornament to their eloquence. Cicero, Asinius, and 
 their cotemporaries interspersed their discourses with 
 the verses of Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, Ter- 
 ence, Caacilius,* and other poets, which adorned them 
 
 tated him so nearly, that Cicero said he only translated him, and Caesar 
 called him dimidialum Menandnim. The kings of Egypt and Macedon 
 sent ambassadors to invite him to their courts ; but Menander preferred 
 the free enjoyment of his studies to the promised favors of the great. 
 Only four of his numerous comedies are preserved. 
 
 * The greatest number of eminent poets, especially dramatic writers, 
 nourished between the end of the first and the third Punic wars; or 
 from the year of the city 512 to 607. The most considerable were Li- 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 275 
 
 not only with the highest graces of erudition, but of 
 pleasure; since they proved a source of pleasure to the 
 auditory, whose ears, disgusted with the clamorous con- 
 tentions of the bar, were refreshed with the variety of 
 poetical numbers. Add to this the great advantage on 
 the orator's side when he confirms the matter in debate 
 with the illustrious testimony of some striking thought 
 of these great men. What I first inculcated has refer- 
 ence to children; the last reflections are designed for 
 more mature years, in order that the study of grammar 
 and love of reading may not be terminated by the time 
 we spend at school, but rather extended to the last 
 period of our lives. 
 
 When a grammarian first explains a poet, he should 
 make his pupil acquainted with some little matters, 
 such as the construction of words, by interrupting the 
 order of the verse; as also the properties of the feet, 
 which ought to be so well known in poetry as to be 
 required in reading prose; and besides these, he should 
 point out all barbarisms, improprieties of speech, and 
 words arranged contrary to the rules of speaking. 
 Poets, however, should not be censured on these ac- 
 counts; because the allowances for measure are so con- 
 siderable, that we even disguise their faults under the 
 titles of figurative* expressions, and give the praise of 
 virtue to necessity. But the grammarian will give 
 notice of such words as are peculiar to the poetical 
 
 vius Andronicus, Nsevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Ccecilius, Plautus, 
 Afranius, Terence, and Lucilius.' 1 '' — Ken. Rom. Antiq. 
 
 * Metaplasmos. Metaplasmus is a figure, when some letter in a word 
 is changed upon the account of verse, ornament, or necessity. 
 
276 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 art, and wherever children meet them, their memory 
 will suggest what they ought to call them. 
 
 It will also be useful, in the first rudiments, to teach 
 the different significations of words as they occur; and 
 to explain those which are not in much use, is not the 
 least duty of his profession. But a more important 
 one consists in teaching all tropes,* which add such 
 extraordinary beauties both to verse and prose; and 
 with these the 'figures^ of thoughts J and words :§ both 
 of these I shall discuss when I come to speak of the 
 ornaments of discourse. 
 
 But a master will impress upon the mind of the 
 pupil the advantages which accrue from a regular ar- 
 rangement of any composition; the decorum which is 
 to be observed in things ; what is suitable to each cha- 
 racter; in what the beauty of sentiments and force of 
 expression consist; where a copious style may be pleas- 
 ing, and where conciseness is requisite. 
 
 Next follows the interpretation of history, in which 
 youth should be well versed; but not to such exactness 
 as to load their memories with its superfluous parts. 
 It is enough to expound what is commonly received, or 
 at least to make them acquainted with the incidents 
 recorded by the most eminent authors. For it will 
 be either exceedingly troublesome, or a piece of vain 
 boasting, to want to know what every insignificant 
 
 * A trope (from r^svoo, to turn) is the turning a word from its native 
 and proper to a relative improved sense. 
 
 f A figure (from jingo, to fashion) is the fashioning and dress of speech'. 
 or, it is that language which is suggested either by the imagination or 
 the passions. 
 
 J Siavo/a?. § Xsfsa;?. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 277 
 
 writer may have said, which must retard and bewilder 
 the mind that can attend with more utility to other 
 matters. He who examines every page unfit for read- 
 ing, may as well apply himself to old women's tales. 
 The commentaries of grammarians are full of these 
 embarrassing remarks, which are scarcely known to 
 those who composed them. For it is recorded, that 
 when Didymus,* the greatest compiler of books that 
 ever existed, treated as fabulous a piece of history, one 
 of his own books was produced which contained the 
 passage. Hence we see the ridiculous pretensions of 
 romance, which gives license to every impudent fellow 
 of fabricating any visionary story, (presuming he may 
 deceive with safety,) and quoting in its support books 
 and authors which never existed. But in matters of 
 greater notoriety they are most frequently detected by 
 the learned. f I shall, therefore, account it among the 
 accomplishments of a grammarian to be ignorant of 
 many things which require no particular notice.% 
 
 * A celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the age of 
 Augustus Caesar, and is said to have written three thousand five hundred 
 volumes. 
 
 | A curiosis. J JLliqua nescire. 
 
 24 
 
278 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of the first exercises in the grammar school. 
 
 I have discussed the two parts of grammar which 
 comprehend the* rules for speaking, and the interpreta- 
 tion of authors: grammarians call the first of these 
 Methodical, the other Historical. We must also com- 
 mit to their care the first exercises of children, which 
 may keep them employed until they are of a proper 
 age to be sent to the school of oratory. -ZEsop's fables 
 may naturally follow those of their nurses. Then let 
 them learn to relate these fables in plain words, with- 
 out any elevated turn; next, to divest them of their 
 plain dress, and to express them in a more elegant 
 style. This is effected by first breaking the verses, 
 then explaining them in other words; and lastly, by 
 giving them a bolder turn in a free paraphrase; by 
 which they are permitted, provided they keep to the 
 sense of the poet, to abridge some places, and embel- 
 lish the whole with little ornaments. This is a diffi- 
 cult work for the most accomplished masters ; and the 
 boy who can acquit himself well in this respect, will be 
 capable of attempting to learn anything. Sentences,* 
 Chrias, and Ethologies, which are remarkable words 
 
 * Sentences, called by the Greeks yvdifxai, and Chrias, (which are short 
 moral sentences for exercises in rhetoric,) are explained in " The Ele- 
 ments of Oratory" page 248. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 279 
 
 spoken with the reasons annexed, should likewise make 
 a part of the grammarian's function, because they 
 occur in reading authors, from which they are ex- 
 tracted. They are all constructed by the same art, 
 but different in form. The Sentence is a term of uni- 
 versal acceptation: Ethology is restricted to persons. 
 There are many kinds of Chrias. The first is, like 
 the sentence, conceived in a few words: as, " dixit 
 ille," aut "dicere solebat;" "he said," or "was accus- 
 tomed to say." The second, by way of answer: "In- 
 terrogatus ille:" vel, "cum hoc ei dictum esset, re- 
 spondit:" "being asked," or "when this was said to 
 him, he answered." The third is not unlike the pre- 
 ceding, as when one has not spoken, but done some- 
 thing: for Chrias are supposed to extend also to facts: 
 as, " Crates cum indoctum puerum vidisset, psedagogum 
 ejus percussit:" "Crates, observing a boy who had 
 learned nothing, struck his master." There is another 
 nearly similar to this; yet none dare call it so, but 
 only a sort of Chria;* as, " Milo, quern vitulum assue- 
 verat ferre, taurum ferebat:" "The beast that Milo 
 accustomed himself to carry," etc. In all thesef the 
 same case is used, and a reason is given for each fact 
 and saying. As to little narratives recorded by poets, I 
 think that to understand them is sufficient for children, 
 without explaining them according to the rules of elo- 
 
 * X^EiZh?. 
 
 f All these Chrias retain commonly the same form, and the same 
 cases in the beginning. But grammarians observe the cases to be thus 
 restricted: — U M. P. Cato dixit literarum radices amaras esse, fructus 
 jucundiores. M. P. Catonis dictum fertur, fyc. M. P. Calonem dixisse 
 ferunt" fyc. 
 
280 THE ART OF RHETORIC : OR, 
 
 quence. There are other things of greater consequence 
 transferred by our Latin rhetoricians to grammarians: 
 but the Greeks are more exact in distinguishing and 
 adhering to the respective duties of teaching. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Children should be instructed in several arts before they commence the 
 study of oratory. Are these arts necessary to the future orator ? 
 
 I have now discussed, as succinctly as I could, 
 the subject of grammar; not that I pretend to have 
 exhausted the subject, which is infinite, but only to 
 have exhibited those things which were considered 
 essentially necessary. I shall now briefly subjoin a 
 few remarks on those other arts in which youth should 
 be instructed before they are sent to the school of 
 rhetoric, in order to form that circle of sciences which 
 the Greeks call syxvx7,ortai$6Lav.* As there are many 
 sciences, the study of which ought to begin almost at 
 the same time, a question may here arise: are these 
 sciences necessary to this work?f As arts, oratory 
 cannot be perfect without them; nor are they capable, 
 
 * Encyclopedia, (ex h in, hIkXo; circulus, et iraifeia doctrina,) a circle 
 of sciences. 
 
 f " In my opinion, no man can deserve the name of an accomplished 
 orator without a perfect knowledge of all the arts." — Cic. de Orat., lib. 
 i. cap. 6. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 281 
 
 taken separately, of constituting an orator. But to 
 plead a cause, or deliver an opinion, where is the 
 necessity, say our opponents, of knowing that, upon a 
 given line, we can form an Isosceles triangle ? Or, does 
 the defence of a client, or the enforcement of counsel 
 by persuasive arguments, require the skill of distin- 
 guishing by names and intervals the different tones of 
 an instrument of music ? They may also enumerate 
 how many orators have rendered themselves illustrious 
 at the bar who never heard of geometry, or understood 
 music, except by the pleasure of the ears, which is 
 common to all. 
 
 To these objections I reply, according to what Cicero 
 often declares, in his book of illustrious orators,* to 
 Brutus, that we form not an orator on the model of 
 those who are, or have been; but that we have con- 
 ceived in our mind the image of that perfect orator to 
 whom nothing is wanting. The Stoics, f to form their 
 perfect sage, and, as they say, a god, though subject to 
 mortality, think that he must be versed, not only in the 
 knowledge of all divine and human things, but they also 
 lead him through all intricate ambiguities, things in- 
 considerable in themselves: not because captiousj and 
 
 * Or at. 7. 
 
 f Zeno was the founder of this sect. He placed the Summum bonum 
 in virtue. He taught at Athens in the " iroa noatiXn" " the Painted Por- 
 tico ;" and hence his disciples derived the appellation of Stoics. And 
 the portico itself is usually put for that sect of philosophers, as when 
 Athenseus calls Zeno tns Iroag xna-h, the founder of the Stoics. For 
 their doctrines see Cic. de finibus, Anian, and Seneca. 
 
 J Ceratince. Dilemmas, called by logicians Argumenta Cornuta, for 
 striking with two horns, in which, whatever you grant to your oppo- 
 nent, tends to your own disadvantage. '■'■You have the horns (Kigara); you 
 
 24* 
 
282 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 sophistical* arguments constitute a sage, but that they 
 would have him incapable of being deceived, even in 
 the smallest matters. In like manner, it is not geome- 
 try, nor music, nor any other art, which I can desig- 
 nate, that will make an orator, (who must likewise be 
 a sage,) but these arts will contribute to his perfection. 
 Are not antidotes, and other medicines prescribed for 
 diseases and wounds, compounded of many ingredients, 
 which separately produce contrary effects ; but mixed, 
 become, as it were, a specific, extracting healing vir- 
 tues from all the constituent parts without resembling 
 any one of them ? Do not bees sip their honey from 
 a variety of flowers and juices, the taste of which is 
 inimitable by human invention ? Shall we then be 
 surprised if eloquence, the most excellent gift Provi- 
 dence has imparted to mankind, should require the 
 assistance of many arts, which, though they may not 
 manifest themselves in the orator, yet have an occult 
 force, operating imperceptibly, and tacitly giving warn- 
 ing of their presence. " Such were good speakers with- 
 out these arts;" but I will have an orator.^ "They do 
 not add much;" but I must have a complete whole: and 
 to make this whole nothing must be wanting; for so it 
 
 did not lose : you did not lose any ; therefore you have horns" — Aid. Gell., 
 lib. 16. 
 
 * Crocodilinee. These are problems which cannot be satisfactorily 
 solved. "A crocodile, when he had promised a woman that he would restore 
 her son if she told him truth; she said, you will not restore him" — Lucian, ev 
 
 ■f- Fuit aliquis sine his disertus ; at ego oratorem volo, etc. " Without 
 these a man may be eloquent, but I wish to form an orator; and none 
 can be said to have all these requisites while the smallest thing is 
 wanting." 
 
ELEMENTS OP ORATOKY. 283 
 
 must be admitted to be perfect. However elevated its 
 sphere may be above us, it is our intention to give all 
 necessary precepts for making the nearest possible ap- 
 proaches. But why should we despair ? Nature is no 
 obstacle to the perfect orator : and despair is base when 
 a thing is practicable. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of music, and its advantages. 
 
 I could rest satisfied, upon this subject, with the 
 testimony of the ancients. For who is ignorant, that 
 music was not only a study of the earliest times,* but 
 was even held in such a degree of veneration, that mu- 
 sicians were honored as sages, and as men divinely 
 inspired ? Were not Orpheusf and LinusJ (to name 
 no more) believed to be descended of the gods ? And 
 Orpheus, because he polished the manners of an igno- 
 rant and rustic people, and astonished their minds with 
 the harmony of his music, was reported, as we learn 
 from tradition, not only to have drawn after him wild 
 
 * "While detraction referred the discovery of music to strangers, 
 vanity referred it to the gods; and both accounts concur to prove the 
 great antiquity of the art." — Plutarch, de Musica. 
 
 f See Plat, de Repub., lib. x. ; Hor., art. Poet, 392; Virg. Eel., iv. 55. 
 
 £ Linus was preceptor to Orpheus. See Virg. Eel., iv. 56, and vi. 67. 
 
284 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 beasts, but also rocks and woods. Timagenes* relates, 
 that music is the most ancient of all the arts: and, in 
 this opinion the most celebrated poets concur, who, at 
 the royal banquets, introduce musicians tuning to their 
 lyre the praises of gods and heroes. Does not Virgil's 
 Sopas sing — The wandering moon and labors of the 
 sun ? By which that admirable poet openly avows, 
 that music is joined with the knowledge of divine 
 things. Should this be admitted, it must likewise be 
 granted that it is necessary to an orator: because this 
 part, neglected by orators, and taken possession of by 
 philosophers, we have a right to reclaim: and without 
 a knowledge of all the arts, eloquence cannot be per- 
 fect. 
 
 No one can doubt but that those men who distin- 
 guished themselves for wisdom, were ardently devoted 
 to the study of music. Pythagoras and his followers 
 published the opinion, which, no doubt, they received 
 from more ancient times, that the world was the effect 
 of harmonical proportion, the modulations of which 
 were afterwards imitated by the lyre. And not con- 
 tent with the harmony perceived to be propagated 
 amidst contraries, they also attributed musical tones to 
 the celestial spheres. For Plato, in some of his writ- 
 ings, especially in his Timaeus,t cannot be understood, 
 
 * Timagenes, a rhetorician and historian of Alexandria, brought cap- 
 tive to Rome by Galbinius, and redeemed by Faustus, the son of Sylla. 
 Having been discarded by Augustus he destroyed his history of that 
 emperor. — See Hor., lib. i. epist. xix. v. 15. 
 
 "f" Timceus, a Pythagorean philosopher of Locris, by whose name Plato 
 entitled one of his Dialogues, and whose order Aristotle followed in the 
 arrangement of his Physics. 
 
 " Timseus lived later than these, (Xenophon and Calisthenes,) but, so 
 
ELEMENTS OF OKATORY. 285 
 
 except by those who are thoroughly acquainted with 
 this art. Why do I speak of philosophers, whose 
 fountain,* Socrates himself, did not blush, even in old 
 age, to learn to play upon the lyre ? History reports 
 that the greatest generalsf played upon pipes and 
 lutes; and that the Lacedemonians J were fired to 
 battle by musical strains. For what other use are 
 clarions and trumpets in our legions ? Whose sounds, 
 by how much the more vehement they are, by so much 
 does the Roman glory exceed that of all others. Plato§ 
 therefore believed, not without reason, that music was 
 necessary to those in civil life to whom the administra- 
 
 far as I can judge, he was by far the most learned, the best furnished 
 with the richness of materials, and variety of sentiments ; and by no 
 means unskilful in the composition of style." — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 
 cap. xiv. 
 
 " Timaeus, a writer, it is true, sufficiently skilled in other points, and 
 who sometimes reaches the genuine sublime." — Long., sect. iv. 
 
 * Quintilian calls Socrates the Fountain, and Cicero designates him. 
 the Prince of philosophers. He was preceptor to Plato and Xenophon. 
 
 f Cornelius Nepos says, that Epaminondas well understood the art 
 of playing upon the harp and flute. 
 
 J The Lacedemonians were particularly remarkable for beginning 
 their battles with a concert of flutes. — See Xenophon, Maximus, the Sy- 
 rian, Thucydides (lib. v.), Vol. Maximus (lib. ii. cap. 6), and Lucian. 
 
 Plutarch says : " The army being drawn up in battle array, and the 
 enemy near, the soldiers were commanded to adorn their heads with 
 garlands, and the Fluters to play Kua-rogeiov /wsXoj, the tune of Castor's 
 hymn. The general then advancing began a hymn to Mars, called irata? 
 s(A.£cnn£io$, or alarm; so that it was at once a delightful and terrible 
 sight to see them march on, keeping pace to the tune of their flutes, 
 without ever troubling their order, or confounding their ranks, their 
 music leading them into danger cheerful and unconcerned." 
 
 § "Even the philosophers dare not maintain that geometry and music 
 are the qualities of philosophers, because it is admitted that Plato was, 
 in the highest degree, master of those arts." — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. cap. 50. 
 
286 
 
 tion of republics might be entrusted. And the authors 
 of that sect, which appears so very severe to some, and 
 so rigid to others, were of opinion, that some of their 
 sages might apply themselves to this study. And Ly- 
 curgus, that inflexible Spartan lawgiver, recommended 
 the use of music. Nature herself seems to have con- 
 ferred it as a gift upon us, for mitigating our labors. 
 Does not music invigorate those who are toiling at the 
 oar? This appears not only in painful operations, 
 where many unite their efforts by the signal of some 
 pleasing voice; but even each person has some favorite 
 air for allaying fatigue. 
 
 But I seem rather to eulogize this most beautiful art 
 than to show how it may be applicable to the orator. 
 I may, therefore, omit what is said of music and gram- 
 mar being formerly joined together; although Archy- 
 tas* and Aristoxenusf were of opinion that grammar 
 was comprehended under music, and that both were 
 taught by the same masters; adopting the opinion of 
 Sophron,J a comic writer, whom Plato so much esteemed 
 that his books, it is said, were found under his head on 
 his death bed. Eupolis§ affirms the same thing with 
 
 * jirchytas, a Pythagorean philosopher of Tarentum, Plato's master 
 in geometry. — See Hor., lib. i. Od. 28; Cic. de Senect., cap. xii. ; Tusc. 
 QucEst., lib. v. 22. 
 
 "I" Aristoxenus, a philosopher and musician of Tarentum, and pupil of 
 Xenophilus and Aristotle. 
 
 J Sophron, a Sicilian mitnographer and comic poet. — .See Valerius 
 Mazimus, lib. viii. cap. 7. 
 
 § An Athenian comic poet. He used the freedom of the ancient 
 comedy to lash the vices of the people: and having lost his life in a sea 
 fight between the Athenians and Lacedemonians, his death was so 
 lamented that a statute was enacted, which decreed, that no poet should 
 afterwards bear arms. 
 
ELEMENTS OF OKATORY. 287 
 
 regard to Prodamus, whom he designates as a teacher 
 of music and grammar; and Hyperbofus, whom he 
 calls by derision Maricas, confesses that he knows no- 
 thing of music except grammar. Aristophanes also 
 assures us, in more than one place, that this was the 
 ancient method of instructing youth. And Menander, 
 in his comedy called Hyperbolimseum, introduces a 
 father taking his son out of a boarding-school, before 
 whom an old governor of the school sums up what he 
 had expended upon his son's education, and gives him 
 a bill, in which was so much paid to a master of geo- 
 metry, and so much to a music master. Hence origi- 
 nated the custom of handing about a lyre at the end 
 of an entertainment; and because Themistocles,* when 
 that instrument was presented to him, declared he 
 knew not how to play, to use Cicero's own words, he 
 was reckoned a person of no polite education. It was 
 the custom of the ancient Romans to procure the 
 amusement of pipes and lutes at their banquets. And 
 as these institutions proceed from King Numa,f it is 
 
 Longinus on the Sublime, in sect, xvi., quotes these lines of Eupolis : 
 
 " No, by my laurels earned at Marathon, 
 They shall not glory in my discontent." 
 
 See Hor., lib. i. Sat. 4; lib. ii. Sat. 3, v. 12. 
 
 * Themietocles, cum in epulis recusaret lyram, habitus est indoctior." 
 — Tusc. Qucest., lib. i. 2. 
 
 "Nor doth his skilful hand refuse 
 Acquaintance with the tuneful muse, 
 When round the mirthful board the harp is borne." 
 
 Pindar, Ode I. 
 
 f "Through them (Harmony and Sounds) we rise, we kindle, then 
 sink and languish ; they often put us in a cheerful, and often in a 
 
288 
 
 manifest, that though the thoughts of the ancient Ro- 
 mans were turned to warlike exploits, they did not 
 neglect the study of music in as great a degree as 
 could be expected from those who lived in so rude an 
 age. It has, therefore, passed into a proverb with the 
 Greeks, that the illiterate must have no intercourse 
 with the muses and graces. But let us explain in 
 what respects this art may belong to the future orator. 
 Music has two numbers; the one in the voice, the 
 other in the body. Each of these requires a certain 
 regulation. Aristoxenus, the musician, divides what 
 regards the voice into Rhythms* and measured Melo- 
 dies. By rhythms he understands the structure of 
 words, and by measured melodies the airs and sounds. 
 Do not all these require the orator's notice ? Must not 
 his body be formed to regular gesture ? Must he not, 
 in composition, place his words in proper order ? Must 
 he not, in pronouncing, use certain inflections of the 
 voice ? All these are unquestionably necessary quali- 
 fications for an orator, unless we think that a certain 
 structure of words, amusing the ear agreeably, should 
 be entirely restricted to songs and verses, and there- 
 fore useless in oratory: or that the orator was not to 
 diversify his composition and pronunciation according 
 
 melancholy mood; their wonderful magic is best adapted to verses and 
 odes ; and there I imagine our learned prince, Numa, and our ancestors 
 were sensible of this, as appears by the musical instruments introduced 
 in the solemn banquets, and the verses of the Salii." — Cic. de Orat., lib. 
 iii. cap. 51. 
 
 * " The grandeur of the Doric, the polished elegance of the Ionic, 
 and the soothing sweetness of the Eolic mode, must have resulted from 
 the Rhythm, or measure, which, governing the movement of the verse, 
 thereby determined its expression." — Lucian Harmon, sub initio. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 289 
 
 to the nature of the things of which he speaks, as well 
 as the musician, whose compositions, according to their 
 respective qualities, must be expressed and sung dif- 
 ferently. For the grand and sublime are best repre- 
 sented by loud and strong tones,* pleasant by sweet, 
 and gentle by soft: the beauty of the musical art de- 
 pending entirely upon entering into the passions, and 
 making them a lively picture of what is expressed. 
 The orator, in like manner, according to the elevation, 
 depression, or change of voice, will differently excite 
 the passions of the audience. By such an order of 
 words, by such a tone of voice, he arouses the indigna- 
 tion of the judges, and by another he bends their hearts 
 to pity. Who can now doubt of the power of words, 
 when even musical instruments, which cannot form the 
 articulate sounds of speech, affect us so many different 
 ways? 
 
 A graceful and proper motion of the body, which is 
 called Eurythmia, is also necessary, and cannot be 
 otherwise derived than from this art; but as it consti- 
 tutes an important part of action, we shall speak of it 
 in another place. And, indeed, if an orator shall 
 
 * "Every species of verse (and of verse there were above a hun- 
 dred different kinds) occasioned a change of musical measure, and 
 introduced what, in musical language, may be called a different time. 
 A slow succession of lengthened tones expressed moderation and firm- 
 ness ; a rapid inequality of verse betrayed disorderly and ignoble pas- 
 sions; the mind was transported by sudden transitions, and roused by 
 impetuous reiterations of sounds ; a gradual ascent of notes accorded 
 with all those affections which warm and expand the heart,- and the 
 contrary movement naturally coincided with such sentiments as depress 
 the spirits, and extinguish the generous ardor of the soul." — Gillies, 
 chap. v. 
 
 25 
 
290 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 exhibit due attention to his voice, what can be so 
 essential to him as music ? But as I must speak of 
 the voice elsewhere, I shall here content myself with 
 one example. Caius Gracchus,* the greatest orator of 
 his time, whenever he harangued the public, kept a 
 musician always behind him to guide by the sounds of 
 a flute the different changes of his voice. This custom, 
 either dreaded by, or dreading the nobility, he strictly 
 observed in all his speeches, which were generally at- 
 tended by the greatest multitudes that ever assembled 
 upon such occasions. 
 
 But for the advantage of those who are inexperi- 
 enced in this matter, I shall endeavor to remove all 
 doubt of its utility. It will be granted that poets 
 should be read by the future orator : but are poets des- 
 titute of music ?f If any one is so devoid of under- 
 standing as to doubt concerning some, it must, at least, 
 be admitted, that verses composed for the lyre cannot 
 be read without emotion. J I should discuss this sub- 
 ject at greater length if I introduced a new study; but 
 as this accomplishment has been recommended from 
 
 * " Therefore, Catulus, you might have heard from Licinius, who is 
 your client, a man of learning, and the secretary of Gracchus, that 
 Gracchus made use of an ivory flute, which a man, who stood privately 
 behind him while he was speaking, touched so skillfully that he imme- 
 diately struck the proper note when he wanted either to quicken or to 
 soften the vehemence of his voice." — Cic. de Orat., lib. hi. cap. 60. 
 
 ■j" "Music, in ancient times, was closely connected with poetry; and 
 hence the same words signified a song and a poem, a musician and a 
 poet: <w$a«, a^fAATet] oo$oi, wdixoi, aotfioi." — Hesychius. 
 
 J "One of the chief difficulties in composing odes arises from that 
 enthusiasm which is understood to be a characteristic of lyric poetry. ." — Blair, 
 lect. xxxix. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 291 
 
 the remote times of Chiron* and Achillesf down to 
 this period,X with the approbation of all lovers of a 
 good education, a longer defence might raise a doubt 
 of its utility. 
 
 It may clearly appear, from the above examples, 
 how much I esteem music, and what kind of music I 
 approve. I must, however, openly declare, that I in 
 nowise recommend the music which now prevails in our 
 theatrical exhibitions, § and of which those soft and 
 voluptuous airs have, in a great measure, extinguished 
 all the manly virtue which remained among us. The 
 music to which I allude is that by which the brave 
 sung the praises of the brave. Nor do I approve those 
 
 * " Most of the heroes of the Trojan war were the pupils of Chiron, 
 the wise centaur. He was descended of the most illustrious ancestors 
 and entitled to the first rank among the Thessalian princes. But he 
 preferred to the enjoyment of power the cultivation of poetry, and re- 
 tired, with his favorite muses, to a solitary cavern at the foot of Mount 
 Pelion, which was soon rendered, by the fame of his abilities, the most 
 celebrated school of antiquity." — Xenoph. de Venat. Chiron instructed 
 ./Esculapius in physic, Hercules in astronomy, and Achilles in music. 
 
 f Achilles sung to his lyre the praises of heroes: 
 
 — asiii y «£« H\sa. avfyuv. — Horn. II., lib. ix. V. 189. 
 
 X In the second century before Christ Polybius ascribes the most ex- 
 traordinary effects to the Grecian music. — Polyb., lib- iv. c. 20. 
 
 § "Every kind of music is good for something; that of the theatres 
 is necessary for the amusement of the mob, being well suited to the 
 perversion of their minds and manners, and let them enjoy it." — Arist. 
 de Republ, lib. viil Plato, Aristoxenus, and Plutarch, bitterly complain 
 of the corruption of music, as the chief source of vice and immorality. 
 That art, which had anciently been used as the vehicle of religious and 
 moral instruction, was employed in the theatres to excite every volup- 
 tuous and dissolute passion. — Plato de Legibus, lib. iii. ; Aristoxenus, lib. 
 xiv., and Plutarch de Musica, 
 
292 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 instruments of music* which, by languishing sounds, 
 enervate the soul of all its vigor. The only music is 
 that engaging melody which touches the heart and 
 moves and soothes the passions, according to the dic- 
 tates of reason. * * * * Must it not, therefore, be ad- 
 mitted, even by those who are prejudiced against us, 
 that music is of great advantage to our design of form- 
 ing the future orator ? 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of Geometry. 
 
 There are some parts in geometry generally admit- 
 ted to be useful to children: for by these the mind is 
 exercised, the judgment sharpened, and a quicker con- 
 ception procured. But it is said that the use of geo- 
 metry is not so extensive as the other arts, being only 
 advantageous during the time we learn it, and no 
 longer. This is the vulgar opinion, but without found- 
 ation; because the greatest men have exhibited an 
 assiduous application to the study of this science. 
 
 Geometry is divided into two parts, Numbers and 
 Dimensions. A knowledge of numbers is not only 
 
 * Psalterium, a musical instrument with ten strings, resembling a 
 harp. Spadix, an instrument of music used among the Phoenicians, 
 like a dulcimer. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 293 
 
 necessary to him who is superficially acquainted with 
 letters; but more especially to the orator, who must 
 very frequently state an account. For should he hesi- 
 tate, at the bar, in summing up an exact total, or 
 should he make a motion with his fingers which disa- 
 grees with his calculation, all would judge him unskill- 
 ful. The second part, consisting of lines and dimen- 
 sions, is not less necessary in pleading causes ; for 
 many lawsuits originate concerning measures and 
 boundaries. But this science has a more intimate 
 connection with the art of oratory. 
 
 First, order is essential to geometry: is it not also 
 to eloquence ? Geometry lays down principles, draws 
 conclusions from them, and proves uncertainties by 
 certainties. Does not oratory accomplish the same ? 
 Does not geometry reduce its proofs into a syllogistic 
 form, and, therefore, many think that it partakes more 
 of the nature of logic than rhetoric ? But because the 
 orator seldom proves logically, shall it be said that he 
 never does so ? When the subject requires it, he will 
 use the syllogism, or at least the Enthymeme, which is 
 the true rhetorical syllogism. Upon the whole, the 
 strongest proofs are those which are designated geome- 
 trical demonstrations:* and as the object of geometry 
 is to prove evidently, can eloquence have any other 
 end? 
 
 Geometry likewise discovers by reason a falsehood in 
 verisimilitudes. It shows, in numbers, the errors of 
 some calculations which they call Pseudographia,f with 
 which boys were accustomed to amuse themselves. But 
 there are other things of greater consequence. For 
 
 25* 
 
294 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 who would not assent to this proposition: "All places 
 of equal circumferences have equal spaces." This, 
 however, is false; for we must know the figure of this 
 circumference; and, therefore, historians are justly 
 censured by geometricians, for determining the extent 
 of islands by the circuit of navigators. Now, the more 
 exact a figure is, the greater will be the space it con- 
 tains. If, therefore, the circumference makes a circle, 
 which is the most exact figure in planes, it will com- 
 prehend a greater space than if it forimed a square 
 of equal circumference. Again, squares will contain 
 a greater space than triangles; and triangles with 
 equal sides a greater than triangles with unequal. 
 I could adduce other examples, but as they are, per- 
 haps, involved in greater obscurity, shall present an 
 experiment adapted to every one's capacity. Almost 
 every person knows that an acre contains two hundred 
 and forty feet in length, and the half of this number 
 of feet in breadth; and, therefore, it is easy to deter- 
 mine its circumference and surface. Now, let us sup- 
 pose a square, of which the sides are a hundred and 
 eighty feet each. The circumference of this square 
 will be exactly equal to that of the acre, yet its area 
 makes a greater space; which, if any one should be 
 unwilling to compute, it may be easily perceived in a 
 less number. A square, whose sides are each ten feet, 
 has forty in circumference, and the surface will be a 
 hundred feet square. Add fifteen feet in length to 
 five in breadth, and the circumference will be the same, 
 but the space will be less by one fourth. A parallelo- 
 gram of nineteen feet in length, and one foot in 
 breadth, will make a circumference of forty feet, as 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 295 
 
 well as an exact square, whose surface is a hundred 
 feet square ; but it will contain only in surface as many 
 feet square as it has feet in length. Whatever, there- 
 fore, you subtract from the figure of an exact square, 
 will diminish the surface; and, consequently, a less 
 space may be contained in a greater circumference. I 
 speak of level surfaces; for it is evident that mountains 
 and valleys have a greater extent of surface than there 
 is of corresponding sky or air. 
 
 But geometry soars to the knowledge of more 
 sublime matters: it lays the world open to our view, 
 and displays all the wonders of nature. From the 
 precision of its calculations we learn that the courses 
 of the celestial bodies are regulated by a constant and 
 never failing equability of motion, with which they 
 have been impressed: an incontestable argument, that 
 chance was not the cause of all this order and symme- 
 try. This surely is a subject worthy of an orator, and 
 he must sometimes have an occasion to treat it with 
 becoming dignity. When Pericles explained to the 
 terrified Athenians the natural causes of an eclipse of 
 the sun; or when Sulpicius Gallus, in the army of Lu- 
 cius Paulus, predicted an eclipse of the moon, to pre- 
 vent the soldiery from being affrighted, as by a prodigy 
 sent from heaven, did not both acquit themselves of the 
 function of an orator? Had Nicias possessed their 
 knowledge, he would not, seized by a similar panic, 
 have surrendered a most splendid army of the Athe- 
 nians in Sicily. When Dion came to overthrow the 
 government of Dionysius he was not deterred by a 
 like occurrence. Warriors may avail themselves of 
 
296 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 such examples; but what shall I say of Archimedes,* 
 who, alone by his geometrical skill, protracted to so 
 great a length the siege of Syracuse. To conclude: 
 there are very many questions which we are at a loss 
 to solve, unless we adopt the linear demonstrations, 
 with which this science furnishes us: so that if it be 
 incumbent on the orator, as we shall show in the fol- 
 lowing book, to discourse indiscriminately upon all sub- 
 jects, we may naturally suppose that this cannot be 
 effected without the aid of geometry. 
 
 * Archimedes, a celebrated geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, 
 and related to Hiero, king of Syracuse. His character is described in 
 Livy, (lib. xxiv. cap. 34.) Cicero, in bis Tusculan questions, (lib. i. 
 cap. 26,) says that he first invented globes to show the motions of the 
 heavens. He possessed such an astonishing invention in mechanics, 
 that he assured Hiero, that if he had another earth upon which to plant 
 his machines, he could move this which we inhabit. Archimedes be- 
 came very famous by his curious contrivances, by which the city was so 
 long defended when besieged by Marcellus. Against the vessels which 
 came up close to the walls, he contrived a kind of crow, projected 
 above the wall, with an iron grapple fastened to a strong chain. This 
 was let down upon the prow of a ship, and, by means of the weight of 
 a heavy counterpoise of lead, raised up the prow, and set the vessel in 
 an upright position ; then dropping it suddenly, as if it had fallen from 
 the walls, the vessel sunk so far into the sea, that a great quantity of 
 water was admitted, even when the ship fell upon the keel. But, not- 
 withstanding all his art, Syracuse was taken by Marcellus, who gave a 
 special charge to save Archimedes. But being too busily engaged in 
 study to answer to his name, he was slain by a common soldier, to the 
 great regret of the Roman general. 
 
ELEMENTS OP ORATORY* 297 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 I. Pronunciation is to be formed by that of comedians. II. And gesture 
 and attitude copied from the Palaestra. 
 
 I. The future orator who desires a knowledge of 
 pronunciation, should receive some instruction from 
 comedians. But I do not wish that a youth, destined 
 for these hopes, should assume in mimic form the small 
 voice of a woman, or the tremulous accents of an old 
 man. Nor should he personate the drunkard, or be 
 imbued with the scurrility of a slave; much less should 
 he learn the passions of love, avarice, and superstition. 
 All these are unnecessary to the orator; and, as the 
 imitation of what is vicious generally grows into a 
 habit, so tender minds seldom fail to be tinged with the 
 infection. 
 
 All sorts of gestures and motions must not be bor- 
 rowed from comedians; for, although an orator ought, 
 in some respects, to excel in both of these, he should 
 not affect a theatrical air. His action, his gait, his 
 countenance, should be quite different. And if there 
 is any art in these particulars, I think the orator's 
 greatest art would be to conceal it. 
 
 But what is the duty of a master with these ? To 
 correct all faults of pronunciation; to take care that 
 words be exactly expressed, and that every letter 
 should have its proper sound. The sound of some 
 
298 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 letters is vitiated by mincing; others we pronounce too 
 thick or broad; harsh letters we exchange for others 
 not unlike them, but of a more obtuse sound. For the 
 letter £,* which Demosthenes had some difficulty to 
 pronounce, the a, takes the place, the powers of both 
 are also the same in Latin. and t are softened by g 
 and d. The affectation of sounding the sf ought not 
 to be suffered: nor ought speaking in the throat, or 
 with a gaping mouth, or with a twist of the mouth, to 
 give the word a fuller sound, be permitted. The Greeks 
 call this xa.taTtsTi'kaa^vov: and the same term is also used 
 by them to signify a way of playing upon flutes, when, 
 by stopping all the holes that cause the louder tones, 
 only one passage is left for producing a base. 
 
 A master also should be careful that the last sylla- 
 bles in a word be not lost; that the pronunciation 
 be consistent with itself; that in exclamations the 
 effort proceed rather from the lungs than the head; 
 that the gesture correspond with the voice, and the 
 countenance with the gesture. He must also observe 
 that the face of the speaker be in a straight position; 
 that the lips be not distorted; that immoderate gaping 
 distend not the jaws; that the visage be not tossed 
 
 * " For having such an impediment in his speech that he (Demos- 
 thenes) could not pronounce the R', which is the first letter of the art 
 he was studying, he grew so perfect by practising beforehand, that he 
 was thought to pronounce it as well as any man of his time."— Cic. de 
 Orat., lib. i. 40. 
 
 f This verse of Euripides' Medea, 
 
 has been ridiculed by comic poets, and sometimes excited great laughter 
 among the Athenians when that tragedy was represented. 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 299 
 
 upwards; that the eyes be not downcast, and the neck 
 inclined to either side. The forehead errs in many 
 ways. I have seen some who, at every effort of the 
 voice raise their eyebrows; others knit them; while 
 others keep one up, and the other so far down, as 
 almost to press upon the eye. All these particulars 
 are of the greatest consequence, as we shall show 
 hereafter; for nothing can please but what is be- 
 coming. 
 
 A comedian should likewise teach how a narrative is 
 to be pronounced, what degree of authority is neces- 
 sary to persuade; what tone of voice is best adapted to 
 anger,* and what to pity;f and in order to accomplish 
 this successfully, he may select such passages from 
 plays as most nearly resemble pleadings at the bar. 
 These will contribute essentially, not only for forming 
 the pronunciation, but for improving in eloquence. 
 These remarks are applicable to our orator's tender 
 years: but when he shall be able to read the speeches 
 of orators and appreciate their beauties; then let a 
 studious and skillful master assist him in acquiring a 
 taste for reading, and compel him to commit to memory 
 the most prominent parts, and, lastly, induce him to 
 declaim as if he were actually pleading at the bar. In 
 
 * " Anger has a peculiar pronunciation, which is quick, sharp, and 
 broken : 
 
 "Ah! mark you this, quick! bind him." — Cic.de Orat., 1. iii. 58. 
 
 -f- " The tone of pity and grief is different ; it is full, moving, broken, 
 and mournful : 
 
 "O my father! O my country! O the house of Priam!" — Id. 
 
300 
 
 this manner his voice and memory will be exercised by 
 pronunciation. 
 
 II. I would not censure those who sometimes resort 
 to schools of palestric exercises.* I speak not of 
 those places where people waste away one part of 
 their lives in suppling their joints with oil, and another 
 part by drowning their senses with wine. These I 
 would keep at the remotest distance from our orator. 
 But I allude to the places (for the Latin word signifies 
 both) where young persons are taught a graceful mo- 
 
 * " The Pale, or exercise of wrestling, is reported by Pausanias to 
 have been reduced into a science by Theseus. It was chiefly remark- 
 able on account of the oil and sand, or, as Burette says, of oil, wax, and 
 dust, called Ceroma, with which they rubbed their bodies, in order to 
 supple their joints, to prevent excessive perspiration, and to elude the 
 grasp of their antagonists. The wrestlers were matched by the judges 
 or presidents of the games by lot, and the prize adjudged to him who 
 thrice threw his adversary on the ground; or, as Seneca says: "Luctator 
 ter abjectus perdidit palmam." The wrestlers who had been anointed 
 were always, before they engaged, sprinkled with dust or sand, kept in 
 a place called Kovia-rv^tov. And to say that a wrestler gained a victory, 
 («xov<Tt,) or without being sprinkled, was equivalent to say he gained 
 a victory without an engagement. This sometimes happened when, 
 from the reputation of the champion, no one appeared to encounter 
 him. Thus Milo. of Crotona, who had gained six Olympic, and as 
 many Pythian crowns, challenged the whole assembly, and finding no 
 competitor, he claimed the crown. But as he was about to receive it 
 he unfortunately fell, and the people cried out that he had forfeited the 
 prize. Then Milo (Anthologia, lib. i. cap. i. epigram 11) 
 
 Arose, and standing in the midst, thus cried : 
 Do not three falls the victory decide? 
 Fortune, indeed, hath given me one, but who 
 Will undertake to throw me th' other two ?" 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 301 
 
 tion and carriage of the body. To this may belong 
 the manner of keeping the arms in a straight position ; 
 refraining from an awkward and clownish use of the 
 hands; standing in a graceful attitude; walking with a 
 noble air; and making no motions with the head and 
 eyes which may disagree with the other motions of the 
 body. 
 
 All these are accessions to grace pronunciation, a 
 thing so essentially necessary to an orator. Why, 
 then, should what is requisite be neglected ? We find 
 that the rules for gesture* originated from the times of 
 heroes; that they were approved by the greatest men 
 of Greece, even by Socrates himself; that Plato gave 
 them a place among the civil virtues; and that Chry- 
 sippus did not omit them in his precepts for the educa- 
 tion of youth. We learn also from history that the 
 Lacedemonians had among their exercises a sort of 
 dance, which their youth were made to learn as a 
 useful accomplishment for war. Nor was a similar 
 practice considered disreputable by the ancient Ro- 
 mans: and dancing is still retained by some of our 
 priests in the solemnities of their religious ceremonies, f 
 
 * Chironomia, or lex gestus, in the Latin text, is the gesture of gesticu- 
 lating dancing. It is also the rule of gesture and motion, which origi- 
 nated from regulating the hands ; because the chief part of gesture 
 consists in the propriety of their motions. 
 
 t Quintilian probably alludes, in this place, to an order of priests 
 instituted by Numa, called Salii, (a saliendo,) upon account of the ex- 
 traordinary noise and shaking they made in their dances. In the month 
 of March, the time of their great feast, they marched in procession 
 about the city, says Plutarch, with a nimble motion, keeping just mea- 
 sures with their feet, and demonstrating great strength and agility by 
 the various and handsome turns of their body. They sung all along a 
 
 26 
 
302 THE ART OP RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 And Cicero makes Crassus use these words in the third 
 book of his "Orator:" "An orator must have some- 
 thing noble and manly in his whole action; and he 
 must form it, not on the model of stage players and 
 buffoons, but on that of a man inured to the camp, or 
 a proficient in the (palcestra) school of exercises." 
 This manner of discipline has descended to our days 
 without censure; but, in my opinion, should not extend 
 beyond our younger years, and even then be not long 
 continued; for it is an orator I form, and not a dancer. 
 This advantage, however, will accrue from these youth- 
 ful exercises, that, without thinking, a secret grace will 
 imperceptibly mingle with all our behavior, and con- 
 tinue with us through life. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Children are capable of being taught many things at the same time. 
 1. Because the nature of the human mind is such that it can attend 
 to many things together. 2. Because boys can easily bear the labor 
 of study. 3. They have then most time for the purpose. — That in- 
 dolence is the cause why orators do not learn many things. 
 
 It may be asked, admitting that the studies enume- 
 rated above are indispensably necessary, can they be 
 all taught and learned at the same time ? Some deny 
 
 set of old verses sacred to Mars, called the carmen saliare; the original 
 form of which Was composed by Numa. — See Livy, book i. chap. 20. 
 
ELEMENTS OF OUATORY. 308 
 
 that they can; because the mind would be confused 
 and fatigued by so many sciences of a different tend- 
 ency, to acquire which, neither the mind, nor body, 
 nor even the length of the day, divided between such 
 a diversity of study, would be sufficient; and although 
 more mature years might endure the labor, the minds 
 of children could not sustain the same burden. 
 
 1. But those who reason in this manner, do not fully 
 understand the nature of the human mind. This prin- 
 ciple is so active and quick, and keeps such a multi- 
 plicity of points in view, that it cannot restrict itself 
 to the action of one particular thing, but extends its 
 power to many, not only during the same day, but 
 likewise during the same instant. What shall I say of 
 those who play upon the harp ? They touch one string, 
 stop another, try this one, tune that; everything is 
 employed at the same time, the memory, the voice, the 
 right hand, the left; even the feet are not idle; they 
 regulate the time, and beat the measure. But suppose 
 we are obliged, by some unforeseen accident, to plead 
 a cause, do we not say one thing, think of another, in- 
 vent reasons, make choice of words, and adapt pronun- 
 ciation, countenance, and gesture, to the nature of the 
 cause ? If we, therefore, execute these different things, 
 as I may say, by a single exertion, what can retard 
 our application when we have several hours for reflec- 
 tion, especially when variety refreshes and renovates 
 the mind ? On the contrary, it is more difficult to per- 
 severe in the same study. Composition and reading 
 by turns wear away our aversion; and although we 
 may have done many things, we find ourselves, in some 
 measure, fresh and recruited at entering upon a new 
 
304 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 subject. Who can avoid dullness when confined a 
 whole day to the master of one science ? But to have 
 changes will be a recreation; as a variety of meats 
 revives the appetite, and preserves it longer from 
 satiety. 
 
 I should like to be informed of any other way for 
 learning. Must we devote ourselves to grammar only, 
 and afterwards to nothing but geometry ? Must we 
 neglect, in the meantime, what we have learned when 
 we apply ourselves to music, and so forget all that 
 went before ? And when we shall study Latin, may 
 we not review Greek? In a word, must nothing be 
 done, unless what presents itself last? Why do we 
 not advise our husbandmen not to cultivate, at the 
 same time, their fields, vineyards, olive-grounds, and 
 shrubs; or dissuade them, at the same time, from 
 taking care of their meadow-grounds, cattle, gardens, 
 and bee-hives ? Why do we ourselves allot, every day, 
 something to the bar, something to the gratification of 
 our friends; something to our domestic concerns, some- 
 thing to the care of our health, and something even 
 to our pleasures. Any one of these occupations con- 
 tinued without intermission would prove wearisome: so 
 true is it, that it is much easier to do many things than 
 confine ourselves long to one. 
 
 2. We should be under no apprehension that chil- 
 dren are incapable of the labor of study: for no age is 
 less fatigued; and this might appear strange, but you 
 may discover it by experience. Children's intellects 
 are more docile before they become blunted by more 
 advanced years. This is exemplified by their speaking 
 nearly all words in less than two years, when their 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 305 
 
 tongue is once free, without any person's assistance. 
 But as to our newly purchased slaves, how long a 
 time they require to speak Latin ! Whoever has in- 
 structed adults will know that it is not without reason 
 the Greeks use the term rtcuSo^aflfij, to denote those 
 who are as well experienced in their art as if trained 
 to it from their infancy. Children can naturally bear 
 labor more patiently than grown up persons. We see 
 infants fall frequently without much injury ; their creep- 
 ing upon hands and feet is scarcely any trouble to them ; 
 when they can walk they run about and play whole days 
 together without being weary; because there is a want 
 of weight in their bodies, and therefore little force can 
 accompany their efforts. In like manner their minds, 
 I believe, are less fatigued than ours; for their appli- 
 cation, slight and superficial, does not proceed from an 
 inclination of their own, but only to prepare themselves 
 for receiving their master's instruction. They can also, 
 according to another capability incident to their years, 
 learn more easily from those whose method of teaching 
 is plain and simple: nor do they place any value on 
 what they have already done, being as yet incapable of 
 forming to themselves a judgment of labor. And hence, 
 as we have frequently found, labor is less fatiguing 
 than thought and reflection. 
 
 3. But they will never have more time than when 
 young for learning those branches, the progress in 
 which depends entirely on hearing. When they apply 
 themselves to study the elegance of style, and to invent 
 and compose anything, they will not find time, or per- 
 haps will be unwilling to begin these studies. And, 
 therefore, as a grammar-master cannot spend the whole 
 
306 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 
 
 day with them, for fear of giving them a distaste for 
 learning, in what other studies can these leisure hours 
 be better employed? I would not, however, require 
 the student to be versed in these arts to perfection: he 
 may understand music without being skilled in the art 
 of musical composition; and of geometry there is no 
 necessity to be experienced in its most minute opera- 
 tions. To form an orator's pronunciation, I do not 
 make a comedian of him, nor a dancing master, to 
 grace his motions ; and if I did require all these things, 
 there would be time enough. And, indeed, there is 
 time enough for those who improve it. For, as to the 
 stupid, I say nothing of them. How did Plato excel 
 in whatever, I think, the future orator ought to learn. 
 Not content with the sciences which flourished at 
 Athens, nor with those of the Pythagorean sect, for 
 which he sailed to Italy, he also passed over to the 
 priests of Egypt, in order to learn the mysteries couched 
 under their hieroglyphic symbols. 
 
 We palliate our sloth under the excuse of difficulty. 
 We do not engage in study through a love of choice 
 and inclination. If we seek eloquence, it is not be- 
 cause it is the most noble accomplishment in nature, 
 and most deserving our care; but rather for a base end, 
 and the desire of sordid gain. Without these requi- 
 sites, let several plead at the bar, and endeavor to 
 enrich themselves: what will be the consequence? 
 Notwithstanding all their toil and care, a broker may 
 acquire more from the sale of his sordid ware, and a 
 public crier from the hire of his voice. I should dis- 
 like even a reader who could think of computing the 
 income of his labor. But I prefer the man of a sublime 
 
ELEMENTS OF ORARORY. 307 
 
 genius, who can form to himself an idea of the grandeur 
 of eloquence, which a celebrated tragic poet calls "the 
 queen of all things."* He keeps his eyes constantly 
 fixed upon her. He seeks after no emolument from his 
 pleading. f The fruits of his labors are his knowledge, 
 contemplation and noble thoughts; fruits perpetually 
 remaining with him, and in no way subject to the 
 caprices of fortune. He will easily persuade himself 
 to apply to music and geometry, the time which others 
 waste away at shows, in the Campus Martius, at gam- 
 ing, in idle talk, not to speak of sleep and midnight 
 reveling. How exquisite will his pleasures be when 
 compared with those which are destitute of all delicacy 
 and refinement ! For Providence has granted this re- 
 ward to mankind, that the taste of pleasure is always 
 more satisfactory in virtuous amusements. But this 
 satisfaction has led us too far. Let, therefore, what I 
 have said be sufficient for the studies in which youth 
 are to be instructed, until they are capable of greater 
 matters. 
 
 * Euripides in Hecuba, verse 816 : TieiQZ $s r»v rvgavvov av&^iroK: ftovw: 
 " Eloquence the only queen among men." 
 
 j- Fructum ex stipe advocationum: the fee paid by clients to their law- 
 yers for pleading their cause. 
 
 THE END. 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 From James Carnahan, D.D., President of the College of New Jersey. 
 To Mr. E. Littell: 
 
 Sir — The " Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. Getty, A.M.," is the 
 work of a profound classical scholar, manifests extensive reading on the 
 subject discussed, and, in my opinion, will be found very convenient and 
 useful to those who wish to have, in a compendious form, the substance of 
 what distinguished Grecian and Roman masters have taught on the subject 
 of eloquence. 
 
 Nassau Hall, June 27, 1831. JAMES CARNAHAN. 
 
 From the Rev. Samuel Fccleston, A.M., President of St. Mary's College, 
 Baltimore. 
 St. Mary's College, Baltimore, June 26, 1831. 
 
 Dear Sir — In reply to your letter of the 20th inst., requesting my opinion 
 of Mr. John A. Getty's Rhetoric, I take pleasure in stating, that I find the 
 definitions to be accurate, and the exemplifications apt and copious. The 
 work may be recommended as a convenient and agreeable manual of the 
 ancient nomenclature of grammatical and rhetorical figures. 
 
 I am, with great respect, your ob't serv't, 
 
 Me. E. Littell. SAML. ECCLESTON. 
 
 From Samuel B. How, D.D., President of Dickinson College. 
 
 Carlisle, June 21, 1831. 
 
 Dear Sir — I have examined, with as much attention as my engagements 
 would permit, " Getty's Elements of Rhetoric," and am pleased with it. 
 It compresses into a small space much valuable matter. Its author ex- 
 hibits an extensive acquaintance with the ancient writers on Rhetoric, and 
 has enriched his work by copious extracts from them. I think it well 
 adapted as a Class Book to prepare youth for studying the more extensive 
 treatises on this subject. 
 
 Very respectfully yours, SAMUEL B. HOW. 
 
 From William Neill, D.D., late President of Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 " The Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., comprises, 
 within a small compass, the substance of volumes; and is calculated to 
 facilitate the progress of youth in the study of the Latin and Greek classics. 
 
 Philadelphia, June 26, 1831. WILLIAM NEILL. 
 
 From the Rev. Edward Rutledge, A.M., Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
 the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Philadelphia, June 23, 1831. 
 Dear Sir — I am very much pleased with Mr. Getty's work, and think it 
 admirably adapted to the conveyance of most useful instruction in a pleas- 
 ing and striking manner. I hope its respected author may meet the en- 
 couragement he merits, and that his beautiful little manual may extensively 
 aid our youth in acquiring the art of which it treats. 
 With great respect I remain yours, &c, 
 E. Littell, Esq. EDWARD RUTLEDGE. 
 
2 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 From Robert Adrain, LL.D., #c, Professor of Mathematics in the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Philadelphia, June 21, 1831. 
 Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request I have examined Mr. Getty's " Ele- 
 ments of Rhetoric." 
 
 It appears to me that the work is elementary, methodical, and perspicu- 
 ous, abounding in observations and examples which illustrate the subject, 
 and interest the reader; and that it will be highly useful in the education 
 of youth. 
 
 Yours, with respect, &c, ROBERT ADRAIN. 
 
 Mr. E. Littell. 
 
 From S. B. Wylie, D.D., Professor of Languages in the University of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Philadelphia, July 23, 1831. 
 
 Sir — Having perused the little book you had the goodness to send me, 
 entitled "Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., I am pre- 
 pared to give you my opinion concerning its merits. I consider it as a 
 manual which ought to be in the hands of every youth engaged in the 
 acquisition of classical literature. It is rare to find such a mass of useful 
 elementary matter condensed into such a narrow compass. The defi- 
 nitions of the figures will be easily committed, and not easily forgotten. 
 The illustrations are lucid, the examples pertinent and numerous, and the 
 work eminently calculated to be a valuable acquisition to our classical 
 institutions. I cordially wish it an extensive circulation. 
 
 Very respectfully yours, &c, S. B. WYLIE. 
 
 Mr. E. Littell. 
 
 From the Rev. W. T. Brantly, Pastor of the First Baptist Church, Phila- 
 delphia. 
 Mr. E. Littell. 
 
 Sir — " The Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., is a work 
 of real merit and of unbounded utility. I have read it with attention, and 
 I may also add, with advantage. Those who have spent much time in 
 the instruction of youth, will best appreciate such a book as that which 
 Mr. Getty has made; for they must have sensibly felt the want of such a 
 compend of rhetorical definitions and examples. Indeed, every person 
 who designs to read with propriety, or to understand with clearness, the 
 best productions of ancient and modern times, should be fully acquainted 
 with the whole scope of figurative language. I therefore cordially recom- 
 mend the " Elements of Rhetoric" as a most valuable acquisition to the 
 existing supply of standard school books. 
 
 Very respectfully, W. T. BRANTLY. 
 
 From the Rev. Dr. Samuel K. Jennings, President of Asbury College, 
 Baltimore. 
 
 Baltimore, June 29, 1831. 
 
 Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request, I have devoted a little time to the 
 " Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. Getty, A.M." 
 
 The work begins with very clear and satisfactory definitions of the Ele- 
 ments of Rhetoric, intended to educate the youthful mind for a ready 
 invention and proper disposition ; the whole made familiar by appropriate 
 examples, extracted from the English, Latin, and Greek classics. These 
 are followed by excellent definitions and examples, preparatory to an ac- 
 complished elocution. In this part of the work, I am particularly pleased 
 to find an old acquaintance, the tropes and figures of speech in rhyme, 
 which I have often felt a wish to see introduced in this way into gene- 
 ral use. 
 
 In the conclusion we have an epitome of all that is important in pro- 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS. 3 
 
 nunciation, elucidated by examples, suited to that part of the general sub- 
 ject. This summary, together with an annunciation that it is given in 
 view of the reports of the merit of the work made by Dr. Waters and Mr. 
 Power, and in which I heartily concur, will sufficiently evince my appro- 
 bation of Mr. Getty's book. 
 I am, respectfully, yours, SAML. K. JENNINGS, M.D. 
 
 From the Rev. Francis Waters, D.D., Baltimore. 
 Rev. Dr. Jennings. Baltimore, June 28, 1831. 
 
 Dear Sir — I thank you for a perusal of the " Elements of Rhetoric, by 
 John A. Getty, A.M." It is, in my opinion, a very respectable book. 
 The rules and principles of the science are well arranged and illustrated 
 by the author, at the same time that he has defined them with becoming 
 precision and clearness. The additional figures which he has introduced, 
 and the simplicity of their classification, will, no doubt, be estimated as a 
 great advantage. To all learners the treatise will be useful, but to classi- 
 cal students in particular, it will serve as an excellent manual in culti- 
 vating this beautiful part of polite and finished education. 
 
 Very truly and respectfully, F. WATERS. 
 
 From Michael Power, A.M., Professor of Languages, Asbury College, 
 Baltimore. 
 Rev. Dr. Jennings. Baltimore, June 29, 1831. 
 
 Dear Sir — Having examined the " Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. 
 Getty, A.M.," as carefully as the limited time allowed me would permit, I 
 cheerfully concur in opinion with the Rev. F. Waters, and will, in a short 
 time, introduce the work into my school. 
 
 Respectfully, your ob't serv't, M. POWER. 
 
 From the New York American. 
 " Elements of Rhetoric, for the use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools, 
 by John A. Getty." The sole aim of this little volume appears to be, to 
 exhibit, in a concise and methodical form, the chief elements of rhetoric, 
 as expounded by the most authoritative ancient and modern writers, ac- 
 companied with illustrations and examples. By means of questions and 
 answers the principles of the art are developed and explained ; and the 
 authority on which the answer is made, is, in all cases, quoted at the bot- 
 tom of the page. It is, therefore, in the nature of a digest of the whole 
 code of rhetoric, which, scattered through many volumes, is here reduced 
 to its essence in about 120 pages. The explanations of the different tropes 
 and figures of speech are given (for the sake, we presume, of aiding the 
 memory) in a sort of doggerel — both in English and Latin — upon the same 
 principle, and of about the same merit, as the "Propria quae maribus" of 
 the old Latin grammars. We are well pleased with this little book, which 
 displays more than ordinary research and learning. 
 
 From the Baltimore Chronicle. 
 "Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all 
 the important ideas of the ancient and modern writers. Designed for the 
 use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools, by John A. Getty, A.M. Phi- 
 ladelphia." This small volume appears to us well designed and well 
 executed, and will be found highly useful to students and others disposed 
 to improve in the attractive and noble science of rhetoric. The author 
 has given a condensed view of what has been written on the subject by 
 the most celebrated men of ancient and modern times, accompanied by 
 satisfactory directions and explanations. This book could be read with 
 advantage not only by young gentlemen preparing for professional life, 
 but by their elders, and we hope that it will receive the patronage to 
 which it is entitled from the talents and industry of its author. 
 
4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 From J. R. Chandler, United States Gazette. 
 We have received from the author a copy of a neat work, entitled 
 << Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all the 
 important ideas of ancient and modern rhetorical writers. By John A. 
 Getty, A.M." The work is published by Mr. Littell, of this city, in a style 
 creditable to his taste and liberality. It is rare, that with such a title, a book 
 " destined for schools and academies," assumes such a radical form; the 
 ideas, indeed, rather than the words of writers, are arranged, and the 
 principles of composition and criticism carefully laid down. The work is 
 the result of careful research, and will be found useful to those who seek 
 a thorough acquaintance with rhetoric in its primary sense. 
 
 From the Baltimore Patriot. 
 Elements of Rhetoric. — " Song charms the sense, but eloquence the 
 soul." Mr. Littell, of Philadelphia, has recently published a small treat- 
 ise, intended to facilitate the progress of the student in this high reaching 
 art. It is entitled the "Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodi- 
 cal arrangement of all the important ideas of the ancient and modern 
 Rhetorical writers," and is designed for the use of Colleges, Academies, 
 and Schools. The author is J. A. Getty, A.M., who states, in his preface 
 to the work, that his chief design in its composition has been to facilitate 
 the acquisition of those " high and sublime ideas of oratory which are in- 
 terspersed throughout the ancient classics." The volume is of small size, 
 but rich in examples tending to illustrate its object, drawn from the most 
 approved sources. From a slight examination of the work, we are induced 
 to think it will be favorably received by those every way competent to 
 pass upon its merits. 
 
 From the Pennsylvania Inquirer. 
 Getty's Rhetoric. — This is the title of a very neat volume, which has 
 just issued from the press of E. Littell, of this city. It is designed to 
 exhibit a methodical arrangement of all the important ideas of the ancient 
 and modern rhetorical writers, and is intended for the use of Colleges, 
 Academies, and Schools. The subject, we think, is very happily and 
 judiciously treated by the author, as the book is calculated fully to answer 
 the purpose for which it is written. It gives a full, and what strikes us as 
 a correct, analysis of the art of public speaking, and may be studied with 
 advantage by all who design to practise such art. 
 
 From the New York Evening Post. 
 
 Getty's Elements of Pvhetoric. E. Littell, of Philadelphia, has pub- 
 lished a work with this title, comp ; led by John A. Getty, for the use of 
 Schools. It consists of explanations of the various terms and definitions 
 of the various figures of rhetoric, with examples of their use, from ancient 
 and modern authors. If the object of the art of rhetoric be, as some 
 author has said, to enable the rhetorician to name his tools, the present 
 work, we believe, contains ample means of enabling him to do this to his 
 satisfaction. 
 
 From the Saturday Bulletin. 
 
 Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all the 
 important ideas of the ancient and modern rhetorical writers: designed 
 for the use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools. By John A. Getty, A.M. 
 Philadelphia. The object of this work is very fully explained in the title. 
 Mr. Getty has evidently bestowed much labor in getting up these Ele- 
 ments, and abundant evidence appears of his having consulted all the old 
 writers, with many of the moderns. The study of elocution is one which 
 the youth of this country have too much neglected, when it is known to 
 open to the aspiring a sure road to fame and fortune. Mr. Getty's work 
 appears well fitted to aid the student in attaining a knowledge of this 
 most popular art. 
 

 
 
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